Later Prehistory from the Trent to the Tyne, Parts i and ii: Part i: Discussion, Part ii: Catalogue and Illustrations 9781407387352, 9781407387369, 9780904531237, 9781407318332

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Later Prehistory from the Trent to the Tyne Part i: Discussion A. J. Challis &

D. W. Harding

British Archaeological Reports 2 o(i) 1 975

British Archaeological Reports 122

Banbury Road, Oxford OX2 7BP, England GENERAL EDITORS

A.C.C. Brodribb, M.A. Mrs. Y.M. Hands

A.R. Hands, B.Sc., M.A., D.Phil. D.R. Walker, B.A. ADVISORY EDITORS

Neil Cossons, M.A., F.S.A., F.M.A. C.B. Burgess, M.A. Professor B.W. Cunliffe, M.A., Ph.D., F.S.A. Sonia Chadwick Hawkes, B.A., M.A., F .S.A. Professor G.D.B. Jones, M.A., D.Phil., F.S.A. Frances Lynch, M.A., F.S.A. P.A. Mellars, M.A., Ph.D. P.A. Rahtz, M.A., F .S.A.

B.A.R. 20 (I), 1975: "Later Prehistory from the Trent to the Tyne" Part II © A. J. Challis and D. W. Harding, 1975

The authors’ moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9781407387352 (Volume I) paperback ISBN 9781407387369 (Volume II) paperback ISBN 9780904531237 (Volume set) paperback ISBN 9781407318332 (Volume set) e-format DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780904531237 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

LATER PREHISTORY FROM THE TRENT TO THE TYNE

PART i

CONTENTS Page P ar t i B ibl iograph ica l Abbrev ia t ions A bbrev ia t ions o f S ources :

Ma in ly Museu ms

Pre face I . i . i . i i.

I n troduc t ion :

I NTRODUCT ION

S u mmary o f Pas t a nd Curren t Research

1

Prob le ms o f t he Ma ter ia l a nd us I n terpre ta t ion

5

S o me Env iron men ta l Factors

8

I . CHAPTER 1 .

MATER IAL RE MA INS

THE MATER IALS USED AND S O ME TECHN ICAL FACTORS

i . i .

Pottery

1

Meta lwork

1 5

i i.

Wood

1 8

i v.

Bone a nd An t ler

2 1

S tone

2 2

O ther Ma ter ia ls

2 4

v . v i.

CHAPTER 2 . i .

Meta lwork

2 6

Pot tery :

Genera l Cons idera t ions

3 0

Pot tery :

Deta i ls o f Types

3 2

CHAPTER 3 . i . i .

4 0

Po t tery

4 6

THE EARLY LA TENE PER IOD

Pot tery

5 6

Me ta lwork

6 2

CHAPTER 5 . i .

HALLSTATT I NFLUENCES

Meta lwork

CHAPTER 4 . i .

THE LATE BRONZE AGE

THE M IDDLE LA TE NE PER IOD

Meta lwork

6 7

Po t tery

7 4

P age CHAPTER 6 . i .

THE LATE LA TE NE PER IOD

Meta lwork

8 4

P ot tery

9 1 I I.

CHAPTER 7 . i . i . i i. i v. v .

H ILL-FORT IF ICAT IONS

F ences

1 01

Wa l ls

1 05

Du mps

12

Cast le H i l l , A l mondbury , n ear Huddersf ie ld

16

Unexcava ted S i tes

1 21

CHAPTER 8 . i . i .

TYPES OF DO MEST IC S ETTLE MENT

Ear ly t o L ate Bronze Age

1 25

I ron Age Enclosures

1 30

Ex tens ive a nd Unenc losed S et t le men t

1 38

CHAPTER 9 . i . i .

DWELL ING S TRUCTURES

C ircu lar Types

1 43

Rectangu lar Types

1 49

CHAPTER 1 0. i . i .

FOOD-PRODUCING ECONO MY

Arab le Ev idence

1 53

Pas tora l Ev idence

1 59

CHAPTER 1 1. i . i .

S ETTLE MENTS AND S TRUCTURES

REL IG IOUS AND BUR IAL S ITES

The L a T bne Bur ia ls o f Eastern Yorksh ire

1 66

O ther Bur ia l Ev idence

1 74

I V . i .

RE G IONAL S U M MAR IES AND CONCLUS IONS

Cu mbr ia

1 80

Lancastr ia

1 81

i i.

Co. Durha m

1 82

i v.

N or th-Eas t Yorksh ire

1 83

v .

The Askr igg Penn ines

1 84

v i.

The S outhern Penn ines

1 85

The Eas t R id ing

1 86

v i i i.

v i i.

The Wes t M id lands

1 87

i x .

The East Mid lands

1 88

B ib l iography

1 92

I ndex t o Par t i

2 24

Page Par t i L is t o f F igures L ist o f P la tes No tes o n F igures

1 .

No tes o n P la tes

6 0

F igures 1 -100

6 1

P la tes I -X

1 61

B ib l iograph ica l Abbrev ia t ions AA.

Archaeo log ia Ae l iana.

ANNC W .

Archaeo log ica l Newsbu l le t in f or Nor thu mber land , Cu mber land , a nd Wes tmor land .

An t .

An t iqu ity .

An t . J .

An t iqu i :r ie s J ourna l.

Arch.

Archaeo log ia .

Arch. Ca mb

Archaeo log ia Ca mbrens is.

A rch. J .

Archaeo log ica l J ourna l.

BAGB.

Brad ford Archaeo logy Group Bu l let in .

BMQ.

Br it ish Museu m Quar ter ly .

CA .

Curren t Archaeo logy .

CBATVARC

Counc il f or Br it ish Archaeo logy Tren t Va l ley Archaeo log ica l Research Co m m it tee.

DAJ.

D erbysh ire Archaeo log ica l J ourna l.

D . o f t he E .

D epar t men t o f t he Env ironmen t .

EMAB.

Eas t M id land Archaeo log ica l Bu l let in.

ERA .

Eas tR id ing Archaeo log is t .

HDASQB.

Huddersf ie ld a nd D istr ict Archaeo log ica l S oc ie _ Quar ter ly Bu l let in .

HMP.

H u l l Museu m Pub l ica t ions.

I nv. Arch.

I nven tar ia Archae logca .

JRA I.

J ourna l o f t he Roya l An thropo log ica l I nst itu te.

J RS.

J ourna l o f Ro man S tud ies.

KAGN.

Keele Archaeo logy G roup News let ter .

LAASRP.

L inco lnsh ire Archaeo log ica l a nd Arch itectura l S oc iety Repor ts a nd Papers.

LHA.

L inco lnsh ire H is tory a nd Archaeo logy.

MASCA N ews let ter

Massachuset ts App l ied S c ience C en ter f or Archaeo logy News let ter .

N . Phy t.

New P hy to log is t.

Nor th S ta f fordsh ire J ourna l o f F ie ld S tud ies. PSAL.

Proceed ings o f t he S oc iety o f An t iquar ies o f L ondon .

PPS .

Proceed ings o f t he Preh istor ic S oc iety.

PSAS .

Proceed ings o f t he S oc iety o f An t iquar ies o f S cot land.

RAE CE.

Revue Archako log ique d e l 'E s t e t d u Cen tre - Es t .

S xAC.

S ussex Archaeo log ica l Co l lect ions.

S AF.

S cot t ish Archaeo log ica l F oru m.

TAASDN .

Transact ions o f t he Arch itectura l a nd Archaeo log ica l S oc iety o f Durha m a nd N or thu mber land.

TC WAAS .

Transact ions o f t he Cu mber land a nd West mor land An t iquar ian a nd Archaeo log ica l S oc iety .

THAS .

Transact ions o f t he H un ter Archaeo log ica l S oc ie ty .

TLAHS .

Transact ions o f t he L e ices tersh ire Archaeo log ica l a nd H is tor ica l S oc iety .

TLCAS.

Transact ions o f t he L ancash ire a nd Chesh ire Archaeo log ica l S oc iety .

TLCHS .

Transact ions o f t he L ancash ire a nd Chesh ire H is tor ica l S oc ie ty .

T SDAS .

Transac t ions o f t he S carborough a nd D is tr ic t Archaeo log ica l S oc ie ty .

TTSN .

Transact ions o f t he Thoroton S oc iety o f No t t ingha ms h ire.

ULAAA.

Un ivers ity o f L iverpoo l Anna ls o f An thropo logy a nd Archaeo logy .

VCH.

V ictor ia Coun ty H istory .

WA M .

Wi l tsh ire Archaeo log ica l a nd Natura l H is tory Magaz ine.

YAJ.

Yorksh ire Archaeo log ica l J ourna l.

Abbrev ia t ions o f S ources :

Ma in ly Museu ms

BM.

Br it ish Museu m .

B i M.

B irchover Pr ivate Museu m ( Mr . J . P . H ea thco te ).

B uM .

Bux ton Museu m.

BNT.

Mr . B . N . T ink ler , Mar tonin-Cleve land .

DM .

Derby Museu m.

DM M.

Dor man Me muLia l Museu m , M idd lesbrough .

DP M.

Dr if f ie ld Pr iva te Museu m ( Messrs. C . a nd E . G ran tha m ).

DU.

Durha m Un ivers ity Depar t men t o f Archaeo logy .

GM .

Gran tha m Museu m.

H aM.

H arroga te Museu m.

H u M.

H u l l Museu m.

L e M.

L e icester Museu m.

L iM .

L inco ln Museu m.

LU.

L e icester Un ivers ity Depar t men t o f Archaeo logy .

MM .

Manches ter Museu m.

MPB W .

M in is try o f P ub l ic Bu i ld ings a nd Works.

MTFC .

Ma lha m T arn F ie ld Cen tre.

MU.

Manches ter Un ivers ity D epar t men t o f H istory .

NC M .

N ot t ingha m Cas t le Museu m.

NU M .

N ot t ingha m Un ivers ity Museu m.

OS .

Ordnance S urvey Card I ndex o f Br it ish An t iqu it ies.

PYC M.

P ig Yard C lub Museu m , S et t le.

RC.

Mr . R . C lose , K i lda le.

RCH M.

Roya l Co mm iss ion o n H is tor ica l Monu men ts ( Eng land ).

S bM .

S carborough Museu m .

S hM .

S hef f ie ld Museu m.

S kM .

S k ip ton Museu m.

S t .Jo.A. P .

Prof . J . K . S t . J oseph , C a mbr idge U n ivers ity C o l lect ion o f Aer ia l P hotographs.

TVARC.

Tren t Va l ley Archaeo log ica l Research Co m m ittee.

W M.

Worksop Museu m.

YC M .

York Cas t le Museum.

YM.

Yorksh ire Museu m.

T o t hese p r iva te i nd iv idua ls a nd t o t he s ta f f o f t hese p ub l ic i ns t itu tions t he wr iters r ecord t he ir t hanks.

PREFACE

I n r ecen t y ears , ac on t inu ing r esearch e f for t , p ar t icu lar ly o r ienta ted t owards r eg iona l s tudy , h as c on tr ibuted s ign if icant ly t o t he c lar if icat ion o f t he I ron Age o f s outhern E ng land . L ikew ise , a rchaeo log ica l r econna issance , e xcava t ion a nd r ad iocarbon d at ing h ave h e lped t o e luc ida te t he l a ter p reh istory o f Br ita in n or th o f t he Tyne. As y et , n o s yst a ma t ic a t te mpt h as b een made i n p r in t t o e xam in, t he a rchaeo logy o f t h is p er iod i n t he i n terveni ng a rea, o r t o e va luate a s a who le t he l arge b ody o f e v idence wh ich h as a cc umu lated a s ar esu lt o f i n tens ive l oca l r esearch i n v ar ious p ar ts o f t he r eg ion . T he r esearch , o f w h ich t hese v o lu mes a re t he p ub l ished p roduct , was u nder taken b y A .J. Cha l l is o ver a t hree y ear p er iod f rom 1 969-72 , u nder t he s uperv is ion o f t he p resen t wr iter , a nd l ed t o t he s uccessfu l s ub m iss ion o f t he work a s ad octora l d isser ta t ion i n t he Un ivers ity o f Durha m i n t he a utu mn o f 1 972.

T hereaf ter , b e ing u nab le t o s ecure a p ost i n Br it ish

a rchaeo logy , Dr . Cha l l is em igrated t o N ew Z ea land , l eav ing h is t hes is w ith t h is w r iter t o p repare a nd e d it f or p ub l ica t ion.

I ts hou ld b e emphas ised ,

t herefore , t ha t t he b u lk o f t h is w ork i s t he r esu lt o f Dr . Cha ll is ' l abours , a nd t hat t h is wr iter 's c on tr ibut ion h as b een o n ly t o r ev ise t he t ex t a nd i l l us tra t ions f or p ub l ica t ion a nd t o i ncorporate t he r esu l ts o f r ecen t r esearch. T he r esearch p rogra m me i t se l f e n ta iled a d e ta iled e xam ina t ion o f l a ter Bronze Age a nd I ron Age s i tes a nd ma ter ia l r e ma ins ( par t icu lar ly c oarse p o t tery ) f ro m t he T ren t t o t he T yne. Wh ile t he n or thern , w es tern a nd e as tern l im its o f t h is a rea a re w e l l-def ined , t he s ou thern a nd s outh-eas tern marg in , t hrough Chesh ire , S hropsh ire , S ta f fordsh ire , L e ices tersh ire a nd L inco lnsh ire h as n o u n itary p hys iograph ica l o r a rchaeo log ica l b as is. E v id ence f ro m t he T ren t b as in , i nclud ing t ha t f ro m t he s ou thern a nd e as tern p ar ts o f t he d ra inage s ys te m , t here fore , i s c ons idered i n d e ta il , b u t t ha t f rom b eyond Wa t l ing S tree t , Ra tae C or itanorum ( Le icester ), a nd E rm ine S tree t i s n o t . T he d ef in it ion i s p r inc ipa l ly o ne o f c onven ience w i th r egard t o b o th t he n a ture a nd t he q uan t ity o f t he e v idence i nc luded . T he r ecords o f t he Roya l C o mm iss ion o n H istor ica l Monu men ts ( Eng land ) a nd t he Na t iona l Monu men ts Record , a nd t he c o l lect ions o f mos t p r ivate a nd p ub l ic museu ms w ith r e levan t ma ter ia l h ave mos t g enerous ly b een made a va i lab le f or s tudy . Excava t ion d irectors f ro m l oca l a rchaeo log ica l s oc iet ies , f ro m museu ms , a nd f ro m t he Depar tmen t o f t he Env ironmen t h ave l ikew ise w i l l ing ly o f fered u npub l ished e v idence.

Y et t he e x ten t t o w h ich t h is

work r e l ies u pon s uch s ources r ef lects a s i tua t ion i n wh ich a h igh p roport ion o f e v idence r e ma ins u npub l ished. I ts hou ld b e u nderstood , moreover , t ha t t o s o me e x ten t t he r e l iab i l ity o f t he who le i s d ependent u pon t he a ccuracy o f t he c on tr ibuted p ar ts , wh ich h ave b een a ccep ted a s t rustwor thy i n most c ases.

S o me s ources o f i n for mat ion may n ot h ave b een f u l ly u t i l ised , a nd

i n o t her c ases ma ter ia l p roved t o h ave b een m is la id o r w as o therw ise n o t a va i lab le f or s tudy .

The w ork i s a rranged i n f our p ar ts.

An i n troductory s ect ion i s f o l lowed

b y c hap ters c ons ider ing ma ter ia l r e ma ins , c hap ters d iscuss ing s e t t lemen ts a nd s tructures , a nd a f ina l p ar t o f s u m mar ies a nd c onc lus ions.

I n t he s econd

v o lu me a re t he N o tes o n F igures , i n wh ich i s i ncorpora ted a l arge b ody o f t he b as ic e v idence. T he ma ter ia l r e ma ins wh ich h ave b een i l lus tra ted a re h ere d escr ibed , t he n u mbered l ayers o f t he s ect ion d raw ings a re l i sted , a nd k eys p rov ided t o t he s i tes i nc luded o n t he d istr ibu t ion maps.

P ar t icu lar men t ion

s hou ld b e made o f t he c onven t ion o f d escr ib ing p ot tery i n t er ms o f i t s o u ter f ace , i nner f ace a nd s ect ion , s ince t he c o lour , t ex ture o r f abr ic o f s herds i s s e ldo m c ons isten t t hroughou t. References t o F igs. w ith a c ap ita l l e t ter a re t o t hose i l lustra ted h ere i n V o l. 2 ;

r eferences t o i l lus tra t ions i n o ther works

a re g iven a s f igs. i n l ower c ase. One a spect i n wh ich c ons iderab le p rogress h as b een made i n r ecen t y ears h as b een t he a ccu mu la t ion o f r ad iocarbon d a tes f ro m n or thern s i tes. c onvers ion o f t hese i n to ' ca lendar ' o r ' h istor ica l ' y ears

T he

r e ma ins f raugh t w ith

d if icu l t ies , h owever , a nd i n a ccordance w ith s tandard p ract ice , w e h ave t hroughou t t h is work q uoted r ad iocarbon d a tes i n it ia l ly i n t erms o f f ie L ibby h a l f-l ife. O f t he v ar ious ' ca l ibra t ion 'graphs p ub l ished i n r ecen t y ears ( e.g. Ra lph , M ichae ' a nd H an , 1 973 ; f or b ib l iography , s ee An t iqu ity , 1 88 , 1 973, 3 09 ) we h ave p referred McKerre l l 's s ys te m , b ased u pon a 5 0 y ear a verag ing p rocedure , i n l i eu o f a ny more w ide ly a pproved c onven t ion. One o f t he ma jor p rob le ms o f l a ter p reh istory i n r ecen t y ears h as b een t he i den t if icat ion o f ac orpus o f l a ter Bronze Age p o t tery . For t he n or th , t h is p rob le m h as a pp l ied w ith e qua l f orce t o t he p re-Ro man I ron Age , a nd i t i s o ne wh ich mus tb e r eso lved , n o t s o much b y a ssoc ia t ions w ith meta lwork a s b y a ssoc ia t ions o n s i te w ith r ad iocarbon d a tes , o r b y European a na log ies. T o a tte mp t ac lass if ica t ion o f p ot tery o n t he b as is o f a na log ies o f f orm . , f abr ic o r s ty le o f d ecora t ion i s c lear ly a s ub ject ive p rocess , a nd o ne i n wh ich we may a n t ic ipate a c ons tan t r eappra isa l o f t he e v idence a s r esearch i n t h is f i eld p rog resses. Bu t u n t i l l abora tory t echn iques a re p er fected wh ich make p oss ib le t he d a t ing o f i nd iv idua l s herds o f p o t tery , w e b e l ieve t hat t h is c onven t iona l a pproach t o t he s tudy o f p o t tery , f or a l l i t s i nadequac ies , h as s o me mer it i n r educ ing a mass o f ma ter ia l t o as e mb lance o f o rder f ro m wh ich f ur ther r es earch c an p roceed . F ina l ly , i ts hou ld b e r e itera ted t hat we h ave b een e spec ia l ly c oncerned i n t h is s tudy w ith ma ter ia l h ither to u npub l ished , a nd h ave n ot , i n c onsequence , r eproduced i l lus tra t ions o f w e l l-b lown o b jec ts o r ma jor a sse mb lages wh ich h ave b een a dequa te ly p ub l ished e lsewhere.

T he e xc lus ion o f s uch ma ter ia l i s

i n n o s ense mean t t o imp ly a r ela t ive s ca le o f i mpor tance , t herefore , a nd f u l l r eferences a re g iven t o p ub l ished s ources o f t hese k ey s i tes a nd a r tefac ts . I ti s h oped t ha t a l l a ss istance h as b een a dequa te ly a cknow ledged i n t he t ex t o r n o tes a s a ppropr ia te. Among t he many i nd iv idua ls a nd i ns t itut ions t o whom we owe a d eb t o f g ra t itude , p ar t icu lar t hanks must b e r ecorded t o t he f ol low ing : A . Aberg , D . Ashurst , J . E . Bar t let t , P . Besw ick , T . C . M. Brews ter , A . Bu t terwor th , R . C lose , D . Cogg ins , D . Coo mbs , G . T . Emery , K . Fa ir less , C . a nd E . Gran tha m , C . E . Har t ley , R . H . H ayes , R . G . Hughes , D . I nger , A . K ing , G . C . Know les , I . H . L ongwor th , C . D . L ong , T . L ord , J . May , C . N . Moore , M iss M-J. Moun ta in , H . G . Ra mm , R . A .

Rut land ,

J . G . Rut ter , I . M. S tead , W. H . S outhern , D . A . S pra t t , D . T hubron , B . N . T ink ler , J . P . T oo mey , M. T odd , W. J . V ar ley , G . F . Wh ite a nd G . F . Wi l lmo t.

F ina l ly , we mus t r ecord o ur s pec ia l t hanks t o Mr . G eorge J obey

a nd P rofessor S tuar t P iggot t , who r ead t he work a t a n e ar l ier s tage , a nd Mr . Co l in B urgess , who r ead t he t ex t i n d ra f t , f or t he ir i nva luab le c o mmen ts a nd s ugges t ions , a nd t o Dr . An thony H ands , whose c o-opera t ion a nd e n terpr ise h ave made p oss ib le i t s p ub l ica t ion.

D . W. Hard ing , March , 1 975.

I. INTRODUCTION i.

Summary of Past and Current Research

The accelerating progress of archaeological reconnaissance and excavation is as evident in those counties between the Trent and the Tyne as it is elsewhere in Britain. In recent years, however, there has been no work of collection and reconstruction in this central region such as would serve as a source of ref­ erence and a measure of progress. Most archaeologists within the area, pro­ fessional and private, work within an enclosed geographical horizon, and often seem unaware of how their findings might relate to progress beyond their lo­cal hills. It seems appropriate, therefore, to attempt a synthesis of the evi­dence now available for the later prehistoric period, to highlight those areas in which least progress has been made, to provoke a reaction of criticism, and so to induce better co-ordination and regional balance in future research. It is not only the size of the region, over 150 miles from north to south, and often more than 120 miles from coast to coast, which ensures its import­ance to the prehistorian. Its central position in Britain assures its relevance to the archaeology of the other provinces bordering the Irish Sea, and as a po­tential link between north and south in the development of, for example, forti­fication and metalwork types. The east is deeply cut by navigable rivers, and thus is open to influences from the Continent, especially, perhaps, from the Dutch and German coasts. The northward sweep of the Jurassic Way implies the possibility of close relationships with the south-west of England. Sites in the northern counties are clearly related to some extent to trends north of the Tyne. Moreover, the area provides an excellent archaeological study, with deep internal contrasts in terrain, in the quantity of material remains, and in the impact of innovating cultures. There is also a unique opportunity for the correlation of a palynological record of environmental change with the archaeo­ logical evidence (or the apparent lack of evidence) for the cultures in question. The absence of evidence for a succession of Iron Age cultures in parts of our region has often prompted comment. Some forty years ago M. R. Hull could maintain that throughout the counties of N orthumberland, Durham and Yorkshire, not a single find of the pre-Roman Iron Age had been recognised, "apart from the wdl-known invasion of the Parisii" (in Kitson Clark, Hl30, 168). More recently, I. M. Stead has complained that the only Iron Age settlements in eastern Yorkshire either "defy close correlation because of the paucity of artifacts"', date earlier than his Arras Culture, or belong to the immediately pre-Conquest period (1971, 29-30). As for pottery, that from Derbyshire sites at Ball Cross and Mam Tor has been linked with that from Stanwick in the N orth Riding as "Brigantian Ware" (Bartlett and Preston, 1956, 113) and social reasons have been sought for the absence of fine early La Tene wares in eastern Yorkshire (Brailsford, 1_958, 93). Over large areas of the north and west, where evidence for any Iron Age is limited or absent, the re­action has been to invoke substantial Bronze Age survivals, carrying not only

their own tradition but also those of the Neolithic period, through to the end of the first millennium B.C. (For example, Collingwood, R. G., 1933a, 189192). As recently as 1965, J. M. Coles has suggested that in northern parts of Britain metalwork of normal developed Late Bronze Age types continued in use into these closing centuries (Fell and Coles, 1965, 50). In some particularly isolated localities, where the paucity of artifacts is especially marked, it may be that the case for complete cultural stagnation throughout the first millennium B.C. might be acceptable, as for instance, in Furness (Barnes, 1968). However, there is often a high density of Late Bronze Age metalwork in areas where such an explanation might otherwise be conveniently invoked, such as Cumbria (Clough, 1969), West Yorkshire (Raistrick, 1929), and north Lincolnshire (Davey, 1971). Recent research has shown that material in the different parts of Britain can be related within a well-defined chronological framework (Burgess, 1968a; 1968b). Moreover, the application of radiocarbon dating to sites within our area such as Mam Tor, Grimthorpe, Ampleforth Moor, and Staple Howe, has produced results which, as we shall see, are to some extent compatible with the evidence of the mate­ rial remains from these sites, and which suggest dates for pottery types and structures at least as early as those now available for similar assemblages north of the Tyne and in southern England. With the consequent extension of the time-scale for the British Iron Age, to which the e... idence from our region must be related, it is becoming increasingly difficult to accept interpretations of the archaeology of northern England involYing the extensive invocation of cultural decline and chronological retardation. Other explanations, such as variations in the economic basis of regional cultures, possible land exhaustion, and bias in the recovery of evidence, must be sought in specific cases. The object of this survey, therefore, is to present the material remains of the region in a provisional chronological sequence, devised on the basis of site association and relevant British and European analogies, and to examine the evidence of settlement sites, economy, and burial in relation to that from ad­ jacent areas. We must examine the extent to which our evidence is indicative of indigenous tradition or intrusive innovation, and consider critically the case for regional uniformity or disparity of culture throughout the first millennium B.C. From a detailed examination of the archaeological evidence for this period from the Trent to the Tyne, we shall propose a tentative historical syn­ thesis, draw inferences concerning those aspects of our knowledge which are most fragmentary and, where possible, offer conclusions about the cultural and political divisions of the area in the immediately pre-Roman period. Historically, the study of the later prehistoric archaeology of the region has been marked by an uneven intensity of research from area to area, and by outstanding publications by a few enthusiastic workers. Amongst the most sig­ nificant of early contributions were those by H. MacLaughlan (1849) in the northern Pennines, by H. S. Cowper (1893), C. W. Dymond (1893a; 1893b), and J. Dobson (1907; 1912) in Cumbria, and by J. Ward (1890), E. Howarth (1899) and W. S. Fox (1909; 1911) in the southern Pennines. The pioneer work of J. R. Mortimer (1905; 1911) on the burials and dykes of the East Riding, and th.:- �blication of the Holderness "Lake Dwellings" and the Scarborough pits by 1-' . A. Smith (1911; 1927) were of major European importance. The 2

The years leading up to the Second World War saw a series of classic regiomil studies, by F. Elgee in north-east Yorkshire (1930), R. G. Collingwood in Cumbria (1933a), C. W. Phillips in Lincolnshire (1934), M. Kitson Clark in eastern Yorkshire (1935), A.Raistrick in west Yorkshire (1929; 1939), and the Royal Commission on Historical Monuments (England) in Westmorland (1936). The first important programmes of hill-fort excavations were under­ taken by W. J. Varley atBickerton and Eddisbury, Cheshire (1935; 1936; 1951) and at Castle Hill, Almondbury, Yorkshire (1969; 1975) and by K. M. Kenyon at the Wrekin, Shropshire, andBreedon-on-the-Hill, Leicestershire (1942; 1950). There followed two substantial works of historical interpreta­ tion, by Sir Mortimer Wheeler, in his report on excavations at the Stanwick fortifications (1954) anq by 1. A. Richmond in his study of theBrigantes (1954). Other reg;ional surveys include th0se by F. J. Sobee on the Pilling region (1953), F. L. Presto� (1954) and J. Forde-Johnston (1962) on the hill-forts of the southern Pennines and of Lancashire and Cheshire respectively, W. J. Varley on Cheshire (1964, following an earlier version in 1940), A. J. H. Gunstone on Staffordshire (1964; 1965) and F.Barnes on Furness (1968). Important excavations were conducted on native sites in Cumberland (Blake, 1959), on defended enclosures in south-west Yorkshire (Raistrick and Holmes, 1962), and on sites in the Worksop area (Wlµte, 1966), in addition to many others, particularly in eastern Yorkshire. Notable efforts of rescue excava­ tion, field survey and research were carried out by those in correspondence with the Archaeology Division of the Ordnance Survey. There seem to be five main areas of activity in recent research, all to some extent interlinked, but often taking place in an un-coordinated manner. The first is a continuation of the tradition of independent local research, as best illustrated in the work of T. C. M. Brewster at Staple Howe (1963). Much of this local interest is now shepherded by museums and local archaeo­ logical societies, and in general, high standards of excavation and recording are maintain�d. Examples here are the work of the Keele Archaeology Group atBerth Hill and Maerfield Gate (Emery and Mills, 1964, et seq.), and of the Excavation Committee for Portfield Camp, Whalley (Beswick, 1970). Muni­ cipal museums such as Hull, Nottingham and Leicester have undertaken sig­ nificant work. Salvage operations over a long period by C. and E. Grantham of Great Driffield have resulted in the ?,Ccumulation of a larg� pottery collec­ tion in their private museum. The second sphere of activity is the excavation and research by profes­ sional University and College of Education staff. Particularly relevant is the work of T. G. E. Powell at Skelmore Heads, Lancashire (1963), D. Coombs and others from Manchester at Mam Tor, Derbyshire (1967; 1971; 1975) and Castercliff, Lancashire, J. May and others from Nottingham at Ancaster and Dragonby, Lincolnshire (May 1966, et seq.), D. D. A. Simpson and J. S. Wacher atBreedon-on-the-Hill andBurrough Hill, Leicestershire (Wacher, 1964), W. J. Varley atBarmston (1968) and Castle Hill, Almondbury, both in Yorkshire, F. A. Aberg at Eston Nab and Horse Close Farm, Skipton, also in Yorkshire, and G. Jobey at WestBrandon iJl County Durham (1962). The importance of each of these sites cannot be over-emphasised. The trend to­ wards quick publication or the production of deta,iled duplicated interim re­ ports is particularly welcome, but not yet totally established. 3

The t h ird a spect o f c urren t a c t iv ity i s s ur face f i e ldwork , mapp ing a nd r ec ord ing.

The Archaeo logy D iv is ion o f t he Ordnance S urvey p roceeds , c oun ty

b y c oun ty , i n t he i nvest iga t ion , mapp ing , a nd b r ief d escr ip t ion o f i nd iv idua l f i e ld monu men ts a nd o ther f inds , p rov id ing a b as ic r ecord o f t he l oca t ion a nd c ond it ion o f s i tes.

A r ecen t s tudy o f t he West R id ing i s c o mp lete , a nd h as

a dded a n u mber o f n ew s i tes t o o ur k now ledge.

Much more d eta iled w ork i s

u nder taken b y t he Roya l Co m m iss ion o n H istor ica l Monu men ts ( Eng land ) , wh ich a dop ts a more g eograph ica l a nd a na ly t ica l a pproach , e xa m in ing t he c ons t ituen t h is tor ica l e le men ts i n t he ir c on tex t w ith in a t o ta l l andscape.

A s tudy o f t he

East R id ing , a nd p ar t icu lar ly o f i t s l inear e ar thworks , i s i n p rogress.

T he

r esu l ts o f r esearch b y t hese o rgan isa t ions a re a lways made a va ilab le t o o ther a rchaeo log ists o n r eques t ;

p rob le ms , h owever , s te m f ro m t he sma l l s ize o f

t he p rofess iona l s ta f fs a nd t he r esu ltan t s low r a te o f p rogress a nd p ub l ica t ion. There a re l arge v ar ia t ions i n t he d ep th o f d eta il o f t he r eg iona l c overage , b u t t he e v idence o b ta ined p rov ides a b as ic s ource f or a s tudy o f a ny p er iod o f Br ita in 's p as t. Four th ly , t he Depar t men t o f t he Env iron men t , b y t he w ork o f i t s own s ta f f a nd b y t he g ran t ing o f f inanc ia l a id t o s oc ie t ies , museu ms a nd e xcava t ion c o mm it tees , s eeks t o meet t he n eed t o e xcava te a nd r ecord a rchaeo log ica l s i tes t hrea tened w ith d es truct ion .

Mos t n otab le e xcava t ions o n b ehal f o f t he D epar t-

men t h ave b een d irected b y , f or e xa mp le , Mrs. M. U . J ones a t O ld S lea ford , L incolnsh ire , T . C . M. Brews ter a t G ar ton S lack , East R id ing , a nd I . M . S tead , whose c arefu l a nd s yste ma t ic e xcavat ions a nd p ub l ica t ions o f t he G r i mt horpe h i l l-for t a nd o f L a I l ene b ur ia ls ( S tead , 1 965 ; 1 968 ; 1 971 ) h ave a dded i n l arge measure t o o ur k now ledge o f t he p reh is tory o f e astern Yorksh ire. I t s ee ms t ha t , i n o ur r eg ion , mos t o f t he e f for t i s c on f ined t o s outhern a nd e as tern a reas.

Br ief c o m men ts o n e xcava t ions a re p ub l ished i n a nnua l r eports

( Depar t men t o f t he Env ironmen t , 1 966 , e t s eq .), b u t i ti s u nfor tuna te t ha t a deq ua te p ub l ica t ion o f s o many Depar t men t o f t he Env ironmen t e xcava t ions i s s t i l l awa ited . T o s o me e x ten t c onnected w ith e ach o f t he a fore- men t ioned a ct iv it ies i s t he f i f th , a nd p erhaps t he mos t impor tan t , ma jor a spect o f r ecen t r esearch , wh ich i s t he a pp l ica t ion o f a ir p ho tography a nd r econna issance. A ir p ho tographs f orm a b as is f or t he f i e ld s urveys o f t he Roya l Co m m iss ion a nd t he Ordnance S urvey , as ource o f e v idence f or t hose i nvo lved i n t he r escue o f a rchaeo log ica l ma ter ia l f ro m d estruct ion , a nd a d e ta i led g u ide a t a l l s tages o f r esearch e xcavat ion.

The c o l lect ion o f Professor J . K . S t . J oseph a t t he Un ivers ity o f C a m-

b r idge i s p robab ly t he mos t d eta iled a nd r epresentat ive o f s i tes i n t he r eg ion , b u t o ther p ar t icu lar ly v a luab le c o l lect ions a re h e ld b y t he Na t iona l Monuments Record , t he Ordnance S urvey , t he Roya l A ir Force , t he Un ivers it ies o f N ewc ast le a nd Durha m , t he Yorksh ire Archaeo log ica l S oc iety , t he Un ivers ity o f No t t ingha m , Mr . J . P icker ing a nd o ther p r ivate i nd iv idua ls , t he M in is try o f Hous ing a nd L oca l G overn men t a nd most l oca l Coun ty a nd Coun ty Borough Counc il o f f ices.

I ti s p erhaps b ecause o f a n awareness o f t he v a lue o f a ir r e-

c onna issance i n r esearch a nd r escue a rchaeo logy , a nd t he o bv ious n eed t o c oo rd ina te f ly ing e f for t b ecause o f t he h igh c os t i nvo lved , t ha t l oca l g roups a nd c o mm it tees o f t he Counc il f or Br it ish Archaeo logy a re b eg inn ing t o a ch ieve s o me s uccess i n moun t ing p rogra m mes o f work w h ich u t i l ise t he e f for ts o f a l l t he e x is t ing a ct ive g roups i n au n if ied p o l icy .

4

Ag ood e xa mp le h ere i s t he

T ren t Va l ley Archaeo log ica l Research Co m m it tee wh ich , w ith in a y ear o f i t s f orma t ion i n 1 967 , h ad l i s ted a nd c lass if iod n ear ly 5 00 s i tes i n a nd a round N o t t ingha msh ire , a nd wh ich h as a lready c arr ied o u t r escue e xcava t ions o n o ver 2 0 s i tes , o f wh ich a t l eas t f our a re o f r e levance t o t h is s tudy . S ince b efore t he war , t he n eed f or emergency r escue e xcava t ion o f a rchaeol og ica l e v idence u nder t hrea t o f d estruct ion h as b een a n o ver-r id ing c omm itmen t o f t he Depar t men t o f t he Env ironmen t , t he Counc i l f or Br it ish Archaeo logy , museu ms , a nd l oca l a rchaeo log ica l s oc iet ies a l ike.

More im med ia te

d angers o f s and a nd g rave l q uarry ing , o pen-cast m in ing , r oad-bu i ld ing , a nd u rban e xpans ion t end t o a t tract s a lvage a ct iv ity more r ead i ly t han f arm ing a c t iv it ies l ike b u l ldoz ing a nd d eep-p lough ing wh ich , a l though f ina lly r esu l t ing i n ad es truct ion e qua l ly c o mp lete , o f ten t ake p lace w ithout warn ing o r a t a s teady , y ear-by-year r a te.

Mos t o f t he g round-sur face b ur ia ls a nd s e t t le-

men t e v idence , o n a reas c urren t ly u nder i n tens ive c u lt iva t ion s uch a s t he Eas tR id ing a nd t he T ren t g rave ls , a re n ow r e moved , a nd o n ly d i tch , p osth o le a nd p it p rof i les r e ma in. Rescue e xcava t ion h as i ndeed r esu lted i n s o me o f t he mos t o u ts tand ing d iscover ies o f modern t imes , s uch a s t he c ar t-bur ia l a t G ar ton S lack ( Brewster , 1 971), b u t t he ma jor c onco m itan t p rob le m o f t he c on t inu ing c ruc ia l n eed f or r escue e xcava t ion i s t ha t e xcava tors t end n ot t o a l low t he mse lves t ime , a nd f inanc ia l r esources a re r are ly e x tens ive e nough t o f u l ly p rov ide , f or t he e qua l ly v ita l p rocess o f p ub l icat ion . i .

Prob le ms o f t he Ma ter ia l a nd i t s I n terpretat ion

F o l low ing i n p ar t f ro m t he a bove c ons iderat ions a re a n u mber o f f undamen ta l l im ita t ions imposed u pon a s tudy o f t he k ind a t te mpted h ere. Without t he b as is o f c o mp lete e xcavat ion r epor ts , w e a re o b l iged t o r e ly u pon i n ter im r epor ts a nd , more c o m mon ly , o n v erba l d escr ip t ion , wh ich a re o bv ious ly l ess s a t isfactory i n d e ta i l , a ccuracy a nd a cco mp l ishmen t. I n s ome c ases i t a ppears t ha t t here i s l i t t le c hance o f p ub l ica t ion i n t he n ear f u ture , a nd i n o thers a ccura te i n for mat ion r egard ing t he p rovenance o f t he ma ter ia l , o r e ven a p lan o f t he s i te , i s l os t o r was n ever o bta ined. T he l oss o f t he mat er ia l i t se lf when i n museums a nd i n p r iva te h ands i s n o t a n o ccurrence c onf i ned t o d iscover ies f ro m t he e ar ly d ays o f a rchaeo logy .

The p o t tery f ro m

Gra f ton ( Wa terman e t a l., 1 955 ) i s n ow u nob ta inab le , a nd t ha t f ro m t he S tanw ick f or t if ica t ions ( Whee ler , 1 954 ) was m is la id t hroughou t t he t ime d uri ng wh ich t he r esearch u pon wh ich t h is v o lu me i s b ased was i n p repara t ion. F or a l l t hese r easons , t he e v idence p resen ted h ere i s d is tress ing ly i nco mp le te. A l though i t may b e s a id t ha t ma ter ia l r e ma ins f ro m t he r eg ion a s a who le a re much more a bundan t t han a rchaeo log is ts h ave g enera l ly b e l ieved , c o mp ar ison must b e made w ith t he q uan t ity o f p o t tery f ro m a s i te l ike Dragonby , L inco lnsh ire, wh ich p roduced 2 .5 t ons i n t he f irs t f i ve s easons o f e xcava t ion u p t o 1 968 ( May , 1 968, 4 ). I n s uch a c ase t here i s ap oss ib i l ity o f s tat is t ica l a na lys is , a nd t here i s s ome l ike l ihood t ha t , when e xcava t ions a re c o mp lete , af u l l r ange o f c oarse , a nd p robab ly a lso f ine , wares i n u se d ur ing a t l east s ome o f t he s i tes ' p hases w i l l h ave b een a ccoun ted f or .

F or t he r est o f t he

r eg ion , t he r ange a nd q uan t i ty o f ma ter ia l e v idence i s n owhere n ear s uf f ic ie n t f or s uch s tat is t ica l t rea tmen t.

F uture work o n s et t le men ts t hroughou t

t he m id lands a nd t he n or th , o n t he s a me s ca le a s e xcavat ions a t Dragonby ,

i s n ecessary i fI ron Age s tud ies a re t o make s a t is fac tory p rogress. T he q uan t ity o f p o t tery f ro m t he T ren t-Tyne a rea i s h igh i n r e la t ion t o o ther a va ila b le d a t ing e v idence , h owever . I t s impor tance t o t he p reh is tor ian , t here fore , c anno tb e o ver-emphas ised . On ly i n t he c ase o f t he c oarsest o r sma l les tb ody s herds i s i tn o t p oss ib le t o d raw s o me c hrono log ica l i n ferences. Whenever p o t tery i s f ound w ith in s tructures o r i n s o me s tra t if ied c on tex t , t he p ic ture may b e c o mp l ica ted b y a n e le men t o f r ubb ish s urv iva l . T h is i s p erhaps o ne o f t he mos t u se fu l l essons t o b e l earned f ro m t he Dragonby e xcav a t ions , where mos t o f t he p o t tery was r ecovered f ro m a c o mp l ica ted s er ies o f i n tersec t ing d i tches a nd g u l l ies. Much o f t he n ew ma ter ia l p resen ted i n t h is v o lume i s l i kew ise f rom d i tch a nd g u l ly s i tes , s uch a s S a l tshouse S choo l , S ou th Cave a nd H asho l me H a l l , a l l i n s ou th-eas t Y orksh ire . Rubb ish s urv iva l a lso h as ab ear ing o n t he i n terpre ta t ion o f t he e v idence f ro m s e t t le men ts s uch a s S tap le H owe. A t t ha t s i te , a l l t hree p a l isade t rench p hases a s d ef ined b y Brews ter c on ta ined s herds o f , f or e xamp le , b ipar t ite b ow ls w ith a h or izon ta l g roove b e low t he r im , b urn ished wares , f i ngert ip d ecora t ion a nd l arge , h ighs hou ldered , u ndecora ted j ars. T he e ar l ies tlook ing f orms , w ith i n terna l lyb evel led r im a nd a pp l ied , f i nger-t ipped c ordons , c o me f ro m t he t h ird p hase. An i mpor tan t f ac tor e v iden t f ro m Brews ter 's p ub l ished n o tes i s t ha t mos t o f t he p o t tery f ro m t he p a l isade t renches i s f rom i n f i l l ing , a nd n ot f ro m p ack ing. With d o mes t ic d ebr is a ccumu la t ing b eh ind t he p a l isades , p ar t icu lar ly t o t he w es t o f t he ma in e n trance ( Brews ter , 1 963 , 1 a nd 1 3 ), t he c ase f or e x tens ive r ubb ish s urv iva l s ee ms c o mp le te , p ar t icu lar ly c ons ider ing t he f ac t t ha t f ragmen ts o f ab urn ished b ow l w i th l i gh t ly-grooved c h wron d ecora t ion ( 2. E . c i t ., f ig . 3 3 , 6 ) w ere f ound a t t wo l oca t ions i n t he f i rs t p hase p a l isade t rench a nd a lso i n t he p ack ing o f t he s econd p hase t rench . I tf o l lows t ha t t he p resence o f q uan t it ies o f mater ia l r e ma ins o f ag iven p er iod w ith in a s truc ture c anno t b e t aken w i l ly-n i l ly a s i nd ica t ing t he d a te o f t ha t s tructure. F ur ther w arn ing o f t h is d anger i s a f forded b y t he f i nds o f e n t ire ly I ron Age d a te i n t he d i tch o f t he Ro man m i l itary f or t if ica t ion a t Ancas ter ( E MAB , V I I I , 1 3 ). Moreover , a ny i n terpre ta t ion i nvok ing a s hor tl ived o ccupa t ion o n s e t t lemen t s i tes , wh ich t hus c on trac ts l arge g roups o fp o t tery w i th in a n arrow d a t ing b racke t , s hou ld b e e xam ined w ith c are. A r ecen t c ons idera t ion o f t he p o t tery f ro m Wes t H ar l ing ( Cun l if fe , 1 968 , 1 76 ), f or e xamp le , s eems t o o ver look t he l ikel ihood t ha t , p ar t icu lar ly i n t he c ase o f S i te I , t he s truc tura l e v idence s ugg es ts a l onger p er iod o f o ccupa t ion t h an t he e xcava tors p ropounded ( Clark a nd F e l l , 1 953 , 7 ) . T he p o t tery i nc ludes v esse ls w i th f i nger-t ipped d ecora t ion i n d oub le a nd t r ip le r ows , a nd o ther p a t terns ( 22 . c i t ., f ig . 1 2 , 2 0-21, 2 6-27 ) wh ich r eca l l t he b ucke t u rns o f t he Ard le igh G roup ( Er ith a nd L ongwor th , 1 960 , f igs. 2 a nd 5 ) , a nd c ordoned b ow ls o f H a l ls ta t t Ci d er iva t ion ( . 2 E . c i t ., f i g . 1 6, 8 9 ; c f . K ossack , 1 959 , T a f . 2 5 , M inde lhe im t o mbe 1, B avar ia ) , i n a dd i t ion t o l a ter f orms ( such a s 2 E . c i t ., f i g . 1 4 , 4 3 ). S im ilar ly , w e s hou ld b eware o f t rea t ing t he f i l l ings o fp its a s a ssoc ia ted a sse mb lages w ithou t q ues t ion .

A l-

t hough g roups o f ma ter ia l f ro m i nd iv idua l p i ts o f ten e xh ib it a pparen t c on tempor ane ity , u npub l ished ma ter ia l p resen ted i n t h is v o lu me f ro m t he p i t g roups a t Manor F arm , K i lham a nd G rea t K en ' : ta le , b o th i n t he Eas t R id ing , s ugges tb y t he ir w ide v ar iety o f f orms t ha t al onger p er iod o f t ime may b e r epresen ted . T he i mp l ica t ions o f t hese c ons idera t ions f or o ur s tudy o f mater ia l r ema ins a re f i ve fo ld .

F irs t , t ha t , a s much o f t he n ew ma ter ia l h ere p resen ted h as n ot

6

b een s c ien t if ica l ly e xcava ted , a nd i n v iew o f t he f act t ha t t he p o t tery ( and t o ac ons iderab le e x ten t a lso t he meta lwork ) a re p redo m inan t ly o f l oca l manufact ure , t he s tudy h as t o b e e ssen t ia l ly s ub jec t ive . I ti s p oss ib le , h owever , t o s ee c er ta in t ypes among t he ma ter ia l wh ich c an b e a rranged i n ac hrono log ica l s equence. S econd , t ha t t he k eys t o t h is c hrono log ica l s equence mus t b e t he f ew i ndependen t ly d a tab le a nd s tra t if ied a r te fac ts o r d epos its wh ich a re p res en t w ith in t he a rea.

C ompar ison w ith r e levan t Br it ish o r E uropean a sse m-

b lages may p rov ide b road i nd ica tors o f d a te , a l though a s f ar a s c oarse p o t tery i s c oncerned , b ecause o f i t s p redo m inan t ly l oca l manufacture , p ara l le ls f ro m f ar a f ie ld a re u n l ike ly t o b e v ery c lose. T h ird , t ha tb ecause o f t he c o mparat i ve ly sma l l q uan t it ies o f ma ter ia l a va ilab le f or s tudy , a ma jor i nadequacy i s l i ke ly t ob e t he u nrepresen ta t ive n ature o f t he t ypes s e lec ted f or d iscuss ion , a l though mos t o f t hese c an b e v iewed i n ac on tex t b roader t han t he a rea l l im its o f t h is s tudy . F our th , t ha t b t ,c2use o fu ncer ta in t ies i n t he c hrono logy o f f i rs t m i l lenn iu m B .C. p o t tery s equences e lsewhere , i ti s r are ly p oss ib le t o p in d own t he d a t ing r ange o fi nd iv idua l t ypes , p ar t icu lar ly i n t he e ar l ier p er iods , t o w i th in a s ing le c en tury . F if th , t ha t , a l though s o me o f o ur c ons idera t ions a re h ypo the t ica l , i ti s p oss ib le t o d ef ine e x terna l i nf luences o r r eg iona l c ons erva t is ms , p ar t icu lar ly i n t he c ase o f t he f i ner p o t tery a nd t he me ta lwork , a nd t hus t o p rogress t owards a n e luc ida t ion o f t he p reh is tory o f t he a rea a s a w ho le , a nd o f i t s v ar ious p ar ts . P rob le ms o f as im ilar n ature a re e ncoun tered when a t te mp t ing t o d ea l w i th t he e v idence f or s e t t le men t t ypes. T he r esu l ts o f e xcava t ions , p ar t icul ar ly i n t he n or th a nd w es t , a re o f ten u nsa t is fac tory b ecause o f t he r e marka b le p auc ity o f ma ter ia l r ema ins , c oup led w ith t he v ery s ha l low s o i l p ro f i le , o f ten o n ly o ne s od t h ick , wh ich d en ies t he a rchaeo log is t t he a id o f ad eep ly s tra t if ied s ect ion .

I n a dd i t ion t o t hose mechan is ms o f d estruc t ion o f a rchae-

o log ica l s i tes a lready men t ioned , s tone s tructures , p ar t icu lar ly i n Wes tmorl and a nd w es t Y orksh ire , a re s u f fer ing i ncreas ing ly f ro m e x tens ive c o mmerc ia l s tr ipp ing o f l oose s ur face s tone. T he o vera l l p ic ture i n t hese a reas , t here fore , i s ad espera te o ne. Moreover , o n f or t if ied s i tes , where t here 3s more l i ke l ihood o f s tra t if ied d epos its i n d i tch s ec t ions a nd b eh ind r ampar ts , t he a bsence o f ma ter ia l a ssoc ia ted w ith t he d e fences , a s i n t he c ase o f Mam T or ( Coo mbs , 1 971 ), o r t he c o mp l ica t ions o f p oss ib le r ubb ish s urv iva ls , a s i n t he c ase o f t he H ugga te D ykes ( F ig . 6 5 ), p rec lude d ogma t ic c onc lus ions . A l though a c ons idera t ion o fu nexcava ted s i tes k nown f ro m a ir p ho tography o r s ur face f i e ldwork i s o bv ious ly n ecessary i n as tudy o f a n a rea where f ew s ys te ma t ic p rogra mmes o f e xcava t ion h ave b een u nder taken , i ti s s eldo m p oss ib le t o b e c er ta in r egard ing t he i den t ity o r d a te o f as i te o n t he b as is o f s urf ace f i nds o r p ara l le ls t o i t s s tructura l a l ignmen t . O f ten i n o ur a rea , whene ver r ea l e v idence o f t he d a te o f as i te h as b een l ack ing , a n a t tr ibu t ion t o t he I ron Age p er iod h as b een t en ta t ive ly c on ferred a s ac onven ien t c onc lus ion , e i ther b ecause o f t he mass ive f l ex ib i l ity w ith wh ich t he t erm ' I ron Age ' i s o f ten u sed , o r a s i ft he v ery a bsence o f o ther ma ter ia l o f t h is p er iod makes s uch a s ugges t ion p laus ib le. F ie ld w orkers s ee m t ob e d iv ided b e tween t hose w ho c hoose t he g rea tes t a n t iqu ity t ha t a na log ies w i l l a l low , a nd t hose w ho t end t o f avour d a tes i n h istor ic t imes. Two i l lustra t ions o f t he o bv ious d i f f icu l ty may b e g iven . A sma l l s tone c irc le , wh ich a ppeared t o b e t he r e ma ins o f a h u t , i n H irs t Wood , S h ip ley , w es t Yorksh ire ( approx . S E 1 537 ), r epor ted t o

b e I ron Age i n 1 952 , was i nves t iga ted i n 1 954 a nd f ound t o b e n ineteen th c entury ( BAGB, 3 , 1 954 ).

An i rregu lar o va l-shaped u p land v il lage o n t he L ongshaw

Es ta te , H a thersage , Derbysh ire ( SK 2 92796 ), r epor ted i n 1 937 a s ap oss ib le I ron Age s i te ( THAS , I V , 4 ) , was e xcavated i n 1 959 a nd 1 960 a nd f ound t ob e l a te S axon o r e ar ly Med ieva l ( i n forma t ion a t S he f f ie ld Museu m ). T hus , w e mus tb e e x tre mely c aut ious i n e va lua t ing t he e v idence a va i lab le t o u s b efore d ec id ing wh ich s i tes t o i nc lude o n o ur d is tr ibu t ion maps : sma l l d efens ive e nc losures a nd s upposed h i l l-for ts p resen t ap ar t icu lar d i f f icu l ty i n t h is r espect .

H owever , i ti s h oped t ha t t he maps g ive s ome p icture o f t he o ver-

a l l d is tr ibu t ions , i fn o t a bso lu te ly e xhaust ive o r a ccura te i n d eta il. G iven , f or e xamp le , t ha t o n ly a p ercen tage o f t he s i tes marked o n F ig. 9 4 i s l i ke ly t o b e I ron Age , a t l eas t t he g enera l c harac ter is t ics o f t he d is tr ibu t ion a re l i ke ly , s ub jec t t o t he q ua l if icat ions men t ioned i n t he t ex t , t o r ef lec t at rend . B ecause o f t he l im ita t ions o f t he ma ter ia l , t herefore, f ew o f t he c onc lus ions , t aken i nd iv idua l ly , a re l ike ly t o r e ma in u ncon trad icted b y f uture work , o r e ven t o s tand w ithou t c r it ic is m a t t he p resen t t ime.

We s hou ld b e t hank fu l , h owever , t hat

t he r epor ts a nd f inds o f n ineteen th c en tury a n t iquar ians a nd t he ir s uccessors e x is t a t a l l , i n wha tever s tate , a nd t ha t p rogra mmes o f a rchaeo log ica l r escue a nd r esearch a re g ather ing mo men tu m. i i.

S o me Env ironmen ta l Fac tors I ti s an o tor ious ly d angerous t ask f or a ny o ne who i s n o t ap a lyno log is t a nd

g eo log is t t o a t te mp t t o r econs truc t ap reh istor ic e nv ironmen t. Because o f t he s ize o f t he a rea u nder s tudy , a nd t he g rea t v ar ia t ions i n s ur face g eo logy a nd e ar l ier p reh is tor ic l and u se , mos t o f t he e nv ironmen ta l d eta il w i l l b e r eserved f or l a ter c hap ters , t o b e d iscussed i n r e lat ion t o e cono my a nd s e t t le men t d ens i ty .

There a re p o in ts o f g enera l impor tance , h owever , wh ich n eed t o b e c on-

s idered a t t he o u tset . T he p os it ion a nd c haracter o f t he s horel ine o f Br ita in h ave v ar ied c ons ide rab ly i n p os t-g lac ia l t imes. I ti s t hough t t ha t , d ur ing t he g reater p ar t o f t he f irst m i l lenn iu m B .C. ,t he mean s ea l eve l was c ons iderab ly h igher t han a t t he p resen t d ay .

Ev idence i s p ar t icu lar ly a bundan t f or p ar ts o f t he e as t c oast .

I n t he s ou thern F en lands , ag radua l o nset o f mar ine i ncurs ion t ook p lace s o met ime b etween 1 300 a nd 3 00 B .C. , r each ing i t s max i mum e x ten t i n t he I ron Age , a nd d epos it ing s a lt marsh c lays a nd mar ine s i l ts t o h e igh ts o f f ro m 5 t o 7f eet O .D. P oss ib ly b y t he f irst a nd c er ta in ly b y t he s econd c en tury A .D . ,R o manoBr it ish s et t le men t h ad e x tended o n t o t he s i l t f la ts a nd l evees l ef t b y t h is Bronze AgeIron Age t ransgress ion ( Church il l , 1 970, 1 42 ).

I n t he n or thern

F en lands , t he s i tua t ion i n t he f irst m i l lenn iu m s ee ms t o b e b road ly s im i lar , w ith mar ine t ransgress ion e x tend ing v ir tua l ly t o t he f en marg in ( Sm ith , A . G ., 1 970 , t 57 ). F ur ther n or th , work b y H . H . Sw inner ton a t Chape l Po in t , n ear Chape l S t . L eonards , s uggested a s ea l eve l 7f eet h igher t han t oday , d a ted b y r ad iocarbon d e term ina t ion t o c . 6 80 b .c. ( 2630 + 10 ; Q -6 88 ; G odw in a nd Wi l l is , 1 964 , 1 29 ). A s im i lar mar ine t ransgress ion i s i nd icated i n t he Ancho l me a nd Hu mber e stuar ine a rea b y as er ies o f r ad iocarbon d eterm inat i ons , l y ing most ly b e tween 8 50 a nd 6 00 b .c. ,f or ma ter ia l o n o r a bove a b rushwood p ea t d epos it ( Godw in a nd Wil l is , 1 964 , 1 30 ) wh ich l ies b e low e st w

ec 3 7 s , s ugges t ing a mean s ea l eve l u p t o 9f eet h igher t han a t p resen t

8

( Sm i th , A . G ., 1 958, 4 4 ).

The c onc lus ion i s , t herefore , t ha t t here was c on-

s iderab le mar ine e ncroachmen t a long l owly ing c oasts d ur ing t he f i rs t m i l lenn ium B .C., wh ich r e trea ted t o a l low r e-set t le men t o f c lay a nd p ea t d epos its d ur ing a nd a f ter t he f irs t c entury A .D . T he imp l ica t ions o f t h is e v idence f or t he marsh land a reas o f t he Tren t , Witha m a nd Yorksh ire Ouse d ra inage s ys te ms , a nd p oss ib ly a lso f or t he l ower r eaches o f t he r ivers d ra in ing i n to t he I r ish S ea , a re o bv ious.

C ond it ions o f

f l ood ing a nd wa ter logg ing mus t h ave a f fec ted l arger a reas t o a more s er ious e x ten t t han i n t he ma jor ity o f h istor ic t imes. I ti s n ot s urpr is ing t hen , t ha t t he Ro mans f ound t he Va le o f York s parse ly p opu la ted ( sugges ted b y S tead , 1 971, 2 1 ), o r t ha t f inds o f t he f i rst m il lenn iu m B .C. wh ich o ne m igh t e xpec t t o h ave b een d epos ited i n wa tery c ond it ions , s uch a s d ug-out c anoes a nd d ecorat i ve mar t ia l meta lwork , a re q u it : : r egu lar ly f ound d ur ing modern d ra inage a c t iv ity .

I ti s l i ke ly a lso t ha t marsh land a nd f l ood ing c ond it ions p reva iled

f ur ther u p t he d ra inage s ys te ms where l oca l t opography a l lowed p oor d ra inage. Corrobora t ive e v idence o f t h is was d iscovered d ur ing e xcava t ions a t Barms ton , Eas tR id ing ( Var ley , 1 968 ), c onducted w ith t he e luc ida t ion o f e nv iron men ta l h is tory a s a ma jor a i m. T he s i te i s an a tura l h o l low a t 1 5 f eet 0 .D. The c onc lus ion r eached was t hat a f ter t he ma in p hase o f s e t t le men t , d a ted t o a bou t 1 000 B .C., p oor d ra inage c ond it ions f avoured p ea t a ccumu la t ion o ver t he a rea u n t i l a bou t t he s ix th c en tury , a f ter wh ich t he s i te was f l ooded a nd c overed w ith d ownwash . Marsh land a reas a nd r egu lar ly-f looded z ones were e x tens ive i n t he f i rs t m il lenn iu m B .C., t herefore , a nd t hey a cted a s an a tura l a rea l r es tra in t o n p er manen t s e t t le men t. F ur ther l im ita t ions t o p er manen t s et t le men t w ou ld h ave b een s et b y t he c on f igura t ion o f h igh land a reas.

T h is q uest ion i s av ery c o mp lex o ne, a nd

f ac tors a f fect ing l and u se a re d if feren t a t e ach l ocal i ty , b ut , t o g enera l ise , o n wes tfac ing u p land a reas s et t le men t wou ld b e d epressed b e low a bou t 6 50 f eet b ecause o f e xposure t o p reva i l ing w inds a nd h eavy r a in fa l l , whereas o n t he g en t ler-s lop ing , more s he l tered , e as t-fac ing u p lands , s e t t le men t w ou ld c reep u p a bove 1 000 f eet.

I n s o me a reas t he h ab ita t was r es tr icted b y u ns tab le s cree ,

o r w as o therw ise t oo r ugged e ven f or g raz ing l and .

The e x tens ive a reas o f

ombrogenous a nd b lanke t p ea t a bove a bou t 1 000 f eet , a nd r a ised mosses i n p ar ts o f t he Chesh ire a nd S hropsh ire p la in , s ou th Yorksh ire, n or th L inco lnsh ire , a nd t he Cu mber land l ow lands , wou ld a lso h ave b een u na t tract ive , a l though v irt ua l ly a l l p a lyno log ica l s tud ies i n t hese a reas h ave p rov ided u nequ ivoca l e v idence o f a gr icu ltura l a ct iv ity o r , a t l east , m inor c learance n earby i n t he Bronze Age a nd I ron Age p er iods.

S tud ies i n a reas s uch a s t he g r itstone u p lands o f n or th

Derbysh ire ( Ph i ll ips , S . P ., 1 969 ) a nd t he c en tra l wa tershed o f t he N or th Yorksh ire Moors ( Cund il l , 1 971 ) s uggest t ha t a ma jor c learance a nd l and u se p hase t ook p lace o n t hese u p land a reas d ur ing t he M idd le Bronze Age , whereas I ron A ge o ccupa t ion was p robab ly c on f ined t o p er iphera l f l anks o f t he h i l ls a nd t o l ower l eve ls. T he a reas o ther t han t hose men t ioned a s u na t tract ive a re t hus l i ke ly t o e xh ib it t he mos t e v idence o f f irs t m i l lenn iu m B .C. o ccupa t ion .

H i l l top s et t le-

men ts s uch a s Mam T or , 1 696 f t ., I ng leborough , 2 373 f t ., a nd p oss ib ly a lso Carrock F e l l , 2 174 f t ., a re i ndeed e xcep t iona l , b u t t hese e i ther o ver look e xt ens ive l ower v a l ley s lopes o r a re s i tua ted o n t he f r inges o f ah igh land a rea.

9

I t i s t o t he l ower s lopes o f h i l ly c oun try , u p lands w ith b road p la teaux , a nd s l igh t ly r a ised g rave l ly o r s andy a reas i n v a l leys a nd p la ins t ha t w e mus t l ook f or t he ma in z ones o f l and u se , a nd more p ar t icu lar ly t o s l igh t em inences w ith in t hese z ones f or t he s i tes o f d o mest ic s et t le men t.

S o me a reas , s uch a s

p ar ts o f t he Cu mber land l ow land ( Penn ing ton , 1 970 , f ig . 1 7 ) a nd t he Eas t R idi ng c ha lk lands , e xper ienced c ont inuous o ccupa t ion f ro m t he b eg inn ing o f t he N eo l ith ic p er iod , a l though e lsewhere , a s i n p ar ts o f n or th L incolnsh ire , i t s ee ms t ha t s econd c en tury B .C. s et t le men ts i n truded i n to a reas o f r e la t ive ly u nd isturbed , mo is t , m ixed o ak w ood land ( Hayes , A . J ., 1 968 ).

