The Paleoeconomy of the Central Balkans (Serbia), Parts i and ii: A Zooarchaeological Perspective on the Late Neolithic and Bronze Age, (ca. 4500-1000 B.C.) 9781407388250, 9781407388267, 9780860543909, 9781407345734

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The Paleoeconorny of the Central Balkans (Serbia) A Zooarchaeological Perspective on the Late Neolithic and Bronze Age (ea. 4500 -1000 B.C.)

Haskel J. Greenfield Part i

BAR International Series 304(i) 1986

B.A.R.

5, Centremead, Osney Mead, Oxford OX2 ODQ, England.

GENERAL EDITORS A.R. Hands, B.Sc., M.A., D.Phil. D.R. Walker, M.A.

B.A.R. SJ04 (I), 1986: 'The Paleoeconomy of the Central Balkans (Serbia)' Part I

©

Haskel J. Greenfield, 1986

The author’s moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9781407388250 (Volume I) paperback ISBN 9781407388267 (Volume II) paperback ISBN 9780860543909 (Volume set) paperback ISBN 9781407345734 (Volume set) e-format DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860543909

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would l ike t o e xpress my s incere g ratitude t o a ll t he s cholars and colleagues i n E urope and t he United S tates who p rovided assistance during my r esearch. Without t heir generous contributions o f t ime and i nformation, t his r esearch could not h ave been accomplished. However, any e rrors a re t he r esponsibility o f t he a uthor. I n Y ugoslavia, t o P rof. D r. M ilutin Gara anin, P rof. D r. D ragoslav S rejovic, D r; Z agorka Letica, Svetozar S tankovic; Mile S ladic; I vana Radovanovic; Vesna Bogdanovic M ilo gJevtic/ ( Universitet Beograda), D r. Borislav Jovanovic /, P etar Popovic; Vojislav T rbuhovic Z vonimir K aludjerovic / ( Arheologki I nstitut, SANU, B eograd), D r. Dugan K rstic Mirjana Vukmanovid, Nenad Radoj nc'(Narodni Muzej, B eograd), Vladimir Lekovi d(Zavod z a Z agtitu Spomenika Kulture, Novi S ad), D r. M ile,n ko B ogdanovic; Milica Jeremic (Narodni Muzej, K ragujevac), Z eljko Je Z ( and t he s taff of t he I straZivadka S tanica Petnica, Valjevo), t he s taff and s tudents of t he Mladih I straZivaCka S rbija ( Valjevo), L jubomir B ukvid ' ( Narodni Muzej, P anCevo), Milorad S tojid, S ava Vetnic' ( ZaviCajni Muzej, S vetozarevo), Ratko K atunar, Aleksandr Novakovic'(Narodni Muzej, Smederevska P alanka), and Vlajko D joki e( Belgrade); i n Hungary, t o D r. S ändor Bökönyi, D r. Laszlo Bartosiewicz, D r. I stvan K iszely, D r. Gyula S iklosi ( Institute of Archaeology, Budapest), D r. Alice Choyke ( Budapest), t he l ate D r. Janos Matolsci, I stvan Takacs ( Magyar Mezogazdasagi Muzeum, Budapest) and D r. D enis Janossy ( Museum o f N atural H istory, B udapest); i n t he Netherlands, t o D r. Anna Clason and D ick B rinkhuizen ( Biologisch-Archaeologisch I nstituut, G roningen); i n England, t o D r. John Chapman ( University of Newcastle), D r. Anthony Legge ( University of London) a nd D r. Andrew S herratt ( Ashmolean Museum, O xford); i n t he United S tates, t o D r. Thoma g McGovern, D r. G regory Johnson, D r. John Oates ( Hunter College, C ity University of New York), D r. E ric Delson ( Lehman College, C ity University o f N ew York), D r. H . Arthur Bankoff ( Brooklyn C ollege, C ity University o f New York), D r. Alan McPherron ( University o f P ittsburgh), D r. Bosa Kosovic' ( New York University), Charles S chwartz ( Los Angeles, Calif.) and t he l ate D r. Dexter Perkins ( Columbia University - who f irst i ntroduced me t o f aunal analysis). I would also l ike t o g ratefully acknowledge t he f inancial and administrative s upport o f t he G raduate Center of t he

C ity University o f N ew Y ork ( Student T ravel and Research F ellowships, 1 977, 1 980-1984), t he N ational S cience F oundation ( grant # BNS8105358, 1 981-1963), U .S. D epartment o f E ducation F ulbright-Hays Foreign L anguage and A rea S tudies, Doctoral D issertation Research Abroad P rogram ( 1982 - p rogram # 84.022; p roject # 022AH10048), t he I nternational R esearch a nd E xchanges B oard ( IREX - 1 982) and t he W ennerG ren Foundation f or Anthropological R esearch ( 1981-1983, g rant # 4210). Special t hanks g o t o my advisors i n N ew York ( Dr. T homas McGovern), B elgrade ( Prof. D r. M ilutin Garaganin) a nd B udapest ( Dr. S ändor B okönyi). They m ade t heir k nowledge o f z ooarchaeology a nd B alkan p rehistory r eadily available. I would a lso l ike t o a cknowledge my d ebt t o D r. H . A rthur B ankoff w ho i nitially i nterested m e i n t he r egion a nd t ime p eriod, made possible my e arly f ield e xperiences i n t he B alkans and gave s timulus t o many o f t he i deas p resented i n c hapter 1 . I llustrations n o. 4 , 2 2 a nd 2 3 were r eproduced f rom t he Journal o f F ield A rchaeology w ith t he permission o f t he T rustees o f B oston University a nd t he O fficers o f t he Association f or F ield A rchaeology. L ast, b ut n ot l east, I would l ike t o e xpress my s incerest g ratitude t o my w ife, C arol, and d aughter, Rachael, b oth o f whom s hared my f ield e xperiences a nd w ithout whose c onstant e ncouragement t his r esearch would n ever h ave b een c ompleted.

CONTENTS Part ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Chapter

page

CHAPTER

1 :

I NTRODUCTION TO THE

PROBLEM

1

I . I I.

I ntroduction F inal N eolithic-Bronze Age D ifferences: The P roblem I II. Models of Cultural Change . . I IIA. M igration/Invasion Models I IIB. D iffusion Hypotheses . . . . . I IIC. C atchment a reas and population parameters IV. An Alternative Model f or Change i n Subsistence and Settlement . . I VA. S ection One of t he Model . I VB. S ection Two of t he Model . I VC. S ection Three o f t he Model V . Conclusions CHAPTER

2 :

NATURAL ENVIRONMENT OF THE

CENTRAL BALKANS

1 3 7 7 1 2 1 4 . 2 1 . 2 7 . 3 0 3 2 3 4 . . 3 5

I . I I.

I ntroduction: D efinition of Regional Unit • . 3 5 Physical Geography and Geology . .. . 3 7 I IA. I ntroduction: H istorical B ackground . 3 7 I IB. Central S erbia and t he Morava Valley • . 3 8 I IC. The Pannonian o r Northern P lains . 4 1 I ID. E astern S erbia and t he I ron Gates . 4 3 I ID.1. The B alkan Mountains • • . 4 3 I ID.2. The I ron Gates 4 4 I ID.3. The Western Edge o f t he D acian P lain 4 4 I II. Regional C limate 4 5 I IIA. Regional Temperature .. . . . • 4 5 I IIB. Regional P recipitation and S now • 4 6 I IIC. Regional W ind P attern . ▪ 4 7 IV. Regional Soils 4 8 I VA. Alluvial S oils 4 8 I VB. B rown Forest Soils 4 8 I VC. Podsols o r B leached Earths . . 4 9 I VD. Chernozems o r B lack E arth Soils 4 9 •

•

I VE. Smonica I VF. R iverine S oils V . Modern F loral Communities . . V I. S oil P otential f or A griculture V II. C limatic and B iotic Changes t hrough T ime CHAPTER 3 :

5 0 5 0 5 1 5 2 5 3

Z OOARCHAEOLOGICAL RESEARCH METHODS: GENERAL AND PROBLEM-SPECIFIC

5 8

I .

T aphonomy and Z ooarchaeology 5 8 I A. Some General P rinciples . . 5 8 I B. Taphonomic A spects o f B alkan Assemblages 6 0 I B.1. D epositional C ontext o f Late N eolithic Remains 6 3 1 3.2. D epositional C ontext o f the PostNeolithic Bone R emains . . .. . . . 6 4 I C. Excavation a nd Recovery Methods i n t he Central B alkans 6 5 I C.1 D ata Recovery f rom Late Neolithic l ocalities 6 8 I C.2. D ata Recovery o n Post-Neolithic Localities 6 9 I I. D ating t he Z ooarchaeological S amples 7 0 I II. Methods o f Quantitative Analysis i n Z ooarchaeology 7 2 I IIA. Total Number o f F ragments ( TNF) 7 3 I IIB. Adjusted R elative F requency ( ARF) . . 7 5 I IIC. Minimum N umbers o f I ndividuals ( MNI) . 7 5 I IID. Meat Weights 7 8 I IIE. Method U sed i n t his S tudy 7 8 I V. Methods and P roblems i n Species I dentification 8 0 V . E stimating Age a nd B uilding Harvest P rofiles 8 2 VI. Domestication 8 7 VII. Other A ttributes 9 1 CHAPTER

4 :

ANALYSIS OF THE LATE NEOLITHIC S ETTLEMENT AT OPOVO

I . I ntroduction I I. Taphonomy o f I II. The Species I V. Conclusions CHAPTER

5 : I .

t he

9 8 9 8 9 9 1 01 1 10

s ample

ZOOARCHAEOLOGICAL RESEARCH AT PETNICA I ntroduction I A. Location a nd S urrounding I B. H istory o f R esearch

. .

E nvironment

.

1 11 1 11 1 11 1 12

I C. Archaeological S equence I I. Excavation and Collection S trategies I II. The S pecies I V. Conclusions CHAPTER

6 :

THE FAUNAL REMAINS FROM EARLY/MIDDLE BRONZE AGE LJULJACI

I . I ntroduction I I. E xcavation a nd Recovery S trategies I II. Taphonomic C onsiderations I V. Spatial Patterning . V . The Species VI. Conclusions CHAPTER

7 :

. ▪

THE VERTEBRATE REMAINS L IVADE

1 23

. • • . •

8 :

1 37

9 :

I .

1 37 1 41 1 43 1 44 1 57

THE LOWER MORAVe PROJECT: POST-NEOLITHIC CRKVINA AND NOVACKA dUPRIJA

I . I ntroduction I I. C rkvina I II. Nova Ua duprija I IIA. Location I IIB. S urvey a nd E xcavation S trategies I IIC. T emporal and Contextual Units o f Analysis: Nova6ka Cüprija . . . IV. Taphonomic Considerations: Novacv. ka Cüprija and C rkvina I VA. T aphonomic Considerations: E xcavation and Recovery P rocedures . I VB. T aphonomic Considerations: P ostD epositional P rocesses . I VC. T aphonomic Considerations: P reD epositional P rocesses V . The Species VI. Conclusions CHAPTER

1 23 1 26 1 27 1 28 1 28 1 36

FROM BRONZE AGE

I . I ntroduction I I. S tratigraphy I II. E xcavation and Recovery P rocedures IV. The Species V . Conclusions CHAPTER

1 13 1 14 1 15 1 21

1 58 1 58 1 59 1 61 1 61 1 61 .

1 63 1 66 1 66 1 68 1 71 1 75 1 86

THE Z OOARCHAEOLOGY OF THREE LATE BRONZE AGE S ITES NEAR SVETOZAREVO

1 88

I ntroduction I A. S arina Medja I B. VeCina Mala and V rbica

1 88 1 88 1 91

I C. I I.

Excavation Method a nd Recovery P rocedures Taphonomic Considerations

I IA. Sample S ize I IB. Attritional I II. The Species I V. Conclusions CHAPTER

1 91 1 92

and Condition P rocesses

1 0: PALEOECONOMIC TRENDS NEOLITHIC

1 92 1 93 1 94 2 01

DURING THE LATE 2 02

I . I I.

I ntroduction P roblems i n Paleoeconomic Reconstruction I IA. Chronological P roblems i n Assemblage Comparison I IB. Geographic Variability i n S ite Location I IC. P roblems i n Data P resentation I ID. Assemblage S ize and Species D iversity I II. Economic S trategies i n Animal Exploitation I IIA. The Domestic S tock I IIB. Wild Animals IV. Conclusions CHAPTER

•

2 03

•

2 04 2 05 2 05 2 06 2 07 2 12 2 19

1 1: PALEOECONOMIC AND ATTRITIONAL TRENDS DURING THE POST-NEOLITHIC ( ENEOLITHIC-LATE BRONZE AGE) P roblems i n Paleoeconomic Reconstruction for the Post-Neolithic IA. Chronological P roblems i n Assemblage Compararison I B. Geographic Variability i n S ite Location I C. P roblems i n D ata P resentation I D. Sample S ize and Species D iversity I I. The Species I IA. Domestic S tock I II. Wild Animals I V. Conclusions

2 02 2 03

2 22

I .

CHAPTER

1 2: PALEOECONOMIC AND CULTURAL CHANGE THE LATER PREHISTORY OF THE CENTRAL I . I I.

2 22 2 22

•

DURING BALKANS

I ntroduction S ubsistence Change I IA. Domestic: Wild Animal Ratio I IB. Major Domesticates - Changes between the Late and Post-Neolithic .

2 23 2 24 2 24 2 25 2 25 2 35 2 41

2 42 2 42 2 48 2 48 .

2 52

I IC.

Cattle - Changes between t he Late Neolithic and Post-Neolithic I ID. Ovicaprines - Changes between the Late Neolithic and Post-Neolithic . I IE. P igs - Changes between t he Late Neolithic and Post-Neolithic I IF. Evidence f or s easonality i n occupation I II. Conclusions I IIA. S uggestions f or Future Research . P art

2 54 •

▪ •

i i

2 58 2 61 2 63 2 64 2 71 2 72

TABLES

2 72

I LLUSTRATIONS

3 63

APPENDICES A .

MEASUREMENT CODING

B .

OPOVO

C .

LJULJACI - TABLES OF UNIT CODE, MEASUREMENTS

D .

E .

L IVADE

SYSTEM FOR FAUNAL MATERIALS

- TABLES OF BONE ELEMENTS AND MEASUREMENTS

- TABLES OF UNIT CODE, MEASUREMENTS

. .

3 92

.

4 06

ELEMENTS AND 4 17

ELEMENTS AND

NOVA &A CUPRIJA - TABLES OF UNIT CODE, AND MEASUREMENTS

4 38 ELEMENTS

F .

CRKVINA - TABLES OF

. . .

4 71

G .

SARINA MEDJA, VRBICA AND VE nNA MALA - TABLES OF UNIT CODES, ELEMENTS AND MEASUREMENTS . . . .

4 74

ABBREVIATIONS U SED TABLES

4 82

H .

B IBLIOGRAPHY

ELEMENTS AND MEASUREMENTS

4 55

I N TEXT,

I LLUSTRATIONS AND

4 84

L IST OF TABLES

T able

page

1 .

Absolute c hronology o f p rehistoric p eriods

2 .

Types o f p ost-cranial

3 .

Post-Neo.

4 .

Bone

5 .

D istribution o f

6 .

D istribution o f w eathered b one

7 .

Species

8 .

D istribution o f

9 .

Bone d istribution b y d ensity

1 0.

D istribution o f

b urnt

1 1.

D istribution o f

b utchered b one

1 2.

Species

1 3.

D istribution o f

1 4.

Bone

1 5.

Bone d istribution b y d ensity

1 6.

Damaged bone - L juljaci

2 93

1 7.

Species

- L juljaci

2 94

1 8.

D istribution o f

c lasses

2 95

1 9.

S chematic

2 0.

F requency d istribution o f

s pecies

l imb bones

s ize

r anges

c hewed bone

a ge

( no.)

2 73

f requencies a ge

a ge

f rom Opovo f rom Opovo

2 74 2 75

. . . •

2 76 2 77

c lasses

- Opovo

2 78

- Opovo

2 80

- Opovo

2 81

- Opovo

2 82

- P etnica

2 83

c lasses

2 84

f requency by s onda

f requencies

. . . ▪

- Opovo

bone

2 72 2 73

f requency a t Opovo by e xcavation u nit

f requencies

•

- P etnica

- L juljaci

r epresentation o f

2 92

- L juljaci

2 92

- L juljaci L ivade

s pecies

s tratigraphy - L ivade

. •

•

3 01

.

3 02

2 1.

D istribution o f body parts by d ensity - L ivade

2 2.

D istribution o f age

2 3.

D istribution o f modified b one - L ivade

3 10

2 4.

Species

3 11

2 5.

D istribution o f a ge c lasses

- C rkvina

2 6.

Nov.

i dentification

2 7.

Species

2 8.

Nov.

2 9.

Novagka Cuprija:

3 0.

Nov.

3 1.

C rkvina:

3 2.

D istribution o f age

3 3.

Species:

3 4.

Species/context: Mala

c lasses

f requencies

C up.:

f requencies

C up.

Species

c lasses:

3 6.

S ar. M ed., V rb. density

b y

3 12 l evel

▪

b y d ensity

( body part

3 17 3 18

V rbica

S ar.

3 19

& modification)

c lasses

3 14 3 15

Modified b one

M edja,

Age

3 05

modified b one

& C rkvina:

3 5.

- L ivade

- Novagka C uprija

body parts

S ar.

3 04

- C rkvina

F req./context

C up.:

.

•

3 20

- Novagka d uprija

▪

3 21

& Vegina M ala

.

3 25

Medja,

V rbica

.

.

& Vegina 3 26

S ar.

Medja,

& Veg.

V rbica

Mala:

& Vegina M ala

3 27

s pecies/bone 3 32

3 7.

S ar.

Medja,

V rbica

& Vec.

M ala:

b utchered b one

3 33

3 8.

S ar.

Medja,

V rbica

& Vet .

Mala:

c hewed b one

3 34

3 9.

Burnt b one Mala

- S arina Medja,

V rbica and Ve nna 3 35

4 0.

Chronology o f

L ate Neo.

l ocalities

4 1.

Late N eo.

a ssemblage

4 2.

Late Neo.

species

4 3.

Late Neo.

age c lass d istributions

3 39

4 4.

Post-Neo.

s ample

3 41

s ize a nd d iversity

f requencies

s ize p er

s ite and phase

3 36 • •

3 36 3 37

4 5.

Post-Neo.

f requencies

4 6.

Post-Neo.

c attle and ovicap.

4 7.

Post-Neo.

o vicaprine

4 8.

LBA ovicap.

4 9.

Post-Neo.

s heep:goat

5 0.

Post-Neo.

g oat

5 1.

P ost-Neo.

d omestic p ig

5 2.

Post-Neo.

d om.

5 3.

Post-Neo. g roups

f requencies

5 4.

P ost-Neo.

a dult p igs

5 5.

Post-Neo.

a dult p ig

5 6.

Post-Neo.

d om.

5 7.

Post-Neo.

h orse

5 8.

Post-Neo.

r ed a nd

5 9.

Post-Neo.

r ed d eer

p ercentages v s

6 0.

Post-Neo.

r oe d eer

p ercentage v s

r ecovery method

6 1.

Post-Neo.

r oe d eer

p ercentage v s

e nvironment

6 2.

Post-Neo.

f requencies

6 3.

Post-Neo.

a dult

6 4.

Post-Neo.

f requencies

6 5.

Post-Neo.

a urochs v s

6 6.

Post-Neo.

a urochs,

6 7.

Post-Neo.

s wine

6 8.

Post-Neo.

b ear

6 9.

Post-Neo.

h are

a dult

o f domestic

c attle

3 42

a ge d istributions

3 43

f requencies

3 44

f requencies v s

s ample

s ize

.

3 45

r atio

& s ample

p ig v s

3 45

s ize a ssociation

3 46

f requencies a dult

3 46

s pecimens

( %)

• • •

3 47

o f p ig a nd horse a ge 3 48

dog

( %) ( %)

v s v s

c ontext

f requencies

f req.

.

3 49

• • •

3 50

.. . .

3 50

f requencies

3 51

o f adult

r oe d eer

3 49

r ecovery method

& chewed b one

r oe d eer

t ype

% v s

s ample

r oe

3 51 .

.

. . .

3 52 3 52

.

3 52

n umber

. .

.

3 53

o f aurochs and s wine

. .

.

3 53

.

.

3 53

f req.

. .

.

3 54

s ize a ssociation

. .

.

3 55

a nd a urochs/swine a ssociation

. . .

3 55

& r ecovery method a ssociation

. . .

3 55

s ample

s wine

& s ample

t otal

d eer

s ize

s ize a ssociation

& b ear

a ge

‘

7 0.

P ost-Neo.

f requencies

7 1.

P ost-Neo.

mussels

7 2.

Post-Neo.

f requencies

7 3.

P ost-Neo.

s nails

7 4.

P ost-Neo.

r ed a nd

7 5.

Dom.

7 6.

L ate N eo.

7 7.

D om.

7 8.

L ate N eo.

7 9.

S ummary

8 0.

Y oung

8 1.

P ig

animal

( %)

& s ite

D om.

l ocation a ssociation

3 56

s nails

3 56

r oe d eer

v s

( %)

o f

v s

s ite ( %)

f requency

s ample

v s

.

( %)

v s

r ecovery/sample

s ize v s d istance

3 57 3 58 3 59

& i dentified bones

r ecovery method

animals

. •

l ocation

f requencies o f major

B os

3 56

& r ecovery method a ssociation

domestic

a nimals

o f mussels

( no.)

3 59

.

3 59

e xcavation y ear

3 60

domesticates

▪

3 60

s ize/environ./time

▪

3 61

f rom meat p roduction

.

3 62

L IST OF

I LLUSTRATIONS

I llustration

page

1 .

Map o f

s outheastern E urope

2 .

Map o f c entral B alkans

3 64

3 4

Map o f Y ugoslavia a nd E urope

3 65

4 .

S ites

5

F lowchart

o f

6 .

L ate N eo.

Bos metacarpal:

7 ,

L ate N eo.

Bos metacarpus:

8 .

L ate N eo.

S us LM3:

l ength v s

9 .

L ate N eo.

S us UM3:

g reatest

1 0.

L ate N eo.

dog

1 1.

Opovo C ervus m etatarsus:

1 2.

L ate N eo.

1 3.

Map o f

P etnica

3 73

1 4.

Map o f

L juljaci

3 74

1 5.

BA B os

t ibia p lot:

1 6,

L juljaci

1 7.

P ost-Neo.

S us

1 8.

P ost-Neo.

dom.

1 9.

Map o f L ivade

2 0.

BA B os LM3 p lots:

s urveyed n ear

3 63

S mederevska P alanka

( 1977)

. •

t he model

3 67 p rox. d ist.

l ower molar

d ist.

E d b readth

w idth v s

b readth

▪

3 68

•

3 69 3 70

l ength v s b readth

p rox.

3 70 3 71

b readth v s w idth

d ist.

b read.

v s

b readth v s d epth

d ist.

. •

l ength

l ength v s

t ibia p lot:

w idth

b readth

r ow:

C ervus m etacar.:

S us LM3 p lot:

3 66

d epth

▪

3 71

•

3 72

• • ▪

b readth

3 76

b readth v s d epth

dog c arnassial a nd molar

3 75

r ow

. .

•

3 76 3 77 3 78

l ength v s

b readth

. .

3 79

2 1.

BA Bos metacarpus:

p rox.

2 2.

Map o f C rkvina

3 80

2 3.

Map o f Nova ka d uprija

3 81

2 4.

Post-Neo.

f requencies

2 5.

L ate N eo.

f requency

2 6.

Major

2 7.

L ate N eo.

i mmature

2 8.

Post-Neo.

i mmature v s mature c attle

2 9.

C attle a ge g roups

3 0.

Post-Neo.

i mmature v s mature ovicaprines

3 1.

Neolithic

i mmature v s mature o vicaprines

3 2.

Ovicaprine a ge g roups:

3 3.

P ig

3 4.

B ronze Age dom.

3 5.

Canis

c ranial m easurements

( #41-42)

3 90

3 6.

C anis

c ranial m easurements

( #43-51)

3 90

3 7.

Canis mandibular measurements

age g roups:

( %):

( %):

d omestic s pecies

b readth v s d epth

d om.

dom.

( %):

v s w ild a nimals

v s w ild

& mature c attle

3 82

. .

.

3 82

.

.

3 83

. .

3 84

.

3 84

3 -pole p lot

f requencies:

3 79

f requency f requency

3 -pole p lot .

.

3 85 .

3 86

3 -pole p lot

3 87

3 -pole p lot a nimal

3 86

3 88

s easonal

u se c ycle

( #27-33)

• •

3 89

3 91

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO THE PROBLEM

I.

INTRODUCTION

The onset of the Bronze Age in eastern Europe was a time of dramatic change. The archaeological record is full of examples of changes in settlement patterns, mortuary practices and artifactual inventories. Many explanatory models have been proposed to account for the seeming upheaval at the end of the Neolithic, including migration (population replacement), diffusion and/or local evolution. However, most. have failed to integrate shifts in the subsistence base into descriptions of this fundamental transformation. This is largely due to the dearth of subsistence-related data available outside of Hungary. The implications of these explanatory models will be explored in this study.· Newly gathered data relating to Bronze Age subsistence will be presented as tests of current models. The results of this research have begun to provide the basis for understanding the nature and extent of changes in the paleoeconomy (cf. Higgs 1975) of the area between the Late Neolithic and Brohze Age. Only one aspect of the prehistoric economy will be addressed in this study - animal husbandry and exploitation. Southeastern Europe (ill. 1) is thought to be the first region with a temperate climate to have developed or received domesticated plants and animals. Initial introduction was followed by intensification of production through the exploitation of the secondary products of domestic animals (Sherratt 198Gb). As the earliest center of change outside of the Near East, southeastern Europe is an important source of comparative data in understanding the ramifying influences of domestication and· intensification of agricultural production upon cultural and environmental systems. The evolution of complex systems of land use and the increased intensification of food production systems are phenomena that are still little understood. Generation of behaviora+ models can contribute toward a greater understanding of human-animal interactions, of how these interactions have changed over time and of the event�al effects they have had upon other aspects of cultural systems. - 1 -

In order to evaluate the models to be presented below, faunal data from a number of archaeological localities in the region were collected between 1977 and 1982. ·Fieldwork has continued since then and the new data are currently undergoing analysis. Systematic analysis of the animal bones excavated from archaeological sites in the central Balkans has only recently been undertaken. The pioneering works of Dr. Sandor Bokonyi (1971b; 1974b; 1976; 1978a; n.d.), followed by those of Dr. A. T. Clason (1979; 1980), have provided a basic outline of some of the changes taking ,place during the Mesolithic, Neolithic and Late Iron Age (La Tene) periods of the region. However, due to the extremely complex nature of the archaeological record in this region and rarity of such analyses until recently, our understanding of the �arly economies of this geographically complex and important region remains sketchy. This situation is compounded by the focus of most excavations upon the more spectacular Bronze Age mortuary remains (e.g. J Bukvic 1979; Ecsedy 1979) to the neglect of settlements. Most Bronze Age settlements are poor by comparison. Fieldwork was begun as part of a multi-national response to the recognition of this obvious lacuna in the settlement data base. The Bronze Age settlements at Crkvina and Novacka Cuprija were excavated by a joint Yugoslavian­ American team in 1977 and 1980 (Bankoff and Winter 1982; Krstic'et al 1986; Bankoff et al 1986; Bankoff, Winter and Greenfield 1980). The faunal assemblages were examined in 1980, while those from Livade, Opovo, Sarina Medja, Vecina Mala·, Vrbica, Ljuljaci and Petnica were analyzed during 1982. A period of time in between these two period of research was spent with Dr. Sandor Bokonyi in Budapest. Several additional assemblages were examined in 1982, but were not included in this study. They were _either from an inappropriate time period (Hajdu�ka Vodenica and Bukovce Cesma - Early Neolithic Star�evo sites; and the Medieval .layers from Szekesferhevar, Hungary; Greenfield in press a and b), did not produce reasonably comparable samples (Jela­ �abaS) or were made available only for comparative use (Vinca-Belo Brdo). Thfs chapter will present and evaluate a series of explanatory and predictive models that have been proposed to account for the widespread changes in the socio-economic structure of the late prehistoric cultures of the central Balkans at the onset of the Bronze Age (c. 2,800 B.C. - cf. Bankoff n.d.). In contrast to prior studies conducted on this period and region which have focused upon methodological issues, such as time-space systematics, and which assume that change.in the cultural inventory may be traced to population migration and displacement, this research has utilized an ecological-evolutionary _perspective employin9 multi-causal explanations and hypothesis-testing - 2 -

( Flannery 1 972; S anders and Webster 1 978). T his s ystematic a pproach c an o ffer a lternative e xplanations f or change i n t his a rea a nd s hould c ontribute t o a g reater u nderstanding o f t he complex i nteraction o f c ulture a nd e nvironment. One o f t he o ther major o bjectives o f t his r esearch was t o d emonstrate t he u tility o f e valuating f aunal a ssemblages w ithin t he t otal a rchaeological c ontext, r ather t han i n r elative i solation. I f t he analysis o f a nimal b ones i s ever t o c ontribute d irectly t o b roader r esearch q uestions, s uch a s t he i ntegration o f r egional s ettlement a nd s ubsistence s ystems and/or s ocio-cultural c hange, i t must b e i ntegrated i nto t he t otal r ange o f b ehavioral i nformation available i n t he a rchaeological r ecord.