T h is l a t ter

c ase i s p robab ly r epresen ta t ive o f a n e xpans ion o f s ett le men t o n t o med iu m a nd h eavy c lays a t l ower a lt itudes d ur ing t he c los ing c en tur ies o f t he f i rs t m i l lenn iu m B .C. The importance o f marsh land a nd b road t rac ts o f h igh land t o move men t mus t n o t b e u nderest i ma ted. n o t l ike ly t o h ave h a mpered t ra f f ic ;

a s b arr iers

R ivers t he mse lves , h owever , a re

r a ther , t he r everse i s t rue , p ar t icu lar ly

s ince t he e x ten t t o w h ich t hey were n av igab le i n p reh istor ic t imes i s r ef lected b y o ver e igh ty e xa mp les o f d ug-ou t a nd o ther b oa ts n ow k nown i n o ur r eg ion. The r iver Tren t i t se lf was s ha l low , a nd e as i ly f orded a bove Newark .

T rack-

ways we l l-known i n a rchaeo log ica l l i terature a re t he York a nd Escr ick mor a ines a cross t he Va le o f York , t erm ina t ing t o t he e as t a t t he n atura l f ord o f t he r iver D erwen t a t S ta m ford Br idge ( Ra m m , 1 965 ), a nd t he J urass ic Way ( Gr i mes , 1 951 ).

Many o thers o f r eg iona l a nd l oca l impor tance may b e i n fer-

r ed f ro m l oca l t opography a nd f ro m t he d is tr ibu t ion o f meta lwork f inds a nd s et t le men ts , s uch a s t he t rans-Penn ine A ire-Ca lder a nd R ibb lesda le r ou tes , Ro mba lds Way (Cow l ing , 1 946 ), a nd t hose r econs idered f or t he s outhern P enn ines a nd t he Eas t M id lands b y P osnansky ( 1956a , 1 9 , f ig . 2 ).

Trackways ,

o f ten w ith a d itch r unn ing a t e ither s ide , a re a c o m mon f ea ture o f a ir p ho tog raphs o f t he East R id ing a nd t he M id land r iver g rave l t erraces.

A l though

s o me a re Ro mano-Br it ish , p robab ly o f t he f irs t c en tury A .D . ( S i mpson , W. G ., 1 966, f ig . 2 2 ), s o me c an b e s hown t o b e I ron Age. t rackways a nd t raf f ic

T he s ub jec ts o f

c on tro l w il l b e e xa m ined f ur ther e lsewhere i n r e lat ion

t o s et t le men ts a nd l inear e ar thworks. F ina l ly , a word s hou ld b e s a id i n g enera l a bou t t he q uest ion o f c l i ma t ic d eter iora t ion i n t he p er iod u nder r ev iew . I th as g enera l ly b een a ssu med t ha t t h is d eteriora t ion i n n or th-western Europe t ook p lace a t s o me t ime i n t he f irst h a l f o f t he f irst mi l lenn iu m B .C., b etween Z ones V I Ib a nd WI T i n t he c onven t iona l s ca le.

With r ecen t d eve lop men ts i n t he c a l ibra t ion o f r ad iocarbon

d ates , h owever , i ti s b eco m ing i ncreas ing ly a pparen t t ha t t h is p rocess may a lready h ave b egun we l l b efore 1 000 B .C., a nd c once ivab ly a s e ar ly a s 1 400 o r t hereabou ts ( P iggo t t , 1 972 ;

Burgess , 1 974 ).

We n ow t urn t o Par t I t o ad eta iled c ons idera t ion o f t he mater ia l r e ma ins o f t he p eop les o f t he f irst m il lenn iu m B .C.

Th is i s f o l lowed b y a n e xam inat ion

o f s et t le men t t ypes , e cono my , a nd b ur ia l i n Par t I I, a nd b y h istor ica l a nd e nv iron men ta l r eg iona l s u m mar ies i n Par t I V.

1 0

I .

MATER IAL RE MA INS

CHAPTER 1

THE MATER IALS USED , AND S O ME TEC HN ICAL FACTORS

i .

P ot tery T he p o t tery o f l a ter p reh is tor ic Br ita in h as b een u n favourab ly c o mpared

w ith t ha t f ro m t he Con t inen t o n t he g rounds o f i t s g enera l c rudeness , a est he t ic p over ty a nd i n ter m inab le v ar iety , a nd i t s v a lue a s ac u l tura l i nd icator h as b een q ues t ioned ( Hodson , 1 962 , 1 54 ).

Apar t f ro m t he sma l l p ropor t ion

o f f iner a nd smoo ther wares , ar e la t ive l ack o f s k il l i n manu facture i s a pp aren t , a nd h as l ed t o t he a ssu mp t ion o f ad o mes t ic i ndus try i n t he h ands o f wo men , r ef lect ing a s im ilar d iv is ion o f l abour r egu lar ly f ound i n o ther p r im it ive c o m mun it ies.

I ti s t rue t ha t t he e x tre me r oughness o f f in ish o f much

o f t he p o t tery f ro m t he n or th a nd west s carce ly s ugges ts p rofess iona l c ra f tsmen .

H owever , t he v a lue o f p ot tery t o t he a rchaeo log is t l i es p ar t ly i n i ts

q uan t ity , a nd p ar t ly i n t he f act t ha t i td oes d irect ly r ef lect t he d o mes t ic c u lt ure o f i t s makers.

The l arge s ize o f j ars a nd s ym me try o f s hape amongs t

much o f t he mater ia l f ro m t he a rea , a nd t he n ea t f in ish o f s o me o f t he sma l ler v esse ls , i nd icate t ha t t he p o t ters were c apab le o f p roduc ing wha tever f orms a nd d ecora t ion t hey i n tended , h owever c oarse t he ware. I ti s u sua l ly a ssu med t ha t c oarse , h and- made p o t tery i s g enera l ly o f l oc a l manu facture.

The e v iden t v ar ia t ions i n t he c haracter o f t he wares f ound

o n d i f feren t s i tes a f f irms t h is a ssu mpt ion , a nd work o n t he ma ter ia ls f ro m wh ich t he p ot tery i s made s ubs tan t ia tes i t .

As l ong a go a s 1 890 , Ward d e-

monstrated ( 1890, 1 08 ) t ha t t he c oarse , u neven , s i l ic ious c lay o f t he ma jor ity o f t he p o t tery f ro m Harborough Rocks , Derbysh ire , was d er ived f ro m t he d epos its o f s andy c lay f ound i n t he p oor ly-dra ined h o l lows o f t he Moun ta in L i mestone i n t he v ic in ity .

Ana lys is o f t he S tap le H owe p ot tery ( Brewster ,

1 963 , 5 8 ) s howed t ha t mos t o f i t was made f ro m S pee ton C lay , ad epos it l oc ated b enea th t he wh ite a nd r ed c ha lk o f t he Wo lds a nd o u tcropp ing a t i t s f oo t im med ia te ly t o t he e ast a nd w est o f t he s i te.

Crushed c a lc ite c rysta ls f ro m

t he u pper l evels o f t he c ha lk were a dded a s at e mper w ith in t he r ange 2 0% t o 3 0% c a lc ite t o 8 0% t o 7 0% c lay .

Exa m ina t ion o f t he p o t tery f ro m Harston ,

L e ices tersh ire ( Kenyon , 1 950, 4 6 ) r evea led i tt o h ave b een made f ro m l oca l L ias c lay , h eav i ly t e mpered w ith f oss i l o ys ter s he l l.

T hat f ro m Me l ton

Mowbray n earby ( .c it ., 5 0 ) p robab ly c on ta ined a h ard , g r it ty s ands tone d er ived f ro m e rra t ics b rough t s ou th f ro m t he P enn ines d ur ing t he P le is tocene I ce Age. V a luab le p etro log ica l e xa m ina t ions h ave r ecen t ly b een c onducted ( Harbord a nd S pra tt , 1 970 ) o n t he t e mper o f p o t tery f ro m t hree n or th-east Yorksh ire 1 1

s i tes :

t he Es ton Nab h i l l-for t ( F ig. 4 5, 1 -8 ), t he e nc losure o n G rea t Ay ton

Moor ( F ig . 4 6, 8 -13 ; 4 6, 5 -7 ;

F ig. 7 2 ).

F igs. 6 9-71), a nd t he h u t-c irc les o n Percy R igg ( F ig . Th in-sect ions s howed t ha t s o me g r it c a me f ro m t he

C leve land Dyke , a n i gneous i n trus ive f eature e xposed a t s evera l p laces i n t he G rea t Ay ton a nd K ilda le a reas , b u t t ha t t he f ragmen ts s ee m t o h ave b een d er ived f ro m t he p aren t d epos it b y a n a bras ion p rocess r ather t han b y c h ipp ing.

O f t he s amp les t aken , C leve land Dyke w as p redo m inan t i n t he c ase o f

Eston Nab , a nd p resen t i n sma l ler q uan t it ies i n t he p ot tery f ro m t he o ther s i tes.

T hat c on ta ined a l arger p ropor t ion o f ar ock wh ich c lose ly r ese mb les

t he d o ler ite Wh in S i l l , wh ich o u tcrops i n n or th-west Durha m a nd N or thu mberl and b u t wh ich i s p resen t i n e rra t ic b ou lders i n t he C leveland a rea .

T he c on-

c lus ion r eached was t ha t t he p ot tery was l oca l ly made , p robab ly a t t he s i tes where i t was u sed. I fw e a ccep t t ha t i n mos t c ases i nd iv idua l c o m mun it ies manu factured mos t o f t he ir own p o t tery , i tf o l lows t ha t b ecause o f t he c ons iderab le v ar ie ty o f n a tura l ly-occurr ing d epos its i ti s r e la t ive ly e asy t o i den t ify i n trus ive , imp or ted wares o n as i te f ro m wh ich a r easonab le q uan t ity o f ma ter ia l i s a va i la b le f or s tudy .

L ess c onven ient ly , t he o f ten marked c on tras ts i n t he c harac-

t er o f t he ware f rom s i tes r e la t ive ly c lose i n e i thcr t ime o r s pace r ender a ny a t te mp t a t ac hrono log ica l d iv is ion o n t he b as is o f t he t ypes o f ma ter ia l u sed q u ite u nworkab le i n t he p resen t s tate o f r esearch i n t he P enn ine a nd n or the astern a reas. Even w ith in t he l a ter p er iod t here a re c ons iderab le d i f ferenc es b etween g roups i n t he s a me a rea i n c ons is tency , t h ickness a nd c o lourat i on , a s f or e xa mp le b e tween t he ma ter ia l f rom Gar ton S lack ( par t icu lar ly F ig . 3 3 ), S ou th Cave ( F ig . 3 5 ), a nd H asho lme H a l l ( F ig. 3 7 , 1 -2 ).

H ence ,

p ara moun t a t ten t ion i s p aid i n t he f o l low ing a na lys is t o t he f orm o f v esse ls , t o t he ir r i ms a nd p rof i les , i n t he b e l ief t ha t f orm i s more l ike ly t o p rove a u sefu l c hrono log ica l a nd c u ltura l i ndex . T he p ot tery f ro m o ur a rea d isp lays v ar ious methods o f c ons truc t ion ; i ndeed , d i f feren t me thods a re o f ten t o b e s een o n t he s a me p ot . Brewster ( 1963, 5 9 ) c ons idered t ha t , w ithou t e xcep t ion , t he p o t tery f ro m S tap le H owe was h and- mode l led , v er t ica l l am ina t ions s how ing t ha t p ieces o f c lay may we l l h ave b een a dded t o t he wa l ls o f t he o r ig ina l l u mp d ur ing work ing. No i nd ica t ions o f t he c o i l-bu i ld ing p rocess were p resen t . I ti s l ike ly t ha t t he many sma l l j ars a nd o pen b ow ls o f t he East M id lands I ron Age were l ikew ise mode l led f ro m a s ing le l u mp o f c lay ( F igs. 1, 4 ; 1 3 , 1 ; 1 5, 3 ; f or e xamp le ), wh i ls t t he l arger j ars w ere p robab ly b u ilt u p b y t he c arefu l j o in ing a nd smoo th ing o f t he e dges o f b road c lay p ane ls ( Kenyon , 1 950 , f i g . 9 ). T he j o in ing o f c lay s labs t o f orm r ec tangu lar v esse ls i s a lso k nown , a s a t Cas t le H il l , A l mondbury ( repor ted i n Cot ton , 1 954 , 8 6 ), b u t t he sma l l r ec tangu lar v esse l f ro m Octon Cross Roads ( F ig . 2 3, 2 ) i s d rawn u p f ro m a s ing le l u mp . I n t hese e xa mp les a l l b u t t he f ina l smoo th ing s ee ms t o h ave b een d one b y h and . T he c lass ic r ing-co i l method o f manu fac ture i s a lso e v iden t .

I n s o me

c ases b reakage h as o ccurred a long t he l ines o f t he j o in ts , p resumab ly b ec ause t he c lay was a l lowed t o -b ecome t oo d ry d ur ing manu facture , s o r esu lt ing i nu nsa t isfac tory b ond ing o f t he c o ils.

T here a re many e xa mp les o f

c ircu lar p ad o r d isc b ases , r ough ly mou lded ( F igs. 1 , 3 ;

1 7 , 1 5 ;

2 7, 1 2 ;

a nd 3 1, 1 2 ), u pon wh ich t he wa l ls o f t he v esse l w ere b u i lt .

Breakage p lanes

a round t he wa l ls s how ing t he u sua l ly c oncave a nd c onvex , a nd o f ten o b l ique , c on f igura t ions o f t he mou lded c o ils ( F ig . 1 0 , 1 2 ;

F ig . 2 5 , 1 ;

a nd p ar t icu-

l ar ly e xa mp les f ro m n or th o f t he Tyne s uch a s F ig . 5 3, 1 , 3 , 7 ) s ugges t t he l ike l ihood t ha t , i n mos t c ases , i nd iv idua l c ircu lar r ings o f c lay r a ther t han ac on t inuous s p ira l were u sed .

The c o mp let ion o f a n a pprox i ma te ly h or izon-

t a l r im was t hen e as ier t o a ch ieve.

T he a dd ing o f af i na l c lay r ing t o f orm

a mou lded r im c an s o me t i mes b e s een ( F ig . 3 , 3 ;

F ig . 1 5 , 1 8 ).

I ti s c o m-

mon t o f i nd t ha t more a t ten t ion h as b een p a id t o t he f i n ish ing o f t he u pper p ar ts o f av esse l t han t o t he l ower , a nd o ccas iona l ly a n a t tendan t c hange f ro m v ery c oarse p as te b e low t o f i ner a bove c an b e d is t ingu ished ( F ig . 3 0 , 5 ) . I ti s l ikely t ha t , when e i ther t he h and- mode l l ing o r t he r ing-co i l methods were u sed , c ons truc t ion t ook r ince u pon a wooden o r s tone p la t form wh ich c ou ld b e r o ta ted a s t he w ork p roceeded a round t he v esse l. S uch t echn iques wou ld h ave b een ma in ta ined t hroughou t t he f irst m il lenn iu m u n t il t he f i rst c en tury B .C. when t he p ot ter 's wheel p roper w as i n troduced .

E ven t hen ,

manu facture b y h and c on t inued a s t he p redo m inan t method , p ar t icu lar ly i n t he n or th a nd w est a nd a lso t o s o me e x ten t e lsewhere, a longs ide t he n ew , more p rofess iona l , t echn iques.

T ha t improve men ts i n p ot t ing i n t he n or th

d ur ing t h is l a ter p er iod w ere b e ing made i s s hown b y t he e ven c ons istency a nd e xce l len t s ym me try o f t he g roup f ro m S outh Cave ( F ig. 3 5 , 8 -9 ; F ig . 3 6 ). The u se o f as i mp le , h and-opera ted whee l i s p erhaps s hown b y t he c o mp l icat ed r im p rof iles o f t he b as ica l ly h and- made v esse ls f ro m G ar ton S lack ( F ig . 3 3, 3 , 7 ) .

Nor th o f t he H umber , e v idence o f l oca l u se o f t he p o t ter 's whee l

i s n ot f requen t , a nd i s p robab ly c on f ined t o t he f irst c en tury A .D . ( Gar ton S lack , F ig . 3 4 , 4 ;

a nd p oss ib ly S a ltshouse S choo l F ig . 4 1, 4 , 9 , 1 3 ). F ur-

t her s ou th , i t s u se b eg ins e ar l ier a nd i s more w idespread a s ' Be lg ic ' i nf luence i s more d irect , a s a t Dragonby i n t he s econd a nd l a ter p hases o f t he s i te ( May , 1 970 , 2 36 ).

D iscuss ion o f t he d eta il o f t h is s ou thern a nd e as tern ma-

t er ia l w il l f o l low i n al a ter s ect ion . T he f in ish ing o f p ot tery s ur faces w ith s t if f , h or izon ta l o r r ando m b rush ing i s ac o m mon c haracter is t ic t hroughou t t he p er iod .

T he e f fect o f c over ing

p ro jec t ing t e mper w ith a t h in l ayer o f c lay , t hus mak ing t he s ur face l ess a bras ive when f ired , i s s o marked i n af ew c ases t ha t i ti s t an ta moun t t o a pp ly ing a t h ick c lay s l ip , a l though n ot n ecessar ily a c o loured o ne. O therw ise t he b rush ing , o r d eeper t oo l ing a s i ts o met i mes b eco mes , i s t he l as t s tage i n t he smooth ing p rocess.

L a ter i n t he p er iod , smooth ing o r s hav ing w ith

ab road s patu la o r k n ife i s c o m mon ly e xh ib ited ( par t icu lar ly F igs . 3 5 , 8 ; 3 6, 7 ; 3 9 , 1 ; 4 0 , 7 ; 4 1, 1 ; a nd 4 9 , 1 ) . Burn ish ing o f p o t tery s pans a b road r ange i n t ime a nd s pace , f ro m S tap le H owe ( Brewster , 1 963, f i g . 3 3, 6 ; f ig . 3 5 , 3 ; f i g. 4 0 , 1 ) t o Breedon-onthe-H il l ( F ig . 1 3, 8 ) . D ecora t ive p roc ess ing o f p o t tery s ur faces , i nclud ing f i nger-t ipp ing a nd o ther p las t ic o rnamen t , c ordons , g rooves a nd i nc is ions , w il l b e i l lustra ted i n l a ter s ect ions. T here s ee m t o b e n o c hrono log ica l i n ferences t o b e d rawn f rom t he s ize , q uan t ity a nd t ype o f t e mper u sed i n p ot tery f ro m t he a rea , a s h ave b een e v id en t i n t he Upper Tha mes ( Hard ing , 1 972 , 9 8 ).

I ti s q u ite c o mmon f or i nd i-

v idua l v essels t o c on ta in s evera l t ypes , a nd i nd iv idua l f ragmen ts a re o f ten b roader t han t he a verage t h ickness o f p o t tery p rof i le i n wh ich t hey o ccur.

Fro m t he b eg inn ing t o t he e nd o f t he f irs t m i l lenn iu m B .C., c a lc ite i s u sed , l ead ing t o " corky" f abr ics when t he p o t tery i s f ired a t s uch a t e mpera ture t ha t t he c a lc ite d is in tegra tes ( F ig. 4 4, 3 ;

F ig . 3 6 , 1 ) .

Tha t many e xa mp les o f

c a lc ite g r it ted p ot tery r e ta in t he ir t e mper u nreduced ( F ig . 2 2, 1 1 .5 ;

Kenyon ,

1 950 , 4 6 ) i nd ica tes t ha t f ir ing t e mpera tures w ere o f ten l ow , b etween 5 50 ° a nd 7 50 °C .

L igh t b uf f , b rown a nd b lack c o lora t ions a lso s uggest l ow f i r ing t e m-

p eratures , whereas t he a ppearance o f r edd ish t ones ( Fig . 3 6 , 2 ) , t hrough t o o range ( F ig . 3 4 , 3 ) a nd s o me t i mes p urp le , i s e v idence t hat i n l ater p er iods f ir ing t e mpera tures w ere o f ten h igher.

The ma in f unc t ion o f t e mper i s t he

f ac il ita t ion o f t he d ehydra t ion p rocess , a nd t hus t he p reven t ion o f warp ing a nd c rack ing o f v esse ls u nder c ond it ions o f i n tense, u neven , a nd f l uc tua t ing h ea t .

I ti s d if f icu l t t o r egu la te t o a ny g rea t e x ten t t he t e mperature o f p r im i-

t ive " bon f ire" o r " p it" k i lns , a nd t ha t s uch v ar ia t ions i n t e mpera ture o ccurr ed i s s hown b y t he u neven z ones o f d if feren t c o lours o n i nd iv idua l v essels , o f ten f ro m b r igh t o range t hrough t o b rown o r b lack .

Ex tens ive b lack c o loura-

t i on s ee ms t o i nd ica te a l ack o f o xygen a round t he p ots d ur ing t he f ir ing p roc ess , p robab ly a r esu l t o f c o l lapse o f f ue l a nd t he a ccu mu la t ion o f a sh d ur ing c o mbus t ion.

The u se o f af loored p it-k iln i s n o t c ons idered l ike ly i n t he c ase

o f S tap le H owe ( Brewster , 1 963, 5 9 ) b u t i ti s p robab le f or t he more e ven lyf ired wares o f t he l a ter I ron Age , p ar t icu lar ly t he c urv il inear-orna men ted a nd r ou let ted wares o f t he s econd h a l f o f t he s econd a nd t he f irst c en tur ies B .C. There i s n o s a t isfactory e v idence o f ak i ln f ro m t he r eg ion .

H owever ,

Messrs. C . a nd E . Gran tha m ( on whose i n forma t ion t h is a ccoun t i s b ased ) r ecovered a p oss ib le e xa mp le a t ' E mbankmen t Cross ', Grans moor ( TA 1 32593 ).

S a lvage o perat ions made n ecessary b y r oad-bu ild ing r evea led a

"f loor" o f a t l eas t n ine i nver ted r ough-ou t b eeh ive q uerns b enea th a l a ter l inear e ar thwork o f u ncer ta in d a te.

The q uerns were b ad ly r eddened b y f ire ,

a nd u pon t he m i t s ee ms t ha t ak i ln o r o ven h ad b een p laced.

The k i ln f rag-

men ts a re o ver s ix i nches t h ick , a nd p robab ly r epresen t t he r e ma ins o f a d o me-shaped s tructure w ith a s ing le v er t ica l s ide b enea th wh ich t he f ue l wou ld h ave b een l a id.

Two s herds o f p o t tery w ere f ound ( F ig. 3 8, 7 -8 ) :

o ne ,

a sma ll s hou ldered j ar f rag men t , c ou ld b e e ar l ier t han t he o ther , wh ich i s o f a n u neven S -shaped p rof ile , p robab ly d a t ing t o al a te p hase o f t he I ron Age. There i s n o s a t isfactory e v idence o f e xac t a ssoc ia t ion , a nd i t may b e t ha t , b ecause o f t he l ack o f p o t tery i n l arge q uan t i ty i n t he v ic in ity , t he s tructure s hou ld b e s een a s a n o ven o f s o me k ind r a ther t han a s ak iln. o ven-bases a re k nown e lsewhere :

C ircu lar c lay

o ne h as b een r epor ted f ro m t he l a ter I ron

Age s et t le men t a t Ancaster ( Bar ley , e t a l. 1 968, 1 ) , a nd t here was a no ther a t S tap le H owe ( Brews ter , 1 963, 3 6 ). I tr e ma ins t o b e p o in ted o u t t ha t , d ue i n p ar t t o t he l ow f ir ing t e mperatures o f t he p o t tery , a nd i np ar t t o t he f ac t t ha t mos t o f t he ma ter ia l i s t he d o mes t ic r ubb ish o f s e t t le men t r a ther t han t he d e l ibera te ly-bur ied c on ten ts o f g raves , c o mp lete a nd u nda maged v esse ls make u p a sma l l p ropor t ion o f t he t o ta l. Uneven manu facture , c o mpress ion u nder o ver ly ing d epos its , a nd t he sma l l s ize o f many s herds make t he e st i ma t ion o f d ia meters a nd a ng les f or d raw ing p urposes a h azardous t ask .

I t may b e t ha t s o me o f t he s hapes s uggested o n

t he p ot tery d raw ings ( such a s F igs. 3 ,3 ; 3 8, 2 ` 3 ) a re o pen t o d eba te.

1 4

4 ,4 ;

5 ,16 ;

1 5 ,15 ;

2 4 ,8-9 ;

a nd

i .

Meta lwork Because o f t he s k i l ls r equ ired a nd t he v a lue o f t he t oo ls a nd p roduc ts i n-

v o lved , i ti s g enera l ly c ons idered t hat t he manu facture o f meta lwork i n p reh is tory was a p rofess iona l o ccupa t ion.

Fro m t he d iagnost ic f ea tures o f mos t

me ta l a r t ifacts , b oth f unc t iona l a nd d ecora t ive , i ti s o f ten p oss ib le t o d eterm ine t he ir c hrono log ica l c on tex t a nd a rea o f manufac ture w ith c ons iderab le a ccuracy .

H ence t he a t t itude amongst s pec ia l is t s tuden ts o f l a ter p reh istor ic

me ta lwork o f w es tern Europe t ha t t he irs i s t he ma ter ia l wh ich i s d a tab le a nd t ha t i ti s t he t ypes o f s et t le men t a nd o ther a r t ifacts t ha t h ave n o f i rm c hrono logy ( Burgess , 1 970, 2 14 ). Mou lds f or Bronze Age meta lwork h ave a t h in d is tr ibu t ion o ver t he r eg ion . P ar t icu lar ly n otab le f i nds o f

9n e ar ly

d a te a re t he s tone mou lds f or c as t ing

p la in f l a t a xes f ound a t H urbuck , n ear L anchester ( VCH o f D urham , 1 905, I , 2 07 ) , a nd t he s andstone mou lds f or b ronze i ngo t a nd r ings f ound a t H ope Woodl ands , D erbysh ire , a nd a t tr ibu ted t o t he "Marnoch Group" ( Br it ton , 1 963, 3 24-5 ).

F or l a ter p hases w e h ave , f or e xamp le , t he b ronze mou ld f or a xes

c omb in ing s o me th ing o f b o th p a lstave a nd w ing-f langed a xe f ro m H otha m Carr , Y orksh ire ( Burgess , 1 968a , f i g . 3 , 8 ) , t he c lay mou ld f ragmen ts f or c as t ing s words , l ong-tongue c hapes , s ocke ted a xes , a nd s ocketed s pearheads f ro m F i mber , Y orksh ire ( 22 .c it ., f i g . 2 1, 1 ) , t he s tone mou lds f or t w inlooped , l ea f-shaped s pearheads f ro m Crog l in , C u mber land ( .c it., f i g . 1 8 ), a nd t he b ronze mou lds f or " Yorksh ire t ype" s ocketed a xes f ound o n Wh i te Edge , B as low , D erbysh ire ( E MAB , I I, 1 ) , i n t he H ea thery Burn Cave h oard ( Br it ton , 1 968, n o. 7 2 ), a nd i n t he Roseberry T opp ing h oard ( Elgee , 1 930 , P l. 2 CC [V , 1a nd 3 ) . The d is tr ibu t ion o f h oards c on ta in ing e v idence o f met a lwork ing p rocesses ( i n p ar t icu lar , n ote t he l ong , n arrow , s pr ing-hand led b ronze t ongs f ro m H ea thery Burn Cave ; Br it ton , 1 968 , n o. 7 0 ) a nd r ecen t me ta l lograph ic e xa m ina t ions h ave emphas ised t he impress ion o f i ndependen t i ndustry i n t he r eg ion , p ar t icu lar ly i n t he f i rs t h a l f o f t he f irs t m il lenn iu m B .C. B etween t he t en th a nd t he e igh th c en tury B .C. ,n or thern a r t ifac ts o f t he Wa l l ing ton Trad it ion a re n o t l eaded , a s a re t he ir c oun terpar ts i n t he Wi lbur ton T rad it ion o f t he s ou th. T here w as s o me n or thward p ene tra t ion b y W i lbur ton ma ter ia l ( Burgess , 1 968a , f i g . 2 3 ), a s s hown b y , f or e xamp le , t he f i ne l oze nge-sec t ioned s pearhead f ro m F enny Ben t ley , D erbysh ire ( BM , 1 896 , 7 6 .1 ) , b ut n ot u n t i l t he l a ter e igh th c en tury a nd t he p er iod o f H ea thery B urn T rad it ion was l ead-bronze g enera l ly u sed i n t he n or th o f Eng land ( Ty leco te , 1 968 , 5 5 ).

Dur ing t h is l a ter p hase t he a rea s aw t he manu facture o f an ew

r ange o f p roducts ( Burgess , 1 968b , 3 9-40 ).

T o t he s ou th-wes t i n Chesh ire ,

S hropsh ire , a nd p robab ly S taf fordsh ire , a n i ndependen t s ou th-wes tern a nd Marches Broadwood Trad it ion h as b een i den t if ied i n t h is p er iod ( op.c it ., 4 04 1 ).

Reg iona l b ronze-work ing i ndus tr ies w ere t hus w e l l-estab l ished , a nd w ere

s ign if ican t ly d if feren t f ro m t he ir S cot t ish , We lsh a nd s ou thern c oun terpar ts. There s ee ms l i t t le d eta iled e v idence o f t he a c tua l s i tes o f b ronze- manu fac ture , a s m igh t c o mpare w ith t he w orkshop a t J ar lshof i n S het land ( Ham i l ton , 1 956 , 2 1-9 ), b ut t ha t b ronze was w orked o n s et t le men t s i tes i s i nd ica ted b y t he f ragmen ts o f ar ough p o t tery c ruc ib le w ith b ronze s cor iae , a nd a j e t f ro m a b ronze c as t ing , f ound a t Cast le H i l l , S carborough (Whee ler , 1 931, 2 2 ) .

1 5

There i s e v idence t ha t i ron was u sed i n t he r eg ion f ro m a round 6 00 B .C. , i fo n ly i n sma l l q uan t it ies , ( see b e low , p .40f .). Ou tcrop i ron o re d epos its a re a va ilab le a t many l oca t ions s ou th o f t he F or th , p ar t icu lar ly i n western C o. Durha m , n or th-eas t Yorksh ire , a nd n or th L inco lnsh ire.

I n e ach o f t hese

a reas w e h ave e v idence o f i ron-work ing , a l though most ly o f al a ter d a te w ithi n t he I ron Age. Perhaps t he b es t-known s tructures a re t he t wo r ock-cu t b ow l f urnaces f or i ron sme lt ing e xcava ted b y J obey ( 1962, 1 9-21 ) a t Wes t Brandon , Co. D urha m . These w ere o f s im i lar s ize , o ne j ust w ith in t he l ine o f t he d oub le-pa l isade a t t he s ou th-wes t c orner o f t he s i te , a nd t he o ther s o me 4 5 f ee t t o t he e as t . T hey w ere s l igh t ly o ver 1 2 i nches i n d ia meter , a nd 8 i nches d eep b e low t he p resen t r ock s ur face.

I n t he b o tto m o f e ach was a 2 .5 i nch l ayer o f c harcoa l

a nd s lag d rop lets , c overed b y l arge r unne ls o f s lag f or m ing a l ayer o f s im i lar t h ickness.

Above t h is , t runca ted b y p lough ing , w as a f a l len f ragmen tary c lay

f urnacel in ing , t he p ieces , u p t o t wo i nches t h ick , most ly s how ing v itr if icat ion o n t he i ns ide s ur faces.

T he t ype o f s truc ture was c on jectura l ly r econs-

t ructed a s ac lay d o me w ith a t uyere h o le t o o ne s ide a nd a n o pen ing i n t he t op t o a l low g ases t o e scape a nd t o f eed i n a dd it iona l c harcoa l ( en t ire ly o f o ak ).

J obey c ons idered i tl ike ly t ha t t hese f urnaces w ere i n u se d ur ing t he

o ccupa t ion o f t he h o mes tead , wh ich was t en tat ive ly a scr ibed t o t he t h ird o r s econd c en tury B .C.

L arge f ragmen ts o f c lay l in ing f ro m t he wes tern f ur-

n ace w ere r e tr ieved f ro m t he r ep lace men t p a l isade t rench a t ap os it ion b en ea th t he p ack ing-s tones , p o in t ing t o d epos it ion wh i ls t t he t rench was o pen. A s im i lar f urnace h as b een f ound a t Ca tcote , n ear West Har t lepoo l ( Long , 1 964 , 2 ) .

Th is was a c lay s truc ture , c o mp lete w ith i ts t uyere h o le , s i tua ted

i n t he e astern h a l f o f ah u t .

There i s ac ons iderab le q uan t ity o f c oarse l a te

I ron Age p o t tery f ro m t h is s i te ( F ig . 4 7 ), b ut t here i s a lso Ro man ma ter ia l , i nc lud ing a s i lver d enar ius o f E lagaba lus ( A .D . 2 18-222 ).

More c er ta in ly

d a tab le t o t he f irs t c en tury A .D . i s t he s truc ture a t Enc losure D , L ev isha m Moor .

( Un for tuna te ly , d eta iled i n forma t ion a bou t t hese f urnaces i s n o t a va il-

a b le, b ut a l i t t le h as b een k ind ly o f fered b y J . G . Rut ter.)

On t he s ou thern

e dge o f t he N or th York Moors , n or th o f P icker ing a nd c lose t o q uarr iab le i ronstone d epos its , t he s i te l i es im med ia te ly t o t he s ou th a nd wes t o f as er ies o f r ect i l inear e ar thworks a nd p robab le e nc losures , a l l o f wh ich h ave b een e xcava ted b y t he S carborough a nd D is tr ic t Archaeo log ica l S oc iety .

S urrounded

b y t wo c oncen tr ic p enannu lar d ra inage d itches , 4 8 a nd 3 3 f eet i n d ia me ter , 2 -3 f eet d eep , d ug i n to n a tura l l imey s ands tone , a nd w ith t he t er m inat ions o n t he s ou th-eas tern , d ownh i l l , s ide , was a c ircu lar h ut a bou t 2 0 f ee t i n d ia meter , d ef ined b y as ing le r ing o f p os t-ho les.

With in t he h ut , as hal low d epress ion

c on ta ined a sma l l c lay f urnace o f t he t ype e nv isaged a t Wes t Brandon , p ar t ly s uper i mposed u pon t he r e ma ins o f t wo e ar l ier f urnaces.

Al arge d epos it o f

s lag h ad b een d u mped t o t he s ou th o f t he h u t b etween t he t er m ina ls o f t he i nner p enannu lar d itch .

T he p o t tery f ro m Enc losure D ( F ig . 5 0 , 1 0-11 ) i s s im i lar

t o t ha t f ro m o ther e nc losures i n t he c o mp lex ( F ig . 4 9 ;

F ig . 5 0 , 1 -9 ), a nd

s ugges ts a d a te w ith in t he f irst c en tury A .D . One o f t he f ew l arge o u tcrops o f i ron o re i n Br ita in may h ave i n f luenced t he c ho ice o f s i te f or s e t t le men t a t Dragonby , n ear S cun thorpe . A lthough r f urnaces o r a ssoc ia ted s tructures h ave b een d iscovered , i t s ee ms t ha t : 2 o th b ronze a nd i ron w ere worked o n t he s i te , s ince c up-shaped a nd t r iangu lar

1 6

c lay c ruc ib les a nd q uan t it ies o f s lag h ave b een f ound i n I ron Age l ayers ( G . C . Know les i nfor mat ion ).

T r iangu lar c ruc ib les s im i lar t o t hose f ro m

Dragonby h ave b een f ound a t T rapra in L aw , Eas t L oth ian ( Cur ie a nd Cree , 1 916 , f ig . 3 6 ), a nd Breedon-on-the-H i l l ( Kenyon , 1 950, f i g . 6 , 6 ) , a s w e l l a s a t Ma iden Cast le , Dorset ( Whee ler , 1 943, f i g . 19 , 1 ) , a nd i ts ee ms t ha t t hey w ere u sua l ly u sed f or b ronze-work ing . A t l east b y t he l a ter I ron Age , t herefore , o ne mus t e nv isage a s er ies o f sma l l sme l t ing i ndus tr ies i n t hose a reas where o re was o bta inab le.

I n a dd i-

t i on , i ti s r easonab le t o a ssu me t ha t mos t l arge c o m mun it ies p roduced t he ir own i ronwork , a nd p robably a lso b ronze. The t oo ls u sed a re l ike ly t o h ave b een l i t t le d i f feren t f ro m t hose o f t he h and-forges o f r e la t ive ly modern t imes. Exc it ing n ew e v idence o f t h is was r ecovered b y T . C . M. Brewster i n s a lvage e xcavat ions i n 1 970 a t G ar ton S lack , e as tern Y orksh ire ( D. o f t he E 1 4 ).

1 971,

Carefu l ly c oncea led i n t he b ot to m o f ag ra in s torage p i t 1 0 f eet i n d ia-

me ter a nd a bou t 4f eet d eep , a n d c overed o ver w ith g rave l o f t he s a me c ons ist ency a s t he s urround ing n atura l d epos it , was a c onta iner , p robab ly a w ooden b ox , e nc los ing t hree f org ing t oo ls o f i ron .

T he b est-preserved was a p a ir o f

t ongs , 1 7.5 i nches l ong , q u ite s im i lar t o t he p a ir f ro m L lyn Cerr ig Bach , Ang lesey ( Fox , 1 946, P l. V I, 1 31 ), w ith s hor t , r ectangu lar-sect ioned j aws a nd l ong h and les , d es igned f or t he t igh t g r ipp ing o f n arrow o b jects. t wo w ere b oth a bou t t hree f ee t l ong .

The o ther

T he f i rs t was a s quare-sec t ioned , c oun-

t ertw isted b ar w ith a s tou t r ing a t o ne e nd a nd a n arrow , d aggerl ike , t woe dged b lade a t t he o ther.

I ts ee ms t o h ave b een d es igned f or u se i n at w is t ing

mo t ion , a nd may h ave b een f or e n larg ing p unched h o les ( a r eamer ) o r f or t w is t ing o ther r ods. T he s econd was a s i mp le s quare-sect ioned b ar w ith a s im i lar s tou t r ing , i n wh ich r e ma ined a l oose i ron r ing a t o ne e nd , a nd a s hor t , p endan t , r ectangu lar-shaped s ing le-edged b lade a t t he o ther. Th is was p roba b ly a c u t t ing t oo l ( a s e tt ).

T he s i te a s a who le ( Gar ton S lack , I X ) p roduced

n o ma ter ia l o ther t han t ha t a ss ignab le t o t he l ate I ron Age o f t he f i rst c en tury B .C. a nd t he f irs t c en tury A .D . T o t he s ou th o f t he r eg ion , t he r ange o f d o mes t ic i ron o b jects f ound a t H unsbury h i ll-for t , N or thamp ton , i nc lud ing k n ives , s ick les , s aws , c h ise ls , s pearheads a nd p lough-shares , p robab ly r ef lects i t s s i tua t ion o ver w orkab le i rons tone d epos its ( Fe l l , 1 937 , 6 5 f ., 9 5-6 ). T here i s l i t t le d o mest ic i ronwork f ro m s i tes f ur ther n or th , p robab ly p ar t ly b ecause o f ah igh c orros ion r a te ; a nd t he s i tua t ion i s c on fused s ince t he b as ic f unc t iona l s hapes e vo lved f or I ron Age t oo ls c on t inued l arge ly u na l tered i n to t he Ro mano-Br it ish p er iod . I ti s t hus n ot p oss ib le t o d a te a ccura te ly t he many i ron k n ives f ro m w es t Yorksh ire ( Ra is tr ick , 1 939, F ig . 1 V ), e xcep t t o s ay t ha t b ecause o f t he w ea lth o f c on te mporary e v idence t hey a re l ike ly t o b e long t o t he l a ter p er iod. S pearh eads s uch a s t hose f rom Manor F arm , K i lha m ( F ig . 2 4 , 2 ) , S tone , S ta f fords h ire ( TNSFC , 1 896, XXX , 13 ), L inco ln ( L iM , 5 5-59 ), a nd Dragonby ( G . C . Know les i n forma t ion ) may b e I ron Age a s t hey h ave u nsp l it s ockets. The s pr ing-hand led i ron s hears f ound i n as ha l low h u t-gu l ly a t S tanw ick ( Whee ler , 1 954 , P l. XXV I I c . ) a re j us t l i ke t hose u sed b y s hepherds t oday . R ecen t s tud ies o f o u ts tand ing p roducts o f Ear ly C e l t ic Ar t f ound o n t he e astern a nd s ou thern marg ins o f o ur a rea p o in t t o f l our ish ing l oca l w orkshops. J ope ( 1971, 6 4-5 ), i n h is d iscuss ion o f t he Witha m s h ie ld , c ons iders i tu nn ecessary t o s uggest t ha t t he f in ished p roduct was b rough t n or thwards f ro m

1 7

Tha mes v a l ley w orkshops , a nd p erce ives a l oca l i ndustry i n t he L inco ln a rea . The f a i lure o f t he c as t ing a nd t he f rag il ity o f t he meta l o f t he G lasco te g o ld t ore l ed Pa in ter ( 1971) t o c onc lude t ha t t h is p r ice less a n t iqu ity , t oge ther w ith as im ilar t orc f ro m N eedwood F orest , was a p roduc t o f ag o lds m ith s e t t led i n t he L ich f ie ld-Ta mwor th a rea o f S ta f fordsh ire.

We may c oncur w ith Fox

( 1958, 2 9 ) who e nv isaged a rmourers a nd o ther me ta lworkers i n a l l " grouped c o m mun it ies".

S tead ( 1963 , 6 3 ) s tops s hor t o f p ropos ing a n i ndependen t

meta lwork ing s choo l i n L a T ene

e as tern Yorksh ire , r e la t ing a r t is t ic f ea-

t ures t o t hose f ound i n L inco lnsh ire , b u t h e d oes imp ly s eparate d eve lop men t i n many c ases , p ar t icu lar ly i n h is d iscuss ion o f i n lay o rna men t ( .c it ., 6 56 ) .

L arge workshops wou ld h ave b een r equ ired t o p roduce d o mes t ic meta l-

work i n a dd it ion t o t he c ons iderab le q uan t it ies d epos ited w ith b ur ia ls a s , f or e xa mp le , t he c ar t-f it t ings a t G ar ton S lack ( Brewster , 1 971, P ls. XL I I a nd XL IH ).

S i mpson ( S i mpson , M., 1 966 ) h as f e lt a b le t o p ropose a t l east t wo

s choo ls o f meta lwork ing i n Br igan t ian t err itory i n t he l a te I ron Age p er iod , o ne p oss ib ly i n t he Va le o f Eden , a nd a nother , more c on jectura l , t o t he s ou th . By t he l a ter I ron Age , c o mp lex methods o f c as t ing , work ing a nd d ecorat ion , a nd t he p oten t ia ls o f d if feren t a l loys w ere f u l ly u t il ised .

I ti s h ard ly

n ecessary h ere t o r econs ider e xhaus t ive ly t he e v idence f or a l l t he meta lwork f ound i n t he r eg ion , i n p ar t icu lar t o r etrace t he s teps o f S tead ( 1965 ) i n h is s tudy o f t he g rave g oods f ro m t he L a V ene b ur ia ls o f e as tern Yorksh ire, o r o f S i mpson ( 1966 ) i n h er a na lys is o f C e lt ic me ta lwork i n n or th Br ita in f ro m a bou t t he f irs t c en tury B .C. o nwards.

De ta iled i n format ion a bou t methods

o f manu facture a re a lso a va i lab le i n e x ist ing l i terature ;

i n p ar t icu lar , t ech-

n iques o f g o ld a l loy ing a nd work ing a re r ev iewed b y H awkes a nd C larke ( 1963 ) a nd b y P a in ter ( 1971).

I nd iv idua l p ieces , t herefore , w i l l o n ly b e c ons idered

a s t hey b eco me r e levan t t o t he d iscuss ion . i i.

Wood The e x ten t t o wh ich wood was u sed i n l a ter p reh istory , a nd t he s k i l l w ith

wh ich i t was worked t hroughou t t he p er iod , h as b een h igh l igh ted b y t he e ar ly d a te n ow i nd ica ted f or a t l eas t t wo o f t he s ewn b oa ts f ro m Nor th F err iby (Wr igh t a nd Church il l , 1 965 , 1-16 ).

Rad iocarbon d eter m ina t ions s ugges t

t ha t t hese smooth ly-f in ished s ewn b oa ts , p robab ly o ver 5 0 f eet l ong , were i n u se d ur ing a p er iod o f e s tuar ine c ond it ions i n t he H u mber a rea f ro m a bout 1 500 t o 1 200 B .C., p r ior t o t he mar ine t ransgress ion ment ioned p rev ious ly a s t ak ing p lace i n t he f irs t m i l lenn iu m. I ti s s e ldo m p oss ib le t o d a te d ug-out c anoes o n t he b as is o f t he ir s truct ure , s ince t hey must h ave b een u sed f ro m e ar l ies t p reh is tory u n t i l r ela t ive ly modern t imes.

The r ad iocarbon d ate o f a .d.

1 300 ± 1 20 ( D-71; McAu lay a nd

Wa t ts , 1 961, 3 7 ) f or t he b oa t f ro m Ken t mere, Wes t more land , warns o f t he d angers o f a ssu m ing g rea t a n t iqu ity w ithou t e v idence , a nd a l though a n e rror o f s evera l h undred y ears i s q u ite l ike ly i n t he r ad iocarbon d at ing o f a r t ifacts b y s amp les f ro m l arge t imbers , s uch l abora tory me thods a t p resen t p rov ide t he mos t r el iab le i nd ica tors.

A c o mprehens ive n ew s urvey o f d ug-ou ts i s

r equ ired , a s much n ew e v idence h as emerged s ince F ox p ub l ished h is s urvey ( 1926 ).

Fro m o ur a rea , s evera l r epresentat ive i ns tances may b e c i ted.

A

d ug-cu t i n b ad ly d a maged c ond it ion was r ecovered f ro m s i lt , 1 8 f eet b enea th

1 8

g round l eve l , a t Chape l F la t Dyke , S hef f ie ld ( SK 4 07915 ). r ad iocarbon d a te o f 1 500 ± 1 50 b .c. ( B M -2 13 ;

I tp roduced a

YAJ Arch. Reg ., 1 967 , 7 ) .

Probab ly mark ing t he o nse t o f wet ter c ond it ions i n e s tuar ine a nd r iver ine s i tua t ions a re t he d ug-ou ts f ro m t he r iver Ancho l me a t Br igg ( 834 + 1 00 b .c.; Q -7 8 ; G odw in a nd Wil l is , 1 961, 7 3 ), a nd f ro m t he r iver Witha m a t S hor t F erry , n ear L inco ln ( 846± 1 00 b .c.;

Q -79 ;

9 1 .c i t . ,7 2 ).

Both t hese

e xamp les h ad s epara te s tern-boards , a nd a re t hus s im ilar t o t hree b oa ts , p robab ly a ssoc ia ted w ith b ronze imp le men ts o f t he M idd le , o r e ar ly L a te , Bronze Age , f ro m t he r iver T ren t a t C l if ton , a bove No t t ingham ( Ph il l ips , C . W., 1 941 ).

O f t hree b oa ts f ro m H o l me P ierrepon t s o me s ix m i les d own-

s trea m ( MacCorm ick , 1 968 ) , No. 3 was v ery s im ilar t o t he C l if ton e xa mp les , b u t w as n o t s tra t igraph ica l ly r e lated t o t he o thers , o f wh ich No. 1 w as p un ts haped a nd No. 2 was sma l le- ( nrobab ly o r ig ina l ly 1 8.5 f ee t l ong ) a nd r ounded , b o th c o mp lete ly monoxy lous. A B irm ingha m Un ivers ity r ad iocarbon d a te o f 2 30 + 10 b .c. w as o bta ined p robab ly f ro m h ardwood i n t he g unwa le o f No. 1 . However , i t wou ld b e d angerous t o p ostu late a c hrono log ica l s equence f ro m s ewn b oa ts t o s tern-board d ug-ou ts f o l lowed b y s i mp ler p un ts a nd d ingh ies. I ti s l i ke ly t hat d i f ferences i n f unc t ion a nd c ond it ions o f u se a ccoun t f or t he s tructura l v ar iet ies. T rapped b etween b ed-rock a nd t he h u l l o f Boa t No. 1 a t Ho l me P ierrep on t , a nd t hus p robably l os t i n t he s a me f l ood , was a most r e markab le wooden whee l.

A s t he r ad iocarbon d a te f or t he b oa t r efers t o t he a ge o f t he

wood r a ther t han t o t he d a te o f d epos it ion , w e may c ons ider t he whee l t o h ave b een u sed l a te i n t he I ron Age p er iod .

Or ig ina l ly a bout 3 3 i nches i n d ia meter ,

i th ad t we lve s pokes o f s quar ish s ect ion , s ix f e l loes h e ld t oge ther a t s i mp le f la t j o in ts b y f l oa t ing t enons , a nd a n i ron r im , n ow c orroded away .

The

s quare-ended t enons o f t he s pokes p ro jected t hrough t he f e l loes t o t he r i m. The n ave w as 1 4 i nches l ong , c y l indr ica l , p la in a nd s ymmetr ica l , l a thet urned e x terna l ly , i t s i n ter ior t r i m med w ith a c h ise l. n ave-bands.

I tb ore t races o f i ron

T he s poke-hous ing z one was marked o u t b y l i gh t l a the-turned

l ines , a nd t he s poke e nds w ere t apered i n to r ectangu lar t enons. p lete whee l was r ecovered.

T he c o m-

T here s ee ms t o b e n o p ara l lel t o t h is mu lt i-

f e l loe c ons truct ion i n p reh is tor ic Europe ( no men t ion i n Kossack , 1 971 ), a lt hough t hose f ro m P it W O ( a t News tead a nd f ro m t he o uter d itch a t Bar H il l , b oth S cot t ish Ro man f or ts , a re s im ilar ( Cur ie , 1 911, 2 94 ). A c lose p ara l le l t o t he whee ls f rom t he t wo f our-whee led r i tua l wagons f ro m De jb jerg , J u tl and ( Kossack , 1 971, f ig . 2 8 , 1 ) , h owever , i s a whee l f ound b enea th 1 6 f eet o f a l luv ia l d epos its o f s and a nd c lay l y ing o n g rave l , f ro m t he r iver Tyne a t Ry ton ( P iggot t , S ., 1 949 ).

3 8.75 i nches i n d iameter , i th ad a s ing le f e l loe

2 .5 i nches w ide w ith a l eve l led j o in t , i n to wh ich t he n ine 1 2.5 i nch s pokes were mor t iced. T he mass ive h ub was 1 5.5 i nches l ong w ith e x terna l d iameters o f 5 .75 i nches a t t he e nds a nd 8 .5 i nches i n t he c en tre.

T he r e ma ins

o f a n i ron t yre w ere v is ib le. On ly when t hey h ave b een p reserved i n wa ter logged c ond it ions c an a ny d ef in ite c onclus ions b e r eached a bou t wooden a r t ifac ts. Thus t here i s l i t t le t o b e s a id o f t he d e ta ils o f t he whee ls f ro m t he G ar ton S lack c ar t-bur ia l ( Brews ter , 1 971, P ls. XL II a nd XL I I I ), e xcep t t ha t t hey w ere 3 4 i nches i n d iame ter , h ad f e l loes 2 .75 i nches d eep , 1 2 s pokes , h ubs 1 4 i nches l ong a nd

1 9

5.75 inches in diameter with gilded bronze nave-hoops, and wrought-iron tyres. The felloe-construction type is not known, but apart from the number of spokes these wheels seem broadly similar to the Ryton example. Other woodwork in the Garton Slack burial would have included the coachwork and pole-shaft, of which traces remained. Additional examples of wooden arti­ facts from East Riding burials include the possible shield from the Hunmanby cart-burial (Stead, 1965, 94-5), and at least three examples of wooden coffins for contracted inhumations in Area I of the 1968-9 Burton Fleming cemetery excavations (Stead, 1971, 26). We should also note in passing the fragment, apparently of a solid wooden wheel, from the settlement on Sutton Common, near Askern in the West Riding (Whiting, 1938, 72-3 and Pl. 10). The extent to which wood may have been used for domestic purposes, and even as a deliberate alternative to pottery in areas of the north and west, is shown by a discovery at Stanwick (Wheeler, 1954, 52-3). This was a shallow bowl or tray of oak, 17 inches long and 2.5 inches deep, found in the water­ logged ditch termination at the Phase II entrance. Wheeler draws attention to the evidence for wooden troughs for water-storage, and quotes an undated example, 5 feet 4 inches long and 13 inches deep, from the river Esk in C umberland. To these may be added the carbonised remains of a trough or chest found in a small oval pit within a late Iron Age enclosure at Site V, Garton Slack (D. of the E., 1971, 12). An earlier example of a wooden con­ tainer is the oak box, fastened with wooden pins, which contained the hoard of bronze socketed axes, socketed spearheads, and probably a dagger, from Winmarleigh, Lancashire (Sobee, 1953, 17). The ash-wood scabbard of the sword from Stanwick, also found in the ditch of the Phase II entrance (Wheeler, 1954, PI. XXVI), is a further example of delicate and expert wood-working, and again demonstrates the value of waterlogged deposits to the prehistorian. The lathe-turned and excellently-proportioned Holme Pierrepont wheel is a tribute to the high standards of craftsmanship in the late Iron Age period. On a different scale, the widespread use of wood in defence, enclosure, and dwelling construction was doubtless usually of rougher character, with lashed or pegged jointing. The carefully-squared timber planks and beams of a rectangular structure were found at Barmston, eastern Yorkshire (Varley, 1968, 20), a site to be discussed later. Apparent hut-circles visible on the clay slopes above Ingoldmells Point, Lincolnshire, associated with salt briquette manufacture (Warren, 1932), had floors artificially raised on piles, with wall structures incorporating mortising and dowelling. The planks found at the base of the rampart structures at C astle Hill, Almondbury, in 1970 were carefully cut (Fig. 62 ) • The sheer quantity of timber used in stockaded and timber-boxed defences and in hut structures should not pass without comment. Equally, great effort was involved in the construction of the timber roadways at Kate's Pad, Pilling, a track of longitudinally placed split logs, traceable for at least 70 yards (Sobee, 1953, 18-21; 810 ± 120 b.c.; Q - 68; Godwin and Willis, 1960, 69), and at Brigg, where similar longitudinal split logs overlay trunks and branches at right-angles, and were secured by mortise joints to vertical stakes (Smith, A.G., 1958, 32; 602 ..t- 120 b.c.; Q - 77; Godwin and Willis, 1964, 130).

20

Wood s ee ms t o h ave b een u sed i nvar iab ly o n a l l t ypes o f s i te i n l a ter p reh is tory , a nd i ti s r are t ha t s o me i nd icat ions a re n o t e v iden t .

Wooden c arv-

i ngs o f o rna men ta l o r r i tua l t ype , s uch a s t he Roos Carr images ( L indqv ist , 1 942 ), wou ld h ave b een c om mon.

The I ron Age we l l l i ned w ith b irch s takes

i n terwoven w ith h aze l t w igs a t Dragonby ( G . C . Know les i n forma t ion ) a nd t he sma l l f rag men ts o f h aze l a nd w il low b asketry f ro m S tanw ick ( Whee ler , 1 954 , P l. XXVb ) a re f ur ther e xamp les o f d o mest ic c raf ts. p er ishab le mater ia ls we h ave l i t t le e v idence.

O f t he u se o f o ther

T here a re t wo i ns tances f rom

t he a rea o f t he d iscovery i n p ea t o f wel l-preserved h u man b od ies. I n 1 747 t he b ody o f a wo man w ith moccas intype s anda ls a nd e xce l len t ly p reserved s k in a nd h a ir was f ound , s ix f eet d eep i n p ea t a t Amco t ts , L inco lnsh ire ( Peck , 1 815 , 8 ) .

A l l t ha t r e ma ins o f as im ilar d iscovery a t L aver ton , Y orksh ire

( SE 1 63743 ), i s as anda l a nd p ar t o f as tock ing ( Elgee a nd E lgee , 1 933, 1 66 ). Both t hese f inds h ave b een p rc s l i med t o b e Ro mano-Br it ish , b u t t he u se o f l ea ther , p ar t icu lar ly f or f oo twear , wou ld h ave b een c o mmon i n e ar l ier t imes. i v.

Bone a nd An t ler S i mp le t oo ls a nd o ther o b jects o f worked b one a nd a n t ler s ee m t o f orm a

s ubs tra tu m o f d omes t ic ma ter ia l c o m mon t o most e xcava ted s i tes o f t he f i rst m il lenn iu m B .C. i n t he r eg ion. a s work ing p ieces ;

T he c annon b ones o f o xen were o f ten u sed

t hey a re k nown f ro m S tap le H owe ( Brewster , 1 963, f ig.

7 0 ) a nd f ro m Manor Farm , K ilha m , P it 3 ( C. a nd E . Gran tha m e xcava t ions ), a nd f ro m t he m p o in ted imp le men ts were made , a s f ro m Ravenc l if fe Cave ( F ig . 6 , 2 ) .

The sma l l l imb-bones o f s heep a nd d eer s erved a s s i mp le p o in ts ,

p robab ly f or l ea ther work , a s f ro m H arborough Cave ( F ig. 5 , 5 -8 ), Ca tco te ( F ig . 4 7, 1 ) , Normanby , C leve land ( F ig . 4 8, 3 ) , a nd H ea thery Burn Cave ( Br it ton , 1 968, n os. 1 21-132 ).

An t ler l evers a nd p icks , p robab ly u sed i n

q uarry ing p its a nd g u l l ies , a re a lso c o m mon , a s a t S tap le H owe ( Brews ter , 1 963 , f i g . 7 1), Manor F arm , K ilha m , P it 3 ( C. a nd E . Gran tha m e xcava t ions ), Gr im thorpe ( S tead , 1 968, f i g . 1 0 , 9 ) , a nd Weaver thorpe ( Greenwe l l , 1 877 , 2 01-2 ), a l l i n e as tern Y orksh ire. A longs ide t hese o b jects o f g enera l u t i l ity a re t hose w ith p ar t icu lar ly s pec ia l ised f unct ions. Bone c o mbs , a s f ro m Harborough Cave ( F ig . 5 , 2 ) , Thor 's Cave ( F ig . 7 , 1 ) , Breedon-onthe-H il l ( F ig . 1 2, 3 ) , Bos ton S pa ( K itson C lark , 1 936 ;

s im ilar t o o ne f ro m A l l

Cann ings Cross - Cunn ing ton , 1 923, P l. 1, 2 ) , a nd Ca tcote ( C. D . L ong i n forma t ion ), may h ave b een u sed i n w eav ing , b u t t he d ist inct g reasy smeari ng o f t he t eeth , p ar t icu lar ly o f t he Breedon-on-the-H i l l e xa mp le , s ugges ts s heep-p luck ing a s a n a l terna t ive f unct ion ( as c ons idered l ike ly b y R itch ie , 1 969 , 1 0 ). S uch c o mbs a ppear t o h ave b een u sed t hroughou t l a ter p reh is tory , a nd o n i n to t he Ro man p er iod ( For a p rov is iona l i nven tory , s ee H ensha l l , 1 950 , 1 60 ). O ther t ypes o fb one imp le men t s ee m t o h ave a more r es tr ic ted c hronol og ica l r ange.

T he t ogg le , o r h and le-p iece , o f a n t ler f ro m S tap le H owe

( Brews ter , 1 963, f i g . 6 9 , 5 ) i s p ara l le led a t H arborough Rocks , Derbysh ire (Ward , 1 890 , f ig . 9 ) , a nd a t H ea thery Burn Cave ( Br it ton , 1 968, n os. 1 621 67 ), a nd s o s ee ms t o b e r epresen ta t ive o f t he s econd q uar ter o f t he f irs t m i l lenn iu m B .C.

The S tap le H owe n et t ing-need les ( Brews ter , 1 963 , f ig .

6 9 , 1 -4 ) may a lso b e e ar ly t ypes , a l though t here i s a n e xamp le f ro m Grea t Kenda le ( F ig. 2 7 ,1).

The s hu t t le-bobb in , made f ro m a s heep 's metacarpa l ,

2 1

f ro m N or manby , C leve land ( F ig . 4 8 , 1 ) , i s c lose ly p ara l le led a t t he Trund le ( Curwen , 1 931, 1 42, f ig . 4 0 ) a nd a t G lastonbury ( Ch ilde , 1 940 , 2 36 ), a nd b el ongs t o al a ter p er iod .

A s im ilar e xa mp le h as c o me f ro m t he Ro man v il la

a t H arpha m , e as tern Y orksh ire ( DP M ).

A lso l a ter a re t he p er fora ted a n t ler

o b jects , mos t o f wh ich may b e i nterpreted a s h orse h arness c heek-p ieces ( Harborough Cave , F ig . 5 , 1 ; F ig . 7 , 3 -7 ;

Ravenc l if fe Cave , F ig . 6 ,3 ;

E lder Bush Cave , F ig . 7 , 8 ;

Breedon-on-the-H i l l , F ig . 1 2 , 4 ;

Thor 's Cave ,

B urrough H il l , F ig . 1, 2 ;

a nd Cos ta B eck , F ig . 5 2, 1 ) .

The b one

p egs f ound w ith t he Gr im thorpe warr ior b ur ia l ( S tead , 1 968 , f ig. 1 6 ) a re q u ite c o m mon e lsewhere i n Yorksh ire a t B lea lands N ook ( Mor t i mer , 1 905 , f ig . 4 93 ) a nd L ang ton ( Corder a nd K irk , 1 932, f ig . 1 9 ), a nd a lso a t B ishop M idd leha m , Co. Durha m ( Ra is tr ick , 1 933, f ig . 3 ).

They s ee m t o b e o f l a te L a T ene o r

e ar ly Ro man d a te. Dogs ' c an ines a nd b oars ' t usks s ee m r egu lar ly t o h ave b een p er fora ted a nd u sed f or o rna men ts.

The f or mer t ype h ave c o me f ro m Heathery Burn

Cave ( Br it ton , 1 968 , n os. 2 1-3 ) a nd H arborough Cave ( F ig. 5 , 4 ).

S im ilar

p erfora ted c an ines a re k nown a broad , a s a t H a l lstat t ( Kro mer , 1 959 , Grab. 1 39 , T a f . 1, 1 4 ).

T he Harborough Cave p er fora ted b oar 's t usk ( F ig . 5 , 3 )

i s p ara l le led a t Breedon-on-the-H il l ( F ig . 1 2 ,3 ) a nd S tap le Howe ( Brewster , 1 963, f ig . 7 2, 1 ) .

T hese t ypes , p resu mab ly o f mag ica l s ign if icance , may

h ave h ad a l ong c urrency , a nd n o s pec if ic c u l tura l i nferences may b e d rawn f ro m t he m.

S o me a r t ifac ts o f b one a nd a n t ler d o s ee m t o h ave d is t inct c hron-

o log ica l r anges , h owever , a nd i fe v idence f ro m l a ter p reh istor ic s i tes t hrougho u t Br ita in was c o l lected , s o me mean ing fu l d is t inct ion b etween e ar l ier a nd l a ter a sse mb lages wou ld p robab ly emerge. v .

S tone

The mos t c o m mon s ur face f inds f ro m l a ter p reh istor ic s i tes i n c en tra l a nd n or thern Eng land a re o f s tone. Sma l l , f l a t r ubb ing-stones a nd f l in ts a re p ar t icu lar ly e v iden t.

An impress ion o f ap rofuse i fi nexper t d o mest ic

s tone-work ing a ct iv ity i s a tppor ted b y t he f inds f ro m e xcava t ions.

F l in t

c h ipp ings , o f wh ich t hose f ro m S tap le H owe ( Brews ter , 1 963, f ig . 7 6 ), Gr im thorpe ( S tead , 1 968, f ig. 1 0 , 1 0-12 ), a nd S carborough (Whee ler , 1 931, f ig . 1 8 ) a re t yp ica l , a re v ir tua l ly u b iqu itous amongs t c o l lect ions o f ma ter ia l f ro m s e t t le men t s i tes.

S tap le H owe a lso p roduced c haracter is t ic h a m mer-

s tones o r p ounders ( Brews ter , 1 963, f ig . 7 5 , 1 -3 ), f ound e lsewhere i n e as tern Yorksh ire a t T hornha m H il l , Em mo t land , a nd Manor Farm , K ilha m ( DP M ), a nd a t Ravenc l if fe Cave , Derbysh ire ( F ig . 6 , 7 ) .

A c arefu l ly- made

s tone h one was f ound a t t he l a t ter s i te ( F ig . 6 , 6 ) , at ype a lso s een a t H eathery Burn Cave ( Br it ton , 1 968, n o. 1 83 ).

S tone , l i ke b one, t herefore ,

s ee ms t o h ave b een w ide ly u sed t hroughout t he p er iod . Amongs t more s pec ia l ised i t e ms o f s tone e qu ip men t , t he mos t c o m mon i s t he q uern .

T he s add le q uern was u sed t hroughout t he f irs t m il lenn iu m

B .C. u n t i l i t was g radua l ly s uperseded i n t he c los ing c en tur ies. Probab ly f a ir ly e ar ly e xa mp les a re f ro m t he b o t to m o f t he d itch o f t he Ro man s igna l s tat ion a t S carborough (Wheeler , 1 931, 2 2 ), t wo f ro m t he Ba l l Cross f or t , Derbysh ire ( S tan ley , 1 954 , 9 8 ), a nd a t l eas t t wo f ro m t he b er m o f t he b arr ow a t Swarkeston , a lso D erbysh ire ( Posnansky , 1 955 , 1 32 ).

Four were

f ound a t Breedon-on-the-H il l i n e xcavat ions b y Wacher ( 1964 , 1 34-5 ). One 2 2

was b roken a nd s howed a pprec iab le s igns o f wear , b u t t he o ther t hree h ad s een l i t t le u se a nd c onsequen t ly h ave c lear f eatures. T he method o f manu fact ure s ee med t o b e t ha t t he s tones w ere r ough ly d ressed s o t ha t when p laced o n l eve l g round t he u pper s ur face w ould b e t i lted i n al eng thw ise d irect ion . T he g r ind ing f ace was t hen p repared b y p eck ing a t t he s ur face i n as er ies o f c lose ly c on t iguous p aral le l r ows a cross t he w id th .

T he v ar iety o f r ock t ypes u sed

s ugges ts t hat n o p ar t icu lar p reference o pera ted .

Chance f i nds o f s add le

q uerns a re o n r ecord f ro m Egg les ton , C o. Durham ( NZ 0 09234 ;

OS i n forma-

t i on ), n ear Ow ler Bar , D erbysh ire ( Arch . J ., C )O X I I I, 1 0 ), a nd T o t ley Ben ts ( SK 3 03799 ;

S he f f ie ld Museu m ) a nd a bove Wharnc l if fe Chase ( SK 3 13971 ),

b oth s ou th-wes t Y orksh ire. T hat t he t ype w as s uperseded o ver t he a rea, g radua l ly f ro m s ou th t o n or th , b y t he b eeh ive q uern i s s uggested b y i t s r ar ity a t t he e ar l ier I ron Age s i te a t Ancas ter ( Bar ley , e t a l., 1 965 ), w here r otary q uerns were manufactured p robau ly i n t he s econd c en tury B .C., a nd b y i t s p resence o n t he l a te I ron Age s i te a t G ranger 's P it , S tax ton , e astern Y orks h ire ( Brewster , 1 963, 1 45 ).

T he d a t ing e v idence f or t he b eeh ive t ype i t se lf

w i l l b e d iscussed i n al a ter s ect ion. T he w ork ing o f s tone o n a n i ndustr ia l s ca le f or b eeh ive q uerns i s v ery l ike ly . There i s e v idence f or a n u mber o f q uern-factor ies t hroughou t t he a rea , b u t p erhaps t he mos t c onc lus ive c o mes f ro m Wharncl if fe , i n s outh-wes t Y orks h ire ( SK 2 997-2998 ;

Bu tcher , 1 970 ).

Th is s i te c overs n ear ly 2 00 a cres ,

a nd c ons is ts o f s evera l h undred l arger a nd sma l ler w ork ing f l oors.

The

n atura l s crees o f M il lstone G r it o f t he Y oreda le S er ies i n t he a rea p rov ide c onven ien t b locks f ro m wh ich t he s tone f or a q uern was s p l it o f f b y w edge. Over 1 000 s tones , f ro m u n f in ished r ough-ou ts t o t hose w ith f i ne ly-pecked s ur faces b u t w ithou t f eed-p ipes , h oppers , o r h and le-sockets , a re s t il l s ca tt ered o ver t he a rea.

T hree t ypes o f q uern were made :

Ro man p er iod i n a dd it ion t o t he e ar l ier b eeh ives.

t wo f l a t t ypes o f t he

Excava t ion i n a d jacen t

Ro mano-Br it ish s e t t le men ts h as p roduced o n ly f l a t t ypes a l ien t o Wharnc l if fe. I t s ee ms t ha t t he u n f in ished s tones w ere r e moved f rom t he s i te , a nd t ha t t he f eed-p ipes a nd o ther f ea tures w ere d r il led o u t e lsewhere. O ther q uern-fac tor ies h ave b een p roposed o r r epor ted , i n n or th-wes t Yorksh ire b y R . H . H ayes ( on t he b as is o f t he l arge n u mber o f m i l ls tone g r it b eeh ives f ound i n n or th-east Y orksh ire ), a t Da l ton , Wes tmor land ( 1774 d iscovery o f a bou t 2 0 p a irs o f q uerns n ear Da lton H a l l ; RCHM , 1 936, 3 4 ), a nd a t H or ton i n R ibb lesda le , Wes t R id ing ( A. K ing i n forma t ion , o bta ined f rom RCH M York O f f ice ).

T h is l a t ter s i te c ons is ted o f t wo h u t-c irc les.

One was e xcavated , a nd p roved t o b e 2 5 f ee t i n d iameter w ith a d oub le-faced s tone wa l l t hree f eet t h ick . Ro mano-Br it ish p ot tery was f ound w h ich was d a ted t o t he s econd t o f ourth c en tur ies , a nd a lso 1 7 p ieces o f b eeh ive q uern o f g lac ia l e rra t ics o f M il ls tone Gr it , n ot o f t he l oca l S i lur ian Gr it .

T hese

p ieces h ad b een b roken d ur ing t he d r il l ing o f f eed-p ipes , h and le-sockets , a nd h oppers , a n a ct iv ity wh ich e v iden t ly t ook p lace o n t he s i te.

T he e v idence

f ro m c hance f inds s uppor ts t he c onc lus ion t ha t , a f ter i n it ia l q uarry ing o r c o l lect ing , r ough-ou t s tones w ere s en t t o c en tra l o r ma jor d o mes t ic s i tes f or f i n ish ing.

I th as b een s ugges ted t ha t t he H unsbury h i l l-for t , a lready

men t ioned a s a n i ron-work ing c en tre , a lso a cted a s af in ish ing a nd d istr ibut i on p o in t f or a d is t inct ive t ype o f q uern o f D erbysh ire g r its tone ( Fe l l , 1 937 , 1 00 ;

Ph il ips , 1 950 , 7 5 ) f ound o n t he s i te. 2 3

M il ls tone Gr it , s andstone a nd

o ther c ong lo mera tes were t he mos t c o m mon ly u sed ma ter ia ls.

( For f ur ther

g enera l c o mmen ts o n q uerns , s ee Curwen , 1 937 a nd 1 941). F ur ther t ypes o f s tone a r t ifact a lso h ave s pec ia l ist f unct ions.

The s tud-

d ing o f t he h ee ls o f wooden mou ld-board p loughs w ith p ebb les , p resu mab ly t o l essen f r ict ion o n t he w ood , i s k nown p ar t icu lar ly f ro m J ut land i n c on tex ts t ha t h ave n ow b een s hown t o b e l ate Med ieva l ;

c o mparab le e xa mp les h ave

a lso b een f ound i n a reas o f V ik ing s e t t le men t ( Clark , 1 938, 2 30 ; 1 963 , 2 76-9 ).

F en ton ,

Quar tz ite p ebb les w ith c harac ter ist ic s tr ia t ions o n f la t tened

s ur faces a re k nown i n n or th L inco lnsh ire f ro m t he L inco ln Edge a nd n ear S cun thorpe , a nd f ro m t he Eas t R id ing ( Ph il l ips , C . W., 1 938 ). t ha t t hese r epresen t I ron Age i ns tances o f t he s a me p ract ice.

I ti s p oss ib le To t he w est

i n t he m id- Whar feda le a nd Brad ford a reas , r ounded b ou lders w ith b as ins haped h o l lows , t rad it iona l ly i n terpreted a s I ron Age mor tars , a re q u ite c o m mon ( BAGB, 1 966, X I ), b u t t he ir c hrono log ica l p os it ion i s s im ilar ly u nc er ta in d esp ite a p ara l le l amongs t t he ma ter ia l f ro m Manor Far m , K ilha m ( DP M ).

More s ecure ly d a tab le a re t he s quared , c one-shaped l oo m-we igh ts

o f r ough ly t oo led c ha lk f ro m Gar ton S lack , f ro m Em mot land , a nd f ro m Manor F arm , K ilha m ( a l l DP M , t he l as t as ur face f ind ).

C lay e xa mp les o f

t he s a me s ize a nd s hape a re k nown f ro m S tap le H owe ( Brewster , 1 963, f ig . 7 3 ).

T he c y l indr ica l , b un-shaped t ype k nown f ro m Bronze Age s i tes i n t he

s ou th ( Rah tz a nd ApS i mon , 1 962, f ig . 2 2 ) a nd f ro m t he Eas t R id ing ( Octon Cross Roads ;

F ig. 2 3, 3 ) ,

a nd t he t r iangu lar t ype f ound o n l a ter I ron Age

s i tes i n L inco lnsh ire i nclud ing F oston ( E MAB, V I I , 6 ) a nd Coun thorpe ( L inco ln Museu m ), a re u sua l ly a lso o f c lay .

Sma l l , r ounded s tone b eads

a re k nown f ro m Thornha m H il l ( DP M ) a nd c y l indr ica l o nes f ro m H eathery Burn Cave ( Br it ton , 1 968, n os. 1 4-15 ).

A t l eas t s ix sma l l s tone b oxes a bou t

1f oo t a cross h ave b een r epor ted f ro m a s upposed I ron Age s i te a t T opstone Fo l ley , Eg ton , n or th-eas t Yorksh ire , a ssoc ia ted w ith f l in t wasters , ab eeh ive q uern , a nd a sma l l p o t tery s herd ( R. H . H ayes i n for ma t ion ). T he work ing o f s tone f or sma l l a r t ifacts s ee ms t herefore t o h ave b een a f a ir ly c o m mon a ct ivity .

With o ver 4 00 ' Ce l t ic ' s tone h eads n ow k nown , p ar-

t i cu lar ly f ro m s ou th-wes t Yorksh ire ( Shef f ie ld Museu m i n forma t ion ) , i t s ee ms t ha t t he c arv ing o f r i tua l o b jects wou ld a lso h ave b een o f s o me impor tance. The q uarry ing o f r ock-cu t d itches , s tone d efence e rect ion , a nd t he u se o f l oose b ou lders a nd s tones f or h u t c ons truct ion w il l b e n o ted i n l a ter s ect ions. v i.

O ther Mater ia ls O f o ther mater ia ls worked , j et i s t he mos t c o m mon o n s et t le men t s i tes.

A c ons iderab le r ange o f o b jec ts i s r epresen ted i n t he sma l l c o l lect ion f ro m S tap le H owe ( Brews ter , 1 963, f igs. 6 6-68 ).

On t he b as is o f p ar t ly-worked

o b jects a nd s evera l a ngu lar p ieces , Brews ter c ons idered t ha t j et was worked o n t he s i te.

Grea t s k i l l was e v iden t i n t he c urva ture a nd smooth f in ish o f

t he r ings a nd a rm lets , a nd f ro m t he p endan ts i t s ee ms t ha t b o th p o in ted-b it a nd f l a t-b it d r il ls w ere i n u se.

The j e t d epos its e xposed a long t he b eaches

o f t he n or th-eas t Yorksh ire c oas t f ro m Ravenscar t o P or t Mu lgrave may h ave b een u t il ised , b u t l arge l u mps a re k nown f ro m t he n or th-eastern e nd o f t he Va le o f P icker ing , b rough t b y g lac ia l a ct iv ity ( op .c it., 1 18 ). One o f t he S tap le H owe o b jects was c rescen t-shaped ; as im ilar p endan t f ragmen t w ith

2 4

as uspens ion l oop i s among t he c o l lect ion o f p enannu lar b race le ts a nd o ther o b jects i ro n r i , as f lo H il l , S carborough ( Whee ler , 1 931, f i g. 1 7 ,2 ). F ur ther j e t mater ia l i ncludes b race lets , p robab ly p enannu lar f rom Gr im thorpe ( S tead , 1 968 , f i g . 1 0, 1 -3 ) a nd p robab ly c ircu lar f ro m H ea thery Burn Cave ( Br it ten , 1 968 , n os. 7 -11 ), a j et p endan t f ro m Thornham H i l l ( DP M ), a nd a j et b ead f ro m Ba l l Cross ( S tan ley , 1 954 , 8 5 ).

Tha t j et work ing was n o t ap reroga t ive

o f t he e ar l ier p er iod i s s hown b y t he b race lets , b eads , a nd r ings f ro m t he L a T ene b ur ia ls i n e as tern Y orksh ire , e spec ia l ly f ro m Arras ( S tead , 1 965 , 16-7 ). A s ha le b race le t i n ag rave-group f ro m Bur ton F le m ing i s p ar t icul ar ly f ine ( S tead , 1 971, f i g . 5 , 3 ). Amber was u sed , b u t i n sma l ler q uan t it ies t han j et . T here a re sma l l b eads f ro m H ea thery Burn C ave ( Br it ton , 1 968, n o. 1 3 ) a nd S carborough (Whee ler , 1 931, 2 4 ), a nd r h-7 s f ro m t he Queen 's Barrow a nd a no ther b ur ia l a t Arras ( S tead , 1 965 , 17 ).

T he w ork ing t echn iques s ee m t o h ave b een t he

s a me a s t hose u sed f or j e t a nd t he s of ter s tones. An e ar ly e xamp le o f t he u se o f g lass f or p ersona l o rnamen ts c o mes f ro m o ne o f t he p its a t S carborough , where t here was a f ragmen tary y e l low g lass b ead ( Wheeler , 1 931, 2 4 ).

G lass b eads f ro m t he L a T bne b ur ia ls o f e astern

Yorksh ire a re p ar t icu lar ly w e l l-known , a nd must h ave b een p roduced f ro m t he b eg inn ing o f t he p er iod , a s 7 0 w ere f ound i n t he e ar ly Barrow L a t Cowl am ( S tead , 1 965 , 1 05 ).

E lsewhere , b lue g lass b eads w ith i n la id b lue o r

wh ite c hevrons o r s p ira ls a re k nown f ro m Fu lwood , S hef f ie ld ( Shef f ie ld Museu m ), Co ld K irby , n or th-eas t Y orksh ire ( Elgee , 1 930 , 1 88 ), a nd t he e arl ier I ron Age s i te a t Ancaster , f ro m wh ich t here i s a lso a t rans lucen t p a le g reen b ead ( J . May i n for mat ion ). f rom t he s econd o r f irs t c en tury B .C.

T hese e xamp les a re l i ke ly t o d ate Bracelets f ro m G rea t Kenda le ( F ig .

2 7, 2 ) a nd L ev isha m Moor Enc losure B ( Hayes , 1 968, 1 26 ), b oth o f p a le b lue g lass w ith r a ised c orded b ands o f c o loured g lass o r p as te , a re l ike ly t o b e p re-Ro man , a l though S tevenson ( 1966 , 2 8 ), o n t he b as is o f many f i nds , p ar t icu lar ly f ro m s ou thern S co t land , c ons iders t he t ype t o h ave b een t raded b y s o me Ro man ised G au l w ith in t he f ron t ier . H owever , t he manu facture o f c o loured g lass a s e ar ly a s L a T bne Ii s s hown b y t he Cow la m b lue b eads w i th t he ir wh ite wavy l i nes o r i mpressed a nnu lets , a nd i n la id r ed g lass i s p resen t o n t he f oot o f t he Eas tburn Ii nvo lu ted b rooch ( S tead , 1 965 , 6 5 ). Manufact ure was p robab ly b y mode l l ing i n g lass p aste , f o l lowed b y f ir ing t o c ause f us ion o f t he p ar t ic les.

T he b ang les c ou ld h ave b een made i n s evera l s tages

b y t he s a me methods , a nd may we l l h ave b een L a ' e e r ie p roducts.

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CHAPTER 2

TUE LATE BRONZE AGE i .

Meta lwork T he l a ter Bronze Age meta lwork o f t he T ren t-Tyne a rea h as b een t he

s ub ject o f e x tens ive r esearch p rogra m mes i n r ecen t y ears , b y C . B . Burgess ( 1968a ) n or th o f D erbysh ire a nd Chesh ire , b y D . Coo mbs ( no t y et p ub l ished ) s ou th o f t he H u mber , a nd b y P . J . D avey ( 1971) i n L inco lnsh ire. The r esu lts o f t h is work , where a va i lab le, h ave s hown t rad it ions o f me ta lwork ing o ver t he a rea wh ich , d e mons trab ly c on te mporary w ith t hose o f t he s outh , p roduced r anges o f p roducts a nd u sed t echno log ica l methods wh ich w ere d is t inct ive ly n or thern.

Burgess ( 22 .c it . ) h as d e monstra ted t ha t f or

t he M idd le Bronze Age t he s ix n or thern c oun t ies o f Eng land c an b e g rouped w ith S cot land a nd I re land r a ther t han w i th a reas t o t he s ou th o n t he b as is o f t he a xes emp loyed.

I n t he n or th , h af t-f langed a nd w ing-f langed a xes p ro-

d uced i n s tone mou lds were d om inan t , whereas i n t he s ou th p a lstaves p rod uced i n b ronze mou lds p reva iled.

The s equence s ugges ted f or t he ma jor ity

o f n or thern Eng land i s f ro m a P icker ing Phase ( c. 1 400-1200 B .C., p oss ib ly b eg inn ing e ar l ier ) t o aH otha m Carr Phase ( c . 1 200-1000 B .C.), b o th c o mp osed ma in ly o f i nd igenous meta lwork t ypes , f o l lowed b y a Penard Phase ( c. 1 050-950 B .C.), o f more w idespread s ign if icance f or Br ita in a s a who le a nd i nc lud ing a s trong i n ject ion o f e ar ly Urn f ie ld Con t inenta l ma ter ia l.

T he

h oard f ro m Amb le s ide , Wes t moreland ( op.c it ., f ig . 4 ) , w ith i t s p o in ted f erru le , L a mbeth/Rosnoen s tra igh t-b laded s word , a nd " trans it ional" p a ls tave , c an b e f irm ly s et i n t h is P enard Phase. T he " trans it iona l" p a ls tave , a l though p roduced i n t he Penard Phase , i s a lso c haracter ist ic o f t he Wa l l ing ton Trad it ion , wh ich i s t he e ar l ier o f t he t wo g rea t me ta lwork ing i ndus tr ies o f t he n or thern Eng l ish L a te Bronze Age ( cen tred o n 9 50-750 B .C.). ( .c it ., 7 -23 ).

The c harac ter is t ic t ypes a re l isted b y Burgess

The e x tre me r ar ity o f l ea f-shaped s words i n t he p er iod

s uggests t he s urv iva l o f d irks a nd r apiers.

At yp ica l h oard o f t he p er iod i s

t ha t f ro m K ilnhurst , n ear Rotherha m ( 2. 2 .c i t ., f ig . 1 3 ), wh ich p robab ly r ep resen ts t he t oo ls a nd weapons o f a n i nd iv idua l c raf ts man. The s ix i t e ms w ere a " trans it iona l" l ooped p a ls tave , t wo p la in l ea f-shaped s pearheads , o ne w ith a p la in p eg-ho le a nd t he o ther b roken , a sma l l s ocke ted c h ise l o r wedge , a nd t wo p la in s ocke ted h a m mers , o ne l ong a nd t he o ther s hor t .

Me-

t a l lograph ic e xa m ina t ion b y Ty lecote ( 1968 ) h as s hown t ha t t ypes made i n t he n or th d ur ing t h is p er iod were s tra igh t t i n b ronzes , a nd n ot l eaded b ronzes a s were t he p roducts o f t he Wilbur ton i ndus try o f s ou thern Eng land. A longs ide t he d ens ity o f Wa l l ing ton c o mp lex mater ia l i n t he n or th t here i s v ery l i t t le p ene trat ion b y Wi lbur ton e qu ip men t , a nd s uch f inds a s t here a re c o me ma in ly f ro m t he s ou th a nd e ast o f o ur a rea ( Burgess , 1 968a , f ig . 1 ) . Par t icu lar ly n o tab le f inds a re t he h oard o f c lay mou ld f ragmen ts f ro m

2 6

F i mber , Yorksh ire , t he V -shou ldered s word f ro m t he r iver T ees , a nd t he f i ne l ozenge-sect ioned s pearhead f ro m F enny Ben t ley , D erbysh ire.

Con t in-

e n ta l i n f luences i n t he Wa l l ing ton p hase a re p rac t ica l ly a bsen t , moreover. Rece iv ing i t s i deas , p erhaps s econd h and , f ro m I re land ( .c it., 3 4 ), t he t rad it ion s ee ms t o h ave c on t inued i n i so la t ion . Aw ide r ange o f n ew ma ter ia l i s t o b e s een i n t he h oard f ro m t he H eathery Burn Cave , Co. Durha m ( Br it ton , 1 968 ), wh ich i s t he r ich t ype-s ite o f t he c o mpara t ive ly p rosa ic s ubsequen t t rad it ion ( 2 . 7 50-600 B .C.). T ha t l eaded b ronze b eca me w ide ly u sed h as b een s hown b y s pectroscop ic a nd meta l log raph ic a na lyses ( Brown a nd B l in-S toy le , 1 959 , 2 02 , 2 08;

Ty leco te , 1 968 ).

Af ur ther impor tan t d eparture i s t he u se o f s words o f Ewar t P ark t ype. The h oard o f s crap w eapons f ro m B il ton , w es t o f York , i s p erhaps t yp ica l , w ith i t s t wo s word h i l ts o f Ewar t P ark t ype , s even p la in l ea f-shaped s ocketed s pearheads , t hose s u f f ic ien t ly c o mp lete s how ing p eg-ho les a nd o ne c arry ing g rooved d ecora t ion o f c hevrons w ith in c ircu m ference l i nes o n t he s haf t , a nd s ix s ocketed a xes o f p la in " nor thern" t ype ( Shef f ie ld Museu m ).

Chance f inds

s uch a s t he Eas t Ang l ian s ocketed a xe f ro m P eak F orest , Derbysh ire , a nd t ha t o f s lender t ype , c o mmon i n s ou thern Wa les a nd s ou thern Eng land , f ro m L eeds ( both S hef f ie ld Museu m ) s how move men ts f ro m t he s ou th. T he Wa l l ing ton a nd H ea thery Burn Trad it ions may b e r ough ly e qua ted w ith H awkes ' L a te Bronze Age 1 a nd 2 ( as s uggested i n 1 960 , 5 -6 ). H is L a te Bronze Age 3 was ma in ly d is t ingu ished b y t he i n trus ion o f H a l ls ta t t I , o r C , ma ter ia l ( f ro m c . 6 50 B .C.) wh ich l ed t o t he c rea t ion o f t he f irst I ron Age c u l tures o f Br ita in .

T h is H a l lsta t t Ii n f luence c an b e s een a s i ns t iga t ing

o ur e ar l ies t I ron Age i n t he s even th c en tury B .C. ( Hard ing , 1 970 , 2 35-6 ), a nd a s s uch i tw i l l b e c ons idered l a ter . H owever , t he p resence o f meta lw ork i n t he H ea thery Burn T rad it ion o n s et t le men ts t hought t o b e I ron Age o n t he b as is o f p o t tery a nd sma l l q uant it ies o f i ron , a s a t S carborough ( "Yorks h ire" a nd p la in " nor thern" s ocketed a xes , t anged c h ise l , a nd s ocketed g ouge ; Whee ler , 1 931, f i g . 1 6 ) a nd S tap le H owe ( f ragmen tary s ocketed a xe , t anged c h ise l , a nd t weezers ; Brewster , 1 963 , f igs. 6 1-2 ), d e mons tra tes a s urv iva l o f t h is t rad it ion t hrough t o t he s ix th c entury a nd , o ne m igh t e xpect , p oss ib ly l a ter i n s o me a reas. Me ta lwork f i nds s how ing Con t inen ta l i n f luences a re n ot c o mmon i n t he n or th , b u t t he f ew e xa mp les i nd icate a c on t inued p u lse o f c on tact .

A g o ld

s p iral ly-tw is ted t ore w ith h ooked t er m ina ls f ro m S ca lby , n ear S carborough ( Elgee , 1 930 , f i g . 5 6 ), i s c lose ly s im i lar t o t hose c ons idered b y Sm ith ( Sm ith , M. A ., 1 959 , 1 49 ) a s p ar t o f a n " Orna men t H or izon" i n s ou th-west Eng land w ith Mon te l ius I a nd I I c onnect ions.

The s o l id b ronze b ucket-

h and le f ro m Rotsea , East R id ing ( F ig . 2 1, 1 ) , i s ar are t ype i n Br ita in , p ara l le led b y a sma l ler e xamp le p oss ib ly a ssoc ia ted w ith a Group He e ar ly Urn f ie ld-der iva t ive sword , f ound a t Barrow , S uf fo lk ( BM , 1 929 , 1 0-22 , 1 ; WG 1 239 ). S im ilar b ucket-hand les a re k nown i n Mon te l ius I I/ IV c on tex ts i n n or thern G er many , a s a t We isd in ( Ho l lnage l , 1 958, T af. 1 8 , hi ), a nd s o o ur e xa mp le m igh t d a te t o t he t en th c en tury B .C. o r s hor t ly a f terwards. F inds s how ing l a ter Urn f ie ld i n f luence a re t h in ly s cat tered o ver c en tra l a nd n or thern Eng land.

T he ir c o mpara t ive r ar ity a nd t he p reponderan t

2 7

i nd igenous n a ture o f Br it ish meta lwork ing s ugges t al im ited movemen t , b u t t h is , c oup led w ith t he e v idence o f f or t if icat ions t o b e c ons idered l a ter , p laces o ur a rea f irm ly w ith in t he g enera l w es tern European s cene.

The v ase-headed

p in f ro m F enny Ben t ley ( Fig . 4 , 6 ) , v ery s im i lar t o o ne f ro m T o t ternhoe , Bedfordsh ire ( Hawkes , 1 940b , f ig . 4 91), was f ound w ith a nother w ith s pher ica l h ead a nd s wel l ing s hank , n ow l ost . The a ssoc ia t ion w ith a Wi lbur ton s pearh ead i nd icates a n in th o r e igh th c entury d a te. T he l arge b ronze d isc-headed p in f ro m I ng leton , wes t Yorksh ire ( PYC M ), w ith a p er forat ion o n i t s e xpanded s hank p ro tected b y ad ia mond-shaped p la te , h as b een c o mpared t o t he n ear ly i den t ica l e xa mp le f ro m L akenhea th , S uf fo lk ( P iggo tt , C . M., 1 949 , 12 a nd f i g. 4 ). T hough t he d ia mond-shaped s ide-p la te i s a n e ssen t ia l ly i nsu lar c haracter is t ic , t he g enera l a f f in i t ies o f t he t ype l i e w ith a g roup o f p er forat ed p ins f ro m Ken t wh ich a re more d irect ly p ara l leled i n P icardy ( Hawkes , 1 942 ).

T he d ist inc t ive s we l l ing o f t he s hank o f t he sma l ler n a il-headed p in

f ro m t he Bre idd in h i l l-for t , Mon tgo merysh ire ( Musson , 1 970b , 2 17 ), p rov ides af ur ther l i nk w ith Urn f ie ld c on tex ts a nd a p o in t o f r eference f or t he v ar ious p ins f ro m H eathery Burn Cave ( Br it ton , 1 968 , n os. 9 5-107 ) , S carborough (Whee ler , 1 931, f ig . 1 6 , 1 0-12 ), a nd Br igg Br ickyard , n or th L inco lnsh ire ( Hawkes , 1 949 , 1 3 ; d ished h ead s im ilar t o H ea thery Burn , n o. 1 04 ). T he r o l led-headed p in f ro m H eathery Burn Cave ( .c it., n o. 1 08 ) i s a no ther f am i l iar l a te Urn f ie ld t ype.

( For a r ecen t u sefu l c orpus o f l a te Urn f ie ld p in

t ypes , s ee Audoze a nd Cour to is , 1 970 ). L a te Urn f ie ld i n f il tra t ion i s a lso s uggested b y t he h orse a nd waggon g ear f ro m H ea thery Burn Cave ( Br it ton , 1 968, n os. 2 5-57 ). Th is c o l lect ion s ee ms d evo id o f H a l ls ta t t i n f luence , b u t o thers f ro m P arc-y- Me irch , Denb ighsh ire ( Savory , 1 971a , P l. ) 00CD C ), We lby , L e ices tersh ire ( Powe l l , 1 948 ), a nd H orsehope , P eeb lessh ire ( P iggo t t , S ., 1 953 ), a re n o t , a nd s ugges t ac on t inu ing i n f luence r a ther t han a s ing le move men t .

T he b ronze a n tenna-h ilted

s word f ro m t he r iver Witha m ( Hawkes , 1 949 , 1 2 , P l. I I ) i s a n o u tstand ing p iece, p ara l le led i n t he l ater Urn f ie ld p er iod o fI ta ly , more p ar t icu lar ly i n p er iod 2 a ( l a ter e igh th c en tury ) o f t he Bo logna s equence ( Kossack , 1 959 , 4 7 , Abb. 1 1, 9 ) . The r iver ine p rovenance o f t he Witha m s word j ust ment ioned i s ac haract er ist ic r ef lected b y much f ine l a ter p reh istor ic meta lwork , a nd b y n o t ype more u nequ ivoca l ly t han t he b ronze s h ie ld . F ro m o ur a rea , t hose f ro m Bag ley , n ear E l les mere , S hropsh ire , Broo myho l me , C o. Durham , Burr ingh a m Co m mon , L inco lnsh ire , a nd n ear L eeds , Y orksh ire , a l l o f t he Ye tho lm Type a nd f ro m Car lton-on-Tren t , No t t inghamsh ire, a nd Bru mby Moor , n ear S cun thorpe , L inco lnsh ire , b o th o f t he Tren t T ype , h ave a l l ( apar t f ro m t he d oubtfu l L eeds e xa mp le ) b een r ecovered d ur ing d ra in-cu tt ing , f ro m p ea t , o r f ro m r ivers , s ugges t ing t he p oss ib i l ity o f v o t ive o f fer ing ( deta iled i n forma t ion o f t he s h ie lds i n Co les , 1 962a ). Recen t f inds i n e astern Europe ( Patay , 1 968 ) h ave v ind icated t he t rad it iona l v iew t hat t hese s h ie lds w ere d er ived u l t i ma te ly f ro m e ar ly Urn f ie ld o r ig ins , a nd p robab ly a ppeared i n Br ita in i n t he P enard p hase o f M idd le Bronze Age 3 .

The r ibs , b osses a nd c orruga t ions o n t he

s h ield s ur faces , t he r o l led a nd w ire-s treng thened r i ms , a nd t he u se o f d o med r ivets ( l ozenge-shaped o n t he Car lton-on-Tren t e xa mp le ;

Bagga ley , 1 950 ,

f ig . 1 ) l ink t he s h ie lds w ith t he I r ish/Br it ish b uckets o f t he e nsu ing p er iod .

2 8

The b uckets a lso e xh ib it i nd igenous d eve lop men t , p erhaps b es t s een i n t he p rogress o fb ase-p la te d es ign :

t he a bu t t ing c as t e dge-p la tes o f t he Bagmoor

b ucket ( nor th L inco lnsh ire ) h ave b een s een b y Hawkes ( 1949 , 9 -11) a s i n termed ia te b etween t he e ar l ier I r ish r ad ia l ly-p laced a ng le-p la tes , t he mse lves a n improve men t o n t he s i mp ler E truscan o nes , a nd t he l a ter c on t inuous whee l-shaped c as t ing o f t he H ea thery Burn b ucket . H eathery Burn a lso l eads u s t o c ons ider t he v ar ious t ypes o f g o ld p enann u lar o rna men t f ro m n or thern Eng land .

I th as a lready b een n o ted t ha t

Burgess , i n s eek ing t he o r ig ins o f t he b ronzework o f t he Wa l l ing ton Trad it ion , c ons idered t ha t I r ish s ources o f i nsp ira t ion w ere most l i ke ly .

H awkes a nd

Sm ith ( 1957, 1 55 ) a ss ign t he H ea thery Burn g o ld i n g enera l t o c . 7 50-700 B .0 . o n t he b as is o f e v idence f ro m t hroughou t w estern Europe i n t he l a te Urnf ie ld p er iod , a nd more p ar t icu lar ly b y I r ish sm iths.

t he r eper tory o f g o ld o rna men ts p roduced

( For d e ta i led c ons idera t ion o f I r ish g o ld , s ee H awkes a nd

C larke , 1 963. F or f inds f ro m t he r eg ion a nd t he ir r eferences , s ee No tes o n F igures f or F ig . 7 5.) T he p enannu lar g o ld l ock-r ing f ro m t he Cave , h o ll ow a nd made f ro m t hree o ver lapp ing s tr ips ( Br it ton , 1 968, n o. 1 ) , i s p ara ll e led b y t wo f ound i n 1 850 a t Cooper 's H il l , A lnw ick , Nor thu mber land , w ith as ocke ted a xe ( Maryon , 1 939 ), b y o ne f ound w ith t wo Ewar t P ark swords a t S tar t for th , Nor th R id ing , a nd b y o ne f ro m t he h oard o fb ronze a nd g o ld a t P or t f ie ld h i l l-for t , L ancash ire.

Amongs t t he b ronze o b jects a t P or t f ie ld

were "Yorksh ire" a nd " face t ted" s ocketed a xes. T he g o ld b race let w ith c oncavo-convex s ect ion a nd b uf fer t er m ina ls f ro m H ea thery Burn ( Br it ton , 1 968 , n o. 2 ) h as n o d irect p ara l le l w ith in t he a rea , b u t b u f fer t erm ina ls o ccur o n g o ld b race lets o f p iano-convex s ect ion f ro m Co t t ingha m , East R idi ng , a nd Aspa tr ia , Cu mber land , o f c ircu lar s ect ion f ro m Greta Br idge , n or th Yorksh ire , a nd o f r ibbon s ec t ion f ro m H igh Huns ley , Eas t R id ing , a nd S tan ton , S ta ffordsh ire. T ha t b ronze c op ies were i n u se i s s hown b y t hose f ro m Beacon H il l, L e icestersh ire ( Powe l l , 1 950 , 6 8 ), a nd a ga in f ro m H ea thery Burn ( Br it ton , 1 968, n o. 3 ).

Two g o ld b race lets w ith o u tward ly-expanded t erm in-

a ls a nd c oncavo-convex s ect ion f ro m Co t t ingha m , a nd a nother f ro m t he P or tf i e ld h oard w ith s harper D -sect ion , a re s im ilar i n g enera l a ppearance t o t hose o fb ronze f ro m Covesea , Moraysh ire ( Ben ton , 1 931, f ig . 6 ) , a l though t he l a tter a re o f s o l id , r ounded s ec t ion. A f ur ther t ype r epresen ted a t Co tt ingha m h as ab road r ibbon s ect ion a nd s harp ly n arrowed t erm ina ls , t i gh t ly c o i led e x terna l ly . O ther g o ld b racelets a re r ecorded f ro m T ideswe l l , D erbys h ire , Woodhouse , L e ices tersh ire , a nd Cawood , Yorksh ire. The a ssoc iati on o f d if feren t d es igns a nd t ypes a t H ea thery Burn , P or tf ie ld , a nd p robab ly Co tt ingha m s uggests t he ir b road c on te mporane ity , a nd t he b ronze t ypes a t H eathery Burn , P or t f ie ld , a nd S tar t for th g ive a f irm d a te w ith in t he H ea thery Burn Phase , r ef lect ing t he d evelop ing c on tacts o f t he I r ish sm iths o f t he Dowr is Phase ( F ig . 7 5 ).

Bracelets o fb ronze f ro m Th ir lmere , Cu mber land

( Co l l ingwood , W. G ., 1 903 ), w ith e xpanded t erm ina ls b u t i nc ised , b eaded d ecorat ion p robab ly r epresen t i nf luence o f al a ter d a te. I ti s mos t u n for tuna te t ha t t he f ine g o ld d ress-fasteners w ith t ru mpet t erm ina ls , o ne f ro m Sw in ton Park a nd t wo , s a id t o b e s im i lar , f ro m R ipon , b oth s i tes i n Yorksh ire, a re n ow l os t ( Elgee , 1 930, f i g . 5 6b a nd 1 75 ).

2 9

The o ccurrence o f L ate Bronze Age meta lwork o n s et t le men t s i tes h as a lready b een b r ief ly men t ioned.

The d iscovery o f p o t tery w ith meta lwork

h oards i n o ur a rea i s r are , a nd a par t f ro m t he H eathery Burn Cave ma ter ia l t he r epor ted s herds h ave n ow d isappeared.

Two b ronze s ocketed a xes , a

l ea f-shaped s pearhead , a nd s o me h ones were f ound a t S prh ig Gardens , Bux ton , w ith a c oarse p o t tery v esse l , l igh t b rown i n c o lour , 6i nches i n d iameter a nd a bout 6 i nches t a l l , w ith p ro ject ing k nobs b e low t he l ip ( Sa l t . 1 900 ).

The s ur-

v iv ing a xe ( Bux ton Museu m ) i s o f s lender , f unne l- mouthed f orm w ith t w in r a ised l ines b enea th t he mou th .

I ti s s im ilar t o t wo f ro m Trapra in L aw , Eas t

L o th ian ( Cur ie a nd Cree. 1 921, f ig . 1), a nd may b e long t o t he e igh th/seven th c entury B .C.

Bosses b e low t he r i ms o f c oarse p ot tery v esse ls a re k nown

f ro m E ldon 's S eat I( Cun l if fe a nd Ph i l l ipson , 1 968. f ig . 1, 1 0-11) f or wh ich as even th c entury d a te h as b een s uggested.

T he r epor ted f ragments o f al arge ,

c oarse , u ndecora ted v esse l w ith t he h oard f ro m Wes tow , Yorksh ire ( Arch . J ., V I, 3 82 ), a re l ess h elpfu l.

I ti s u pon t he r e la t ion o f p ot tery t o r ad iocarbon

d a tes , a s a t Ma m T or , Derbysh ire , a nd t he a ssoc ia t ion w ith meta lwork , a s a t H ea thery Burn Cave , t ha t t he f o l low ing s ect ions o n L ate Bronze Age p o t tery a re l arge ly b ased . i .

Pot tery :

G enera l Cons iderat ions

A lthough r ad iocarbon d a tes h ave o bv ious a dvan tages t o t he a rchaeo log is t i n t he c ons truct ion o f c hrono log ica l f ra meworks a nd c u l tura l s equences , p art i cu lar ly i nc ases o f e spec ia l u ncer ta in ty o n o ther g rounds , t he ir r e l iab il ity , t aken i nd iv idua lly , mus t n o t b e o ver-est i ma ted .

I n c on for m ity w ith a greed

p ract ice , d a tes a re h ere q uoted b ased o n t he L ibby h a l fl ife f or c arbon-14 , t ha t i s 5 568 + 3 0 B .P ., a nd t he e rror t er m u sed i s e qu iva len t t o p lus o r minus o ne s tandard d ev iat ion .

As s uch , t he l im its g iven a re n ot t hose i n

wh ich a t rue d a te i s b ound t o f a l l , a s t here i s a 1t o 3c hance t ha t i t may , s t il l p egged t o t he L ibby h al ll ife , o ccur o u ts ide t hese l im its. f ur ther c orrect ion i s n ecessary

Moreover ,

a s ar esu lt o f ar ev ised c a lcu lat ion o f t he

h a l fl ife o f c arbon-14 a nd t he e f fects o f r esearch o n t ree-r ing d a t ing.

S uch

r ev ised c a l ibra t ion h as a g rea ter e f fect o n d eter m ina t ions w ith in t he s econd t han w ith in t he f irs t m il lenn iu m B .C.

Recen tu sefu l a ssess men ts o f t he u se

a nd l im ita t ions o f r ad iocarbon d a tes h ave b een made b y Ren frew ( 1970 ) a nd Wa terbo lk ( 1971). I n ar ecen t s ta te men t o f v iews o n t he c hrono logy o f t he Bronze A ge i n Br ita in , Burgess ( 1969a ) c ou ld c onc lude t hat F ood Vesse ls , En larged Food Vesse ls , Co l lared , Cordoned , Encrus ted , a nd S ou thern B icon ica l Urns a nd t he ir r e la ted c u ltures w ere a l l i n e v idence i n t he Ear ly Bronze Age, a nd t hat t hey c anno t a t p resen t b e s hown t o h ave b een c urren t i n t he M idd le, l e t a lone i n t he L ate Bronze Age.

Moreover , o ver much o f t he Br it ish I s les h e c ou ld

s ee n o n on- meta l l ic c u ltura l ma ter ia l wh ich c ou ld s afe ly b e a ss igned t o t he M idd le o r L a te Bronze Age ( t hat i s , t he p er iod c . 1 400-550 B .C.), a par t f ro m a f ew l oca l ised e xcep t ions.

No u nequ ivoca l M idd le Bronze Age a ssoc ia-

t ions were a ccepted f or a ny f or m o f u rn.

S uch i n terpretat ions a re n ot u n-

q uest ioned , h owever . L ong-w or th ( 1965 , 3 5 , 4 3 ) c ons idered t ha t , i n Y crks 3 ' e , a lthough t he Food Vesse l p assed o u t o f u se b y C . 1 300 B .C.. Co llared Urus were s t il l b e ing made d own t o a bou t 1 000 B .C.

I ti s impor tart t o b r ief ly

e xur,t ne t he r ad iocarbon d a tes a va i lab le , a nd s o t o d ef ine t he e x ten t o f t he 3 0

p er iod f or wh ich t he c o mp lete a bsence o f s et t le men t s i tes , b ur ia ls a nd p ot tery o ver w ide a reas , c la i med b y Burgess , m igh t b e a pparen t . Au sefu l s er ies o f d a tes f ro m D erbysh ire may b e e xa m ined .

The l arge

c a irn o n H ar land Edge , B ee ley Moor , c overed t hree p its , e ach w ith F ood Vesse l b ur ia ls , c harcoa l f ro m t wo o f wh ich p roduced d a tes o f 1 750 ± 1 50 b .c., a nd 1 490 + 150 b .c. ( B M-210 a nd BM-178 ; R i ley , 1 966 ; CBA , 1 971, 4 B. 1 ) . Us ing McKerre l l 's a verag ing p rocedure , t hese t wo r ead ings c a l ibra te t o 2 180-2110 B .C. a nd 1 930-1840 B .C. r espect ive ly .

I n s econdary p os it ions

i n t he c a irn t he r e ma ins o f t hree Co l lared Urns were f ound . w ith Pr i mary S er ies Co l lared Urns h ave b een d a ted :

Two c re ma t ions

t ha t s ea led b y ar ing-

c a irn a t Barbrook I , Ra ms ley Moor , was d ated f ro m a ssoc iated c arbon t o 1 500 ± 1 50 b .c. (McK. 1 940-1880 B .C.; f ro m Brown Edge , T ot ley , BM-177 ;

Rad ley 1 966 ).

BM-179 ;

L ew is , 1 966 ), a nd t ha t

1 050 ± 1 50 b .c. ( McK. 1 370-1260 B .C.;

I th as b een s ugges ted t ha t t he l a t ter d a te i s i ncor-

r ect b ecause o f c on ta m ina ted s a mp les ( Lew is , 1 966 ) a nd t ha t a more a ccura te a ssess men t may b e made o n t he b as is o f d a tes f ro m c re ma t ions o n t he s a me s i te w ith a f l in t p o in t a nd a " decayed" u rn , wh ich a ppeared t o h ave b een d ep os ited a t t he s a me t ime.

These r esu lts w ere 1 530 + 1 50 b .c. ( McK. 2 010-

1 930 B .C.), a nd 1 250 ± 1 50 b .c. ( McK . 1 560-1520 B .C.; 2 11 :

Rad ley , 1 966 ).

BM-212 a nd BM-

A S econdary S er ies Co l lared Urn f ro m a c re ma t ion p it ,

as econdary b ur ia l i n t he b arrow a t Swarkes ton , h as b een d a ted b y ar ead ing f ro m c harcoa l t o 1 395 ± 1 60 b .c. ( McK. 1 700-1650 B .C.; NPL-17 ; CBA , 1 971, 4 B. 2 ).

I t s ee ms f ro m t h is e v idence t ha t a n o ver lapp ing s equence o f u rn

u sage f ro m Food V esse ls t o Pr i mary a nd t hen S econdary S er ies Co l lared Urns c an b e u phe ld , b u t t ha t e ven t he l a tes t e xa mp les w ere e v iden t ly d epos it ed w ith in t he Ear ly Bronze Age. I n e f fect t here i s v ery l i t t le e v idence a t p resen t t ha t a ny o f t he u rn s equence c on t inued i n to t he M idd le Bronze Age.

As f ar a s s e t t le men t i s c oncerned a

r ad iocarbon d a te o f 1 500 + 10 b .c. ( McK . 1 940-1880 B .C.;

G aK-2287 ;

Ph il l ips , S . P ., 1 969 ) h as b een o bta ined f or a p hase o f e x tens ive c learance o n t he g r itstone u p lands o f n or th D erbysh ire , wh ich i s l ike ly t o h ave b een t he r esu lt o f t he a ct iv it ies o f t he p opu la t ion u s ing Co l lared Urns , wh i le s im i lar e co log ica l c ond it ions o n t he N or th York Moors , f or wh ich a c o mparab le c u lt ure i s l ikely t o h ave b een r espons ib le , h ave b een d a ted t o 1 260 + 9 0 b .c. (McK. 1 580-1530 B .C.;

G aK-2712 ;

Cund il l , 1 971, 2 56 ).

Tha t t he ma in c urrency o f "Devere l-R i mbury" c u l ture f o l lowed , c en tred o n t he p er iod 1 200-1000 B .C. r a ther t han a ny l ater , was c o mprehens ive ly d e monstra ted b y Sm ith ( Sm i th , M. A . 1 959 ), whose c onc lus ions h ave b een f ur ther amp l if ied b y r ad iocarbon d a tes o f 180 + 1 80 b .c. (McK . 1 520-1450 B .C.) f or t he s et t le men t a t S hearp lace H i l l ( NPL-19 ; Rah tz a nd ApS i mon , 1 962 , 2 90 ; t he s a mp le u sed was a n ama lga ma t ion f ro m s evera l d if feren t c on tex ts o n t he s i te - s ince n one was i nd iv idua l ly l arge e nough - a nd t heref ore c annot b e r e lated d irec t ly t o as pec if ic p hase o f o ccupat ion :

s ee Avery

a nd C lose-Brooks , 1 969 ) a nd 1 000 + 3 5 b .c. ( McK. 1 300-1200 B .C. GrN6 167 ) f or b ar ley s a mp les f ro m I t ford H i l l.

I n o ur a rea , c re ma t ions i n f l a t

c e meter ies w ith b ucke t a nd b arrel u rns o f e xceed ing ly c oarse c haracter a re s ca t tered p ar t icu lar ly i n t he s ou th a nd e ast , f ro m Ca t foss ( Mc Innes , 1 968 ) a nd F laxby ( F ig. 8 , 1 6 ) i n Yorksh ire t o K ir ton L indsey , S cun thorpe , Fr ieston ,

3 1

Be l ton a nd Wilsford i n L inco lnsh ire ( Ph il l ips , C . W. 1 933, 1 45-6 ) a nd H over ingha m , N ot t ingha msh ire ( CBATVARC, 1 968 , 2 -3 ).

Fro m t he e v idence

a t Ca t foss , p robab ly s uppor ted b y o bserva t ions a t H over ingha m , i ts eems t ha t t he c re ma t ions w ere d epos ited i n p i ts w ith in a nd a round a c ircu lar o r p enannu lar d i tched e nc losure. A s im i lar t ype o f b ur ia l o ccurred a t Bro mf i e ld , n ear L ud low , S hropsh ire ( S tanford , 1 972 , 3 2-3 ), where a s er ies o f r ing-d itches w ith i n ter ior a nd o u t ly ing b ur ia ls i n p its , a bou t 1 00 i n n u mber , were f ound .

I ti s s ugges ted t ha t a t t h is s i te t hose w ith b ucket a nd b arre l

u rns , d ecora ted w ith a pp l ied h orseshoes , c ordons a nd f i nger-t ipp ing , a re e ar l ier t han b ur ia ls w ithou tu rns. Charcoa l f ro m c re mat ion p i ts w ith a Wessex-type u rn a nd a s i mp ler f inger-t ipped e xamp le g ave d a tes o f 8 50 + 7 1 b .c. ( McK. 1 020-990 B .C.) a nd 7 62 + 7 5 b .c. ( McK. 9 60-900 B .C.) r es pect ive ly ( B ir m-63 a nd B irm-62 ). H owever , c harcoa l f ro m c re ma t ion p i ts w ithout p o t tery a t S harps tones H il l , S hrewsbury , S hropsh ire, was d a ted t o 1 255 + 1 30 b .c. ( McK. 1 580-1520 B .C.) a nd 1 020 + 18 b .c. ( McK. 1 3301 220 B .C.; B irm-206 a nd B irm-207 ; S hot ton a nd Wil l ia ms , 1 971, 1 54 ). A l though i ts ee ms t ha t s i tes s uch a s Ca t foss , H over ingha m a nd S hrewsbury may b e p laced i n t he m idd le o r l a ter M idd le Bronze Age , i td oes s eem t ha t i n c er ta in a reas , s uch a s t he c en tra l We lsh Marches , b ucket a nd b arre l s hapes c on t inued i n u se i n to t he L a te Bronze Age , t o s pan t he g ap a f ter 1 000 B .C. l ead ing d own t o I ron Age b eg inn ings a nd t he a ppearance o f H a l ls ta t t c u lture-tra its. i i.

P o t tery :

D eta i ls o f T ypes

The p r inc ipa l c lasses o f p o t tery v esse l wh ich c an b e i den t if ied i n t he L a te Bronze Age i n t he T ren t-Tyne a rea mus t n ow b e c ons idered.

A mos t c on-

v en ien t r e ference c o l lect ion o f t ypes t o wh ich a l mos t a l l t he ma ter ia l c an b e r e la ted h as b een p rov ided b y e xcava t ions a t Mam T or , D erbysh ire ( Coo mbs , 1 967 : 1 971 : 1 975 ). Work i n t he i n ter ior o f t he h i l l-for t r evea led t imber h u t p la t forms , g u l l ies , s take-ho les a nd s torage p its.

P ot tery ( F igs . 1a nd

2 ) was f ound i n l arge q uan t it ies a s ag enera l s cat ter , t ogether w ith s ha le b race le t f ragmen ts , ap o l ished s tone a xe , a nd a f ragmen t o f ab ronze s ocke te d a xe w ith r ib d ecorat ion.

Coo mbs c ons iders t ha t t he v irtua l a bsence o f

s tra t igraphy i nd ica tes a s hor t p er iod o f o ccupa t ion ( 1971, 1 02 ).

Rad iocarbon

d a tes o bta ined f ro m t he c harcoa l o f al ayer i n to wh ich w ere c u t t he g u l l ies a nd p os t-ho les o f H u ts 2 a nd 3 a re 180 + 1 32 b .c. (McK. 1 520-1450 B .C.) a nd 1 130 + 1 15 b .c. (McK. 1 470-1370 B .C.; B ir m-202 a nd B irm-192 ; S ho t ton a nd Wil l ia ms , 1 971, 1 54 ). I t wou ld s ee m u nw ise t o b ase a d iscuss ion o f e ssen t ia l ly L a te Bronze Age p o t tery o n ma ter ia l f ro m a s i te p roduc ing t hese d a tes n ow v ery much e ar l ier , b u t t he s i tua t ion o f t he d a ted c harcoa l s ugges ts t ha t i tm igh t b e a pprec iab ly o lder t han p ar ts o f t he s e t t le men t. T he s ocketed a xe f ragmen t w ith p ara l le l r ibs i s o f at ype u sua l ly d a ted t o t he e igh th c en tury a t t he e ar l ies t , b e ing a bsen t f ro m t he Wa l l ing ton Trad it ion , s o i t s ee ms t ha t t he o ccupa t ion o f t he h i l l-top s i te was n o t s hor t . I ti s p oss ib le t o d ist ingu ish t hree s tructura l p hases i n t he p er i me ter d efences :

ap a l isade f o l lowed b y t wo

s uper i mposed r a mpar ts ( see P ar t I I, Chap ter 7 , 1a nd i ).

I ti s u n for tuna te

t ha t t he l ack o f s tra t igraphy i n t he sma l l a rea e xcava ted a nd t he a bsence o f l arge a sse mb lages o f c o mparab le p o t tery l im it t he o ppor tun ity t o d e f ine d ist i nct ive h or izons i n t he Ma m T or ma ter ia l.

3 2

T he mos t c o m mon t ype o f ware i n t he l a ter Bronze Age i s t yp ica l ly c oarse a nd t h ick , h eav i ly g r it ted , a nd r ough ly h and worked .

Th is c haracter i s e v i-

d en t f ro m e ven t he sma l les t s herds , a s f ro m Ma m T or ( F ig . 1 , 1 ) , Ravenc l if fe Cave ( F ig. 6 , 8 ) , Roo mer Co m mon ( F ig . 8 , 9 -11) , a nd Es ton Nab ( Fig . 4 5 , 2 -4 ).

T ha t s uch w ares may h ave h ad a l eng thy h istory i s s hown

b y t he b ronze aw l f ro m Ravenc l if fe Cave ( F ig . 6 , 1 ) , s im ilar t o t hose i n Wessex Ic on tex ts ( Am iab le a nd S i mpson , 1 964 , 3 00-5 ;

Win terbourne S toke ).

I n l a ter p hases , d enser , t h inner , a nd b e t ter-f ired wares o ccur , a s a t Gr i mt horpe ( S tead , 1 968, f igs. 6 -8 ), Eppers tone ( F ig . 9 , 5 ) , a nd H ea thery Burn Cave ( F ig. 4 5 , 1 4-15 ).

T here i s a l mos t a lways c ons iderab le d if ference i n

d eta il b etween t he wares o f v ar ious s i tes a s ar esu l t o f t he u se o f l oca l ma teri a ls , b u t i n most a sse mb lages i ti s n o t d if f icu l t t o i den t ify a l ien o r impor ted p ieces ( f or e xa mp le , F ig . 1 . 4 ). I ti s p erhaps n o t s urpr is ing t o f ind u rn t ypes o f e ar l ier Bronze Age p er iods r epresen ted i n t he Ma m T or ma ter ia l.

F ig . i , 2i s s tr ik ing ly s im i lar i n f or m ,

t hough u ndecorated , t o t he b icon ica l u rn f ound b e tween Bude l a nd Weer t , S ou the rn N e ther lands ( Bu t ler a nd Sm ith , 1 956 , f ig . 8 ) , a nd p ara l leled i n S ou thern Eng land ( op.c it., 4 0 ).

S im i lar l arge , c oarse , p la in b icon ica l u rns a re r epre-

s en ted b y s herds f ound w ide ly d ispersed o ver t he h i l l-for t s i te a t P or t f ie ld , Lancash ire, a nd a lso i n a ssoc ia t ion w ith t he d efences ( P. B esw ick i n for ma t ion ). Aga in f ro m Ma m T or , F ig . 2 , 1i s ar a ther d if feren t b icon ica l s hape w h ich may b e s een i n d ecora ted f orm a t M ildenha l l F en ( Clark , 1 936 , f i g . 6 , 1 ) , a S uf fo lk s i te wh ich a lso p roduced p o t tery i n t he Overhang ing-r i m Urn t rad it ion , a l l s tra t if ied b enea th p ea t.

T he v est ig ia l o verhang a t t he s hou lder o f t he l arge

j ar f ro m Epperstone ( F ig . 9 , 5 ) p laces i ti n t he s a me c a tegory , a l though i t may b e al a ter e xa mp le.

Aga in d if feren t i s t he c oarse j ar f ro m Oc ton Cross Roads ,

East R id ing ( F ig . 2 3, 1 ) , f ound w ith a b un-shaped l oo m-we igh t , t he M idd le Bronze Age c onnect ions o f wh ich h ave a lready b een b r ief ly men t ioned .

A f ur ther

b icon ica l o r b ipar t ite j ar f orm i s s hown a t Gr im thorpe ( S tead , 1 968, 1 6 ), I v inghoe Beacon ( Cot ton a nd F rere , 1 968, f ig. 1 6 , 1 2 ), a nd E ldon 's S eat I ( Cun l if fe a nd Ph il l ipson , 1 968 , f ig. 1, 1 7 ).

R i ms t end t o b e s i mp le o r f l a t ten-

e d e ar l ier a nd e verted i n v ar ious ways l a ter , t hrough a c on t inued s er ies o f s ubtypes. A t t h is e ar ly s tage , ag enera l c ons iderat ion o f t he Gr im thorpe ma ter ia l s hou ld b e o f fered.

Most o f i tc a me f ro m t he h i l l-for t d itch , a nd t wo g roups

were s tra t if ied i n L ayers 4 a nd 5 o f S ect ion W-X o n S i te D ( S tead , 1 968 , f ig . 3 ). Two r ad iocarbon d a tes f ro m g roups o f a n i ma l b one f ro m t he s a me d i tch s ec t ion were 6 90 ± 1 30 b .c. f or L ayer 5 ( McK. 8 80-840 B .C.) a nd 9 70 + 1 30 b .c. f or t he l ower L ayer 9 ( McK. 1 230-1170 B .C.; 1 90 ).

NPL-136 a nd NPL-137 ;

A lthough L ayers 4 a nd 5 a re a t af a ir ly h igh l evel i n t he d itch , t he l ack

o f e v idence f ro m t he s tructures f or a ny th ing b u t as hor t p er iod o f o ccupat ion o f t he s i te s uggests t ha t t he p o t tery may h ave a ccu mu la ted f ro m t he s a me o cc upa t ion l ayer , n ow r e moved , a nd t hus may b e c ons idered c on te mporary w ith t he o ccupa t ion o f t he f or t .

S tructura l p ara l le ls f or t he t imber-fra med b ox

r a mpar t wou ld n o l onger b e i ncons is ten t w ith a d a te i n t he o pen ing c en tur ies o f t he f irs t m il lenn iu m B .C.

T he ma ter ia l a sse mb lage i s t en tat ive ly a L a te

Bronze Age o ne a nd n o t m idIron Age a s s ugges ted b y S tead ( 1968 , 1 64 ) , b u t a lthough s o me p ot tery f orms c an b e p aral le led i n t h is e ar ly p er iod o thers p erh aps a rgue a n e x tended o ccupa t ion i n to a t l eas t t he l a ter s even th c entury .

Re turn ing t o ad iscuss ion o f t hose p o t tery f orms wh ich s ee m t o r eca l l e ar l ier u rn t ypes , t he s i mp le b ucke t s hape a s f ro m Mam T or ( F ig . 1 , 3 ) i s c o mmon.

Th is e xa mp le w ith d is t inct ive ly mou lded r im i s c losely s im i lar

t o t hose f ro m K i lnsea ( Fig . 2 1, 6 ) a nd Bo ltby f or t ( F ig . 4 5 , 1 3 ) , a nd s ee ms t o b e r e la ted t o s im i lar s hapes w ith h or izon ta l mou ld ings b e low t he r im f ro m t he Cat foss c e metery (Mc Innes , 1 968, f i g . 2 ) a nd Da lnag lar , P er thsh ire ( Co les , 1 962b , f i g . 1 0 ). T he v esse l f ro m O ld Wo man 's H ouse ( F ig . 6 , 1) c ou ld b e long h ere , b u t i t may b e c ons iderab ly l a ter. C oarse b ucket-shaped v esse ls h ave b een r epor ted f ro m a c ircu lar h u t s i te u nder ly ing p ar t o f t he L a T ene c e metery a t Bur ton F le m ing , e astern Yorksh ire ( 1971 e xcava t ions ; I .M . S tead i n forma t ion ).

O ther b ucke t f orms h ave i n terna l ly-th ickened

r i ms ( Ma m T or , F ig . 2 , 5 ;

S carborough , F ig . 4 3, 8 ) .

The v esse l f ro m

F laxby ( F ig . 8 , 1 6 ), c ons idered t o b e L a te Bronze Age/Ear ly I ron Age t rans it ion ware ( Addyman , e t a l., 1 964 ), i s ap er fect ly n orma l M idd le Bronze Age c ordoned b ucket u rn , a nd i t s d iscovery d ur ing g rave l-work ing a f ter n u merous p rev ious ly-d iscovered u rns h ad b een d es troyed ( C. E . H ar t ley i n forma t ion ) r eca lls t he d iscovery o f t he c re ma t ion c e meter ies a t Ca t foss a nd H over ingha m , a lso d ur ing g rave l-quarry ing . The d ecora t ive p unch ing b e low t he r im i s a lso s een a t Ca t foss ( Mc Innes , 1 968 , f i gs. 3 -4 ), a nd c oarse p o t tery f ro m K irkhead Cave , L ancash ire ( OS i n for mat ion , S D 3 7 NE 2 4 ), may b e s im i lar . More o pen b ucke t s hapes a t Ca t foss (a .c it., f ig . 3 ) a re c o mparab le w ith t he l arge c oarse j ar f ro m N or th F err iby ( Wr igh t a nd Wr igh t , 1 947 , f ig . 1 6, 2 ) . Th is l a t ter v esse l h as a r im d ecora ted w ith t hu mbi mpress ions. Ex tens ive p last ic d ecora t ion o n b ucket-shaped v esse ls , a s a t S kend leby ( Ph il l ips , C . W., 1 936, f ig . 2 3 ) a nd D evere l-R i mbury s ett l e men ts i n t he s ou th ( as a t Thorny Down : S tone , 1 941, f i g. 5 ) , d oes n ot s ee m t o a sser t i t sel f i n o ur a rea , a nd l a ter , p erhaps s even th c en tury , d ec ora t ion o f t h is t ype i s ar esu lt o f s epara te i n f luences , t o b e d iscussed i n t he n ex t c hap ter . T he Ma m T or v esse l w ith a n a pp l ied o r r a ised c ircu lar o r s em i-c ircu lar d es ign ( F ig . 1 , 4 ) h as b een d escr ibed a s u n ique ( Coo mbs , 1 971, 1 01 ). I t i s i n ad ense , e ven ly f ired , w el l smoothed w are , q u ite d i f feren t f ro m o ther ma ter ia l f ro m t he s i te.