I I.

F INAL N EOLITHIC-BRONZE AGE D IFFERENCES:

THE PROBLEM

The r ealization t hat t he c entral B alkans, i n general, and c entral S erbia, i n p articular ( ill. 2 ) w ould b e appropriate f or t he i nvestigation o f t hese p roblems g rew o ut o f t he r esults of a s eason o f s ite s urvey a nd e xcavation i n t he l ower Morava Valley o f n orth-central Y ugoslavia i n 1 977 ( Bankoff, W inter and G reenfield 1 980). While s urveying and t esting l ater p rehistoric s ites i n t he J asenica d rainage o f t he Lower Morava r egion o f n orth-central S erbia ( ill. 4 ) d uring 1 977, s everal d ifferences b ecame apparent and f or t he f irst t ime c ould b e q uantified b etween t he k nown L ate N eolithic V i r 4a-Plo nik ( or V inda C/D) p hase s ites ( c. 4 ,100-3,300 B .C.) a nd t hose o f t he B ronze a nd I ron Ages ( c. 2 ,800-500 B .C.) i n t he a rea ( Bankoff a nd G reenfield 1 985). The Thomsen t ripartite a ge s ystem ( Stone, B ronze and I ron), w ith m inor a dditions, r emains i n f ull u se i n t he B alkans and t ends t o h ide r eal c ontinuity b etween t he p hases. The a rchaeological c ultural s equence h as b een most r ecently s ummarized b y G ara anin ( 1983 - f or t he c entral B alkans), B asler e t a l ( 1979-1981 - f or a ll o f Y ugoslavia), a nd Chapman ( 1981 - f or t he l ength a nd b readth o f t he V in6a c ulture). I t i ncludes t hose c ultures k nown l ocally a s V inCa-Plodnik ( Late N eolithic), B ubanj-Hum ( Late NeolithicB ronze Age), B aden-Kostolac-Vub 'edol ( Eneolithic), V inkovci ( Early B ronze Age), Omoljica-PanCevo, V atin-Vrsac ( late E arly B ronze-Middle . Bronze Age), S latina ( Early B ronze Age), D ubovac-Zuto B rdo, M ediana ( Middle-Late B ronze Age), P ara6in ( Middle-Late B ronze A ge), Halstatt A ( Late B ronze Age), Gava ( transitional I ron A ge) and Bosut ( Early I ron Age) - s ee t able 1 . Many o f t hese g roupings r epresent l ocal c eramic s tylistic v arvi ations o f l arger s tyle horizons. For e xample, t he D ubovac-Zuto B rdo ( Middle/Late B ronze A ge) c eramic g roup

3

i s p art o f t he l arger B ronze A ge i ncrusted w are h orizon f ound a long t he m iddle D anube ( cf. B rukner, Jovanovic ‚ a nd T asic ' 1974; L etica 1 973). F or t he p urposes o f t his c hapter, t his l ist o f l ocal a rchaeological c ultures w ill b e d ivided i nto t wo g roups: L ate N eolithic a nd p ost-Neolithic. T his w ill e nhance t he d istinctions b etween t he t wo t emporal e xtremes o f t his c ontinuum. A b etter c omparative b ase f rom w hich c hange c an b e o bserved w ill b e c reated b y i ncreasing t he s ample s ize. I n l ater c hapters, t he v arious s ites a nd r phases w ill b e s ubdivided i nto f iner c hronological u nits. A rchaeological " cultures" a re n ot m eant t o i mply a p opulation a s i n t he e arly G ermanic t radition ( e.g. K ossina - c f. T ringham 1 983), b ut r ather a r e-occurring c omplex o f a rtifactual t raits ( cf. C hilde 1 950). A ll d ates p resented h ere w ill b e b ased u pon c orrected a nd c alibrated r adiocarbon d eterminations ( 5730 y ears h alf l ife a nd M ASCA c alibration B C), u nless o therwise n oted. T he p rehistoric c hronology ( absolute a nd r elative) o f t he B alkans i s e xtremely c omplex a nd n ot y et c ompletely w orked o ut. S everal c onflicting s ystems a re i n c onstant u se. R ather t han a ttempt t o e valuate t heir r elative u tility a nd r esolve c onflicts b etween t he a vailable s ystems, t he c alibrated c hronologies r ecently d iscussed i n C hapman ( 1981), B ankoff ( n.d.) a nd E hrich a nd B ankoff ( n.d.) w ere u sed. I t s hould b e n oted t hat w hile t he a rchaeologically-based d eterminations a re b eing c alibrated b y t hese r esearchers, v irtually n o w ork h as b een d one u pon t he g eologically-based d ates f or t he v arious c limatic p hases i n t he H olocene. A s a r esult, t he t wo c hronologies a re s omewhat o ut o f p hase. A t t his p oint i n t ime, i t w ould b e o f l ittle u se t o c alibrate t he r adiocarbon d eterminations o f t he H olocene c limatic p hase b ecause t hey a re b ased u pon n orthern E uropean d ata. A s K ordos ( 1978a; 1 978b) h as a lready n oted, t he n orthern a nd c entral E uropean c limatic s equences a re n ot c ompletely s ynchronous. O ften e vents s een i n n orthern E urope appear s everal h undred y ears e arlier i n c entral E urope. U ntil a c omplete r adiocarbona nchored c hronology f or c entral a nd s outheastern E urope a re a vailable, i t w ould b e o f l ittle u se t o c alibrate t he p eriods b ased u pon n orthern E uropean d ates. A s a r esult, t he e nvironmental d ates w ill b e p resented a s c orrected, b ut u ncalibrated ( bc). T he f irst d ifference b etween t he p eriods i s t hat w hile c eramic a nd l ithic a rtifacts a ttributable t o t he S tardevo ( Early N eolithic), B aden/Kostolac ( Eneolithic), S latina ( Early B ronze A ge), P aradin ( Middle/Late B ronze A ge), B osut ( Early I ron A ge) a nd R oman p hases w ere f ound o n o ne o r more o f t he s urveyed s ites, o nly a s ingle s tray s herd a ttributable t o t he V inä% p eriod w as r ecovered. I n a ddition, V in6a-Plo6nik p hase s ites, b oth w ithin and o utside o f o ur s urvey a rea ( e.g. M edvenjak, S elevac, D ivostin,

4

Gomolava, P lodnik a nd V inda) d id n ot y ield e vidence o f l arge-scale i ntensive occupation i n t he l ater p eriods. A t V inda, s everal s trata o f E neolithic a nd B ronze Age d eposits w ere f ound. However, t hey were c haracterized b y p its and amorphous c ultural s trata ( lacking p reserved s ubstantial a rchitectural f eatures). They a re i n s trong c ontrast t o t he L ate Neolithic l evels ( see 3 rd d ifference). An e xception t o t his p attern may b e t he s ubstantial E neolithic l evels a t Gomolava, b ut t he B ronze A ge l ayers f ollow t he above p attern ( Brukner 1 979; B rukner, Jovanovic ' and T asic"1974). T his s eemingly e xclusive d istribution s uggests t hat s ite l ocation c riteria f or V inda-phase l ocalities d iffered f rom t hose o f l ater phases i n t he r egion. S econd, B ronze A ge s ites i n t he s urvey a rea a re more c losely spaced t han t he l ater N eolithic s ites. T he s urvey i ndicated t hat s everal B ronze Age s ites may o ccur p er small s tream valley. This i s i n contrast t o t he apparent V inda p attern of one l arge s ite p er major v alley i n S umadija. F or e xample, t here a re a t l east t wo c ontemporary B ronze A ge l ocalities o n t he Novadki P otok n orth o f Smederevska P alanka ( ill. 4 - Novaäka C üprija a nd I ve). They a re approximately 5 km. d istant f rom e ach o ther. Approximately o ne-half km. f rom l ye and s ix km. f rom Novadka Cüprija a re f ound t wo o ther possibly contemporary B ronze Age l ocalities ( Crkvina a nd V rela, r espectively - B ankoff and W inter 1 982; B ankoff, W inter and G reenfield 1 980). I n contrast, t here a re o nly t wo l arger V inda s ettlements k nown w ithin t he e ntire a rea o f t he p reliminary s urvey: Medvenjak and S elevac ( not s hown i n i ll. 4 ; T ringham 1 971; T ringham e t a l 1 980). E ach o f t he L ate Neolithic s ites l ies w ithin i ts own r iver d rainage s ystem, a s c ompared w ith a t l east e ight k nown B ronze/Iron A ge s ites, w ithin a s ingle d rainage s ystem, w hich c over a t ime period o f r oughly equivalent duration. C hapman ( 1981) n otes t he e xistence o f a f ew smaller V inca s ites f urther up t he J asenica, outside o f t he s urvey a rea. A lso, s everal a dditional B ronze Age l ocalities t hat w ere n ot e xamined d uring t he s urvey a re n oted i n t he r ecords o f t he N arodni M uzej o f Smederevska P alanka. I t would appear t hat t he l arge V inda s ites ( on t he b asis o f t heir s ize, n umber a nd l ocation) may have b een f unctioning a s c entral l ocalities f or a v ariety of smaller s ettlements, b ut t his r emains h ypothetical i n t he a bsence o f s ystematic r egional s urveys. Third, many of t he V inda-phase s ites o ften s how r elatively d eeper, s tratigraphically s uperimposed d eposits a nd s tructures, and, a s a r esult, b etter f eature p reservation a nd a h igher a rtifact and f eature d ensity o ver r ather l arge a reas ( ca. 8 00,000 s q. m . a t S elevac). Over 1 5% o f a ll V inda s ites w ith both e arly and l ate V inda s trata e xceeded 4 meters i n d epth, while t he d istribution o f a ll k nown V in &a s tratigraphies peaked a t 1 00-145 cm.

5

" VinCa occupations w ere g enerally more s ettled a nd f or t hat r eason more s ubstantial b uilding materials were u sed, l eading t o i ncorporation o f more d ebris i nto d eeper s tratigraphies" ( Chapman 1 981: 4 7). I n contrast, t he B ronze Age s ettlements a re e ssentially s hallow ( usually 5 0 cm. o r l ess o f u ndisturbed o ccupational d eposits), e xcluding p its a nd d isturbed p low z ones ( e.g. • , Ljuljaci, P etnica, NovaCka C uprija, C rkvina, V rela, I ve, V in & a, e tc.), w ith: 1 .

f eatures i n t he s ub-humus l ayer a ncient and modern p loughing;

2 .

i nsubstantial w attle-and-daub a rchitecture;

3 .

r arely more t han one v ertically definable o ccupation l evel; a nd

4 .

horizontally d isplaced s tratigraphy.

They a re s patially e xtensive a nd h ave s ubsurface a rtifact d ensities.

e asily d isturbed b y

s tratum o r

l ow s urface and

F ourth, l ater Neolithic s ites l ike D ivostin, G rivac ( McPherron and R alph 1 970), B anjica ( Gligic " 1968; P eregic1 980), V inCa ( Vasic"1932-36; C hapman 1 981), Gomolava ( Brukner, Jovanovic - and T asic"1974: 7 3; P etrovic"1982) and many o thers ( Chapman 1 981: 6 0) p rovide well-documented e vidence f or l arge, i nternally well-organized c ommunities w ith c ontemporaneous h ouses a rranged more o r l ess i n r egular r ows. No s uch o rganized d istribution o f s tructures i s k nown f rom B ronze Age s ites i n t he s ame r egion, w ith t he possible e xception o f L juljaci ( in many ways a unique l ocality f or t he p eriod - s ee c hap. 6 ). I t a lso appears t hat smaller a reas o n t he s ites were o ccupied a t any one t ime i n t he B ronze Age t han d uring t he l ater N eolithic. The p eriod f rom t he e nd o f t he L ate Neolithic V in6aP loCnik phase t o t he b eginning o f t he B ronze Age, t herefore, r epresents a c rucial t ransition p eriod ( Tringham 1 971: 2 06-207; S herratt 1 976; 1 980a; 1 980b) i n w hich t he p rehistoric s ocieties o f t he c entral B alkans u nderwent a d ramatic s ystemic r eorganization ( cf. Bankoff and G reenfield 1 985). T he f ull s ignificance o f t he d ata possibly b earing upon s ettlement d istributions i s d ifficult t o a ssess i n t he absence o f s ystematic r egional s urveys. N evertheless, i t may b e i nferred t hat t he d ata do i ndicate an apparent d emographic r edistribution f rom o ne o f h igh i ntrasettlement population d ensity and s ize, w ith r egional population

6

h eavily concentrated i n l arge s ettlements, t o a p attern o f l ow i ntra-settlement population d ensity and s ize, and p opulation d ispersion i nto a l arger n umber o f more c losely s paced r esidential l ocalities. T he population does n ot a ppear t o h ave u ndergone a d ecline, b ut h as b een r edistributed over t he l andscape. The l argest s ettlements h ave b roken u p and t heir population d ispersed t o t he c ountryside. The s maller v illage- a nd h omestead-size s ites c ontinue t o e xist, b ut u sually i n d ifferent l ocations. S ome l arge s ites c ontinue t o s how post-Neolithic o ccupation, b ut o f a much r educed n ature. This i s n ot t he o nly documented e xample o f d isintegration o f s elected l evels o f s ettlement h ierarchies. One e xample i s post-Roman B ritain. I n t his c ase, t he Romanized u rban c enters f ell i nto d ecay a s t he empire w ithdrew s upport and t he " civitates" w ere l eft t o f end f or t hemselves ( Hodges and W hitehouse 1 982: 8 2). However, r ural l ife c ontinued u nabated ( Crabtree 1 982; F inberg 1 972). Another e xample c omes f rom M ycenaean G reece. I n t his c ase, t he p alace c omplexes w ere abandoned, b ut t he r ural c ountryside r emained p opulated ( Bintliff 1 977). A t hird e xample o f s elective s ite s ize d epopulation comes f rom l ate Roman I taly. U rban c enters, s uch a s R ome, continued t o b e f ully populated, w hile t he r ural c ountryside ( i.e. i n E truria) u nderwent d ecline f rom t he 2 nd and 3 rd c enturies A .D. onward. D epopulation was n ot c aused b y t he b reakup o f t he empire i n t he f ifth c entury. I t was a f unction o f t he d isastrous e conomic policies o f t he l ate empire w hich d iscouraged i nvestment i n agricultural p roduction. B y t he t ime t he V andals a rrived, t he countryside w as a lready l argely a bandoned ( Hodges a nd Whitehouse 1 982: 3 8).

I II. I IIA.

MODELS OF CULTURAL CHANGE M igration/Invasion Models

Various models o f c ultural c hange h ave b een p roposed f or t he L ate Neolithic/Bronze Age j uncture. The most w idely k nown i s t hat o f t he " migration" o r " invasion" h ypothesis ( e.g. G imbutas 1 956; 1 965; 1 970; 1 973; 1 977; G araganin 1 973; 1 983: 1 41; B rukner, J ovanovic -and T asic'1974; K ovac 1 977). I n t his hypothesis, w aves o f n omadic p astoralists ( also k nown a s " Kurgans") f rom t he s teppes o f s outhern Russia s weep across t he f ace o f p rehistoric E urope l eaving a path o f d estruction i n t he wake o f t heir c onquests. E ventually, t hey s ettle i n v arious r egions a s " patriarchal" o verlords s timulating t he d evelopment o f w arrior a ristocracies and p astoral e conomies. The i ndigenous p eoples o f t he n ewly

7

c onquered t erritories a re p artially d isplaced. T he r emainder m ix w ith t he conquerors m erging b oth " old" a nd " new" E uropean t raditions. The s upposedly L ate N eolithic hoe c ultivating " matriarchially"-organized s ocieties w ere r eplaced by p lough c ultivators, mobile warrior h orsemen and " patriarchal" s ocieties. This model i s b ased, o riginally, u pon p aleo-linguistic " research ( philology) and c learly r elies upon h istorical analogies ( Daniel 1 962: 1 08ff; S herratt 1 973). R esearch i n c omparative philology d uring t he 1 9th a nd 2 0th c enturies on t he o rigin o f t he I ndo-European l anguage f amily g roup h as s uggested a c ommon g eographic point o f o rigin s omewhere i n t he s teppes n orth o f t he B lack S ea ( Crossland 1 971: 8 68). This c onclusion i s b ased upon t he p resence i n w idely s eparated I ndo-European l anguages ( including modern a nd e arly h istoric l anguages - e .g. H ittite) o f words i n c ommon t hat describe s uch an e nvironment. I t i s a ssumed t hat t he peoples u sing t his l anguage g roup e xpanded " ...by a ctual m igrations..." f rom a s ingle o r s eries o f c losely r elated core a reas ( Crossland 1 971: 8 24-826). The h istoric p attern o f nomadic g roups moving f rom t he s teppes i nto e astern and western E urope ( e.g. Magyars, H uns, e tc.), disrupting and c onquering e stablished o rders ( e.g. Roman a nd B yzantine empires) p rovided t he model f or s uch a n a ssumption. T he I ndo-Europeans a nd t heir l anguage a rrived o n t he b ack o f a horse, w ith s word i n h and. The philological data p erfectly c omplemented t he h istorical i nvasion d ata b y p roviding t he n ecessary b ackground s upport f or s uch p rehistoric population movements. There a re s everal p roblems w ith t his approach. F irst, i t i s v ery d ifficult t o s ee p rehistoric t ribes on t he move. This model a ssumed t hat i f t heir l inguistic behavior l eaves s uch t ell-tale m arks, t hen o ther f eatures o f c ultural b ehavior may h ave b een l eft b ehind. However, t his i gnores t he f act t hat a s ingle g eographic o rigin f or t he I ndoE uropean l anguage f amilies r emains a s imple unproven a ssumption. Not a ll l inguists a re i n a greement t hat t he I ndo-Europeans m igrated i nto t he B alkan p eninsula. S ome h ave a rgued t hat t hey may h ave e xisted i n t he r egion d uring t he N eolithic b ased upon t oponymic r esearch ( e.g. s ee G araganin 1 983: 1 42 and r eferences). I n f act, t he s o-called " homeland" h as n ot b een p inpointed w ith a ccuracy g reater t han t he c ircum-pontic r egion. The I ndo-European l anguage

8

f amily may h ave . ..come f rom a z one e xtending f rom s outh-eastern E urope across t he s outhern Pontic a rea and p erhaps a s f ar a s K azakhstan i n t he e ast" ( Crossland 1 971: 8 59). O bviously, t he s ituation i s e xtremely c omplex a nd f raught ' with p itfalls. A lso, movement o f l anguages a cross s pace n eed not a lways i nvolve t he c orresponding movement o f l arge n umbers of p eople n or n eed t he s pread b e a lways w arlike. S econd, t he evidence b rought t o b ear t o s upport t his t heory i s d etermined b y t he a ssumption t hat t he i nvaders r etained c ertain o f t he more c onservative c ultural e lements i n t heir n ew homes a nd l ifestyles. For e xample, b urial r ite, c eramic f orms and d ecorative motifs a re f requently c ited ( Gimbutas 1 977; S herratt 1 973: 4 20). S imilarities b etween burial r ite and c eramic f orm and motifs a re d rawn b etween t hose f ound i n t he R ussian s teppes a nd t hose f rom e astern Europe. T here a re s everal p roblems w ith t his a ssumption. I n t he f irst p lace, a ssuming t hat b urial r ites i n t wo w idely s eparated r egions c an b e a utomatically e xplained b y t he s ame mortuary b ehavior i s u nwarranted ( cf. U cko 1 969). The s econd i nvolves t he u se o f a rchaeological d ata t o s upport p aleo-linguistic h ypotheses. T his c an l ead t o t autological r easoning - " the I ndo-Europeans m igrated o ut o f a core a rea, d estruction l evels a re f ound i n n eighboring r egions at t he appropriate t ime, t herefore, t hey w ere c aused b y t he I ndo-Europeans". However, a lternative e xplanations f or s imilarities i n a rtifactual i nventories a nd o ther a spects of p aleo-human b ehavior b etween t he t wo r egions n eed t o be f ully considered - i .e. i ndependent i nvention, d iffusion, t rade, e tc. M igration may b e c onsidered t he l east l ikely of e xplanations, o ne w hich r equires t he g reatest e nergy o utput o n t he p art o f t he p articipants and o ne which i s l oathed e ven among modern peoples. P icking up a nd moving t o a n ew and unfamiliar l ocale i s a c ostly a lternative and i s r arely a ccomplished u nder p leasant c ircumstances. I t i s n ormally a r eaction t o s tress on t he p art o f t he i ndividual, g roup a nd/or s ystem. D emonstrating t hat i t i s t he most l ikely o f e xplanations f alls t o i ts p roponents r ather t han t o i ts d etractors. There a re s everal e xamples o f t he l ack o f c orrespondence b etween change i n m aterial c ulture a nd population. One e xample comes f rom e arly h istoric N ubia. S tylistic c hange i n c eramics were u nrelated t o d ramatic h istorically k nown c ultural changes. T he I slamic r evolution c ame a nd w ent w ith l ittle e ffect upon c eramic i nventories ( Adams 1 968; 1 979). A nother example i s t he r eplacement i n post-Roman B ritain o f

9

B ritish by a n Anglo-Saxon l inguistic s ystem. This c hange w as t raditionally e xplained a s a r esult o f l arge-scale p opulation r eplacement o f C eltic-speaking R omano-Britons by Anglo-Saxons. However, t he a rchaeological d ata point t oward a c ontinuation o f t he Romano-British r ural e conomy and, by i mplication, people ( Crabtree 1 982; F inberg 1 972; S tuckert n .d.). A t hird e xample i s t he s hift f rom a S umerian t o a S emitic b ased l inguistic s ystem i n l ower Mesopotamia a t t he t end o f t he U r I II period ( Albright a nd L ambdin 1 970: 1 45). T his c hange was a ssociated w ith a p olitical ( Albright a nd L ambdin 1 970: 1 51) r ather t han population c hange ( Adams and N issen 1 972). There i s, t herefore, l ittle r eason t o d irectly a ssociate s hifts i n material c ulture w ith population c hange i n t he a bsence o f s upporting b iological d ata. There i s, i n f act, g ood c eramic e vidence f or c ontinuity b etween t he L ate N eolithic, E neolithic and B ronze A ge i n t he upper Morava d rainage. The B ubanj-Hum c eramic h orizon e xtends f rom t he L ate N eolithic i nto t he E arly B ronze A ge. I t i s a l ocal v ariant o f t he l arger B alkan b urnished w are h orizon appearing d uring t he l ater N eolithic ( Garaganin 1 972; 1 973; 1 983). The e arliest phases appear t o develop o ut o f t he i ndigenous L ate N eolithic c eramic g roups i n t he upper Morava and a re c ontemporary w ith t he f inal V inCaP lo & lik occupations i n t he l ower Morava. I t continues to e volve t hrough a n umber o f p hases ( Ia - L ate Neolithic; I b E neolithic; I I and I II - B ronze Age). Third, t he o nly c ertain m eans o f d emonstrating a c ommon g enetic o rigin f or t he o ccupants o f t wo r egions would i nvolve chemical o r genetic a nalyses o f h uman s keletal r emains. Unfortunately, f ew s uch a nalyses h ave b een c onducted. Most o f t he physical a nthropological a nalyses h ave b een p lagued b y a h ost o f p roblems, s uch a s 1 .

f ew L ate Neolithic b urials, m any E arly B ronze A ge i nternments, and mostly c remations d uring t he developed and l ater B ronze A ge o f e astern E urope;

2 .

t he u se o f o utmoded c ranio-taxonomic " racial" c lassifications a s t he b asis f or morphological analyses; a nd

3 .

poor c hronological c ontrols o ver b etween t he t wo r egions.

e xcavated d ata

Ongoing detailed analyses o f o f s keletal populations ( using o steo-metric, c ranio-taxonomic and c hemical-analytical methods) and b lood g roup a nalyses i n Hungary, S erbia a nd e lsewhere i n e astern E urope h ave b egun t o s how l ong-term

s tability i n i ndigenous populations. They c an b e s een s lowly changing f rom t he e nd o f t he P leistocene up i nto R oman t imes. The r ate o f c hange v aries over t his t ime, b ut t here i s n o c lear c ut e vidence o f a c omplete o r e ven l arges cale t urnover i n m orphological t raits a t any one p eriod ( e.g. during t he E neolithic o f B ulgaria - Todorova 1 978). T he o nly major e xception may b e a t t he a dvent o f t he E arly N eolithic ( cf. Menozzi e t a l 1 978). A lso, n o s tudies h ave s hown whether a r elationship e xists b etween s tatus ( as d erived f rom mortuary r emains) a nd s keletal morphology, an i mportant t est i mplication o f t he m igration h ypothesis. I t i s n ot until t he p eriod o f t he Roman empire t hat w e s ee t he o ld p opulations dwindle and w ithdraw t o t he r ugged i nteriors. Until t hen, t hey r emain a pervasive f eature o f t he p hysical anthropological l andscape, m ixed w ith t he o ther c lassic " racial" t ypes i n v arying r elative f requencies ( e.g. B oev 1 972; F arkas a nd L iptak 1 971: 2 59-261; I stvan K iszeley - pers. comm.; K iszeley and S chwidetzky 1 979; h vanovic 1 975; 1 976; 1 977). The p redominance o f c remation b urials i n t he l ater B ronze A ge a nd t he p aucity o f l ater Neolithic i nternments p rovides a poor anthropometric d ata b ase f or t he e valuation o f m igration hypotheses ( cf. S tuckert n .d.). P opulation s hifts h ave b een k nown t o occur i n h istoric and m odern Europe and e lsewhere ( e.g. g ypsies), b ut t hey w ould b e e xtremely d ifficult t o t race d uring p rehistory. A f ourth p roblem w ith t he " migration/invasion" h ypothesis s tems f rom t he confusion b etween n omadic p astoralism a nd m ixed f arming a s e conomic s trategies. The n omadic p astoralists t hat m igrated f rom t he s teppes o f Central Asia a nd i nvaded t he R oman Empire ( e.g. H uns) merely p assed t hrough t he s teppes o f s outhern R ussia where c ontemporary a nd h istorically-known populations s ubsisted w ith a s trategy o f m ixed f arming ( agriculture a nd h erding - M ilisauskas 1 978; S herratt 1 973: 4 21). T he d isappearance o f t he l arge i ntensively o ccupied L ate N eolithic s ettlements d uring t he B ronze Age o f c entral E urope w as t aken t o mean t hat t he p opulation h ad abandoned a s edentary l ifestyle i n f avor o f a n omadic one. This h as n ever b een d emonstrated, n or i s i t n ecessarily t rue f or t he s ource r egion ( southern R ussia c f. M ilisauskas 1 978). One o f t he o bjectives o f t his r esearch i s t o e xamine t his a ssumption f or t he c entral B alkans. F ifth, a s a rgued a bove, n othing i n t he c ultural i nventory c onvincingly a rgues f or m igration ( e.g. Renfrew 1 969b; B ankoff 1 974 contra H ammond 1 976; G imbutas 1 977) r ather t han l ocal evolution. M igration/Invasion h as a lways b een a n a ppealing e xplanation f or c hanges i n c ultural i nventory ( Adams 1 968) which t ake p lace o ver a s hort p eriod o f t ime. T his was f ostered b y a c hronology t hat c ompressed t he B ronze

Age i nto a p eriod o f l ess t han 1 000 y ears, i mmediately f ollowing on t he L ate Neolithic. T he i ntroduction o f a r adiocarbon c hronology f or t hese periods i n s outheastern E urope ( cf. C . R enfrew 1 973; Ehrich 1 965; E hrich and B ankoff n .d.; Harding 1 980) c urrently i ndicates a much l onger s pan o f t ime. A t l east t wo t housand y ears e lapsed between t he f inal N eolithic a nd t he e nd o f t he L ate B ronze Age ( Bankoff , n.d.; s ee t able 1 ). This does n ot l ogically d estroy t he ' possibility o f m igrations o r i nvasions, b ut does r emove t he n eed f or t hem a s t he o nly possible e xplanatory d evices. A lternative s lower w orking e xplanations c an b e c onsidered as w ell. The f ull r e-evaluation o f t he e vidence f or m igration ( e.g. G imbutas 1 977), which w ill b ecome n ecessary w ith a c learer p icture o f t he r ate a nd s cope o f c hange, f alls b eyond t he l imits o f t his r esearch.

I IIB.