Un fort una te ly t here i s i nsu f f ic ien t r e ma in ing t o d e-

t erm ine whether t he d ecora t ion d escr ibed a c omp lete c irc le o r was h orses hoe-shaped , o r whether t he v essel was g lobu lar o r s hou ldered .

T here a re

o ther s herds o f t hree s im ilar v esse ls f ro m Mam T or , n one o f wh ich g ives a ny f ur ther i nd ica t ion.

The d es igns a re n o t t rue c ircu lar a rcs a nd o ne s hows

a n a l mos t a ngu lar a pex , p erhaps s uggest ing t ha t ac omp leted c irc le w as n o t i n tended. S herds w ith a pp l ied c irc les a re k nown f ro m Br it ish L a te Bronze Age s i tes a t Ba levu l l in , T iree ( MacK ie , 1 965 , f ig. 4 , 7 7 ), a s i te w ith many o ther o f t he p o t tery t ypes d escr ibed i n t h is s ect ion , a nd M inn is Bay , Ken t (Worsfo ld , 1 943 , f ig . 8 , 8 ) , p erhaps a l a te s even th o r s ix th c en tury s i te. Apar t f ro m t he p oss ib il ity o f a n i nd igenous i nnovatory o r ig in , t here a re t hree p oss ib le i nf luences wh ich may h ave g iven r ise t o t he t ype. Pot tery w ith c ircu lar mou ld ings i s c o mmon i n J of froy 's Urn f ie ld I I o f e astern France ( as a t Roche ä Courchapon ; K imm ig , 1 954 , f i g . 3 ) , b u t t h is a nd o ther r e lat ed C on t inenta l b ossed o rna men t i s n ot s tr ic t ly c o mparab le. A more l ike ly P ont : 3 2d i s a s ac opy o f a n A t lan t ic c au ldron , c o mp lete w ith h and les , a ssu mi ng t ho v esse l t o h ave h ad a g lobu lar b ody . One s uch e xamp le f ro m L annvreon

3 4

e n P eu mer it ( F in is tere ) h as r ecen t ly b een i l lus tra ted b y Cowen ( 1971, f i g. 5 ) . I n t h is 3onnection t he c ircu lar p atch o n ac racked c au ldron-p late f ro m S omp t ing ( Ci rwen , 1 948 , f i g . 4 ) i s w or th men t ion ing . A d a te i n t he l a te s ev i . ; . ith o r s ix th c en tury i s n ot imposs ib le f or t he Ma m T or ma ter ia l , c ons idec ing t he s ocke ted a xe , b u t i n v iew o f t he e ar l ier Bronze Age c onnect ions o f t he v esse l t ypes a lready men t ioned a f ur ther p oss ib i l ity i nvo lv ing t he i nt erpretat ion o f as hou ldered v esse l w ith h orse-shoe d ecora t ion must b e c ons idered . The mos t s tr ik ing p ara l le l i s o f fered b y t he u rn f ro m Amesbury , Wi l tsh ire ( Bu t ler a nd Sm ith , 1 956 , f ig . 6 ) . I t s a ssoc ia t ion w ith a C lass I r azor , a nd o ther s im ilar a ssoc ia t ions t here q uoted ( op.c it., 3 3 ), s how t ha t s harp s hou lders a re n ot t he p reroga t ive o f t he s i tu la te s keuo morphs o f t he e ar ly I ron Age , a nd i t

1 1P V

b e t ha t t he Ma m T or v esse l , w ith i t s s im ilar r im ,

was s hou ldered , a nd t hat t he d c

2oration

was o f p enannular f orm.

T he s herds

a re s o t an ta l is ing ly i nco mp lete t hat n o d ef in ite c onc lus ions a re p oss ib le , b u t t he wr iters f avour t he Amesbury p ara l le l.

T he u se o f t he c o mp leted r ounde l ,

a s a t Ba levu l l in , may h ave f o l lowed a s al a ter d eve lop men t . A l l t he Ba levu l l in p ot tery i s h ard a nd w e l l f i red a nd o f ac harac ter ist ic r edd ish c o lour. As s uch i ti s n o t u n l ike t he Ma m T or s herd ( F ig . 1 , 4 ). Ano ther f ea ture c o m mon t o t he t wo s i tes i s t he o ccurrence o f t he i n terna l lyb eve l led r i m. T ha t s uch a f orm i s c o m mon i n t he S co t t ish L a te Bronze Age h as l ong b een e v iden t f ro m o u ts tand ing e x a mp les a t C ovesea ( Ben ton , 1 931, f ig . 1), a t Ba l mashanner , Angus , a nd a t O ld K e ig , Aberdeensh ire , a l l c o mmon ly r eferred t o a s " f la t-r i m ware" ( Co les , 1 960, 4 4 ).

T h is t erm h as b een

a pp l ied t o v esse ls w ith r i ms n o t o n ly b eve l led b ut a lso f l a t tened a nd e ven s i mp ly r ounded , where a n e le men t o f r im-leve l l ing i s p robab ly n o t ar e l iab le d iagnost ic f ea ture b u t s i mp ly a c onsequence o f t he mode l l ing p rocess. F a lse c o mpar ison o f v esse ls o f g rea t ly d ispara te a ge c an r esu l t f ro m a u se o f t he m is lead ing f l a t-r im c oncep t ( as i n Addyman , e t a l ., 1 964 ), u n less w e a t te mp t s o me f ur ther s ubd iv is ion o f v esse l s hapes a nd r im f orms.

Three t ypes o f

i n terna l b eve l c an b e r ecogn ised ; f i rs t as i mp le t ype w ith n o a t tendan t t h icke n ing o r b roaden ing o f t he r im , s econd , o ne w ith a marked b roaden ing o f r im p rof i le a l mos t p roduc ing a n e vers ion , a nd t h ird , a more c arefu l ly mou lded , b road b eve l w ith a c oncav i ty b e low o n t he i n ter ior o f t he v esse l. O f t he f i rst t ype , t he Mam T or e xa mp le ( F ig . 2 , 2 ) i s as ha l low j ar o f s im i lar f orm t o o ne f rom E ldon 's S ea t I( Cun l if fe a nd Ph il l ipson , 1 968, f i g . 1 3, 4 6 ), a s i te where i n terna l ly-beve l led r ims d o o ccur ( .c it ., f i g , 1 3 , 5 0 ). More c o m mon i s t he r a ther d i f feren t v ar iety , s een a t Roo mer Common ( F ig . 8 , 7 ) , S tap le H owe ( F ig . 2 2, 1), H ea thery Burn Cave ( F ig . 4 5 , 1 7 ;

at h ick-

e ned e xa mp le ), a nd H arborough Cave ( Arms trong a nd J ackson , 1 923 , F ig. 1 0 , 5 ) wh ich h as a c oncave s ur face.

A d ecora ted e xamp le, wh ich a cco mpan-

i ed a p robab le b ur ia l i n ab arrow ( T. L ord i n format ion ), i s k nown f ro m Coney G ar th ( F ig . 8 , 1 2 ) , af orm s im i lar t o av esse l f ro m Gr im thorpe ( S tead , 1 968 , f i g . 8 , 2 7 ).

Al ess s harp ly b eve l led t ype i s s een o n t he j ars f ro m

Green Knowe , P eeb lessh ire ( Feache m , 1 961, f i g . 4 , 1 ) , a nd f rom t he p res umed s i te o f s a l t b r iquet te manu facture a t I ngo ld me l ls P o in t ( Baker , 1 959 , f ig . 1 , 1 ) .

T h is l a t ter s i te i s p robab ly d a ted o n s tra t igraph ica l g rounds t o

t he L a te Bronze Age a nd b y r ad iocarbon d eterm ina t ions o n n earby c on te mpora ry d epos its t o t he e igh th o r s even th c en tury B .C. ( Godw in a nd W i l l is , 1 964 , 3 5

1 29 ).

T he r e l iab le a ssoc iat ions o f s ome o f t he s herds h ere ment ioned s ug-

g es t al ongevous t ype.

Con t Inua t ion i n to t he e ar ly I ron Age must n o t b e

r uled o u t b ecause o f e xa mp les i n Ha l lstat t c ontex ts a broad ( f or e xamp le , K ick l ingen , D il l ingen ;

Kossack , 1 959 , T af . 4 0 , 2 ).

T he b eve l led r im a cco mpan ied b y ab roaden ing o f r im p rof ile i s s im ila r ly w idespread a nd o f v ar ious t ypes.

Tha t f ro m Mam T or ( F ig. 2 , 9 ) i s

r e markab ly s im i lar t o as herd f ro m H arborough Cave ( F ig . 5 , 1 7 ). Rather d if ferent a re t hose f ro m H arborough Cave ( F ig . 5 , 1 6 ) a nd S tap le H owe ( r ig . 2 2 , 3 ) o n r ounded o r s hou ldered v esse ls a s a t E ldon 's S ea t I( Cun l if fe a nd Ph il l ipson , 1 968, f i g . 1 0 , 7 ) . Aw ide v ar iety o fb evel d eta il i s r epres en ted b y s herds f rom Brough ton , L inco lnsh ire ( E MAB I X , f ig . 1 , 1 ) , H ea thery Burn Cave ( F ig . 4 5 , 1 4-15 ), Eston Nab ( F ig . 4 5 , 2 -3 ), S carboro ugh ( F ig . 4 2 , 5 ; F ig . 4 4 , 1 0-12 , 1 8 ) a nd Weaver thorpe ( F ig . 2 1, 5 ) . Fro m e xa mp les o f p oss ib le M idd le Bronze Age c oarse p ot tery f ro m Bees ton T or ( F ig . 4 , 5 ) a nd E tches Cave ( F ig . 4 , 7 ) , a nd c inerary u rns f rom Bro mf i e ld ( S tan ford , 1 972 , f ig . 1 3, 1 -3 ) t o t hose f ro m Ma m T or a nd H arborough Cave , a nd t hen H ea thery Burn a nd S carborough , i t s ee ms t ha t , a ga in , a c ons iderab le r ange o f t ime i s r epresen ted . Fur ther e xa mp les a re k nown t o t he s ou th-eas t , f ro m S kend leby ( Ph i ll ips , C . W., 1 936 , f ig . 2 3, 1 -2 ) a nd M i ldenha l l F en ( Clark , 1 936, f i g . 4 ). Af ur ther t ype , more c arefu l ly made a nd w ith a marked c oncav ity b en ea th t he b evel o n t he i n ter ior o f t he v esse l , h as a more l im ited t ime-range. The e xamp les f ro m S carborough a re t he b es t-known ( F ig. 4 4 , 1 3-14 ). C lose p ara l le ls c o me f ro m Weaver thorpe ( F ig . 2 1, 4 ) a nd S tap le H owe ( Brewster , 1 963, f i g . 3 8 , 2 ).

Ou ts ide o ur a rea , t he a l mos t c o mp lete v esse l f ro m

E ldon 's S ea t I( Cun l if fe a nd Ph il l ipson , 1 968, f i g . 1 0 , 1 ) i s b road ly c o mpara b le. I ts hou ld b e n o ted t ha t a l l t hese v esse ls h ave f i nger-t ip d ecorat ion , a nd a l l h ave a pp l ied c ordons a par t f ro m t he o ne f ro m S carborough ( where c ordons a re p resen t o n o ther v esse ls ).

T he d ecora t ion i t se lf w il l b e c on-

s idered l a ter , when w e s ha l l s ugges t as even th-s ix th c en tury d a te f or t he h ey-day o f p last ic o rna men t . T he o vera l l p rof i les o f t he v essels wh ich c arry t he r im s hapes j ust d isc ussed v ary t o s o me e x ten t . S o me may b e w el l r ounded a nd o thers s hou ldere d b u tb y f ar t he c o m mones t s hapes a re t he s i mp le s tra igh t-s ided b ucket a nd t he g en t lyincurv ing b arre l. f ur ther e xa mp les a re F igs. 2 , 9 ;

O f t he f ormer t ype , a lready d iscussed , 2 1,4 ;

2 2 ,11;

a nd 4 4 , 1 4.

The l a t ter

s hape i s b est s een i n t he d ecora ted e xamp le f ro m Coney Gar th ( F ig . 8 , 1 2 ). S i mp le , u ndecora ted b arre l s hapes , o f ten e x tre mely c oarse , a re q u ite c o mmon a s a t Ma m T or ( F ig . 2 , 6 ) , p oss ib ly H arborough Cave ( F ig . 5 , 1 3 ) , a nd Gr im thorpe ( S tead , 1 968 , f igs. 6 , 8 ;

7 , 1 9 ;

8 , 2 5 ).

T he c oarse p o t-

t ery f ro m t he N or thu mber land s tockaded s i tes o f E l l 's Knowe a nd H uckhoe ( F ig . 5 3 , 1 -2 ) may b e c ons idered a longs ide t hese. S uch c o m mon s hapes u ndoub ted ly r ecur t hroughou t t he f irst m il lenn iu m B .C. i n n or thern Eng land , a s w il l b eco me a pparen t .

H owever , s im ilar c urv ing p rof iles a re k nown

a cross t he N or th S ea , a s a t t he Aa l ter-Oos terge m u rn f ie ld i n F landers ( De L ae t , e t a l., 1 958, f ig . 1, T o mbe 6 , f or e xa mp le ; C/D ).

d a ted t o H a l lsta t t

T ha t as even th-s ix th c en tury d ate i s a ccep tab le f or s o me o f t he

Br it ish e xa mp les i s c lear f ro m t he H uckhoe r ad iocarbon d a te o f 5 10 +4 0 b .c. 3 6

( GaK 1388 ;

MacK ie , 1 969 , 2 1;

J obey , 1 959 ), b u t t he Ma m T or , a nd p os-

s ib ly a lso t he Gr i mthorpe , e xa mp les a re p robab ly e ar l ier .

An u mber o f t he

Ba levu l l in s herds s how a s im ilar i ncurv ing p rof i le ( MacK ie , 1 965 , f igs. 2 , 1 ; 3 , 5 3 ; 4 , 6 0 a nd 6 8 ), s o me w ith s cored o r f i nger-t ipped d ecora t ion . The sma l l v esse l w ith l ugs b e low t he r im f ro m Bux ton ( Sa lt , 1 900 ) was p robab ly as qua tb arre l s hape. One o f t he mos t f requen t L a te Bronze Age f orms s ee ms t o b e t he med iu ms ized o r sma l l j ar w ith a c urv ing o r s l igh t ly s hou ldered p rof ile a nd a n u pr igh t o r s l igh t ly o u t-ben t n eck a nd a f l a t tened r i m. The sma l l s tubby j ar f ro m Mam T or ( F ig . 2 , 8 ) i s t yp ica l , a nd p erhaps r e la ted t o t he n earby s ur face f ind a t B lack T or ( F ig . 3 , 1 5 ).

S herds o f t he t ype a re a lso s een a t H arbor-

o ugh Cave ( F ig . 5 , 1 4 ), Roo mer C o m mon ( F ig . 8 , 9 -11) , Eston Nab ( F ig . 4 5 , 5 -6 a nd 9 ) , Amp lefor th Moor Barrows 2 ( F ig . 4 5 , 1 0 ) a nd 7 ( Wa inwr igh t a nd L ongwor th , 1 969 , f i g . 4 , 1 3-14 ), a nd Gr im thorpe ( S tead , 1 968, f i gs. 6 , 4 -5 ; 7 , 1 3-14 ; 8 , 2 1-26 ), a t wh ich l a t ter s i te t hey make u p ac ons iderab le p roport i on o f t he t o ta l c o l lect ion . I ti s n o t p oss ib le t o s ubd iv ide t hese i n to c a tegor ies , a s t he s hapes a re s o o f ten i ndec is ive a nd t he s herds o f sma l l s ize , b u t i td oes s ee m t ha t i n g enera l t hey a re =decora ted a par t f ro m r es tra ined r i mc abl ing . L a ter e xa mp les f ro m wh ich S tead d raws p ara l le ls ( . 2 E .c it., 1 63 ) a re g enera l ly more p ro fuse ly d ecora ted. A t ten t ion h as a lready b een d rawn t o t he f act t hat s harp s hou lders a re n ot t he p reroga t ive o f t he e ar ly I ron Age p er iod.

Can t he Ma m T or f ine j ar

( F ig . 2 , 4 ) , d escr ibed b y C oo mbs a s t s itu la-shaped ' ( 1967 , 1 58 ), b e r econc i led w ith t he p redo m inan t ly L ate Bronze Age d a t ing o f t he o ther ma ter ia l f ro m t he s i te? The most impor tan t d iagnos t ic f eature s ee ms t o b e t ha t , a bove t he s harp s hou lder , t he n eck a nd r im f orm a c on t inuous , g racefu l , u pward c urve , a nd i ti s t h is t ype wh ich H awkes ( 1939b , 2 72-3 ) c ons idered t o b e a ma jor e lemen t i n a n Urn f ie ld im m igra t ion v ia France t o c rea te h is L a te Bronze Age 2 .

The p ots f ro m N ewhaven wh ich h e d iscussed a re i ndeed smoother

a nd f i ner t han u sua l , a nd o f ten u ndecora ted ( 2 E .c i t ., f ig . 1 , 4 -6 ).

An e igh th

c en tury d a te f or t he Ma in T or v esse l , t o b e s een a s a n i n trus ion i n to a n e xi st ing s et t le men t , w ou ld n ot s ee m o u t o f p lace.

Tha t t h is s hou ldered f orm

i s impor tan t i n t he n or th i s s hown b y t he e xamp les f ro m Amp lefor th Moor Barrows 2 ( F ig . 4 5 , 1-12 ) a nd 7 ( Wa inwr igh t a nd L ongwor th , 1 969 , f ig . 6 , 3 -4 ).

These s herds were s ca t tered o n t he o ld l and s ur face b enea th t he b ar-

r ows .

Rad iocarbon d a tes f or c harcoa l s o s i tua ted b enea th Barrows 7 a nd 3

were 5 37 + 9 0 b .c. a nd 5 82 + 9 0 b .c. r espect ive ly ( B M-368 a nd BM-369 ; 22 .c i t ., 2 94 ). T here a re s im i lar v esse ls f ro m Eston Nab ( F ig . 4 5 , 1 ) , Gr im thorpe ( S tead , 1 968, f i g . 6 , 7 ) , S carborough ( F ig . 4 3, 3 -4 ), a nd a lso , i t must b e a dm itted , f ro m S tap le H owe ( Brews ter , 1 963, f ig . 4 8, 8 ) .

The

t ype may t hus h ave h ad a l ong l i fe , a nd i ti s n ot c erta in t ha t t he Ma m T or e xamp le s hou ld b e c ons idered t o b e a s e ar ly a s t he e igh th c entury . A l l o ur e xamp les a re u ndecora ted , h owever. H ow f ar t hose s hou ldered b ow ls a nd j ars w ith a more a ngu lar n eck may b e s een t o h ave b een i nu se b efore t he p er iod o f Ha l ls ta t t i n f luence i s n ot c lear . T ha t e xa mp les d o o ccur i n a sse mb lages w ith L a te Bronze Age t ra its a t Gr im thorpe ( S tead , 1 968 , f i gs. 6 , 1 ; 7 , 1 0 , 1 2 a nd 1 5 ; 1, 2 8 ), Ma m Tor ( F ig. 2 , 3 ) a nd Epperstone ( F ig . 9 , 4 ) may i nd ica te t ha t t he o ccupa t ion 3 7

o f t he f ormer t wo s i tes was l onger t han h as b een . s uspec ted h ither to , a nd t ha t L a te Bronze Age f orms c on t inued d own t o t he l a ter s even th a nd s ix th c en tur ies i n t he l a t ter c ase.

The Ma m T or s herd i s o ne o f t he v ery f ew f ro m t ha t s i te t o

e xh ib it f i nger-t ipped d ecora t ion , a lbe it i n a n u nusua l , p inched f orm.

T ha t s uch

t ypes m igh t h ave b een c urren t i n t he e igh th o r s even th c entur ies i s s hown a t I v inghoe Beacon ( Cot ton a nd Frere , 1 968 ), where a p la in , s harp ly-ang led s hou ldered j ar ( f ig . 1 8, 7 1 ) i s c lose ly s im ilar t o o ne f ro m Gr im thorpe ( S tead , 1 968 , f i g . 7 , 1 0 ), a nd where f i nger-t ipped j ars c o mparab le t o t he Mam T or e xamp le d o o ccur ( f ig . 1 6, 3 ). Tha t t he c ar ina ted j ars a nd b ow ls a t E ldon 's S ea t I( Ctm l if fe a nd Ph i l l ipson , 1 968, f ig . 1 0 , 2a nd 6 ) may h ave h ad a p re-Ha l lsta t t h istory i s a lso s hown a t I v inghoe ( 22 .c it ., f ig . 1 6 , 1 ) .

H owever , t he e xcava tors

a t I v inghoe Beacon i nd ica ted a l a te s even th o r s ix th c en tury d a te f or t he s i te , p o in t ing o u t a Ha l ls tat t i nf luence o n t he p ot tery d esp ite a p oss ib ly e ar l ier d at ing f or most o f t he meta lwork . A ma jor f actor i n t he e xcava tors ' d a t ing o f t he I v inghoe Beacon o ccupa t ion s ee ms t o h ave b een t he p resence o f f inger-t ipped d ecora t ion o n much o f t he p ot tery .

I ti s t rue t ha t o n much Devere l-R i mbury ma ter ia l f ro m t he s outh

p las t ic d ecorat ion i s p ro fuse ( as a t Thorny Down ;

S tone , 1 941, f ig . 5 ) ;

b ut

t he f act t hat L a te Bronze Age p o t tery i n t he n or th o f Eng land i s l i t t le i nf luenced b y as urv iva l f ro m t h is s ty le i s i nd ica ted b y t he l arge ly u ndecora ted g roups f rom Ma m T or , Gr im thorpe , Amp lefor th Moor , a nd Eston Nab , a s w e l l a s b y mos t o f t he o ther p o t tery f inds.

I t s ee ms , t herefore , t ha t d esp ite t he o ccurrence o f

Urn f ie ld p o t tery o n t he Con t inen t w ith f inger-t ipp ing , p erhaps more w idespread t han i t may s ee m b ecause o f t he p reva lence o fb ur ia l r e ma ins i n t he a rchaeolo g ica l r ecord , n or thern Eng l ish ma ter ia l o n ly b ears e x tens ive p las t ic d ecorat i on i n t he s even th a nd s ix th c en tur ies B .C. ,w ith p ar t icu lar p aral le ls i n t he F ina l Bronze I I o f France a nd t he e ar ly Hunsr t ick-Eife l C ulture wares. The d e ta ils o f t h is mater ia l w i l l b e e xa m ined l a ter . I t may b e t ha t i n s ome a reas , s uch a s Eas t Ang l ia , f inger-t ipp ing c on t inued t hroughout t he p er iod , b u t f ur ther n or th i ts ee ms t o mark a f resh move men t , p erhaps s een a t e ar l ies t i n s o me o f t he v esse ls f ro m S carborough ( par t icu lar ly F ig . 4 4 , 9 , wh ich i s v ery s im i lar t o av esse l f ro m N ewhaven ;

H awkes 1 939b , f i g . 1 , 2 ) .

O ther t ypes o f d ecora t ion o ccur e ar l ier i n t he La te Bronze Age , h owever , o f wh ich l inear s cor ing i s t he mos t c o m mon . T he i nc ised h err ing-bone p at tern o n t he sma l l s herd f ro m N or th F err iby (Wr igh t a nd Wr igh t , 1 947 , f i g . 1 6, 1 ) i s a lso s een a t E ldon 's S ea t I( Cun l if fe a nd Ph i l l ipson , 1 968, f ig . 1 4 , 8 1), a nd may h ave b een p resen t o n t he u rn wh ich c on ta ined t he h oard o f t wo g o ld l ockr ings a nd a s ocketed a xe a t Cooper 's H i l l , A lnw ick , Nor thu mber land ( Maryon , 1 939 , 1 02 ). Sma l l b arre l-shaped p o ts w ith r ims s im ilar t o t he Huckhoe s herd ( F ig. 5 3, 2 ) f ro m Wes t H ar t lepoo l ( Woodhead , 1 966 , f ig . 1 ) a nd Ba levu l l in (MacK ie , 1 965 , f ig . 3 , 5 3 ) h ave t wo h or izon ta l s cored l i nes b e low t he r im w ith i rregu lar v er t ica l r ungs i n at re ll is p a t tern ( see a lso a v esse l f ro m Bro m f ie ld : S tan ford , 1 972 , f ig . 1 3, 4 ).

The f am i l iar Urn f ie ld o pen c hevron a s f ound a t

P lu mpton P la in B ( Hawkes , 1 935 , f ig. 1 2, 8 4 ) i s p resen t o n t he Coney Gar th v esse l ( F ig. 8 , 1 2 ), t o wh ich t he h or izon ta lly-grooved b ow l f ro m Gr im thorpe ( S tead , 1 968, f ig . 8 , 2 7 ) may b e r e la ted .

S im i lar s cor ing c an b e s een o n

s herds f ro m S kend leby ( Ph il l ips , C . W., 1 936 , f ig. 2 3 , 9 -10 ).

Bo th c losed

a nd o pen c hevron mo t ifs a re p resen t a t S tap le H owe ( Brews ter , 1 963, f ig . 3 3 ,

3 8

6 -7 ) , s how ing c on t inua t ion i n to t he H a l ls ta t t p er iod h ere , a s i n 1 3 ohe m ia a nd Upper A us tr ia. T o s ummar ise , t here fore , i n t he M idd le B ronze Age t he e ar l ier u rn s eq uence i s s uperseded b yb ucke t a nd b arre l f orms , w i th p oss ib ly a lso s ome g lobu lar u rn i n f luence ( F ig . 4 , 1 ) , ma in ly o ver t he s ou th a nd e as t . Meta lw ork s equences w ere v ir tua l ly u n in terrup ted b y a ny Ornamen t H or izon , a nd t he Wa l l ing ton p hase s aw f ur ther i so la ted d eve lopmen t a f ter I r ish i nf luence. P o t tery s ty les c on t inued t o o we much t o e ar l ier u rn f orms , a nd w ere l arge ly u ndecora ted a par t f ro m s ome l i near s cor ing . W ith t he H ea thery B urn meta lw ork ing p hase , C on t inen ta l i n f luence g a ined mo men tum w h i ls t I r ish g o ld d ec lared n ew w ea l th . N ew s hou ldered p o t tery s ty les ,w ere a dop ted , a l though wares c on t inued t ob e p redom inan t ly u ndecora ted u n t i l l a te i n t he p er iod , w hen more d ynam ic i n f luences w en _ 1l Ara 1ded . O f t he ma jor p o t tery c o l lec t ions f rom t he a rea , Mam T or b eg ins p erhaps a t ad a te a s i nd ica ted b y t he r ad iocarbon e v idence w ith u rnl ike p o t tery , b u t o ccupa t ion c on t inued t hrough i n to t he e igh th c entury when s hou ldered v esse ls a nd a r ibbed s ocke ted a xe w ere a cqu ired . Gr im thorpe b eg ins w eak ly i n t he p o t tery r ecord w i th b ucke t a nd b arre l s hapes , j us t p oss ib ly a s e ar ly a s t he n in th c en tury , b u t mos t s herds i nd ica te a c on t inua t ion d own t o t he l a te s even th . Eppers tone a nd Amp lefor th Moor p rov ide s even th o r s ix th c en tury e v idence. T he d is tr ibu t ion o f L a te Bronze Age p o t tery t ypes ( F ig . 7 4 ) i nd ica tes a r emarkab ly e ven s pread o ver t he a rea , w ith a marked p re ference f or t he marg ins o f u p land a reas a nd f or c oas ta l a nd h i l ltop l oca t ions.

3 9

CHAPTER 3

HALLSTATT I NFLUENCES i .

Meta lwork

T he c hange f ro m a b ronze-us ing t o a n i ron-us ing e cono my marks a t heo ret ica l b eg inn ing t o a n I ron Age p er iod i n B r ita in. T ha t s uch a c hange was r ap id a nd c o mp lete h as n ever b een e nv isaged , b u t t he e x ten t t o wh ich b ronze p redo m ina tes o n n om ina l ly e ar ly I ron Age s i tes , a nd t he g reater r ap id ity w ith wh ich i ron d eco mposes u nder mos t s o i l c ond it ions , c o mp l ica te t he p ict ure s t i l l f ur ther . An i ron-work ing i ndus try o f c ons iderab le s k i l l h as b een i den t if ied o n t he b as is o f i ron d aggers o f H a l ls ta t t Dt ype f ro m t he T ha mes Va l ley ( Jope, 1 961, 3 07 ), p robab ly p receded b y t he manu facture o f d o mest ic imp le men ts s uch a s t he L lyn F awr s ocke ted s ick le ( Fox a nd H yde , 1 939 , f ig. 2 ) , b u t h ow f ar t h is a ct iv ity i n t he s ix th c en tury r ef lects a s i tua t ion o f w idespread u se o f i ron f or d o mest ic a nd more p reten t ious t ools t hroughou t ' Br ita in i s =cer ta in . Tha t t he c on t inu ing b ronze-us ing t rad it ions were i n f il tra ted b y t he u se o f i ron , a t l east b y 6 00 B .C. ,i s s hown b y t he o ccurrence o f i ronwork o r r ust w ith h oards o fb ronze. The L lyn F awr c o l lect ion , w ith i t s d ist inct ive i ron s word a nd l ozenge-sect ioned s pearhead , a nd i t s b ronze r azor , s trapl ink , h arness- moun t ings , a nd c heek-p ieces , o f Ha l ls ta t t Ct ype i s au n ique h oard o f im m igran t c haracter , b u t i ts hows b y i t s s ocke ted s ick le t he i nd ige nous u se o f i ron f or a n a r t ifac t t ype o f Br i t ish L ate Bronze Age d eve lopmen t ( .c it.).

The e x tens ive e ncrus ta t ion o f i ron o n o ne f ace o f as ocketed

a xe w ith r ib a nd p e l let d ecorat ion f ro m t he h oard a t S o mp t ing ( Curwen i 1 948 ) i nd ica tes t he a ssoc iat ion o f a n i ron a r t ic le w ith a C lass B2 A t lan t ic c au ldron w ith c ast s tap les , s hou lder-s traps , a nd r i m-corruga t ions. F ur ther n or th , t he l arge h oard f ro m Ba l mashanner , Angus , c on ta in ing Covesea b racelets a nd a sma l l s em i-c ircu lar c ast b ronze b ow l o f t he s hape a ssoc iated w ith c ross-hand le a t tachmen ts , a lso i nc luded a n i ron r ing ( Co les , 1 960 , 4 3-44 ). These e xa mp les s ugges t t ha t i ron may h ave b een more w ide ly u sed f ro m t he b eg inn ing o f H awkes ' L a te Bronze Age 3 t han i s e v iden t f ro m t he a rchaeo log ica l r ecord , e ven t hough t he e ar ly p hases o f t he Br it ish I ron Age , t hus h era lded , may h ave r e ma ined p redo m inan t ly b ronze-us ing . I n o ur a rea , t he f ew f i nds o f e ar ly i ron a re o f g rea t s ign if icance. We h ave a lready s een t ha t s o me o f t he p o t tery f orms f ro m Gr im thorpe , East R id ing , imp ly a c on t inued o ccupa t ion d own t o t he l a te s even th c en tury ; t h is i s a lso i nd ica ted b y t he f our meta lwork f i nds f ro m t he h i l l-for t e xcavat ions , wh ich w ere o f i ron a nd i nc luded a p eg a nd t wo n a i ls.

T hree f inds

were i n s tra t if ied d i tch d epos its , o ne b etween L ayers 4 a nd 5 a nd a nother i n L ayer 4 o f t he S ect ion W-X , whence c ame mos t o f t he p ot tery ( S tead ,

4 0

1 968 , 1 66, f ig . 1 0 , 4 -7 ).

Fro m Cast le H i l l , S carborough , t he s ing le i ron

o b jec t , s a id t o b e f ro m o ne o f t he p i ts , w as a p la in r od , s l igh t ly c urved , a bout 2 .5 i nches l ong ( Whee ler , 1 931, 2 2 ). S tap le H owe :

T he meta l was s im i lar ly s carce a t

t he t wo sma l l o b jects r ecovered were a f ragmen tary c urved

i ron r od f ro m t he P hase Ip a l isade t rench , a nd a n i ron r ing f ro m a h o l low i n t he f l oor o f H u t I I ( Brews ter , 1 963, 18 ). b orough , may h ave b een a p in .

T he r od , l ike t he o ne f ro m S car-

These sma l l f i nds s uggest a l oca l manufac ture ,

b u t t he p reponderance o fb ronze a ga in i nd ica tes t he c on t inua t ion o f L ate Bronze Age t echno logy i n to t h is p er iod o f H a l lsta t t i n f luence.

A l though i ron may h ave

r eached n or thern Eng land b y t he l a ter s even th c en tury , i t was c er ta in ly v ery s carce. Appear ing i n Greece a nd Crete b e fore t he b eg inn ing o f t he f irs t m ill enn iu m B .C. ,a k now ledge o f t he t echn iques o f i ron-work ing m igh t h ave s pread t o I t a ly , p robab ly b y s ea , a nd t hence i n to Con t inen ta l , f o l lowed b y w estern Europe n or th o f t he A lps i n l a ter Urn f ie ld t imes ( P iggo t t , 1 965 , 1 86 ). T h is move men t t hrough Aus tr ia a nd c en tra l Europe , e ven tua l ly t o Br ita in , i s p robab ly s im i lar t o t ha t f o l lowed b y t he f i nds o f I t a l ic me ta lwork t ypes i n Eng land .

The ir p redo m inan t ly s ou thern a nd e astern d is tr ibut ion ( Harden ,

1 950 , f i g. 4 ), c oup led w ith t he d iscovery o f al ikely b ur ia l i n at u mu lus n ear Castor , N or tha mp tonsh ire ( w ith a l a ter s erpen t iform b rooch a nd t hree d if fere n t I t a l ic b racelet t ypes ;

2 2 .c it ., f ig . 3 ) , a nd t he r e markab le g roup o f s ix

b rooches a nd embossed b ronze b ow l r im s upposed t o h ave b een f ound i n a nd n ear t o I xwor th , S u f fo lk ( Clarke, 1 939 , 3 0-1 ), l eads t o t he c onc lus ion t hat t hese f i nds a re l ike ly t o h ave b een c on te mporary impor ts r a ther t han t he d isp ersed c on ten ts o f more r ecen t c o l lect ions. O f t he e xa mp les f ro m o ur a rea , t here a re f our p oor ly-authen t ica ted f inds f ro m C u mber land ( R idgeway a nd Sm ith , 1 907 , 11-115 ) : al arge t h ickenedb ow b rooch w ith med iu m c atch-p la te , a much sma ller r ibbon-bow b rooch o f s im i lar p ropor t ions , a sma l l b oa t-brooch w ith l ong c a tch-p la te , a nd a h orned s erpen t iform b rooch . S im i lar ly u ncer ta in i s t he Boroughbr idge p rovenance o f t he w e l l-known b oa t-shaped b rooch w ith l ong c a tch-p late a nd f acet ted b ow ( An t . J ., X , 5 4-5 ). Two d ecorated e xa mp les a re k nown f ro m York o r t he Immed ia te n e ighbourhood ( Hawkes , 1 932 , f i gs. 1 -2 ) : o ne i s o f b owtype w ith e ngraved c hevron d ecora t ion a nd s hor t c a tch-p la te , a nd t he o ther i s o f s o l id l eech-for m , w ith i t s c a tch-p la te b roken o f f , w i th g eometr ic l i near e ngrav ing i n terrup ted b y p a irs o f t ransverse l i nes e nclos ing t wo r ows o f r ing-and-do t d es igns.

I n L inco ln Museu m a re t wo d eep b oa t-shaped f orms w ith s hor t

c a tch-p la tes , o ne f ro m t he r iver W itha m w ith l i near a nd r ing-and-do t e ngravi ng v ery much l ike t he o ne f ro m York , a nd a nother f ro m t he s i te o f a Ro man v i l la a t G reetwe l l w ith a s i mp ler d es ign o f p ara l le l g rooves a nd l i nes o f d ots. From f ur ther s ou th t here i s al eech-brooch f ro m H inck ley Cas t le , a nd a d ev e loped b oa t-brooch , w ith k nobs a nd l ong c a tch-p late w ith k nobbed t erm ina l , f ro m Barrow-on-Soar ( bo th L e icester Museu m ).

Mos t o f t hese f or ms , i fo f

g enu ine c on te mporary a ppearance , c ou ld b e a scr ibed t o t he s even th c en tury o n t he b as is o f I ta l ian p ara l le ls. T he s i mp ler s hor t c a tch-p la te t ypes may b e v iewed a s s im i lar i n o r ig in a nd d a te t o t he a n tenna-h i lted s word f ro m t he r iver W itham , a lready n o ted ( see Mü l ler-Karpe , 1 959 , Abb. 5 7 ). S im i lar d ecora t ion t o t ha t n o ted o n t he York l eech b rooch i s s een o n ah o ll ow s tr ip-bronze a rmlet , s a id t o h ave b een f ound i n F urness , L ancash ire 4 1

( Cowper , 1 905 ). T he o ver lapp ing t erm ina ls a re c ons iderab ly n arrower t han t he g en t ly-expanded c en tre , a l though s t i l l c ircu lar i n s ect ion . T he d ecorat i on i s o f d oub le i nc ised t ransverse l i nes , i n terrupted a round t he o u ter c irc um ference b y as p ine o f r ing-and-do t d es igns , d e l im ited b y s ing le l i nes. Qu ite u n l ike a ny Eng l ish t ype, t he a rm let i s a lso d if f icu l t t o p ara l lel a broad , b ut a d a te i n t he s even th c entury a ga in s ee ms l i ke ly.

A l l t hese s outh-cen tra l

European meta lwork f i nds i nd ica te t he c on t inued p u lse o f Con t inen ta l p ene trat i on t hroughou t t he f i rs t h a l f o f t he f irs t m il lenn iu m B .C: T he " horsey" e le men t i n meta lwork h oards , a lready met a t H eathery Burn Cave , c ont inues i n n ew t ypes , w el l r epresen ted i n t he .hoard f rom We lby , L e icestersh ire ( Powe l l , 1 948 ).

T he f i ve c ircu lar s l ided d iscs a re

i den t ica l t o a n e qua l n u mber f ro m a h oard a t D innyes , H ungary , s im i lar t o t hose f ound r egu lar ly i n H a l ls ta t t Ic on tex ts i n Bohe m ia , a nd p rov ide a l i nk w ith t he Parc-y- Me irch h oard , n or th Wa le 's.

A lthough t he c ruc iform h and le

a ttach men ts s ugges t t he p oss ib i l ity o f a n e ar l ier d ate , P owel l p o in ts t o s i mi l ar H a l lsta t t p ara l le ls f or t hese t hroughout t he u pper D anube r eg ion ( 92 .c it., 3 6 ). The a ssoc iat ion a t We lby w ith s ocketed a xes , as pearhead , a nd a s word f r agmen t o f c o m mon Br it ish t ype , c urren t i n t he l a ter p hases o f t he L a te Bronze Age , s ugges ts t ha t t he d epos it i s at rave l l ing merchan t 's s crap c o ll ect ion , d a t ing mos t l ike ly t o t he s econd h a l f o f t he s even th c en tury B .0 . T he a ppearance o f ab ronze c up w ith ompha los b ase a nd b road f urrows a bove t he c ar ina t ion , w ith c loses t p ara l le ls i n t he Urn f ie ld p ot tery t rad it ion o f France ( Fandars , 1 957 ; many i l lus tra t ions ) a nd u lt i ma te ly i n t he f urrowed b ow ls o f Wessex , s ugges ts a mutua l a dop t ion o f i deas b y p o t ter a nd me ta lworker . The q uest ion whether t h is H a l lsta t t i n f luence r epresen ts a p ene tra t ion b y t rave ll ing meta lworkers a nd t he r esu lts o f t rade r a ther t han a p opu la t ion move men t o n s o me s ca le i s h igh l igh ted b y t he r e markab le d iscover ies a t A ldro , East R id ing . Mor t i mer 's Barrow No. 1 08 o f t he A ldro Group ( 1905 , 5 6-7 ) was 2 7 f eet i n d ia meter a nd e nc irc led b y ad i tch 4 8 f eet i n d ia meter , 3f eet d eep , a nd 8 f eet w ide a t t he t op. I n t he c en tre b enea th t he b arrow was a p it ; 2 f eet d eep a nd 2 .5 f eet a cross , c on ta in ing a c re ma t ion a nd , a s as epara te d epos it t o t he n or th s ide ,a l arge c o l lect ion o f o b jects , b ad ly b urn t a nd f used.

Mor t i mer 's d escr ip t ion o f t he a sse mb lage r efers t o p ar ts o f a

b ronze s hea th o f a n i ron w eapon , ab ronze c urved b lade a nd a l ong b ronze t aper ing d agger , l ens-shaped g lass o r c rysta l d iscs moun ted i n s heet b ronze , a nd a b ronze d isc-shaped moun t ing . Above t hese d epos its were n u merous sma l l p ieces o fb urn t a nd me l ted b ronze , a nd a t t he t op o f t he p i t was a f ragmen t o f ap o t tery v esse l w ith f i nger-t ipped d ecora t ion . S o me o f t h is ma teri a l a va ilab le f or P iggo t t t o s tudy s o me 2 0 y ears a go ( P iggo t t , 1 953 , 1 789 ) , b u t r egret tab ly c anno t n ow b e t raced ( 1974 ). I n c onsequence, P iggo t t 's museu m s ketches a re t he o n ly s urv iv ing r ecord o f t he g roup , a nd a re h ere r eproduced t hrough h is g eneros ity f ro m p enc i l o r ig ina ls ( F ig . 2 0 ). C o mpari ng t hese w i th Mor t i mer 's d escr ip t ion , i ti s e v iden t t ha t c er ta in p ieces w ere i ncorrec t ly i den t if ied a t t he t ime o f t he ir d iscovery ; o ther i t e ms may c onc e ivab ly h ave b een l os t a lready b y 1 953. The o b jec t mos t r ead i ly i den t if ied i n t he g roup ( 1 ) i s o f at ype w e l l-known i n 1 . a .4 -r H a l lsta t t c on tex ts i n Europe , a nd may b e q u ite c lose ly p ara l le led i n

4 2

t he H ohm iche le wagon-grave o n t he Upper Danube ( R iek a nd Hund t , 1 962, T a f . 3 , 2 0-21 ).

I t was p resumab ly a f erru le t o c ap a wagon-po le o r s taf f

o f s o me k ind , t o wh ich i tw ou ld h ave b een a t tached b y means o f t he r iveth o le t hrough i t s c y l indr ica l s ocket .

T he b ronze c urved b lade ( 2 ) a t f irst

s igh t wou ld a ppear t o r ese mb le a s ick le , a nd t hough r a ther b road , i tc ou ld f a l l w ith in t he g enera l c lass s tud ied b y Fox ( 1939 ).

The o pposed p a irs o f

r ivet-ho les p resen t ap rob le m , h owever , s ince , a s P iggo t t h as p o in ted o u t i n c orrespondence , t here i s n o o bv ious s ign t ha t t hese w ere t he r esu l t o f a n a t te mp ted r epa ir o f t he b lade, wh ich c ou ld h ard ly h ave b een a ch ieved e ff ect ive ly b y t h is means a nyway . I t e m 3 was s urely n o t ad agger b lade , a s P iggo t t h as c on f irmed .

I tl acks a ny m id-r ib o r c en tra l t h icken ing , a nd i t s

s ing le r ive t c oa for ms t o n o k nown d agger o r r ap ier t ype.

F ur thermore ,

t he a bsence o f r ibs o n t he o ppos ite s ide o f t he f ragmen t a rgues a ga inst s uch a n i n terpreta t ion .

The r e ma irder o f t he c o l lect ion d ef ies i den t if ica t ion .

I n 1 953, P igg ctn o ted t ha t f our f rag men ts e i ther c on ta ined s et t ings o f d oub lec onvex g lass

7a nd o ne o ther n o t i l lustra ted ) o r r eta ined t he s ocke ts f or s uch

s et t ings ( 4 a nd 6 ) .

H e a lso o bserved t ha t 4a nd 8 h ad o r ig ina l ly b een j o ined

a s a si ng le f rag men t. D at ing t he g roup mus t c lear ly r e ma in t en ta t ive. I ft he b ronze b lade ( 3 ) w as i ndeed f ro m a s ocketed s ick le , p erhaps r e-u t il ised f or s o me o ther p urp ose o nce b roken , i tc ou ld a rgue a f i na l Bronze Age d a te f or t he b ur ia l. The f erru le c er ta in ly h as l a te H a l ls tat t a f f in it ies , wh ile t he p o t tery w ith i t s f i nger-t ip o rna men t a rgues a n e ar ly d a te i n t he I ron Age , a nd p robab ly a p re-La T bne o ne. No th ing r ese mb l ing Mor t i mer 's b ronze s hea th o f a n i ron w eapon a pparen t ly e x is ted i n 1 953, a nd w e c an o n ly g uess t ha t t h is c ou ld h ave b een a l a te Ha l lsta t t o r e ar ly L a T ene weapon .

I n a more s pecu la t ive

v e in , Professor P iggot t h as s ugges ted t ha t 3c ou ld h ave b een a sma l l f ragmen t o f ac res t-he l met , o f wh ich 2 was o ne o f t he c heek-p ieces.

The e n t ire

a sse mb lage c ou ld b e s een a s af us ion o f e xot ic a nd i nsu lar e le men ts , w h ich w ou ld n o t b e o u t o f p lace i n t he l a te s even th o r s ix th c en tur ies B .C. Equa l ly impor tan t me ta lwork e v idence f or H a l lsta t t c onnect ions c o mes f ro m t he S tap le H owe s et t le men t , n ine m i les t o t he n or th-east o f A ldro. A sma l l c up-shaped c as t-bronze f ragmen t ( Brews ter , 1 963, f ig . 6 2 , 1 3 ) i s l ike ly t o h ave f ormed p ar t o f t he d ecora t ive p ane l o f ab road s trapl ink , o f t he t ype k nown f ro m L lyn F awr ( Fox a nd H yde , 1 939 , f ig . 1 , 7 ) a nd Cour tS a in t-Et ienne , B e lg iu m ( Mar i n , 1 958 , f i g . 3 , 15 ), p robab ly l a te s even th t o e ar ly s ix th c en tury i n Br ita in .

The 1 20 b ronze s tuds f ound o n t he f l oor

o f t he Quarr ied H o l low ( Brewster , 1 963, f i g. 6 3, 2 ) a re s tr ik ing ly s im i lar t o t hose f ound w ith b ur ia ls a t H a l lsta t t i t sel f ( Kro mer , 1 959 , T af . 1 1, 7 ) a s w e ll a s a t Cour t-Sa in t-Et ienne. The d oub lelooped r azor i s o f f am i l iar H a l lsta t t If orm , s een i n av ar iety o f i nd ividua ls ty les , s ing le a nd d oub le-

l ooped , a s a t L lyn Fawr ( 2 .

. c i t . ,

f ig . 1 , 6 ) , Trapra in L aw ( Cur ie a nd Cree ,

1 921, f i g . 1 2 ), a nd R ich mond ( Burgess , 1 968b , f ig. 1 8, 8 ) .

The Trapra in

L aw e xa mp le, f ro m a h i l l-top s et t le men t wh ich h as p roduced c ons iderab le q uan t it ies o f L a te Bronze Age meta lwork a nd p o t tery w ith f ingert ipped d ec ora t ion a nd b evel led r i ms , i s p ar t icu lar ly s ign if ican t. The S tap le H owe r azor w ith s trong ly-recurved s uspens ion l oop ( Brews ter , 1 963, f i g . 6 1, 2 ) i s as hor t p la in f or m o f ac o m mon n or th European t ype , a s f ound i n l a ter

4 3

Urn f ie ld b ur ia ls a t t he Kra tzeburg H öhens ied lung , n or thern Germany ( Ho l lnage l , 1 958, Ta l . 3 2 f ) .

None o f t he e xo t ic S tap le H owe b ronzes was f ound i n u ne-

q u ivoca l p a l isade p ack ing , b u t t he s ing lelooped r azor a nd t he s tuds w ere f ro m o ccupa t ion l ayers. The c o l lect ion s uggests a s trong i nf luence b eg inn ing a t t he v ery l a tes t i n t he e ar ly s ix th c en tury , ac onc lus ion wh ich wou ld b e c ons ist en t w ith a r ad iocarbon d ate , f ro m c arbon ised g ra in o bta ined ma in ly f rom t he Quarr ied H o l low , o f 4 50 ± 1 50 b .c. ( McK . 5 90-490 B .C.;

BM-63 ).

The b ronze b race let f ound a q uar ter o f am i le w est o f t he o ccupa t ion s i te a t Cast le H i l l , S carborough ( F ig . 4 2, 1 9 ; An t . J ., X IV , 3 01-2 ), s ee ms t o b e ad ist inct ive Con t inen ta l p roduct w ith c lose p ara l lels i n C en tra l Europe ( Kossack , 1 959, Ta f . 5 5 , 1 8 ; Kro mer , 1 959 , T a f . 3 , 2 9 ), o f ten i n t he H a l ls ta t t C 2 p er iod , t ha t i s t he s econd h al f o f t he s even th c en tury .

As s uch i t

a ccords w e l l w ith t he e v idence o f t he p o t tery f ro m t he n earby s i te , a s w e s ha l l s ee , a nd c an r easonab ly b e i nterpreted a s ac on te mporary impor t . T he s harp ly b eaded f orm o f t he d ecora t ion o f i t s e x ter ior s ur faces i s ac harac teri s t ic wh ich b eco mes l ess d ec is ive o n l a ter e xamp les. I n t he L a T bne p er iod , h owever , k nobbed b race lets o f as im i lar c harac ter u sua l ly h ave t he i nd iv idua l b eads d e marca ted more o bv ious ly b y s harp c onstruc t ions ( f or e xa mp le, S tead , 1 965 , f i g . 2 8 , 2 ; f ig . 2 9 , 1 , 4 -5 ), a nd i ti s w ith t h is d is t inct ion i n m ind t ha t t he n ew ly-d iscovered b eaded b ronze b race let f rom Yearby , a t t he C leve lands ' f oot n ear Redcar , n or th Yorksh ire ( M idd lesborough Museu m i n forma t ion ) , i s c ons idered t o b e aH a l lstat t p roduc t . A lthough b roken i ti s c o mp lete , a nd s im i lar t o t he S carborough e xa mp le i n t ha t i t s i n terna l s ur face i s p er fect ly p la in a nd i t s o uter s urface i s b o ld ly b eaded w ith d oub le n arrow c o l lars b et ween b roader , b u lbous o nes. T he e as tern s i tua t ion o f t he n ew f ind i s s ign if ican t , a nd f ur ther s uggests c oasta l p enetra t ion . Fur ther impor tan t e v idence o fb o th t he e as tern p enetrat ion a nd t he n ew e questr ian modes i s a f forded b y t he Hal ls ta t t C s word o f G ünd l ingen Type , r ecen t ly d iscussed b y Cowen ( 1967 ).

Tha t t h is was a c ava lry weapon h as

b een c onv inc ing ly r e-argued o n t he b as is o f t he b lun t s word p o in ts a nd t he c haracter is t ic w inged c hapes , o f wh ich t he Ebbers ton f i nd i s af ine e xamp le ( .c it., f ig . 1 2 ).

S uccess ive waves o f move men t o f t h is d ist inc t ive t ype

f ro m i t s o r ig in i n c en tra l Europe a re d is t ingu ishab le i n t he t ypo logy a nd d ist r ibu t ion o f i t s s ubtypes , d ef ined l arge ly o n t he b as is o f t he d es ign o f t he p o m me l-p iece.

I n o ur a rea , t hose w ith r ectangu lar p o mme l-p ieces , C lass

b , c o me f ro m Ebberston , P icker ing , a nd f rom H o l me P ierrepon t a nd Newa rk , b oth N ot t ingha msh ire. The Ebbers ton s word i s o ne o f t wo ( o f wh ich t ha t i n S carborough Museu m f ro m " near S carborough", u n for tuna te ly l acki ng a l l i t s t ang , i s l ike ly t o b e t he s econd ), f ound w ith a c hape a nd a q uan t ity o f h u man b ones.

Bo th swords h ave e v iden t ly b een b roken i n to f our t ranches

e ach , ac onstan t f actor i n t he H a l ls ta t t c e me teries o f s ou th Ho l land a nd Be lg iu m .

I t s ee ms , t herefore , t ha t w e h ave ab ur ia l , o r t wo b ur ia ls , w ith

swords o f C on t inen ta l t ype , a nd f ur ther e v idence o f sma l l-sca le p opu la t ion move men t . The H o l me P ierrepon t a nd Newark s words w ere f ound d ur ing g rave l-d igg ing a nd r iver-dredg ing o pera t ions r espect ive ly . O f t he o ther H a l lsta t t s words f ro m t he a rea , d ist inct ive i n g enera l b u t o f c lear ly Br it ish manu facture o n a ccoun t o f t he ir n otched p o mme l-p ieces , we

we tF o o f C lass c f ro m d redg ing o pera t ions i n t he r iver Tyne , a nd o ne

4 4

o f C lass d f ro m t he H o l me P ierrepon t g rave l-d igg ings.

O thers wh ich a re

i nco mp lete , a nd t herefore n o t c lass if iab le , c ome f ro m B i l l inghay Da les , L inco lnsh ire ( c lose t o t he r iver Witha m ), T e mp le Newsam , n ear L eeds ( f ound i n g rave l-screen ing ), a nd a no ther f ro m t he r iver Tyne.

Burgess h as s ugges-

t ed ( 1968b , 2 6 ) o n t he b as is o f t he l ack o f H a l lsta t t swords i n Br it ish meta lwork h oards a nd t he i nd igenous t rad it ion r epresen ted b y t he Ha l ls ta t tin f luenced Ewar t Park swords , t ha t t hese e xa mp les r epresen t t he s et t le men t o f a n i nt rus ive p opu lat ion , i fo n ly o f H a l lsta t t sm iths.

Equa lly impor tan t , t he f act

t ha t a l l t he swords f ro m o ur a rea , a par t f ro m t he Ebbers ton e xamp les , were e v iden t ly d epos ited i n wetness , a s a bove i nd ica ted , s uggests r i tua l a ct iv ity ( see b e low p .176 ). As f or c hrono logy , Cowen h as i nd ica ted a d a t ing r ange b eg inn ing i n t he s econd h a lf o f t he s even th c en tury B .C. ,a nd h as d ec l ined t o o f fer a l a tes t l im it . T ha t n at ive t rad it ions o fb ronze-work ing s urv ived t hroughou t t he s even th a nd s ix th c en tur ies B .C. i s s hown b y f i nds f ro m We lby , S carborough , S tap le H owe, a nd Gra f ton , w es t Y orksh ire ( Wa terman , e t a l., 1 955 ).

R ibbed a nd

p la in s ocketed a xes c on t inued , a s a t We lby ( Powel l , 1 948, 2 9 ) a nd S carborough (Whee ler , 1 931, f i g . 1 6 , 1 -2 ). F lu ted a nd "mass ive" a xes s ee m c urren t i n t he p er iod ( Burgess , 1 968b , 4 3-4 ), a s t he e xa mp les f ro m H o l me P ierrepon t g rave l p it s uggest ( E MAB,IX , f i g. 7 , 1 0-11 ).

S o mpt ing a nd r e la ted f orms o f

s ocketed a xe w ith r ib a nd p e l let/rounded d ecora t ion were p robab ly d epos ited d ur ing t he p er iod o f H a l lsta t t Ci n f luence , a s t he e xa mp le f ro m L lyn Fawr d e monstra tes ( Fox a nd Hyde , 1 939 , f ig . 1,2 ) ; t hese f orms h ave a w ide Br it ish d is tr ibut ion , w ith n otab le c oncen tra t ions i n t he s ou thern P enn ines , e astern Yorksh ire , a nd n or th L inco lnsh ire ( Burgess , 1 969b , f ig . 2 ) . P la in l ea f-shaped s ocke ted s pearheads a nd sma l l s tra igh t-shou ldered l ea f-shaped swords p robab ly a lso c on t inued i n u se.

The sma l l t weezers f ro m S tap le H owe

( Brewster , 1 963, f i g . 6 1, 4 ) a nd Gra f ton ( 2E . c i t., f ig . 6 , 5 ) , a lso k nown f ro m I v inghoe Beacon ( Co t ton a nd Frere , 1 968, f ig . 1, 1 6 ), a nd A l l Cann ings Cross ( Cunn ing ton , 1 923, P l. 1 8 , 1) ,a nd t he t anged c h ise ls o r l ea ther workers ' k n ives f ro m S tap le H owe ( 92 .c it ., f ig . 6 1, 5 ) a nd S carborough (Whee ler , 1 931, f i g . 1 6, 3 ) , w ere p ar t o f ar eper tory wh ich a lso i ncluded s i mp le b ronze p ins , r ings , a nd b race le ts. T he meta lwork o f t he l a ter s even th a nd s ix th c en tur ies B .C. t hus i nd ica tes a n i ncreas ing s tream o f Con t inen ta l impor ts , p robably r ef lect ing , a t l east i n p ar t , s o me l im ited i n trus ive s et t le men t .

The i n troduct ion o f t he u se o f i ron

o ccurred p robab ly e ar ly i n t he p er iod . I n trus ion s ee ms t o h ave b een p redo mi nan t ly f ro m t he e as t ; t h is t he d is tr ibu t ion map ( F ig. 7 6 ) c lear ly s hows , p ar , t i cu lar ly when t he d o ts i nd ica t ing p oor ly-au then t ica ted I ta l ic b ronzes a re r e moved . I td oes n ot a ppear p oss ib le t o d ist ingu ish a p r i mary wave o f r a idi ng f o l lowed b y s et t le men t s ince , t ogether w ith t ha t o f t he t wo b ur ia l s i tes , t he e v idence o f t he meta lwork o ther t han l ike ly impor ts s ugges ts s et t le men t b y sma l l c o m mun it ies i nc lud ing sm iths f ro m t he e ar l iest Ha l lstat t Cp hase. e x is t ing t rad it ions c on t inued b as ica l ly u nd isturbed c an a lso b e s een .

T ha t

For

f ur ther w idespread c hanges i n t he a rchaeo log ica l r ecord w e may t urn t o t he p o t tery .

4 5

ii.

Pottery

The pottery which reflects Hallstatt influences during the two centuries following the mid-seventh century B. C. is nearly all completely different from that of the previous period. Generally the ware is thinner and smoother, even when the coarsest of the time. Shapes are more varied and distinctive, decoration is more profuse, and rims are often everted but not bevelled (apart from the above-mentioned third type). A broad scale and continuous stream of types influenced directly or indirectly by Continental forms can be recognised, and although association with the metalwork just discussed is not frequent, there is no doubt that common movements were responsible. There seems to be some chronological overlap from area to area with Late Bronze Age types, particularly within the seventh century, but a greatly in­ creased degree of Continental influence is recognisable. As did Mam Tor in the later Bronze Age, so Castle Hill, Scarborough, in the following period exhibits many of the forms which need to be consider­ ed. A plan of the· Simpson excavations of 1921-25 has been published by Wheeler (1931, fig. 15), whose account contains some important information adilitional to that given in Smith's earlier report (Smith, R. A., 19 27). It is unfortunate that it is not possible to reconstruct in any satisfactory man­ ner the individual contents of the 42 or more pits cleared out: for 27 of them, Simpson's records (now in Scarborough Museum) give no precise details of the pottery content, and although the Museum has numbered most of the diagnostic sherds, no information of pit association other than that contained in Smith's report is obtainable. Only in one instance was bronze found in a pit, and that only a small fragment in Pit 20. Smith's statement that the bronze implements were found on the occupation level away from the pits and that they possibly had nothing to do with the main period of habitation repre­ sented by the pottery is directly contradicted by Wheeler who, on Simpson's authority, states that the tools and distinctive pottery were in definite associa­ tion. Unfortunately no clarification can be offered. Excavations by J. G. Rutter in 1953, about 100 feet to the south of the ditch of the Roman site, located and cleared four additional pits, three cobbled areas to the north of them, and eight post-holes. Of the latter, two appeared to be a pair, three feet apart, and three within three feet of each other defined a right-angle, but the others were unrelated. Pottery was found scattered throughout the area and in large quantity in the pits, but no metalwork or evidence for hut sites was recovered. The publication (Rutter, 1959) contained no plan and no description of the finds. From Wheeler's plan of the site, it can be seen that, in two rather doubt­ ful cases, features overlap: Pit 14 with Pit 15, and Pit 27 with a hearth. It is possible, therefore, that the occupation may have lasted for some time, and on a settlement site with pottery debris in such profusion extensive mixing of rubbish and survival of different deposits would have been inevitable. It is possible to postulate a division of the site into two main phases, how­ ever, as there seems to be a difference between that pottery assigned in SmHh's article to the pits, and that from other occupation levels (the writers are ·"'l.debted to J. May for discussion on this point). In general, the tall, rounded, flared-rim vessels, those with internally-bevelled rim, and the 46

ma jor ity o f t hose w ith f inger-t ipp ing a nd a pp l ied c ordons . c ome f ro m t he p i ts , w i th a p ropor t ion o f r ubb ish ma ter ia l e lsewhere , whereas L ho s e f or ms w ith r e la t ive ly s harp s hou lders , e i ther j ars o r b ow ls , a re n o t f ro i ,i t he p i ts. T he ma in q ua l if ica t ion n ecessary i n t h is a rgu men t r e la tes t o P it 2 6 , r ) r Eas t P it . T h is was p ar t icu lar ly s ha l low , 1 0 f eet b y 8f eet , a nd o va l ( Rut ter , 1 9 , 39 , 3 9 ), a nd f ro m a w el l-def ined t op l ayer c a me a c ons iderab le p ropor t ion o f t he s harper f orms ( F ig . 4 2, 1 2 , 1 4-16 ).

H owever , t h is u pper f i l l ing o f ab road ,

s ha l low h o l low c ou ld we l l h ave a ccu mu la ted s o me t ime a f ter t he l ower f i l l ing. T hat t here a re e xcep t ions t o t h is p roposed d iv is ion i s t o b e e xpec ted ; o ne o f t he f orms p rev ious ly men t ioned a s b e ing o f L a te Bronze Age t ype c ame f ro m t he u pper l ayer o f Eas t P it ( F ig . 4 4 , 9 ) .

A c ons idera t ion o f t he p o t tery d oes

i nd ica te a d ua l is m o f i n f luence a nd c hrono logy , h owever , wh ich r ef lects a n a pparen t d iv is ion i n t he mater ,q 1 f ro m e lsewhere i n n or thern Eng land . Amongs t t he b es t-known o f t he S carborough p rof i les i s t he t a l l , r ounded j ar w ith s harp ly c onstr icted n eck a nd f l ar ing r im ( F ig . 4 3, 1 ) . T he most o u tstand ing Br it ish p ara l le l i s f ro m H arborough Rocks , Derbysh ire ( Ward , 1 890 , f ig . 4 ) , as herd i n p robab ly r a ther c oarser ware , u n for tuna te ly n ow l os t. S uch a f orm i s w idespread i n H a l lsta t t c on tex ts o n t he Con t inen t , i n p la in a nd d ecora ted t ypes wh ich e xh ib it c ons iderab le v ar iety , w ith e ver ted o r u pr igh t r i ms a nd s i mp ly r ounded o r h uge ly e xpanded b u lbous b od ies , a l l o f w h ich s ee m t o b e c urren t f ro m e ar ly i n Ha l ls tat t C ( f or e xamp le, Kossack , 1 959 , T a f . 1 17, 8 ;

T af . 9 5 , 1 9 ;

Ta f . 1 5 , 1 6 ) t hrough t o Ha l ls ta t t D ( f or

e xamp le , Dehn , e t a l ., 1 954 , Abb. 1 B , 4 ). A s im ilar r ange may b e r epres en ted i n Br ita in , w ith p robab le e xa mp les w ith u pr igh t r i ms a t S carborough ( F ig . 4 3, 7 ) a nd S tap le H owe ( Brewster , 1 963, f ig . 4 8, 4 ). Rounded j ars w ith f lar ing r i ms f ro m Br igg ( F ig . 1 0 , 1 ) , Trapra in L aw ( Cree , 1 924 , f ig . 1 3 ), a nd West H arl ing ( Clark a nd F el l , 1 953, f i g . 1 7 , 10 ), d ecora ted w ith impressed a pp l ied c ordons a t t he ir n ecks , r epresen t ar e la ted f orm , p ara ll e led a t Th iverny , O ise ( Durv in , 1 964 , f i g . 2 , 4 ) . O f ten s een i n C on t inen ta l H a l lsta t t a sse mb lages where i td er ives f ro m p rev ious Urn f ield t rad it ions i s t he f orm a ga in r epresen ted a t S carborough ( F ig . 4 3 , 2 ) w ith s harp ly e ver ted r im , t a l l c y l indr ica l n eck , a nd r ounded b ody .

Brews ter h as s uggested t ha t t he f i nger-t ipped , c ordoned v esse ls

f ro m S tap le H owe ( 1963, f i g . 3 8 , 2 ) may b e r e la ted , a nd a 2 though t h is s ee ms u n l ike ly , o ther s herds f ro m t he s i te c ou ld p oss ib ly b e ( f or e xa mp le , Brewster , 1 963, f i g . 4 7, 1). I ti s p oss ib le t hat t he f orm i s d er ived f ro m e xamp les more p ar t icu lar ly i n t he F landers Urn f ie lds ( De L ae t , e t a l ., 1 958 , Aa l ter-Oosterge m , n o. 1 5 ) , as uggest ion made more c red ib le b y t he h or iz on ta l g roov ing o n ab ody s herd f ro m S carborough ( F ig . 4 3 , 1 0 ) wh ich may h ave c o me f ro m a v esse l o f t he s a me s hape ( bu t n ote a s im i lar s herd f ro m M inn is Bay ; Worsfo ld , 1 943 , f i g . 8 , 4 ). L ow Coun tr ies p ara l lels f or s o me o f t he S carborough ma ter ia l w ere h igh l igh tes b y Whee ler ( 1931, f i g . 2 3 ), a nd r e ma in v a l id .

F ig . 4 4 , 4i s

v ery s im ilar t o t he b ipar t ite u rn f ro m t he T e mse-Ve ld mo lenw i jk c e metery ( De L aet , e t a l., 1 958, f ig . 1 74 ). A c oarse v esse l f ro m U lrome , Eas t R id ing ( F ig . 3 0 , 7 ) may h ave t he s a me o r ig in ( c f . o p.c it ., f ig . 1 81? ). A lso t yp ica l o f t he H a l lsta t t C/D p er iod i n t he L ow Coun tr ies a re t he S chrägrandurnen , f ound p ar t icu lar ly i n t he Ca mp ine Group ( op .c it. 1 66 ),

t he r ounded p ro f iles a nd f inger-t ipped r i ms o f wh ich may h ave i nf luenced much o f o ur c oarser p o t tery .

T he v esse l f ro m S udbrook , L inco lnsh ire ( F ig. 9 , 1 ) ,

wh ich w as p robab ly d epos ited w ith a c re ma t ion b ur ia l , i s ag ood e xa mp le o f t he f orm .

O ther t ypes w ith q u ite t a l l r i ms , n ear ly v er t ica l o r f lar ing , a nd

r ounded b od ies w i thou t h igh s hou lders , f ound a t S carborough ( Sm ith , R . A ., 1 927 , f i gs. 2 5 a nd 2 9 ) a nd p robab ly a lso a t S tap le H owe ( Brews ter , 1 963 , f i g . 3 3, 1 ;

a nd i n " a l ien ware" a l ess l ike ly e xamp le , f ig . 5 0 , 1 ) , may b e p ara l-

l e led a t t he S a in t-V incen t c e metery , B e l lefon ta ine ( Mar ien , 1 964 , f ig . 1 07 , p ar t icu lar ly I ). O f t he b ow l f or ms , t he S a in t-V incen t c eme tery i n i t s Ha l ls tat t p hase p rov ides c o mparanda f or t he t a l l , o pen v esse ls f ro m S carborough ( Sm ith , R . A ., 1 927 , f i g . 2 8 ; o ur , F ig . 4 3, 1 3 ), b u t t hese a nd s im i lar o nes f ro m S tap le H owe ( Brews ter , 1 963 , f ig . 4 6 , 1 ) h ave c loser a na log ies i n f orms f ro m f ur ther e ast ( Kossack , 1 959 , T a f . 3 7 , 2 1).

L ower , r ounded t ypes w ith i n-curv ing

r im a s a t S tap le H owe ( .c it ., f ig . 4 2, 8 ) a re s im i lar ly c o m mon a broad . The p rob le m w ith t hese , a s w ith many o ther o f t he f orms a lready d iscussed , i s t ha t mater ia l o f d if fer ing c hrono log ica l h or izons o n t he Con t inen t may c ome t oge ther a t o ne t ime i n more o r l ess r e la ted f orms i n Br ita in , a nd t ha t a s t he f orms may h ave a c ons iderab le d a t ing r ange o n t he Con t inen t s o t hey may a lso i n Br ita in . T hus i ts ee ms t ha t v esse ls s uch a s F ig . 4 3, 3 -4 , s een p rev ious ly a s p robab ly L a te Bronze Age t ypes i n Br ita in a nd Europe, a re t o b e c ons idered a s p ar t o f t he e ar ly p hase a t S carborough a longs ide more c er ta in ly H a l lsta t t f orms. As f or S tap le H owe , mos t o f t he e ar ly t ypes a lready n oted , s uch a s t he t a l l , o pen v esse l ( .c it ., f ig . 4 6 , 1 ) , h ave p las t ic d ecora t ion a nd a re i n l oca l ly made ware i n c on trast t o t he more c lear ly Con t inen ta l c harac ter o f t he f iner S carborough ma ter ia l .

O ther v esse ls a re o f t ypes wh ich h ave a

f a ir ly c on t inuous c urrency o n t he Con t inen t t hrough t o Ha l ls tat t D .

I tt hus

s ee ms t ha t t he c era m ic i nnova t ions a t S tap le H owe t ook p lace a t ar a ther l a ter d a te t han o n t he c oas ta l s i te , a nd t ha t t here may h ave b een a l arger i nd igeno us c o mponen t. We mus t n ow c ons ider t he v ery d ist inct ive f inger-t ipped c ordon d ecorat i on o n many o f t he S carborough s herds ( such a s F ig . 4 2, 7 ; 6 ) .

F ig. 4 4 , 2a nd

C lose p ara l le ls f or b o th t he d ecora t ion a nd t he f orms o f t he v esse ls o n

wh ich i ti s p laced c an b e s een i n ma ter ia l f rom t he H euneburg h i l l-for t ( Dehn , e t a l., 1 954 , Ta f . 1 2b ). O ther s ou th G erman e xa mp les a re s im ilar i n ch ar act er ( Kossack , 1 959 , T af . 7 6 , f or e xamp le ). Ou tstand ing a na log ies e x is t amongs t t he l a tes t Bronze Age p ot tery o f France , a s i n Mon tbe l iard ( 136 trequ in , 1 966 , f i g . 9 ) , a nd a t Ouroux-sur-Saone ( Bonna mour , 1 964 , f ig . 4 1 ).

A l though

s uch d ecorat ion s ee ms t o o ccur t hroughou t t he Urnf ie ld p er iod , p ar t icu lar ly i n Cen tra l Europe , i ts ee ms t ha t i t s p resence a t S carborough marks a n ew i nf luence f ro m t he s even th c en tury B .C. r a ther t han a t a ny e ar l ier d a te , a nd r ather t han a c on t inua t ion o f Br it ish M idd le Bronze Age t rad it ions. F ingert ipped c ordons o ccur i n a sse mb lages o f t he s even th a nd s ix th c en tur ies n earer t o Br ita in t han s ou thern G er many a nd e astern France , p ar t icu lar ly i n t he M idd le Rh ine. They a re a n impor tan t c omponen t o f t he e ar l ier Hunsr l ickE ife l-Ku l tur , a s s hown b y Neu f fer ( 1938 , A bb. 3 ; Abb. 1 0 , 1 ; Ta f . 1 0 ,2 , 1 -2 ). Th is l i nk i s f ur ther s tressed b y t he f i ne ware o pen b ow ls ( .c it ., Abb. 2 , 1 2 ;

Abb. 8 ) s im i lar t o o ne f ro m Thornham H il l East R id ing ( F ig . 2 3, 4 )

4 8

aw l p at terns o f g eo metr ic o rna men t ( 22 .c it ., T a fe ln 1 2 a nd 1 5 ) s im ilar t o t hose f ro m S carborough ( Sm ith , R . A . 1 927 , f ig . 5 7 ). A longs ide t ha t o f t he l a te Urn f ie ld c u ltures o f t he L ow Coun tr ies , H unsr t ick-Eifel i nf luence i s s trong. F inger-t ipp ing d irect ly o n t o t he r i ms a nd s hou lders o f v esse ls i s aw ides pread c haracter is t ic o f Ear ly I ron Age p o t tery i n t he n or th o f Eng land .

I t s

o r ig in c annot b e d ivorced f ro m t ha t o f t he f inger-t ipped c ordon , a l though i t s u se i s l ess s pec ia l ised .

I to ccurs a broad p ar t icu lar ly o n r ounded , s lack-

p rof i led v esse ls o f t he Hunsr t ick-Eife l c u lture ( Neu f fer , 1 938, many i l lustrat i ons ) a nd a t t he H euneburg ( Dehn , e t a l ., 1 954 , Abb. 1 8, 1 -2 ), o f ten i n t he Ha l ls ta t t Dp er iod , a nd i n Br i ta in p ar t icu lar ly o n s hou ldered v esse ls o f t ypes t o b e d iscussed s hor t ly , a s a t H arborough Rocks ( F ig . 4 , 2 -4 ), Red H i l l ( Fig . 1 0 , 7a nd 9 ) , Graf ton H i l ls ( Waterman , e t a l., 1 955 , f igs. 3 -4 ), a nd mos t o bv ious ly a t S tap le H owe.

I t s ee ms t ha t t he p ar t icu lar impetus g a ined

b y t he d ecora t ion t ype i n n or thern Eng land i n t he l a ter H a l lsta t t p er iod marks a n i nd igenous d eve lop men t .

I ti s much l ess c o m mon i n t he s ucceed ing p hases

o f t he I ron Age , a s w i l l b e s een , s o mos t f i nger-t ipped s herds a re i ncluded o n t he d is tr ibu t ion map o f H a l lsta t t p o t tery i nf luences ( F ig . 7 7 : u a l s i tes , s ee N otes o n F igures ).

f or i nd iv id-

T hat t rad it ions o f p las t ic d ecorat ion c on-

t inued e ven i n t he e ar l ies t L a ' I l ene c u l tures o f n or thern F rance , h owever , h as b een s uggested b y r ecen t w ork a t Chasse my , A isne ( Row let t , e t a l., 1 969 ), where p o ttery o f t ypes Do mes t ic I , I , a nd I I b ears i te x tens ive ly .

One mus t

b eware , t herefore , o f d raw ing e xcess ive ly r ig id c hrono log ica l d iv is ions ; d o mest ic c oarse e ar ly L a f ene p o t tery m igh t b e e xpec ted t o s how e ar l ier t rends c on t inu ing. Before l eav ing t he q ues t ion o f f inger-t ipp ing , w e s hou ld n o te a t ype o f s lack-shou ldered sma l l j ar w ith d ecorat ion p redo m inan t ly o n t he t op o f t he r i m. S uch may b e s een a t G r im thorpe ( S tead , 1 968, f i g . 7 , 1 4 ; f ig . 8 , 2 6 ; p erhaps l a te e xa mp les o f t he L ate Bronze Age v esse l t ype a lready d iscussed ) a nd S carborough ( F ig. 4 4 , 1 6-18 ).

Ag roup o f c oarse , s lack s haped p ot tery

wh ich b ears f ingert ipp ing o n t he r i ms r a ther t han o n t he s hou lders o f v esse ls i s t o b e f ound o n l a ter Urn f ie ld s e t t le men ts o f t he L ower Rh ine a nd w es tern G er many , a s o n t he " Harps ted t" ware o f L o mme l , H oever H e ide ( De L aet , 1 961, f i gs. 7 -9 ).

T h is p oss ib le c onnect ion a dds e x tra w e igh t t o t he c onc lus ion

t hat a l arge p ropor t ion o f t he p o t tery f ro m S carborough i s e v idence f or a s ubstan t ia l i n f lux i n t he s even th a nd e ar ly s ix th c en tur ies B .C. wh ich , a lt hough c o mposed o f v ar ious d ispara te i nf luences , was d espa tched f ro m t he s ou thern Du tch c oast . The s econd p hase o f i nf luence a t Cas t le H i l l , S carborough , i s marked b y t he u se o f p ot tery v esse ls w h ich c opy meta l p ro to types.

Ear l ier f orms wou ld

h ave c on t inued t o s o me e x ten t , a nd t he t echn iques o f d ecora t ion i n troduced e ar l ier c er ta in ly f l our ished o n c oarser wares. T he n ew f orms o f ten h ave s harp ly-ang led s hou lders a nd n ecks , b u t a re o f ac o mp lete ly d if feren t c haract er f rom t hose c urren t i n t he e ar l ies t L a f ene p er iod , o r " Angu lar P hase" ( Hard ing , 1 972, 8 6 ), a s t hey h ave h igh s hou lders , s harp ly c ons tr icted n ecks , a nd l ow , s hor t r i ms. Th is d i f ference a nd t he o bv ious s keuo morph ism s erves t o i nd ica te a d a te e ar l ier t han 4 50 B .C. ,most p robab ly b eg inn ing i n t he m ids ix th c en tury .

The t ypes s een a t S carborough a re f ound i n g rea ter v ar iety i n

t he l oca l ly- made p roduc ts o f S tap le H owe , s o i ti s p oss ib le t o a scr ibe o ur

4 9

S carborough I t o t he s a me c hrono log ica l p hase a s t he f irst ma jor i mpact o f c era m ic i n f luence a t t he s tockaded s i te. The s herds o f t he v esse l i n F ig . 4 2 , 1 1, w ere f ound n ot i n ap i t a t Cas t le H i l l b u t o n t he o ccupa t ion "f loor". They s how a g racefu l j ar w ith h igh , s harp s hou lder a nd s hor t r im , a nd w ith a f a ir ly w ide b ut n ot c on ica l b ase wh ich h as a p oss ib le n arrow f oo t-r ing . Apar t f ro m t he s i mp le r im , wh ich d oes n o t i ncorpora te t he r o l led t h icken ing n ecessary f or t he s treng then ing o f t he meta l p ro to type, t he f orm i s i den t ica l t o t ha t o f t he b ronze b uckets k nown f ro m t he c e metery a t H a l lsta t t ( Kro mer , 1 959 , T a f . 3 0 , 3 , Grab. 2 17 ; Grab. 2 60 ;

f or e xa mp le ).

T a f . 3 6 , 5 ,

I n t he a bsence o f t he g enu ine meta l a r t ic le i ti s

n ot s urpr is ing t o f ind a p ot tery c opy o n ac on te mporary s et t le men t w ith s trong Con t inen ta l c onnect ions , e ven t hough s uch p o ts d o n ot s ee m t o h ave b een c urr en t o n t he Con t inen t .

The o n ly e v idence wh ich m il ita tes a ga inst t h is a rgu-

men t i s t he u se o f s im i lar h igh-shou ldered v esse ls i n t he e ar ly L a f ene p er iod o f Be lg iu m ( Mar ien , 1 952 , f igs. 3 38 a nd 3 70 ).

I ts ee ms p oss ib le ,

h owever , t o d isassoc iate t he S carborough v esse l f ro m t hese , a s i ti s as qua t b ucket-shape r a ther t han a t a l l v ase-shape , a nd a s i th as n ot t he e xpanded , c on ica l b ase , i n im ita t ion o f t he p edesta l f oo t , o f t he l a ter f orms . Examp les o f t h is " necked s itu la" t ype a re w idespread i n e astern a nd n or thern Eng land. There a re p ar t icu lar ly o uts tand ing d ecora ted o nes f ro m S tap le H owe ( Brews ter , 1 963, f igs. 4 1, 5 ; 4 3, 2 ; 4 4 , 3 ; 4 6 , 4 ; a nd 4 7 , 3 ) , Thornha m H il l ( .c it ., f ig . 8 2, 2 ) , Eppers tone ( F ig . 9 , 4 ) , H o l me P ierrep on t ( F ig . 9 , 2 ) , Red H il l ( F ig. 1 0 , 7 ) , a nd H arborough Rocks ( F ig . 4 , 3 ). Ah igh p ropor t ion o f sma l ler , s lacker , d ecora ted a nd u ndecora ted v esse ls s ee m t o b e d er ived f ro m t he " necked s i tu la" i dea.

S tap le H owe ( 2

. c i t . ,

f ig . 3 4 , 1 ;

L arge , p la in p ots f ro m

f ig . 4 8, 6 a nd 8 ) , Gr im thorpe ( S tead , 1 968 ,

f ig . 7 , 1 0 ), a nd Ma iden Cast le , B icker ton , Chesh ire ( Var ley , 1 964 , f ig. 3 8 , 4 ) a re o bv ious ly r e la ted . The s im ilar ity o f p rof i le o f t he c ar inated b ow l f rom S carborough ( Fig . 4 2 , 1 6 ) t o t he j ar j us t d escr ibed ( F ig . 4 2 , 1) s hows t ha t a who le s er ies o f b ow l a nd sma l ler j ar f or ms wh ich may a lso h ave meta l p ro totypes a re b road ly c ont e mporary .

A lso f ro m S carborough , F ig . 4 2, 1 5 i s o f t he s a me b ow l s hape ,

a nd o thers c an b e s een a t G r im thorpe ( .c it ., f ig . 7 , 1 5 ) a nd S tap le Howe ( Brewster , 1 963, f ig . 5 6, 5 ; f ig . 4 1, 7 ) . T he sma l l j ar f ro m S carborough ( F ig . 4 2, 1 4 ), s im i lar t o o ne f ro m Gr im thorpe ( 2E .c i t., f ig . 7 , 1 2 ), i s v ery l ike a S ussex f orm ( Cun l if fe , 1 966 , f i g. 3 , 1 5 ), a c oas ta l l ink t o b e r eferred t o l a ter . O ther b ow l f orms a t S tap le Howe a re a t p resen t u n ique i n n or thern Eng land a nd a re d irect ly r e la ted t o Con t inen ta l t ypes. The b urn ished b ow l w ith g en t ly-curv ing , c oncave-footed p rof ile ( Brews ter , 1 963 , f ig . 4 2, 8 ) h as a lready b een men t ioned a s aH a l ls ta t t f orm . s im i lar b u t l ower b ow ls

(

. c i t . ,

I n a dd it ion s hou ld b e n o ted t he

f ig . 5 3, 1 ) a nd t he l ow c ar ina ted b ow l ( 9.E .

c i t ., f ig . 5 0 , 1 ) , v ery l ike L ow Coun tr ies l a te H a l ls ta t t t ypes ( as a t S a in tV incen t ; Mar ien , 1 964 , f ig . 3 5 ; a nd a t Breuvanne ; i b id., f i g . 10 , 1 ) , a nd t he "Meck lenburg b ow ls" ( Brews ter , 1 963, f i g . 4 3 , 9 : f orm a t H a l ls tat t ;

n ote t he r e lated b ronze

Kro mer , 1 959 , T af . 9 8 , 7 ) .

Af ur ther f orm o f H a l lsta t t l arge b ronze v esse l , w ith u pstand ing r im , i s b road a nd l ow , w ith a b u lbous b ody p rof i le ( as s een a t A is l ingen , D i ll ingen ;

5 0

Kossack , 1 959 , T a f . 3 8 , 4 ) .

Th is t ype , c urren t i n H a l ls ta t t D , h as c era m ic

p ara l le ls a t S tap le H owe ( F ig . 2 2, 1 4 ) a nd p robab ly a lso a t H arborough Cave , Derbysh ire ( Ar ms trong a nd J ackson , 1 923, f ig . 1 0 , 6 ; n ow l ost ). A more c o mmon s keuomorph i s t he " b ipar t ite s itu la", wh ich d er ives f ro m t he b ronze s i tu la o f Meppen-G ladbach t ype.

There i s ap oss ib le e xa mp le f ro m

S carborough ( F ig . 4 4 , 8 ) , b u t o ne o f t he b es t i s al os t s herd f ro m H arborough Rocks , Derbysh ire ( Ward , 1 890, f ig . 2 ) . These a re j ars , b u t a n impor tan t r e la ted b ow l f orm i s s een i n d ist inct ive v esse ls f ro m S tap le H owe ( Brewster , 1 963 , f i gs. 3 3, 8 ;

3 5 , 4 ;

l yb e low t he r i m.

That t here i s ab ipar t ite b ow l f or m i n t he e ar ly L a Ts e ne

3 7 , 5 ;

4 0 , 2a nd 7 ) , o f ten w ith g rooves im med iate-

p er iod i s n o t i n d oub t ( as a t P ernan t , A isne ;

L ob jo is , 1 969 , f i g . 1 20 , 0 44.02 ),

a nd i tc an b e a rgued t ha t t he f or m p ers ists i n Br ita in u nder L a f ene i nf luence ( as a t Wes t H ar l ing ; C lark a : r1 P e l l , 1 953 , 2 6 ). A l i ke ly f i f th c en tury e xamp le f ro m t he n or th i s f rom Thornha m H i ll ( Brewster , 1 963, f i g. 7 8,1) a nd i t may b e t ha t t he l ower o f t he S tap le H owe b ow l f orms mark f i f th c en tury i nf l uence a s we l l. Re lated t o t h is b ipar t ite f orm may b e t he c on t inua t ion o fb icon ica l s hapes i n e x tre me ly c oarse ware , a s s een a t S carborough ( F ig . 4 3 , 1 2 ) a nd Red H il l ( Fig . 1 0 , 5 ) .

P oss ib ly a b e t ter made e xa mp le o f t he s ame p heno menon i s

a no ther S carborough s herd ( F ig . 4 3, 5 ) . A r ecen t ly p ub l ished s e lect ion o f s im i lar f orms f ro m K i m mer idge ( Cun l if fe a nd Ph il l ipson , 1 968 , f ig . 2 3 ) h as d rawn a t ten t ion t o t he w ide d istr ibu t ion o f b ipar t ite f orms i n t he e ar ly I ron Age , p rov is iona l ly d a ted b y C un l if fe t o t he s ix th/ f if th c entur ies B .C. A much l ess c o m mon p ot tery c opy o f a meta l p ro to type mus t b e c ons idered : as herd f ound i n e xcava t ions b y S tan ley a t t he sma l l d efended s i te a t Ba l l Cross , D erbysh ire , s ubsequen t t o t hose r epor ted i n 1 954 ( S tan ley , 1 954 ; o ther p ot tery , F ig . 3 , 1 -10 ). Th is s herd i s n ot n ow a va i lab le f or s tudy , a nd t he o n ly s ketch o f i ti s o ne b y C . F . C . H awkes i n al et ter t o J . Bar t let t , t hen o f S hef f ie ld Museu m ( da ted 3 0.4.1955 ). I t was a r im s herd w ith a t h ick , f la t t op , c urv ing e ven ly d ownwards a nd i nwards f ro m t he v er t ica l t o a n a ng le o f a bou t 6 0 d egrees. A d ep th o f s ect ion o f a bou t t wo i nches r e ma ined , a nd w ith in t h is o n t he i n ter ior s ur face w ere t hree d is t inct h or izon ta l c orruga t ions. The c urva ture i nd ica ted a v esse l o f l arge d ia meter , v ery l i ke t ha t f ro m Co lr oger , Mu l l ion , i n C ornwa l l ( Pa tchet t , 1 946, f i g . 1).

H awkes c ons idered

( i n t he s a me l e t ter ) t ha t t he B a l l Cross s herd was i ndeed a c opy o f aC lass B2 A t lan t ic c au ldron w ith c orruga ted r i m.

S uch t ypes a re d ated t o t he l a ter

s even th a nd s ix th c entur ies B .C., a nd s ince t he s herd was o f ac oarse f abr ic , s im i lar t o t he r e ma inder f rom t he s i te a nd s o n o t l ike ly t o b e as tray f ind , ad a te f or t he o ccupat ion i s t hus s ugges ted . R i ms w ith i n terna l c orruga t ions o r f lu t ings a re a lso k nown f rom t he French Urn f ield c u l tures ( Sanders , 1 957 , f ig . 7 8, 1 0 , f or e xamp le ), a nd r ela ted s herds h ave b een r ecovered i n e xcavat i ons a t C l ickh im in , S het land ( Ha m il ton , 1 966 , P l. 4 ) , a nd a t Vau l , T iree ( MacK ie , 1 969, 2 2 ), b ut o n t hese e xa mp les t he i n ter ior s ur face o f t he r im wh ich b ears t he c orruga t ions d escr ibes a g enera l ized c onvex d ownward c urve , whereas t ha t o f t he Ba l l Cross s herd i s c oncave. The i dea o f ac au ldron c opy s ee ms t hus a s ound o ne.

5 1

O f t he r e ma in ing ma ter ia l f ro m Ba l l Cross , mos t i s o f s i mp le , g en t lyc urv ing b ucket o r b arre l s hape , w ith s i mp ly s quared , r ounded o r mou lded r i ms ( F ig . 3 , 1 -8 ). d ecora ted r im ;

O thers c o mparab le c an b e s een a t Reynard 's Cave ( w ith

f ig . 3 , 1 2 ), Red H i l l ( F ig . 1 0 , 6 ) , a nd S tap le H owe ( Brews ter ,

1 963 , f ig . 3 7 , 9 -10 ;

f ig. 4 8, 1 4 ).

S im i lar u nspec ia l ised s hapes h ave a lready

b een c ons idered f or t he L a te Bronze Age , a nd w il l b e me t a ga in l a ter .

Here

we h ave a p oss ib le c on tex t f or a s herd f ro m Burradon , Nor thu mber land ( F ig . 5 3,6 ), a l though i n t he a bsence o f d a teab le ma ter ia l o ther t han s uch c oarse p ot tery i ti s n ot s afe t o d raw t oo r ig id c onc lus ions.

I th as b een s ugges ted

t ha t t he l arge , c oarse , b ucket-shaped v esse ls w ith p er fora t ions b e low t he r im f ro m Wa lney I s land S i tes I V a nd V I I, Barrowin-Furness ( Barnes , 1 955 , f ig . 5 ) , may b e p ara l le led b y t he Eastbourne s tra igh t-s ided , b ucket-shaped j ars ( Hodson , 1 962 , f ig . 2 ).

The l a t ter a re o f d ist inct ive c harac ter , o f ten

w ith t wo p a irs o f o ppos ing h o les , a nd s ee m t o b e d er ived f ro m t he s tra igh ts ided Ha l lsta t t b ronze b ucket , s een i n p o t tery e lsewhere a t L es J ogasses ä Chou i l ly ( Favret , 1 936 , f ig . 4 5 ).

The Wa lney I s land s herds , h owever , s ee m

t o r e la te much more c lose ly t o f inds f ro m s i tes a cross t he I r ish S ea , p ar t ic u lar ly t o t he " Freestone H i l l Ware" d iscussed b y Ra f tery ( 1970 , 5 3 ). Found o n I r ish h il l-for t s i tes i n Coun t ies K i lkenny , W ick low , Tyrone , Ar magh a nd Down , t h is b ucke t-shaped p ot tery , t yp ica l ly w ith a r ow o f sma l l p er forat ions b e low t he r im , h as a c en tra l d a te i n t he f our th c entury A .D .

The p resence

o f l arge q uan t it ies o f i ron s lag w ith t he s herds a t Wa lney I s land S i te I V makes s uch a d ate more l ike ly t han o ne i n t he e ar l ier f i f th c en tury B .C. Av ery l im ited amoun t o f i nf luence f ro m t he Wessex Ear ly I ron Age c an b e s een i n t he n or th , imp ly ing a measure o f o ver land c on tac t w ith t he s ou th. One o f t he mos t o u ts tand ing f or ms i n Wessex i s t he f urrowed b ow l , at ype w ith a f a ir ly l im ited d istr ibu t ion i n c en tra l-sou thern Eng land ( Hard ing , 1 972, P l. 3 ).

An e xa mp le w ith a t a l l , f lar ing n eck a nd b road , wavy , U-shaped f ur-

r ows , u n ique n or th o f t he Tren t , was f ound a bove t he p ea t l ayer wh ich c overed t he l a te M idd le Bronze Age s et t le men t o f Barms ton , e as t Yorksh ire ( Var ley , 1 968 ; o ur F ig. 1 9 , 3 ). The s herd may i nd icate minor s et t le men t o n t he p ea t s ur face o r , more l ike ly , h as b een washed o u t o f o ccupa t ion l ayers o n a d jace n t h igher g round .

I n s p ite o f i t s b road f urrows , t he v esse l i s o f as hape

c ons idered b y H ard ing ( 1972 , 8 0 ;

1 974 , 1 49 ) t o b e p oss ib ly l a ter i n t he f ur-

r owed b ow l s equence , ac onclus ion wh ich c er ta in ly a ccords w ith i t s l ack o f h ae ma t ite s l ip.

The s econd s herd f ro m t he s i te ( F ig . 2 1, 2 ) i s a lso q u ite

u n l ike a ny o ther ma ter ia l s o f ar n or th , b ut i s o f a we l l made c oarse ware v esse l t yp ica l o f Wessex ( Hawkes ' c o m men ts r epor ted i n Var ley , 1 968, 2 3 ). The f urrowed s herd , i n v iew o f t he French l a te Urn f ie ld o r ig ins o f t he Wessex t ypes , may b e long t o t he e ar ly s ix th c en tury B .C.

Ah ae mat ite c oa ted e x-

amp le c loser t o t he e ar l ier v ar iety , w ith f ive f urrows o n i ts g en t ly-curv ing n eck , i s r epor ted b y Var ley t o h ave b een f ound i n t he c ircu lar s tone-kerbed h u ts b eh ind t he o r ig ina l d efences o f t he h il l-for t a t O ld Oswestry , S hropsh ire ( Var ley , 1 964 , 9 0 , f ig . 3 8 , 2 ).

Th is Wessex impor t h as n ot b een a va i lab le

f or s tudy , a nd t he e xcava t ions r e ma in l argely u npub l ished ( p lans i n Var ley , 1 948 , 5 6 ). Af ur ther ma jor e le men t o f e ar ly I ron Age Wessex p o t tery i s t he u se o f i nc ised g eo me tr ic o rna men t w ith c ha lky wh ite mul l ing , o n v esse ls o f f ine

5 2

ware ( Hard ing , 1 972 , 8 1).

The o n ly s im ilar s herd i n t he n or th i s af ine

b urn ished b ow l f rag men t w ith s ha l low , wh itein f i l led c hevron d ecora t ion f ro m P it 3 a t Manor Far m , K i lham , Eas t R id ing ( F ig . 2 6 , 4 ).

A l though t he i n lay

i s a Wessex f eature , t he s hape o f t he v esse l , w ith a f a ir ly s harp c ar ina t ion a nd a l mos t v er t ica l , s l igh t ly f l ar ing r im , i s c lose t o s o me o f t he f orms f ro m t he l a te Ha l ls tat t s i te a t L es J ogasses ( Favret , 1 936, f ig . 4 5 ). T h is p oss ib le Con t inen ta l c onnect ion i s f ur ther emphas ised b y t he s harp ly-ang led , c hevrong rooved s hou lder f ragmen t i n f ine b rown ware f ro m t he s ame s i te ( F ig . 2 6 , 2 ) , wh ich i s s im i lar t o e xamp les f ro m a n e ar ly p hase o f s e t t le men t o n t he I ron Age s i te a t F enga te , P e terborough ( Hawkes a nd F e l l , 1 945 , f ig. 2 , D 2 ), d a ted b y ab ronze a nd i ron s wan 's-neck , d isc-headed p in o f e as t G erman t ype t o t he f i f th c entury B .C.

A s ource o f c eram ic s ty les a t F enga te i n t he mod i-

f i ed a nd d if fuse l a te H a l lsta t t c u ltures o f t he L ower Rh ine h as b een s ugges ted ( op.c it ., 2 16-8 ).

T he h or izon ta l g roov ing o n s herds f ro m P it 2 a t Manor

Farm , K ilha m ( F ig . 2 4 , 1 0-11), a lso r eca l ls F enga te e xa mp les ( 2. 2 .c it ., f ig . 2 , E2 ; p oss ib ly f i g . 7 , R 1). I t s ee ms , t herefore , t ha t i n t he l a te Ha l lsta t t p er iod o f t he e ar l ier f i f th c en tury t here was a c ons iderab le m ix ing o f c eram ic i n f luences i n t he Eas t R id ing .

The f ew s herds f ro m t he v ery l im ited e xcava-

t i on a t Manor Farm , K i lha m ( a s i te t o b e c ons idered i n more d e ta il l a ter ), imp ly t ha t , i fe xcava t ion o n s et t le men t s i tes i n t he a rea was t o p roceed a t a r a te c o mparab le w ith t ha t o f L a f ene b ur ia l s i tes , i n a dvance o f f ur ther a gr icu ltura l d estruc t ion , aw ea lth o f Wessex , J ogass ien , a nd L ower Rhen ishd er ived f orms a nd s ty les m igh t we l l emerge. Emergency e xcava t ions a t Red H il l , No tt ingha msh ire , i n 1 963 ( E MAB, V I I 2 6 ), l im ited t o t r ia l t rench ing o n ly , p roduced a sma l l c o l lect ion o f e ar ly I ron Age p o t tery f ro m a n a rea a lso o ccup ied l a ter , p robab ly i n t he t h ird c en tury B .C. a nd i n t he Ro mano-Br it ish p er iod.

Th is p o t tery ( F ig . 1 0 , 4 -10 ), i n

a dd it ion t o c rude f orms a lready men t ioned , i nc ludes s harp ly-shou ldered f ingert ipped t ypes , an ea t ly-s lashed n eck-cordon o n as harp ly-curved sma l l v esse l , a nd a nu ndecora ted n eck-cordon w ith p oss ib le g rooved d ecorat ion b e low o n a sma l l s herd o f af ine ware v esse l.

A l l t hese f ea tures c an b e f ound o n F en-

g a te ma ter ia l ( Hawkes a nd F e l l , 1 945 , f igs. 1 , A 2 ; g est ing a n e x tens ion i n land o f c oasta l f orms.

3 , F 2 ;

a nd 4 , G 1 ), s ug-

F ur ther t en ta t ive e v idence o f

s uch a s pread c o mes f ro m e xcava t ions a t T a l l ing ton S i te 3 8 , i n t he We l land Va l ley , wh ich p roduced a s herd ( Fennel l , 1 961, f ig . 1 , 7 ) w ith d iamonds haped i nc ised d ecora t ion o n a n a ngu lar s hou lder ( c f. H awkes a nd F e l l , 1 945 , f ig . 3 , C 3 ). Tha t t h is was p ar t o f a more w idespread p heno menon o n s outhe rn a nd e astern c oas ts i s s ugges ted b y s im ilar it ies i n S ussex ( Cun l if fe, 1 966 ) a nd a t M inn is Bay ( Worsfo ld , 1 943 ). A c o mmon f ea ture o f t he S ussex ma ter ia l i s t he emphas is o f t he s hou lders o fj ars a nd b ow ls w ith a n o f fse t p ro ject ion ( Hawkes , 1 939a , f ig . 8 , 7 ;

C un l if fe , 1 966 , f ig . 1 , 2 -4 ).

The d a te o f t h is

t ype p robab ly c en tres i n t he l a ter s ix th c en tury . G ood e xamp les a re t o b e f ound a t S tap le H owe ( Fig . 2 2 , 5a nd 8 ) a nd a t Ke lk H il l ( F ig. 2 2 , 1 7 ), j ar a nd f ine b ow l f orms r espect ively .

The u ndecora ted c ordon o f S ussex a nd

Fenga te i s s een a t S carborough ( F ig . 4 3 , 1) a nd a t Manor Farm , K ilha m ( F ig . 2 5 , 2 ) . The c onc lus ion i s t ha t , i n a dd it ion t o r ece iv ing i t s own d is t inct ive i nf luences , t he Tren t-Tyne a rea a lso f e l t t he e f fec ts o f Con t inen ta l l i nks o n a much b roader b as is.

5 3

O f t he p ot tery f orms b el ieved t o h ave b een d eveloped i n t he Upper T hames Bas in , p ar t icu lar ly t he h eav i ly-expanded r im w ith p ronounced i nward o r o u tward f l ange d eve loped f ro m c au ldron p roto types ( Hard ing , 1 972, 7 5-78 ), l i t t le r ef lect ion c an b e s een n or th o f t he Tren t .

The p ronounced i nward f l ange

o f av esse l f ro m S carborough ( F ig . 4 4 , 1 ) may b e r e la ted , b ut t he s er ies o f t ypes f ro m Ca tcote , Co. D urha m ( F ig. 4 7, 4 , 9 -10 ,12 ), a lthough s uper f ic ia l ly s im i lar , i s c er ta in ly o f much l ater d ate a nd w i l l b e d iscussed e lsewhere. The =recorded f i nd f ro m Br igha m , Yorksh ire ( F ig . 3 1, 1 2 ), may b e o f s even th o r s ix th c en tury d a te , o n a na logy w ith v esse ls f ro m Chas t leton Ca mp , Ox fords h ire ( Hard ing , 1 972 , P l. 4 3 ), b u t i t s s im i lar ity w ith l a ter wares f ur ther n or th ( such a s F ig . 1, 4 ;

F ig . 3 1, 7 ) r enders t h is u nproven.

I n s umm ing u p t he p o t tery e v idence , t herefore , w e c an s ee a ma jor i nf l ux i n t he s even th c en tury B .C. ,p ar t icu lar ly impor tan t a t S carborough , emana t ing f ro m t he L ow Coun tr ies. Fro m t he s ix th c entury B .C. ,Ha l ls ta t t f orms a ga in t yp ica l o f t he L ow Coun tr ies c an b e s een a t S tap le H owe , a longs ide c op ies o f me ta l p roto types wh ich p rov ide a l a ter h or izon a t S carborough . A l though much o f t he d ist inct ive e ar l ier S carborough ma ter ia l i n i t s p ure f orm i s u n ique i n t he n or th o f Eng land , t he impac t o f l ate H al lsta t t c u l ture i s a pparen t o ver a much w ider a rea , i n p ar t r ef lect ing t he e x tens ion i n land o f move men ts t o s ou thern a nd e astern c oas ts.

Par t icu lar ly impor tan t a reas o f

s et t le men t , j udg ing f ro m t he p ot tery d is tr ibut ion ( F ig . 7 7 ), a ppear t o b e t he l imestone p la teaux o f e as tern . Yorksh ire a nd t he s outhern Penn ines a nd t he ir e nv irons , u p land marg ins a s i n Chesh ire a nd S hropsh ire , a nd a reas o f g lac ia l o r r iver g rave l d epos it .

H a l ls ta t t f orms make u p ap ropor t ion o f t he wares

a t G r im thorpe , s uggest ing c on t inued o ccupa t ion , wh ils t t he v ery s parse e v id ence f ro m f if th c entury s et t le men t s i tes i n t he a rea i nd ica tes a p oss ib le J ogass ien e le men t h era ld ing e ar ly L a T ene i n truders. I ti s n o t e asy t o c orre late t he c era m ic a nd meta lwork e v idence , p ar t icul ar ly s ince i t s ee ms o bv ious t ha t t he f ew g roups o f e xcava ted ma ter ia l wh ich a re a va i lab le mus t p resen t n o th ing a pproach ing a c o mp lete p icture. I ti s p oss ib le , h owever , t o a dd t o t he c onc lus ions a lready r eached. I ts ee ms r easonab le t o r e la te t he p r i mary wave o f H a l ls tat t C s words i n to Br ita in w ith t he s even th c en tury i n f lux a t S carborough . The t a l l , f l ar ing r i ms a nd r ounded b od ies o f s o me o f t he S carborough v esse ls , p resent ing S -shaped p rof i les ( Sm ith , R . A ., 1 927, f igs. 2 5 a nd 2 7 ), a re e xact ly l ike o ne f ound w ith a b roken Ha l ls tat t s word i n t he G ed inne c e metery o f " Chevaudos", Namur , i n Be lg iu m ( Mar itn , 1 952 , f ig. 2 65 ).

T oge ther w ith t he b ur ia l e v idence f ro m

n earby Ebbe r s ton , t he p oss ib il ity o f p r i mary im m igra t ion s ee ms c lear . L ater , a round 6 00 B .C., p eop les e xh ib it ing d ivergen t Be lg ian , n or th a nd s ou th G erman c on tacts , emerged f ro m t he s a me L ow C oun tr ies c oas ts t o c on tr ibu te t owards t he f or ma t ion o f s et t le men ts o f d is t inct ive c harac ter a s a t S tap le H owe , l a ter s t il l a t F enga te , a nd d oubt less a t o ther e as tern s i tes y et u nd iscovered . Fo l low ing t hese e ar ly im m igra t ions , e xpans ion a nd a bsorp t ion o ccurred f ur ther i n land , a s a t H arborough Rocks , Red H il l a nd Gra f ton H i l ls.

Know-

l edge o f i ron-work ing w ou ld b e s pread d ur ing t he s ix th c entury , a l though t rad it iona l i nd igenous b ronze t oo ls c on t inued i n u se a longs ide t he n ew s word t ypes p roduced b y t he im m igran t e le men t.

5 4

T hese n ew a nd o ther impor ted

t ypes , p robab ly q u ite r are , w ou ld h ave b een d i f fused a long t rade-routes b y wa terways , o n h orseback a nd b y wagon . L a te i n t he H a l ls tat t p er iod , i n f luence f ro m n or thern F rance c an b e t raced i n t he l i t t le e v idence a va i lab le f ro m t he East R id ing.

P oss ib le J ogass ien

c eram ic i n f luence a t K i lha m a nd a s trange m ix ture o f i nd igenous a nd im m igran t b ur ia l r i tes a t A ldro p o in t t o move men ts a round 5 00 B .C. wh ich , more t han a ny o ther p heno menon , d e mand c lar if ica t ion b y f u ture r esearch e xcava t ion.

CHAPTER 4

THE EARLY LA TENE PER IOD i .

Pot tery A r ecen t s tudy , ( Hard ing , 1 972 ) h as a t te mp ted a c lar if ica t ion o f t he e ar l ier

I ron Age o f s ou thern Br ita in i n g enera l , a nd o f t he e ar ly L a T ene p er iod i n p ar t icu lar , b y ac arefu l r eappra isa l o f t he c eram ic e v idence f ro m t he Upper Tha mes.

Fro m t he s i tes o f L ong Wit tenha m , Woodea ton , a nd Ch innor , a

s er ies o f j ars a nd b ow ls w ith a ngu lar p rof i le a nd f lar ing r im , p rev ious ly o ft en c ons idered a s t ypo log ica l ly t he e ar l ies t o f t he r eg ion 's I ron Age , c an n ow b e s een a s a n i nnova t ing s ty le , d er iv ing f ro m t he e ar ly L a T ene v ases c aren6s o f t he Marne i n n or thern France , mak ing i t s a ppearance f ro m t he s econd h a l f o f t he f i f th c entury B .C. i n ar eg ion i n wh ich I ron Age c u lture was a lready wel l e s tab l ished .

The a pparen t a bsence o f e ar ly "Marn ian" p ot tery f ro m

e astern Yorksh ire, where b ur ia ls o f t he L a T ene p er iod a re s o o u ts tand ing , h as o f ten a roused c o m men t ( Bra ilsford , 1 958, 9 3 ;

S tead , 1 965 , 8 5 ) , a nd h as

b een e xp la ined e ither b y a n im m igra t ion w ithou t wo men fo lk o r b y a n o r ig in f or t he move men t o uts ide Cha mpagne.

Even a ccep t ing t hese e xp lana t ions a s

p oss ib le , ac o mp lete l ack o f s uch p ot tery w ou ld s t il l b e most u nusua l , c ons ider ing t ha t e ven t he v esse ls f ro m t he Upper T ha mes a re p redo m inan t ly o f n a t ive manu fac ture , a nd t ha t "Marn ian" p ot tery i n f luence i s s o w idespread i n t he wes tern Con t inen t. Work b y C . a nd E . Gran tha m o f Dr if f ie ld a t Manor Far m , K i lha m , i n 1 965 a nd 1 966 l ocated f ive p its w ith in 1 00 y ards o f e ach o ther.

These w ere

e ither s ing le p its , o r t wo o r t hree c onnected p i ts , e ach b ow l-shaped , 6 -8 f eet a cross a nd 3 -5 f eet d eep. r ecovered f ro m t hese a reas. b een men t ioned ;

A mos t impor tan t c o l lect ion o f r e ma ins was Much o f t he b one a nd s tone mater ia l h as a lready

as e lect ion o f t he p ot tery i s i l lustra ted o n F igs. 2 4-26.

S o me o f t he p o ttery h as b een c ons idered i n r e la t ion t o ap oss ib le i nf luence o f t he l a te H a l lstat t p er iod , p robab ly i n t he f i f th c en tury , a nd i ti s l ike ly t ha t t he c o l lec t ion r epresen ts a p er iod o f o ver a h undred y ears.

A most impor tan t

f ur ther f eature i s t he p resence o f l oca l ly- made p o ttery o f " angu lar" t ype. Fro m P it 1 , t he sma ll v ase ( F ig . 2 4 , 6 ) i s a n o u ts tand ing e xa mp le , v ery s i mi lar i n p rof i le t o o ne f ro m A l len 's P it , Dorches ter , i n terpreted ( Hard ing , 1 972 , 8 8 ;

P l. 5 2 , B ) a s an a t ive a t te mp t a t af lar ing r im w ith t he p rof i le s tra igh t-

e ned n ear t he t op t o p reven t c o l lapse d ur ing c ons truct ion .

The s herd o f a

l arger j ar ( F ig. 2 4 , 9 ) i s a lso v ery s im ilar i n p rof i le t o Upper Tha mes e xamp les.

The more c o mp lete v esse l f ro m P it 5 ( F ig . 2 6 , 8 ) , w ith i t s s l igh t ly

b u lg ing b ody a nd r i m we l l-f lared a t t he e xpense o f i ts h e igh t , c o mpares we l l w ith a p rof ile f ro m L ong W it tenha m ( Hard ing , 1 972, P l. 5 3, C ).

The g rooved

s herds ( Fig . 2 4 , 1 0 , a nd more p ar t icu lar ly 1 1 ) a re p robab ly a lso f ro m " angu lar" v esse ls. 5 6

Ear l ier r escue a c t iv ity b y C . a nd E . Gran tha m a nd o thers i n as and q uarry a t Thornha m H il l , f our m i les t o t he s ou th-eas t , i n 1 950-51, l oca ted t wo d i f feren t o ccupa t ion l eve ls i n s ec t ion.

Fro m t he u pper c a me mater ia l

o f i m med ia te ly p re-Ro man d a te , t o b e n o ted l ater , b u t f ro m t he l ower c a me av ar iety o f s tone , b one , j et a nd p o t tery , s o me o f wh ich h as b een i l lus tra ted b y Brewster ( 1963, f i gs. 7 7-79 ).

T he s i te was much d es troyed b efore t he

Gran thams d iscovered t he o ccupa t ion , a nd n o p lan c an b e r econs tructed ;

b u t

t he c on f igura t ion o f t he g lac ia l s and e nd- mora ine wou ld h ave b een s u itable f or a h i l l-top s et t le men t o f S tap le H owe t ype.

Brews ter c ons idered t ha t

Thornha m H i l l 's e ar ly ma ter ia l s howed n o L a T ene i nf luence ( 2E .c it ., 1 41 ), b u t t he f ew b a t tered s herds s hown h ere i n F ig . 2 8, 8 ( cer ta in ly f ro m t he l ower l ayer , a ccord ing t o C . a nd E . G ran tha m ) a re o f av esse l o f u ndoub ted " angu lar" t ype.

I ts f i ne , smoo th , l ea thery a nd p robab ly o r ig ina l ly b urn ished

s ur face i s s u f f ic ien t ly u n l ike t he o ther e ar ly ma ter ia l f ro m t he s i te t o s ugg es t t ha t i tm igh t e ven h ave b een a n impor t . As f or o ther " angu lar" ma ter ia l , as herd f ro m t he Mor f i tt Co l lect ion i n t he Yorksh ire Museu m , p robab ly f ro m A tw ick , n or th o f Hornsea , may j us t b e a n e xa mp le ( F ig. 3 0 , 4 ) , a s t he Upper T ha mes c o l lec t ions d o i nc lude j ars w ith v ery c onstr icted n ecks. L a ter a ngu lar f orms a re more v ar ied , a nd w il l b e l ooked a t l a ter ( F ig . 3 0 , 2 ; F ig . 2 7, 6 , 8 , 1 0 a nd 1; f or e xa mp le ). T here i s l i t t le f ro m a reas s ou th o f Yorksh ire wh ich c an c o mpare :

av esse l

f ro m Ravencl if fe Cave i n b lack w are b u t w ith u neven p rof ile ( F ig. 6 , 9 ) a nd c hancef ind s herds f ro m F arns f ie ld ( F ig . 1 5 , 1 3-14 ) a re i nconc lus ive. Howe ver , t here i s u ndoub ted ly n ow s u f f ic ien t ma ter ia l f ro m e astern Yorksh ire t o s ugges t ad ist inct " angu lar" e le men t i n t he l a ter f i f th c en tury B .C. ,a s s uch f orms a re much i n e v idence amongs t t he t wo ma in c o l lect ions o f t he p er iod :

Thornha m H i l l a nd Manor F arm , K ilha m.

The l ack o f c o mparab le

ma ter ia l f ro m t he Eng l ish m id lands s ugges ts a n i ndependen t move men t f ro m t he Con t inen t . T ha t t he i n trus ive i nf luences d id n o t c o mp lete ly e ngu lf n a t ive t rad it ion i s p erhaps s hown b y t he u se o f f i nger-t ipp ing o n t he sma l ler a nd l ess d is t inct i ve v essels a t Manor F ar m ( F ig . 2 4 , 1 4 ; F ig . 2 5 , 4 -6 ), a nd amongs t l ater ma ter ia l a t Grea t Kenda le ( F ig . 2 7 , 5 ) a nd Brandesbur ton ( F ig . 2 8, 2 ) . The p icture may b e c o mp l ica ted , h owever , b y t he f ac tor o f r ubb ish s urv iva l i n a n i n tens ive ly-occup ied a rea. T he s herds o f as hou ldered v esse l w ith f ingert i pped d ecora t ion f ro m Arras 2 3 ( S tead , 1 965 , 1 03 ; Yorksh ire Museu m , b u t m is la id ) may h ave b een t urned u p d ur ing c ons truct ion o f t he b arrow a nd n o t d epos ited w ith t he b ur ia l , a nd t he b arrows a t Cow la m c on ta ined much e ar l ier p ot tery i n t he ir make-up ( Greenwel l , 1 877 , 2 08-13 ).

A c ase f or

t he s urv iva l o f p last ic d ecorat ion m igh t b e made o u t a t Thornham H i l l. S herds i n t he l ower l ayer i nclude f orms d irect ly c o mparab le w ith Wes t H ar l ing. ( Brewster , 1 963 , f igs. 7 8, 1 ; 7 8, 4 ; 7 9 , 2 ; a nd 7 9 , 3 ; a re r espect ively v ery s im ilar t o C lark a nd F e l l , 1 953, f igs. 1 5 , 7 2 ; 1 0 , 1 ;

a nd 1 2 , 1 4 ;

i n t he t rea tmen t o f d ecora t ion.)

1 3 , 3 4 ;

Another ( Brews ter ,

1 963 , f ig . 7 7 , 3 ) i s v ery s im i lar i n p rof i le t o a n u ndecora ted v esse l f ro m Manor F arm ( F ig . 2 4 , 1 5 ), a l though t h is s hape may b e ap re-La T ene f orm ( as p oss ib ly a t S toke C lu mp , S ussex ; Cun l if fe , 1 966 , f ig. 1 , 9 ) . The T hornha m H il l b ipar t ite j ar ( .c it ., f ig . 7 8 , 1 ) may b e r e la ted more t o t he

5 7

. i t . ,

" s itu late" s er ies t han t o t he l a ter b ow l s er ies , a nd a j ar f orm ( 9 2 f ig . 7 7 , 1 ) d oes i tsel f s uggest a r ound-shou ldered n ecked s i tu la. T he f ragmen ts o f ab ow l i n f ine ware ( F ig . 2 3, 4 ) may r epresen t a n e ar l ier impor t.

I tc ou ld

b e , t herefore , t ha t a t Thornha m H i l l t he " angu lar" i n f luence was i n trus ive i n to a s et t le men t wh ich was a lready i n e x is tence. An u mber o f o ther n ew f orms c an b e r ecogn ised i n t he e ar ly L a f ene a ss e mb lages o f e astern Yorksh ire. One o f p ar t icu lar impor tance i s t he j ar o r b ow l w ith r ounded p rof i le , v ery s l igh t ly c ons tr icted n eck , a nd e verted r im , o f ten t h ickened i n terna l ly . ( F ig . 2 6, 1 ) .

The b est e xamp le c o mes f ro m Manor Farm

The f orm i s s i mp le , b u t t here a re p ara l le ls i n t he e ar ly L a

Tene c e meter ies o f n or thern France, i n p ar t icu lar f ro m o ne o f t he most r ec en t ly p ub l ished , a t Pernan t , A isne. Two v esse ls a re v ery s im i lar ( Lob jo is , 1 969, f i g . 14 , 0 39.01 a nd 0 53.01 ) a nd i ti s p oss ib le t ha t t he Eas t R id ing f orm d er ives f ro m t he French o ne.

The Manor F arm o pen j ar c haracter ist ics a re

r epea ted o n l arger a nd sma l ler v esse ls o f more u pr igh t s hape ( Figs . 2 6 , 3 ; 2 5 , 3 , 7a nd 8 ) .

These u ndecora ted wares w ith s l igh t ly c onstr icted n ecks

a re o bv ious ly a ' co m mon d eno m inator ' t ype , a nd i t may b e t ha t f ro m t h is e ar ly b eg inn ing t hey h ad a l ong l i fe.

The p ar t icu lar ly r ounded s hape o f F ig .

2 6, 3 i s e xact ly r epea ted o n s herds f ro m e xcavat ions o f t he p a l isaded s i te a t Ca t ter ick ( T . C . M. Brewster i n for mat ion ), a nd much l a ter s im i lar s hapes a re k nown f ro m t he n or th-eas t a t Pa le End , K i lda le ( F ig . 4 6 , 2 ) , a nd Ca tco te ( F ig. 4 7 , 7 ) , a l though t hese h ave b eve l led r ims.

The v ery s i mp le j ar s hapes

o f F ig . 2 5 , 7a nd 8 may i ndeed b e t he f ore-runners o f s o me o f t he l a ter p o ts d epos ited w ith b ur ia ls ( as a t Danes Graves , F ig . 3 1, 3 ;

a nd Eas tburn,

F ig . 3 1, 8 ) , a nd a lso o ne o f t he mos t c harac ter ist ic s hapes f ro m t he S tanw ick f or t if ica t ions (Whee ler , 1 954 , f ig . 1 2, 1 ) . Th is l at ter v esse l c ame f ro m a l ow l eve l i n t he Phase I d i tch o n S i te B , n ear t he g ateway , a bove t he l ayer i n wh ich t he f a mous sword was f ound . Abou t o ther p robab le e ar ly L a T ene f orms , t he Mor f it t Co l lect ions a t t he Yorksh ire Museu m a re i n for ma t ive.

I ti s u n for tuna te t ha t t he e xcava t ions

o f t he p its i n c oas ta l East R id ing a nd t he r ecovery o f t he ir c on ten ts were n o t r epor ted i n more d e ta il ( Greenwe l l a nd Gat ty , 1 910 ), a nd t ha t Mor f it t 's n o tes , h owever i nadequa te , c anno t n ow b e t raced .

I ti s n o t p oss ib le , t here fore , t o

b e c er ta in o f t he p rovenance o f s o me o f t he i t e ms , a nd o f a ssoc ia t ion n oth ing may b e s a id . However , t he v essels a re o f i n terest i nd iv idua l ly . The g lobu lar S -shaped e xa mp les ( F ig . 2 9 , 2a nd 4 ) f ro m A tw ick a re s im ilar t o t hose i n t he e ar ly L a T ' ene c e me ter ies o f G i je me lberg , Langdorp i n Braban t a nd S a in t-V incen t , Be l lefon ta ine , i n i t s l a tes t p hase (Mar i n , 1 952 , f ig. 3 28 ; 1 964 , f ig . 1 07 ;

r espect ive ly ).

I t may b e t ha t t h is r e la t ionsh ip i s more l ike ly

t han a d irect d er iva t ion f ro m t he v ases p ir iformes o f t he Marne. As f or t he t a l l j ar w i th f ingert ipped r im ( Fig . 2 9 , 3 ) , t he mos t o bv ious p ara l le ls a re w ith s ou thern Br ita in , p art icu lar ly w ith Wessex , a s a t Swa l lowcl if fe Down ( Clay , 1 925 , P l. V , 2a nd 3 ). A tw ick ( F ig . 2 9 , 1 ;

The sma l l b arre l a nd b ucket s hapes f ro m

F ig . 3 0 , 5a nd 6 ) a re t oo c rude t o a l low much c o mpar i-

s on , b u t i ti s p erhaps n ot i rrelevan t t o men t ion t ha t c oarse "m icro-vases" o f ten a cco mpany Con t inen ta l e ar ly L a T ene b ur ia ls ( f or e xa mp le , L ob jo is , 1 369, f ig . 12 ). A v esse l f ro m M t tns ingen ( Hodson , 1 968, To mbe 2 7 ) i s v ery s im ilar t o s o me o f t hose f ro m Danes Graves a nd Eas tburn ( Fig . 3 1, 2 , 5 , 8 ) .

5 8

On t he e v idence o f t he g lobu lar v esse ls i ts ee ms t ha t move men t f ro m a n a rea o ther t han t he Marne , p robab ly t o t he n or th , may h ave t aken p lace. I n t h is c onnect ion , as at isfac tory a na logy t o t he l ow , s harp-shou ldered b urn ishe d b ow l w ith s l igh t ly ompha los b ase f ro m t he e ar l ier , l ower l eve l a t Thornh am H i l l ( F ig . 2 8, 7 ) i s a lso t o b e f ound i n Be lg iu m : av esse l r ecovered i n 1 905 e xcavat ions a t t he Cour t-Sa in t-Et ienne c e metery , a nd c ons idered b y Mar ien t o b e L a r ene I I ( Mar ien , 1 958 , f ig. 3 4 , 5 ) .

The ompha los b ase o n

t he Y orksh ire v esse l s ugges ts a much e ar l ier d a te ( bu t n o te t he o npha los b ases a t Dragonby ; May , 1 970 , f i g. 7 , 3a nd 7 ; a nd t he l ow c ar ina ted b ow l p robab ly o f Per iod Ia t Ca mu lodunu m ; Hawkes a nd H u l l , 1 947 , P l. LXXV I , 2 24 ).

T ha t h or izon ta l g roov ing ( as a t Manor Farm ;

F ig . 2 4 , 1 0 a nd 1) was

c o mmon i n t he e ar ly L a T ene p er iod i n Belg iu m i s we l l-known ( Mar ien , 1 971, f ig . 5 0 ).

I t s ee ms p oss ib le t o c on jecture t hat a movemen t t o t he East R id ing

s tem med f ro m s o me a rea a round t he p resen t Be lg ian/French f ron t ier b etween L il le a nd t he Mose l le , o r p erhaps b egan f ur ther t o t he e as t . O f o ther s herds i n e ar ly L a T ene g roups , sma l l , mou lded f orms s ee m c o mmon.

The s trange wa l l-sherd , w ith b road , mou lded h or izon ta l f urrow ,

f ro m Manor Far m , K ilha m ( F ig. 2 4 , 1 3 ), i s p ara l le led a t Brandesbur ton ( F ig . 2 8 , 3 ) , p robab ly i n al a ter c on tex t . The o n ly o ther e xa mp le s ee ms t o b e a wa l l-sherd f rom a P er iod Ic l eve l a t E ldon 's S ea t , Dorse t ( Cun l if fe a nd Ph i l l ipson , 1 968 , f i g . 1 7 , 1 70 ).

Amongs t t he f orms h ither to n o t i l lustra ted

f ro m S tap le H owe , t here i s a smooth ly- mou lded r i m-sherd w ith a n o f fse t o ver-hang ing r im , c urv ing p robab ly t o as harp s hou lder ( F ig. 2 2 , 2 ) . A sma l l s herd f ro m Manor F arm ( F ig . 2 4 , 1 2 ) v ague ly r ef lects i t . Sma l l , s tubby , s hou ldered v esse ls a re a lso p resen t ( F ig . 2 4 , 7 ) , p rov id ing o ne o f t he f ew p oss ib le l i nks w ith t he Eas t M id lands ( Breedon-on-the-H i l l ;

F ig . 1 2 ,

6 ). T he o ccupat ion a t S tap le H owe may h ave c on t inued d own t o t he p er iod o f t he b eg inn ing o f e ar ly L a T ene i nf luence.

One sma l l j ar w ith f inger-t ipp ing

o n t he e x ter ior o f t he r im a nd o n t he s hou lder h as a d ist inct ive ly " angu lar" c haracter ( Brews ter , 1 963 , f i g . 5 2 , 7 ;

c f . H ard ing , 1 972, P l. 5 3, E ) , a nd

al arge o pen b ow l w ith s harp s hou lder a nd f lar ing r i m may b e s im i lar ly l a te ( L: 1 2 . .c i t., f ig . 4 8, 3 ) .