D iffusion Hypotheses

The s econd major h ypothesis t hat h as b een p roposed t o e xplain t he observed c hanges i n t he a rchaeological r ecord may b e t ermed " diffusion". C ultural c hange i s e xplained as a r esult o f t he d iffusion o f i deas, t echnologies f rom o ne r egion t o t he n ext. I t emphasizes c ommunication, v ia t rade a nd o ther mechanisms, b etween a reas a nd m akes t he c rucial a ssumption o f c ultural " superiority". T he c ivilizations of t he N ear E ast a nd t he e astern Mediterranean i nfluenced t he n on-civlized " barbarian" s ocieties o f t emperate E urope ( cf. T ringham 1 974: 4 71). V . G . C hilde ( 1929; 1 958) w as o ne o f t l 'e m ajor p roponents o f t his t heoretical f ramework f or E urope. H is t heory w as d eveloped p artly i n r esponse t o e xplanations c urrent i n t he e arly d ecades o f t his c entury t hat s aw a ll c ultural i nnovations s temming f rom c entral E urope and c arried f orward b y t he " Teutonic Knights" ( Childe 1 950; T ringham 1 983). The o ther m ajor i mplicit model b uilt i nto a rchaeological r esearch o f t he t ime w as a l ack o f i nterchange b etween l ocal m icro-regions. R elationships and s imilarities b etween r egions w ere m inimized a t t he e xpense o f d escribing a nd d efining l ocal a rtifactual complexes. Childe ( e.g. i n 1 925; 1 929; 1 930) r ecognized i nter-regional s imilarities and u sed t hese a s p art o f t he b asis f or h is ' ex o riente l ux' model ( 1934). H e b ased t his h istorical materialistic model ( cf. T rigger 1 982; T ringham 1 983) u pon t he s upposed c ultural s uperiority a nd t emporal p re-eminence o f t he N ear E astern u rban s ocieties o ver t hat o f b arbarian E urope. The l atter, once c ontact w as e stablished, would r ecognize t he a dvantages o f c ivilization and adopt i ts b asic t enets. The advent o f r adiocarbon d ating and t he e nsuing r ealignment o f i nter-regional c hronologies r emoved t he t emporal advantage o f Near E astern d evelopments ( Renfrew

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1 971; 1 973). The r esult was a r eassessment o f e astern E urope as a center o f i ndependent c hange. E urope c ould b e v iewed as an active c ontributor r ather t han p assive r eceivor o f n ew i deas, t echnologies, e tc. An updated v ersion o f t he d iffusionist t heorem h as appeared o f l ate ( Sherratt 1 980a; 1 980b; 1 982). I n t his s eries o f s eminal a rticles, S herratt o utlines t he " Secondary ' Products Revolution i n t he O ld World". A s w ith t he A gricultural and U rban r evolutions p roposed b y C hilde, t his r epresented a c rucial t ransformation i n O ld World f ood p roduction and d istribution s ystems. The r amifications e xtended beyond p roduction t o i nvolve t he s patial a nd h ierarchial n ature o f O ld World C ivlization. The b asic t enet of t his t heory f or E urope i s t hat population g rowth a nd p ressure on r esources s et t he s tage f or t he e volution a nd w idespread a cceptance o f f ive n ew t echnological i mprovements derived f rom t he Near E ast. Agricultural p roduction l evels w ere r aised b y t he u se o f t he p lough, w hich a llowed t illing o f a w ider r ange o f s oil t ypes. D omestic animal e xploitation s hifted f rom a f ocus upon p rimary products ( i.e. meat and h ide) t o s econdary p roducts ( i.e. milk, wool a nd t raction). This, i n c onjunction w ith s heep and c attle h usbandry a nd t ranshumance, a llowed a more optimal l and u se p attern t o d evelop i n t he B ronze Age t han i n t he Neolithic. A t ransport t echnology a long w ith t ranshumance enhanced w ider e xchange n etworks and y ielded o pportunities f or t he d evelopment o f e arly s tratified s ocieties. However, t he n ew t echnology w as e xpensive t o p roduce and maintain. I ts l imited a vailability e nhanced t he opportunities f or l ocal e lites t o d ominate i ntra- a nd i nterr egional e xchange r elationships. T he model i s i n f act more c omplex and t his s ummary c annot do i t j ustice. S uffice i t t o s ay t hat S herratt h as opened up a n ew h orizon i n o ur u nderstanding o f t he a dvent o f f ood p roduction s ystems a nd h as p rovided a s et o f t estable h ypotheses which c an b e e valuated. I n t his model, c hange i s v iewed a s a r esult o f e xternal s timulii ( i.e. t he i nvention and/or i ntroduction o f n ew a gricultural t echnologies s uch a s t he p low, n ew t ransportation modes s uch a s t he wagon a nd d omestic h orse, a nd n ew b reeds o f d omestic a nimals s uch a s m ilking a nd d raught cattle a nd wool s heep) t o c ope w ith l ocal population g rowth and p ressure o n r esources. T he a rgument, i n t his c ase, i s quite persuasive. However, i t h as s everal m ethodological and t heoretical p roblems. F or e xample, t he t iming and d ispersal o f t he p lough a nd c art a re i n d ispute ( Chapman 1 982). A lso, i t does n ot f ully e xplain s everal i mportant questions. T he f irst i s, w hy d id t he a ncient o ccupants o f t he r egion adopt t his p articular adaptation t o p opulation p ressure? The s econd i s, w hy d id t he s ocio-

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e conomic s ystems o f t he r egion c hange i n a particular d irection? These a re questions n ot f ully addressed. A lso, a rguing f or population p ressure i s q uite a d ifferent m atter f rom d emonstrating i t. Adoption o f n ew t echnologies m ay o r may n ot h ave r esulted i n i ntensification o f p roduction. The d etails o f e ach c ase must b e c onsidered. I n t he Mediterranean, i ntensification w as o ften a ssociated w ith a g reater i nvestment i n c ostly i rrigation a nd t erracing ' systems ( e.g. G ilman 1 981). I n o ur a rea, t here i s n o e vidence f or s imilar i nvestments. There i s n o e vidence o f t he population p ressing upon i ts r esources d uring t he L ate N eolithic o f t he c entral B alkans. B elow, an a ttempt t o model potential c ommunity population s izes f or t he L ate N eolithic and B ronze Age periods i n t he c entral B alkans t hrough c atchment p roductivity and s ite s ize s trongly s uggests t hat t here i s l ittle l ikelihood t hat s ettlement populations approached maximal c arrying c apacity ( Zubrow 1 975), e ven i n t he worst possible s cenarios. Even t hen, s uch r elationships a re l imited only t o t he u pper t ier o f t he s ettlement s ize h ierarchy. T his i ndicates t hat population p ressure upon r esources c ould n ot h ave f unctioned a s a p rimary c ausative v ariable f or t he observed c hanges. Answers must t herefore b e s ought e lsewhere. This c an b e i llustrated i n t he f ollowing worst c ase h ypothetical model o f c atchment a reas a nd population p arameters.

I IIC.

C atchment a reas a nd population p arameters

L et u s a ssume t hat t he p rimary c atchment a rea o f a s edentary s ettlement d uring t he warmer A tlantic C limatic phase ( e.g. F renzel 1 966; Harding 1 982 - c a. 5 ,500-3,000 b .c.) may b e f ound w ithin a t hree k ilometer r adius a round i t ( Chisholm 1 968: 6 6; F lannery 1 976: 1 06). A lthough c atchment a rea s izes f ound i n t he l iterature r un f rom t wo k ilometers ( Dennell and Webley 1 975) t o f ive k ilometers ( Barker 1 975; H iggs and V ita-Finzi 1 972; V ita-Finzi a nd H iggs 1 970), t hree k ilometers i s approximately one hour's walk over t he c ultivated and f orested r olling t errain o f t he l ower Morava ( and t he c entral B alkans i n g eneral - c f. H iggs 1 975b: 2 23), a nd c orresponds t o a bout t he s patial l imit a t which C hisholm ( 1968: 6 6) f ound t hat movement c osts b egin t o s ignificantly a ffect peasant c ultivation c hoices. T aking t he i mprobable b est-case a ssumption t hat a ll l and w ithin t he c atchment a rea w as a rable and equally p roductive, t hen t here a re 2 824.43 h ectares o f potential f armland f or a v illage covering t hree h ectares. Data f rom B osnia s uggest a y ield o f about 1 40-160 k ilograms o f g rain p er h ectare u nder modern, a lthough nonmechanized conditions ( Lockwood 1 975: 9 3), o f which a bout 2 0

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k g./ha. must b e k ept f or s eed g rain. This would l eave a pproximately 1 20-140 k g. l eft f or c onsumption. However, a gricultural p roductivity i n t he mountainous r egions o f B osnia i s n ot, ,as h igh a s i n t he l owlands and m id-altitude h ighlands o f S umadija ( central S erbia) a nd t he Vojvodina ( ill. 3 ). S ince p roductivity l evels d iffer b etween r egions a nd modern c onditions c annot b e a ssumed t o h ave b een o perative d uring t he L ate N eolithic a nd B ronze Age, t he d iscussion t o f ollow w ill b e f ramed w ithin a r ange o f m aximal and m inimal e stimated v alues. U sing a maximal e stimate o f 2 00 k g./ha. f or o ur a rea ( cf. Halpern 1 967: 5 8), i n o rder t o g ive p rehistoric c ultivators t he b enefit o f t he d oubt, accounting f or t he h igher a gricultural p roductivity i n g umadija t han i n B osnia, a nd d isregarding o ther l and u se p ossibilities, p rovides a n e stimated maximal p roductive c apacity of 5 08,397 k g. o f e dible g rain f rom t he f ields w ithin t he c atchment a rea a fter t he s eed g rain h as b een d educted ( 564,886 o f g rain m inus 1 0%). This a ssumes a h igher s eed:yield r atio t han may b e w arranted f or p rehistory, s ince i t i s b ased upon h istoric and e thnographic s tudies f rom t he r egion. Actualistic r esearch a t B utser F arm p roduced s eed:yield r atios f or w heat r anging f rom a h igh o f 1 :7 t o a l ow o f 1 :59 ( Reynolds 1 982: 1 09). Going t o t he o ther e xtreme a nd u sing a n a gricultural p roductivity e stimate o f 1 00 k g./ha. ( which i s b elow t he modern v alues f rom B osnia a nd a ssumes a l ower p roductivity f or p rehistoric c rops - a n ot n ecessarily v alid a ssumption a s t he y ields f rom B utser f arm h ave s hown - Reynolds 1 982) p roduces a n e stimated p roductive c apacity o f 2 82,443 k g. o f e dible g rain. When 1 /5 o f t he g rain ( 20 k g./ha.) i s r emoved f or s eed p urposes ( again a h igher v alue t han R eynolds 1982f ound t o be n ecessary) approximately 2 25,954 k g. o f g rain i s l eft f or consumption. T he h ighest s eed:yield r atio o ccurring a t B utser F arm ( in t he c halklands o f B ritain) w as 1 :7. This o ccurred d uring y ears o f e xceptionally poor w eather. A t one k ilogram p er p erson p er d ay ( Taylor and O rrea 1 966: 5 2), t his c ould f eed 6 19-1393 ( 100-200 k g./ha. r ange) p eople, o r 1 03-232 h ouseholds ( at s ix p ersons per h ousehold) f or a y ear. This g ives a possible population d ensity f or t his h ypothetical c atchment a rea approximately o ne-quarter t o o ne-half t hat s upportable b y modern methods i n t he s ame r egion ( Halpern 1 967: 5 6). The a ssumption o f a s ystem o f f ield u se i n which c rops w ere s own e very o ther y ear, o r h alf t he f ields w ere f allow i n a ny g iven y ear ( cf. B oserup 1 965: 1 6) would f urther r educe t he maximum s upportable population t o 3 10-697 p eople, o r 5 2-116 households. F urther u tilization o f t he c ultivated h alf o f t he c atchment a rea f or r itual activities, s tructures, t he i nclusion o f h igher a spiration l evels f or t he e ntire c ommunity o r e ven

d ifferentially according t o a ge, s tatus, s ex, e tc., w ithin t he c ommunity would s erve t o r educe t he maximum population s upportable i n a s ettlement w ith a t hree k ilometer r adius c atchment a rea i n t his r egion. Obviously, u tilization o f o ther t errestrial ( e.g. w ild a nd h usbanded animals) a nd/or aquatic r esources c an r aise t he c eiling o n population l evels, b ut n atural t opographic and s oil v ariability p reventing t he u se o f t he t otal a rea w ill l ower i t. I t h as b een m aintained t hat only t he l ighter w eight soils o f s outheastern E urope would h ave b een most f avorable f or p rep low c ultivators. The h eavy c hernozems a nd smonicas a re o ften t hought t o h ave b een u nworkable w ith t he Neolithic t echnology available p rior t o t he a doption o f t he p lough o r a rd ( Dennell and Webley 1 975: 1 00; S herratt 1 980a; 1 980b; D ennell 1 978; B arker 1 975: 8 8), a ffecting t he d istribution o f a gricultural s ettlements. B ut, C hapman ( 1981: 9 1-95) a rgues t o t he c ontrary. The p resence o f V in63 s ettlements on a v aried a ssortment o f s oil t ypes ( such a s B rown F orest s oils, c hernozems a nd smonicas) a nd s everal l arge V inca s ites s urrounded b y s oil t ypes d ominated b y chernozems a nd smonicas makes i t u nlikely, g iven t he i ndications o f s ettlement permanence, t hat t hese s oil t ypes were i gnored by p rehistoric c ultivators. This w as e xplained by t he i ntroduction o f an a rd o r p lough t echnology i nto t he r egion a t an e arlier moment t han p reviously t hought. I f t his w as t he c ase, " smonicas would p resent f ewer d ifficulties / for c ultivation/ t han c hernozems, g iven t heir d evelopent under f orest c onditions a nd t he s ubsequent l ack o f t urf l ine" ( Chapman 1 981: 9 1). These c onclusions may i mply t hat a w ider r ange o f s oil t ypes were e xploited and t hat a more e fficient u se o f r esources i n c atchment a reas w as possible. These a re e xtremely r ough e stimates, meant t o p rovide m inimal a nd maximal parameters f or t he population o f t he l ater N eolithic s ettlements o f t he L ower Morava and t hroughout most o f t emperate southeastern E urope d uring t he w armer A tlantic c limatic phase. T he h igher p roductivity e stimate appears t o a llow f or a h igher population t han i s documented f or m ost, i f n ot a ll, o f t he l ater N eolithic s ettlements i n s outheastern Europe. I f t his v alue i s a ccepted a s most a ccurate, i t would s eem t hat e arly a gricultural v illages d rew o n t he l and " at a l evel w ell b elow t he potential c arrying c apacity o f t heir r espective e nvironments" ( Flannery 1 976: 9 5). I t would s eem v alid t o i nfer t hat population p ressure c annot b e a v iable c ausative a gent f or t he e xplanation o f t he o bserved N eolithic/Bronze Age s ettlement c hanges. However, i f t he l ower r ange o f v alues a re accepted an a lternative r elationship may e xist b etween b etween i ntra-settlement p opulation s ize a nd t he potential p roductivity o f s urrounding c atchments. The

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l argest Late Neolithic s ettlements ( e.g. V inda) p robably c ontained population l evels i n e xcess o f t hose p redicted b y t he l ower r ange o f p roductivity v alues, while t he much more n umerous smaller, v illage-sized s ettlement ( cf. Chapman 1 981) would h ave n ot. Therefore, i t would s eem t hat t he l arger s ettlements w ere d rawing upon t he e xcess p roductivity potential o f t he s atellite s ettlements i n t heir h interlands t o s upport t heir l arge s ize. T he e xistence o f s pecialized h unting/fishing s tations, t he p resence o f mussels f rom t he Morava r iver 1 3 km. away a t S elevac, e tc. ( cf. Chapman 1 981: 9 6) c an be s een a s s upport f or t he h ypothesis t hat t he l arger s ettlements d id n ot r ely e xclusively upon r esources f ound w ithin t heir i mmediate c atchment a rea. I t would s eem t hat t he l argest s ites were n ear o r b eyond t he p roductivity l imit o f t heir c atchment a reas, whereas t he smaller s ites were n ot. This l atter s cenario i s s till c onsidered a l ess l ikely a lternative f or e xplaining t he o bserved abandonment o f b oth l arge and s mall s ettlements a t t he e nd o f t he Neolithic f or s everal r easons: 1 .

I t a ssumes t hat b eing n ear o r above l ocal " carrying c apacity" r esults i n r esource d epletion and e ventual s ettlement a bandonment. This n eed n ot b e t he o nly r esponse t o s uch a c risis. D evelopment o f g reater i nter- and i ntra-regional c oordination a nd specialization i n t he p roduction o f r esources may h ave b een an a lternative r esponse, one f or which s upporting d ata c an b e f ound ( e.g. i n C hapman 1 981);

2 .

Even i f i t d id e xplain why t he l arge s ettlements were e ventually a bandoned, i t does n ot e xplain why t he p lethora o f s maller s ites w ere a lso abandoned, s ince t hey w ere n owhere n ear t heir " carrying c apacity"; a nd

3 .

I t i s a lso c onsidered an unlikely e xplanation b ecause many o f t he l argest V inda s ettlements w ere o ccupied f or a t l east s everal h undred y ears. For e xample, V inda, i tself, s pans most o f t he V inda c ulture s equence ( more t han 1 000 y ears). F or much o f t hat t ime, i t was o ne o f t he l argest s ites i n t he c entral B alkans ( ca. 6 h a.). I f s uch s ites were n ear o r b eyond t heir p roductivity c apabilities, abandonment would b e e xpected t o h ave b een a more p ervasive f eature o f l arge s ettlement h istories. I nstead, t hey s how r emarkable s tability o ver t ime.

I t would s eem, t herefore, t hat t he l ower p roductivity e stimate f or c atchment a reas i s a more i mprobable e xplanation f or s ettlement abandonment. S oil e xhaustion w as obviously l ess o f a p roblem t han p roposed. S ome a lternation between c ultivated a nd f allow a reas must h ave b een i n e ffect

a s occurred t hroughout t he B alkans o f a rtificial f ertilizers.

p rior

t o t he

i ntroduction

I t i s i nteresting t o n ote t hat D ennell a nd Webley ( 1975), e stimating t he p rehistoric population o f t he Nova Z agora r egion o f s outhern B ulgaria b y a s imilar method, a lthough w ith d ifferent s eed:yield ( 25-33%), y ield ( 300 k g./ha.) a nd c onsumption d ata ( 210 r ather t han 3 65 k g./year/person). T hey h ave i ndependently a rrived a t a n e stimate o f b etween 4 00 and 5 00 i nhabitants f or a v illage c overing about t hree h ectares ( Dennell a nd Webley 1 975: 1 06). U sing t heir c alculations f or a t hree k ilometer c atchment a rea r ather t han t heir a ssumed t wo k ilometer r adius ( with half l eft f allow) about doubles t his e stimate, w hich e xceeds o ur upper e stimate. According t o t heir e stimates, c ereal p roduction c ould have s upported f ar h igher potential population s izes t han a re h ypothesized f or t he a griculturally r icher c entral B alkan z one. This i s l argely due t o t he u se o f l ower e stimates f or personal c onsumption a nd h igher values f or s eed:yield a nd y ield. S everal s ources o f d ata a re n eeded t o e valuate t hese a dmittedly r ough parameters. These i nclude i nformation o n t he s ize, n umber and s pacing o f domestic a nd non-domestic s tructures w ithin V in&a s ettlements a nd t he s ite a reas o ccupied i n e ach phase o f t he s ettlements' e xistence. A lthough p reliminary e valuation c an b e b egun f rom t he r eports o f p artially e xcavated V inCa s ites, i t i s h oped t hat t hese data w ill b e f orthcoming f rom n ew e xcavations o f l ater N eolithic s ites i n s outheastern E urope. N onetheless, i t i s i mprobable t hat n ew d ata w ill s upport an a rgument d irectly l inking t he o bserved c hanges i n s ettlement p atterns t o a p opulation p ressure e xplanation. P aleoenvironmental d ata i ndicate t hat a pproximately c . 3 ,000 b .c. marked t he e nd o f t he p eriod o f warmest t imes i n t he post-glacial e ra ( Gribben and L amb 1 978: 6 9). T he p receding A tlantic p eriod ( from c a. 5 ,500 t o ca. 3 ,000 b .c.) w as c haracterized by s ummer t emperatures t wo t o t hree d egrees c entigrade above t he p resent E uropean norms ( Clark 1 952: 1 4), b y a g enerally w etter c limate, a nd by t he d isplacement o f t he s ub-polar d epressions a nd t he a xis o f t he main a nti-cyclone b elt n orthward, p lacing t he h ighp ressure b elt a s f ar n orth a s 4 0-45 d egrees n orth l atitude ( Gribben and L amb 1 978: 6 9-70). World s ea l evels r ose t o s lightly above p resent h eights, a s A lpine a nd S candinavian g laciers melted ( Lind 1 969). The a ltitudinal t ree l ine o f t he Alps w as 3 00 meters h igher t han t oday ( Butzer 1 971: 5 71), and t he percentage o f t ree pollen i n Moldavia a nd a long t he Lower D anube i ncreased ( Tringham 1 971: 3 1). T ringham n otes t hat " everywhere i n E urope t here i s e vidence

t hat t he maximum g rowth o f f orest w as r eached c a. 4 000 B .C. / uncorrected/" ( 1971: 3 3). I n t he l ast f ive h undred y ears o f t he A tlantic period, a n a dvance o f g laciers i n E urope s ignals a s harper o scillation t oward a c older c limate ( the " Piora O scillation") t han f or a ny s everal t housand y ears p reviously ( Frenzel 1 966; L amb 1 977: 3 72). D uring t he s ucceeding s ub-Boreal ( ca. 3 ,000 b .c. t o c a. 1 ,000 b .c.) t he f orests r egained s ome g round a s t emperatures g radually r eturned t o t heir w armer l evel. The period i s, however, c haracterized b y s harp r ainfall f luctuations ( Brooks 1 949: 2 98; L amb 1 977: 3 73). The l ater N eolithic f armers o f s outheastern E urope, f aced w ith d eteriorating c limatic c onditions, m ight h ave t urned t o c rops w hich d o b etter u nder c ooler conditions, s uch a s b arley r ather t han w heat. B arley n ot only has a l ower o ptimal germination t emperature t han wheat ( Wilsie 1 962: 1 97), b ut i t i s a lso l ess a ffected by p recipitation v agaries ( J. R enfrew 1 973: 8 0-81; J ohnson a nd Gustafson 1 962). There a re i ndications t hat b arley c ultivation may h ave i ncreased d uring t he B ronze A ge i n most o f e astern a nd c entral E urope ( J. R enfrew 1 973: 2 05-207), a lthough t his i s s omewhat i n i n d ispute ( Hubbard 1 976b). T he l arger amount o f b arley n ecessary t o make u p a k ilogram o f g rain ( approximately 4 5,000 g rains o f b arley t o 3 0,000 f or wheat according t o F lannery 1 969: 8 5), w ould h ave a lso meant t hat a f ield o f b arley c ould s upport f ewer p eople t han an e quivalent-sized w heat f ield. Thus p opulation l evels w ithin s ettlements d epending on b arley c ould b e a s much a s one-third l ower t han t hose w ith wheat f ields o f t he s ame s ize. Using t he f igures c alculated above f or t he L ate N eolithic, s uch s ettlements m ight c ontain a maximum o f 2 05-465 people o r 3 4-77 h ouseholds. Again, i t must b e emphasized t hat t hese f igures a re g enerally t oo h igh f or B ronze A ge s ites and t he smaller V in & a s ites i n t he r egion, b ut w ithin t he r ange o f t he l arger V inda s ites. F or e xample, L juljaci i s o ne o f t he f ew B ronze A ge s ites w ith p lans o f r esidential a rchitecture. A t l east . 29 small houses w ere e xcavated over t he e ntire s pan o f i ts o ccupation ( Early-Middle B ronze Age - s everal h undred y ears). A l arge a rea o f t he s ite w as t ested ( see c hapter 6 ). A s y et i t i s i mpossible t o e valuate t he l ater N eolithic/Bronze Age c hanges e vident i n t he paleobotanical r ecord. As D ennell ( 1972: 1 57) n otes " the composition o f p lant s amples v aries c onsiderably b etween d ifferent a rchaeological c ontexts. Conclusions o n t he p lant h usbandry o f p rehistoric s ite c ould t herefore b e m isleading u nless t his f actor i s c onsidered."

a

Thus, t he p reliminary publication o f t he b otanical material f rom Gomolava ( Van Z eist 1 975) and t he s ummary t abulation o f p lant r emains f rom a n umber o f e astern E uropean l ocalities ( e.g. H ubbard n .d.) a re o f l ittle u se i n t he absence o f a ssociated contextual i nformation ( Dennell 1 978; H ubbard 1 976b). D ennell ( 1972: 1 57), a fter c onsidering t he c ontext o f t he b otanical r emains, i s able t o c onclude t hat emmer was more i mportant t han s ix-row n aked b arley i n t he B ulgarian L ate N eolithic s ites o f Chevdar a nd K azanluk. B ut f rom t he E arly B ronze Age deposits f rom E zero " it c annot be concluded w hether b arley o r wheat w as t he more i mportant c rop i n t he E arly B ronze Age, until a w ider r ange o f d eposits i s i nvestigated. A t p resent, n either e inkorn n or b read wheat appgars t o h ave b een i mportant. /But,/. i s n o e vidence t hat t he economic i mportance of e ach c ultigen c hanged i n t his r egion f rom t he Neolithic t o t he B ronze Age" ( Dennell 1 978: 1 48-149). Nevertheless, t he s ize o f e inkorn g rain appears t o d ecrease i n s ize f rom t he Neolithic t o t he B ronze A ge. This m ay b e due t o a l ocal environmental c hange, s uch a s i ncreased deposition o f c lays ( Dennell 1 978: 1 50). T his i s i n contrast t o Hubbard ( n.d.: 1 2) who h as i ndicated a n i mpressive i ncrease i n s ix-row b arley a ssociated w ith E arly B ronze Age c ontexts i n e astern E urope. F rom t he material p resented above ( catchment d iscussion), i t i s possible t o r ule out c ertain popular " prime movers" a s e xplanations f or c ultural c hange b etween t he l ater N eolithic and B ronze Age. As h as b een s hown, t he observed e nvironmental c onditions w ere n ot a ltered i n a d rastic enough f ashion t o a ccount f or a ny s ignificant c hange i n t erms o f c ultural adaptation. Available pollen d iagrams, a s well a s modern f loral d istribution, i ndicate t hat t he B alkan environment was p robably m uch t he s ame i n t he B ronze A ge a s i t i s a t p resent, b arring modern d eforestation ( e.g. B eug 1 982; G igov 1 956; 1 965; N andris 1 976; 1 977). T he hypothetical r econstruction and a nalysis o f t he r esources available i n s ite c atchment a reas h as a lso i ndicated t hat population p ressure c an b e d iscounted a s a s ignificant variable e ven u nder a worst c ase s ituation. A h ypothetical r esponse t o a d earth o f a gricultural r esources may h ave b een i ncreased c ompetition f or l and. I ncreased i nter-group c onflict w as a lso an i mplication o f t he " migration" hypothesis. T his m ay b e r eflected i n t he evidence f or i nter-community c onflict ( e.g. warfare). However, i ncreased conflict may b e r uled o ut a s a p rimary

e xplanation f or t he observed c hanges. More u nsettled c onditions ( e.g. d ue t o w arfare) s hould h ave p roduced a n oticeable e ffect o n t he s ettlement pattern o f t he B ronze A ge. One would e xpect t he appearance o f more n ew B ronze Age s ettlements o n more r eadily d efendable positions ( with s ome s ort o f n atural o r a rtificial f ortification) and/or a c lustered r ather t han d ispersed s ettlement pattern. I n f act, s ites o f t his n ature a re f ound o nly l ate i n t he B ronze A ge o f t he B alkans ( Garaganin 1 973: 2 94; 1 983: 1 75-181). T hey a re more o ften e ncountered e arlier t o t he n orth ( e.g. O tomani - D umitrescu 1 983: 5 7-58; Hungary - C hoyke 1 982). T he p resence o f f ences o r d itches s urrounding s ites ( cf. T ringham 1 971; 1 972; T ringham e t a l 1 980) o r s ites o n h illtop l ocations ( e.g. L juljaci S rejovic'1965) does n ot n ecessarily i ndicate t he p resence o f a f ortification. O ther l ess complex r easons may b e s uggested f or t he p resence o f f ences o r d itches on ' s ites f rom t he N eolithic t hrough t he B ronze Age ( e.g. c orrals, s ettlement s ocial b oundaries, e tc. T ringham 1 972). T he e xclusion o f t hese v ariables s till l eaves one w ith t he p roblem o f e xplaining t he d emonstrable d ifferences i n s ettlement and s ubsistence patterns b etween t he l ater N eolithic and B ronze Age. I t s eems apparent t o m any r esearchers t hat s uch c hanges a re n ot a f unction o f any o ne p rime mover b ut o f a n umber o f i nteracting v ariables ( Bankoff and G reenfield 1 985; S herratt 1 980a; 1 980b).

I V.

AN ALTERNATIVE MODEL FOR CHANGE S ETTLEMENT

I N

S UBSISTENCE AND

Both s ets o f models d iscussed above r ely u pon e xternal f actors t o a ccount f or c hange. However, a nother s chool o f e xplanations appears t o f it t he d ata j ust a s w ell, i f n ot b etter. P rocessual e xplanations emphasize t he i mportance o f c ontinual e volution w ithin a r egion, r ather t han r eplacement o f peoples o r c ultural b ehavior f rom o utside ( e.g. B inford 1 962; -Renfrew 1 973). This body o f t heory h as r ecently b een u sed t o account f or s imilar e xamples o f s eeming d iscontinuities i n t he a rchaeological r ecord b y c ollecting d ata n ecessary f or t he d emonstration o f c ontinuity ( e.g. C hapman 1 981 - S tarCevo/Vinäa t ransition). W ith t his i n m ind, t his s ection w ill p resent a model f or c hange t hat e mphasizes l ocal development, a lthough i t does not i gnore t he a cceptance o f n ew t echnological modes f rom n eighboring r egions n or t he possibility o f s mall-scale movement o f p eoples. B efore t he onset o f t his r esearch, t here were v ery f ew data f rom B ronze Age l ocalities w ith which t o t est t he h ypotheses c oncerned w ith t he i nteraction o f s ubsistence c hange and t he consequences o f population r edistribution.