The l ow b ipar t ite b ow ls w ith a g roove b eneath t he r im ,

a lready c ons idered , a re i ndeed s im ilar t o t hose f ro m n or th French e ar ly L a T ene c e meter ies ( Lob jo is , 1 969 , f i g . 1 20 , 0 36.04 ), a nd t ha t w ith s qua t , b eve l led r im ( 22 .c i t., f ig . 3 5 , 4 ) may b e a lso ( Lob jo is , 1 969 , f ig . 1 20 , 0 44.02 ).

Th is e v idence i s s l igh t , h owever , c o mpared w ith t he w e igh t o f t hat

o f t he H a l ls ta t t p er iod.

T here a re t wo f ur ther s herds o f s ign if icance :

a

sma l l wa l l-sherd w ith v er t ica l , r ough s cored d ecorat ion , a nd t hree j o in ing s herds i n " a l ien ware" w ith t he b ody f i ne ly c o mbed o r g rooved ( .c it., f i g . 4 3, 7 ; f ig . 5 2 , 4 ). T oge ther w ith t he t h in , s andy v essel w ith d ist inct v er t ica l s tr ia t ions f ro m Manor F arm , K i lham ( F ig . 2 4 , 1 4 ), t hese s herds p rov ide t he b es t e v idence f or f i f th c entury s cored " decorat ion" i n t he n or th o f Eng land , a nd o f t hese t he S tap le H owe wa l l-sherd i s t he most c onv inc ing .

S cored p o t tery h as l ong b een

k nown i n t he East M id lands o f Eng land , where i ti s o f ten r eferred t o a s " Tren t Va l ley A/B ware".

P ost-war s tud ies b y Kenyon ( 1950 a nd 1 952 ) c onc luded

t ha t t hese v esse ls , o f c haracter is t ic r ound-shou ldered o r b arre l f orm , o f ten

5 9

o f l arge s ize , a nd u sua l ly w ith d eep , r andom , r agged b ody-scor ing , were t o b e d ated t o t he f irs t c entury B .C. a nd t he f i rs t c en tury A .D . o n t he b as is o f a ssoc ia t ion w ith b eeh ive q uerns a nd s o me t i mes w ith v esse ls o f Be lg ic t ype , a nd o f t he weak , r ounded p rof iles , t hough t t ob e " devo lved".

A s eparate im-

m igra t ion f ro m a v ery b ackward r eg ion o f t he Con t inen t , p erhaps t he L ow Coun tr ies , was i nvoked t o a ccoun t f or t he d is tr ibu t ion o f t he t ype , t hough t t o b e l im ited t o t he s ou thern a nd e as tern t r ibu tary a reas o f t he T ren t Va l ley ( F ig . 7 9 ). A r e-exa m inat ion o f t he o r ig ins o f s cored p ot tery i s l ong o verdue. Recen t work b y J . May , p ar t icu lar ly a t t he e astern s i tes o f Ancaster a nd Dragonby , h as s hown t ha t c haracter is t ic s cored wares a re f ound i n

c erta in ly s econd

a nd p robab ly t h ird c en tury B .C. c on tex ts , a nd t ha t i n c er ta in a reas n ew p o tt ery t ypes l arge ly e xc luded t he m c er ta in ly b y t he f irs t c entury a nd p robab ly b y t he l a ter s econd c en tury B .C. The d eta i ls o f t h is e v idence w i l l b e c ons idered l a ter , b u t t he imp l ica t ion f or t he p resen t d iscuss ion i s t ha t o r ig ins f or s cored p o ttery s hou ld b e s ough t a t l eas t b e fore t he m idd le L a r ene p er iod. I t wou ld i ndeed b e s urpr is ing i fo ver l arge a reas o f t he M id lands t here was t o b e n o ma ter ia l e v idence o fI ron Age o ccupa t ion b efore t he d is t inct ive c urv il inear s ty les o f Hunsbury , p ar t icu lar ly i n v iew o f t he f i rs t p hase t imberf ra med r a mpar t o f t ha t s i te ( R. J . C . A tk inson e xcava t ions , 1 952 ;

u npub l ish-

e d ), a nd t he s tockaded e nc losure a nd t he t imber-revet ted r ampar ts n ow e nv isaged a t Breedon-on-the-H i l l , L e ices tersh ire ( Norwood , 1 967 ;

Wacher ,

1 964 ). A t M ildenha l l F en , S uf fo lk , v er t ica l a nd d iagona l c rossed s coring o n b ucket-shaped v esse ls , of ten w ith f inger-t ipp ing o n t he t op o f r ounded r i ms , h as b een d e mons tra ted t o b e c on te mporary w ith a Bronze Age p o ttery a ss e mb lage wh ich i nc luded b eve l led r i ms , b ucke t a nd b arre l s hapes , i mpressedc ord d ecora t ion , a nd v esse ls i n t he Overhang ing-r i m Urn t rad it ion ( Clark , 1 936 , f i g . 8 ). T here may b e s o me c ons iderab le l eng th o f o ccupa t ion . r epres en ted b y t he c o l lect ion , b u t a l l was s trat if ied b enea th a p ea t c over ing wh ich p robab ly a ccu mu la ted o ver t h is f en-edge s i te b efore t he b eg inn ing o f t he I ron Age. I n o ur d iscuss ion o f L a te Bronze Age ma ter ia l , l at t ice s coing was n oted a t Ba levu l l in , T iree , a nd a t H ar t lepoo l , Co. Durha m , a nd d iagona l h err ing-bone s cor ing a t E ldon 's S ea t Ia nd N or th F err iby. D eep-scor ing t hus h as a n i nd igenous h istory , b u t p robab ly n ot o ne wh ich c an h e

e en t o d e-

v elop i n to s uch a d om inan t c haracter is t ic o f t he Eas t M id lands I ron Age. Obv ious b rush ing a nd d eep t ool ing a re q u ite c o m mon o n e ar ly v eEse is , s uch a s t he Epperstone j ars ( F ig. 9 , 4 -5 ), b u t a re n o t s tr ic t ly c o mparab "e. As f or t he Con t inen t , s herds o f p redo m inan t ly s lack-shou ldered ,r esse ls w ith r ounded , s l igh t ly e ver ted r i ms , a nd w ith b ody-decorat ion o f d iagona l , v er t ica l , u pr igh t l a t t ice , a nd r ando m d eep s cor ing o n d if feren t v ess .3 1s , a re k nown f ro m t he Kra tzeburg Höhens ied lung i n Brandenburg ( Ho ll inge l , 1 958 , T af . 2 9 ).

F igured w ith o ther s herds w ith i n terna l ly-f luted r i ms o f more

u sua l Urn f ield t ype , t hese w ere a l l s ur face f inds , p resu med t o L t he s ame d ate ( 9 1 .c i t ., 1 7 ), p oss ib ly o f t he n in th c en tury B .C. Tha t s uch p o t tery m igh t h ave b een i n troduced a long w ith s o me o f t he e ar l ies t h i l lior t if ica t ions o f Br ita in , f ro m t he L aus itz Cu lture o f e as tern G ermany , i s a l a a l , :ract ive p oss ib il ity , e spec ia l ly s ince s herds f ro m H unsbury ( Fe l l , 1 937 , f i g . 7 , D 13 )

6 0

a nd Breedon-on-the-H il l ( F ig . 1 3, 7 ) b ear a d ecora t ion v ery s im ilar t o t ha t o n s o me f ro m t he Kra tzeburg . b y s tructura l e v idence :

Th is s ugges t ion i s d rama t ica l ly r e in forced

t he d efence a t Breedon-on-the-H il l r econs tructed

b y Wacher a s h is P er iod I( 1964 , f ig . 2 ) i s v ir tua l ly i den t ica l t o t ha t o f t he L aus itz Cu l ture f or t o f S ornew itz , M idd le G ermany , t o wh ich a t ten t ion h as b een r ecen t ly d rawn b y Hawkes ( 1971, f i g . l a );

a nd t he t imber , masonry ,

a nd r ubb le wa l l o f t he f or t o f S chafberg , a lso M idd le G ermany ( .c it ., f ig . I d ), i s s tr ik ing ly s im ilar t o t ha t d escr ibed f or H unsbury ( R . J . C . A tk inson l ec ture ).

T he d eta ils o f t hese s tructures w il l b e d iscussed l a ter .

N earer t o o ur a rea i n measured m iles , b u t n ot n ecessar ily s o i n d is tance o f o verland t rave l , t here a re o ther p oss ib le p recursors t o o ur s cored p ot tery i n t he s even th a nd s ix th c entury B .C. H unsr l ick-Eife l c u lture o f t he M idd le Rh ine a nd a reas t o t he s ou th a nd w est .

H ere , t here i s b o th r ough ly c rossed

h or izon ta l a nd v er t ica l s cor ing ( Neu f fer , 1 938, Abb. 3 , 3 ) a nd much t h icker , d eeper v er t ica l c o mb ing ( 2 1 2 . C i t ., T a f . 7 ;

Abb. 2 , 1 -5 ) o n v esse ls w ith

s lack b ucke t a nd b arre l p rof i les a nd f inger-t ipp ing o n t op o f a nd b e low t he r i m. F ig . 1 2, 1 0 f ro m Breedon-on-the-H il l i s p ar t icu lar ly s im ilar , a nd F ig . 1 3, 2 a lso h as c lose a na log ies ( .c it ., Abb. 6 , 9 ).

T here i s c er ta in ly a n

a f f in ity o f e f fect b e tween t he M id lands j ars w ith h arsh , a l l-over r ando m s cor ing ( Kenyon , 1 950 , f ig . 1, 1 , f or e xamp le ) a nd t he Ka lenderbergware o f t he Rh ine lands ( Neu f fer , 1 938 , Ta f . 1 7 , Abb. 1 ) a nd Be lg iu m ( Roosens a nd B eex , 1 960 , A lb. 1 4 ). The p redo m inan t ly s lack s hapes o f t he j ars i n t hese a reas f ur ther e ncourages t he s ugges t ion o f ap oss ib ly s ix th c en tury c onnect i on . There i s c er ta in ly n o r eason why f orms a t Breedon-on-the-H il l s uch a s F ig . 1 2 , 6 -8 a nd 1 0 , a nd F ig . 1 3 , 2s hou ld n o t h ave b een c urren t a t ap ref i f th c en tury d ate. H av ing e xa m ined t hese e ar ly p ara l le ls , w e must n ote t ha t s cored d ecorat i on o n n ecked b ow ls a nd j ars w ith r ounded p rof ile d oes c on t inue i n to La T ene t imes i n Be lg iu m . S uch a d a te h as b een s uggested f or "Ka m mstr ickdecorat i on" ( l igh t c o mb ing ) a nd d eep , i rregu lar t w ig-scor ing o n v esse ls f ound i n t he im med ia te v ic in ity o f Urn f ield b ur ia ls a t T e mse-Ve l le a nd Aa l terO os terge m , F landers ( De L ae t , e t a l., 1 958, f igs. 3 8, 5 8 , 5 9 , 6 1, 6 3, a nd 6 8 ).

S cored d ecora t ion o f d iferen t t ypes i s i n f ac t w idespread d ur ing t he

L a T ene p er iod , b o th o n t he Marne a nd a s f ar n or th a s D enmark . I t s d ist r ibu t ion o n l a ter L a T ene s i tes i n Eng land i s a lso q u ite e x tens ive. For t he t ime b e ing , h owever , w e a re c oncerned w ith o r ig ins. An impor tan t f ur ther c ons iderat ion i s t he o ccurrence o f ab arrel-shaped v er t ica l ly-scored j ar , v ery s im ilar t o aH unsbury v esse l ( Fe l l , 1 937 , f ig . 7 , D 13 ;

a lready n o ted ), f ro m t he h i l l-for t s i te a t Budbury , Wiltsh ire ( Wa inwr igh t ,

1 970 , f ig . 1 3 , 4 8 ). T he ma ter ia l f ro m t h is s tone-box r a mpar ted s i te i ncluded f urrowed a nd c ordoned b ow ls , c ircu lar-s ta mped d ecorat ion , a nd r ounded s hapes , a nd i ti s u n for tuna te t ha t i n as ta t ist ica l a pproach t o t he p ot tery a na lys is d eta i l o f s i telocat ions a nd a ssoc ia t ions a re l ack ing . Af i f th c entury B .C. d ate was s ugges ted f or t he who le c o l lect ion . I t may b e t ha t t h is t ype o f s cor ing ( as a t Breedon-on-the-H il l , F ig . 1 3, 7 ) may h ave b een more w ides pread t han h as h ither to b een r ecogn ised , a nd c on te mporary w ith o ther ma ter ia l f ro m H unsbury f or wh ich a s ix th-f if th c en tury d a te h as a lready b een s ugg es ted ( Fe l l , 1 937 , f i g . 7 , FT3 ).

I n e nv isag ing a n e ar ly d a te f or t he f irs t

6 1

r a mpar t a t Breedon-on-the-H il l , t herefore , o ne n eed n ot b e d isconcer ted b y ap ies - med f irs t c entury c urrency f or s cored p ot tery , wh ich d id o ccur i n o ccupat ion ma ter ia l o f t h is P er iod I( Wacher , 1 964 , 1 31, f ig . 3 , 2 0 ). h or izon ta l r ows o f s ta mps o n a no ther Breedon-on-the-i i 1 v essel ( F ig

T he 1 3 ,

5 ) may p oss ib ly a lso h ave e ar ly a na logy i n as herd f ro m Budbury ( Wa inwr igh t , 1 970 , f ig . 1 2 , 2 7 ) , a nd e ven i n o ne f ro m t he H euneburg wh ich s ee ms t o h ave as im ilar p rof i le ( Dehn , e t a l., 1 954.

Ta f . 1 2b , 9 ).

A c haracter ist ic f ea ture o f t he Breedon-on-the-H i l l c oarse ware i s i t s o range-bu f f c o lour , s andy t ex ture , a nd h arsh c rysta l l ine g r it.

Th is i s j us t

t he d escr ipt ion o f t he " a l ien ware" c o mbed s herds f ro m S tap le Howe ( Brewster , 1 963, f ig . 5 2 , 4 ) , s o t he c onc lus ion s ee ms t o b e t ha t t here was c on tact b e tween t he Eas t R id ing a nd t he Eas t M id lands , b y T ren t o r J urass ic Way , i n t he s ix th o r f i f th c en tury B .C.

I ti s t o b e h oped t ha t f uture r esearch w i l l l ead t o

t he e xcava t ion o f af ur ther p re-four th c en tury s i te i n t he Eas t M id lands , a nd s o t o ac lar if icat ion o f t he p ot tery t ypes c urren t t here i n t he e ar l ier I ron Age. Meanwh i le , af i f th c en tury d a te f or t he i n troduct ion o f s cored t ypes i s au sef u l c o mpro m ise , b u t o ne wh ich may p rove u ndu ly r etarded. i .

Meta lwork There i s v ery l i t t le meta lwork f ro m n or thern Eng land wh ich c an b e a s-

c r ibed t o t he e ar ly L a T ene p er iod , b efore t he m idd le o f t he t h ird c en tury B .C.

L a ter , a much g rea ter v ar iety o f t ypes , rmny o f d ist inct ively Br it ish

c oncep t ion a nd manu facture , a nd o f ten d isp lay ing c ons iderab le i nven t iveness a nd d ecora t ive s k i l l , was t o b losso m i n ah ea l thy i nd igenous d eve lop men t . However , t he f ew e ar ly a r t ifacts o f p la in b u t r ef ined c harac ter , c oup led w ith f ore ign p aral le ls f or t he t ypes wh ich l ater e vo lved i n d iverse manner , s uggest t ha t i n i t ia l La T ene d a tes f or t he i n troduct ion o f t he b as ic f or ms i n to Br i ta in a re v ery l ike ly .

I n t he n or th o f Eng land , mos t e v idence c o mes f ro m t he e as t ,

a nd p ar t icu lar ly f ro m t he Eas t R id ing , where S tead 's r ecen t work ( 1965 a nd 1 971 ) i s ad ef in i t ive c o m men tary . Hard ing ( 1972 , 1 27 ) h as s uggested t ha t t he Arras Cu lture h ad o r ig ins i n al ater f i f th c en tury move men t , a l l ied t o t he i ncurs ion wh ich b rough t ' angu lar ' p ot tery t o t he s ou th-eas t.

Now t ha t e ar ly L a T ene p ot tery h as b een i den t if ied

w ith c er ta in ty i n e as tern Yorksh ire , t he i dea g a ins g rea ter c red ib il ity t han when b ased o n t he s ing le f ind f ro m Cow la m .

O f t he f i ve b arrows e xcava ted

b y Greenwe l l ( 1877 , 2 08-13 ), e v iden t ly o ver ly ing a n e ar l ier I ron Age s et t lemen t , t hree h ave b een r e-excavated b y S tead ( 1971, 2 2-3 ), who f ound t ha t t hey c on ta ined b ur ia ls o n t he o ld l and s ur face a nd t ha t t hey h ad b een s urrounde d b y s quare-p lan d itches.

O f t he f ive f e ma le i nhu ma t ions , t wo were a c-

c o mpan ied b y g rave g oods.

Barrow L i ncluded a b ronze b rooch , ab ronze

b race le t , af ragmen t o f as ha le b racelet , a nd s even ty g lass b eads.

The

b rooch i s h igh-bowed , f our-co iled , a nd h as a r ecurved f oo t wh ich t erm ina tes i n af la t d isc. Ass igned t o L a T ene I a c on tex ts a t t he c e metery o f M i ins ingenam-Ra in , n ear Berne ( Hodson , 1 964a , 1 37 ) , t h is t ype a lso o ccurs i n Grave I a t Yvonnand , L ake Neucha te l , Sw itzer land ( S tead , 1 965 , 8 2 ).

The l a t ter

g rave-group p rov ides a c lose p ara l le l f or t he b ronze b race le t f-7 o m Barrow L , a n e xa mp le o f t he " tonguein-g love" t ype , w ith f i ve r egu lar s wel l ings i n b ody t h ickness wh ich a re d ecora ted w ith c urv i l inear e ngraved d es igns.

6 2

Barrow L I c on ta ined a f ur ther b racele t , ' o u t o f t he " knobbed" t ype , wh ich e xper ienced c on t inuous a nd v ar ied d eve lop men t t hroughou t t he Ha l ls tat t a nd L a T ene p er iods b u t wh ich , i n t h is Yorksh ire e xamp le , c an b e w e l l p ara l le le d i n French L a T ene Ic on tex ts ( 22.c it., 5 2 ). I t s ee ms t hat a l l t hese t ypes , i nc lud ing t he b lue g lass .b eads , were i n troduced f ro m western Sw itzer land o r n or th-eastern France d ur ing t he l ater f i f th c en tury ( or e arl ier f our th c entury a t l a tes t ). O ther a spects o f Eas t R id ing b ur ia l p rac t ice a lso p o in t t owards e ar ly L a T ene move men t f ro m n or th-eas tern France. S i mp le s quare-d itch e nclosures a round b arrows i n Cha mpagne s ee m t o b e a n e ar ly L a T ene t ype , a nd t here i s e v idence t o s ugges t t ha t more e labora te f orms were u sed a t al a ter d a te ( 92 .c it., 2 8 ).

As f or t he c ar t-bur ia ls , d ist inct ive f ea tures o f t he Yorksh ire

Wo lds e xa mp les , s uch a s t he d is man t led c ar ts , a re p ar t icu lar ly p ara l leled b y l a te Ha l ls ta t tb ur ia ls i n Sw itzer land a nd e astern France ( .c it ., 1 6 ), whereas t he Nor th R id ing e xa mp les w ith u pr igh t whee ls i n s epara te h o les s uggest Marn ian c onnect ions.

Cer ta in i ncons istenc ies , s uch a s t he sma l l

s ize o f t he b arrows , t he a bsence o f p o t tery a nd weapons , a nd t he l ack o f e v idence f or c hrono log ica l o ver lap , s ugges t t ha t t he Yorksh ire e xa mp les a lr eady k nown a re d eve loped f ro m a n e ar ly L a T ene i nf lux y et t o b e d iscovered a rchaeo log ica l ly .

S im ilar it ies i n t he d e ta il o f g rave g oods b e tween Yorksh ire

a nd t he c ar t-bur ia l a t S o m me-Tourbe ( "La G orge- Me il let"), Marne , s uch a s t he t hreel ink h orse-b its a nd b rooches s im ilar t o t ha t f ro m Cow lam , a re mos t impor tan t :

t he Marn ian b ur ia l i s s ecure ly d a ted b y t he p resence o f a n

E truscan b eaked f l agon t o t he f i f th c entury B .C.

P erhaps a f ter t he i n troduc-

t i on o f ad om inan t e ar ly L a T ene g roup , f avourab le e cono m ic c ond it ions e na b led t he n ew p opu la t ion , wh ils t d eve lop ing i ndependen t ly , t o g rea t ly i ncrease n umer ica lly , s o l ead ing t o o ur g rea ter k now ledge o f t he b ur ia ls f ro m t he t h ird c en tury o nwards. One o f t he s evera l meta lwork t ypes t o h ave e xper ienced e spec ia l d eve lopmen t i n e astern Yorksh ire i s t he p enannu lar b rooch .

Bronze e xamp les a s-

s oc ia ted w ith d is t inct ive "f la t tened-bow" b rooches , p robab ly a round 2 00 B .C., c ome f ro m S awdon ( one , w ith med ia l mou ld ing a nd b u lbous k nobbed t erm ina ls ) a nd f ro m H un tow ( two , w ithou t med ia l o r t erm ina l k nobs ) ( Watson , 1 947 ). A t h inner b ronze e xa mp le c o mes f ro m r ecen t e xcava t ions a t Bur ton F le m ing ( S tead , 1 971, f ig . 7 , 1 ) , a nd i ron e xa mp les a re k nown f ro m Arras a nd Danes Graves.

A l l t hese p robab ly a cco mpan ied b ur ia ls.

Fro m t he s et t le men t s i te

a t Manor F arm , K ilha m , af ur ther i ron e xa mp le ( F ig . 2 4 , 4 ) w ith f l a t tened , k nobbed t er m ina ls h as b een r ecovered , a nd i t s a ssoc ia t ion i n P it 1 w ith d ist inc t ive " angu lar" p o t tery i nd ica tes t he l ike l ihood t ha t t he t ype was c urren t f rom t he e ar l ies t L a T ene p hase i n t he a rea. Be long ing t o Fow ler 's t ypes Aa a nd A ( 1960 , f ig . 1 ) , t he Yorksh ire e xa mp les men t ioned s tand w ith o thers , ma in ly f ro m s ou thern Eng land , a t t he h ead o f t he Br it ish s er ies. Recen t work i n t he A isne Depar tmen t o f France h as r evea led a s i mp le p la in b ronze p enann u lar b rooch i n as ing le g rave w ith a L a T ene I a t ore a t t he P ernan t c e me tery ( Lob jo is , 1 969 , f ig . 1 27 , 0 33.06 ), a nd a nother , s im ilar , w ith a l a te L a T ene I a i ron b ow-brooch a nd b ronze t orc f ro m a d oub le g rave a t Trugny ( Row le t t , 1 966 , f ig . 1 ) . Row let t h as d rawn a t ten t ion t o l a te Ha l ls tat t e xa mp les i n J utl and ( .c it., 1 35 ). A l a te f i f th c en tury d a te f or t he i n troduct ion o f t he t ype

6 3

t o Br ita in i s n o t , t herefore , i nconce ivab le , a nd i ti s impor tan t i n t h is c onnect i on t o n o te t he i ron e xa mp le f ro m a p it a t Breedon-on-the-H il l ( F ig . 1 2 , 1 ). The i ron p in f ro m Breedon-on-the-H il l ( F ig . 1 2 , 5 ) , most u n for tuna te ly a c asua l f ind , s ee ms t o h ave a b un-shaped h ead w ith a s l igh t e xpans ion i n t he s hank b e low .

I ts f or m i s t herefore n o t t yp ica l o f t he b ronze v ase-headed p in

s equence o f t he Urn f ie ld p er iod , a nd i ndeed i t s i ron c onstruct ion s ugges ts a d ate a f ter 6 00 B .C.

The b es t Br it ish p ara l le l i s f ro m A l l Cann ings C ross ,

Wiltsh ire ( Cunn ing ton , 1 923 , P l. 2 1, 5 ) , as i te wh ich s ee ms t o h ave h ad a n e x tended l i fe a t l eas t f ro m t he s even th t o t he f our th c en tur ies B .C.

T ha t

i nd igenous d eve lop men t o f h eaded a nd mou lded p ins m igh t h ave c on t inued d own t o t he f our th o r t h ird c entury B .C. i s s uggested b y a n i ron e xamp le f ro m t he f irs t p er iod h u t s i te b eh ind t he i nner r a mpar t a t Bredon H il l , G louce s tersh ire ( Hencken , 1 938 , f ig . 9 , 3 ). The s im ilar ity b etween t he b ronze r ing-headed p in f ro m t he s a me h u t s ite a t Bredon H il l ( .c it., f ig . 4 , 1 ) a nd t ha t f ro m Manor Farm , K ilham , P it 1 ( F ig . 2 4 , 3 ) s hou ld b e n o ted .

There i s c er ta in ly a v ar iety i n t he f orm o f

Br it ish r ing-headed p ins , a nd t he t ype w ith p ronounced s wan 's-neck a nd sma l l r ing-head i s d ist inct ive.

Perhaps t he most u sefu l ly-assoc iated s im i lar e x-

amp le i s t ha t o f i ron , w ith s quare-sect ioned r ing-head , f ro m H ear th Ia t Ch innor Co m mon , Ox fordsh ire ( R ichardson a nd Young , 1 951, f ig . 1 0 , 3 ) , f ound w ith " angu lar" p ot tery .

The d er iva t ion o f t he r ing-headed p in f ro m t he

s wan 's-neck p in , a s s ugges ted b y Dunn ing ( 1934 , 2 72-4 ), s ee ms r easonab le, e spec ial ly c ons ider ing t he s im ilar ity o f o u t l ine b etween t he Woodea ton s wan 'sn eck a nd t he Ch innor r ing-headed p ins , p o in ted o u t b y Hard ing ( 1972 , 9 0-1). Fur ther c on f irma t ion o f s uch a d eve lop men t i s g iven b y t he n o tched t erm inat ion o f t he r ing-head o n t he Manor Far m e xa mp le , r ef lect ing t he s im i lar n o tch ing o f t he s wan 's-neck p in f ro m J ordan H il l , Weymouth , a nd f rom H am H il l , S o merset ( Dunn ing , 1 934 , f ig . 2 , 3 -4 ).

Al ater f i f th c en tury b eg inn ing

f or t he Manor Far m t ype r ing-headed p in i s s uggested , w ith a c urrency e i ther s ide o f 4 00 B .C.

The b eaded t ype o f swan 's-neck p in a nd i t s d er ivat ives a re

w idespread i n G ermany , Sw itzer land a nd e as tern France.

Cou ld Yorksh ire

h ave a cqu ired y et a nother a r t ifact t ype d irect f ro m t he Con t inen t? As f or p ins w ith l arger r ing-heads , t hese a re t h in ly d is tr ibu ted i n t he n or th , w ith b ronze e xa mp les f ro m H arborough Cave ( F ig . 5 , 1 2 ) w ith n o tched , d ia mond-sect ioned r ing-head , f ro m Dove P o in t , B irkenhead , Chesh ire ( Hu me , 1 863 , P l. XX I I ), Crow land A bbey , L inco lnsh ire ( Dunn ing , 1 934 , 2 89 ), a nd G ian ts ' H i l ls , S kend leby , L inco lnsh ire ( Ph il l ips , C . W., 1 936 , f ig . 1 3 ).

I t

i s n o t n ecessar i ly c orrect t o a ssu me t ha t t hese d if feren t ly-propor t ioned e xamp les r epresen t a much l a ter d eve lop men t , s ince t he Harborough Cave s ect ion i s s im ilar t o t ha t o f t he o ther i ron e xa mp les f ro m Ch innor Co m mon ( R ichardson a nd Young , 1 951, f ig . 1 0 , 1 -2 ), a nd s ince t he S kend leby e xa mp le w as d iscovered i n t he s a me l ower p ar t o f t he l ayer o f I ron Age p loughso il , i n t he d itch o f t he L ong Barrow , a s ab ronze f inger-r ing o f d is t inct ive t ype ( Ph il l ips , C . W. 1 936 , 6 9 , f ig . 1 3 ).

Th is s ee ms f ro m t he i l lustrat ion t o b e

made o f as ing le b ronze w ire , e xpanded n ear t he t erm ina ls i nto a f lat tened r ectangu lar s ect ion .

These f lat tened b ands a re d iv ided o n t he e x ter ior s ur-

f ace i nto t hree r ibs b y g rooves , t he o u ter t wo r ibs o f e ach t erm ina l f orm ing w ire s p ira ls o f t hree r evo lut ions i n t he p lane o f t he f lat tened b ands.

6 4

T he

c losest p ara l le l i s af ragmen tary e xa mp le f ro m t he h i l lfor t a t Ra insborough , N or tha mptonsh ire ( Avery , e t a l., 1 967 , f i g . 3 1, 1 58-159 ). Avery h as d isc ussed t he c hrono log ica l i mp l ica t ions o f t he t ype ( 92 .c it ., 2 86-8 ), s ugges t ing ap oss ible r ange f ro m t he H a l ls ta t t p er iod t o t he s econd c en tury B .C. ,a nd a ccept ing a f our th c en tury d a te a s t he mos t l ike ly f or h is e xa mp le o n s trat ig raph ica l g rounds.

Af our th c en tury d a te h as a lso b een s ugges ted f or t he

b ronze r ing-headed p in f ro m Hunsbury ( Fe l l , 1 937 , f ig . 3 , 1 ) . W ith t he p oss ib le e xcep t ion o f t he " an thropo id" e xa mp le f ro m Bracey Br idge , K i lha m , wh ich i s more p robab ly a v ar ian t o f Med ieva l q u il lon-dagger , t here a re n o d aggers o f e ar ly L a T ene d a te f ro m t he n or th o f Eng land . As f or s words , J ope ( 1961, 3 20 ) h as f ound i t imposs ib le t o p o in t t o a ny b etween 5 00 a nd 3 00 B .C. a nd more r ecen t ly h as s een t he S tand lake s word a s t he e ar l ies t k nown i n Br ita in , p robph ly made u p a bout 2 00 B .C. ( 1971, 6 9 ). Hawkes , o n t he o ther h and , w ou ld p refer t o a ss ign t h is p iece t o ad a te n earer 3 00 B .C. o nb oth t ypo log ica l a nd s ty l ist ic g rounds.

E ither way , w e a re s t il l

f aced w ith a l ong p er iod i n w h ich n o s words a re k nown , when f igh t ing w ith d agg ers a nd s pears mus t h ave b een t he c usto m.

Cer ta in t ypes o f a n thropo id d ag-

g er a re k nown a f ter 3 00 B .C. ,b u t t o wha t e x ten t t he u se o f s words w as g enera l b efore t he e nd o f t he t h ird c en tury i n Br ita in i s mos t u ncer ta in.

I t may b e

u sefu l h ere t o e xam ine t he e arl ies t e v idence o f s words o f t h is p er iod :

af ine

i ron s pec i men w ith i t s i ron s cabbard f ro m t he r iver W itha m b e low L inco ln wh ich , s ince i t s b r ief a nd o bscure i n it ia l p ub l ica t ion ( Pe tch , 1 957 , f i g . 1 ) s ee ms t o h ave b een i gnored i n a rchaeo log ica l l i terature. T he sword ( F ig . 1 4 , l a ), i s o f g en t lytaper ing e ar ly L a T ene f orm , w ith ap ronounced l ozenge-sect ion . The s cabbard f ron t-p la te ( lc ) i s a lso o f e ar ly c haracter , w ith p ronounced m id-r ib ( as f ound o n s o me e ar ly d aggers : J ope , 1 961, 3 17 ) , w ith a f a ir ly l ow , d oub le-curv ing mou th o f g racefu l b u t we l lf l a t tened f orm ( s l igh t ly d a maged ), a nd w ith t hree-quar ter-round e dge mou ldi ngs o f n orma l t ype ( de Navarro , 1 966 , P l. 3 b , f or e xa mp le ).

T he s cabbard

c hape-b ind ing i s t he mos t o u ts tand ing f ea ture , e x tend ing f or 4 .5 i nches u p t he s hea th-s ides. A t t he b ase i tf or ms a n o pen r ing- mou ld ing , w ith n onf unct iona l b osses a t i t s w ides t p o in t a nd a t i t s r e turn t o t he f ron t-p la te e dge. The t erm ina ls o f t he b ind ing a re marked b y e xpanded s tuds o r c la mps , r ivett ed t o t he f ront-p la te. Th is i s ag ood e xa mp le o f as tage i n c hape-deve lopmen t f ro m t he e ar l ier a nchor-type , a nd s ince t he r ing-chape i s s t il l o pen i t i s b y d e f in it ion a L a ' I l ene If orm , a s s een t o b e c harac ter is t ic o f Cha mpagne ( Jope , 1 961, 3 12 ;

Br it ish Museu m , 1 905 , f ig . 4 8 , t h ird f ro m t he l e f t ).

O f

t he s evera l e xa mp les o f o pen r ing-chapes o n s word-scabbards f ro m t he c e met ery a t Müns ingen , t ha t c loses t t o o ur W itham e xamp le ( Hodson , 1 968, T o mbe 1 0 ) h as b een a ss igned b y H odson t o h is M t ins ingen Phase B/D , t ha t i s L a T ene I a/b ( f our th c en tury B .C.).

O thers ( To mbe 8 6 , f or e xamp le ) r ange w ith in

L a T ene I b , p robab ly a round 3 00 B .C.

De Navarro , d iscuss ing e ar ly L a

T ene o pen c hapes ( 1959 , 9 4-5 ) , d ecl ined t o ofer a n a bso lute d a te f or a n e xamp le q u ite s im ilar t o t ha t f ro m t he Witha m ( .c it ., T a f . 9 , l a-lb ). T he d a te o f t he Witha m s word i s t hus u ncer ta in .

Tha t i ti s n ot n ecessar i ly v ery

e ar ly i s s uggested b y t he n arrowness o f t he c hape i t se l f a nd b y t he sma l l s ize o f t he o pen a reas.

I t may b e long t o t he f irst h a l f o f t he t h ird c en tury B .C.

6 5

O f e qua l s ign if icance i s a sma l l f ragmen t o f af ur ther c hape-b ind ing a nd s cabbard f ron t-p la te , p resu mab ly f ro m t he s ame s tretch o f t he r iver W itham ( F ig . 1 4 , 2 ) . I ti s e i ther o f as l igh t ly n arrower s word , o r t he t er m ina l c lamps o f t he c hape-b ind ing a re s et f ur ther d own t he s cabbard .

The s epar-

a te ly-a t tached , p la in b ind ing a cross t he b ack-p late b eh ind t he r iveted c la mps i s ac o m mon f eature o f Con t inen ta l weapons . T he i n terpretat ion o f t hese t wo weapons i s d if f icu lt ;

h ow many more m igh t

h ave b een d es troyed o r n ot r ecovered d ur ing W itha m-dredg ing s hou ld n o t b e g uessed . The ir d epos it ion i n t he r iver d oes s uggest r i tua l a ct iv ity b y as wordu s ing g roup . Ac hange i n h and-f igh t ing method w ou ld i ndeed i nvo lve impos it i on o r c ons iderab le p ressure o n t he i nd igenous warr ior c lasses , a nd i t may b e t ha t h ere we h ave t he f irs t e v idence , p erhaps a round 3 00 B .C. ,f or t he i nnova t ions wh ich l ed t o t he c reat ion o f t he d ist inct ively Br it ish l ater s word t ypes.

T he o n ly w eapon f ro m t he Br it ish I s les w ith a s im ilar c hape i s t ha t

r epresen ted b y as cabbard f ron t-p la te f ro m L isnacrogher , Co. Antr im ( P iggot t , 1 950 , P l. I I, 1 4-5 ).

P iggot t c ons idered t ha t t he d ecorat ion o n t he

L isnacrogher s cabbards was d eve loped f ro m a "W itha m-Torrs Trad it ion". P erhaps i n t he W itha m s word , j us t d escr ibed , we h ave o ne o f t he p roto types o f e ar ly L a f ene d er iva t ion t o wh ich t he d eve lopmen t o f Group I IA swords may b e r e la ted , a s P iggo t t a n t ic ipa ted . I ts ee ms t ha t a f ter e ar ly L a T ene i n troduc t ions , much o f t he e v idence o f ma ter ia l r e ma ins i n t he Tren t-Tyne a rea i s o f d eve loped i nsu lar c haracter , b ased o n t he f ore ign i nf luences j us t r ev iewed.

I ti s d if icu l t t o d a te a ccura-

t e ly much o f t h is l a ter mater ia l b ecause o f t he l ack o f f irm Con t inen ta l p ara ll e ls a nd b ecause o f t he l im ited q uan t ity o f e v idence o f t he p reced ing p er iod. Thus i th as b een c onven ien t f or t he p resen t s ect ions o n t he e ar ly L a ' I l ene t o c ons ider o r ig ins r a ther t han a d ist inct t ime p er iod . I ti s l ike ly t ha t t he c hanges i n t he t ypes o f ma ter ia l r e ma ins i n t he e ar ly L a T ene p er iod i n e astern Yorksh ire were a cco mpan ied b y n ew t rends i n t he e cono m ic b as is. Th is p oss ib il ity w il l b e e xam ined l ater . The p er iod f ro m a bou t 4 50 B .C. s aw t he f oundat ion o f c o mp le te ly n ew c u ltura l u n its i n t he Tren t-Tyne a rea , a s r ef lected i n t he ma ter ia l r e ma ins. The n u mber o f f i nds o f t he p er iod i s sma l l ( F ig . 7 8 ; n o te t hat f our o f t he o u t ly ing d o ts r epresen t r ing-headed p ins ) b u t t he ir s ign if icance i s g rea t. T he p oss ib il ity o f t wo r e lat ive ly s ubstan t ia l imm igrat ions i n to t he Eas t M idl ands a nd t he Eas t R id ing i s v ery r ea l. The c hanges may h ave b een t o s o me e x ten t g radua l , b e ing a ss im ilated i n to p re-ex is t ing s et t le men ts a s s uggested b y t he p ot tery o f e as tern Y orksh ire. I n t he East M id lands , ab eg inn ing f or t he d ist inc t ive s cored p o t tery i n t he f i f th c en tury o r e ven e ar l ier c an b e e nt er ta ined .

A s er ies o f n ew me ta lwork t ypes w as i n troduced wh ich , a long

w ith t he p o t tery , p rov ided a r eper tory u pon w h ich i nven t ive Br it ish d eve lopmen t t ook p lace i n s ucceed ing c en tur ies , i n to t he f irs t c entury B .C. i n most a reas. I ti s t o t hese d eve lopmen ts t ha t we n ow t urn .

6 6

CHAPTER 5

THE M IDDLE LA TENE PER IOD i .

Meta lwork T he i ngenu ity o f Br it ish c ra i ,s men i n t he M idd le L a T bne p er iod i s w e l l

d e monstra ted i n t he a r t o f b rooch- mak ing .

No e xa mp les o f l oca l p roduct ion

b efore 3 00 B .C. a re k nown f ro m t he T ren t-Tyne a rea s uch a s m igh t c o mpare w ith t he e ar ly L a T ene s hapes f ro m H unsbury , w ith h igh-arch ing b ows , l arge c o i led s pr ings , a nd c harac ter is t ic f oot-return ( Fox , 1 958 , f ig . 7 , a -b ). T he s i mp le c urv il inear o rna men t a nd e nc losed p a l met te p a t terns o n t hese a nd s im i lar b rooches f ro m t he s outh ( 92 .c it ., f i g . 1 3 , ba nd d ) d ef ine a s tage o f u nadven turous d es ign b efore t he l a ter t h ird c entury , when a n ew i nven t iveness a nd a n i ncreased p roduct ion c an b e d is t ingu ished w ith in o ur a rea. T he r eg iona l t rea tmen t o f e v idence a dop ted b y F ox i n P a ttern a nd P urpose r ef lec ts l oca l d eve lop men ts w h ich d o o ccur f ro m t ime t o t ime. S uch i s s trong ly s uggested b y t wo b rooches f ro m t he Eas t M id lands.

A t t he e ar l ier

I ron A ge s et t le men t a t Ancaster , a ssoc ia ted w ith d is t inct ive s cored p ot tery ( F ig . 1, 6 -7 ), was f ound a sma l l b ronze b rooch made o f c ircu lar-sect ioned w ire ( E MAB, V I I I , f i g . 3 , 1 ) . I t s f a ir ly h igh-hu mped b ow a nd f our-co iled s pr ing w ith e x terna l c hord f irm ly p lace i ta s a n e ar ly L a T bne t ype , b u t t he c a tch-p la te f oo t i s n o t r ecurved t owards t he b ow b u t i s t i gh t ly c ur led a t i t s e nd.

I ti s s im ilar t o al ower i ron e xa mp le f ro m Burrough H il l ( F ig . 1, 1 ) ,

u nfor tuna te ly b roken a nd mos t l ike ly i ncorrect ly r econstruc ted , f ound i n e xc ava t ions i n 1 960 ( unpub l ished ; n ote i n EMAB , I I ). T hese s eem t o r epres en t al oca l L a T. e .n e Is ub type , p erhaps a s e ar ly a s t he l a ter t h ird c entury B .C. T o t he s a me p er iod o r s l igh t ly e ar l ier may b e a scr ibed t he sma l l b ronze b rooch f ro m Red H il l , No t t ingha msh ire : ab ird mode l w ith f o lded w ings , u nf or tuna te ly s er ious ly d a maged ( Hawkes a nd J acobs tha l , 1 945 ; F ox , 1 958 , f ig. 8 ). T he h ead , w ith b eady e ye o n o ne s ide o n ly , i s a dap ted a s ac a tchp late , a nd o n t he u nders ide o f t he t hroa t a re t wo c upped h o l lows f or s et t ings , p robab ly o f c ora l. A much l arger h o l low b enea th t he b ody h as a n u ps tand ing p eg t o r eta in a s et t ing . T he p in a nd s pr ing s tructure a re m iss ing , b u t a d eep-curv ing p in , s im ilar t o t he Woodea ton " s trawberry-shaped" b rooch ( Hard ing , 1 972 , P l . 7 4, L ) a nd t he Ma iden Cas t le c ora l- moun ted b rooch (Whee ler , 1 943, f ig . 8 2 ) ,i s l i ke ly . Th is s qua t b ut s p ir ited mou lded d es ign , o ne o f t he e ar l iest e xa mp les o f s pec if ica l ly Br it ish imagery , p robab ly d a tes t o a round 2 50 B .C. S ign if ican t ly , i t was f ound i n a n a rea wh ich h as p roduced e ar ly I ron Age p ot tery w ith F enga te l i nks ( F ig . 1 0 , 4 -10 ) a nd a lso s cored

6 7

s herds o f c haracter ist ic Tren t Va l ley t ype ( F ig . 1 0 , 1 1-12 ).

I ti s t e mpt ing

t o s uggest a l ink b e tween t he b rooch a nd t he l a t ter ma ter ia l. I n e astern Yorksh ire , p robab ly t he e ar l ies t b rooch a f ter Cow la m i s a n i ron o ne f ro m Burton F le m ing ( S tead , 1 971, f ig . 6 , 3 ) , b y f ar t he e ar l iest y et r ecovered f ro m t ha t c e metery .

I t r ef lects t he f ash ion o f t he l a ter f our th

c entury f or l ower a rches a nd sma l ler s pr ing-co i ls , h av ing a f a ir ly l ong , l ow b ow .

The f oo t , r ecurved t o t ouch t he b ow , i s e xpanded i n to a d isc w ith c en-

t ra l i ron p in t o h o ld a d o med i ron o x ide s et t ing , d ecora ted w ith a c urv i l inear e ngraved d es ign .

The c o i led s pr ing h as a n e x terna l c hord b ut h as d o med

r ivet-heads a t e ach e nd i nd ica t ing a c en tra l b ar .

I n s evera l r espec ts , t here-

f ore , i t r ese mb les a b rooch f ro m Dea l , Ken t ( Hawkes , 1 940a , f ig . 1 ) , a nd i t c an b e p ara l le led b y i t s f oo t-se t t ing i n L a V ene I b a nd c c on tex ts a t Müns ingen . Dat ing p robab ly t o t he e arl ier t h ird c en tury , i t s u se o f d o med i n lay a nd mod if i ed s pr ing s e ts i ta t t he h ead o f ab losso m ing d evelop men t . Tha t l ong c ross-spr ings , t igh t ly-co iled o n as p ind le , were k nown t o Br it ish b rooch makers b y 3 00 B .C. i s s hown b y t he s trange l ow-arched e xamp le f ro m H unsbury ( Fox , 1 958, f ig . 7 , c ) , where t he mechan is m i s c op ied b y as o l id c ast ing . The d iscfooted b rooch f ro m Queen 's Barrow , A rras ( 22 .c it ., P l. 9 , C-D ), h as a s im i lar r epresen tat ion , p ar t icu lar ly i n e v idence f ro m b e low a s i ti s embel l ished a bove a nd a t t he e nds b y s et t ings.

I n f act ,

t he p in i s s i mp ly h inged o n ap ivo t-bar t hrough t he l ong-spr ing r epresen tat i on . The r ecurved f oo t o f t he b rooch i s i n o ne p iece w ith t he a rched b ow , a nd t hus t ypo log ica l ly a ssoc ia ted w ith t he t rans it ion t o L a T ene I .

I th as a

c en tra l d o med s et t ing s urrounded b y r ad ia l b ranches , o r ig ina l ly s even i n n u mber.

The b ow i s s im i lar ly c overed w ith a t h ick c o mpos it ion s e t t ing ,

p rov id ing a f ur ther p o in t o f s im i lar ity w ith t he d isc-foo ted b rooch f ro m Harborough Cave , Derbysh ire ( op.c it ., P l. 8 , c ) , wh ich o r ig ina l ly h ad 1 6 r ad ia l s e t t ings a round t he d o me a bove t he f oo t , a nd a s im ilar b u t much p la iner h inged p in .

Trans it iona l b etween L a T ene I c a nd I a t Müns ingen

( S tead , 1 965 , 4 8 ) , t h is o rnate t ype may d ate t o a round 2 00 B .C. i n Br ita in. T he o n ly b rooch f ro m Yorksh ire o ther t han Cow la m w ith a s i mp le s pr ingf as ten ing i s ab ronze e xamp le o f "f la t tened b ow" t ype f ro m Hun tow ( Wa tson , 1 947 , P l. XXV I I, 3 ) , t hus l ikely t o b e t he e ar l ies t o f i t s c lass.

The l ong ,

s tra igh t r od-bow s ee ms t o b e ad ist inct ively Br it ish d evelop men t , f ro m t he b eg inn ing o f t he s econd c entury B .C., a s t he manner i n wh ich t he r ecurved f oot i s c lasped t o t he b ow b eyond i t s c ircu lar p late b y a mou lded c o l lar o n t he Hun tow s pec i men i s aL a f ene I c harac ter is t ic.

Th is e xa mp le i s p la in ,

b u t as im i lar ly p ropor t ioned o ne f ro m S awdon ( op.c it., f ig . 1 ) h as a p er forat ion o n t he c ircu lar p la te o f i t s r ecurved f oot , p resu mab ly f or a d o med s ett ing , a nd d e l ica te i nc ised d ecora t ion a long t he b ow , d escr ib ing a f l ow ing y oke w ith s p ira l t erm ina ls. i s i ngen ious.

The s pr ing mechan is m o f t h is S awdon b rooch

T he r inged t er m ina l o f t he b ow r evo lves o n an arrow c yl inder ,

h e ld a t i t s e nds b y c o i ls wh ich , w ith e x terna l c hord , a re o f t he s ame s ing le w ire s trand a s t he p in .

Th is d ru m-sw ive l mechan is m s ee ms t o b e c op ied

i n i ron o n t wo "f lat tened b ow" b rooches f ro m Bur ton F le m ing ( Stead , 1 971, 3 5 , f ig. 5 , 4 ).

T hree f ur ther e xa mp les f ro m Danes Graves ( S tead , 1 965 ,

f ig . 2 6, 1 -3 ) a re b ad ly c orroded s o t he h inge t ype i s n o t e v iden t.

6 8

T he t hree

b eau t ifu l ly- mode l led p enannu lar b rooches f ro m H un tow a nd S awdon h ave a lr eady b een n oted . The d ru m-sw ive l mechan is m may h ave d eve loped f ro m t he t ype w ith a b ar t hrough t he c o iled s pr ing , a s a t Bur ton F le m ing , Dea l , a nd H am H il l ( Fox , 1 958 , f i g . 1 3, g ) .

The d rum-sw ive l i s a lso s een o n i nvo lu ted b rooches :

o n

t hose f ro m Danes Graves 4 3 a nd Eas tburn 1 ( S tead , 1 965 , 4 7 ) a nd p oss ib ly o n o ne f ro m Gar ton S lack ( F ig . 3 2 , 4 ).

The i nvo luted b rooch i s l a ter t han

t he " f la t tened b ow" b rooch i n t ypo log ica l s uccess ion , p robab ly c urren t f ro m s hor t ly a f ter 2 00 B .C. f or w e l l o ver a c en tury . O ther p in mechan is ms u sed o n " invo lu tes" a re t he s o l id d isc t ype , w ith t he p in-head h e ld b etween t wo c ircu lar p la tes a t tached t o t he b ow a nd mov ing o n a n i ron p ivo t b etween t he t hree , a s a t Eas tburn 2 ( S tead , 1 965 , f ig . 2 6 , 6 ) a nd G ar ton S lack ( F ig . 3 2, 6 ) , a nd t he s i mp le h inge b e low a s i mu la ted d ru m-sw ive l , a s a t Danes Graves 5 7 ( Fox , 1 958, P 1 .9 , E-F ) a nd Bur ton F le m ing ( S tead , 1 971, f i g . 6 ,4 ). E igh t o ther i nvo lu ted b rooches c o me f ro m t he Bur ton F le m ing c e me tery , a nd af ragmen tary o ne h as b een f ound a t t he e ar l ier I ron Age s i te a t Ancaster ( J. May i n for mat ion ). T he h inged p in , mou lded s et t ings , a nd l i pped f oo t-t ip o f t he Bur ton F le mi ng " invo lute" i l lustrated b y S tead ( 1971, f ig . 6 , 4 ) l ink i tw ith t he f i ne a nd mos t e laborate d ecora ted b rooch w ith n ear ly f l a t b ow f ro m Danes Graves 9 5 ( Hawkes , 1 946 ).

W ith i t s t hree g roups o f h em ispher ica l c up-shaped s et t ings

f or i n la id b osses , t he n ea t c orrugat ions o f t he c ast b ow , a nd t he s et t ings o n t he f oot a nd o rnamen ta l r ing-h inge , t he l a t ter i s o ne o f t he most p ro fuse ly embe l l ished sma l l o b jects f ro m Yorksh ire.

D esp ite i t s s l igh t ly b owed f or m

a nd s harp ly r ecurved f oot , t he n on-func t ional r ing-h inge p o in ts t o ad a te c ont e mporary w ith a t l eas t s o me o f t he i nvo lu ted b rooches w ith in t he s econd c en tury B .C. , r a ther t han b efore 2 00 B .C. a s s uggested b y H awkes ( 1946 , 1 90 ). T he i n la id wh ite mater ia l a round t he o u ter c ircu m ference a nd t he e dges o f t he r ing-h inge o f t he b rooch f ro m Danes Graves 9 5 l i nks i td irect ly w ith t he w hee l-headed p in f ro m G rave 4 1 o f t he s a me c e metery ( Fox , 1 958 , P l. 9 , B ). Th is i s a lso c ast , w ith f our s pokes , a nd a sma l l d o med s e t t ing o n t he k inked swan 's-neck b e low .

As econd c en tury B .C. d a te s ee ms l i ke ly .

An-

o ther c ast r ing-headed p in f ro m S awdon , p oss ib ly f ro m t he s ame c e metery a s t he "f la t tened b ow" a nd p enannu lar b rooches , h as a s im i lar p ro ject ion o n t he s harp ly-curved n eck , a nd t hree r ough ly-spher ica l k nobs o n t he c ircu lar h ead , s im ilar i n c haracter t o t hose o n t he p enannu lar. Dunn ing ( 1934 , f ig . 8a nd P l. 1 ) h as p ub l ished q u ite c lose p ara l le ls t o t hese p ins f ro m I re land , b u t S tead ( 1965 , 5 8 ) h as p o in ted o u t t ha t a l l t he s epara te f eatures o f t he Yorks h ire p ins c an b e p ara lle led i n e as tern France. P ar t icu lar ly impor tan t t here i s ac as t p in f ro m P on t-Faverger , Marne , d a ted t o L a T ene I c ( .c it., f ig . 3 2, 2 ) , p robably a round 2 00 B .C.

I t s ee ms t hat t he c as t r ing-headed p ins

a re g enera l ly l ater t han t he w ire o nes , t herefore.

The D anes Graves a nd

S awdon p ins , a lthough o f ac harac ter d is t inct ive o f e astern Yorksh ire , p roba b ly r ef lec t af ash ion f or c as t p ins i n e as tern France.

A more r ecen t d is-

c overy a t G ar to n S lack ( F ig . 3 2, 1 ) c an b e s im ilar ly p ara l le led i n p r inc ip le. Th is c as t p in h as a l arge c upped h ead , h o l lowed t o r ece ive a s et t ing . Around t he s ides o f t he h ead , r el ief o rna men t o f s ix o va l l obed mot ifs i s a rranged

6 9

d iagona l ly a s az ig-zag b and .

The p iece i s b eau t ifu l ly f in ished , a nd i nd icates

as i mp ler i nven t iveness a longs ide t he g aud ier Danes Graves whee l-head .

L ike

t he l at ter p in , i t was f ound i n ab ur ia l a t t he b ack o f t he s ku ll , i nd ica t ing u se a s ah a ir-orna men t . O f t he o ther t ypes o f sma l l p ersona l o rnamen t f ro m e astern Yorksh ire c e meter ies , t he g o ld f inger-r ing f ro m t he Queen 's Barrow , Arras , i s t he mos t o u tstand ing ( Fox , 1 958 , P l. 8 , b ).

Un for tunate ly n ow l os t , i t s ee ms

t o h ave b een made o f t wo p ara l le l g o ld b ands , f orm ing a n o penwork p a t tern o f t r ip lelooped c o i ls a nd i n terven ing b eads a t t he f ron t .

The g enera l p ropor-

t ions o f t he d es ign a re c o m mon i n t orcs , b race le ts , a nd r ings o f e ar l ier La T ene p hases i n e astern France a nd Sw itzer land , a nd i t may b e t hat t he r ing was impor ted i n t he l a ter t h ird c en tury .

L ess o pu len t b ronze s p ira l f i nger-

r ings a re k nown f ro m Wharra m P ercy ( S tead , 1 965 , 1 17 ) , Gar ton S lack ( F ig . 3 2 , 7 ) , a nd Burstw ick ( YAJ , Arch . Reg ., 1 967, 2 ) . Amons t r ecen t f inds f ro m Gar ton S lack , t he i ron m irror w ith s i mp le b arh and le w ith t er m ina l r ings a nd mou lded b ronze a ttachmen ts f ro m Barrow 2 , S i te V I I ( D. o f t he E

1 971, P l. H ) i s impor tan t.

I ti s v ery s im ilar t o t he

i ron e xa mp le f ro m L ady 's Barrow , Arras ( Fox , 1 958, P l. 5 6b , J ), e xcep t t ha t t he h and le i s s hor ter a nd h as a b ronze mou ld ing i n i t s c en tre i n a dd it ion t o t hose a t t he t op a nd b o t to m.

An e ar l ier s econd c entury d ate f or t he f ormer

mirror h as b een s ugges ted b y T . C . M. Brews ter ( in c onversat ion ).

T he

c ircu lar o r p enannu lar r o l led s tr ip-bronze o b ject w ith c arefu l ly h a mmered d ecora t ion f ro m Gar ton S lack ( F ig . 3 2 , 2 ) i s l ike ly t o b e ab racele t , a l though t he c lose ly-co mparab le f or m f ro m West Coker , S o merse t ( Fox , 1 958 , f ig . 1 0 ) , i s c ons idered t o b e ab it-r ing. S ince r escue a c t iv ity a t G ar ton S lack was u nder taken b y t he Depar tmen t o f t he Env iron men t w ith T . C . M. Brews ter a s d irector o f e xcava t ions , o ne o f t he mos t o u ts tand ing a rchaeo log ica l d iscover ies i n t he East R id ing o f modern t imes h as b een made : t a il ( Brewster , 1 971 ).

ac ar t-bur ia l , i n tact a nd t hus r ecorded i n d e-

I t was o f t he d is man t led , h orse less v ar iety , k nown

f ro m p rev ious d iscover ies i n t he Wo lds.

The t wo h orse-b its were o f s tou t

i ron c onstruct ion , o f t he t hree-l ink t ype w ith s ide-r ings.

They a re s im ilar

t o t hose f ro m K ing 's Barrow , Arras ( S tead , 1 965 , f ig . 1 8 , 1 ) , e xcep t t hat t he l a t ter a re o f i ron c oa ted w ith b ronze . .

( No te a n i ron b ronze-coa ted b it-

r ing w ith s top-knobs f ro m Harborough Cave , D erbysh ire ; 1 909 , n o. 1 4.)

Fox , W. S .,

The f ive D-shaped t erre ts w ere o f b ronze w ith i ron c ross-

p ins , ad is t inct ive Yorksh ire f or m ( S tead , 1 965 , 4 3 ).

T he p resence o f f ive ,

o ne o f l arger s ize t han t he o thers , s uppor ts t he i dea t ha t t he f ive t erre ts a t t he K ing 's Barrow , Arras , c ons isted o f t wo p a irs a nd a n o dd o ne , t he l at ter c orrespond ing w ith t he s ing le t erre ts f ro m t he L ady 's Barrow a nd Hunmanby ( i b id.. ) .

Two b road h arness b uck les may h ave s erved t he s a me f unc t ion a s

t wo sma l l r ings f ro m Arras. Deta i ls o f t he whee ls , c oachwork a nd p o les ha f t were a pparen t i n s ta in ing a nd i n t he s urv iva l o f al i t t le wood .

T he ma-

t er ia l r e ma ins f ro m t he d iscovery t hus f i t we l l i nto t he f ra mework f or d isc uss ion a dop ted b y S tead ( 1965 ).

Much more e v idence w i l l d oubt less r esu lt

f ro m l abora tory r esearch o n t he f inds , b u t n o c lose c hrono log ica l i nd ica tors s, em t o b e p resen t .

P erhaps a l a te t h ird o r s econd c entury d a te may b e

a ccep tab le , l ink ing w ith t he e v idence o f f i nds f ro m o ther b ur ia ls i n t he . o n S lack v a l ley . 7 0

I n g enera l , n o w eapons h ave b een f ound w ith Arras Cu l ture b ur ia ls , a par t f rom d ur ing r ecen t e xcava t ions a t Bur ton F le m ing .

I n t he t h ird a rea o f e x-

c ava t ion o f t ha t c e metery , ag roup o f 1 3 e x tended i nhu ma t ion b ur ia ls , o r ient ed f ro m e ast t o west , w ere a cco mpan ied b y ac o mp letely d if feren t r ange o f g rave-goods , i nc lud ing k n ives , as pearhead , a nd a h a mmerhead , b u t w ithou t p o t tery , p ig-bones , o rb rooches. I n t he f our th a rea o f e xcava t ion , o ne e astt o-wes t e x tended b ur ia l h ad a s hor t i ron s word l a id d iagona l ly b enea th t he b ody ( I . M. S tead i n forma t ion ). T hese i ron o b jects may b e t hough t o f a s t oo ls r a ther t han w eapons , a par t f ro m t he l a t ter e xamp le. There a re f our o ther f inds o f m idd le L a Tb ie w eapons f ro m o ur a rea , h owever , a l l o f wh ich a re w el l-known a n t iqu it ies. T he f ron t-p la te o f as cabbard f ro m t he r iver Tren t a t S u t ton Reach , N ott ingha msh ire , h as b een c ons ide ed i n d eta i l b y d e Navarro ( 1966 , 1 481 50 ; a lso Fox , 1 958, P l . 2 1). The most d ist inct ive f ea ture i s t he i nc ised l adder ing i n a l terna t ing p ane ls e i ther s ide t he m idr ib , w ith i n terven ing z ones o f i nc ised c urv il inear o rna men t . The l adder ing i s a Sw iss f ea ture , d es igned t o a ch ieve a n o p t ica l c on tras t , a nd i s u n l ikely t o b e f or tu itous. I ti s f ound o n t wo swords a nd a s cabbard o f e ar ly L a T ene t ype i n Sw itzer land , a nd o n t hree Group A swords o f m idd le L a T ene d a te a t t he t ype-s ite i t se lf . As f or t he c urv i l inear mo t ifs , t hey a re c lose ly r e la ted t o t hose o n t he h orns f ro m Torrs , K irkcudbr igh tsh ire ( Fox , 1 958, P l. 2 0 ), a nd p robab ly u lt i ma tely d er ived f ro m t he H ungar ian " sword s ty le".

Bo th e le men ts i n t he d ecora t ion

a re t hus l ike ly t o h ave b een l ongl ived , s o t he d a te o f t he S u t ton p late i s c er ta in .

The e ar l ier s econd c en tury B .C. s ee ms p robab le.

Fro m t he b ed o f t he r iver W itha m , s o me 1 2 m iles e as t o f S u t ton-on-Tren t , h as c ome t he f a mous i ron s word w ith i t s g i l t-bronze moun t ing t o af ragment ary i ron s heath ( Fox , 1 958 , P l. 2 2 , b ).

The g i l t-bronze r epouss6 r el ief

p ane l i s t he s hea th- mou th d ecorat ion , a nd h as a g en t ly-curved u pper e dge , n ot n arrow ly-po in ted i n t he c en tre b u t c haracter ist ic o f t he e ar l ier Group A o f m idd le L a T ene s words a t L a T ene i t sel f ( de Navarro , 1 959 , 1 07 ). The d ecora t ion i s a sym metr ic , w ith t wo l i nked g roups o f c urv i l inear r e l ief work , emphas ised b y i nc ised d es igns wh ich i nc lude r ocked g raver l i nes. T he p a tt ern i s a ga in c o mparab le t o t hat o n t he T orrs h orns , t he Witha m s h ie ld u pper a nd l ower r oundels ( Jope , 1 971, P ls. XX [ I IIV ) , a nd t he r ound s h ie ld-boss f ro m Wandswor th ( .c it ., P l . XXV ).

Aga in , t he " sword s ty le" o f Hungary

a nd S w itzer land h as b een s een a s a n u l t i ma te s ource ( Fox , 1 958, 2 5 ), a nd a d ate b e fore 2 00 B .C. h as b een s uggested . H owever , ab ronze c hape b e long ing t o t he s a me s word s cabbard h as b een l os t s ince d iscovery ( PSAL , i s t s er ies , I , 1 99 ).

P iggot t h as c o mpared ( 1970 , 7 ) i t s s ty le t o t ha t o f t he Bug thorpe

s hea th . The p resence o f ac hubby , h eavy c hape o f t h is n ature wou ld s ugges t ad a te f or t he sword a round 1 00 B .C . a t t he v ery e ar l ies t . S a id t o h ave b een f ound w ith a q uan t ity o f b ones i s t he C lo therho l me a n thropo id s word ( Clarke a nd H awkes , 1 955 , 2 12 ;

Manby , 1 963a , 1 5-17 ).