T herefore, o n t he b asis o f t he a vailable a rchaeological, z ooarchaeological a nd p aleoenvironmental d ata, a model o utlining options a vailable t o t he h uman p opulation a t t hat t ime a nd t heir i nteractive e ffect u pon t he d istribution o f p opulation a nd s trategies o f a nimal e xploitation w as c onstructed ( ill. 5 ; G reenfield 1 984a; 1 984b). T his m odel w ill b e p resented b elow a nd t ested i n s ubsequent c hapters. A s w ith S herratt's m odel ( 1980b), t he i ntroduction o f t he w agon a nd t he p lough i nto s outheastern E urope a re t hought t o h ave h ad a r amifying e ffect u pon t he i ndigenous a gricultural a nd s ettlement s ystems. T hey a ppear e ither i n t he L ate N eolithic, E neolithic ( Chalcolithic o f t he H ungarian P lain) o r i n t he E arly B ronze A ge ( Chapman 1 981; 1 982; C lark 1 952; P iggott 1 982; S herratt 1 980b). T heir p ostulated a ppearance h elped t o s timulate t he c hain o f e vents l eading t o a r edistribution o f p opulation o ver t he l andscape. T he wagon v irtually r evolutionized t ransport b y making i t more e fficient f or f ewer p eople t o move l arge q uantities o f bulky f oodstuffs a nd m aterials. T ransport c osts would b e s ignificantly r educed. H owever, t he d ata o n s pecialization o f p roduction a nd, b y i mplication, i nter-community e xchange d o n ot i ndicate l arge v olumes o f e xchanged p roducts. For e xample, t he n umber o f o bsidian p ieces, n on-local p ots o r m etal a rtifacts a re r elatively f ew a nd c ould h ave b een b rought t o v illages b y a f ew b earers o r b y a s ingle c art l oad e very y ear o r s o. " The v olume o f m aterial e xchanged w as r elatively r estricted" ( Chapman 1 981: 7 9). Only s lightly l arger q uantities a ppear t o h ave b een t ransported t o s ettlements p erforming " central-place" f unctions, s uch a s V in6a a nd f rom t here d istributed t o s atellite s ettlements. B ut e ven a t t hese s ites, t he q uantities a re s o l ow " ...as t o c ast s erious d oubt o n t he c oncept o f s pecialist t raders o r f ull t ime c raftsmen" ( Chapman 1 981: 7 9). T he u se o f c arts m ight h ave b een o f g reater i mportance i n l ocal a gricultural p roduction w here c rops w ould h ave t o b e t ransported t o s torage a reas s oon a fter b eing h arvested. I n t his s ituation, t he a bility t o m ove l arge v olumes o f s uch b ulky m aterials w ithin a s hort s pan o f t ime i s c onsidered t o be o f g reater i mportance t o t he l ocal e conomy t han i s t he a bility t o move t he o ccasional " exotica" ( contra S herratt's 1 976 K ula r ing-like m odel). T he p lough o ffered t he p otential o f o pening-up s upposedly u ncultivable l ands b eyond t he d istribution o f t he s oft a lluvium a nd B rown F orest s oils a round w hich e arlier s ettlements a re t hought t o h ave c ongregated ( Barker 1 975; S herratt 1 980a). However, t he t iming o f i ts a ppearance a nd t he d istribution o f s oils s urrounding e arlier s ites a re n ow i n c ontention ( Chapman 1 981; 1 982; s ee a bove). T he a ppearance o f n ew t echnologies d oes n ot, a s a m atter o f c ourse, i ncite p eople t o g et up a nd c olonize t he w orld. C onditions i n t he s ociety m ust b e r ipe

t o e ncourage t he t ype o f d rastic d ispersal B ronze Age s ettlement d ata.

s een

i n

t he

T he V inäa c ulture m ay b e a g ood e xample o f " scalar s tress" ( cf. Johnson 1 982). The c osts o f i ntegrating h orizontally equivalent u nits w ithin a s ocio-political s ystem does n ot i ncrease l inearly w ith t he n umber o f u nits i nvolved. I nstead, t he w ork l oad p er u nit i s i ncreased w ith e ach additional u nit n eeding i ntegration. " This work l oad may b e d ecreased b y t he d evelopment o f a s pecialized v ertical c ontrol mechanism. .. Vertical s pecialization...reduced work l oad i nvolved i n i nformation t ransfer" b etween u nits ( Johnson 1 978: 9 1). I n o rder t o e fficiently i ntegrate t he b asic u nits ( households, v illages, e tc.), h ierarchial u nits o f d ecisionm aking h ave t o e volve. The e volution o f s tatus d ifferences a nd r ank i nheritance r ules would " ...serve t o r educe p otentially d isruptive c ompetition and d issension i n s election o f i ndividuals t o o ccupy s uch positions" ( Johnson 1 978: 1 01). The V in &a c ulture may h ave e xperienced s uch a p roblem. The absence o f e vidence f or h ierarchial i ntegration b eyond l ow-level r anking ( cf. Chapman 1 981) and t he c onsequent e laboration o f r itual ( Gimbutas 1 974b) r egulatory mechanisms ( cf. Chapman 1 981) would h ave made c oordination w ithin t he l arge v illages a nd b etween o ther v illages e xtremely c omplex. " The V inäa c ulture i llustrates, a lmost i n e xtreme f orm, t he h igh c ost which small-scale s ocieties a re p repared t o p ay f or r itually-ordered equilibration" ( Chapman 1 981: 7 5). I ntegration b eyond t o t he s atellite v illages a nd t o t he r egulation o f i nter-community e xchange would h ave b een f urther complicated b y t he absence o f a dministrative o rganizations which c ould e fficiently c oordinate t he n eeds a nd a ctivities o f t he s ubstantial n umbers o f p eoples and u nits i nvolved. I n t he absence o f s uch r egulatory m echanisms, s tress w ould b e p redicted t o h ave b een a p ervasive f eature o f t he p olitical l andscape. The e laboration o f " ritual" c ontrols f or t he i ntegration o f V inäa s ocieties may h ave b een one r esponse. A s econd r esponse may h ave b een d ispersion o f u nits ( see above) a nd t he e volution o f n ew h ierarchial l evels o f d ecision-making ( leading t o g reater s ociop olitical d ifferentiation). A s f ar a s c an b e d etermined, t here i s s ome e vidence f or t he d evelopment o f n ew

h ierarchially d ifferentiated s ocio-political s ystems b etween t he e nd o f t he L ate Neolithic and t he e arlier part o f t he B ronze Age i n t he c entral B alkans a nd i n t he r egions i mmediately t o t he n orth ( i.e. H ungary, C zechoslovakia and Romania - e .g. i n D umitrescu 1 983; Garasanin 1 983; G iric 1 971; S hennan 1 975; S herratt 1 976; S komal 1 980). T his may h ave d eveloped a s a r esponse t o t he n eeds f or e fficient decision-making h ierarchies ( cf. J ohnson 1 979) s een i n t he L ate N eolithic. I n t his model, t he e thnographically s upportable a ssumption o f " population d ispersal t endencies" w ill b e o ffered a s one o f t he n ecessary p re-conditions f or t he observed c hanges. This a ssumption w as a rrived a t t hrough e valuation o f t he e vidence f rom both e galitarian a nd r anked modern s ocieties ( Fried 1 967; F lannery 1 972). These l owl evel h ierarchial s ocieties t end t o u ndergo l ocal d escent g roup s egmentation ( Meggitt 1 962; 1 965 - N ew Guinea; S ahlins 1 961 - Africa; Wagley 1 951 - S outh America) upon t he a ttainment o f c ulturally s pecific c ommunity s izes a nd e ither e xpand a t t he e xpense o f o ther p eoples o r b ud i nto l ess densely populated a reas t hrough t he d ispersion o f d escent units ( Carneiro 1 970). Local " Big-Men" ( Sahlins 1 963), i n t he absence o f movement c onstraints, t end t o move t o m ore optimal l ocations f or t he e xpansion o f personal p ower. I t i s a ssumed t hat t he c entrifugal t endencies o f l arge, b ut poorly i ntegrated c ommunities would f avor t heir e ventual f issioning. I t i s c lear f rom t he s ettlement d ata t hat t he Late N eolithic communities g rew t o s izes t hat f ar e xceeded any b efore, o r any f or a l ong t ime a fterwards ( Chapman 1 981; a lso s ee above). This t endency would b e e ven more l ikely where t here a re n o adjoining p opulations o f s ignificant density, a s i n E arly Neolithic E urope ( Ammerman a nd C avalliS forza 1 971), i n L ate N eolithic s outheastern E urope ( Sherratt 1 972) and i n o ther e ssentially open s ystems ( Binford 1 968). Chapman ( 1981) h as amply d emonstrated t hat n ot a ll V inCa s ettlements were o rganized a long s imilar l ines. S ome were c haracterized more b y n uclear f amily u nits, o thers b y e xtended f amily u nits a nd m any b y a c ombination o f b oth. The g rowth a nd spread o f V in & a s ettlements appears t o h ave b een l inked t o t he b udding-off o f n uclear f amily u nits f rom t he o lder s ettlements. These n ew u nits o f p roduction t hen s truck o ff on t heir own t o f ound n ew s ettlements. M ost o f t he smaller s ites a re c haracterized b y n uclear f amily-sized houses, while t he o lder more e stablished s ites ( e.g. Gomolava and V inda) a re dominated b y l ong-houses ( Chapman 1 981; B rukner, Jovanovic - a nd T asic -1 974; P etrovic'1982; Vasic'1932-36). W ithin most o f t he l arger s ites, b oth l arge and small r esidential s tructures c an b e f ound. T his c ould i mply t hat n ucleated and e xtended f amily s tructures c o-

- 2 4

-

e xisted w ithin t he s ame s ettlements a nd t hat b udding o f n uclear f amily units may h ave b een a c ontinual p rocess e ven w ithin s ettlements. C hapman ( 1981) h as a lso t raced t he g rowth a nd d ecline o f s ome o f t he l arger e arly a nd l ate V inba s ettlements ( e.g. T ordog). Many V in a s ettlements o bviously e xisted f or a l ong t ime. B ut f ew e xcavations h ave mapped t heir g rowth a nd d ecline. I t i s o f i nterest t o n ote t hat t he l argest s ettlements were n ot a ll i n t he f inal period a nd t hat a ll s ites were n ot abandoned a t t he s ame t ime. T his may b e e xplained a s a f unction o f c ontinuous s calar s tress. As s ettlements r eached t heir z enith i n s ize, t he s cale o f s tress i ncreased o ut o f p roportion t o t he b enefits o f c ontinuing l arge-scale v illage o r t own l ifestyles. H ence, d ecline i n s ize o r abandonment would t ake p lace. S ome u nusually l ong l asting l arge s ites d id o ccur ( i.e. V inCa). B ut t hey appeared t o have p layed a c orrespondingly unusual r ole i n e xchange a nd, by i mplication, i nter-regional i ntegration ( Chapman 1 981). The combination o f t hese c hanges and p rocesses a llowed a nd s timulated t he s hift i n t he f ocus o f s ettlement, a lthough contra S herratt ( 1980a), t he d rier i ntefluves h ad b een c olonized e arlier. The potentiality o f i ncreased e fficiency i n t ransport, i n c onjunction w ith a lready e xisting h igh l ocal population d ensities a nd t he c ontinuing t endency f or l arge l ocal c ommunities t o f ission f rom t he e arliest periods o nwards, would h ave r esulted i n a p roliferation o f n ew, smaller and more c losely-spaced h omesteads. The o verall r egional p opulation may n ot h ave i ncreased, b ut each homestead would h ave b een i nhabited b y a s maller g roup o f p eople. I nitial e ffects may h ave i ncluded t he s pread o f e cotones, s uch a s b etween t he e dge o f t he f orests and f ields ( cf. Mellars 1 976). More h omesteads c ould h ave r esulted i n a l arger d ispersal o f t he a reas u nder c ultivation ( but n ot n ecessarily l arger i n t otal a rea u nder c ultivation), when c ombined w ith c ontinued f orest c learance, would h ave n egatively, i n t he l ong r un, a ffected w ild animal d ensity, availability and p redictability. The pollen d ata f rom c entral a nd s outheastern E urope c an f orm an i ndependent measure o f t he c hanges i n t he physical e nvironment and b y i mplication i n h uman s ubsistence a nd s ettlement. The f ew published pollen d iagrams f or t he c entral Balkans i ndicate t hat t he c hanges w rought b y man w ere o f much g reater s ignificance t han t hose i nduced by c limate ( Gigov 1 964; Nandris 1 976; 1 977; Z olyomi 1 980). The c ontinued r ecord o f h uman i nterference i n f orest e cosystems d uring t he Atlantic c limatic optimum i ndicates i ncreased f orest c learance a nd spread o f a reas u nder c ultivation a s

t ime p rogressed. T his i s e vident f rom t he r eplacement o f a rboreal p ollen b y n on-arboreal p ollen, i n p articular c ultigens ( see c hapter 2 , s ection V II). Consideration o f t he b ehavioral a nd e cological c haracteristics o f t he s pecies e xploited d uring t he L ate N eolithic, a s w ell a s t he a vailable i ndications o f p aleoenvironmental c hange ( whether n aturally- o r c ulturallyi nduced) a llows p rediction o f t he n ature a nd e xtent o f c hanges t hat m ay h ave o ccurred i n t he a nimal e xploitation s trategies d uring t he B ronze a ge. T he i mportance o f a nimal p roduction i n m ixed f arming s ubsistence s trategies h as b een w ell i llustrated b y o ther r esearch. F lannery ( 1969) h as n oted t hat i n a reas w here a griculture i s c haracterized b y y ears o f s carcity m ixed u npredictably w ith y ears o f b umper c rops, " live s torage" i n t he f orm o f h erds i s a w ay o f l eveling t hese f luctuations. E ven t hough F lannery w as r eferring t o a rid e nvironments i n t he N ear E ast, t his w ould h old t rue f or t emperate a reas a s w ell. I ncreasing a nimal p roduction i s o bviously a w ay o f i ncreasing o r maintaining t he p roductivity l evel o f s ustaining a reas by g razing o n f allow a reas o r l and b eyond t he i mmediate s ustaining a rea. T o i nvestigate t he w idespread a nd d rastic a lteration i n l and u se, w hich p robably i nvolves m ajor s hifts i n e conomic s trategy, i t h as b een u seful t o c ombine a rchaeological s ettlement p attern d ata w ith a rchaeozoological analysis a nd g eneralized m odelling o f a nimal r esource d ensity, p redictability a nd a ggregation, i n o ther w ords, t he a vailability o f a nimals t o t he d ependent h uman population. B efore t he o nset o f t his r esearch, t he e vidence i n t he l iterature a llowed a b asic r econstruction o f t he a nimal e xploitation s trategies f or t he L ate N eolithic V inCa-Plo nik p eriod. T he i nformation o n s ubsistence i ndicated a n e conomy w hich e xploited a d iverse s et o f r esources, b oth d omestic a nd w ild, t errestrial and r iverine ( Tringham e t a l 1 980). N o s ignificant d ifferences i n t he t ypes o f r esources e xploited w ere o bservable b etween t he E arly N eolithic S tarcevo c ulture a nd t he L ate N eolithic V inca-Plocnik c ulture ( Bökönyi, n .d.; M ilisauskas 1 978), e xcept f or a p ossible i ncrease i n t he i mportance o f w ild s pecies ( Bökönyi 1 974b; n .d.; T ringham 1 971) w hich m ay b e a r eflection o f t he s mall n umber o f s amples o r t he s pread o f e cotones a nd c onsequent l ocalized h igh a nimal p opulation d ensities a t t hese points. L ittle i s k nown a bout t he s ubsistence e conomy o f t he i ntermediate M iddle N eolithic V inca-Tordos c ulture. Most o f t he m aterial i ndicated t he p rimary e xploitation o f d omesticated c attle, f ollowed i n d ecreasing o rder o f f requency b y p igs a nd t hen s heep/goat i n t he more h eavily f orested a reas ( i.e. B osnia a nd S erbia). I n t he more o pen a nd d rier e cological z ones ( i.e. M acedonia and s ome a reas o f

t he H ungarian P lains), s heep/goat were t he most c ommon s et o f s pecies, w ith c attle c losely f ollowing i n s econd p lace a nd p igs a s a d istant t hird ( Bäkönyi 1 971a; 1 974a; 1 974b; 1 976; Murray 1 970). The h unting o f w ild u ngulates s uch a s a urochs, r oe and r ed deer, and w ild p igs w as s ignificant i n L ate N eolithic s ubsistence a ctivities i n B osnia a nd S erbia ( Bökönyi 1 974a; 1 974b; n .d.; T ringham 1 971; T ringham e t a l 1 980). Red and r oe d eer w ere i mportant f or meat a nd h ide, a s w ell a s s ources o f r aw materials f or t ools a nd t ool m anufacture ( BaCkalov 1 979; N andris 1 972). F ish c ontinued t o p lay a r ole, a s e videnced by f ish r emains and f ishing e quipment a t S elevac ( Tringham e t a l 1 980), V inCa ( Clark 1 952), Gomolava ( Clason a nd P rummel 1 977) and e lsewhere i n t he M iddle D anube B asin ( Bökönyi 1 971a; T ringham 1 971).

I VA.

S ection One o f

t he Model

I t c an b e p redicted t hat i ncreased f orest c learance and t he c oncomitant s pread o f a reas u nder c ultivation a fter t he t ermination o f t he A tlantic optimum and t he onset o f t he s ub-Boreal f unctioned t o d ecrease t he i mportance o f w ild a nimal species f avoring f orest h abitats a nd e specially t hose s pecies which would h ave c ompeted w ith h umans and domestic a nimals f or a ccess t o s tanding c ultivated c rops a nd g razing r esources. T his w ould occur t hrough a d isruption o f t heir h abitat r esulting i n a decrease i n t he d ensity, a ggregation l evel and p redictability o f w ild a nimal s pecies, t hereby r educing t heir i mportance t o t he s ubsistence e conomy. The s pread o f d eciduous f orests d uring t he A tlantic optimum ( ca. 5 ,500-3,000 b .c.) i n conjunction w ith periodic c learing o f f orests f or a griculture and t heir e ventual r egeneration w ould have f avored r elatively h igh population d ensities f or r oe d eer, r ed deer a nd swine, a lthough t he l atter t wo s pecies would be e xpected t o s how h igher d ensities t han t he f ormer . due t o i nter-specific competition f or f orest r esources a nd d ifferential population d ensity l evels i n w ild a nimal populations. Roe d eer p refer m ixed d eciduous f orests w ith n umerous open a reas and h eavy u ndergrowth ( Choyke 1 982; J ochim 1 976: 1 01-102 and r eferences i n b oth). R ed d eer h ave h igher densities i n open m ixed f orest and/or parkland e nvironments, w ith l ight undergrowth ( cf. C lutton-Brock e t a l 1 982; Darling 1 937; Jochim 1 976: 1 01 w ith r eferences). P igs, who a re omnivorous, p refer a moist c losed d eciduous f orest b iotope w ith h eavy u ndergrowth, where t hey c an f ind t ubers, acorns, mast, e tc. ( Bratton 1 975; Jochim 1 976: 1 03 w ith r eferences; G rigson 1 982: 2 99). I n c ontrast, d ensities o f a urochs ( who a re t hought t o h ave p referred a p arkland e nvironment - Bökönyi 1 974a; Jochim 1 976: 9 7 w ith

r eferences) m ight h ave b een s omewhat d epressed. W ild ungulates m ight b e e xpected t o e xperience f urther t emporary l ocal i ncreases i n d ensity a round a reas c leared f or a griculture, g razing o r h abitation, s ince p lant r egeneration would b e most i ntense a t s uch t emporary e cotones ( cf. Mellars 1 976; Rhoades 1 978). W ith t he o nset o f t he s ub-Boreal a t about 3 ,000 b .c., pollen spectra f rom n orthern, c entral a nd s outheastern E urope i ndicate a d ecrease i n a rboreal pollen. T he s pread o f s ettlement and i ntroduction and r apid s pread o f p lough c ultivation and p erhaps o f c astrated c attle f or t raction appear t o a ccount f or much o f t his w idespread horizon r ather t han only c limatic f actors ( Zolyomi 1 980). Deforestation does n ot appear t o h ave b een a s w idespread i n t emperate E urope, a s i t was i n t he more a rid a reas n earer t o t he Mediterranean ( e.g. B eug 1 982), a lthough a ltitudinal z onation of d eciduous f orests was r educed. Nevertheless, a n i ncrease i n t he a rea o f l and u nder c ultivation and f or g razing i s noticeable and s o w ild u ngulates p robably decreased i n d ensity a s t he p referred b iotopes were r educed i n e xtent. Their r esponse t o i ncreased p redation a t t he f orest margins may h ave a lso b een t o r etreat f arther a way f rom h uman f requented a reas - i n o ther words, t here w as a r egional r edistribution o f w ild animal populations t o l ess a ffected a reas. E ven domestic p ig p roduction may h ave b een a ffected by t hese c onditions. P igs a re k nown, h istorically, t o h ave b een r aised i n f orest h abitats i n E urope ( Grigson 1 982). Domestic p ig p roduction may h ave b een r elegated t o a reas d eep i n t he f orests i n o rder t o k eep t hem o ut o f f ields. I n f act, t his was t he s ituation i n h istorical S erbia ( Halpern 1 967), a s w ell a s n orthwest E urope ( Grigson 1 982). P igs c reate a ll k inds o f p roblems f or c ultivators. R egulation o f p annage i n n orthwest E urope w as p articularly s trict ( Grigson 1 982: 3 00-301) t o k eep t hem away f rom c ultivated f ields. D ecreases i n t he f orested a rea c lose t o s ettlements m ay have r esulted i n i ncreased e nergy e xpenditure b y herders t o r aise t hem i n t he more d istant f orest e nvironments, which c ould b e e asily o ffset by t heir h igh r eproductive c apability. T he i mportant r ole t hat d omestic p igs c ontinue t o p lay i n t he e conomy and t he l ack o f e vidence f or s tock enclosures ( i.e. s tys - open o r covered) i n e astern E uropean B ronze Age s ites may i mply t hat extra e ffort was made t o r emove t hem f rom h abitation and agricultural a reas. Overwintering o f p igs i n t he open i s k nown, h istorically and e thnographically, f rom t he n orthern B alkans ( Halpern 1 967), H ungary ( cf. S zabadfalvi 1 968; V incze 1 980) and w estern E urope ( Grigson 1 982). They a re f requently moved t hrough a s eries o f s easonal s ettlements w here w inter f orage i s available.

D omestic c attle, s heep and goats a re e xpected t o i ncrease a s g rasslands e xpand, a nd a s h umans h unt o ut those w ild a nimals c ompeting f or t he s ame g razing r esources a nd p rotects d omestic a nimals f rom p redation, t hereby, f avoring t heir r eproductive potential. U tilization o f a nadromous f ish, s uch a s s turgeon, p robably d ecreased d uring t he B ronze Age. D uring t he P iora O scillation and t he s ub-Boreal, w ith t heir a ssociated t emperature and p recipitation f luctuations, c ontinued f orest c learance, r esulting i n i ncreased v ariability i n r un-off, e rosion and s iltation, may h ave d isrupted t he s hallower u pstream s pawning t ributaries ( Schalk 1 977). D uring t he N eolithic, when t emperature and p recipitation l evels a re t hought t o h ave b een h igher ( Gribben and L amb 1 978), r un-off a nd s tream d ischarge r egimes would h ave b een r elatively f avorable f or t he m igration and spawning o f a nadromous f ish. T he p redictable r uns o f a nadromous f ish t o upstream s pawning a reas appeared t o p rovide an i mportant d ietary r esource d uring the N eolithic. B ut evidence f or a nadromous f ish e xploitation away f rom major r ivers, s uch a s t he D anube and S ava, during t he B ronze Age i s n on-existent. This c annot b e s olely attributed t o b iases i n r ecovery p rocedures. The e xcavations a t t he B ronze Age s ites i n t he Jasenica d rainage c onducted i n 1 977 a nd 1 980 u sed 1 sq. cm. and 3 s q. mm. s ieves ( Bankoff a nd W inter 1 982; B ankoff, W inter and G reenfield 1 980). I n addition, t here i s a n otable absence o f a bone f ishing t echnology, which h ad b een v ery p revalent d uring the E arly a nd L ate Neolithic. This may be a ttributable to t he u se o f metal a s a s ubstitute, b ut t he a bsence of f ish b one r emains u ndermines t his o bjection. The d isruptions a ssociated w ith t he c hange t o t he s ub-Boreal w ould have i nterfered w ith what i s h istorically an i mportant r esource i n t his a rea ( Rohan-Csermak 1 965). I t s hould b e n oted t hat u ntil t he c onstruction o f t he D jerdap H ydroelectric dam a t K aratas and t he pollution o f t he D anube, s turgeon c ame up t he D anube a s f ar a s B udapest ( Rohan-Csermak 1 965). Catfish ( Silurus g lanis L .) h ave b een f ound a t t he Late N eolithic s ites o f S elevac ( Tringham e t a l 1 980) and Gomolava ( Clason 1 979). U tilization o f c atfish a nd o ther n on-anadromous f ish r esources w ould n ot b e e xpected t o c hange, a s t he environmental c hanges o f t he s ubB oreal would not h ave a ffected t hem. S imilarly n o c hange w ould be e xpected i n t he e xploitation o f s easonally a vailable b irds m igrating t hrough t he a rea. They would h ave c ontinued t o move u p s uch movement-limiting c orridors a s t he Vardar-Morava ( Navy 1 ) o n their migrations to and f rom n esting g rounds.

I VB,

S ection Two o f

t he Model

S tudies concerned w ith t he question o f r egional o r i ntrar egional s pecialization i n t he p roduction a nd d istribution o f goods h ave b een r elatively u nanimous i n t heir c onclusions. C eramics, bone t ools a nd o ther products m ade f rom l ocally available r aw materials a re p roduced l argely b y a nd f or e ach s ettlement. T here i s l ittle e vidence f or i nter-settlement e xchange i n s uch m undane p roducts. I n c ontrast, i tems made o f e xotic r aw m aterials, s uch a s m etals a nd f ine s tone ( e.g. obsidian), w ere t raded f rom s ource s ites t o, a t l east, l arge r egional c enters ( e.g. Gomolava and V inda) o ften i n u nfinished s tates ( Chapman 1 981). They s eem t o b e r oughly o r f inely f inished f or l ocal d istribution. T he e xtent o f t his t rade does not s eem t o h ave b een o f s uch a t remendous v olume t hat f ull-time s pecialization w as n ecessarily a ssociated w ith i t ( R. K . E vans 1 978; Chapman 1 981). There i s a lso l ittle n eed t o postulate e xchange o f s uch e xotica f or more mundane p roducts, s uch a s l ocally p roduced f oodstuffs, c eramics, e tc. Chapman's ( 1981) s tudy o f V inda motifs provided u nambiguous e vidence f or l ocal p roduction o f ceramics r ather t han l ong-distance e xchange. The r epertoire of t ypical V inda motifs and f orms v aried f rom r egion t o r egion, w ith d ecreasing r ates o f s imilarity a s d istance i ncreased f rom a ssumed s ource s ites. Most a rtifact t ypes ( e.g. c eramics, b one t ools, l ithics, e tc.) appear t o h ave b een p roduced by a v aried a ssortment o f people i n a m ultitude o f l ocalities. There w as l ittle e vidence f or s ingle r egional f oci f or p roduction o f s uch i tems ( Bankoff 1 974; Choyke 1 983; R . K . E vans 1 978; K aufman 1 977). D uring t he L ate Neolithic a nd l ater p rehistoric p eri ods, metal p roduction s eems t o h ave b een i n t he h ands o f, a t l east p art-time s pecialists. E xploitation o f r aw material s ources f or f lint, metals and o ther o res ( i.e. a t m ines) i s o ne o f t he most obvious e xamples o f t he advent o f p roductive s pecialization ( cf. Jovanovic - 1 980). However, t he e xtent o f s uch a ctivities and t he p ercentage o f t ime t hey i nvolved o ver t he c ourse o f a y ear a re uncertain. V iewed f rom a r egional perspective, l ocally p rocurable r esources ( e.g. f oodstuffs, bone f or t ools, e tc.) were n ot o rganized i nto a r egional e xchange s ystem. There i s n o e vidence f or l arge s cale movement o f s uch i tems i n a ny o f t he p eriods. A ll t he B ronze Age l ithics appear t o b e d erived f rom l ocal r iver c hannels ( Ira B erman, B rooklyn College - p ers. c omm.). T here i s n o e vidence f or t he k ind o f l ong-distance e xchange o f s tone a s o ccurred i n t he Neolithic o f t his a rea, a nd elsewhere i n E urope, during t he B ronze Age ( Sherratt 1 976). A c hange i s a lso e vident among t he bone t ools. Analysis of E arly and L ate N eolithic b one t ools ( Ba kalov 1 979; N andris 1 972; S terud and S terud 1 974; T ringham 1 971) s hows a t remendous

d iversity o f species a nd e lements u sed, o f t ool t ypes and o f t ool f unctions. W ith t he a dvent o f t he B ronze Age a nd t he g rowing u se o f m etals, w e s ee a d ramatic d rop i n t he overall n umbers o f t ools, t ool t ypes and quality o f b one t ool m anufacture ( Choyke 1 983). I n c entral S erbia, t here a re o nly t wo o r t hree m ajor f unctional t ypes ( excluding o rnaments) a s opposed t o o ver f ifteen f rom e arlier p eriods. T he r elatively s udden f lowering o f m etal a rtifacts i n g raves d uring t he E neolithic and E arly B ronze A ge ( e.g. B ognarK utzian 1 963; Gara anin 1 973; G iric'1971; S hennan 1 975) and h oards d uring t he l ater B ronze Age ( Kosoric " 1972) c an b e s een a s another i ndication o f t his t rend. A f urther i mplication o f t his i s t hat t he e xchange n etworks o f t he N eolithic may h ave s till b een operative, b ut t hat o ther m aterials ( metal i nstead o f s tone) w ere t he a rchaeologically-visible manifestations o f t he p rocess. H owever, d ue t o r ecycling o f r aw materials, t hey would b e r arely p reserved. I n t his r espect, t here i s n o r eason t o c onceive o f V inca f ood p roduction a nd d istribution s ystems i n t erms o f r egional specialization - where v illages a re p roducing s urplus c rops t o b e t raded t o o ther v illages f or d ifferent s urplus c rops. W ithin a ny s ingle r egion, t here appears t o h ave b een e nough s ustaining a gricultural l and s urrounding e ach s ettlement t o p roduce l arge e nough v olumes o f f ood f or r esident populations ( see c atchment d iscussion above). I t i s o nly i n t he u pper t ier o f t he s ettlement h ierarchy t hat e ven t he most t enuous o f a rguments may b e a dvanced f or e xceeding c arrying c apacities on a l ocalized ( but n ot r egional) l evel. T herefore, i t i s e xpected t hat i n t he a hsence o f e vidence f or l arge-scale f ull-time p roductive s pecialization i n n on-metal r elated a reas o f t he l ocal e conomy d uring t he L ate N eolithic ( R. K . E vans 1 978; K aufman 1 977) and B ronze A ge ( Bankoff 1 974; 1 977), a nimals would n ot b e e xploited i n a s pecialized manner. P atterns o f a nimal e xploitation s hould n ot b e d ifferentiable i nto s pecialized e xploitation s trategies f or obtaining m eat, m ilk o r h ides, b ut s hould r epresent a m ixed s ubsistence s trategy. E ach l ocal ( small v illage) c ommunity s hould b e s elf-sufficient, e xploiting t he f ull r ange o f a nimal r esources, r ather t han s pecializing i n t he p roduction o f o ne a spect o f t he a nimal h usbandry e conomy ( e.g. wool). I n a ddition, a s t he e xploitation o f w ild a nimals d ecreased, t he s et o f r esources t hat e ach s pecies h ad c ontributed t o t he l ocal e conomy would b e r eplaced b y t hose o f d omestic s pecies. B efore t he onset o f t his r esearch, t here w as l ittle t hat c ould b e s aid about p roductive s pecialization.

I VC.

S ection Three o f

t he Model

The r elationship b etween t he e xploitation o f a nimal a nd p lant r esources ( the s ubsistence s ystem), o n t he o ne h and, and t he d uration, s eason o f o ccupation a nd l ocation o f s ettlements, on t he o ther, i s e xtremely c omplex. However, t hese a re t he c losest a reas o f a rticulation b etween " man a nd h is e nvironment" ( Jochim 1 976: 9 ). T he p rimary v ariables a ffecting t he s ettlement s ystem a re r elated t o s ubsistence. Changes i n e conomic a ctivities on a l ocal o r r egional s cale ..can d irectly a ffect t he s ettlement p attern o f t he e xploiting population... N ot o nly t he b ehavior, b ut t he g eneral spatial a rrangement o f e conomic r esources c an s ignificantly i nfluence h uman s ettlement p atterns..." ( Jochim 1 976:47-48). This i s t rue n ot only o f h unting-gathering, b ut o f agricultural populations a s w ell. T herefore, i f e conomic s trategies were d ifferent d uring t he B ronze Age, t he duration and s eason o f o ccupation o f s ettlement m ight a lso have b een d ifferent. Ungulates h ave g reat d ifficulty i n f oraging and moving t hrough d eeply s now-covered a reas ( e.g. more t han 2 0 c m. deep - Smith 1 959: 2 2 i n F leming 1 972: 1 87). At t he beginning o f w inter w ild a nimals may h ave t ravelled a nd domestic animals may h ave b een d riven, f rom upland t o l owland a reas w ith l ess s now, g reater p rotection f rom t he w ind a nd g reater d ensity a nd v ariability o f v egetation. The accumulation o f w inter f orage ( Clark 1 952) and t he movement o P h erds t o more t emperate l owland e nvironments a re complementary s trategies f or e nsuring t he s urvival o f h erds over t he w inter. B oth m ay h ave b een p racticed. T he h eavy s nowfall ( two meters o f d rift s now a re n ot u nusual - p ers. ( ) L os.) n ecessitates f odder a ccumulation i n t his a rea ( Halpern 1 967). I t i s n ot s uggested t hat f odder c rops were g rown, a s t here-is n o e vidence f or t his until h istoric t imes; i nstead, f odder was p robably c ollected ( Dennell 1 978). I t i s, t herefore, possible t hat B ronze Age l owland l ocalities, s uch a s Novadka Cuprija a nd L ivade ( ill. 2 ), a t l east, w ere occupied d uring t he w et a nd c old period f rom l ate a utumn t o e arly s pring. However, u nder t he e ffort-minimization a ssumption t hat i t i s e asier t o g row a nd t o s tore c rops i n t he s ame l ocation, i t i s s uggested t hat t hese s ettlements may h ave b een occupied y ear-round, a lthough maintaining h erds o f domestic a nimals i n c lose p roximity t o c rops a nd t o w inter f odder during t he g rowing s eason c an c reate p roblems. I n t emperate environments, where t he s ummers a re m oist a nd t he r elief l ow, i t i s n ot e cologically n ecessary t o m ove herds t o p astures i n t he c ooler h ighlands f rom l owland

w inter pastures. T hey a re n ot d essicated by e xtreme h eat a nd a ridity. I n t he c entral B alkans, t ranshumant a ctivities a re c onsidered t o h ave b een l argely a f unction o f t he u nstable political c onditions u nder t he Ottomans and t he 1 9th c entury S erbian Dynasts. E ven p igs, who a re n ot u sually t hought o f a s v iable t ranshumants ( cf. F lannery 1 965), a re k nown t o h ave participated i n s uch movements ( Navy 3 ). T herefore, t he l ocal e thnohistoric r ecord o f e xtensive s easonal m ovement may n ot p rovide a f ully v alid model f or B ronze A ge pastoral a ctivities. The u niformly l ow d ensity o f s ites d uring t he B ronze Age ( although h igher t han i n t he p receding L ate Neolithic) does n ot a rgue f or t he r emoval o f l ivestock t o g razing g rounds f ar ( more t han an h our o r t wo w alk) f rom s ettlements a nd c ultivated a reas - i .e. l ong d istance t ranshumance, a s hypothesized by S terud ( 1978), S herratt ( 1972; 1 980b) and o thers. The e xpectation i s t hat l ivestock were p robably g razed i n a v ariety o f m icro-environments f ound a round s ettlements. P art o f t he y ear w as spent i n non-cultivated h abitats which s heltered t hem f rom t he w inter s uch a s marshes. D uring t he r est o f t he year, t hey were g razed on f allow f ields, a s i s t he c ase t oday and i n t he r ecent p ast ( Szabadfalvi 1 968; V incze 1 980). The p resence o f small B ronze Age s ites w ith m inimal o ccupation debris located a t points s trategic f or controlling herd movements ( e.g. Gobo B rdo a t t he mouth o f a n arrow mountain v alley and Jerinin G rad i n t he c enter o f f loodplain - B ankoff, W inter a nd G reenfield 1 980) a nd between t he l arger s ettlements may s upport t his e xpectation ( ill. 4 ). There i s n o evidence i n c entral and w estern E urope u ntil t he e nd o f t he B ronze Age f or a s hift t o t he s talling o f c attle and o ther domestic a rtiodactyls ( cf. C lason 1 984; Waterbolk 1 975). Why s uch a c hange would h ave t aken p lace r emains u ncertain, s ince s talling b rings more w ork f or t he h erder. The animals must b e c onstantly t ended and f ed. S tables must a lso b e c leaned, a lthough n ot n ecessarily v ery o ften. T he e vidence f or s tal l ing f rom e arlier L inear B andkeramik houses i s u nclear ( Bogucki 1 982) a nd a bsent f rom t he c entral B alkans i n t heir e ntirety.

V .

CONCLUSIONS

The model h as b een f ramed f rom a r egional p erspective a nd, a s a r esult, t he d ata t o t est i t have t o come f rom a w ide v ariety o f environmental contexts. O therwise, m icroe nvironmental v ariation i n t he s ample could e asily s kew a ny r esults t hat may h ave b een obtained. The o bjective i s t o b e a ble t o p inpoint l ong-term t emporal t rends, e ven w hen modified b y l ocal e nvironmental c onstraints. A s ample o f b oth upland a nd l owland l ocalities w as collected f rom e ach o f t he major t emporal phases i n o rder t o l imit s uch b ias. This i s obviously a v ery c omplex p roblem r equiring a l arge d ata b ase f or e valuation. The d ata t o e valuate t he a bove h ypotheses w ill b e p resented i n t he f ollowing c hapters. T he n ext c hapter w ill define t he r egion o f s tudy a nd p resent s ome o f i ts more i mportant e nvironmental c haracteristics i n o rder t o f amiliarize t he r eader w ith t he a rea. I t i s r elatively unknown t o most w esterners f or a v ariety o f political a nd l inguistic r easons. Chapter 3 w ill b e a g eneral and s pecific d iscussion o f t heory a nd method i n z ooarchaeological r esearch. I t w ill f ocus upon t he p roblems o f conducting s uch r esearch i n t he B alkans and t he c omparison o f s amples. C hapters 4 t hrough 9 w ill p resent t he r esults o f e ach o f t he s ites i n o rder t hat t rends w ithin any s ingle l ocality may b e f irst i dentified. I n t he c oncluding c hapters ( 10-12), a more r egionally-oriented d iscussion w ill b ring t he d iscussion b ack t o t he m odel i tself. B efore t he d iscussion p roceeds, t he r egion a nd s ome o f i ts environmental c haracteristics m ust b e d efined.

CHAPTER

I .

2 :

I NTRODUCTION:

NATURAL

ENVIRONMENT OF THE CENTRAL BALKANS

DEFINITION OF REGIONAL UNIT

I n t his chapter, some o f t he physical c haracteristics that define t he s tudy r egion w ill b e p resented. There a re no r igid t opographic boundaries t hat c learly define t he e xtent of our s tudy a rea. The c entral B alkans ( ill. 2 ) c ross-cuts modern geographic and political borders, t o i nclude north-eastern Yugoslavia ( Serbia and t he Vojvodina), northwestern Bulgaria and s outh-western Romania ( the B anat and Oltenia). The r egion i s c haracterized by e xtreme topographic complexity, w ith c losely j uxtaposed and s tarkly contrasting e nvironmental systems - both h ighlands ( some heavily f orested, o ther deforested) and l owlands ( both marsh-like and well-drained). I t h as a c limate w ith both t emperate central E uropean and a rid Mediterranean a spects. I t i s t he combination of t hese r adically d ifferent environmental s ystems t hat d istinguishes t he r egion a s a physiographic unit. There a re t hree general c limatic and vegetational z ones f ound w ithin t he B alkan Peninsula. They a re: 1 .

The Mediterranean Z one, which i ncludes Dalmatia, Macedonia, G reece, Southern B ulgaria and t he southwestern B lack S ea Coast;

2 .

The T ransitional Z one, which i ncludes S erbia, northwestern B ulgaria and s outhwestern Romania;

3 .

-

and

The Temperate Zone, which i s f ound t o t he n orth, c loser t o c entral E urope ( i.e. i n Hungary).

The t raditional g eographic l imit b etween t he Balkans and central Europe i s t he S ava i n t he west and t he D anube i n t he northeast. They a re a rbitrary boundaries, s ince t he r ivers c ross-cut t he various t opographic f eatures r ather t han separating t hem ( Grubic ' 1980: 5 ). The Danube and i ts t ributaries c riss-cross t he a rea and impose a c ertain unity i n t erms of e ase o f c ommunication. The r iver s ystems and their valleys f orm " natural corridors" t hrough t he

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mountainous, f orested a nd m arshy a reas a nd h ave p rovided i mportant l ines o f c ommunication a nd movement f rom p rehistory t o t he p resent ( ill. 1 ). For e xample, t he Vardar-Morava c orridor i s t he s hortest s tretch ( ca. 5 00 km.) b etween c entral E urope a nd t he e astern Mediterranean. North o f t he D inaric mountain d ivide, a ll o f t he r ivers a nd s treams f low i nto t he D anube, which empties i nto t he B lack S ea. T he m ajor t ributaries o f t he D anube a re: 1 .

The T isza a nd M aros C arpathians;

f lowing

s outhwards

f rom t he

2 .

The S ava and D rava f lowing n orthwards and e astwards, r espectively, f rom t he D inaric a nd J ulian A lps; a nd

3 .

T he Morava w hich f lows n orthwards f rom Kosovo a nd s outhern S erbia ( Ehrich 1 965; MacDonald 1 970: 7 ; N avy 1) .

The word " Balkan" i s o f T urkish o rigin a nd denotes " ...a c hain o f mountains" ( Navy 1 : 1 ). T he v arious mountain c hains h inder movement b etween parallel d rainage s ystems. The c entral B alkans l ies w ithin t he s outheastern p art o f t he r egion more commonly k nown a s t he " Middle D anube D rainage". The l atter h as been d efined a s " ...the e ntire r egion l ying w ithin t he a rc of t he C arpathians, J ulian a nd D inaric A lps, and mountains o f e astern and c entral S erbia. The point a t w hich t he r egion t erminates i n t he e ast i s when t he D anube p asses t hrough t he I ron Gates..." ( Ehrich 1 965: 4 07). T he I ron G ates ( Djerdap) i s t he s tretch o f t he D anube t hat c arved a p ath t hrough t he C arpatho-Balkano mountains o n i ts w ay t o t he B lack S ea. One o f o ur s ites ( i.e. L ivade) f alls i mmediately on t he o ther s ide ( east s ide) o f t he I ron G ates a nd w ill p rovide a c ontrol a s t o d evelopments immediately o utside t he a rea, b ut s haring a s imilar c eramic g roup. I n t he a bsence o f c lear t opographic b oundaries, most a ttention w ill b e p aid t o m aterial c ollected f rom S erbia a nd t he s outhern p art o f t he Vojvodina. This i s d ue t o s everal p ractical c onsiderations: 1 .

T he c eramic g roups f rom which t he b one a ssemblages d erived a re mostly c entered o n t his a rea, e ven t hough t hey r arely r espect n atural o r modern political b oundaries. They h ave t ended t o c enter on major r iver s ystems;

2 .

This a rea r epresents a much n eglected t ransition b etween t he M editerranean and c entral E uropean e nvironmental r egions; and

3 .

Most o f my z ooarchaeological r esearch w as conducted i n t his a rea d ue t o t he d earth o f p rior s tudies. S ome d ata f rom s urrounding r egions were a vailable, b ut c omparability p roblems e xisted.

I n t he f ollowing s ections o f t his r egional physiographic u nits w ill p lace t he a rchaeological s ites i n c ontext.

I I.

I IA.

z one

c hapter, e ach o f t he major b e d escribed, i n o rder t o t heir p roper e nvironmental

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY

I ntroduction:

H istorical

B ackground

The c entral B alkans i s c haracterized b y a n e xtremely c omplex geological h istory. D uring t he L ate T ertiary, t ectonic activities o ccurred which c reated t he p resent-day t opography. A phase o f f olding, f racturing a nd uplifting o f t he P re-Cambrian c rystalline Rhodopian m assif ( in s outheastern S erbia, Macedonia a nd B ulgaria) a nd i n t he s urrounding r egions ( i.e. t he D inaric A lps b etween S lovenia and Macedonia and t he C arpatho-Balkano mountains i n H ungary, Romania and n ortheastern S erbia), i n conjunction w ith s ubsidence i n t he H ungarian P lain, t he A driatic and t he B lack S ea b asins f unctioned t o e ffectively c ut o ff t he P annonian S ea f rom t he T ethys ( Butzer 1 971; M arkovic"1968; Navy 1 : 1 -4). T his c reated a d istinctive s et o f b arriers ( climatic, v egetative, z oological, e tc.) b etween t emperate Central and Mediterranean E urope ( Navy 1 : 1 ). B y t he m iddle M iocene, t he Pannonian p lain h ad c hanged t o a l owland, marshy depositional b asin, where s ands, c lays a nd m arls were b eing deposited. T he s urrounding h igher r egions w ere b etter-drained ( Bankoff 1 974: 8 -9; Markovic"1968; N avy 1 : 1 0). This c hange t ook p lace a s t he D anube c ut i ts w ay t hrough t he C arpatho-Balkano mountains, a llowing i t t o d rain i nto t he B lack S ea. As t he D anube c ut i ts w ay t hrough t he mountains, i t c reated t he f amous I ron Gates g orge a nd d ivided t he mountain s ystem i nto t wo parts - t he C arpathians t o t he n orth and t he Balkan o r E ast S erbian mountains t o t he s outh. These t ectonic a nd o ther e arth-molding a ctivities f ragmented t he l and-mass s o t hat s everal m icro-regions m ay

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b e defined. " Balkanization" o f t he l andscape i s a w ellk nown f eature o f t he a rea. E ach o f t he m icro-regions w ill b e t reated s eparately i n t he s ections b elow. D uring t he P leistocene, t here i s e vidence f or s mall l ocalized h ighland g lacial a ctivity. However, t he e ffects o f t he more h eavily g laciated and t undra e nvironments n orth o f t he C arpathians were f elt ( Grubic / 1 980: 4 6; T ringham 1 971: 2 8). A t hick b lanket o f l oess b lanketed t he e ntire P annonian b asin and much o f t he s urrounding a reas. I t o riginated d uring t he p eriods o f g lacial a dvance a nd b ecame t he pedological b asis o f t he r ich m odern s oil c overing ( Navy 1 : 1 3-14; T ringham 1 971: 2 8). I n a ddition, t he more n ortherly f loral and f aunal z ones w ere c ompressed i nto t he B alkan p eninsula a s r efugees, r esulting i n an u nusually r ich m ixture o f environments and o rganisms ( cf. A lexander 1 972: 1 3).

I IB.

C entral

S erbia

and

t he Morava Valley

The Morava r iver d rains a v ast a rea s outh o f t he D anube. I t i s t he l ast s outhern t ributary o f t he D anube b efore i t e nters t he I ron Gates. I t o riginates a s f ar s outh a s Montenegro and t he n orthern b order o f Macedonia. T he r iver s ystem h as, h istorically, b een t he r oute o f e asiest a ccess b etween c entral Europe a nd a ll points t o t he s outh and e ast ( e.g. A thens, S ofia, I stanbul, e tc. - N avy 1 : 8 7). I n t he s outh, t he v arious t ributaries f low t hrough n arrow gorges and s teep d efiles i n v ery mountainous c ountryside. North o f N is, t he Z apadna ( Western) a nd t he J uZna ( Southern) Morava c onverge t o f orm t he Lower Morava w hich empties i nto t he D anube n ear Golubac. The r iver p lain o f t he Lower Morava i s e xtremely w ide ( over 1 6 kms.) and f lat, a lthough t he r iver i tself s luggishly meanders w ithin a r estricted z one ( 3-4 kms. w ide). The w ide r iver p lain i s a r esult o f a " ...wide a nd d eep g ulf..." o f t he T ertiary s eas t hat penetrated t he a rea. S everal b road f lat t erraces w ere c arved a long t he e dges o f t he s urrounding uplands a s t he w aters advanced and r eceded. The g radient and v elocity o f t he r iver a re v ery l ow. I t l oses l ess t han 6 0 meters o ver a 9 6 k ilometer d istance b etween S talac ( 128 meters a .s.1.) and i ts mouth o n t he D anube ( 76.2 meters a .s.1.). F looded a reas a re c ommon w ithin t he meander b elt ( Navy 1 : 9 2). Throughout t he r est o f t he r iverplain, i t i s r elatively d ry. T ogether w ith t erraces a long t he e dges o f t he p lain, i t h as b een a f ocus o f occupation f rom p rehistory t hrough t he p resent ( Barker 1 975; C hapman 1 981; N avy 1 : 9 2). L arge s ections o f t he f loodplain h ave been d rained i n r ecent t imes and a re f ertile

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a gricultural s oils, e specially when c ultivated t hrough modern methods. T his i s not t o i mply t hat i t w as n ot under c ultivation i n t he p ast a s well ( e.g. s ee d ispute between B arker 1 975 and C hapman 1 981). North o f L eskovac, t he v alley i s bordered b y h illy o r mountainous c ountry and f orms a n obvious r oute t hrough t he l ength o f e astern S erbia. The Morava r iver i s o ne o f t he most i mportant r iver s ystems i n t he B alkans. I t i s p art o f t he M iddle Danube D rainage b asin. T ogether w ith i ts t ributaries ( the S outhern a nd Western Morava a nd t he I bar r ivers), i t f lows over a c ourse of 1 100 k ilometers when measured f rom i ts headwaters t o i ts confluence w ith t he D anube i n t he n orth a t Smederevo, 5 0 km. east ( or d ownstream) o f B elgrade ( Markovic ' 1968). T ogether w ith t he V ardar ( Greek=Axios), w hich r ises i n t he mountains o f northern Macedonia n ear S kopje and which f lows a bout 3 70 km. s outhwards i nto t he Aegean, t hey f orm a n atural r oute o r h ighway f rom n orth t o s outh t hrough t he e ntire c entral and n orthern parts o f t he B alkan P eninsula ( Mellaart 1 975: 2 57). On paper, i t appears e asy t o t ravel b etween t he t wo r iver s ystems. I n a ctuality, b etween t heir h eadwaters l ies a s mall b ut f ormidable mountainous d ivide. I t i s more p robable t hat t he r oute l ed a round t his d ivide, t hrough t he Ovce P olje n ear T itov Veles a nd r eturning s ubsequently t o t he Vardar v alley ( Bankoff 1 974; Ehrich 1 965). I n i ts upper a nd m iddle courses, and t hose o f i ts s outhern t ributaries, t he Morava f lows t hrough a s eries o f s mall Tertiary b asins which a re c onnected by s harp defiles a nd gorges ( Osborne 1 967: 2 05; Pounds 1 969: 6 4). The Morava i s split i nto a s outhern and western b ranch, which j oin a t V arvarin, s lightly t o t he n orth o f K rugevac, t o f orm t he L ower Morava. The h ills and mountains bordering t he Morava v alley a re v ery f ertile. They w ere once covered b y t hick f orests, l ittle o f which r emains t oday, h aving b een c leared i n h istoric and p rehistoric t imes ( Stoianovic - 1 965: 2 7-37). T he s c iils c overing t he f loodplains and h illy r idges a re, p resently, u nder c ultivation. Very l ittle o f t he l atter t wo a reas a re u nder s econdary f orest g rowth. Corn, s unflowers, w heat, a lfalfa, v ines, v egetables and f ruit o rchards f orm t he main c rops. C orn, s unflower, wheat a nd a lfalfa a re g rown i n an a nnual r otation w ithout i rrigation t o r etain and i ncrease s oil f ertility ( Halpern 1 967: 5 6-69). The c limate i s continental and r ainfall i s e venly d istributed t hroughout t he y ear, w ith an a nnual average o f 6 40 mm. ( Markovic - 1 968: 8 57). This i s s ufficient f or d ry-farming, i n c onjunction w ith t he water-retentive s oil.

The a rea n or t h o f t he mountainous K arst r egion and t he l ine o f t he Z apadna Morava, s outh o f t he D anube, e ast o f t he K9lubara r iver and w est o f t he L ower Morava i s c alled " Sumadija". I t i s t he h eart o f S erbia. S umadija i s t he n orthernmost e xtension o f t he D inaric A lps, which r ise abruptly a t t he edge o f t he Adriatic and g radually d ecrease i n a ltitude u ntil t he f oothills merge w ith t he t erraces o f t he f lat, open P annonian P lains ( MacDonald 1 970: 1 2; N avy 1 : 1 ). The D inaric mountains s how a n orthwest-southeast f old l ine ( Alexander 1 972: 1 2) a nd h ave a v ery l evel c rest l ine over a c onsiderable d istance. I n i ts l ower r anges, i t appears t o t o h ave b een " ...widely p lanated o r b evelled...", g iving i t t he appearance o f a h ighly d issected p latform. I n f act, t his a rea h as undergone e xtensive e rosion a nd d issection o f t he s ofter and l ess-resistant deposits. T he p latforms a re h ighest i n t he s outh ( ca. 1 ,000 m . i n a ltitude) and d ecrease i n h eight t o t he n orth ( ca. 2 00-300 meters i n a ltitude - Navy 1 : 8 9). T hroughout t he a rea, g roups o f r ocks p rotrude t hrough a nd above t he s oft T ertiary mantle o f l imestone, s andstone a nd s hale. T hese o lder a nd more r esistant r ocks, o ften c ontaining mineral r ich d eposits, s tand up a s h ills above t he r est ( e.g. R udnik n ear Topola, S erbia). Another e xample i s t he c innebar deposits i n t he h ills b ehind B elgrade. I t i s l ocated on one o f t he most n orthern e xtensions o f t he mountain f oothills and overlook t he p lains t o t he n orth. T he harder deposits f orce t he D anube a nd S ava r ivers t o s wing a longs i ts n orthern e dge. This l ocation p rovides a unique advantage f or t he c ontrol o f a ll movement a long t he r ivers and plains b elow ( Navy 1 : 9 2). S imilarly positioned p rehistoric l ocalities ( e.g. V inca) a ttest t o t he i mportance o f s uch " control" a ctivities d uring p rehistory ( cf. C hapman 1 981). The Jasenica i s t he l ast major l eft b ank t ributary o f t he Morava r iver b efore i t j oins t he D anube ( Ill. 4 ). I t f lows n ortheast f rom i ts h eadwaters i n c entral S umadija until i t j oins t he Kbrgnica, a s outheastwards f lowing t ributary a t Smederevska P alanka. F rom t here, i t i s only about t en km. t o i ts c onfluence w ith t he Morava a t Velika P lana. The J asenica, Kbrgnica and t heir t ributaries d rain approximately 9 00 sq. km. and d issect t he h illy l andscape t o t he n orth and s outh o f t he J asenica i nto l ong n orth-south v alleys. E ach v alley i s s eparated by r idges r ising 7 5-100 meters i n a ltitude. The maximum w idth o f t he J asenica f loodplain i s approximately 2 km. The d endritic d rainage s ystem i s p resently u sed a s t he modern r oute b etween t he h illy i nterior and t he f lat l owlands o f t he Morava valley. Movement was p robably s imilarly o riented i n t he past ( Bankoff and W inter 1 982: 1 51).

A ll t he modern u rban s ettlements a re f ound on t he edge, r ather t han w ithin t he Morava f loodplain. P rehistoric s ettlements ( e.g. D renovac) a re f requently f ound w ithin t he f loodplain. V irtually a ll t he k nown a rchaeological s ites i n t he h ills b eyond t he f loodplain o f t he Morava a re p laced a longside o f t he s treams c utting t hrough t he a rea a nd l eading d own t o t he major r ivers ( i.e. N eolithic a nd B ronze A ge). Only t he I ron Age, Roman ( e.g. M ramorac and K utrice) a nd s undry Medieval s ites i n t he s ame g eneral a rea a re f ound d irectly i n t he f loodplains a djacent t o t he small r ivers ( i.e. Jasenica a nd Kbrg 'nica). The B ronze Age and N eolithic s ites a re a ll s ituated o n t he s lopes a bove t he s treams, w ith e asy access t o w ater and p rotection f rom f loods, e xcept f or s pecial f unction l ocalities s uch a s J erinin G rad ( Bankoff a nd W inter 1 982: 1 62). D eep p loughing ( more t han 1 /2 meter i n d epth) h as j ust b egun i n t he a rea. All s ites, h owever, s hare t he p roblem t hat t he uppermost meter o f soil h as b een b adly d isturbed b y modern and ancient a gricultural a ctivities. A long t he western boundary o f 6 . umadija i s t he K olubara r iver. I t a lso r ises i n t he mountains o f t he south a nd d rains i nto t he S ava r iver t o t he n orth. The S ava e mpties i nto t he D anube a t B elgrade. The K olubara s ystem i s r eminiscent o f t he Morava ( but o n a s maller s cale). I t i s f ed b y s everal s mall mountain r ivers a nd s treams ( e.g. G radac), w hile i t w inds t hrough t he mountainous r egions o f W estern S erbia. T he f loodplain o f t he Kolubara s uccessively • w idens a s t he r iver descends f rom t he mountains t o t he P annonian l owlands and f orms o ne o f t he major corridors f or m ovement ( both modern and e arly h istoric) f rom t he l owlands i nto t he mountains. W ithin t he c entral S erbian r egion ( or S umadija) w e f ind t he l argest n umber o f o ur l ocalities - t he s ites of Nova Aa C üprija, C rkvina, P etnica, S arina M edja, V rbica and Veeina Mala t o b e p resented b elow and t he a lready a nalyzed s ite o f D ivostin ( Bökönyi n .d).

I IC.