En t ire ly o f i ron , i t s b lade i s f l at a nd f orged w ith t he p o m me l a nd t ang f ro m as ing le p iece. The h i l t-guards a re o f s epara te p ieces , t wo f or t he l ower a nd o ne f or t he u pper . T he v ery s l igh t ly r ibbed s ur face o f t he i ron s tr ip g r ip-wrapp ing , t he s harp ly-curved U -shaped a r ms a nd l egs , a nd t he s unken h ead ( f eatures e f faced ) p lace i ti n H awkes t C lass F .

7 1

I t s o vera l l s im i lar ity

t o t he S hou ldha m a n thropo id o f C lass B ( Clarke a nd H awkes , 1 955 , P l. 2 . 0C IV ) a lso i nd ica tes a s econd c entury d a te , p robab ly a round 1 50 B .C. Two i ron s words , b ronze a nd i ron r ings , t he g rea ter p ar t o f a n e x tended h u man s ke leton , a nd o ther a r t ic les were r epor ted b y Mor t i mer ( 1905 , 3 54-7 ) t o h ave b een f ound i n ag rave a t Nor th Gr i ms ton , e as tern Yorksh ire.

The

b est -known p iece f ro m t h is b ur ia l i s t he a n thropo id s hor t-sword w ith b ronze h i l t o f H awkes ' C lass F

2 11-2 ;

F ox , 1 958, P l. 1 8 ).

I ts mode l led

h ead , i n " barbar ic" s ty le w ith l ong c o mbed-back h a ir , a nd i ts s harp ly r ingmou lded g r ip a re c haracter is t ic o f t he c lass , a nd o n t he b as is o f ac lose p ara l le l a t Cha ternay- Macheron i n t he Haute- Marne , Hawkes h as s uggested t ha t t he s hor t-sword i s a n impor t o f t he s econd h a lf o f t he s econd c en tury. The Nor th Gr i ms ton l ong-sword o f i ron , w ith g en t ly-curv ing s cabbard- mou th a nd s l im c hape w ith mou lded e xpans ions a t i t s s ides a nd i ts t ip ( no t as p l it l ipped mou ld ing :

s ee i l lus tra t ion i n Mor t i mer , 1 905 , f ig. 1 019 ) a lso s ee ms

t o b e o f L a T ene I t ype a nd may i t se lf b e a n impor t .

I ti s d if feren t f ro m t he

c haracter is t ica l ly Br it ish f orms w ith h ear t-shaped o r l ong c hapes.

T ha t

t he b ur ia l h as s o me l inks w ith t he u sua l Eas t R id ing L a T ene b ur ia ls i s s hown b y t he s evera l j o in ts o f p ork a lso d epos ited.

Al ink w ith p robab ly l a ter sword-

b ur ia ls a t Gr im thorpe ( S tead , 1 968, f ig. 1 2 , 4 -5 ) a nd Eastburn ( Sheppard , 1 938, P l. 1 , 3 -4 ) i s a f forded b y l eng ths o f t he b ronze s p ine-cover o f a wooden s h ie ld. Br it ish I ron Age s h ie lds h ave b een c ons idered b y S tead ( 1968, 1 73-8 ) w ith p ar t icu lar r e ference t o t he Gr i mthorpe e xa mp le.

The r e ma in ing b ronze f rag-

men ts o f t h is i nc lude a sma l l c en tra l b oss w ith p unched a nd e ngraved d ecorat i on , t wo f l a t c rescen t ic b ronze p la tes wh ich wou ld h ave p rov ided a d ecorat ive s urround , a nd t wo l eng ths o f s heet-bronze , s em i-c ircu lar i n s ect ion , wh ich wou ld h ave s erved a s s p ine-covers. a t N or th Gr i ms ton a nd Eas tburn .

I ti s s im i lar s p ine-covers wh ich s urv ive

S tead s ees t he Gr i mthorpe s h ie ld a s t he

o n ly Br it ish e xa mp le t o d er ive d irect ly f ro m Con t inen ta l La ' I l ene I t ypes, s uch a s t hose f ro m S t.-Et ienne-au-Te mp le , Marne ( op.c it ., f ig . 1 8 , c ) , a nd H ora th , Kr . Bernkaste l , Rh ine land-Pa la t ina te ( op.c it ., f ig . 1 8, d ).

These

h ave s ing le-p iece s p ine-covers , i ti s t rue , b u t n o f i t t ings f ro m L a T ene I s h ie lds a re k nown a par t f ro m h and-gr ips.

The imp l ica t ion , t herefore , was

t ha t t he d ist inct ive t ype o f o va l s h ie ld r e f lec ted i n t hese s p ine-covers f ro m Yorksh ire , a nd p robab ly a lso t he d ecora t ive d iscs f ro m Bug thorpe ( Fox , 1 958 , P l. 1, c ) , w ere L a V ene I i n troduct ions , f irs t s een i n Yorksh ire i n t he Nor th Gr i ms ton b ur ia l o f t he l a ter s econd c entury . S tead 's c lass if ica t ion o f L a I l ene s h ie lds , a nd i n p ar t icu lar t he t ypo log ica l p r ior ity o f t he Gr im thorpe e xa mp le , h as b een c ha l lenged r ecen t ly b y S avory ( 1971 b , 6 9-75 a nd f ig . 1 6 :1973 , 7 01 f . a nd 1 975 f or thco m ing ) , who o b jected e spec ia l ly t o t he r e lega t ion o f t he n or th We lsh s h ie lds t o al ate a nd d er iva t ive r o le i n t he s equence.

I n h is r econs idera t ion o f t he Br it ish s h ie lds a nd t he ir

Con t inen ta l a n teceden ts , S avory s hrewd ly d is t ingu ished t he l ong itud ina l d es ign o f t he me ta l c over ing o f t he b osses o n Br it ish s h ie lds f ro m t he t ransv erse a rrange men t o f t he Con t inen ta l L a T ene I t ype , a nd d er ived t he f or mer i nstead d irect f ro m t he wooden b osses o f L a V ene Io r ig ina ls.

Once t h is p a-

r a l le l b u t d is t inct d eve lop men t h as b een c lar if ied , t here i s n o l onger a ny o b l iga t ion t ot od er ive t he p e lta te d es igns o f t he T a l-yl lyn o r Moe l H irradug

7 2

s h ie lds f rom t he s p layed b osses o f t he C on t inen ta l L a Ts e ne I s er ies , a ny more t han t here i s t o l ower t he ir d a t ing e xcess ive ly o n t he g rounds o f t he ir s upposed a ssoc ia t ions. T he n e t t e f fec t f or t he Gr im thorpe s h ie ld r ema ins ap robab le f i rs t c en tury B .C. c on tex t , b u t w ith i t s p os it ion r eversed i n t he t ypo log ica l s equence. T he W i tham s h ie ld ( Jope , 1 971;

F ox , 1 958 , P l. 1 5 ) i s a ga in o f t he w e l l-

k nown s hape , b u t w ith more c omp lete b ronze c as ing o f t he w ood t oge ther w ith e labora te c en tra l s p ine , e xecu ted w ith mos t magn if ican t r epouss6 c ra f tsmans h ip . At h ird o r s econd c en tury d a te h as b een s ugges ted f or t h is p iece. S ince a l l o ur o ther e xamp les a bove d iscussed c o me f ro m b ur ia ls , t he r iverme p rovenance o f t he W itham mas terp iece i s s ign if ican t . I tr e ma ins t o c ons ider t wo b ronze v esse ls wh ich , h av ing i mpor tan t b eari ng o n p ot tery s tud ies , may s erve t o i n troduce t he f o l low ing s ect ion . T he f i rs t i s s tr ict ly s peak ing f rom o u ts ide o ur a rea o f s tudy : t he d amaged b ronze b ow l f ro m H unsbury , Nor tha mp tonsh ire ( Fox , 1 958 , P l. 7 7 , B ). d ecora ted w ith t hree h or izon ta l z ones o f " duck-pa t tern" s tamps :

Th is i s i n t he u pper

a nd t he l ower t he mo t ifs a re s e t n ear ly v er t ica l ly , b u t i n t he c en tra l z one t hey a re f ewer i n n u mber a nd a re i nc l ined , v ery much l i ke t he r ow o f s tamps s e t b etween g rooves a round t he h ang ing-bow l f ro m C err ig-y-Drud ion , D enb ighsh ire ( .c i t .. ,f ig . 1 ) . Wes t o f H unsbury , t he p resence o f " duck" a nd V -pa t tern s ta mp ing o n p o t tery f ro m t he We lsh Marches h i l l-for ts o f M ids ummer H i l l a nd Cro f t .Ambrey i n t he f our th a nd t h ird c en tur ies B .C. . ( S tan ford , 1 972 , f i g . 1 2 ) marks a f i rm h or izon i n t he ma ter ia l r ema ins. S tan ford h as d a ted t h is p o t tery i n r e la t ion t o a ma jor d e fence h or izon a nd r econs truct ion s equence o n h i l l-for t s i tes , a nd h as l i nked i tw ith t he g uard-roo med w es tern e n trance a nd t he f i rs t d u mp r ampart a t Ma iden Cas t le , D orse t ( Whee ler , 1 943 , 3 6 f .). P erhaps t he f irs t d ump r ampar t a t H unsbury ( R . J . C . A tk inson e xcava t ions , t o b e d iscussed l a ter ) s hou ld a lso b e s een a s f our th o r t h ird c en tury B .C. T he s econd b ea ten b ronze v esse l i s f rom York o r t he immed ia te n e ighb ourhood ( Hawkes , 1 932 , f i g . 3 ) . I ti s g racefu l ly p ear-shaped , w ith s harp ly i ncurv ing r im a nd w ith e xpanded , p edes ta ll ike f oo t w ith a s l igh t ly r ecessed b ase . S h ie ld-shaped s cars r evea l t he f ormer p resence o f e scu tcheons f or h and le-a t tachmen ts . H awkes c ons idered i tt o b e r em in iscen t o f m idd le L a T ene p o t tery o f s ou thern G ermany a nd t he Marne , a nd s o o f t he t h ird o r s ec ond c en tury B .C. r a ther t han a ny e ar l ier , d esp ite t he s im ilar ity o f t he r im t o t he s harp ly i ncurv ing f orm f ound o n t he c au ldrons o f H a l ls tat t Dt ype ( Hawkes a nd Sm ith , 1 957 , f i g . 1, f or e xamp le ). T he c loses t p ara l le l i n B r i ta in s ee ms t o b e t he p o t tery v esse l r epor ted t o h ave b een f ound i n g rave l a t West Kea l , L inco lnsh ire ( F ig . 1 6, 9 ) . A l though t he s hape i s l ess g racef u l ly-curv ing , a nd n a tura l ly om its t he h and les o ft he me ta l f orm , t h is m igh t b e e xpec ted f ro m a n im ita t ion i n c oarse p o t tery .

T he g enera l d i mens ions

a re a l ike , a nd t he a ppearance , p ar t icu lar ly when v iewed f rom a bove , w ou ld b e q u i te s im i lar b ecause o f t he i ncurved , s harp lyth ickened r i m. T he o cc urrence o f t hese t wo v esse ls a s o u t l iers t o t he ma in n or thern c oncen tra t ion o f L a T e r re ma ter ia l i n e as tern Yorksh ire may s ugges t t ha t , a f ter i n it ia l e ar ly L a f ene imm igra t ion , t he C on t inen ta l c on tacts o f t he d om inan t g roups i n t he Eas t R id ing w ere l im ited .

7 3

i .

P ot tery The p ot tery o f t he midd le L a T ene p er iod i s p redo m inan t ly s lack i n s hape ,

w ith s i mp ly mou lded o r f l a t tened r i ms , a nd i s e ither u ndecora ted o r h as d ist inct ive g rooved a nd impressed o r s cored d ecora t ion.

F inger-t ipp ing i s a l-

mos t e n t ire ly a bsen t , a par t f ro m u pon t he t op o f t he r i ms o f v esse ls , ma in ly t hose d ecora ted o n t he b ody w ith r ough s cor ing wh ich i s c haracter is t ic o f t he East M id lands t hroughou t t he p er iod.

The ware i s of ten r ough a nd c oarse

w ith l arge g r its , a s a t Grea t Kenda le ( F ig . 2 7, 7 -13 ) a nd Barrowby ( F ig . 1 6, 1 ) , b u t i tc an b e f iner a nd d enser w ith sma l l s andy g r its , p ar t icu lar ly i n t he s ou th a nd e as t a s a t Bass ing f ie ld ( F ig . 1 5 , 1-12 ) a nd Breedon-on-the-H il l ( F ig . 1 3, 3 -6 ).

There s ee m t o b e d is t inct r eg iona l d iferences b e tween

e astern Yorksh ire , t he We lsh Marches , a nd t he Eas t M id lands d ur ing t he p er iod , t owards t he c lose o f wh ich L inco lnsh ire a cqu ires n ew a sse mb lages. To t hese d if ferences w e s ha l l r e turn l ater. F or t he p resen t , s o me o f t he c o m mon s hapes w il l b e c ons idered . One o f t he mos t w ide ly-occurr ing f or ms i s t he " barre l j ar", d ef ined b y Hard ing ( 1972 , 9 9 ) w i th e spec ia l r eference t o t he Upper Tha mes.

The p ro-

f i le i s v ery s i mp le , w ith f la t b ase , c onvex w a l ls , a nd r ounded r im , a nd i fi t i s c lear t ha t i n s outhern Br ita in t he f or m h ad a l ong c urrency t h is i s e ven more e v iden t i n n or thern Eng land.

P erhaps t he b es t e xa mp le i s o ne p robab ly f ro m

Ro ls ton ( F ig. 3 0 , 3 ) , o f d ist inct ive h unched f orm n ot u n l ike t hose f ro m Cass ing ton a nd Chad l ing ton , Ox fordsh ire ( op .c it ., P l . 6 0 , C -D ).

T oge ther

w ith t hose f ro m Danes Graves ( F ig . 3 1, 4 ) , A tw ick ( F ig . 2 9 , 1 ) , a nd B urr ough H i l l ( F ig . 1, 3 ) ,

t he Ro lston v esse l may b e r ough ly c on te mporary

w ith t he s ou thern e xa mp les o f t he t h ird a nd s econd c en tur ies B .C.

One f ro m

Wi ll ing ton ( F ig . 1 5 , 8 ) s ee ms t o b e long t o t he s econd c entury B .C. ,a d a te i nd ica ted b y o ther ma ter ia l f ro m t he s a me p it ( apar t f ro m F ig . 1 5 , 1 0 , wh ich may b e i n trus ive ).

" Barre l j ars" f ro m Wes t F urze ( F ig . 3 8 , 6 ) a nd Me lton

Mowbray ( Kenyon , 1 950 , f ig . 1 3, 4 ) may b e l a ter , a s e ach was p robab ly a ss oc ia ted w ith t h ickened-r im f orms ( 22 .c it ., f ig . 1 3, 3 ; w il l b e s een t o b e t yp ica l o f t he l a te L a T ' ene p er iod .

F ig . 3 8, 4 -5 ) wh ich

Fro m t he s ou thern

P enn ines w e h ave v esse ls f ro m b e low Harborough Cave ( Rad ley a nd Rad ford , 1 969 , f ig . 1 , 2 ) , f ro m t he c ave i tsel f ( F ig . 5 , 1 3 ), a nd p robab ly f ro m W inster ( F ig . 6 , 1 2 ).

The l a t ter was f ound w ith t wo c on trac ted i nhu ma t ion b ur ia ls ,

t wo i ron s pear-heads , a nd a b eeh ive q uern , a nd may h ave b een d epos ited l a te i n t he I ron Age ( Ozanne , 1 962 , 4 9 ).

T he Harborough Cave v esse l may

b e e ar l ier , b u t i ti s v ery s im ilar t o o ne f ro m Ca tco te ( F ig . 4 7 , 1 6 ) w h ich i s f ro m a l a te c on tex t .

As f or t he n or th , Hard ing h as s ugges ted t he " barre l

j ar" f orm a s t he i nsp irat ion f or v essels f ro m S tanw ick (Whee ler , 1 954 , f ig. 1 2 , 2 9 ) a nd Trapra in L aw ( Cur ie a nd Cree , 1 916 , f ig . 1 6, 1 a nd 3 ) , a nd a lt hough t hese a nd o ther s herds f ro m Tyne mou th Pr iory ( F ig . 5 3 , 1 0 ) a nd Burradon ( F ig . 5 3, 3 ) , i n a dd it ion t o Ca tco te , may b e s o r e la ted , o thers a re much e ar l ier ( F ig . 5 3, 1 -2 ) a nd c anno t b e.

Even t hough t here may b e t rue

" barre l j ars" a t Ro lston a nd Wes t Furze , i ts ee ms t ha t s lack , u n insp ired p o ts p rov ide l owest-co m mon-deno m inator d o mest ic u tens ils t hroughou t l a ter p reh is tory , f ro m Ma m T or t o S carborough , Ba l l Cross , A tw ick a nd S tanw ick .

7 4

P robab ly r e la ted t o t he " barre l j ar" a re t hose v esse l , : w ith t he s ame r ounded p rof ile b u t w ith s l igh t ly mou lded o r f la t tened r i m.

P ar t icu lar ly im-

p or tan t a re t hose f ro m Breedon-on-the-H il l ( Kenyon , 1 950 , f ig . 3 , 5 ;

f ig .

4 , 4 ) a nd S tret ton ( F ig . 1 6 , 1 0 ) w ith d el ibera tely i ncurved , t h inn d o r s l igh t ly b eaded r i ms , a nd t hose f ro m Red H il l ( F ig . 1 0 , 1-12 ), u sua l ly s cored d ecora t ion .

d eep-

Probab ly l a ter a re t hose i n d ense g rey ware f ro m t he

J ewry Wa l l s i te, L e ices ter ( Kenyon , 1 948 , f ig . 3 4 , 9 ;

f ig . 3 5 , 2 ) .

More

s harp ly b eaded , i ncurved r ims a re r epresen ted a t Harborough Cave ( F ig . 5 , 1 5 ), H on ing ton H il l ( F ig . 1 5 , 1 8 ), a nd West Kea l ( F ig . 1 6 , 9 ).

S i mp ly b eaded

f orms make u p mos t o f t he c o l lect ion a t W il l ing ton ( F ig . 1 5 , 1 -3 a nd 7 ) , a nd r e la ted f orms o ccur a t Burrough H i l l ( D. D . A . S i mpson e xcava t ions , 1 967 ; u npub l ished ), Ancaster ( F ig . 1, 6 ) , O ld Wo man 's House ( F ig . 6 , 1 0-11 ), Wins ter ( F ig. 6 , 1 2 ), Em mo t land ( Brews ter , 1 963 , f ig . 8 6 , 4 ) , a nd L ev isha m Moor ( F ig . 5 0 , 2 ) .

The l a t ter t wo e xa mp les s ee m t o b e f irs t c en tury B .C.

a nd A . D . r espect ive ly , j udg ing b y t he ir a ssoc ia t ions , b u t t he o thers a re l ike ly t o i nd ica te a t h ird a nd s econd c en tury c urrency .

Apar t f ro m t he l a ter

o nes f ro m t he n or th , mou lded r i ms o n b arre l-shapes s ee m t o b e p redo m inan t ly f ro m t he s outhern p ar ts o f o ur a rea. S o mewha t s im ilar t o t he Breedon-on-the H i l l j ars men t ioned a t t he b eg inn ing o f t he p rev ious p aragraph ( Kenyon , 1 950 , f ig . 3 , 5 ;

f ig . 4 , 4 ) a re b ar-

r e l-shaped v esse ls , a ga in u sua l ly w ith s cored d ecora t ion , wh ich h ave a r im a nd s l igh t s hou lder mou lded b y at h inn ing o f t he p ro f ile.

Ag ood e xa mp le i s

f ro m Ancas ter ( F ig . 1, 7 ) , a nd o thers a re f ro m Breedon-on-the-H i l l ( 22 . c it ., f ig . 4 , 6 ) a nd L ancas ter Road , L e ices ter ( 22 .c it., f ig . 1 5 , 3 ).

S o me

h ave t he r im d rawn u p t o p roduce a more c urv ing p rof i le , a s a t Breedon-ont he H i l l a ga in ( F ig . 1 2 , 1-12 ;

Kenyon , 1 950 , f ig. 4 , 1 ) .

A c o mp lete v esse l

f ro m B urrough H il l ( F ig. 1, 4 ) s hou ld a lso b e n oted h ere. More r epresen ta t ive o f t he n or th i s t he b ucke t-shaped p o t w ith s hor t , f lar ing r im , t yp ica l o f t he L a T bne c e meter ies o f Danes Graves ( F ig . 3 1, 1 3a nd 5 ) , Eas tburn ( F ig . 3 1, 7 -9 ), Bur ton F le m ing ( S tead , 1 971, f ig . 5 , 1 ; a nd many o thers ) , a nd R iggs F ar m ( F ig . 3 1, 1 0 ), mos t l ike ly t o b e o f s econd c en tury d a te ( bu t n ote a g ood p ara l le l , o ne o f t he f ew p o ts f ro m MUns ingen , To mbe 2 7 :

H odson , 1 968 ).

I t may b e t ha t t hose f ro m Em mot land ( F ig . 3 1,

6 ), G rea t Kenda le ( F ig . 2 7 , 8a nd 1 2 ), a nd Fax f leet " A" ( F ig . 3 9 , 3 ) r eprese n t t he s a me t ype i n d o mes t ic u se.

An e xa mp le f ro m t he Grea t Ay ton Moor

e nc losure f ur ther n or th ( F ig . 4 6, 8 -9 ) i s s ign if ican t. t o b e o f s im ilar s ize.

A l l t hese v esse ls s ee m

Those f ro m Brandesbur ton ( F ig . 2 8 , 4 ) a nd Thruss ing-

t on ( F ig . 1 5 , 1 5 ) a re l arger , b ut s t il l o f b ucket s hape.

More r ounded r e la ted

v esse ls c o me f ro m Cos ta B eck ( F ig . 5 2 , 3 ) , Em mot land ( Brewster , 1 963, f ig . 8 5 , 1 1), a nd R iggs Farm ( F ig . 3 1, 1 1). I n a dd it ion t o t he " barre l j ar" a nd s i mp le , p robab ly r e la ted , t ypes , t here a re t wo o ther c harac ter is t ic p rof i les o f t he m idd le L a f ene p er iod : n ecked j ar a nd t he S -shaped j ar .

t he

The n ecked j ar i s k nown i n t he Eas t R id ing

f ro m t wo c hance f inds a t Bran t ingha m a nd Grange Far m , Brough ( F ig . 2 8 , 5 -6 ), a nd f ro m r escue e xcava t ions a t Brandesbur ton ( F ig . 2 8, 1 ) .

T he l a t ter

s herd w as f ound i n an arrow , s ha l low , V -shaped d itch a bou t 1 8 i nches d eep , s tra t if ied i n t he l ower f i l l ing w ith b urn t c lay f rag men ts a nd c inder ma ter ia l , c a t t le t eeth , worked f l in ts , a nd o ther s herds ( F ig . 2 8, 2 -4 ). 7 5

The p o t tery

may r epresen t ac ons iderab le l eng th o f t ime , a s o ne s herd h as a f ingert ipped r im a nd a no ther h as a h orizon ta l mou ld ing , f or ms a lready c ons idered. The n ecked j ar i s at a l l , r ound-shou ldered v esse l w ith s hor t , u pstand ing n eck a nd f la t tened , e x terna l ly e xpanded a nd r ounded r im . No f ir m c hrono lo g ica l r ange c an b e o f fered , b u t t ha t i ti s c urren t a t l eas t f ro m t he m idd le L a T ene p er iod i s e v iden t f ro m Eas t M id lands e xa mp les. i s f ro m Breedon-on-the-H i l l : ( Kenyon , 1 950 , f ig . 3 , 8 ) .

P erhaps t he b est

al arge s cored j ar w ith impressed r i mtop

O thers a re f ro m Ancaster ( F ig . 1, 5 ) , L ough-

b orough ( Fig . 1 6 , 3 ) , a nd Barrowby ( F ig . 1 6 , 1 ) .

S uper f ic ia l ly s im i lar

s hapes a t H ars ton ( 92 .c it., f ig . 1 1, 1 ) a nd Breedon-onthe-H il l ( F ig . 1 2, 1 0 ;

F ig . 1 3, 1 a nd 9 ) e ither l ack t he s harp n eck a ng le o r h ave n o d el iberate-

l y t h ickened r i m.

P erhaps t hese a re e ar l ier a nd r e la ted t o Hunsr t ick-Eifel

c u l ture p o t tery a s s ugges ted i n ap rev ious c hap ter.

T he t a l l p rof i le f ro m

Hars ton a nd t he t ypes o f s cor ing o n t he l ast- men t ioned s herd f ro m Breedono n-the-H il l s ugges t t h is.

The t rue n ecked j ar i s n ot a ch ieved i n t he M idd le

Rhen ish ma ter ia l , h owever , a nd s o i t must b e s een a s as epara te d eve lopmen t i n t he Tren t-Tyne a rea , p erhaps i nsp ired f ro m r eg ions t o t he s ou th . There a re e xa mp les f ro m Up ton , Nor tha mp tonsh ire ( Jackson , e t a l., 1 969, f ig . 8 , 3 ) , a nd f ro m Swa l lowc l if fe Down ( Clay , 1 925 , P l. V . 6a nd 1 0 ). The f or m m igh t we l l a ssu me more impor tance , p ar t icu lar ly i n Yorksh ire , i f e xcavat ion was c onducted o n m idd le L a T ene s e t t le men t s i tes.

( There i s

s o me s im i lar ity , h owever , b etween t he n ecked j ar a nd t he c er ta in ly l a te L a T ene t ype o f r ounded j ar w ith u pr igh t n eck b u t b road ly-grooved r im , b es t s een a t S ou th Cave ( F ig . 3 6 , 1 ) , a nd t o b e c ons idered i n d e ta il l a ter .

The

p oss ib i l ity mus t b e a dm it ted t hat t here may b e n o c hrono log ica l d ist inct ion b etween t hese f orms.) Rounded , S -shaped p ro f i les a re r are , a par t f ro m a t Breedon-ontheH il l.

Usua l ly t hey a re n o t c o mp lete ly S -shaped , t he r im c urv ing t o t he v er-

t i ca l r a ther t han b eco m ing e ver ted .

Par t icu lar ly g ood e xa mp les a re t he f ine

j ar w ith c urv il inear o rna men t ( F ig . 1 3, 1 0 ) a nd t he b urn ished v esse l ( F ig. 1 3 , 8 ).

O f ten t here i s a sma l ler p ropor t ion o f t he p rof ile a bove i t s w ides t p ar t ,

p roduc ing a more-or-less g lobu lar s hape w ith s hor t r ounded o r e ver ted r im ( F ig . 1 3, 4 -7 ;

Kenyon , 1 950 , f ig . 4 , 2 ).

O ther g ood e xa mp les d ecora ted

w ith s cor ing a re f ro m Quorn ( Le M , 4 0.53 ).

Asse mb lages i nc lud ing t hese

r ounded f orms a re f a ir ly c o m mon f ur ther s ou th , a s a t Up ton , Nor tha mptons h ire ( Jackson , e t a l., 1 969 , f ig . 8 ) , a nd Cass ing ton , Ox fordsh ire ( Hard ing , 1 972 , P ls. 6 1-4 ).

Tal ler r ounded j ar f or ms a lso o ccur , b ut a re q u ite v ar ied .

One w ith v ery s ha l low r ando m s cor ing o n t he b ody a nd a d eep ly c ab led r im i s k nown f ro m t he e ar l ier I ron Age s i te a t Ancas ter ( J . May i n for ma t ion ), a nd i s s im ilar t o aj ar f ro m L akenheath , S uf fo lk ( Clarke , 1 939 , P l. V I I, 2 ). A r a ther d if feren t l arge j ar c o mes f ro m L it t le thorpe ( F ig . 4 0, 1 3 ). L a V ene e xa mp les h ave s harp ly e ver ted r i ms ( F ig . 4 0 , 2 ;

L a te

F ig. 4 1, 7 ) .

The g enera l ly s lack p rof i les o f a l l t hese f orms , l arge a s we l l a s sma l l j ars , a nd t he l i t t le v ar iety i n t he mou lded r i ms , t ogether w ith t he f ew s a mp le p ara l le ls q uoted , s erve t o u nder l ine t he n ot ion p ropounded b y Hard ing ( 1972 , 1 01) o f ab road d egree o f u n ifor m ity i n t he s ub-s tratu m o f c oarse p o t tery o f t he I ron Age B p er iod.

The l ack o f a marked s hou lder a nd o f f ingert ipped

d ecorat ion ( apar t f ro m o n t he t op o f t he r im ) d ist ingu ish i tf ro m e ar l ier ma l ter ia l , a lthough t he " barre l j ar" i n p ar t icu lar d oes s ee m t o h ave a l ong 7 6

c hrono log ica l r ange.

The d is tr ibu t ion o f " co m mon d eno m inator u ndecora ted

Bw are" i s s ign if ican t ly e x tens ive ( F ig . 8 0 ).

Desp ite t h is o vera l l u n iform ity ,

h owever , d ist inc t ive r eg iona l g roups c an b e r ecogn ised i n t he m idd le L a V ene p er iod o n t he b as is b oth o f t he c on t inua t ion o f t ra its r e ma in ing f ro m t he e ar l ier p er iod , a nd o f l oca l d ecorat ive f ash ions. I n t he Eas t R id ing , t he p robab le c on t inua t ion o f f l ared r im f or ms r eca l l ing " angu lar" wares i s s hown b y t he ma ter ia l f ro m a sma l l g roup o f p its a t G rea t Ken c la le , j ust n or th o f Dr if f ie ld ( F ig . 2 7 ).

T he p its were c leared o u t b y C .

a nd E . Gran tha m , who r epor ted t he m t o b e c u t i n to t he s o l id c ha lk o f ah il ls lope , w ith a v er t ica l b ack w a l l u p t o 8f ee t d eep a nd a s lop ing f ron t wa l l , a nd u p t o 1 2 f eet a cross. S ign if ican t a re t he f l ar ing r i ms o f s o me v esse ls ( F ig . 2 7, 6 , 8 , 1 0 a nd 1 3 ), a l though i n a l l c ases t he b ody b e low t he r im i s r ounded a nd h as n o a ngu lar s hou lder . Th is s uggests a d ate p robab ly i n t he t h ird c en tury B .C. r a ther t han a ny e ar l ier .

The o n ly v esse l w ith more

a u then t ic " angu lar" a ppearance i s t ha t w ith ofset s hou lder a nd h o l lowed n eck ( F ig . 2 7 , 1), b u t e ven h ere t he l ow s harp s hou lder p ar t icu lar ly d is t inct ive o f " angu lar" p ot tery i s a bsen t. The s herd w ith a n a pp l ied h and le ( F ig . 2 7 , 7 ) i s o f n o d irect c hrono log ica l h e lp , b u t t he S -pro f ile w ith t oo led s ur face ( F ig . 2 7 , 9 ) h era lds s hapes i n l a te I ron Age c on tex ts ( f or e xa mp le , F ig . 3 9 , 1 ; F ig . 3 7 , 2 ) , a nd a c arefu l ly-squared r im ( F ig . 2 7 , 1 3 ) may i nd ica te a ff in ity w ith v esse ls i n t he G ar ton S lack c o l lect ion ( F ig . 3 3, 3 a nd 7 ) . T he b lue g lass b ang le w ith b r igh t ly-co loured c orded i n lay ( F ig . 2 7 , 2 ) i s at ype w ith f i rm c onnect ions f ro m t he b eg inn ing o f t he f irs t m il lenn iu m A .D . r a ther t han a ny e ar l ier , a l though i tc ou ld h ave b een made i n t he m idd le L a T ene p er iod ( br ief d iscuss ion i n P ar t I , Chap ter 1 , v i ).

A c oup le o f c en tur ies a t

l eas t may b e r epresen ted i n t he G rea t Kenda le ma ter ia l. F ro m o ther f inds i n e as tern Y orksh ire i ts ee ms t ha t t he n ecked j ar was f a ir ly c o m mon , a nd t ha t g enera l ly a l l p o t tery was u ndecora ted .

The d ist inc-

t ive c oarse p ots d epos ited w ith c on te mporary b ur ia ls a re ma tched o n s e t t lemen t s i tes , a s a lready d iscussed , a nd p robab ly a lso a t A tw ick ( F ig . 3 0 , 5 6 ). T he mater ia l f ro m t he c oas ta l p it-groups d ug b y Mor f it t i nc ludes s trange f orms w ith e ver ted r im a nd g roove a t t he b ase o f t he n eck ( F ig . 3 0 ), a nd i t i s p oss ib le t hat t hese may b e o f m idd le L a T ene d a te.

Chrono logy i s u ncer-

t a in , b u t f ro m t he l arger g roups o f l a ter ma ter ia l n or th o f t he H umber i t w il l b e s een t ha t s o me o f t he r ounded s hapes a lready d iscussed c on t inue o n i n to t he f irs t c en tury A .D . ,a l though o f ten w ith d iferen t r im f orms. Au sefu l p ottery g roup , p robab ly d at ing t o t he f irs t c en tury B .C. b u t l ack ing t yp ica l c haracter is t ics o f l a te L a T ene a sse mb lages i n t he East R id ing , c o mes f ro m L it t le thorpe ( F ig . 4 0 , 8 -13 ).

Apar t f ro m t he l arge S -

s haped j ar ( 13 ), d is t inct ive f eatures a re t he f inger-na i l ing o f t he r im o f a sma l l j ar ( 8 ) p ara l le led b y t ha t o f s im i lar c haracter o n as herd f ro m Me lb ourne , Derbysh ire ( Manby , 1 963b , f ig. 1 9 , 2 ) , a nd t he s trange f l a t tened , c ons tr icted r im o f ap resu mab ly g lobu lar v esse l ( 11) s een i n more marked f orm o n s herds f ro m L ev isham Moor Enc losure A , n or th o f P icker ing ( Sb M , n o t i l lustra ted ).

The p o ttery a nd s evera l b eeh ive q uerns tones w ere

r ecovered f ro m a f i e ld a f ter d eep-p lough ing ( J . Bar t let t i n format ion ). As f or t he s ou th-wes tern f ron t iers o f o ur a rea , n o e v idence i s y et a va ila ble f or a n or thward e x tens ion b eyond t he T ir ,i dd in (Musson , 1 970a , f ig .

7 7

6 9 , 4 , 6 -7 ) o f t he d is tr ibu t ion o f t he s ta mped a nd g rooved wares r ecen t ly p rov is iona l ly p ub l ished b y S tan ford ( 1972 , f ig . 1 2 ). F ro m t he We lsh Marches h il l-for ts o f M idsu m mer H il l a nd Crof t Ambrey , d ist inct ive d uck-s tamped a nd V-s ta mped v esse ls o f ten w ith c o mp l ica ted f l u ted r ims h ave b een f ound i n r e la t ionsh ip w ith d efens ive p hases.

F ro m a n a na lys is o f p os t-rep lacemen ts ,

c orre la ted w ith r ad iocarbon d a tes , ac hrono logy f or t hese wares h as b een p rop osed . Au sefu l c orpus o f l i near-too led a nd s ta mped p o t tery , s o me w ith f lu ted r i ms , f ro m t he Wye-Cotswo ld r eg ion h as b een p ubl ished b y P eacock ( 1968 , f i gs. 3 -4 ), i n as tudy wh ich c onc luded t ha t manu facture was b y s pec ia li s t p o t ters i n t hree s epara te g roups , s el l ing o ver b road a reas. T he o n ly r el a ted ma ter ia l f ro m t he Eas t R id ing s ee ms t ob e t he f l u ted a nd g rooved r i ms f ro m G ar ton S lack ( Fig . 3 3, 3 a nd 7 ) wh ich a re n ot u nl ike t hose f rom M ids u mmer H il l , Crof t Ambrey , Bredon H il l , a nd S ut ton Wa l ls ( S tan ford , 1 972, f ig . 1 0 , 2 -5 ).

T he o vera l l v esse l s hapes a re a lso s im ilar.

Un for tuna tely

t here i s n o d eta i led s tra t igraph ica l e v idence f ro m t he d i tches a t G ar ton S lack , wh ich w ere c leared b y C . a nd E . Gran tham. As f or t he East M id lands , a s herd f ro m Breedon-on-the-H i l l w ith g rooved d ecora t ion ( Fig . 1 3 ,6 ) may b e r e la ted t o t he Welsh Marches s equence , a s may a no ther s tamped a nd g rooved v esse l ( F ig . 1 3, 5 ) .

T ha t w ith d eep ly- mou lded r im ( F ig . 1 2 , 9 ) h as

n o c lose p ara l le l , b u t may b e r ela ted t o t he c hanne l-r im j ars s o c ommon i n Group I b p ot tery f ro m t he Pr i mary S choo l S i te a t H ard ings tone , Nor tha mpt onsh ire ( Woods , 1 969 , f i g. 1). ma ter ia l t o t he e as t a nd n or th .

Apar t f ro m t h is , t here i s n o c o mparab le Excava t ion i n t he i n ter ior o f s o me S taf ford-

s h ire h i l l-for ts ( such a s Cas t le R ing , Cannock ; work f or thco m ing ) may we l l p roduce i t . There i s a s y et v ery l i t t le e v idence f ro m t he Wes t M id lands a rea b e tween t he Tren t a nd t he m idd le S evern . T he mos t o u tstand ing c haracter ist ic o f p ot tery f ro m t he Eas t M id lands i s t he e x tens ive u se o f s cored d ecora t ion ( F ig . 7 9 ), t he o r ig ins o f wh ich h ave a lready b een s ough t . I t s ee ms p oss ib le t ha t more d e l ibera te v er t ica l o r d ia gona l s cor ing may h ave b een t he e ar l ies t t ype , f o l lowed b y t ha t o f ar ando m n ature , a l though t h is i s b y n o means c er ta in . D eta iled a na lys is o f t ypes i s n ot p oss ib le b ecause o f al ack o f s tra t igraph ica l e v idence. The b es t i nd icat i on o f d a te c o mes f ro m t he e arl ier I ron Age s i te a t Ancaster , L inco lnsh ire. T o t he s ou th-eas t o f t he v i l lage , o n ah i l l-s lope , a n o pen s et t le men t h as b een e xcava ted b y J . May. P its , p os t-ho les , h ear ths , a nd g u l l ies h ave b een l ocat ed. Two h u t s i tes w ere d ef ined , o ne b y ad ra inage g u l ly 4 1 f eet i n d ia meter . Af ew o f t he 8 4 p i ts e xcava ted b y 1 964 may h ave b een s torage p its.

Among

t he f i nds w ere t he f ragmen tary i ron i nvo luted b rooch , t he L a T e r re Iv ar ian t b ow-brooch , a nd t he t wo g lass b eads a lready ment ioned , i n a ssoc ia t ion w ith aq uan t ity o f d is t inct ive p o t tery ( J . May i n forma t ion ), a s elect ion o f wh ich i s h ere i l lustra ted ( F ig . 1 1, 5 -7 ).

The d ate o f t h is a ssoc ia t ion wou ld s ee m

t o b e s econd c en tury , e x tend ing b ack i n to t he t h ird c entury B .C.

T h is i s

p erhaps s uppor ted b y t he d iscovery o f s cored p ot tery ( F ig. 1 0 , 1-12 ) a nd t he w e l l-known b ird-brooch o ver t he s a me a rea a t Red H il l , No tt ingha msh ire. A l though a c ons idera t ion o f a reas t o t he s ou th o f L e ices ter i s w e l l b eyond t he s cope o f t h is s tudy , w e s hou ld n o te t ha t a n e x tens ion o f t he d is tr ibut ion o f t yp ica l ly s cored p ot tery s ou thwards i n to Nor tha mp tonsh ire a nd B ed fords h ire i s a pparen t , most ly f ro m e v idence n o t p ub l ished when Kenyon made h er a ssesFrnen t ( 1952 , 6 7-8 ). T o t he w e l l-known v esse ls f ro m t he i nhumat ion

7 8

b ur ia l a t Egg in ton , Bed fordsh ire ( Gurney a nd H awkes , 1 940 , f ig . 3 ) , may b e a dded o ther a sse mb lages f ro m I r th l ingborough , Bozea t , S tr ix ton , a nd Wo l last on ( Ha l l a nd N ickerson , 1 969 , f igs. 1 , 1 ;

3 , 1 6 ;

5 , 5 0-52 ;

a nd 6 , 8 4 r e-

s pec t ive ly ), f ro m Upton ( Jackson , e t a l., 1 969 , f ig . 8 , 1 2 ) , a nd f ro m H ard ings tone ( Woods , 1 969 , f ig . 2 4 , 1 48-151) , a l l Nor thamp tonsh ire. Egg in ton d oes s eem t o b e a n o u t l ier , a l l t he o thers l y ing t o t he n or th o f Yard ley Chase , b u t t he N or tha mp tonsh ire s i tes d o s ee m t o b e s outh o f t he l ine s ugges ted a s t he s ou thern f ron t ier o f Cor itan ian t err itory b y Wh itwe l l ( 1970 , 9 -10 ) o n t he b as is o fR o man s acred s i tes.

C lear ly , much more r esearch n eeds t o b e d one i n

Nor tha mp tonsh ire , Bed fordsh ire , a nd Hun t ingdonsh ire , b u t i td oes s ee m l ike ly t ha t i n t h is z one b etween t hree g rea t t r iba l a reas a rchaeo log ica l g roup ings d id n o t r e ma in s ta t ic. A s f or o ther t ypes o f p ot tery i n t he Eas t M id lands , c urv i l inear d ecora t ion o n f i ne ware s ee ms t o b e l im ited west o f L inco lnsh ire t o t he s ing le o u ts tand ing e xamp le f ro m Breedon-on-the-H il l ( F ig . 1 3, 1 0 ), r ecovered i n r escue e xcav a t ions b y S . E . Tho mas i n 1 960 ( unpub l ished ).

The c losest p ara l le ls a re f ro m

t he e nclosures a t H ar c l ings tone , Nor tha mp tonsh ire ( Woods , 1 969 , f ig . 2 4 , 1 58 ; f ig . 2 5 , 1 61-7 ), where t he s ame h or izon ta l r ows o f g rooves a nd e nc losed d ots d ef in ing t he u pper e dge o f ab o ld c urv i l inear d es ign , t he r ough o ver lapp ing o f t he t ooled g rooves , a nd t o s o me e x ten t a lso p erhaps t he v esse l f orm , c an b e s een .

T here a re a f ew s im i lar ly d ecora ted s herds f ro m Ra insborough ( Avery ,

e t a l ., 1 967 , f ig . 2 2 , 4 6-48 a nd 5 0 , f ro m t he s ame p ot ), i n ap hase 4 c on tex t o n t ha t s i te , o f t he s econd c en tury B .C. Much more c arefu l ly-execu ted a nd c omp lex d es igns i n t he s ame s ty le a re f ound o n t he we l l-known " go ld f ish b ow ls" f rom H unsbury ( Fe l l , 1 937 , f i g . 6 , D l-D9 ).

Pro m inen t among t he d ecora t ive

mo t ifs i s t he r unn ing s cro l l , o r y in-yang , a lso s een o n b ow ls f ro m Draugh ton a nd D esborough , Nor tha mptonsh ire ( Gr i mes , 1 951, P l . V I, A ;

f ig . 4 1, 3 ) ,

a nd , s ign if ican t ly , o n ac ar ina ted v ase f ro m Pu is ieu lx , n ear Re i ms , Marne ( Er t 16 , 1 957 , f ig . 4 8 ), i n a n e ar ly L a f ene c on tex t.

E lsewhere i n Br ita in ,

t he s ame d ot ted r ows b etween g rooves a re k nown a t Ch innor Co mmon ( R ichardson a nd Y oung , 1 951, f ig . 8 , 8 2 ; s uggested d a te d own t o t he m idt h id c en tury ), a t Ra m 's H i l l , U f f ing ton ( P iggot t a nd P iggo t t , 1 940 , f i g . 5 , 1 4 ) a nd a t B lewbur ton H il l , Berksh ire ( Hard ing , 1 972, P l. 6 6 , F ). H owever , a s Hard ing h as p o in ted o u t , t he d ecora t ion o f t he Hunsbury b ow ls i s much l ess f orma l t han t ha t g enera l ly f ound i n t he Upper Tha mes a rea , wh ich i s d if fere n t a ga in f ro m t ha t i n s ou th-wes t Eng land ( 2p .c it ., 10 ).

Ev iden t ly p o t ters

o pera t ing i n d if feren t r eg ions , i nsp ired b y ac om mon s ty l is t ic f ash ion f or b oth l i near a nd c urv i l inear o rna men t , w i l l n one the less h ave a dop ted s uch d ecora t ive s ty les a t d if feren t t imes , a nd w ith v ary ing d egrees o f s uccess , f rom t he t h ird c en tury B .C. o nwards. An e ar l ier s econd c en tury d a te f or t he B reedon-on-the-H il l v ase may b e a ccep tab le. O ther r a ther u neven g rooved a nd d o t ted d ecora t ion a t Breedon-on-the-H il l ( F ig . 1 3, 3 -4 ) i s p robab ly p ar t o f t he s ame t rend , s een e lsewhere i n t he a rea a t Swarkes ton L ows ( F ig . 1 5 , 1 6 ). H ow f ar d oes s cored d ecora t ion o n p ot tery s urv ive i n to t he l a te I ron Age p er iod? T he a ssoc ia t ion o f s cored v esse ls w ith Be lg ic wares a t L oughboro ugh a nd D en ton ( Kenyon , 1 950 , f igs. 1 4 a nd 1 6 ) i s l ike ly b u t n ot c er ta in . More c onv inc ing i s t he ir o ccurrence w ith a f ew f ragmen ts o f Ro mano-Br it ish whee l-thrown v esse ls i n t he l arger o f t he t wo work ing h o l lows a t t he e nc losed 7 9

f arm o f T a l l ing ton 3 7 , L inco lnsh ire , o ccup ied f ro m A .D . 5 0/60 t o 8 0/90. ( S i mpson , W. G ., 1 966 , 1 5-16 , f ig . 1 ) , a nd w ith a Fow ler Type C p enannular b rooch a t Cas thorpe H il ls , n ear Gran tha m ( J . May i n forma t ion ). S cored d ecorat ion o ccurs o n p o t tery w ith r im f orms t yp ica l o f t he l a te L a f ene p er iod ( F ig . 1 6 , 2 ; Kenyon , 1 950, f ig . 1 3, 3 ) , t o b e n oted l a ter , a nd o n v esse ls i n l a te a sse mb lages n or th o f t he H u mber a t Fax f leet "A" ( F ig. 3 9 , 7 ) a nd S a ltsh ouse S choo l ( F ig . 4 1, 1 2 a nd 1 4 ).

Rando m s cor ing o f l arge j ars f rom

Whea tha mpstead ( NU M ), O ld S lea ford ( L iM ), a nd Swarkeston L ows F arm ( F ig . 1 6 , 7 ) a lso i nd ica tes i t s c urrency i n t he c los ing d ecades o f t he f i rst c en tury B .C. a nd l ater . There s ee m t o b e d is t inct ive t ypes o f s cor ing i n t he l a te I ron Age p er iod , h owever . The s cor ing o f s o me l a te v esse ls f ro m L e ices ter ( Kenyon , 1 948, f igs. 3 4 , 9 ; 3 5 , 2 ; 3 6, 1 9 ) a nd Twy ford ( Kenyon , 1 950 , f ig . 1 5, 1 ) i s o f ten f iner a nd more d e l ibera te ly h or izon ta l.

O ther p robab ly t yp ica l ly l a te f or ms ,

a re i nc ised v er tica l l ines d iv ided a t i n terva ls b y h or izon ta ls a s a t L e icester ( Kenyon , 1 948 , f ig. 3 4 , 1 4 ) a nd H orncas t le ( LHA , 1 969 , f ig. 1 , 1 5 ), a nd a l lo ver , a d jacen t g roups o fb road , mu lt ip le c o mb ings , made b y t he u se o f a t oothed t oo l i n r epea ted , s hor t , d ownward s trokes , a s a t S a l monby ( LHA , 1 968 , f ig . 2 ; L iM ). S ing le h or izon ta l g rooves a s a t S crat ta Wood ( F ig . 1 7 , 1 6-17 ), Dragonby ( F ig . 1 8 , 7 ) , a nd Burrough H il l ( F ig . 1 1, 4 ) may b e as ep ara te p heno menon o f t he f irst c en tury B .C. a nd l a ter. I ti s o n ly i n t he p er iod b e fore a bou t t he s econd h a lf o f t he s econd c en tury B .C., h owever , t ha t s cored p o t tery a ssu mes i t s o u ts tand ing d eve lopmen t i n t he Eas t M id lands. A f ter t ha t d a te , a sse mb lages o f d i f feren t c haracter c an b e d is t ingu ished wh ich i nd ica te t he i n trus ion o f n ew f orms a nd s ty les . Perh aps t he most u sefu l g roup wes t o f L inco lnsh ire c o mes f ro m a g rave l t errace s i te a t Wil l ing ton i n t he Tren t Va l ley , n or th o f Bur ton u pon Tren t . Ah u t s i te a nd a p it p roduced a b roken b eeh ive q uern , t r iangu lar l oo m-we igh ts , a nd a sma l l q uan t ity o f p o t tery ( CBATVARC 9 70 , 9 -11; F ig . 1 4 , 1 -10 ). T he p ot tery was p redo m inan t ly d ark a nd h and-s moo thed , w ith mou lded , b eaded 1

r i ms. Three sma l l s herds ( F ig . 1 5 , 4 -5 a nd 9 ) h ad s cor ing , a nd o n ly o ne o f t hese was o f t he u sua l d eep-scored t ype ( 4 ). A l igh ter r ed/brown t o g rey p edes ta l b ase-fragmen t ( 10 ) i s o f d if feren t c haracter , a nd may n ot b e c on te mp orary , p robab ly b e ing o ver a c entury l ater t han t he r es t f or wh ich a s econd c entury d a te s ee ms a ppropr ia te. The p it may h ave b een r e-cu t. ( The wr iters a re i ndebted t o J . May f or d iscuss ion o f t h is ma ter ia l.) The r e la t ive l ack o f s cor ing a t Will ing ton may , h owever , r ef lec t t he p os it ion o f t he s i te o n t he wes tern f r inge o f t he d istr ibu t ion ( F ig . 7 9 ). Most e x tens ive e v idence f or t he s upersedence o f s cored p ct tery i s a va ila b le f ro m s i tes n ear t he l ine o f t he J urass ic Way i n L incolnsh ire , a nd i n p art i cu lar f ro m Dragonby , n ear S cun thorpe ( May , 1 970 ). A v ery c o mp l icated s er ies o f i n tersect ing g u l l ies a nd d i tches p robab ly f orm ing r ec til inear e nc losures , p ar ts o f c ircu lar g u l l ies 2 8 a nd 3 0 f eet i n d iameter p robab ly d ef ini ng h u ts , a nd a f ew p its h ave b een e xcava ted , a nd l arge q uan t it ies o f p o ttery a nd me ta lwork , t ogether w ith s o me c o ins , h ave b een r ecovered .

T hree

p hases o f I ron Age o ccupa t ion h ave b een d ef ined b y a n a na lys is o f t he p ot tery ( 22 .c it ., 2 35-6 ).

The e ar l ies t i nc ludes p redo m inan t ly h and made v esse ls ,

u sua l ly p rofuse ly g r it ted w ith f ine s hel l .

8 0

F orms i nclude a v esse l w ith l ow

g lobu lar b ody , ompha los b ase, t a l l , s l igh t ly f l ar ing n eck , a nd b eaded r im , ar a ther l arger g lobu lar v esse l w ith ompha los b ase, c ons tr icted n eck , a nd e ver ted r im , a nd g racefu l S -prof i led j ars , u sua l ly o f sma l l s ize ( 22 .c it . , f ig . 7 , n os. 3 , 7a nd 1 r espec t ive ly ).

D ecora t ion i nc ludes l i near a nd c urv i-

l inear r ou letted a nd i nc ised d ecora t ion , u s ing s ing le a nd d oublel ine s quaret oo thed r ou let t ing w hee l , v ar ious k inds o f s ta mps s uch a s s i mp le d i mp les , c oncen tr ic c irc les , a nd r ose t tes , a nd b urn ish ing o f ten i n s epara te l i near z ones. T he b es t Br it ish p ara l le ls o u ts ide L inco lnsh ire a re f ro m t he " Sou th Eastern B " p o t tery d iscussed b y Ward-Perk ins ( 1938, f ig . 1 0 ), amongs t wh ich a v esse l f ro m L angenhoe i s o f g lobu lar s hape a nd h as i n ter locked swag d ecorat ion v ery s im ilar t o o ne f ro m Dragonby ( May , 1 970 , f i g . 7 , 7 ) , a nd a lso h as c oncen tr ic-c irc le s ta mps. T he d ecora t ion o n s o me v esse ls f ro m t he Upper Tha mes i s c omparab le i n p a t tern ( Hard ing , 1 972, P l. 6 7 ), b u t

n

t here t he s im ilar ity e nds .

t he n or th , p art icu lar ly n o tab le i s a wa ll-

s herd w ith c oncen tr ic c irc le s ta mped a nd g rooved d ecora t ion f ro m Thorn ton Da le , P icker ing ( F ig . 5 1, 8 ). U sefu l a na log ies t o t he e ar ly ma ter ia l a t Dragonby c o me f ro m n or thern France. G lobu lar v esse ls w ith ompha los b ases a nd t a l l c y l indr ica l n ecks a re k nown f ro m L a T ene Ic e meter ies , p ar t icu lar ly a t P ernan t , A isne ( Lob jo is , 1 969 , f i g . 1 07 , 0 63.02 ), b u t t he most c onv inc ing p ara l le ls a re w ith L a T ene I p er iod ma ter ia l. The c e metery o f t ha t d a te a t L es P oth6es , Ardennes , a f fords e xce l len t p ara l le ls t o t he g lobu lar a nd S -shaped p rof iles o f Dragonby Phase I ( Fro mo ls , 1 955 , 2 0 a nd 2 4 , Fou il les N os. 1a nd 5 ) , a nd a lso t o t hose f orms c ons idered b y May t o b e t rans it iona l a t t he e nd o f h is Phase I , i n p ar t icu lar a t ype o f p edes ta l u rn w ith s paced c ordons , g rooves a nd b u lges , b u t w ith a ngu lar s hou lder ( .c it ., 2 3, t o mbe tc har ; May , 1 970 , f ig . 8 , 1 6 ). The G au l ish L a T ene I ma ter ia l l acks t he d is t inct ive c urv il inear d ecora t ion o f Dragonby , b ut i nd ica tes a d a te i n t he l a ter s econd c en tury B .C. f or t he f orms , r unn ing t hrough t o t he m id-f irs t c en tury . Perhaps w e a re s ee ing a n ama lga m o f t h is w ith d ist inct ive ly s ou thern Br it ish o rnamen t , o ccupy ing a n a rea p rev ious ly r e la t ive ly emp ty . R ela ted t o t h is n ew i n f lux a t Dragonby a re v esse ls w ith s im ilar d ist inct ive d ecora t ion f ro m e lsewhere i n t he c oun ty . The f i rs t p hase o f o ccupa t ion a t O ld S lea ford i s marked b y h and- made p o t tery w ith S -shaped p rof ile a nd w ith g rooved , n o tched , r ou let ted , d i mp led , a nd s tamped d ecora t ion ( E MAB, V I, 5 -6 ;

F ig . 1 9 ).

r epresen ted i n t h is ma ter ia l ; af u l l e xcavat ion r epor t .

There s ee ms t o b e s o me c hrono log ica l r ange b u t f or f ur ther e luc ida t ion , we mus t awa it

As f or Ancaster , t he e arl ier I ron Age s et t le men t

p rev ious ly d escr ibed w as a bandoned a nd a n ew s i te s o me 5 00 y ards t o t he n or th-wes t was o ccup ied.

H and- made p o t tery i n f i ne b lack ware , most

s tr ik ing ly s im ilar t o t ha t f ro m O ld S lea ford i n f orm a nd d ecora t ion , marked t he e ar l ies t p hase ( J . May i n for ma t ion ). O ther s ta mped a nd r ou le t ted p o tt ery i s k nown f ro m K ir m ing ton a nd Ewerby ( E MAB, V I I I , f ig. 3 , 2 ; V I I, f ig. 3 , 4 ) , b oth s ur face f i nds.

A l though t he ma ter ia l f ro m t hese f our s i tes

i s l ike ly t o d a te f rom t he f i rs t c en tury B .C. o nwards , t he o r ig in o f t he s ty le i n t he s econd c en tury b eg inn ings a t Dragonby a nd i n c urv i l inear o rnamen ta l s ty les makes p oss ib le t he ir c ons idera t ion h ere. I t s uggests b y t he h igh q ua l ity o f s ur face a nd d ecora t ion a p rofess iona l p o ttery i ndustry c o mparab le w ith t ha t s tud ied b y Peacock i n t he w es t o f Eng land , a nd i t marks a d ist inct ive

8 1

p hase o f o ccupat ion l ead ing i nto t he l ate L a T ene p er iod.

A lthough s cored

p ot tery i s p resen t i n t hese a sse mb lages , a s a t O ld S lea ford , i t s s upre macy i s c o mp lete ly b roken.

T o wha t e x ten t t hese n ew L inco lnsh ire c o m mun it ies

w ere o f im m igran t d escen t i s n ot a t a l l c er ta in .

Tha t t hey marked a s ign if i-

c an t a dvance o n t he o ld o rder i s c lear f ro m t he p o t tery .

No s uch f ine wares

a re k nown f ro m n or th L e ices tersh ire o r Not t ingha msh ire a t p resen t , s o we must e nv isage s o me k ind o f s eparate a nd e xpand ing c u ltura l g roup ing e as t o f t he Tren t f ro m t he mid-second c en tury .

Fro m t he m id-f irst c en tury , c har-

a c ter ist ic Be lg ic w ares b eca me e stab l ished , a nd t hese w i l l b e e xa m ined l a ter . I t r e ma ins t o c ons ider whe ther i ti s p oss ib le t o c orre la te t he e ar l ies t c urr ency o f t he a rea ( f or d is tr ibu t ion maps s ee A l len , 1 962 , Maps 1 -7 ) w ith t h is ma ter ia l w h ich d eno tes a more a dvanced s oc iety .

I ti s i n terest ing t o n ote t he

f ind s o me t wo m iles s ou th o f Dragonby o f f our sword-shaped c urrency b ars f ro m a p resu med h oard a t Frod ingha m ( Al len , 1 967 , 3 30 ; b een made f ro m l oca l i ronstone ).

s a id n o t t o h ave

The n eares t h oards ( , " ' sword-shaped b ars

a re f ur ther s ou th a long t he J urass ic Way f ro m Hunsbury a nd Bur ton L a t i mer , Nor tha mptonsh ire.

No Ga llo-Be lg ic C c o ins a re k nown f ro m L incolnsh ire ,

b u t an u mber o f d er iva t ives , Br it ish H a nd Br it ish I , t ypes h av ing a f a ir ly w ide d is tr ibu t ion i n c en tra l a nd e astern Eng land a nd d a ted b y A l len w ith in t he f irs t h a lf o f t he f irs t c en tury B .C. ( Al len , 1 963, 3 2 ), h ave b een f ound i n t he c oun ty . S ign if ican t ly , o ne Br it ish Ic o in h as b een f ound a t Dragonby ( May , 1 970 , 1 42 ). A l len ( 1963, 1 0 ) h as c ons idered Br it ish H a nd Br it ish It o b e c harac ter ist ic o f ap hase o f i nvas ion a nd s e t t le men tb y G a l lo-Belg ic p eop le f ro m t he S o m me , p robab ly r each ing t he a rea o f t he Wash a nd e x tend ing i nl and a nd n or thwards a s

f ar a s t he Eas t R id ing c oas t .

There s ee ms l i t t le e v i-

d ence n or th o f t he H u mber f or s uch a n a sser t ion , a par t f ro m t he c o ins t he ms e lves.

As f or L inco lnsh ire, i t s ee ms l ike ly t ha t t here t he n ew c o inage t ook

r oo t a nd b losso med i n to t he u n inscr ibed a nd i nscr ibed Cor itan ian s er ies b ec ause a lready i n t h is a rea t here was a d yna m ic a nd r ecep t ive c o mmun ity , p erhaps c on trast ing w ith t hose t o t he n or th a nd west .

Dragonby i s u n l ike ly

t o h ave b een u n ique , a s p ot tery f inds f ro m Ancaster , Ewerby , K irm ing ton , a nd O ld S lea ford i nd icate. The m idd le L a T ene p er iod s aw a c on t inued d eve lop men t o f t ypes o f mat er ia l r e ma ins a lready k nown f ro m e ar ly L a T ene t imes.

I n t he Eas t R id ing ,

b rooch s ty les f o l low ing Con t inen ta l t rends i n c er ta in d eta ils f lour ished , p art i cu lar ly f ro m 2 00 B .C., a nd i ncreases i n p opu la t ion a re s hown b y t he l arge n u mber o fb ur ia ls o f t he p er iod .

S o me n ew i n f luence c an b e s een , b u t t he

emphas is o f t he ma ter ia l r e ma ins a nd t he b ur ia l t ypes i s o n c on t inu ity . Pot tery s hows a l ack o f o r ig inal ity i n c o m mon I ron Age B f orms.

I n t he Eas t

M id lands , s cored p o t tery i s d om inan t a nd l oca l b rooch manufac ture c an b e s een.

A w e l l-def ined r eg iona l g roup ing t o t he s ou th-west o f o ur a rea i s

c haracter ised b y p o t tery w ith s ta mped a nd g rooved d ecora t ion f ro m i n tens ivel y-occup ied h i l l-for t s i tes.

These i nnovat ions a re ma tched b y t he Nor tha mp-

t onsh ire c urv il inear s ty les , a n e xt ens ion n or thwards o f wh ich c an b e t raced t o Breedon-on-the-H il l. The impac t o f L a T ene I c u l ture f ro m t he Ardennes a nd t he Hau te Marne i s e v iden t f ro m t he p o t tery a t Dragonby a nd f ro m t he weapons a nd s h ie ld

8 2

f ragmen ts a t N or th G r i ms ton .

T hese i n f luences o f t he l a ter s econd c en tury

B .C. a re mos t s ign if ican t , e spec ia l ly f or L inco lnsh ire e as t o f t he T ren t w here an ew a nd d ynam ic c o mmun i ty s eems t o h ave b een c rea ted w h ich , a ss im ilat i ng a k now ledge o f c o inage a nd , l a ter , Be lg ic p o t tery , w as t o f orm a n uc leus o f t he t r iba l g roup o f t he C or i tan i. Meanwh ile , a reas t o t he n or th a nd w es t o f t he Y orksh ire Wo lds r e ma in l arge ly d evo id o f e v idence f or t h is p hase.

8 3

CHAPTER 6

THE

LATE LA TENE PER IOD

I n d iscuss ing t he ma ter ia l r e ma ins o f t he f irs t c entury B .C. a nd t he e ar l ier f irs t c en tury A . D. i ti se v iden t t ha t u pon i nd igenous t rad it ions were imposed n ew t echn iques o f manu facture , n ew s ty les o f d ecora t ion , a nd n ew f or ms o f t he o b jects t he mse lves.