The P annonian o r

Northern P lains

The Yugoslavian s ection o f t he G reat H ungarian P lain i s l ocally k nown a s t he P annonian o r N orthern P lains, T he e ntire r egion was t he bottom o f t he T ertiary P annonian S ea a nd i s a v ast s edimentary b asin. Today, i ts r elief i s g enerally l ow and f lat. The b asin l ies b etween 1 00 a nd 2 00 m . above s ea l evel ( Grubic"1980: 6 ). Most o f t he s ofter r ocky outcrops ( e.g. t he c lays, s andstones, and l imestones) h ave been g radually e roded, l evelled a nd f illed t o f orm a p eneplain - " ...a v ast s urface o f s ubdued r elief" ( MacDonald 1 970: 1 2; Navy 1 : 1 0). D uring t he P leistocene, t he r egion

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developed its characteristic soil cover - loess. Depths of up to 40 m. have been recorded, testifying to the long-· distance effect of the glaciers. Above the loess deposits are often found a wide variety of lacustrine and riverine deposits (Bankoff 1974: 8-9; Markovic/1968; Tringham 1971: _ 28). The high loess and sand component and strong winds in the elevated non-marsh areas are often characterized by the formation of some of the largest inland sand dunes in Europe {Bankoff 1974; MacDonald 1970: 12). The river systems are the most dynamic features of the landscape. They change course periodically, leaving oxbow formations in their old beds. Flooding above and beyond the normal flood plain is quite frequent (Navy 1: 41). The major rivers are ·over 150 m. wide and 2.5 m. deep in their lower floodplains, although the Danube, in many places, is over 4 km. wide and 18 m. deep at high water. Great oscillations between high and low water are common. For the entire central Balkans, high water occurs from March through mid-June, while low water occurs between July and October (MacDonald 1973: 12-13). The floodplains are wide and are bordered by low terraces and plains, often only five to ten meters above mean water level of the rivers. Some of the rivers are rimmed by bluffs and terraces between 20 and 35 meters in height (MacDonald 1973: 12-13; Nandris 1970: 60). The rivers meander across fairly wide floodplains. During the late spring, the time of maximal river height, large areas are frequently flooded causing much devestation. Floodwaters in the Sava, Drava and Tisza have caused backups in the Danube leading to overflow of its banks. A four meter rise in the Danube has caused the Tisza to flow in reverse and flood the adjacent lowlands for up to one hundred kilometers (Nandris 1970: 60). Extensive areas of permanent and seasonal marshes cause large areas to be unpassable and unuseable for agricultural activities (Barket 1975: 100). The rivers both aid and hinder movement in and ·out of the area. Movement is usually along the flat valley sides or by boat. But they have served as barriers to invaders (e.g. the Turks - Navy 1: 41) and as refuges {Vincze 1980). The sites of Opovo (to be presented in chapte� 4) and Gomolava {already analyzed by Clason - 1979) fall within this region..

- 42 -

I ID.

Eastern

This u nits:

a rea

S erbia c an

b e

a nd

t he

r eadily d ivided

1 .

The B alkan Mountains

2 .

The

3 .

The western e dge t he T imok).

I ID.1.

The

I ron Gates

I ron Gates;

o f

i nto

e astern

t hree

physiographic

S erbia;

and o f

t he

D acian

P lain

( from K ladovo

t o

Balkan Mountains

The mountains o f e ast S erbia a re a s ection o f t he C arpatho-Balkano s ystem which a rcs down i nto Y ugoslavia and i s k nown l ocally a s t he B alkan mountains ( Stara P lanina i n t he s outh o r Homolske P lanina i n t he n orth). The B alkan mountains a re bounded i n t he s outh b y t he a rea e ast o f L eskovac, i n t he n orth n ear G radigte o n t he D anube, i n t he w est by t he l ower Morava v alley, a nd i n t he e ast b y t he D acian P lain. An a rm e xtends i nto B ulgaria n orth o f S ofia. W ithin t he Y ugoslavian s egment, i t i s 4 8-64 km. w ide. This i s t he northwestern corner o f t he e astern f lank o f t he a ncient P recambrian Rodopi massif. I t i s a z one o f e xtremely b roken r elief, w ith t he mountain r anges t aking o n a c haotic p attern. There i s n o t race o f t he r egular " graining" o r f olding i n r elief c haracteristic o f t he D inaric r ange ( Navy 1 : 8 7-88, 9 8; S toianovic'1966: 6 , f ig. 1 ). The e ntire r egion i s an a rea o f s hattered, c rushed and f olded r elief. I n t he s outh, t he mountains a re h ighest ( often more t han 2 000 m .) and d eeply s carred by r avines c ut b y t orrential s treams. I n t he n orth, t he mountains d ecrease i n h eight ( rarely r eaching 1 000 m .) a nd t he r elief i s g entler, a lthough s till e xtremely mountainous and b roken b y t he v arious r ivers and s treams ( MacDonald 1 970: 9 8-99; N avy 1 : 1 0-12). I n t he n orthern r egion, l ocalized s ubsidence h as t ended t o d isrupt t he r elief and l eave small i solated b asins, f illed i n w ith T ertiary d eposits. These b asins h ave p rovided i mportant a reas o f s ettlement and c ultivation a nd r outes of c ommunication t hrough a n o therwise d ifficult l andscape. Between t he b asins a re o ften f ound s treams f lowing t hrough n arrow d efiles. North-south c ommunication i s l argely n on-existent, while e ast-west movement i s l imited t o f ollowing t he s ystem o f basins and gorges c ut b y r ivers ( e.g. the N igava b etween N i g and S ofia - MacDonald 1 970: 1 2; N avy 1 : 1 01-102). The ancient Rodopi massif i s l argely c omposed o f c rystalline metamorphic r ocks, s uch a s g neiss

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and s chist ( Navy 1 : 8 7). They a re most w idespread i n t he n orth, i mmediately s outh o f t he D anube ( Navy 1 : 9 9). I t i s i n t his a rea t hat o ne f inds s ome o f t he r ichest m ineral d eposits i n E urope ( e.g. c opper n ear Majdanpek). F arther t o t he s outh, s ofter C retaceous r ocks ( sandstones, s hales and l imestones) a re more p revalent ( Navy 1 : 9 9).

I ID.2.

The

I ron Gates

B etween Golubac i n t he w est a nd K aratag i n t he e ast, t he D anube t akes an u nusual r oute. I t f lows s traight a cross t he C arpathians ( ignoring t he d irection o f r elief) t o f orm a s eries o f gorges, d efiles a nd small b asins over a d istance o f 7 2 m iles t hat connect t he P annonian/Hungarian a nd D acian b asins. This r egion i s k nown a s t he I ron Gates, a lthough i t most accurately applies only t o t he n arrowest point i n t he gorge n ear S ip. I t s eparates t he T ransylvanian-Carpathian s ystem i n t he n orth f rom t he Balkan Mountains i n t he s outh. I n t he defiles, t he mountains on e ither s ide s lope s traight down t o t he w ater's e dge. A lternating w ith t he d efiles a re small b asins where t he r iver w idens and t he banks s lope l ess p recipitously. I n s uch s ituations, most o f t he p rehistoric l ocalities ( e.g. L epenski V ir, Vlasac, P adina a nd H ajduCka Vodenica) a re f ound. The D anube s harply i ncreases i ts a verage g radient ( from 3 9 t o 7 0 m eters) a nd velocity, f ar e xceeding t hose i n t he H ungarian a nd D acian P lains ( Navy 1 : 1 02). Movement t hrough t he a rea i s h ampered b y t he e xtremely b roken r elief a nd h as t ended, a s today, t o f ollow t he r iver by b oat o r b y a c ombination o f f oot a nd b oat, h opping b etween b asins. There i s n o c ontinuous pathway f rom one end t o t he o ther, s ince t he r iver f requently f ills t he v alley f rom e dge t o e dge ( MacDonald 1 973: 9 ; Navy 1 : 1 02-105).

1 1D.3.-

The Western E dge

o f

t he

D acian

P lain

The D acian P lain b egins a fter t he D anube emerges f rom t he I ron Gates. T he D anube a t K ladovo l ies a bout 2 8 m . above s ea l evel ( Grubic'1980: 7 ). I t q uickly c hanges c ourse t o a n orth-south o rientation and d rops i n v elocity a nd g radient. The h ills r ecede on b oth s ides and t he r elief b ecomes more r elaxed and s ubdued. The r iver f lows w ithin a s eries o f w ell-incised r iver t erraces c arved i nto t he l ess-resistant T ertiary and Holocene d eposits ( Navy 1 : 1 06). On t he Y ugoslavian s ide, t he r iver c uts a gainst t he o lder T ertiary r ocks c omprising t he e astern f oothills o f t he B alkan

- 4 4

-

mountains. On t he R omanian s ide, t he r iver i s e roding i nto a l ow, s loping l oess t errace dotted w ith l akes a nd marshes. T his s ide i s more p rone t o f looding ( Navy 1 : 1 07). A w ide a lluvial p lain b orders t he r iver w ithin t he t errace s ystem. S and deposits h ave a l ocalized d istribution a nd mobile s and d unes may appear ( Grubic " 1980: 7 ; N avy 1 : 1 07). The s ite o f L ivade f alls w ithin t his a rea. The mountains o f E ast S erbia a re n ever f ar away f rom t he s ites i n t he r iver f loodplain.

I II.

REGIONAL CLIMATE

Unlike t he physiographic u nits o f t he s tudy a rea, t he r egion i s e asier t o c haracterize i n t erms o f i ts c limate. I t h as a southern t emperate c limate w ith f eatures s imilar t o t hose of c entral E urope. However, i t does r etain f eatures o f t he more a rid M editerranean c limatic z one t o t he s outh. T he f arther n orth f rom t he D inaric mountain d ivide, t he more i t r esembles t he C entral E uropean c limatic r egime. C limatic v ariability i s l argely a f unction o f a ltitude and p roximity t o t he two n eighboring c limatic r egions. I n g eneral, w inters a re v ery c old and s ummers a re hot. R ain c an f all a t any s eason o f t he y ear, b ut t he maximum f alls d uring t he s ummer. This i s t he r everse o f t he M editerranean c limatic t ype ( Halpern 1 967: 6 ; MacDonald 1 970: 1 3; Navy 1 : 2 17).

I IIA.

Regional

T emperature

J uly i s t he w armest month o f t he y ear, w ith an average t emperature o f 2 0-25 d egrees c entigrade ( 65-74 d egrees F .), while January i s t he coldest month, w ith a n a verage o f 0 -2.5 d egrees c entigrade ( 35 degrees F .) i n t he r egion b etween B elgrade and O rasac, both i n n orthern l i madija ( Furlan 1 977: 1 95-197; Halpern 1 967: 6 -7). Mean monthly maxima f or t emperatures i n t he Vojvodina i n J uly a re 3 5 d egrees C ., a r elatively h igh t emperature w hen c onsidered i n c onjunction w ith t he a ccompanying h igh h umidity l evels. Mean monthly t emperature m inima f or January i n t he r egion n orth o f t he S ava r iver f all a t 15 degrees C ., a s opposed t o t he s lightly warmer t rend s lightly t o t he s outh i n t he i nterior o f t he Balkan peninsula ( -15 t o 10 d egrees C .). Obviously, t he d ifference b etween mean m inima f or J anuary i s n ot g reat w ithin t he a rea, w hereas t he mean maxima f or J uly s how c onsiderable d ifferences d irectly t raceable t o v ariability i n a ltitude a nd r elief. The most e xtreme t emperature r ange i s f ound i n t he e astern e nd o f t he a rea, i n t he B anat and

- 4 5

-

t he T imok, w ith t emperature r anges d ecreasing westwards. I n Belgrade, J uly maxima may r each 4 2 d egrees c entigrade ( 108 F .) a nd F ebruary minima may r each 12 d egrees c entigrade ( 10 degrees F .). Very r apid changes i n d ay t o day t emperatures may o ccur s ince t he a rea i s v ery f lat a nd open to i nvading a irmasses. A s hort d istance t o t he s outh i n Orasac, s ummer h ighs r ange up t o 4 2 degrees c entigrade a nd w inter l ows t o c . 26 d egrees c entigrade ( -17 d egrees F .). The d ifference b etween w inter m inima and s ummer m axima over t he a rea i s g enerally b etween 5 0 and 5 5 d egrees c entigrade ( Furlan 1 977: 1 95-201; Halpern 1 967: 6 -7; MacDonald 1 970: 1 3-15; Navy 1 : 2 34-239).

I IIB.

R egional

P recipitation and

S now

T here i s l ittle v ariation i n p recipitation over most o f t he a rea a nd over t he c ourse o f t he y ear. The a rea h as a continental r ainfall r egime, w ith t he h ighest p recipitation during t he s ummer ( June) and t he l owest d uring t he w inter ( February). P recipitation i s f airly e venly d istributed t hroughout t he y ear a nd s easonal v ariations a re n ot a s g reat a s i n t he Mediterranean. A lmost o ne-half o f t he p recipitation f alls b etween April a nd J uly and t he over-all n umber o f d ays w ith r ain i s h igh ( more t han 1 50 days i n Belgrade). This i s an i mportant q uality f or ensuring a n adequate w ater s upply t hrough t he a gricultural g rowing s eason, a lthough e vapo-transpiration r ates c an e xceed p recipitation i n s ome l ocalities. M ost o f t he r egion r eceives an annual mean l evel o f p recipitation o f 6 00-1200 mm. Over much o f t he Northern P lains and i n t he Morava Valley, i t i s s lightly l ess ( 600-700 mm.) d ue t o r ain s hadow e ffects o f t he mountains t o t he s outh a nd w est. The major e xception t o t he r ainfall p atterns i s t he I ron Gates, w here t he m ean annual p recipitation i s 8 00-1200 mm. This i s d ue t o t he h igh a ltitude mountain r anges a nd t heir e ffect u pon passing r ain c loud s ystems. The s easonal p atterns o f r ainfall d istribution a re t hat l ess t han 5 1 mm. f alls i n January and March, 5 1-102 mm. f alls i n May and July, l ess t han 5 1 mm. i n t he I ron Gates a nd t he Vojvodina ( 51-102 mm. i n § umadija) i n S eptember. I n November, most a reas h ad b etween 5 1-102 mm., w ith t he e xception o f t he I ron Gates ( A

i 2 A H

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T able

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S pecies F requencies - O povo

S pecies O vis a ries C apra h ircus O vis/Capra B os p rimigenius B os t aurus

N o.(%)

S us s crota f er. S us s crofa ( ?) S us s crofa d om . C anis f amiliaris C ervus e laphus C apreolus c apreolus L epus c apensis

2 3( 3 .6) 3 ( 0 .5) 8 5(13.2)** 1 7( 2 .6) 2 32(36.0)*** 4 o( 6 .2)

M eles/Nutra/ P isces s p. S ub-total

1 ( o .1 ) 1 3( 2 .0) 64 5 (73. 4 o f t otal)

4 ( 0 .6 )

1 ( 0 .1) 1 3( 2 .0) 1 5( 2 .3) 1 94(30.1)*

4 ( 0 .6 )

U nio s p. H elix s p.

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1 8 1 3

6

4 3 1 01 1 81(20.7 o f t otal) 4 1(

U nidentified

4 .7 o f t otal)

T otal b one ( excluding a rticulations a nd s hell)

8 73

T otal b one ( including a rticulations)

8 85

T otal b one a nd s hell *+ 4 a rticulated a nd 2 f used b ones * * + 3 f used b ones * ** + 2 f used a nd 8 a rticulated b ones

9 68

D omestic W ild

3 14 (48 .7) 3 28 (50 .8 ) 3 ( 0 .5 )

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S pecies F requencies - P etnica: T NF(%)

S pecies

. Vin4a B

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E neolithic L BA . VinCa t ot. . B aden . Halstatt

O vis a ries 2 ( 1 .2). . 2 ( 0 .3). 3 ( 1 .2). 2 ( 1 .2). C apra h ircus 2 (- 0 .8). O vis/Capra 1 ( 0 .6). 7 ( 2 .3). 5 ( 4 .7) . 1 5( 0 .6). 3 ( 2 .3 ) .1 B os p rimig. 4 ( 2 .4i . 1 ( 0 .3). t 0 .4). • 5 1 0 .8) . i 6 (22.4). B oß t aurus 3 2(19.5).103(34.7). 3 6(33.6) .1 71 (30 .1) . 5 S us s cr. f. 4 ( 2.1). 23( 7.7). 3 ( 2 .8J . 3 ( 3 .2). 0 ( 5 .3) . 8 4(13.6). S us s cr. d . - 7 5 721.9). 4 8(16.2). 2 6 (24.3) . 1 10 (19.4: . 3 . 3 ( 0 .5) S us s cr. ( ?) . 3 ( 1 .0). • . 2 ( 0 .3) . 1 ( 0 .4). C anis f am . 1 ( 0 .6). 1 ( 0 .3). • • E ceus c a l • C ervus e la . 6 0 (36 .6). 8 2(27.6). 3 1(29 .0). 1 73 (30.4).120(48.0). 5 . ▪ 3 T . 9 3 . C apreolus c . 1 5 9 .1 . 2 2 7 .

.

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B os/Squus T C ervue .

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T able I T:

S pecies F requency a t L juljaci - n o.

O vis a ries C apra h ircus O vis/Capra B os p rimigenius B os ( 7) B os t aurus S us s cr. f erous S us s cr. (7 ) S us s cr. d om . C anis f amiliarus E quus c aballus C ervus e laphus C apreolus c apreolus L epus c apensis U rsus a rctos C astor f iber M eles m eles S ub-Total U nio s p. S mall Mammal M edium M ammal L arge Mammal O vis/Capra/Capreol u s B os/Cervus B os/Cervus/Equus S ub-Total U nidentified

( %)

9 (0 .5) + 1 a rticulated b one

1 (0 .0 )

4 (2 .5) + 11 2 7 2 3 82 3 79 2 2 4 28 2 8 1 15 2 57 1 8 1

(1 .5) (0 .1) ( 21.9) ( 21.7) (1 .3) ( 24.5) (1 .6) (6 .6) ( 14.7) (1 .0) ( )

+ 25 + 3

t t

+ 1 + 14

I t

+ 54

t

+ 1

t

+4

t i

2 1 (1 .2) 3 (0 .2)

6 (0 .3)

1 743 ( 47.8 o f t otal, e xcluding s hell) 1

3 77 1 3 7 17 2 2 1 27 5 6 1 312 ( 36. 0

5 90 ( 16 .2) 3 646

T otal T otal, i ncluding a -ticulations

3 760 + 1 2 u nidentified a rticulated b ones

W ild ( extluding s hell) D omestic

1 007

7 12 ( 41.4) ( 58 .6)

2 95

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2 96

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T able 3 7: f ragments S ite:

F requency d istribution o f b utchered b one - N umber o f ( type o f c ut - s ee b one c ode i n a ppendix) S arina M edja V rbica V e nna M ala

S pecies E lement P art O vis/Capra A xis A tlas L Vert C Vert S acr S acr F er n W T ib w M C P B os t aurus L Vert H um S M C P M C D T ib M T p N T M T D M P D S us s crota d am. H um D C ervus e laphus M T P B os t ./Cervus/Equus R ib

P itl

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4 (6 )

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3 34

T able 3 8: S ite: S pecies O vis a . B os t .

istribution o f c hewed b one F requency d

S arina M edia V rbica V eCina Mala E lement P art C ontext: P itl P it2 P it3 P it F loor P it 2 M C S cap N um

D 8

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F requency d istribution o f b urnt b one

S ite: S pecies

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1

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3 36

T able 4 0:

C hronology o f L ate N eolithic l ocalities u nder c onsideration

B .C.*

O bre I I

D ivostin

A nza

G omolava

O povo

P etnica

.0 1 .•

• 1 1 1 1 ,

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( 3 30o-2 . 800 « 1 1 1,

I I V inga D

( 3900-3300)

u

Vi nCa C ON V inga B c n V inga A

I V • • ••• MS ,

S targevo

* corrected r adiocarbon dates

T able 4 1:

( cf.

C hapman 1 981; B ankoff n .d.)

L ate N eolithic a ssemblage s ize ( number o f mammal f ragments

i dentified t o t he s pecies l evel)

a nd d iversity ( number o f i dentified

ma m mal s pecies) S ite Obre I I D ivostin I I Anza I V G omolava ( VinCia l ayer) Opovo Petnica

( Vinga l ayers)

D iversity

S ize 2 9,909 1 0,782 3 ,007

1 5 1 2

2 ,668 6 45 5 68

1 5 1 0 1 3

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T ulle 4 5:

F requency d istribution o f d omestic c attle i n p ost-Neolithic

s ites. P eriod E neo. E neo. E /MBA E /MBA E /MBA E /MBA E /MBA L EA L EA L EA L EA L EA L EA L EA L EA L EA L BA L EA

S ite N ovagka C uprija P etnica N ovagka 9 uprija N ovagka C uprija N ovagka d üprija C rkvina L juljaci, N ovagka C uprija

N ovadka C üprija N ovag i ca d üprija

S arina M edia V rbica V e Ana M ala

P etnica L ivade L ivade L ivade L ivade

C ontext S loj S loj

N o.(%)

P its

S lo j

1 09 (35 .3) 10 (48 .8 )

T otal

2 08(39.0)

P it S loj U rn F

3 1(32.3) 3 82(21.9)

3 3(38.4) 5 6(22.4)

9 (31.0) 15(38.5)

F loor T otal

2 4 (35 .3)

P its T otal P it S loj P its F eatures S loj T otal

7 5(31.9) 1 5(34.1)

41 5 1(2 2:7) 2 4(25.0) 3 (20.0) 3 23(35.3) 3 53(34.2)

R ank 1 2 *(after r ed d eer) 1 1 1 1 3 ( after p ig & s wine) 1 ( tied w ith p ig)

1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 1 1

( after ( after ( after ( after ( after

p ig) p ig) p ig) p ig) p ig)

* Red d eer a re i nflated b y a n i nordinate n umber o f a ntler f ragments. W hen t hese a nd c attle h orn c ore f ragments a re r emoved, c attle a re t he m ore c ommon s pecies ( 29.1%).

3 43

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C ( N . 1 O C ) C Y 1

0 0 • • 0 0 N

, ..-. ,. ... . .. .. . t • • L A H ( 1 1 0

•

•

•

•

•

•

U N

N

C Y ) CO \O -1 H H U N

C Y

Hi /N o 1%4 1 . 0 i f \ N

0 0 C -

ON

N

• P 4

• • • • •• •

0 1 ( Y 1 • • • • r i CO C r l H t-

8 •

-t

r 1

0

M r1 L A •

•

r I

•

• ( Y " )

\O \ .0 t * -

•

. e 0 t • f\c ) c o

H 0

I

I

•

0 11 . \ . 0 VD H ( N J LA r 4 \O C Y-1UN r i

0 •

0 N

0

N

r 4

0 •

0

0 •

0 U N 0

O N ▪

CO CO CO ON

0 3

8 •

••

H i , .„ C D

4 -j . .„

H t r i C f ) 4 -) -, 0 t i ] .4 E 4

4 t r )

g

H

0

H

3 44

H

c f )

H

T able 4 7:

O vicaprine f requency d istribution i n p ost-Neolithic s ites.

P eriod

S ite

C ontext

N o.(%)

R ank

C orrected % ***

E neolithic E neolithic E /MBA E /MBA E /MBA E /MBA E /MBA L BA L BA L BA L BA L BA L BA L BA L BA L BA L BA L BA

N ovacka C uprija P etnica N ova Aa C uprija N ovagka e uprija N ovagka d üprija C rkvina L juljaci N ovaeka d Uprija N ovagka d uprija N ovaCka d uprija B arina M edia V rbica V eCina Mala P etnica L ivade L ivade L ivade L ivade

S loj S loj P its S loj T otal P it

2 4(27.9) 2 0(10.6)* 9 8(31.8) 5 4(24.0) 1 50(28.2) 2 4(24.9)

3 4 2 3 2 3

1 9.5

S loj U rn F loor T otal P its

5 4( 3 .1) 9 (31.0) 9 (23.1) 1 8(26.4) 1 00(42.2)

7 1 3 3 1* *

T otal P it S loj P its F eatures S loj T otal

9 (20.5) 4 (13.8) 2 1(10.8)* 1 1(11.5) 2 (13.3) 1 17(12.8) 1 32(12.8)

3 3 4 3 3 3 3

8 .7

2 2.3

1 6 .8 1 9.7 1 7.4 2 1 .7 1 6.2 1 8.5

* Percentage c alculated w ithout a ntler/horn f ragments. * *Tied w ith c attle. * **Sieved a ssemblages c orrected ( lower) t o m atch u nsieved.

3 45

8 .9

T able 4 8: F requency d istribution o f a dult o vicaprinea i n L ate B ronze A ge c ontexts ( %).compared a gainst s ample s ize .

S ite

C ontext

L ivade V e nna M ale . L ivade P etnica V rbica S arina M edia N ov jka C uprija

P its T otal T otal S loj P it P its U rn/Floor

A dult N o.(%) 1 (12.5)

1 (33.3) 2 4(35.8)

4 (40 .0 ) 3 (60 .0) 4 9 (64 .4) 9 (75.0 )

S ample S ize-A 1 3 3 6 7

S ample S ize-B

2 52 7 8

2 398 4 08 1 64 4 66

l o 5 7 6 1 2

2 92

S ample S ize-A - N umber o f o vicaprine f ragments u seful f or a geing. S ample S ize-B - T otal s ample s ize f rom c ontext t ype a t s ite.

T able 4 9:

R atio o f s heep;goat i n p ost-Neolithic s ites.

P eriod

S ite

E neolithic E neolithic E /MBA E /MBA E /MBA L BA L BA L BA L BA L BA L BA

N ovagka C uprija P etnica N ovagka C uprija C rkvina L juljaci f N ovaCka C uprija S arina M edia V rbica v . V ecina M ala P etnica L ivade

R atio-A: R atio.B:

R atio-A 3 :2

8 :0

R atio -B

1 .5:1

1 7:1 3 :0 9 :1

3 :0 5:9 1 :0 2 :0 4 :2 2 3:4

6 .1 :1

2 .0:1

5 .7:1

b ased u pon r aw f requencies f rom s ite . F requency c orrected i n o rder t hat g oat e quals 1 .

3 46

T able 5 0: 2 x2 c ontingency t able s howing r elationship b etween t he p resence/absence o f g oats a nd s ample s ize ( High: g reater t han 5 00 f ragments; L ow : l ess t han 5 00 f ragments) i n p ost-Neolithic s ites.

S ample S ize H i L ow X2 = 2 .39 ( 2 d f) - c .

+ ,

3 0° p robability.

2

a 1

T able 5 1:

D omestic p ig f requency d istribution i n p ost-Neolithic s ites.

P eriod

S ite

E neolithic E neolithic E /MBA E /MBA E MMA E /MBA E /MBA L BA L BA LBA L BA L BA L BA L BA L BA L BA L BA L BA

N ovacka C uprija P etnica ' N ovaCka çu prija N ova Aa C > iprija N ovaeka C uprija C rkvina L juljaci / N ovad lka C uprija N ovaeka d üprija N ovaCka d üprija S arina M edia V rbica V e nna M ale . P etnica L ivade L ivade L ivade L ivade

N o . ( % ) V

3 4(18.3) 34 ( 1 8 .0 ) * 7 4(23.9) 5 8(25.8) 1 32(24.8) 2 7(28.1) 4 28(24.2) 9 (31.0) 1 3(33.3) 2 2(32.3) 4 9(20.7) 1 6(36.4) 1 7(58.6)

6 1 (31 .4 )

3 5(36.4)

4 (26.7) 2 22(24.2) 2 61(25.3)

C ontext

R ank

C orrected

S loj S loj P its S loj T otal P it S loj U rn

4 2 3 2 3 2 2 1**

1 8.0 1 7.7 2 2.2 2 4.0 2 3.1 2 6.1

F loor T otal P its T otal P it S loj P its F eatures S loj T otal

2 2 3 1 1 1 2 1 2 2

* Percentage c alculated w ithout a ntler/horn. * *tied w ith c attle a nd o vicaprines.

3 47

3 0.0

3 0.8

T able 5 2: C orrected p ercentage o f d omestic p igs i n p ost-Neolithic s ites c ompared a gainst s ample s ite ( deposit t otal) a nd p ercentage o f a dult s pecimens. S ite L juljaci L ivade N ovaCka C uprija P etnica N ovaCka C uprija S arina M edia C rkvina P etnica / N ovaCka C uprija V rbica V ecina M ala

P eriod E /MtA

C orrected% 2 4.2

L BA E /MBA E neolithic E neolithic L BA E /MBA L BA

2 5.3 2 3.1

L BA L BA L BA

1 7.7 2 7.1 2 0.7 3 6.1 3 0.8 3 0.0 3 6.4 5 8.6

3 48

S a lle S ite

3 67 2 398 2 320 7 37 5 96 4 66 4 49 4 o6 2 92 1 64 7 8

% Adult 3 8.5 2 0.0 4 1.8 5 0.0 3 8.5 1 0.8 2 5.0 2 0.0 5 4.5 2 0.0

E nvironment H ighland Lowland L owland H ighland L owland L owland L owland H ighland L owland L owland L owland

•" 1

Q o N

( r‘ _e

Q o

•

i r \ . e

L r\ c ' ) ON

4 . ) 0

•

0

•

•

0

•

r-t

N

H

0

0

0

ed

•

N

(

0 L r \ L IN r I

0

0

•

C . ) • r l

•

0

•

•

0 0 0 C \ J ON r i ▪ r e l

L . r % . • •• • ••

UN

cocc • • t -rn

c n i . r N ,

•

•

0 0

o H

0 . 1 r 1 • • •• •• • ,

r 1 • • • • 0\ ON 0x e

ON 0 •

-e

CO CO •

C V

N

•

0 N

•

H

\ 0 • r e )

N •

N N

•

N

•

co

C n •

.

C S ! H C C )

\ .0 0 t • ‘ ,0 L t1 , r 4 VD CT

2 "

Co C \ J

C \ J

c x i

( \I ( N J L IN In • • • •

a

\ Z )

LA 0 • •

C \ 1 C f l H H H

C ' J u. ( \ . 1

C ‘ J

L I N N C V

H

•

VJ

CT \0

N-

0

'o cj cj co f • • 1 N

r e l

0

c z

• ••• •

H

0

0 • • l t1 UN

0 5

• r i + ,

0

0 • • 0 0 r 1 I rN

H

0 4

. . -. C -

8 •

gZ r

0

N • 0

C \ I

0

0 C Y1

P L 4

•

r • t

0 H

0

. .. .•. . -, . • r f C - 4 i I f \

•••

•

N

N

C Y) r ▪ IC n

H

Cn

0 1

••

4 -) c r a

t "-1 IH

ç x

P -D

) 4 I 1 I 3

C i ] W

0 4: 4 E l

C O S 1 0 S : 4

3 49

g

H L . 0 P1

1 -2

( f )

a s

4 -)

0 ) -4$-D ) -2 e 13 -44 H

T able 5 4:

2 x2 c ontingency t able s howing r elationship b etween

p ercentage o f m ature p igs ( High: g reater t han 2 6%; L ow: e qual o r l ess t han 2 6%) a nd c ontextual o riginal o f d eposits ( sloj, p it) i n p ost-Neolithic a ssemblages f eatures).

( excludes N ova ' C l ia C üprija a nd L ivade

% Adult H igh

L ow

5 - 1

X2 = 5 .33

P it

S loj

1

( 2 d f);

Y ates C orrections:

5 -10 ° p robability. 3 .0; 2 0-30 ° p robability.

5

T able 5 : 2 x2 c ontingency t able s howing r elationship between p ercentage o f mature p igs ( High a nd L ow d efined a bove) a nd r ecovery p rocedures i n p ost-Neolithic s ites b oth p rocedures).

( excludes P etnica, w hich c ombined

% Adult H i: h L ow X2 = 1 .66

3 50

( 2 d f);

3 0-50 ° p robability.

T able 5 6: s ites. P eriod E neolithic E neolithic E /MBA E /MBA E /MBA E /MBA E /MBA LBA L BA L BA L BA L BA L BA L BA L BA L BA L BA L BA

T able 5 7:

D omestic d og a nd c hewed b one f requencies i n p ost-Neolithic

S ite

C ontext . C uprija / C uprija C uprija , C uprija

N ova e I v ca P etnica , N ovaäka N ovagka v N ovacka C rkvina L juljaci , N ovaeka Cerija N ova6 ca C i lprija N ovagka C uprija S arina M edia V rbica V egina M ala P etnica L ivade L ivade L ivade L ivade

S loj S loj P its S loj T otal P it S loj U rn F loor T otal P its T otal P it S 103 P its F eatures S loj T otal

D og

C hewed

N o.(%) 3 ( 3 .5) 1 ( 0 .4) 9 ( 2 .0) 7 ( 3 .1) 1 6( 3 .0) 4 ( 4 .2) 2 8( 1 .6) _ _ 5 ( 2 .1) _ 1 ( 3) 4) 2 ( 1 .0) 3 ( 3 .1) -

6 ( 1 .1) 3 1( 2 .3) 3 1( 3 .5) 6 2( 2 .7) 7 ( 1 .5) 6 00(17.0)

T i , 2 .4) 2 5( 5 .3) 1 5( 9 .1) 7 ( 9 .0)

2 g 3 . 2 )

3 2(

3 .1)

1 63( 6 .8)

H orse f requencies i n p ost-Neolithic s ites.

P eriod

S ite

E /MBA E /MBA E /MBA E /MBA E /MBA L BA L BA L BA L BA L BA L BA

N ova Ua 4prija N ova &a C uprija N ovagka C uprija C rkvina L juljaci S arina M edia V egina M ala P etnica L ivade L ivade L ivade

C ontext

H orse N o. ( %) P its 7 ( 2 .3) s ioj 3 ( 1 .3) T otal 1 0( 1 .9) P it 2 ( 2 .1) S loj 1 15( 6 .6) P its 2 ( 0 .8) P it 1 ( 3 .4) S loj 2 ( 1 .0) F eatures 1 ( 6 .7) S loj 3 2( 3 .5) T otal 3 3( 3 .2)

3 51

T able 5 8: R ed d eer a nd r oe d eer f requency d istributions i n p ost-Neolithic s ites P eriod

S ite

C ontext

E neolithic E neolithic E /MBA E /MBA E /MBA E /MBA E /MBA L BA L BA L BA L BA L BA L BA L BA L BA

P etnica N ova a C uprija N ovacka C uprija / N ovacka Cprija N ovacka C uprija C rkvina L juljaci N ovaCka d üprija S arina M edia V rbica V egina M ais L ivade L ivade L ivade P etnica

S loj S loj P its S loj T otal P it

S lo j

F loor P its T otal P it P its

R ed D eer N o .( %) 6 1 (32.3)* 1 ( 0 .3) 1 ( 0 .2) 3 ( 3 .1)

2 57(14 .7)

3 ( 1 .3)

4 ( 9 .1)

1 ( 3 .4) 7 ( 7 .3)

R oe D eer 9 (

3 .6)

1 ( 0 .3) 1 ( 0 .4) 2 ( 0 .4)

2 ( 2 .1 ) 1 8 ( 1 .0 ) 1 ( 1 .5) 1 ( 0 .4)

S lo j

8 7( 9 .5)

9 ( 1 .0 )

T otal S loj

9 5( 9 .2) 4 2(21.6)

1 0( 1 .0) 8 ( 4 .1)

* percentage c alculated w ithout a ntler/horns.

T able 5 9 : 2 x2 c ontingency t able s howing r elationship b etween p ercentage o f r ed d eer ( Low: l ess t han 1 0%; H igh: g reater t han 1 0%) a nd s ample s ire ( Low : l ess t han 5 00 f ragments; H igh: m ore t han 5 00 f ragments) i n p ost-Neolithic s ites.

%R ed D eer H igh L ow aN igh

2

X2 = . 7486 ( 2 d r ); 5 0-70° p robability.

3 \

1 L ow

1

5

3 52

Table 6 0: 2 x2 c ontingency t able s howing r elationship b etween p ercentage o f r oe d eer i n p ost-Neolithic s ites ( Low: l ess t han 2 .0%, H igh: g reater t han 2 .0%) a nd r ecovery m ethod ( includes P etnica a s s ieved).

R oe D eer % H i L ow

T able 6 1: 2 x2 c ontingency t able s hoving r elationship b etween p ercentage o f r oe d eer i n p ost-Neolithic s ites ( Low a nd N igh d efined a bove) a nd e nvironment.

R oe D eer % h L ow H ighl and L owl and

T able 6 2: s ites.

F requency d istributions o f a dult r oe d eer i n p ost-Neolithic

P eriod

S ite

E neolithic E /MBA E /MBA L BA L EA

P etnica C rkvina L juljaci P etnica L ivade

A dults N o. ( %)

9 (100 .0 2 (100 .0 ) 1 8 ( 8 7 .5) 8 ( 6 0 .0 ) l o ( 1 4 0 .0 )

3 53

T able 6 3: 2 x2 c ontingency t able s hov ing r elationship b etween t he p ercentage o f a dult r oe d eer i n s ites f rom I ll. X I.19 ( Low: l ess t han 7 5%; H igh: g reater t han 7 5%) a nd t he t otal n umber o f r oe d eer s pecimens ( Low : l ess t han o r e qual t o 1 0; H igh: g reater t han 1 0 f ragments).

S ample L ow E i A H igh % u 1 L ow

N

O M I

N IM I I I

M

M I . Mb t .

M .e. M .O .0 4 1 1 M

MO

MO M M M M

N I M M. . . I. M. IO».

M.

M

M .

M. I .U. MB

MW O M O

M I D

M A. M I

M .

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

T able 6 4 : F requency d istribution o f A urochs a nd S wine i n p ostN eolithic s ites. P eriod

S ite

E neolithic E /MBA L BA L BA

P etnica L juljaci P etnica L ivade

A urochs N o.(%) 1 (0.5) 2 7(1.5) 1 (0.5) 2 (0.2)

S wine N 7 7 7%) . 8 ( 4 .2) 3 79(21.4) 1 1( 5 .7) 2 7( 2 .6)

* Petnica E neolithic p ercentage c alculated w ithout h orn/antler. T able 6 5: 2 x2 c ontingency t able s howing r elationship b etween s ample s ize ( Low : e qual o r l ess t han 5 00; H igh: g reater t han 5 00 f ragments) a nd t he p resence/absence o f a urochs i n p ost-Neolithic s ites.

S ample S ize H igh L ow A 3

1 2.2) ( 1.8), (

X2 = 2 .21 ( 2 d f); Y ates c orrection: p robability.

2 ( 3.2),

5 ( 3.8)

3 54

c . 3 5° p robability. . 736; 5 0-70 °

p ost-Neolithic

0 • r d

0

A 4 1 3 . )

c ' J

a

4 4

( \ . 1

0

' 3 L I " 4 › . 4J ( 1 )

0 0 H

r e " ) . •

••

H

r j 5

H

E l ) > P I 1

4

H

e I C \ 1

0 3 4

t 4 0 3

t a t

e

•

0

•

•

0\

r 4 C vl LA ON H t r‘ H

P z i 4

C r l

• 2•

, 1 t

0

• r i

, 4

• E l " • • • . . H rz 4

e ' D C i ) * *, . ' , . . H HI "-De-2 Ca

0 3 +3 0 < E4

3 55

T able 6 7: 2 x2 c ontingency t able s howing r elationship b etween p resence/absence o f s wine a nd t otal s ample s ize ( Low : l ess t han 5 00 f ragments; H igh: m ore t han 5 00 f ragments) i n p ost-Neolithic s ites. S a mple S ize H i: h L ow X2 = 2 .21 ( 2 d f); c . 3 5° p robability. Y ates c orrections = . 74; 5 0-70 ° p robability.

T able 6 8 : 2 x2 c ontingency t able s howing r elationship b etween t he p resence/absence o f b ear a nd p resence/absence o f a urochs a nd s wine i n p ost-Neolithic s ites.

B ear A

&

S w

+

3

1

6

T able 6 9: 2 x2 c ontingency t able s howing r elationship b etween t he p resence/absence o f h are a nd t he u se o f s ieves ( excludes P etnica) i n p ost-Neolithic s ites. S ieve

2

1

1

3

a

3 56

Table T O: F requency d istributions U nio s p. i n p ost-Neolithic s ites ( percentage r eflects t he r elative f requency o f mussels a mong t he t otal b one a nd s hell f ragments).

P eriod

S ite

E neolithic E /MBA E /MBA

N ovagka C uprija N ovagka C üprija L juljaci

9 (1.6) 1 03(4.4)

L BA L BA L BA L BA

L ivade S arina M edia V rbica

2 33(9.7) 1 7(3.6)

,

N o.

V ecina M ala

( %)

1 (0.03)

7 (4.3) 3 (3.8)

T able T i: 2 x2 c ontingency t able s hoving r elationship b etween t he p resence/absence o f U nio s p. a nd t he e nvironmental p osition o f t he s ite

( highland/lowland)

i n p ost-Neolithic s ites.

E nvironment H igh L ow 1

6

2

Table 7 2: s ites. P eriod E neolithc E /MBA L BA L BA LBA L BA .

F requency d istributions o f H elix s p.

S ite N ovagka C ;prija N ovagka C uprija L ivade S arina M edia V rbica V e Ana M ala

N o. ( S) 1 4(2.5) 5 (0.2) 1 1(0.4) 2 (0.4) 1 (0.6) 1 (1.3)

3 57

i x p ost-Neolithic

T able 7 3:

2 x2 c ontingency t able s howing r elationship between

r ecovery m ethodology ( sieved o r u nsieved) a nd p resence/absence o f s nails ( Petnica e xcluded) i n p ost-Neolithic s ites.

S ieve

e 1

+

2

1 4

2

1

X2 = 0 .9 ( 2 d f);

3 58

5 0-70 ° p robability.

c H o 4 a ) A a .

3 0 r c l 4 ) 0 4 ) . . . -

* a C ) . . 4 Z +3 4 ) A t i

. /... . 4 . " .•

1

c o c u 4 ) . , 4 t o

10 I. 10 H

0 •

H I'. . . • • • ••• . ..., e ".. . .

u . r i

0 •

i f\ 0 •

•• • •••

0

f e l

•

.

•

0 C Y L. . . • H

O N4, O N CC-

4 )

• e l H

. . . . . ./ • • •• • • • • •. . . ., . . . . . . ••

< 4

2 z I 4 . , 0 0

M b i r 4 N

t " - N H N

• • •" , . . . , . .. . . .

0

•

0

0 0 • • 0 0

. . ... . . . . . .. . . . . r I H N L A

0

0 0 , 1

a

r i r 1

0 4 4 1

• • • • • ••

1 . 4 a ) a ) r d

0

C d C ) . 1 4 A I S >

0 0 r 4 . . .. r I r 4

M 4

i v 0 4 r d ä r d r i ) 4

M 4

0

i t o

0 0 H H

a f 0

H

0

c o

a o • . , .4—

0 0 H . . . . . C Y-1 0 1

42 r d O a ) • , + 0 4 4 ., L O ( 1 ) r t t e r d . 2

.... . . . ... . . . . .— . .. e— . . . , . . ... .

e

r z l e 4

•

•

•

CO

0

H

H O N i x \ c 0 N -7 H H

N r i

0 0

i a

H

• •

o o

T S

••

r d 0 r : 4

e )

H g . . . . .

) 2 s .,

C I D . . . _

H 4 3 + . > 0

R oe d eer:

1

0 e H A c r 3 1 . 4 E I e b c

•

0 c 0

. . . . .. , .

c n t O 0 . )

a t v

r J

s . . „ .

w . 0 4 > 0

e• t O

•

*

› )Z

t s .

•

• • • • •••

a

u 0 0 O a ' a ) 1 . 4 ( z •

0

0 0 I ' t r % . . ... . . .. C M e n L A

1

H b . ) t 1 1 4 -) g . . . . ., . ., 0 R r z i I -4 H P-D b -> C I D < 4 E A

3 59

T able 7 5: e nvironment

2 x2 c ontingency t able s howing r elationship b etween ( highland v ersus l owland) o f s ite l ocation a nd

p ercentage o f d omestic a nimals i n s ite L ow t l ess t han 7 0%).

( High:

L ate N eolithic E nvironment H ighland L owland •

g reater t han 7 0%;

p ost-Neolithic E nvironment H ighland L owland

H igh

8

«MP

e % •

L ow

T able 7 6:

3

2 x2 c ontingency t able s howing r elationship b etween

s ample s ize o f i dentified b ones p er s ite ( Large: m ore t han 1 ,000 f ragments; S mall: l ess t han 1 ,000 f ragments) a nd the p ercentage o f d omestic a nimals ( High: i n L ate N eolithic s ites.

m ore t han 7 0%;

L ow: l ess t han 7 0%)

S ample S ize S mall L arge •

R igh

s L ow

1

1 .

T able

7 7 :

2 x2 c ontingency t able s howing r elationship b etween

r ecovery m ethod ( presence/absence o f s ieves) a nd p ercentage o f d omestic a nimals ( High: m ore t han 7 0%; L ow: l ess t han 7 0%) P etnica i ncluded a s

s ieved.

L ate N eolithic S ieve i n

p ost-Neolithic

All p eriods

S ieve

S ieve '

H igh 1

2

4

2

2

s %

4

5

6

1

3

3

'

L ow 1

3 60

T able 7 8: 2 x2 c ontingency t able s howing r elationship b etween t he y ear i n w hich L ate N eolithic s ites w ere e xcavated ( Early: b efore 1 973: L ate: 1 973 a nd m ore r ecently) a nd t he p ercentage o f d omestic a nimals ( High: m ore t han 7 0%; L ow : l ess t han 7 0%).

Y ear E arly L ate 3 e H igh s%

• 1 .0 » .

3 i

L ow

Table 7 9: P eriod

S ummary f requency d istributions o f m ajor d omesticates. C attle

Late N eolithic N o.(% . 4 1 .) ( %B) Ants . I V 4 96(16.2) ( 17.0) O bre I I 1 8878(65.2) ( 76 .2) D ivostin I I 6 763(63.0) ( 74.5) P etnica 1 46(26.7) ( 53.1) G omolava 9 84(37.9) ( 60.3) O povo 1 94(30.1) ( 65.3)

S heep/Goat

P ig

N o.(%A) ( %B) 2 067(67.4) ( 70.9)

N o.(%A)

2 128( 7 .3) 1 228(11.0)

(8 .6) ( 13.5)

3 781(13.1) 1 089(10.0) 1 12(20.5)

1 7 ( 6 .3) ( 6 .2 ) 2 13 ( 8 .1) ( 13 .0) 1 8 ( 2 .7) ( 6 .1 )

( X 1 3)

3 51 (11 .4) ( 12.0) ( 15.2) ( 12.0)

( 40 .7) 4 35 (16 .6 ) ( 20 .6 ) 8 5(13 .2) ( 28 .6 )

E neolithic P etnica 5 6(30.1) N ovagka C uprija 3 3(38.4)

( 50.9) ( 40 .2)

2 0(10.8) 2 4(27.9)

( 18.2) ( 29.3)

3 4 (18 .3 ) ( 30 .9 ) 2 5 (29 .1 ) ( 30 .5)

E /MBA L iuljaci , 3 82(21.6) N ovagka C uprija208(39.0) C rkvina 3 1(32.3)

( 44.2) ( 42.4) ( 37.8)

5 4( 3 .1) 1 50(28.2) 2 4(24.9)

(6 .2) ( 30.6) ( 29.3)

1 32 (24 .8 ) ( 26 .9 ) 2 7(28 .1 ) ( 32 .9 )

L BA P etnica 4 4(22.5) N ovagka C uprija 2 4(35.3)

( 34.9) ( 37.5)

L ivade(1) L ivade(2) S arina M edja V rbica V e nna M ala

( 34.3) ( 47.3) ( 33.8) ( 37.5) ( 18.2)

2 1 (10 .6) 1 8 (26 .4) 1(11 .5) 1 32 (12 .6) 1 00 (42 .2) 9 (20 .5) 4 (13 .8)

( 16 .7) ( 28 .1 ) ( 1 5 .7) ( 1 7 .7) ( 4 4 .4) ( 22 .5) ( 1 5 .4)

2 4(25.0) 3 53(34.2) 7 6(32.1) 1 5(34.1) 5 (17.2)

( 1) - D ubovac- Lto B rdo p its c nly. ( 2) - a ll c ontexts c ombined. ( %A) - p ercent o f t otal i dentified b ones. ( %B) - p ercent o f t hree m ajor d omesticates.

3 61

4 28(24.2)

( 49.5)

6 1 (30 .1 ) ( 48 .4) 2 2(32.3) 3 5(36.4)

( 34.4) ( 50.0)

2 61(25.3) 4 9(20.7)

( 35.0) ( 21.8)

1 6 (36 .4) ( 4 0 .0 ) 1 7 (58 .6 ) ( 6 5 .4)

T able 8 0:

2 x2 c ontingency t ables s hoving r elationship b etween

p ercentage o f i mmature c attle ( High:

m ore t han 5 0%;

L oy:

l ess

t han 5 0%) a nd method o f r ecovery ( presence/absence o f s ieves), t otal s ample s ize ( High: more t han 5 00 f ragments; L ow: l ess t han 500 f ragments), e nvironment, s ample s ite o f s pecimens u sed o nly f or a geing ( High: m ore t han 2 0 f ragments; L ow: l ess t han 2 0 f ragments), a nd t ime ( Early: L ate N eolithic; L ate: p ost-Neolithic) i n s ites f rom a ll p eriods c ombined - E xcludes O bre I I a nd V e nna Mala . A .

B . S ieve(1)

•

H igh

S ample S ize - t otal H igh L ow

6

a

3

1

i

1

a t %

L ow 1

c .

D . E nvironment

A geable s pecimens(2) H i: h L ow

U pland L owland •

H igh

6

L ow

2

a t % •

E . P eriod E arl L ate •

H igh

a

L ow

4

9

1

1

( 1) - P etnica i ncluded a s s4e ved. ( 2)

- E xcludes Wvostin.

3 62

E xcludes V ecina M ala a nd O bre I I.

T able 8 1:

2 3 E2 c ontingency t able s howing r elationship b etween

s ample s ize ( High: m ore t han 5 00 f ragments; L ow : l ess t han 5 00 f ragments - t otal s ample f rom p eriod) a nd d istance f rom " meat" p roduction s trategy p oint ( Near: l ess t han 2 5%; F ar: m ore t han 2 5%) a mong p igs f rom a ll p eriods.

S ample S ize H i h

t a

N ear

c

F ar

L ow

3 63

I ll. 1 : M ap o f s outheastern E urope ( north a nd c entral p art o f t he B alkan p eninsula).

3 64

3 65

A ustria H ungary

I taly

A driatic S ea

B ulgaria

1 00 k m . 1

A lbania

I ll.

3 :

M ap o f Y ugoslavia a nd E urope.

3 66

G reece

2

•

RAMOR

S ITES I 977 MAJOR ROADS R IVERS 8 S TREAMS

1 TR ICE-CEROVAC

I ll . 4 : 1 977 s urvey s ites i n t he v icinity o f S mederevska P alanka.

3 67

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V S . 0 • 4 . >

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e i e l 43 V

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0

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r 4 C I

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2

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+ . 4

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a)

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c . )

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C

C .4 > ( t • •4 C O L 4 -) a ) v i C S - C ) 0 0 ,- ' ( , . ) C i , C . )

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. 0 b t

0

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C 0 ' ) 0 . 4 a ) , ( e -, 4-) 0 1 C . ) 0 : 5

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3 68

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= 0 4 ) , . c . ) a

C

0

. 4

C 0 b :

V 4 ) C e 0 m s - 4 -) . 4 ) V C 4 - C 0 C V

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C

r . 4 •

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C r 4 0 r 1 g4 (

0

r d 4 ) 0 c d

C V

• 2 1 4 > 4 1 3 P 4

P I

0

( . 5

0

0

0

0

369

0

4 .

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L I N

1 4

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t -

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t o 0

43

—

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c 0 .

• . 0

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i J

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p 9e a %

-

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e

". 4

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2

1

t — C, , 4* — 0 * -

ten

re°

3 70

I 4 ON

2 0

0

1 5

3 0 M.

8 :

3 5

4 0

L ate N eolithic S ue s crofa:

4 5

5 0

G reatest l ength v ersus b readth

o f t he L M3.

0

2 5

6

GG

66

2 0

1 5

3 0 f

l

u

9 ;

3 5

4 0

4 5

L ate N eolithic S us s crota - G reatest l ength v ersus b readth

o f U M3. 3 71

GG G OG G 6 GG G 6 G 3 0

o

3 5

I ll. 1 0: L ate N eolithic C anis f amiliaris - H istogram o f t he l ength o f t he m olar r ow ( mandibular) i n m m .

0

0

0

0

4 0 Il l.

1 1:

4 5

50

L ate N eolithic C ervum e laphus m etatarsal

G reatest p rox imal b readth v ersus w idth.

3 72

f rom O povo

3 5

0

• 0

3 0

0

0

0 •

0 0

?

2 5

45

— 4——

5 0

a r

5

I ll. 1 2:

L ate N eolithic C ervus e laphus m etacarpal G reatest d istal b readth v ersus d epth.

3 73

6 0 f rom O povo:

4

/

z '

7 _

> E

3 74

I ll . 1 4: N ap o f L juljaci ( I -L juljaci I ; I I -L juljaci I I; I II L juljaci I II).

S onde , 7

S onda 7 a

I ,II,III B ond* 7 b

B onds 9

S onda 6 b

S onda 1 1 B onds 4

S onda 1 ,11 I II

T

S onda 2

1

I II

8 8 . 8b I ,II;IXI , S onda 5 I II S onda 1 3

1 , I I

S onda 3 S onda 1 4 I II

—

i knda 1-0 I , I I, I II

3 75

B onds 1

I II

9 I I 0

• •2

0 c0

4 0 1 • • 1 1 4 > 1 k 1 0

/

> 4

i 2

1

•

4

o

04 1

› 0 1r J t 4 3 9 4' P I 1 : 1 0 1 1

6 3 0 C 1

1 ' 2 . 8

4 >

0 ••

• . 1

_ 3

i r% ri

43

4 1 •

Va• M •

0

\

J

3

0

4 -4 4 )

4 04.

K

A

0

3 76

0

> 7

:

•

•

W ild

Z i

1 4 . 5

• •

•

0 W ild

•

4 .0

•

•

3 .5

•

•

D omestic

•

3 .0

•

• ?

D omestic

2 .0

3 .0

1 6 : S cattergram o f S us L M3 f rom L juljaci - L ength v ersus B readth ( measured a t b ase o f e namel c r o wn).

3 5

1 .4

3 0 r A

L L ivade L J e . L juljaei S te S arina M edia

2 5 5 r i l

3 0

I ll.

1 1:

3 5

4 0

4 5mm

S cattergram o f S us t ibia - g reatest b readth v ersus

g reatest d epth o f d istal e nd ( post-Neolithic). 3 77

b 4

0 .0 43

' 1

3 78

0 + : 3N V c o

S ITUAC ION) H .

0

I ll.

1 9:

P LAN

V RH ICA

1 0

L IVADE

2 0

3 0

1 982

5 0

1 00 m

Map o f L ivade s howing l ocations o f 1 980-2 e xcavations.

3 79

L S

L P L s 1 51

l '

LJ II

L S L P S re L 3 I I 1

1 2 I ll.

2 0a :

L S

1

1

I

1 5

1

1L5

1

2 0

H istogram o f L M3 b readth - B ronze A ge c attle.

L P L S

1 5-

L 5

S m

L s

L s L P

1 0-

2 5 I ll. 2 0b:

3 5

3 0

3 5

4 o

C ross elot o f B ronze A ge c attle L M3 - l ength v ersus b readth .

• • • •

•

3 0

•

5 0

5

I ll. 2 1 : C ross-plot o f B o 's m etacarpus ( proximal e nd) g reatest b readth v ersus g reatest d epth

3 80

z e o I n

z I n 0 I f )

9

o

0

9 •

9

' •

•— i s . s •st ,

•` , s s

a

Z\

I ll . 2 2:

C rkvina - 1 977 s urvey m ap.

3 81

•

G ReA C

a u — f

S OUTH

N

. .....

•••,,

s s .

• ...

•

-

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. . —. -. - • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . ..

I ll. 2 3:

L EGEND

.

00 T RENCHES

Ca l MODERN S TRUCTURE

0

4 /

S URVEY C IRCLE

• B ENCH MARK

MARSHY G RO INS SPR ING

• T RAVERSE S TAM N

• . . .

,-

N OVA UAdUPR IJA E XCAVAT ION T RENCHES aF IELD B OUNDAR IES 1 9 77 & I980

0

41

N ovagka d uprija - m ap o f s ite

3 82

. . . . .. . . .

2 0

4 0

S S

G O

1 00 M MAO N

rjki rjira m e Zar s = cr a: tr g r a ir V i g er s o ur tr mr• rAwr fte e ve Am mer& r r un ic eet . N [ Ma • l e. ,MI SW AM o re .ro e • . . .O W

o f d omestic:

c o .

• e c

c a .

• •• • ••

• •

g 0

D omestic %

• 1 )

0

0 . 4

N t .1

5 • . 1 . „

r 4 r 4 r # • r l i r 4 ' d l e* ° ' AL • • •

ri

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t e l l t

a ssemblages.

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4 . • . • ) ▪ . 1

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3 84

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3 85

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0

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2

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0

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0

in

g i g i i d

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i k

4 )

r I

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C . > • •

0 +3

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•

( . )

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r 1

0

4 . ) • t ' C I

•

+ I t r l

0 P

biK

13

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•

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t 1 a i j 2 4

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F 4 ) 4 L f!

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M

3 87

c i r

•

3 8S

•

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/

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e

0 0 6 " 1

b i

-

a nd e xploitation

t o t g

1 3 + . )

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c d

> 4

a 0 4 , r ir t d 1 4 +3 +3 t O 4 0 3

3V )

+3 4 )

e

r 4

t O

t o . . .4

+3

+3 i d

L..d

> t

4 1 ) ei l

tti

C .)

CH 0

A 4 0

•0

0

l ocation:

• r 4

3 90

§ Q

C anis c ranial m easurements

r 1

I ll. 3 7: C anis f am. maniible m easurements v on d en D riesch 1 976)

( not f ound i n

2 7.

l ength f rom I l t o c oronoid p rocess.

2 8.

f rom t op o f mandibular c ondyle t o basal p oint o f

2 9.

h eight o f mandible i n f ront o f PM1.

c oronion. 3 0.

h eight o f mandible i n f ront o f M l.

3 1. 3 2.

l ength o f d ental r ow. l ength o f i ncisor r ow.

3 3. l ength f rom a boral b order o f 1 3 t o o ral b order o f PM1.

Appendix MEASUREMENT

1 .

CODING

A

S YSTEM FOR

F AUNAL MATERIALS

S ite n umber ( cols. 1 -2) 1 .01 C rkvina, Smederevska P alanka 1 .05 Novacka Cuprija, Smederevska 1 .10 L ivade, Mala V rbica 1 .12 U gar, Opovo 1 .17 S arina Medja, S vetozarevo 1 .18 Vecina Mala, S vetozarevo 1 .19 V rbica, Svetozarevo 1 .20 L juljaci, K ragujevac 1 .21 P etnica, Valjevo

2 .

Sonda

n umber

( cols.

3 .

Unit

( locus,

4 .

Bone

r egistration

5 .

I nput 5 .1 5 .2 5 .3

o tkop

P alanka

3 -4) s loj

o r

p it)

n umber

( cols.

number

( cols.

7 -9)

format ( col. 1 0) Post-Cranial C ranial Measurement ( refer

t o Von

d en D reisch)

6 .

Class o f bone ( col. 6 .1 Mammalia , 6 .2 Ayes 6 .3 Reptilia 6 .4 Amphibia 6 .5 P isces 6 .6 Mollusca

7 .

Species 7 .01 7 .02 7 .03 7 .04 7 .05 7 .06 7 .07 7 .08 7 .09 7 .10 7 .11

1 1)

( col. 1 2 - 1 4) S heep ( Ovis a ries) Goat ( Capra h ircus) S heep/Goat Cattle ( Bos s p.) P ig ( Sus s crofa) Dog ( Canis f amiliaris) Horse ( Equus c aballus) Red Deer ( Cervus e laphus) Roe Deer ( Capreolus c apreolus) F allow Deer ( Dama d ama) Hare ( Lepus s p.)

3 92

5 -6)

7 .12 7 .13 7 .14 7 .15 7 .16 7 .17 7 .18 7 .19 7 .20 7 .21 7 .22 7 .23 7 .24 7 .25 7 .26 7 .27 8 .

Element 8 .000 8 .001 8 .002 8 .003 8 .004 8 .005 8 .006 8 .007 8 .008 8 .009 8 .010 8 .011 8 .012 8 .013 8 .014 8 .015 8 .016 8 .017 8 .018 8 .019 8 .020 8 .021 8 .022 8 .023 8 .024 8 .025 8 .026 8 .027 8 .028 8 .029 8 .030 8 .031 8 .032 8 .033

R ed F ox ( Vulpes v ulpes) Weasel ( Mustela n ivalis) B rown B ear ( Ursus a rctos) B eaver ( Castor f iber) B adger ( Meles meles) I bex ( Rupicapra r upicapra) W ild C at ( Felis s ilvestri) Marten ( Martes s p.) R ed S quirrel ( Sciurus v ulgaris) C hamois ( Rupicapra r upicapra) Weasel ( Mustela p utarius) B adger/Nutra ( Meles/Nutra s p.) O tter ( Lutra l utra) L ynx ( Lynx l ynx) Gula sp. Vole ( Microtus s p.) ( cols. 1 5-17) i ndeterminate c ranial b asiooccipital o ccipital s phenoid p terygoid v omer p alatine i nterparietal p arietal f rontal p etrous t emporal z ygomatic l acrimal n asal p remaxillary w ith t eeth p remaxillary w ithout t eeth maxillary w ith t eeth maxillary w ithout t eeth m andible w ith t eeth mandible w ithout t eeth h orn c ore a ntler h yoid g eneral v ertebra(e) a tlas a xis ( epistropheus) c ervical v ertebra t horacic v ertebra l umbar v ertebra s acrum ( ayes = l umbar s acrum) c audal ( coccygeal v ert.) r ib

3 93

8 .034 8 .035 8 .036 8 .037 8 .038 8 .039 8 .040 8 .041 8 .042 8 .043 8 .044 8 .045 8 .049 8 .051 8 .052 8 .053 8 .054 8 .055 8 .056 8 .057 8 .058 8 .059 8 .062 8 .063 8 .064 8 .066 8 .067 8 .068 8 .069 8 .070 8 .071 8 .072 8 .073 8 .074 8 .075 8 .076 8 .077 8 .078 8 .079 8 .080 8 .081 8 .082 8 .083 8 .084 8 .087 8 .089 8 .090 8 .091 8 .092 8 .093 8 .094 8 .095

c ostal c artilage s ternebra s capula c lavicle h umerus r adium u lna c arpal r adial c arpal i ntermediate c arpal u lnar c arpal a ccessory c arpal f ourth c arpal 2 nd a nd 3 rd c arpal metacarpal 1 metacarpal 2 metacarpal 3 metacarpal 4 metacarpal 5 metacarpal 3 a nd 4 i ndeterminate metacarpal s esamoid phalanx 1 phalanx 2 phalanx 3 p elvis ( ilium+ischium+pubic) i lium+ischium i lium+pubis i schium+pubis i lium i schium p ubis p enis b one ( carnivores) f emur p atella t ibia f ibula l ateral malleolus a stragalus ( talus) c alcaneus t arsal c entral t arsal 3 rd t arsal f ourth t arsal c entral a nd 4 th t arsal ( cuboid) 2 nd a nd 3 rd t arsal metatarsal 1 metatarsal 2 metatarsal 3 metatarsal 4 metatarsal 5 m etatarsal 3 a nd 4 ( ruminants a nd

3 94

b irds)

8 .096 8 .104 8 .105 8 .108 8 .112 8 .113 8 .114 8 .115 8 .116 8 .117 8 .118 8 .119 8 .120 8 .121 8 .122 8 .123 8 .124 8 .125 8 .126 8 .127 8 .128 8 .129 8 .200 8 .201 8 .202 8 .203 8 .204 9 .

1 0.

Age 9 . 9 .0 9 .1 9 .2 9 .3 9 .4 9 .5 9 .6 9 .7 9 .8 . 9.9 Part o f 1 0.0 1 0.01 1 0.02 1 0.03 1 0.04 1 0.05 1 0.06 1 0.07 1 0.08

i ndeterminate metatarsal m etapodial 3 and 4 ( if p ig = 3 o r 4 ) i ndeterminate metapodial s esamoid i ndeterminate phalanx l oose t ooth: upper l oose t ooth: l ower h umerus o r f emur f ragment l ong b one f ragment i ndeterminate f ragment t ooth f ragment b urial a cetabulum ( =066) e xternal a uditory b ulla a nterior phalanx 1 t horacic o r l umbar v ertebra w ing o r r ib f ragment p osterior phalanx 1 p osterior phalax 2 p osterior phalanx 3 i ndeterminate metapodial o r p halanx f ragment p aramastoid p rocess i nternal a uditory b ulla v alve o f a s nail s hell b ody o f molluscan s hell c arapax o f t urtle s hell ( upper = concave) p lastron o f t urtle s hell ( lower = f lat) t urtle s hell part

n ot applicable n ot d eterminable y oung ( not g rown up a t f oetal o r i nfantile i nfantile i nfantile o r j uvenile j uvenile j uvenile o r s ub-adult s ub-adult s ub-adult o r adult a dult

a ll)

t he b one t hat i s p resent i ndeterminate w hole s haft/body f ragment p roximal e nd and l ess t han h alf o f s haft d istal e nd a nd l ess t han h alf o f s haft m edial ( central) l ateral ( peripheral) a nterior p osterior

3 95

1 0.09 1 0.10 1 0.11 1 0.12 1 0.13 2 4.14

1 0.15

1 0.16 1 0.17 1 0.18 1 0.19 1 0.20 1 0.21 1 0.22 1 0.23 1 0.24 1 0.25 1 0.26 1 0.27 1 0.28 1 0.29 1 0.30 1 0.31 1 0.32 1 0.33 1 0.34 1 0.35 1 0.36 1 0.37 1 0.38 1 0.39 1 0.40 1 0.41 1 0.42 1 0.43 1 0.44 1 0.45

v entral ( lower p art o f v ertebra; part o f r ib a way f rom v ertebra) d orsal ( upper p art o f v ertebra; p art o f r ib t oward v ertebra) c ranial ( for p elvis ) c audal ( for p elvis) p roximal e nd a nd more t han h alf o f s haft p roximal s haft t ibia - i nclude p art o f p osterior c rest r adium - i ncludes f ossa f or u lnar distal shaft f emur - p art o f s ynovial p it a nd/or t uber on l ateral s ide d istal s haft f emur - i nclude n otch m etapodial - i nclude d istal f oramen t ibia - f ossa on medial p art o f s haft s capula - c ollum and p art o f s pine d istal e nd a nd more t han h alf o f shaft p lantar p lanar/volar r ight v entral h orizontal r amus v ertical r amus d istal e piphysis/articulation a rea p roximal e piphysis/articulation a rea 1 6 a nd 1 8 c ranial e piphysis n asal ( oral) n uchal ( aboral) b asal d istal s haft a nd e nd, b ut d istal epiphysis a rea i s m issing p roximal s haft a nd e nd, b ut p roximal e piphysis a rea i s m issing a cetabulum a rea a nd s ome a rea b eyond c rest o f s capula w hole, e xcept d istal e piphysis i s missing w hole, e xcept p roximal e piphysis i s m issing i ndeterminate e nd n eck o f s capula a nd p art o f t he body=29 and 1 5 s haft i s w hole, p roximal a nd d istal e piphyses a re m issing a ntler/horn b ase p roximal c ondyle only ( fused) d istal c ondyle o nly ( fused) l ateral d istal c ondyle p roximal e nd, l ateral s ide, l ess t han h alf o f s haft d istal e nd, p osterior f ragment d istal c ondyle f ragment d istal s haft, d istal e piphysis m issing n ot m issing

3 96

1 0.46 1 0.47 1 0.48 1 0.49

m edial d istal c ondyle f ragment m edial c ondyle o f m etapodial = 43 u nfused e nd w ithout epiphysis

F ormat 3 - measurement f ormat: E very f ive c olumns a fter c olumn 1 8 r epresents a measurement. There a re t en m easurements p er l ine. T he f irst d igit o f e ach m easurement i s a modifier w hich i ndicates t he a ccuracy o f t he m easurement. T he m easurements f ollow von d en D riesch ( 1975) i n s equential o rder f or e ach e lement t hat s he l ists. S ee m easurement c ode k ey b elow. 1 1.

Modifier ( cols. 1 8, 2 3, 2 8, 3 3, 3 8, 4 3, 4 8, 5 3, 5 8, 6 3) 1 1.1 measurement t aken a ccurately 1 1.2 measurement e stimated b ecause a rea i s d amaged 1 1.3 measurement i nfluenced b y p athology 1 1.4 s ee c omment 1 1.5 bone i s n ot f used 1 1.6 measurement i s t aken o n l ingual s ide 1 1.7 measurement t aken w ith s tring o r t ape m easure

1 2.

Line n umber ( col. 8 0) S ince t here a re more t han t en measurements f or many bones, t he measurement s eries c ontinues s equentially f rom l ine t o l ine. S o, i f t he l ine n umber=1 a nd t he column=1, t hen i t i s t he f irst measurement i n t he key f or t hat p articular e lement; i f l ine=2 a nd t he column=23, t hen i t i s t he t welfth m easurement, e tc. ( In t he b one m easurement appendices, e ach measurement i s s eparated b y s everal c olumns t o e nhance v isibility and t he m easurement s equence p er l ine i s l abelled a t the b eginning o f e ach a ssemblage appendix. I n o rder to d etermine m easurement s ynchroneity i n appendices B-F w ith t he m easurement c ode b elow, u se t he l ine number a nd measurement n umber: I f s pecies = 0 04, e lement = 0 38, l ine n umber = 1 a nd m easurement = 4 , then i t i s a B os h umerus Bp m easurement.) 1 2.1 1 2.2 12.3 1 2.4 1 2.5

i ndicates i ndicates i ndicates i ndicates i ndicates

t hat t hat t hat t hat t hat

measurements measurements measurements measurements measurements

1 -10 a re p resent 1 1-20 a re p resent 2 1-30 a re p resent 3 1-40 a re p resent 4 1-50 a re p resent

MEASUREMENT CODE M easurement#

Von d en D reisch

E quus 1 -50

s ame

c ranium:

B os c ranium: 1 -42 5 0 4 3-47 4 8 4 9

Ovis/Capra 1 -43 4 4

2 2a

and

2 4a)

s ame 4 2a s ame l ength o f UM3 ( measured a t a lveolus) b readth o f UM3 ( measured a t a lveolus)

c ranium:

4 5

C ervus/Capreolus 1 -42 S us 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 0 1 1 1 2 1 3 1 4 1 5 1 6 1 7 1 8 1 9 2 0 2 1 2 2 2 3 2 4 2 5 2 6

( excludes

s ame l ength o f UM3 ( measured at i alveolus) b readth o f UM3 ( measured a t a lveolus) c ranium: s ame

c ranium: 1 l a 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 0 1 1 1 2 1 3 1 4 1 5 1 5a 1 6 1 7 1 8 1 9 2 0 2 1 2 2 2 3 2 4

3 98

2 7 2 8 2 9 3 0 3 1 3 2 3 3 3 4 3 5 3 6 3 7 3 8 3 9 4 0 4 9

Canis 1 -13 1 4 1 5 1 6 1 7 1 8 1 9 2 0 2 1 2 2 2 3 2 4 2 5 2 6 2 7-30 3 1 3 2-40 4 1 4 2-51

2 5 2 6 2 7 2 7a 2 8 2 9 2 9a 3 0 3 1 3 2 3 3 3 4 3 5 3 6 l ength f rom p rosthion b order o f 1 3

t o a boral

c ranium:

Equus mandible: 1 -6 7 8 -9 1 0 1 1 1 2 1 3 1 4 1 5 1 6 1 7 1 8

s ame 1 3a 1 4 1 4a 1 5 1 5a 1 6 1 7 1 8 1 8a 1 9 2 0 2 1 2 5 s ame 2 3 s ame l ength f rom n asion s ee i ll. 3 5 a nd 3 6

s ame 6 a 7 7 a 8 8 a 9 1 0 1 1 1 2 1 3 1 4 1 5

3 99

t o a krokranion

1 9 2 0 2 1 2 2 2 3

1 6 1 7 1 8 1 9 2 0

Mandible o f R uminantia ( Bos/Cervus/Capreolus/ Ovis/Capra): 1 -9 s ame 1 0 1 01ength 1 1 1 0breadth 1 2 1 1 1 3 1 2 1 4 1 3 1 5 1 4 1 6 1 5a 1 7 1 5b 1 8 1 5c 1 9 l ength o f i ncisor r ow S us mandible: 1 -7 8 9 1 0 1 1 1 2 2 6 1 3 1 4 1 5 1 6 1 7 1 8 1 9 2 0 2 1 2 2 2 3 2 4 2 5 2 6 2 7 2 8

C anis mandible: 1 -12 1 3 1 4 1 5

s ame 7 a 8 9 9 a 1 0breadth 1 01ength 1 1 1 2 1 3 1 4 1 5 1 6a 1 6b 1 6c 1 7 1 8 1 9 2 0 2 1 1 01ength l ength f rom i nfradentale t o a boral e dge o f 1 3 l ength f rom aboral e dge of 1 3 to o ral e dge o f P 1

s ame 1 31ength 1 3breadth 1 4

4 00

1 6 1 7 1 8 1 9 2 0 2 1 2 2 2 3 2 4 2 7-33

1 51ength 1 5breadth 1 61ength 1 6breadth 1 7 1 8 1 9 2 0 2 1 s ee i ll. 3 7

U rsus mandible: 1 -9 1 0 1 1 1 2 1 3 1 4 1 5 1 6 1 7 1 8 1 9 2 0 2 1

s ame 1 01ength 1 0breadth 1 11ength l lbreadth 1 21ength 1 2breadth 1 31ength 1 3breadth 1 4 1 5 1 6 1 7

2 2

s ame a s

Atlas: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

GB GL B Fcf B Fcd GLF LAd

Axis: 1 2 3 . 4 5 6 7 8 S acrum: 1 2 3 4 5

L CDe LAPa B Fcf B Pacd B Ptr S BV B Fcd

GL P L GB B Fcr HFcr

4 01

# 28

f or

C anis

( see

i ll.

3 7)

Scapula: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Humerus: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 0

HS DHA Ld SLC GLP LG BG

GL GL1 GLC Bp Dp SD Bd BT g reatest d epth o f d istal end dorsal-ventral) t aken on medial smallest d epth o f s haft ( dorsal ventral)

Radius: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 0 1 1 1 2

GL PL L l BP BFp SD CD Bd BFd g reatest g reatest smallest

U lna: 1 2 3 4 5

GL LO DPA SDO BPC

P elvis: 1 2 3 4 5 6

GL LA LAR LS SH SB

4 02

p roximal d epth d istal depth d epth o f d iaphysis

s ide

7 8 9 1 0 1 1 1 2

S C LFo GBTc GBA GBTi SBI

Femur: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

GL GLC Bp BTr DC SD CD Bd

9 1 0

g reatest smallest

Patella: 1 2

GL GB

Tibia: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

GL L i Bp SD CD Bd Dd g reatest smallest

Larger 1

c arpal

Astragalus 1 2 -3 4

depth o f d istal e nd b readth of d iaphysis

depth of depth of

p roximal end d iaphysis

bones: GB

( equids): GH GB BFd Lmt

Astragalus 1 2 3 4 5

( artiodactyls): GL1 GLm D 1 Dm Bd

Astragalus 1

( carnivores GL

and

4 03

l agomorphs):

C alcaneus: 1 2

GL GB

Os 1 2

GB r eatest

c entrotarsale:

Metapodials 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 0 1 1 1 2 1 3

( equids

Metapodials 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

( Sus):

Metapodials 1 2

( carnivores GL B d

d epth

and r uminants): GL GL1 L i Bp Dp S D CD DD B d D d B d w idth o f c ondyle ( cf. P ayne 1 969) w idth o f t rochlea ( cf. Payne 1 969)

GL L eP Bp B d g reatest smallest g reatest

P halanx 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

1 ( equids):

P halanx 1 2

1 ( bovids

a nd

GL Bp B Fp Dp S D B d B Fd s mallest g reatest

d epth o f p roximal e nd d epth o f d iaphysis d epth o f d istal end l agomorphs):

d epth o f d epth o f

a nd s uids): GLpe Bp

4 04

d iaphysis d istal end

3 4 5 6 7

SD B d g reatest smallest g reatest

Phalanx 1 2 3 4

2 ( all

species, GL Bp S D B d

Phalanx 1 2 3

3 ( ruminants and D LS L d MBS

d epth o f p roximal e nd d epth o f d iaphysis d epth o f d istal e nd

e xcept

e quids):

s uids):

4 05

A ppendix 8 1: O povo -

t able o f e lements a nd p arts b y a ge

N otes f or r eading t ables o f e lements a nd p arts i n a ppendices: A ll r ight p halanxes a re r ight m edial/left l ateral. A ll l eft p halanxes a re l eft m edial/right l ateral. A ll e lements a re l isted i n c ode. A ll p arts a re l isted i n c ode. T he a ge c ategories a re e xplained i n a ppendix 1 u nder a ge. T he n umbers i n e ach c olumn d o n ot m ean f requencies. T hey a re a c ode f or t he a ge c ategory t hat i s r epresented b y t he e lement-part. E ach n umber r epresents o ne s pecimen - e .g. 8 = s ub-adult/adult. W hen a n umber f ollows i n p arentheses, s uch a s 9 (x3), i t m eans t hat a ge c ategory 9 ( adult) i s r epresented b y t hree s pecimens. e lement-part O vis a ries 0 22-01 0 38-04 0 57-03 0 95-01

r ight

m edial/?

9 8 8 9

C apra h ircus 0 76-03 O vis/Capra 0 200 57-04 0 70-02 0 71-31 0 76-04 1 131 14B os p rimigenius 0 200 22-04 0 36-04 0 38-04 0 40-03 0 57-03 0 /4-04 0 80-16 01 0 95-03 04 B os t aurus 0 040 180 200 210 220 26-01 03 09 0 27-09

l eft

7

8 ,9 9 5

5 ,5,7

8 8 ,8 7

8 9

9 8 8

9 8

7 8 ,8 8 8 9 8 ,8

8

9

9 (r & 1 )

9 9 7 ,9,9 7 ,8 8 ,8

9 (x3) 5 ,5,7,7,8,9,9 8 (x3) 8 7 ,9 0 ,8 9 9 4 06

9

51

9

0 28-01 0 29-01

9 ,9(senile) 7

10 09 0 31-02 0 36-04 16

7 ,8,8 9 ,9 8 ,8

0 38-04 30 15 03 0 39-03 04 0 40-30 03 02 0 43-01

9 9

9

7 ,8 9

8 ,8 0 9 8 ,8

8 ,8

7 ,9 0

8 ,8 9 ,9

3 ,5 8 ,8

0 57-03 04 29 13 0 62-01 0 16 0 63-01 0 66-31

8 (x5) 9

8 (x3) 7 ,7,9

6

8 5 ,8(x4)

8 (x6)

8

8 ,9,9

8

0 67-31 0 69-31 0 70-31 0 74-29 03 04

9

30

7

7 ,7,8 8

8 7 9

9 (x4),9(young)

7

7 ,8(x4) 7

0 75-01 0 76-04 29

8 (x3) 7 ,7,8,8 7

8

03 0 78-01 0 79-05 01 0 80-01 0 80-02 0 87-01

9 ,9 8 a rt. 6 8 7 8 8 ,8

7 ,9(x4)

0 95-03 04 29 30

8 ,8 9

7 ,8(x4) 7

6 ,8,8,9 9 ,9,9art. 8 ,9 7 ,8

1 04-04

7 ,9

1 131 141 24-01

5 ,9,[9,9art.] 7 ,7 5 ,7(x4),8,9(x4) 8 (x3)

4 07

9 (x3) 8 8 9 6 ,7,9 7 ,7,9 8 (x3)

S us s cr. 0 180 20-

?

S us s cr.

f er.

7 5 ,7

0 180 200 26-01 0 30-01

9 (x4) 7 ,8,9(x3)

0 38-04 16 29 0 39-03 ( fused w ith 0 40-30 0 76-04 29 1 05-16 1 14-

8 ,8 8

S us s cr. 0 010 160 180 200 26-03 01 10 0 31-03 0 36-04 16 29 0 38-02 29 15 04 0 39-14 04 03 0 40-30 0 56-01 0 62-16 0 63-01 0 66-31 0 76-37 04 29 03 0 79-01 0 80-29 02 01 0 92-13 01 1 05-03 16 1 13-

9 7

7 8

0 40-03) 8 8 7

8 8 ,8 8

8

d om. 5 (r & 1 ) 5 ,7 5 (x3),9,9

8 3 9 7 9

8 (x3) 9 0 ,7,7,8,9 5 (x5),7(x7),9(x5)

9 7 ,9 8 6 5 8

7 ,8 8

5 ,5 8 6 ,8fused l 6 ,8,8(x3)

7 8 9

0 8 8 6 7 7 7 8 ,8

8 7 8

9 8 9 8 9 7 ,8 4 08

14C anis

7 ,9

7

9

f am.

0 010 18-

5 (r & 1 )

0 200 27-01 0 28-01 0 38-16 0 40-30 0 68-31 0 74-04 0 76-16

0 ,9(x3)

8 8 (x3) 8 8 8

C ervus e laphus 0 01+022

8

0 010 180 20-

7 (x2),9(x5) 5 ,8,9(x4)

9 9

0 210 220 27-03 09 51 0 28-53 52 09 13 0 29-10 01 09 0 30-01 09 0 36-02 29 04 0 38-04 0 39-03 04 29 0 40-02 03 0 43-01 0 44-01 0 51-01 0 57-02 29 03 04

8 3 7 8 9 ,9

13 0 62-34 01 16 0 63-01

8 (x3)

9 9 ,9

8 ,8

9 ,9

9 (r & 1 )

8 8 ,9(x4) 7 (x3),8(x3), 9 (x7)

8 9 ,9

7 ,9(x18), 9 9 9 8 art. 9 9 9

9 ,9

8

9 9 (x3-art.) 9 9 8 8 9 (x3) 8 (x4),9 8 ,8 9 art , 9(x3)

8 9 ,9 8 (x3) 7 ,8(x4) 9 7 ,7

9 9 0 8

8 (x4) 9 (x6),9(art. w ith 1 22-01) 8 5 6 ,8 8 ,8 8 (x6) 4 09

13 0 64-01 0 66-31 0 70-31 0 71-31 0 72-31 0 74-04 03 0 76-04 03 0 79-01 0 80-01 13 04 16 0 87-01 0 95-03 04 13 29 1 04-04 1 131 141 22-01 0 63-01 1 24-01

8 8 8

8 8 8

8 8 7 ,8 9 8 (x3)

8 (x4) 7 ,9 8 (x5) 8 ,9(epiphyseal

8 (x3) 8 ,9(x5)

l ine v isible) 9 8

9

8 8 (x4) 8 (x9) 9

8 (x3),9 8 (x5) 9 ,9 8 8

9 ,9 8 9 8 art.,8art.,8art. 98 8 , 8 , 8 8x 4

C apreolus c apreolus 0 01+122 0 207 ,7,9(x3) 0 229 ,9 0 26-09 0 36-04 5 0 38-04 8 03 9 29 0 39-03 8 0 40-03 0 57-03 01 0 66-31 0 70-01 0 74-03 9 0 76-04 0 79-01 8 ,8 0 95-03 8 01 9 L epus s p. 0 54-01 0 93-03 0 94-03

9 8 ,8

8 (x6)

8 (r & 1 ) 8 ,9 9

9 ,9 9 (x3) 9 8 5 7 8 9 8 2 8 8 8 ,8

9

9 8 8

4 10

Jii Z W

Z D

: E

N

c v

0 4 - c v

g r L a

2

2 U J < 0

N C D C D C D -

2 w < 0

( D a D e l C D -

0 a D C D -

r -

c r ) N 0

e C ' ) N 0 . -

C I c v ) 0 4 0

( D N N 0

a ) ( D c v C ) - u l 0 ,C D

C D C D 0 1 C D

0 C ) e l C D

r-

. --

1 ..

r-

M . C D e q C )

C D 0 1 p . C D

0 ) a D c v C D

a D P . 0

e .-

e-

r-

e . . . .

0

a D c o a D C D


U . J
N N O O O O N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N N M M N N n w e n 0 0 0c :z o o 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 u l ul m o u l ul o o l gl o ul o ul u l o 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

o ul 0 0 0 0

o ul 0 0 0 0

o w ) e 0 0 0 0 0 0

w co w co to 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

w 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0

0 0

0 0

e co m u p 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

w co w up 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

e co up 0 0 0 0 0 0

w co o w N 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

N 0 0

N N 0 0 0 0

C ' ) C ' ) C ' ) C ' ) C ' ) C ' ) C ' ) C ' ) C ' ) C ' )C ' )C ' )C ' )C ' )C ' )C ' )C ' )C ' )C ' )C ' )C ' )C ' )C ' )C ' )C ' )C ' )C ' )C ' )C ' )C ' )C ' )C ' )C ' )C ' )C ' )C ' )C ' )C ' )C ' )C ' )C ' )C ' )C ' )C ' )C ' )C ' )C ' ) C ' ) ( ‚ DC ' ) C ' )C ' )C ' ) C ' )C ' ) m m e e m o m m e N - n eco n N n o w N e m e e - ,- O A N N — n m e e - o ocv ec p o o- o o N N - o- - 0 0 0 0- - 0 0 0 m- - 0

0

0 0

0

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0

0

0

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0 0

0

0

0 0

0 0

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0

e e n e w w w 0 0 00 A 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

w o e

e

e

0 0

0

0

0

— 0 0

m e mr 0 N e N 0 0 0 0

O 0

- e N N 0 0

- N m o o min o N o e m - o e e 0 0 0 N o o e e N N w e m n N 0 0 0 0 p 0 0 0 0 nco n w e e e e w 0 0 0 0 m o 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 00 00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 m - o ec,4Nco n e e e N hcN N - o o - e m mcv N e e N N N N e e e e e m m e m e 0 0 0 Nc,s cv N N N N m m e - N O N 0 0 e 0 0 e e 0 0 0 0 .N N N N e e N 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 ,-.-N N 0 0 0 .0

0 0

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o e N m e o - c,im e o w N m m o - N n e o w N m e o - N n eco w Nco m o - N n e o w N m m o - N m e m e Nco m 0 0 0 0 0 e e e e w w w w w e N N N N N N N N N Ncoco m mco m mco mco m m eo )e me em m 0 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 0 N

4 52

N

N

N

N N N N

N

N

N

i f )

C V

V O C Y

L C ) 0

0

e C I 0 0 N

o

o

• o

N C O C O 0 0

r - a ) eN C V ) a ; ) 0 0

N O C 0 c( 0 ( . 0 1 1 0 0

L O CO 0 N L c ) h

0 N N C ' )

oo

0

N

O.- 0 0 N N h 0 0 0

N 0 0

0 0

C r )

C O i n ec vec oc o o— 0 0 0

e 0

U 7 C O

c o u n c o - r c o m a) c o a ) c o

( 7 3 1 0

0

e L i n 0 U n C O 0 0

N 0 a ) ( . 0 0 0 0

N 0

( C ) c 0 N r ( 1) C ' n 0 0 0

0

C D 0

0

0

0

U l N U l e l c n u 3 e e

0

C V ) ' t ( C 0 ' : ( C 0 • u n ( J D r - h V D V D 0

0

L C ) - 0 C O 0 ) C O e N N 0 0 0

Ob r c oc o o

0 0 0

0

h 0 ) 0 Ne i l 0 0

( . 0 t i ) t r ) N 0 0

0 0 e ) 0

ON ' :

0 L I ) L C ) L C ) N C ' ) 0 0

0 N 0

O D 0

( CO N N e

0

0

0 r ) C O C O ( C 1

oo

0

a ) c o

.

0 0 0 e - • •

N

M N ° 0 C O ( 3 ) ( " I N N 0 0 0

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