Impor ted a nd i ndus tr ia l ly-produced p ot-

t ery , sma l l i t e ms o f meta lwork , a nd c o ins i nd ica te s pec if ica l ly Be lg ic c hara cter is t ics. The ma in q ues t ion wh ich a r ises i s t o wha t e x ten t t hese i n trus ive p heno mena i n t he a rchaeo log ica l r ecord r epresen t t he a rr iva l o f p eop le f ro m t he p r i mary Be lg ic s et t le men ts f ur ther s ou th , a nd t hus whether a ny o f t he t r iba l g roups o f o ur a rea c an b e t er med ' Be lg ic ' i n a ny s ense.

I n h is s u m-

mary o f t he Ce lt ic b ackground t o Ro man Br i ta in , R ivet (1 964, 4 6-53 ) c ons idered t he Br igan tes o f n or thern Eng land , t he Par is i o f e astern Y orksh ire , a nd t he Cornov i i o f S hropsh ire a nd Chesh ire t o b e im mune t o Belg ic i n f luence : t hey may b e t er med " na t ive" t r iba l g roups.

The Cor itan i o f t he Eas t Mid lands ,

w i th t he ir c o inage a nd Be lg ic-type p ot tery , w ere s a id t o d isp lay s econdary Be lg ic i n f luence r ef lec t ing t he impos it ion o f ad ynasty r a ther t han a ma jor s et t le men t :

t he t er m " para-Be lg ic" m igh t b e u sed f or s uch t r ibes .

The

v al id ity o f t h is g enera l isa t ion w i l l b e r e-exam ined a f ter a s urvey o f t he mat er ia l e v idence. i .

Me ta lwork Swords p rov ide t he b es t e xa mp les o f c on t inu ing i nsu lar t rad it ions o f me-

t a lwork ing i n t he l a te I ron Age p er iod.

The f a mous i ron sword w ith i ts

s cabbard c o mpr is ing a s heet-bronze f ron t-p la te a nd a f rag men tary i ron b ackp late f ro m Bug thorpe d e mands a t ten t ion .

I t was f ound w ith t wo d ecorated

d iscs a nd t wo b ronze s tuds when d ra in ing a f i e ld o n t he e astern e dge o f t he Va le o f York , a nd was s a id t o h ave a cco mpan ied a b ur ia l.

There a re a n u m-

b er o f d ecora t ive a nd s tructura l f ea tures t o b e n oted ( P iggot t , 1 950 , f ig . 2 ; Fox , 1 958 , P l. 5 3, c ). The i nc ised c urv il inear o rna men t d own t he l eng th o f t he f ron t-p la te i s o f a n a sym metr ic f reehand n ature.

I ts f low ing s cro l ls a nd

l obes a re s im i lar t o t hose o n t he S u t ton s cabbard-p la te ; b ut t he i nc ised , c ross-ha tched i n f il l ing o f t he d es ign r elates i t more c lose ly t o t hose o n t he b ack-p la tes o f m irrors , a s f ro m B ird l ip , D esborough , a nd t he Mayer Co l lect ion , L iverpoo l ( Fox , 1 958, P l. 5 7 ), t hough t he f or ma t o f i ts d es ign d oes n o t p erm it t he s a me e x tens ive u se o f t he s quared h a tch ing c haracter is t ic o f mir t or o rna men t .

The h eavy c hape , c ast o n t o b ind ing s tr ips , i s a lso h a tched ,

b u t h as l ow r e l ief o rna men t o f t ru mpet s p ira ls p roduc ing a n e f fec t n o t un l ike t ha t o n t he S net t i sh am t ore t er m ina l ( .c it ., f ig . 3 4 ).

The b ase o f t he c hape

i s b o ld ly l ipped , af eature s een l ess e xaggera ted o n as heath f ro m H unsbury

8 4

a nd a lso o n t he mou lded f ee t o f b rooches f ro m Bur ton F le m ing a nd Danes Graves ( see a bove p . 6 9).

Two p a irs o f d ecora t ive b ronze s tuds o n t he f ron t-

p la te p ara l le l t he e na mel led k nobs a nd s tuds o n t he W itha m a n thropo id d agger ( 22 .c it., P l. 1 0 , e ) . The i nc ised l i near o rna men t o n t he f ragmen tary b ackp la te o f t he Bug thorpe s cabbard i s i n o penwork a nd n ot h a tched ;

a ga in , t here

i s s im i lar d ecora t ion o n t he W itha m a n thropo id , p ar t icu lar ly t he b ack-p la te , a nd a lso o n t he s cabbard-chape f ro m L it t le W it tenham , Ox fordsh ire ( Hard ing , 1 972 , P l. 7 9 , D ).

T he p ara l lels t o t he ma in d ecora t ive e le men ts t herefore,

a re f i rm ly o f t he f i rst c en tury , s o a l though t he s cabbard- mouth i s l ow a nd n ot p o in ted , a nd t he c hape i s ad ist inct Br it ish t ype d er ived f rom t he e ar ly La T ene s equence , ad a te i n t he s econd q uar ter o f t he f i rst c entury B .C. wou ld s ee m r easonab le. T he t wo b ronze d iscs f rom t he Bug thorpe b ur ia l h ave a lready b een ment i oned a s p oss ib le s h ie ld- moun ts. They a re a lso impor tan t f or t he ir d ecorat ion o f p inned b eads o f r ed e na mel , p resu mab ly a s i m ita t ion c ora l ( S tead , 1 965 , f i g. 3 6 , 2 -3 ;

F ox , 1 958, P l. 1.c ).

Ena me l l ing s ee ms g enera l ly t o

b e p os t-100 B .C. i n Br ita in , w ith p inn ing b e ing w ide ly u sed f or a t tach men t , a s h ad b een n ecessary e ar l ier w ith o ther f orms o f s tone , g lass , a nd c ora l b eaded o rna men t , u n t il t he t echn ique o f c ha mp lev6 was i n troduced u nder i nd irec t o r d irect Be lg ic i n f luence.

V ar ious s ubst itu tes f or c ora l w ere w ide ly

u sed i n L a V ene Yorksh ire , a nd s o i ti s i n terest ing t o n ote t he i den t if ica t ion o f ag enu ine c ora l b ead i n t he d ecora t ion o f t he c hape o f t he s l igh t ly l ater sword f ro m Gr im thorpe ( S tead , 1 968 , f i gs. 1 4-15 , 1 70 ). T he Gr im thorpe i ron s word h as a f ragmen tary s cabbard w ith b ronze f ron tp la te a nd i ron b ack-p la te. I ti s much l ess o rna te t han t he Bug thorpe s pec imen , a nd t ha t i ti s l a ter i s s ugges ted b y i t s s harp ly-arched b ronze h i lt-guard , t ypo log ica l ly l ater t han t he g en t ly-curv ing f orm , b y t he more s ymmetr ica l a nd r es tra ined d ecora t ion , a nd b y t he b u lbous b if id b ase t o t he c hape , wh ich h as l i pped mou ld ings a bove o n e ach s ide.

The c hape b ind ing e x tends u p t he

s cabbard e dge , a nd i s c lasped a t i t s t op w ith ab road b ronze b and .

Be low t h is

b and , a cross t he b ack-p la te , a re t wo n arrow b ronze p ane ls , d ecora ted w ith i nc ised c irc les a nd mat ted l obes , t he l ower r ough ly s ym me tr ica l a nd t he u pper as p ira l l obe p a t tern .

A t t he f ron t o f t he c hape t here a re t hree sma l l s ockets

a t e ach s ide t o r ece ive p inned s et t ings , t he r e ma in ing o ne o f wh ich s urv ives a nd h as b een a l mos t c er ta in ly i den t if ied a s g enu ine r ed c ora l o f t he Med iterr anean . The t wo sma l l l oose s tuds f ro m Gr im thorpe ( .c it., 1 3 , 2 -3 ) a re v ery s im ilar t o t hose s uper i mposed o n t he d ecora ted f ron t-p la te o f t he Bugt horpe s cabbard. T here a re t wo a n thropo id d aggers f ro m o ur a rea o f H awkes ' C lass G , p robab ly d a t ing t o t he f irst h a l f o f t he f irst c entury B .C.

T ha t f ro m t he r iver

Witham h as a lready b een men t ioned i n r e la t ion t o d ecora t ive f ea tures o f t he Bug thorpe weapon . A l l i t s d e ta ils a re t yp ica l ly Br it ish i n s ty le. T he e na me l k nobs o n t he h i ltl i mb t erm ina ls a nd s tuds o n t he s hea th f ron t-p la te a re r eta ined b y p egs , s im ilar t o t he b osses f ro m Bug thorpe b u t l ess t echn ical ly a dvanced ( Clarke a nd H awkes , 1 955 , 2 16 ). The h ear t-shaped c hape i s n arr ower , w ith l i p- mou ld ings a t t he s ides b ut n ot a t t he t i p , a nd i s t hus c loser t o c hapes f ro m Woodeaton a nd S pet t isbur 3 r ( Fox , 1 958 , f i g . 2 4 , 5a nd 7 ) . T he imp-form s qua tt ing b e tween t he a r ms i s au n ique f ea ture.

8 5

The e ngraved

o penl inear o rna men t o f t he b ack-p la te , o f c oncave-s ided t r iang les w ith in c irc les ,

a sym metr ica l ly p laced , i s d is t inct ive ly Br it ish ( .c it ., 3 8 ).

The

f ore ign C lass G mode l f or t h is n at ive p roduct must h ave a rr ived s hor t ly a f ter 1 00 B .C. ( Clarke a nd H awkes , 1 955 , 2 16 ). A lso c ons idered t o b e ac opy o f a Gau l ish C lass G s hor t-sword i s t he s econd d agger , n ow i n t he Br it ish Museum , a nd p robab ly f ro m Yorksh ire.

I ti s o f i n fer ior q ua l ity , w ith c rude ly-

f or med h ead , s t il l i n " barbar ic" s ty le , p ro ject ing s harp ly f ro m b e tween Ys haped a rms. T he g r ip h as f i ve d eep b u t u neven r ing- mou ld ings . b ard s urv ives.

N o s cab-

Af ur ther d evelop men t , d ist inct ive ly n or thern Eng l ish , i s s een i n P iggo t t 's Group I V , Br igan t ian s words ( 1950, 1 7-20 ). A c ons iderab le v ar ie ty o f d et a il i s r epresen ted , b u t c o m mon f eatures s ee m t o b e a n e xaggera t ion o f t he p rev ious l i pped c hape f orm i n to a s harp ly b if id mou ld ing , t he u se o f as ing le b road s trap-loop , c en tra l ly p laced o n t he s cabbard , w ith d ecora t ive s tr ipa t tachmen ts a bove a nd b e low , t he s quare-cu t s cabbard mou th o f L a f ene D t ype , a nd t he u se o f p o lychro me e na me l i n lay . ( For i nd iv idua l s words s ee Notes o n F igures , 8 0.) Hawkes h as d rawn a t ten t ion t o c er ta in f ea tures o f t he g roup a s r ef lect ing t he e ar l ier C lass G a n thropo ids ( Clarke a nd H awkes , 1 955 , 2 17 ), i n p ar t icu lar t he mu lt ip le r ing- mou ld ings o f t he Cot terda le h il t a nd t he r e l ief d ecora t ion o n t he War ton p ommel a nd h i lt. H e h as a lso s een t he e na me l led p o lychro me o rna men t , a s o n t he Emb leton sword , a s c haract er is t ic o f t he s even th d ecade o f t he f irst c en tury A .D . ( Corder a nd Hawkes , 1 940 , 3 53-5 ).

Ad a te w ith in t he f i rs t c en tury A .D . s ee ms l ikely f or a l l

me mbers o f Group I V , i nclud ing t hose w ith c ocked-ha t h ilts , b u t u nt i l more d e ta i led a na lys is t han P iggot t 's o f 1 950 i s p ub l ished , r ela t ive c hrono logy w ith in t he g roup w il l r e ma in u ncer ta in . As f or P iggot t 's Group V ( 1950 , 2 1-22 ) , wh ich i s r egarded a s B e lg ic i n o r ig in , t here a re t wo e xa mp les t o c ons ider . One i s f ro m t he r iver Witham n ear L incoln ( Fox , 1 958, P l. 4 9 b ). The b ronze s cabbard o f t h is i ron weap on h as a s i mp ly-curved s em i-c ircu lar c hape , a nd a s quare-cu t mouth wh ich i s marked b y ar ibbed a nd d ecora ted c ross-b ind ing.

There a re t wo s im ilar ly

d es igned b ind ings b e low . The t op o f t he f ron t-p la te h as a r a ther f or ma l i nc ised c urv il inear d es ign o f d ots , c irc les , a nd a rcs , w ith o ppos ing z ones o f p ecked t ex ture. A s im i lar p at tern o n t he b ack-p la te i s d ef ined b y t he c urved u pward a nd d ownward e x tens ions o f t he b road b ronze b e ltloop . T he s cabb ard b ind ings , u n i mag ina t ive c urv il inear d ecorat ion , b road r ectangu lar b e l tl oop , s tra igh t s cabbard- mou th , a nd o vera l l s l im s hape a re c harac ter ist ics h e ld i n c o m mon w ith t he sword f ro m t he S tanw ick f or t if ica t ions ( Whee ler , 1 954 , f ig . 1 4 ).

The w ooden s cabbard o f t h is weapon i s b ound b y n ine h or i-

z on ta l ly-r ibbed b ind ings , t he t op t hree b e ing b roader t han t he r es t , c la mp ing t he b e l tloop a nd d ecorat ive mouth- mou ld ing i n p os it ion. Th is l a t ter mou ldi ng i s o f s em i-c ircu lar f or m , w ith d oub le-r ing a nd d o t mot ifs w ith in " ves icas haped" e le men ts , a l l e nclosed w ith in t r ip le b order-l ines. The c hape i s o f u nusua l t ype , h av ing a t er m ina l k nob b e low a r eel- mou ld ing . Knobbed c hapes a re t yp ica l o f P iggot t 's G roup v i, ,and r ef lect Ro man i nsp ira t ion .

The p os it ion

o f t he S tanw ick s word i n t he d itch o f Phase I a d jo in ing t he e n trance o n S i te B e nab led Wheeler t o d a te i t s l oss w ith in t he t ime b racket A .D . 5 0-74 ( op . c i t ., 4 4 ).

T he r iver W itha m s cabbard h as b een d a ted b y F ox ( 1958 , 1 17 ) t o

8 6

t he e ar ly f i rs t c en tury A .D .

There i s a n o bv ious d if ference b e tween t he r e-

s tra ined b u t u n i mag ina t ive s ty le o f t hese w eapons a nd t he g audy e na mel l ing o f s ome o f t he Br igan t ian G roup I V. Bo th a re r egarded a s a cqu is it ions f rom s ou th-eastern Eng land . T here a re t wo e xa mp les f ro m e as tern Yorksh ire o f i ron s words o f p la iner a nd more p lebe ian t ype , e ach o f wh ich a t t he t ime o f d iscovery i nc luded e v id ence o f a wooden s hea th .

One was f ound i n t he e xcava t ions o f t he L a T ene

c e me tery a t Eastburn ( Sheppard , 1 938, 4 0-1, P l. I V ).

2 8 i nches l ong , w ith

ab road p ara l le l-s ided b lade 1 .5 i nches w ide t aper ing t o 'a p o in t , i t was f ound w ith a c on tracted i nhu ma t ion b ur ia l.

A s im i lar w eapon was f ound b y C . a nd

E .Gran tha m i n t he ir w ork a t G ar ton S lack i n a dvance o f g rave l q uarry ing . S a id t o h ave b een f ound w ith a sma l l c arved c ha lk f igur ine ( CA , 1 7 , 1 70 , l ower p la te ) i n t he f i l l ing o f a n I ron Age d itch b eyond t he l im it o f a n e ar ly Ro man r e-cu t t ing , i ti s t hus o f t he f irs t c en tury B .C. o r s l igh t ly l a ter .

3 3.5 i nches

l ong i nc lud ing a s tou t , r ectangu lar-sect ioned t ang , i th as ab road , p ara l le ls ided , s l igh t ly r idged b lade , t aper ing t o ap o in t w ith in t he b ot to m 4 i nches. L ess t han h a l f o f af l a t , o va l h i l t-guard , 1 .5 b y 2i nches , made o f as epara te i ron p la te , r e ma ins.

O f t he p o m me l-p iece , as urv iv ing sma l l p la teiron

f ragmen t i s r eta ined b y t he h a m mered-over t ang e nd.

Tha t t here w as sword-

manu facture i n t he Eas t R id ing a round t he f i rs t c en tury B .C. i s v ery l ike ly . Ear l ier i ron s words o f c o m mon t ype w ere p robab ly s l i mmer a nd more s harpl y l ozenge-sect ioned , j udg ing b y av ery f ragmen tary a nd b ad ly-corroded e xamp le f ro m Breedon-on-the-H il l ( casua l f ind ;

L eM , 1 951).

Apar t f ro m c o inage , p erhaps t he b es t e v idence o f Be lg ic i nf luence i s p rov ided b y b rooches. I ti s n o t c er ta in h ow f ar t he u se o f " f la ttened b ow" a nd i nvo luted b rooches e x tended i n to t he f i rst c en tury B .C., b u t t he c o l lect ion o f mater ia l f rom t he Eas tburn c e metery , i nc lud ing a l a telook ing b racel et a nd t ogg le ( Sheppard , 1 938 , P l. 1 ;

S tead , 1 965 , 5 4 a nd 6 1 ), d oes s ugges t

t hat i nvo lu tes were s t il l c o m mon d own t o a bou t 5 0 B .C. L ater b rooches , i n Yorksh ire a s i n r eg ions t o t he s ou th , a re e i ther o f s a fe ty-p in t ype w ith s pr ing-fas ten ings , b u t o f ten o f t wo-p iece c ons truc t ion , o r o f p enannu lar f orm . T hey a re o f p la in b u t w e l l- made c haracter , e v iden t ly i n troduced f ro m c en tres o f mass p roduct ion t o t he s ou th a nd o n t he Con t inen t. T he most e x tens ive c o l lect ions o f L a T ene I I b rooches f ro m o ur a rea c o me f ro m S ou th F err iby ( Hawkes , S . C ., 1 963 ) a nd Dragonby ( May , 1 970 , 2 43 ). T hose f ro m t he f ormer s i te h ave b een s a lvaged o ver a p er iod o f t ime f ro m t he H u mber s hore i n a n a rea o f a ct ive c l if f-eros ion , a nd t hose f ro m D ragonby , o ver 1 00 i n n u mber , h ave t urned u p d ur ing s ur face c o l lect ion a nd d ur ing e xcava t ion.

F ro m b o th s i tes t here a re e xamp les o f t he Dea l

t ype , r are i n t he M id lands a nd t he n or th , w ith o penwork c a tch-p la te , i n terna l c hord , a nd v est ig ia l mou ld ing n ear t he t op o f t he s lender b ow. ( For l ocat ions a nd r eferences o f t hese a nd o ther b rooches men t ioned b e low , s ee N otes o n F igures , 8 2 ). Ano ther Dea l t ype b rooch , af ine e xamp le w ith d ecora t ive lyp ierced c a tch-p late , c a me f rom t he l a ter I ron Age s i te a t Ancas ter. Examp les f ro m Swar l ing , Graves 4 a nd 1 3, h ave b een d ated b y B ircha l l ( 1965 , 2 43 ) t o a round 5 0 B .C.

Tha t t he S outh F err iby e xamp le may b e s l igh t ly

l a ter i s s uggested b y i t s sma l l a nd p robab ly d egenera te f or m.

These a re ,

h owever , t he e ar l ies t i n L inco lnsh ire , a nd t he ir p resence w ith in t he a rea f or

8 7

wh ich e ar ly Be lg ic i nf luence i s a rgued o n g rounds o f c o inage a nd p o t tery i s s ign if ican t .

O thers f ro m S ou th Ferr iby ( Hawkes , S . C ., 1 963, f ig . 1 , 2 -3 )

a nd Dragonby , w ith l ong s tra igh t b ow a nd l ong p ierced c a tch-p late , may a lso b e r e la ted t o Dea l e xa mp les a nd d a te w ith in t he f irs t c en tury B .C. The d is t inct ive ly i nsu lar Co lches ter-type L a ' e e r ie I I b rooch i s much more c o m mon i n t he Eas t M id lands.

There a re e igh t e xa mp les f ro m S outh F err iby ,

a nd a t Dragonby t hey a re a lso n u merous , o f c haracter is t ic b ow a nd p ierced c a tch-p late.

f or m w ith c urv ing

O thers a re f ro m Ra tae Cor itanoru m , f ro m

Gr ing ley-on-the-H il l a nd S cra t ta Wood ( F ig . 1 7, 6 ) , b o th No tt ingha msh ire , a nd f ro m Brough ton Co m mon , Ancas ter , a nd Win ter ingha m , a l l L inco lnsh ire. The l at ter e xa mp le ( EI V IAB, V I I I, f ig . 3 , 3 ) i s p ar t icu lar ly i nterest ing , h avi ng a r epa ired p in f or m ing a s i mp le h inge r a ther t han t he n or ma l s pr ing , a nd ad ecora ted c a tch-p la te w ith r o l led-graver p er i meter i n a dd it ion t o a ngu lar p ierc ings.

Nor th o f t he Hu mber , Co lchester b rooches a re k nown f ro m Rud-

s ton , Wa t ton Pr iory , G ar ton S lack ( l ate I ron Age d itches ), Hess le , a nd Nor th Ferr iby .

The l at ter ( S tead , 1 971, f ig. 8 , 1 ) i s u nusua l , h av ing a k nobbed

t erm ina t ion t o t he c a tch-p la te wh ich i s u nper fora ted a nd h as s cro l led a nd h atched c urv il inear e ngrav ing i n L a V ene s ty le.

Amongst a l l t hese t here i s

ac ons iderab le r ange i n s ize , t ha t f ro m Ra tae a nd t wo f ro m S ou th F err iby b e ing p ar t icu lar ly l arge a nd h eavy , a nd t hose f ro m G ar ton S lack a nd Rudston q u ite sma l l.

The d a t ing r ange i s u ncer ta in , b u t t ha t i te x tends t owards t he

e nd o f t he f irst c entury A .D . i s s uggested b y t he p oss ib le a ssoc ia t ion o f t he t wo l arge o nes men t ioned w ith a Ro mano-Br it ish t ru mpe t b rooch.

T aken a s

a who le , t he Co lches ter b rooch t ype h as b een a ccep ted a s ar epresenta t ive o f ' Be lg ic ' c u lture ( Hodson , 1 964b , f ig . 1 ;

H awkes , S . C ., 1 963 , 2 8 ). The

e x tens ion o f i ts d is tr ibu t ion t o t he Eas t R id ing i s t hus s ign if ican t , a nd may b e s een a s ar esu l t o f Be lg ic t rad ing i n t he f irs t c en tury A . D. O f o ther s a fe ty-p in t ype b rooches d a t ing r ough ly t o t he mid-f irs t c entury A .D . t he H od H i l l t ype i s q u ite c om mon a t Dragonby ( May , 1 970 , 2 43 ) a nd p resen t a t Rudston ( two ; 1 969 , f ig . 3 9 , 3 2 ).

S tead , 1 971, 4 0 ) a nd Brough-on-Hu mber ( Wacher ,

Auc issa t ype b rooches a re more n u merous , a ga in f ro m

Dragonby a nd Rudston , a nd f ro m Thorn ton D a le , A ldborough , Nor th F err iby , a nd De mon 's Da le , Derbysh ire.

O thers f rom Dragonby i nclude Fan ta i l a nd

Lang ton Down t ypes ( one o f t he l a t ter f ro m Ancaster ;

Bar ley , e t a l ., 1 968 ).

P -shaped b rooches o f Co l l ingwood 's Group T h ave c o me f ro m Ouse thorpe, n ear P oc l z l ing ton ( F ig . 3 5 , 1 ) , a nd f ro m S tan is tan H i l l , n ear O t ley ( An t. J ., V I I I, 5 26-7 ). The l ast-na med t wo b rooches a re v ir tua l ly i den t ica l a nd a re o f c ons iderab le impor tance.

They a re p la in a nd s i mp le , h av ing a c o l lar o n t he b ow wh ich i s

o f d ia mond s ec t ion t owards t he f oot a nd c ircu lar s ect ion t owards t he h ead. The s eparate -p iece p in h as a n e igh t-co il s pr ing , i t s c hord g r ipped b y af la tt ened e x tens ion t o t he h ead . p la in .

The s ide-w ings a nd t aper ing c a tch-p la te a re

These b rooches a re a we l l-known G erman v ers ion o f t he L a T ene T U

f i bu la , at ype b es t-known f ro m t he e ar l ier l evels o f t he f or t a t H ofhe im ( R it ter l ing , 1 913 , P l. V I I, 8 -18 ).

Deve lop ing f ro m i ti s t he " eye b rooch",

f ound a t He me l H e mps tead ( An t. J ., ) 000, 1 94-5 ) , L incoln , O ld S lea ford , S ou th S h ie lds a nd S cra t ta Wood ( s ite : meter w a l l o n t he NN W s ide ;

F ig . 7 3;

f ound i n t u mb le o f t he p er i-

G . F . Wh ite i n for ma t ion ).

8 8

A t Hofhe im t he

p la in t ype i s c er ta in ly C laud ian , a nd p robab ly p re-Claud ian i n o r ig in a t l eas t . I n Br ita in i t s hou ld t herefore b e p re-F lav ian , a nd p robab ly p re-A .D . 5 0 , t hus a n te-da t ing t he m il itary a nnexa t ion o f Yorksh ire.

The Ousethorpe b rooch i s

o f impor tance f or o ur l ate I ron Age p o t tery s tud ies , a s i t was f ound w ith s herds ( F ig . 3 5 , 2 -7 ) i n a sma l l p i t s ea led b enea th t he b ank o f a Med ieva l e ar thwork s i te ( F igs. 6 6-67 ) d ur ing e xcavat ions b y W. J . Var ley . Amongs t Fow ler 's c o mp l ica ted c lass if ica t ion o f p enannu lar b rooches , o ne t ype s tands o u t a s d ist inct ive ly Be lg ic :

h er t ype C ( Fow ler , 1 960 , 1 65 ), i n

wh ich t he t er m ina ls a re s p ira l ly c o iled a t r igh t-ang les t o t he p lane o f t he r ing . Exa mp les i n p re-Claud ian l eve ls a t Prae Wood a nd Ca mu lodunu m were c i ted , a nd t he t ype was s hown t o b e c on f ined e xc lus ive ly t o Be lg ic a reas o r s i tes w ith Be lg ic i nf luence.

The d istr ibu t ion w ith in o ur a rea i s t h is impor tan t :

t here a re t hree f ro m S ou th F err iby , n u merous e xa mp les f ro m Dragonby , o ne e ach f ro m Thea lby , H unger ton ( F ig . 1 6 , 8 ) , Coun thorpe , a nd Cas thorpe H il ls , a l l L inco lnsh ire , o ne f ro m H ay ton , No t t ingha msh ire , a nd o n ly o ne n or th o f t he H u mber f ro m Ruds ton .

T he l a t ter e xa mp le was f ound w ith a n i nhu ma t ion

i n ag rave c ut i n to a d i tch.

I t s h u mped b ow c o mpares w ith t hose f ro m S ou th

F err iby a nd Dragonby , a lthough i n o ther e xa mp les t he p in , where i t s urv ives , i s f l a t .

Fow ler 's t ypes A l, A 2 , A 3, A4 , B , a nd D i a re a l l r epresen ted i n

t he T ren t-Tyne a rea , a nd h ave b een l i sted ( 92 .c it ., 1 71, f .).

I n a dd it ion

s hou ld b e n o ted o ne o f t ype D i f ro m t he G ar ton S lack l a te I ron Age d itches ( Fig . 3 3, 8 ) , a nd o ne o f . t ype B f ro m Dragonby .

Mos t o f t hese , p ar t icu lar ly

t ype A 2 w ith m il led k nobs , ( t he Thorn ton Da le p enannu lar , F ig . 5 1, 1 , i s o ne o f t hese ) a re o f l i t t le u se f or d a t ing , b e ing c o m mon i n t he Ro mano-Br it ish p er iod i n t he n or th o f Eng land a lthough e v iden t ly c urren t f ro m t he f i rs t c ent ury A .D . O f much g reater s p lendour i n p ersona l a dorn men t a nd d isp lay , a nd a lso o f e v iden t r i tua l s ign if icance b o th f or t he l i v ing a nd t he d ead , i s t he t orc , a c haracter is t ica l ly Ce l t ic o rna men t.

There a re f our e lectru m t orcs f ro m t he

marg ins o f o ur a rea t o b e c ons idered , a l l o f c lose ly s im ilar c haracter.

Two

s urv ive f ro m a m id-n ineteen th c en tury d iscovery o f t hree t orcs , ap or t ion o f ab race let , a nd t he r e ma ins o f h orse t rapp ings , a t U lceby , n or th L inco lnsh ire ( Leeds , 1 933, P l. L O X ).

O f t hese , t he sma l ler , a bou t 5 .6 i nches i n d ia-

meter , i s o f t wo s tou t s trands , t w isted i n r opel ike f ash ion , w ith s i mp le d oub leloop t er m ina ls.

The l arger , a bou t 6 .8 i nches i n d ia meter , i s o f f our

p la ited s trands w ith l arger q uadrup leloop t erm ina ls. o rna te ly f in ished , c o me f ro m S ta f fordsh ire.

Two o thers , more

T ha t f ro m G lascote , n ear T a m-

wor th , f ound a bou t 1 943 ( Pa in ter , 1 971, P l. I ) , i s a bou t 7i nches i n d ia me ter , o f t we lve s trands t w is ted i n to s ix p a irs wh ich a re t he mse lves t w isted a bou t ac en tra l h o l low c ore.

On t o t he e nds a re c as t t wo l oop-shaped t er m ina ls ,

e ach d iv ided i n to t hree s egmen ts b y t wo p unched , wavy l i nes a round t he c irc umference.

Tha t f ro m N eedwood F orest , f ound i n 1 848 ( op.c it ., P l. I ;

Fox , 1 958, P l. 2 5 ), a bou t 7 .3 i nches i n d ia me ter , i s o f 1 8 s trands , t igh t ly t w isted i n to s ix r ope-l ike u n its , t hese b e ing l oose ly t w isted a nd c as t o n t o l oop-shaped t er m ina ls.

T hese t er m ina ls h ave more p ro fuse d ecorat ion ,

e ach w ith t wo p unched wavy l i nes , s im ilar t o t hose o n t he G lasco te t er m ina ls , a nd a lso r ows o f c ircu lar p unch- marks f lanked b y g rooves a nd a marg ina l r ow o f u pstand ing k nobs , s tated b y Pa in ter ( op .c it ., 3 ) t o h ave b een mode l led i n t he mou ld a nd f in ished b y t oo l ing .

8 9

As f or t he d a te o f t hese t orcs , Hawkes ( 1936 ) a ss igned t he N eedwood F ores t s pec i men t o t he l a t ter h a lf o f t he s econd c en tury B .C. o n t he b as is o f t he s i mp le d ecora t ion . H owever , t he U lceby e xamp les w ere a l most c ert a inly i n a ssoc ia t ion w ith t he t hree h orse-b its o f i ron c ased i n b ronze , o ne r e in-r ing o f wh ich s urv ives a nd h as b een d iscussed b y F ox ( 1958, 3 5-6 , P l. 2 4 ). Th is s ee ms l ike ly t o h ave b een p ar t o f ab it o f t he t ype s een a t K ing 's Barrow , Arras ( S tead , 1 965 , f ig . 1 8 , 1 ) , h av ing a p or t ion o f as ide-l ink o f s im ilar s hape a nd s top-knobs.

The d ecora t ion i s o f g reat s ign if icance : t he

f r il led s ea m t o t he e dges o f t he b ronze c as ing o f t he r e in-r ing i s o f ad oub le wavy l i ne mot if v ery s im ilar t o t ha t s een i n s ing le l ine o n t he S taf fordsh ire t ore-term ina ls. T he r el ief-orna men t o n t he s idel ink k nob i s o f c urv il inear l obes a nd l i nes e nc los ing v o ids , o f as ty le d irect ly c o mparab le t o t ha t o n t he L lyn Cerr ig p laque ( Fox , 1 958 , f i g. 1 8 ).

F ox d a ted t he U lceby b it t o t he

m id-f irs t c en tury B .C. T he d ecora t ive d iv is ion o f t he l oop t erm ina ls o f t he S taf fordsh ire t orcs i s c lear ly a r epresen tat ion o f t he U lceby s eparate-loop t erm ina ls j o ined b y f r il led s ea ms. The f ormer a re t hus l a ter t ypo log ica l ly , a l though n o t n ecessar i ly s ign if ican t ly s o c hrono log ica l ly . As f or o ther t orcs i n s ou th-eas tern Eng land , t he most s tr ik ing d at ing e v idence i s p rov ided b y t he f ind ings o f aq uar ter , : t ater o f A l len 's G a l lo-Be lg ic D e c lass i ns ide a t erm ina l o f t he g rea t t ore f ro m H oard E , S ne t t isha m ( Fox , 1 958 , f igs. 3 34 ) , t he v ar ied d ecorat ion o f wh ich i nc ludes t he p unched wavy r idges a lready d iscussed.

On t he b as is o f t hese p o in ts , ad a te i n t he m id-f irs t c en tury

B .C. s ee ms l ike ly f or o ur f our t orcs.

Pa in ter ( 1971, 2 -3 ) h as p o in ted o u t

t ha t t he f a ilure i n t he c as t ing o f o ne o f t he w ires o n t o at erm ina l o f t he G lascote t ore , a nd i t s f rag il ity r esu l t ing f rom a n u nsa t isfactory c o mpos it ion o f t he a l loy , i nd ica te t ha t t he o rna men t was u n l ike ly t o mee t t he r equ ire men ts o f ac us to mer , a nd t hus t ha t i t mus t h ave b een l ost i n t he a rea o f manu facture , imp ly ing a t r iba l w orkshop i n t he r eg ion o f t he u pper T ren t .

The U lceby

p ieces may i nd ica te a f ur ther w orkshop i n n or th L incolnsh ire d ur ing t he f irs t c entury B .C. There a re t wo o ther r epor ted f i nds o f t orcs f ro m o ur a rea t o b e n oted. T here i s r ecord o f ab ronze e xa mp le f ro m Arras Grave 8 , e astern Y orksh ire , b ut t here i s ap oss ib il ity t ha t i t may h ave b een o f Bronze Age d ate ( S tead , 1 965 , 5 9-60 ). I ti s l ost a nd h as n ever b een i l lustra ted. A lso l ost i s ac o ll ar o r n eck-r ing o f Wraxa l l c lass , s a id t o h ave b een f ound i n t he Huddersf ie ld a rea ( record i n RCH M York o f f ice, o n t he a u thor ity o f G . F . Wil l mo t , f orme r ly Keeper o f t he Y orksh ire Museu m ).

O f c as t b ronze , i n t wo p ieces w ith

ah inge a nd p in a t t he r ear , i ti s s a id t o h ave h ad swo l len t erm ina ls a t t he f ron t v ery s im ilar t o t hose o n t he P or t land t ore ( Megaw , 1 971, f ig . 1 ) , e xcep t t ha t t here w ere t r iangu lar i nsets f or e name l. D ecora t ion i n r e l ief i ncluded s cro l ls a nd l obes. Megaw h as r ecen t ly d a ted t he r ings o f Wraxa l l c lass t o t he m idd le o r l a ter f i rs t c en tury A .D . ( .c it ., 1 53 ) . The p resence o f s uch a d ist inct ive ly n a t ive c o l lar n ear t he p resu med h ear t o f Br igan t ian t err i tory ( Wheeler , 1 954 , 2 3 ) i n ap er iod o f p o l it ica l u pheava l ( .c it ., 1 7-23 ) i s a n a t tract ive p oss ib il ity .

H owever , t here i s a marked s im ilar ity b e tween

t he c o l lar a s j ust d escr ibed a nd o ne n ow i n t he Br it ish Museu m a nd c ons idered b y Megaw t o h ave c o me f ro m Dorse t ( 1971, 1 47 , f ig . 2 ) .

A t b es t , t herefore ,

a Huddersf ie ld e xa mp le o f t he t ype s o me 2 00 m i les n or th o f i t s n orma l d is tr ib u t ion i s t o b e r egarded a s u nsubstan t ia ted .

9 0

As f or t he l arge q uan t it ies o f meta lwork o f t he p er iod f ro m a bout t he m id-f irs t c en tury A .D . o nwards , s uch a s b eaded t orcs ( cons idered i n d eta i l b y S i mpson , M., 1 966 ), a r t ic les w ith c ha mp leve e na me l l ing ( d iscussed b y Corder a nd Hawkes , 1 940 ;

a nd S i mpson , 1 968 ) , a nd t he h oards o f h arness

f ro m Fre m ing ton H agg ( Webs ter , 1 971) a nd S tanw ick ( MacGregor , 1 962 ), n o g enera l s urvey w il l b e a t te mp ted h ere.

S uch i s as pec ia l is t 's p rerogat ive ,

f u l f il led b y S i mpson ( 1966 ) a nd S tevenson ( 1966 ).

J us t o ne more p iece w il l

b e b r ief ly c o m men ted u pon , a s i th as b een t aken t o s ugges t Be lg ic i n f luence. Dregded f ro m t he r iver W itha m a t T at tersha l l F erry i n 1 768 was a f ragmen tary war-tru mpet , o r c arnyx .

Re-pub l ished b y Ph il l ips ( C. W., 1 934 ,

P l. ) 0u ), i th as a ga in b een d iscussed i n r e la t ion t o t he Desk ford h ead b y P iggo tt , who h as c onv inc ing ly r econs tructed i tw ith a n i ma l-head a nd o b l ique mouth-p iece ( P iggo t t , S ., 1 959 . f ig . 1 A ). Three d e ta ils o f t he s urv iv ing p ieces a re s ign if ican t. Runn ing d own t he b ack o f t he c urv ing n eck i s t he l ower p ar t o f t he mane wh ich w ou ld h ave s te m med f ro m t he b ack o f t he a n ima l-head.

Be low t he t er m inat ion o f t he mane a bove o ne o f t he j o in ts i n t he

p ipe-sect ions , o f wh ich t here w ere p robab ly f our , i s as i mp le b ird-head r epresen ta t ion w ith u pturned b i l l.

Above t h is i s ab and o f d ecora t ion , c o m-

p r is ing a c ha in- mo t if w ith in d oub le-beaded b orders.

P iggot t h as s uggested

a n e ar ly f irs t c en tury A .D . d a te f or t he p iece ( op .c it ., 2 4 ) wh ich , t oge ther w ith t he e lectru m t orcs f ro m o ur a rea , r em inds u s o f t he Ce lt ic h er itage o f s oc ie ty , r e l ig ion , a nd war fare i n n or thern Eng land i n t he p re-Conquest p er iod . i .

P ot tery Our d iscuss ion o f t he p o t tery o f t he m idd le La T ene p er iod e nded w ith a

c ons idera t ion o f t he Phase Iwares f ro m J . May 's s i te a t Dragonby .

T o

b reak u p at rea t men t o f Dragonby ma ter ia l b etween c hap ters i s u n for tunate , s ince t he s tructura l f eatures o f t he s i te i nd icate a n e ssen t ia l c on t inu ity r ef l ected i n many a spects o f t he p o t tery , i nclud ing t he g enera l c haracter o f t he ware.

H owever , May h as f ound i tp oss ib le t o s ugges t a Phase I o n t he b as is

o f h arder , b rown , whee l-thrown f abr ics , s t il l h eav i ly g r itted , d ecora ted w ith much l ess imag ina t ive s quaretoothed r ou let t ing a nd s o me g eo me tr ic g rooved a nd b urn ished p a t terns , a nd i nc lud ing a r ange o f n ew p rof iles c o mparab le w ith Ay lesford-Swarl ing f or ms.

P ar t icu lar ly impor tan t a re t he w ide- mou thed

p edes ta l u rns w ith g ir th-grooves o f B ircha l l 's C lass I a ( B ircha l l , 1 965 , 2 43 ), sma l l S -shaped b ow ls , more o r l ess a ngu lar w ith c ordons , g rooves , a nd b urni shed d ecorat ion o f B ircha l l 's C lass I Va , a nd t a l l , c on ica l j ars , o f ten w ith s l igh t ly c onstr icted n eck , c ordon , a nd g rooves o f B ircha l l 's C lass L X . i ous sma l l c ups a nd b ow ls a re a lso c o m mon . May , 1 970 , f ig. 8 , 1 8-26.) C lass V a :

Var-

( For e xa mp les o f t hese , s ee

I n a dd it ion , t here a re e xa mp les o f B ircha l l 's

j ars w ith c orruga ted n eck a nd c o mbed o r s cored b ody ( Dragonby ,

D itch 3 , DR 6 4 DG , DR 6 4 F l S cun thorpe Museu m ). On Ken t ish a na log ies i n t he Ear ly a nd M idd le p hases o f t he Ay lesford-Swar l ing c u lture , ad a te i n t he m idd le t o l a ter f irst c entury B .C. i s l ike ly .

The p resence o f a ngu lar

p edesta l u rns o f at ype n o t f ound i n t he s ou th-eas t , wh ich r eca l l Gau l ish L a r nne I t ypes , a s a lready men t ioned , a nd t he l ack o f c o mparab le p re-20 B .C . s et t le men ts i n t he s ou th ( B ircha l l , 1 965 , 2 87-8 ) c o mpl ica te t he p icture , b u t t here c er ta in ly s ee ms t o h ave b een a c ons iderab le i n fus ion a t Dragonby a t t h is s tage. 9 1

There a re t hree sma l l g roups o f p ot tery f ro m e lsewhere i n L inco lnsh ire wh ich c an b e c o mpared w ith Dragonby Phase I : 1 968 , f ig . 1 1),

f ro m S a l monby ( LHA , I ,

Horncast le ( LHA , I , 1 969 , F ig . 1 ), a nd I ngo ld me l ls ( Baker ,

1 959 , f igs. 3 -4 ).

Fro m S a l monby we h ave a C lass I Va b ow l w ith b urn ished

d ecora t ion v ery s im ilar t o o ne f ro m Dragonby ( May , 1 970 , f ig . 8 , 2 0 ), a nd p art o f a whee l made j ar w ith c orrugated n eck , p robab ly a p edesta l u rn w i th a ngu lar s hou lder .

The a sse mb lage f ro m Horncast le i s p robab ly s l igh t ly

l a ter , i nclud ing f ine ly-burn ished f abr ics , g rooved l a t t ice d ecora t ion , a nd a p edesta l b ase w ith c ordon a bove.

The b et ter-known I ngo ld me l ls c o l lect ion

i ncludes a n ompha los b ow l w ith b urn ished l i ne a nd i nc ised c hevron d ecora t ion , a nd a n S -shaped j ar w ith d oub le c ordon a t t he s hou lder .

Each o f t he t hree

s i tes h as p roduced r ounded j ars w ith b eaded r i ms , n o t u n l ike o ne f ro m Dragonb y wh ich h as b een a ss igned t o Phase I( .ef t ., f ig . 7 , 9 ) .

The i mpl ica t ion

i s t ha t t here i s a ccu mu la t ing e v idence f or a q u ite w idespread o ccupa t ion w ith p ot tery o f Belg ic t ype i n t he c oun ty b efore t he e nd o f t he f irs t c en tury B .C. Much o f t he g rooved , c ordoned , b ead-r i m med , a nd r ou let ted p ot tery f ro m t he e arl ier p hases o f t he s i tes a t Ancas ter ( l a ter I ron Age s i te ) , Co ls terwor th , a nd O ld S lea ford ( pub l ica t ion awa ited i n a l l c ases ) may d a te t o t h is p er iod . P erhaps t he b es t-def ined h or izon i n t he Dragonby s er ies i s P hase I I ( .c it ., 2 35 , f ig . 9 ) , wh ich i s marked b y sma l l q uan t it ies o f G a l lo-Be lg ic impor ts s uch a s f lagons a nd amphorae , b u t t b eakers , p la tes , a nd o ther f orms i n c rea m , wh ite, t erra n igra , a nd t erra r ubra , t oge ther w ith n a t ive c op ies. A p re-Claud ian d ate i s p robab le f or mos t o f t he ma ter ia l , a l though a n e x tens ion i n to t he Ro man o ccupa t ion i s p oss ib le. i s p robab ly a round A .D . 1 .

A s tar t ing d a te i s a lso u ncer ta in , b u t

L oca l ly- made v esse ls i n h ard , f ine , whee l-

t hrown wares , i nclud ing n ecked b ow ls , g lobu lar j ars , a nd f lasks , o f ten w ith b eaded r i ms b u t o n ly r are ly d ecora ted w ith c ordons , g rooves , b urn ished l ines , a nd r ough b u t t-beaker t ype r ou let t ing , c o mp lete 1 1 3 r ange o f f orms , S i tes f ro m wh ich c o mparab le impor ted p o t tery h as b een r ecovered a re more n u merous t han t hose wh ich c an b e c o mpared w ith Dragonby Phase I , a nd o ccur b oth s ou th a nd n or th o f t he Hu mber.

I n t he n or th , t here i s af rag-

men tary G a l lo-Be lg ic b eaker i n t h in , f ine c rea m ware , a nd a sma l l wa l ls herd p oss ibly w ith s quare-too thed r ou let ted d ecora t ion o f p robab ly e arl ier d ate ( F ig . 4 7 , 5 ) , f ro m t he c o mp l ica ted b ou lder-c lay s i te a t Ca tco te , Co. Durh am . Corder a nd Pryce ( 1938, 2 71) made n o te o f a n e ar ly t wo-hand led j ug , o f wha t t ype n o t s tated , f ound n ear Wh itby .

T he ma ter ia l f ro m t he S tanw ick

f or t if ica t ions , d ra ma t ica l ly i nterpre ted b y Whee ler , i nc ludes t erra s ig il la ta . , b ut t b eaker , a nd j ug f ragmen ts ( Whee ler , 1 954 , 3 1-8 ), mos t ly o f C laud ioNeron ian t ype.

F ur ther s ou th , t here i s s o me e v idence f or p re-Flav ian o ccupa-

t ion a t York , wh ich w i l l b e r ev iewed a t t he e nd o f t h is s ect ion.

Fro m t he

East R id ing , c h ips o f t erra s ig il la ta f ro m e xcava t ions a t Rudston i n 1 933 may b e o f p re-Flav ian d a te ( S teer , 1 937 , 3 28 ) , a nd f ro m G ar ton S lack a w e l l- made c ar ina ted b ow l i n f ine o range/grey ware ( F ig . 3 4 , 4 ) c er ta in ly s ee ms t o b e c o mparab le w ith f orms o n Be lg ic s i tes o f t he s ou th-eas t ( Hawkes a nd Hu l l , 1 947, P ls. L ) X IV-LXXV , 2 09 a nd 2 16 ).

T he mos t e x tens ive c o l lec t ion o f

t erra n igra a nd b u t t b eakers , a lso i nc lud ing e ar ly t erra s ig il la ta a nd Arret ine ware , n or th o f t he Hu mber i s f ro m Nor th Ferr iby ( Corder a nd Pryce , 1 938 ; o n t he

' 939 ), f or most o f wh ich a p re-Claud ian d a te h as b een d e monstra ted 3

o f t ypo logy .

Apar t f ro m t h is H u mberc l if f s i te , t he S tanw ick 9 2

ma ter ia l f or wh ich a n im med ia te ly p re-Conques t d a te h as b een s ugges ted , a nd t he York ma ter ia l wh ich may b e c onnected w ith Ro man mi l itary o pera t ions , we h ave p ot tery o f Be lg ic t ype i n sma l l f ragmen ts f rom t hree s i tes a nd a more s ubstan t ia l v esse l f ro m o n ly o ne. Th is i ndeed s ugges ts s evere lyl im ited c on tac ts i n Yorksh ire a nd t he n or th i n t he l a te I ron Age p er iod . S ou th o f Dragonby , f irs t c entury A .D . Be lg ic t ypes a re more c o m mon . S herds o f ab u t t-beaker o f Ca mu lodunu m t ype 13 ( Hawkes a nd H u l l , 1 947 , P l. LV I I ) h ave b een f ound a t Bracebr idge H ea th , n ear L inco ln ( LHA , I , 1 968 , 1 9 ). Excava t ions a t t he Ro man s i te o f Ad P on te m ( Thorpe ) r evea led t wo p hases o f p re-for t o ccupa t ion , a nd w ith Phase I b was a ssoc iated Be lg ic v ess els i nc lud ing a f ine g lobu lar j ar w ith c ordons a nd g rooves , l igh t l i near t oo li ng a nd a f oot-r ing b ase ( s im i lar t o o ne f ro m Dragonby , D itch I , DR 6 5 U J ; S cun thorpe Museu m ) , c ordoned , c ar ina ted b ow ls , a nd b ead-r i m med v esse ls ( E MAB , V I, 1 6 ). S im i lar Be lg ic f orms p robab ly d a t ing t o t he m id-f irs t c entury A .D. h ave b een r ecovered f ro m a s et t le men t s i te a t Ramp ton t o t he n or th ( E MAB, I X , 4 1-3 ). T o t he e as t , t he l a ter I ron Age s i te a t Ancas ter p roduced impor ted b u t t-beaker , j ar , b ow l , a nd d ish f orms , d ecora ted w ith g rooves a nd c ordons ( Bar ley , e t a l., 1 967 , 1 ) . A t O ld S leaford , f ro m o ccup at ion c on te mporary w ith t he Cor itan ian m in t ( A l len , 1 963, 1 9 ), t here a re s herds o f t erra n igra , t erra r ubra , b u t t-beakers , g ir th-beakers , c ar ina ted c ups , c ordoned j ars , a nd p lat ters , t ogether w ith n a t ive im ita t ions ( E MAB, V I, 5 -6 ). The c ar ina ted c ups f ro m r escue d igg ings a t D en ton a nd L oughboro ugh a re we l l-known ( Kenyon , 1 950 , f i g . 1 6 , 4 ; f ig . 1 4 , 7 ; c f . H awkes a nd Hu l l , 1 947 , P l. LXKV , 2 12A , 2 16-7 ), a nd t o t hese may b e a dded e xa mp les f ro m e xcavat ions i n t he i n ter ior o f t he h i l l-for t a t Burrough H il l ( unpub l ished ; L e ices ter Un ivers ity ).

Much o f t he Burrough H il l ma ter ia l s ee ms t o b e

c o mparab le w ith t he o n ly l arge c o l lect ion o f B e lg ic ma ter ia l t o b e f u l ly p ubl ished , f ro m t he J ewry Wa l l s i te , L e icester ( Kenyon , 1 948 , 1 24-132 ) , d a ted t o A .D . 3 5-50. Much c o m moner t han t he impor ted wares a t t hese s i tes w ith in Cor itan ian t err itory i s p ot tery o f l oca l manu facture.

Th is o f ten im ita tes Be lg ic f orms

a nd s eems t o r ep lace s cored t ypes ( a l though t here a re a n u mber o f f i nds o f s cored p ot tery f ro m t he L e icester a rea : s ee N o tes o n F igures , 7 9 ). The l arge p ropor t ion o f mater ia l o f e ar l ier f i rs t c en tury A .D . Be lg ic c haracter f ro m s i tes s uch a s t he l ater Dragonby , O ld S lea ford , a nd L e icester c er ta in ly i nd ica tes a s trong c u ltura l i n fus ion o n ma jor s e t t le men ts .

I n a dvance o f f u l l

p ub l ica t ion o f t he e v idence f ro m O ld S leaford , Dragonby , Ancaster , a nd Burrough H il l i ti s p erhaps u nw ise t o p ress c onc lus ions a ny f ur ther. Meanwh ile , i n a reas t o t he w est a nd n or th o f t he ma in d is tr ibu t ion o f Belg ictype p o t tery , n a t ive manu facture c on t inued , a l though d eep ly a f fec ted b y n ew s ty les.

Par t icu lar ly o u tstand ing g roups o f mater ia l c o me f ro m

S cra t ta Wood , No t t ingha msh ire , ( Fig . 1 7 , 4 -18 ), f ro m S ou th Cave ( F ig . 3 5 , 8 -9 ; F ig . 3 6 ), Fax f leet "A" ( F ig . 3 9 ; F ig . 4 0 , 1 -7 ), a nd Em mo t land ( Brews ter , 1 963, f igs. 8 5-88 ), s ou th-eas t Yorksh ire , a nd f ro m Ca tcote ( Fig. 4 7 ), Nor manby ( F ig . 4 8 ), L ev isha m Moor ( F igs. 4 7-48 ), a nd S tanw ick (Whee ler , 1 954 , f igs , 1 2-13 ) i n t he n or th-eas t . I tc an b e s een t ha t t he wares w ith in e ach g roup a re o f d is t inct ive c harac ter , a nd t ha t e ach e xh ib its i t s own r ange o f f orms.

The s tandard o f p ot t ing i s o f ten q u ite h igh , i nd ica t ing a dvances

9 3

i n t echn ique.

Mos t o f t he v esse ls a re o f r ounded s hape a nd u ndecora ted , i n

c on t inua t ion o f e arl ier t rad it ion , b u t n ew r im f orms a re e v iden t. T here a re s o me c o m mon f actors b etween v ar ious g roups wh ich make i tp oss ible t o d ef ine c er ta in f orms a s d is t inct ive o f a reas , s uch a s s ou th-east Y orksh ire o r n or th-eas t Eng land . A lthough a r eg iona l a pproach t o ad iscuss ion o f t he c oarse p o t tery i s h a mpered b y t he f ew l arge g roups a t o ur d isposa l a nd b y c ons iderab le o ver laps , s uch w il l b e a dop ted h ere. The o n ly e xcava ted s i te o f l a te I ron Age d a te wes t o f t he Tren t V a l ley t o h ave p roduced a b road r ange o f ma ter ia l i s S cra t ta Wood ( F ig . 7 3 ), a s tonewa l led e nc losure w ith i n terna l h u ts a nd p ar t it ions. Archaeo log ica l e v idence was b rave ly r escued b y t he Worksop Archaeo log ica l Research S oc ie ty a f ter t he s i te h ad b een r evea led a nd v ery b ad ly d a maged b y s crub land b u l ldoz ing i n 1 959. I ti s t hough t t ha t t he ma in p er iod o f o ccupat ion was d ur ing t he l ate I ron Age : t he L a f ene I I b rooch ( F ig . 1 7, 6 ) was f ound i n t he s ou th-eastern h u t , a nd a c on te mporary b ronze c opy o f aG a l lo-Be lg ic E c o in , p robably o r igi na l ly g o ld-p lated ( obv. p la in , r ev, c oncave , d is jo in ted h orse ;

G . F . Wh ite

i n forma t ion ), was f ound o n t he s ur face t o t he s ou th o f t he s i te.

S ome Ro man

ma ter ia l , i nc lud ing f l anged d ishes a nd h ead-s tud b rooches ( Co l l ingwood Group Q ), i nd ica tes r e-occupa t ion o r s qua t t ing . F inds i ncluded a sma l l b ronze d isc o r s tud ( F ig . 1 7 , 4 ) , ap enannu lar b ronze a r t ic le s a id t ob e a b ag-hand le ( F ig . 1 7, 5 ;

n ote t wo v ery s im ilar i n g o ld f ro m Barnard Cas t le ,

o f t w is ted mu l t i-s tr ip c ons truct ion a nd w ith r ound , e xpanded t erm ina ls w ith c on ica l b eve l led p o in ts : BM. 7 3. 1 2-18. 1 -2 ) , p o ttery s p ind le whor ls ( F ig . 1 7, 7 ) , a nd b eeh ive q uerns. Amongs t t he p o t tery , an u mber o f f orms a re importan t. The a l mos t c o mp lete p rof ile o f ar ounded j ar w ith e ver ted r im , f oo t-r ing b ase , a nd h or izon ta l g roove a long t he s hou lder ( F ig . 1 7 , 1 7 ) r eca l ls c oarser p o ts w ith s im i lar g roove s uch a s t ha t f ro m Burrough H i l l ( F ig . 1, 4 ).

I ti s v ery s im-

i l ar i n a ppearance t o t he sma l l r ounded v esse l w ith b eaded r im a lso f ro m S cra t ta Wood ( F ig . 1 7 , 1 6 ) wh ich h as a c lose p ara l lel a t Dragonby ( F ig . 1 8 , 7 ) .

Undecora ted b ead-r im j ars o f v ar ious t ypes a re f ro m S ou th C ave ( F ig .

3 6, 5 ) , Fax f leet " A" ( F ig . 4 0 , 1 ) , Ca tco te ( F ig . 4 7 , 1 7 ), Nor th F err iby ( Corder a nd Pryce , 1 937 , f ig . 3 , 2 9-30 ), a nd Dragonby a ga in ( Fig . 1 8, 5 ) . The p ronounced b ead-r im s ee ms t hus t o b e ac o m mon n a t ive l a te I ron Age f orm i n t he n or th o f Eng land , b u t i tp robab ly e x tends i n to t he Ro man p er iod t o b e s een o n e xa mp les f ro m Roe Wood ( F ig . 7 , 1) a nd S a l tshouse S choo l ( F ig . 4 1, 4 ).

O ther t ypes a t S cra t ta Wood i nc lude s cored d ecora t ion ( F ig .

1 7 , 1 5 ) a nd t he r ounded , e ver ted r im ( F ig . 1 7 , 1-12 ; c f . Thorn ton Da le , F ig . 5 1, 1 0 ). Perhaps t he most u nusua l a re t he s herds w ith v er t ica l ly c o mbed d ecora t ion ( F ig . 1 7, 9 a nd 1 2 ) a nd t he s harp ly-ang led r im ( F ig. 1 7 , 1 3 ).

Dat ing e v idence f or b o th t hese t ypes i s o f fered b y t he o ccurrence o f

s tr ik ing ly s im ilar s herds o n t he n a iled t imberlaced f or t if ied s et t le men t a t Enge lha lb inse l , n ear Bern ( M t i l ler-Beck a nd E t t l inger , 1 964 , A bb. 1 2 , 4 a nd 8 )‚ wh ich p roduced f i bu lae im med ia te ly a n teceden t t o t he Nauhe im t ype , d at ing t he s i te t o b e fore 5 0 B .C. S uch a p ara l le l t o d o mes t ic ma ter ia l o n ac haracter is t ica l ly n a t ive m id lands s i te may s ee m t oo r e mo te. c o mbed s herd c o mes f ro m g rave l w ork ings a t A t tenborough .

As im ilar ly-

Cer ta in ly h ow-

e ver , t he S cra t ta Wood s herds i nd ica te s ome f orm o f f ore ign i nf luence , P robab ly c onnec ted w ith Be lg ic move men ts , i n t he l a ter f irst c en tury B .C. 9 4

One o f t he most o u ts tand ing ly h o mogeneous g roups o f l a te I ron Age p ot tery f ro m s ou th-east Yorksh ire w as f ound i n 1 970 o n ab u i ld ing s i te a t S ou th Cave ( F ig. 3 5 , 8 -9 ;

F ig . 3 3 ).

At en-foo t l eng th o f d i tch was c leared.

The p ot-

t ery c ame most ly f ro m t he i n termed ia te f i l l , b u t was i den t ica l w ith s herds i n t he l ower f i l l.

A sma l l Ro mano-Br it ish s herd f ro m t he t op l evel was n ot

a ssoc ia ted . Aq uan t ity o f a n i ma l b ones i nc luded t hose o f c a t t le , p ig , s heep , a nd h orse ( Hu l l Museu m i n forma t ion ). A l l t he s herds a re o f r ound-shou ldered j ars w ith c ons tr ic ted n eck a nd mou lded r i m.

The mos t c harac ter is t ic t ype

h as a s qua t , u pr igh t n eck w ith a b road ly-grooved , b u lbous r im ( F ig . 3 6 , 1 ; v ar ia t ions F ig . 3 5 , 8a nd 9 ) .

S herds f ro m Dragonby ( F ig . 1 8, 3 ) a nd Gar ton

S lack ( F ig . 3 3, 1 ) a re s im i lar .

T he f orm may b e i n s o me way r e la ted t o

Ca mu lodunu m 2 50 ( Hawkes a nd Hu l l , 1 947, P l. LXXX I ; f ig . 5 5 , 4 -7 ), t hough t t o d a te t o P er iod Io n t ha t s i te , t ha t i s d own t o A .D . 4 2. O f g rea t s ign if icance i s af ur ther v esse l f ro m S ou th Cave ( F ig . 3 6 , 3 ) , c er ta in ly o f t he s ame f orm , wh ich h as i t s r im b o ld ly i nden ted b y t oo led , U-shaped h o l lows a long t he o u ter e dge , a ppear ing b road ly s im i lar t o s o me f inger-t ipped p las t ic d ecora t ion o f t he e ar l ier I ron Age.

The imp l ica t ions o f t he p resence o f as pec if ica l ly l a te

I ron Age h or izon o f p last ic d ecora t ion i s e v iden t , a nd i s r e in forced b y o ther s herds o f t he s a me p rof ile :

t wo d ecora ted r i ms f ound i n t he s ame p it a s t he

P -brooch a t Ousethorpe ( F ig . 3 5 , 5a nd 6 ) , a nd o ne f ro m G ar ton S lack ( F ig . 3 3, 4 ) s a id t o h ave b een i n a ssoc ia t ion w ith ab lack b urn ished whee l made g lobu lar v esse l w ith l ugs a nd l a t t ice d ecora t ion o f l a ter f irs t c entury A .D . d ate ( c f . Ru t ter a nd Duke , 1 958, f ig . 1 0 , 8 ) . Rubb ish s urv iva l may c o mp l ic ate t he p icture a tb o th Ousethorpe a nd G ar ton S lack , b u t s uch p last ic d ecorat i on o n p re-Conquest p o ttery s ee ms c er ta in . Con f ir ma t ion i s a f forded b y t he o ccurrence o f t he s a me p rof ile , r i m-s lash ing , a nd Tren t v a l ley t ype d eep-scor ing o n o ne a nd t he s a me v esse l f ro m Me l ton Mowbray ( F ig . 1 6 , 2 ). P las t ic d ecora t ion o n l a te I ron Age p ot tery i s i n f act w idespread n or th o f t he Hu mber. I tc rea tes a n a dded p rob le m i n t ha t t he a ccura te d a t ing o f o dd s herds t o ap hase w ith in t he I ron Age i s made more d i f f icu l t , b u t ma in c hara cter ist ics o f t he l a ter ma ter ia l a re t he d ecora t ion o f ab o ld t ype o n r i ms o f ten h eav ily e xpanded w ith a d ist inct o u tward f l ange , a nd t he s lack , r ounded b ody-shapes.

O ther s herds f ro m G ar ton S lack a re f i nger-t ipped r a ther t han

s lashed ( F ig . 3 3 , 5a nd 6 ) , a nd t hese w ith t he s herd a lready men t ioned f orm an ea t t ypo log ica l s uccess ion ( F ig . 3 3, 6 , 5 , a nd 4 , i n t ha t o rder ). Cabl ing o f t he t op o f r i ms i s s een o n o ther e astern Yorksh ire v esse ls f ro m Hasho l me Ha l l ( F ig . 3 7 , 2 ) , F ax f leet " A" ( F ig . 4 0 , 3 ) , a nd S a l tshouse S choo l ( F ig . 4 1, 5a nd 1).

F ingert ipp ing o n t he e dge o f r i ms i s s een a t F l ix ton ( F ig . 3 8, 1 1) ,

S tax ton ( F ig . 3 8, 1 2 ), a nd F ax E leet " A" ( Fig . 3 9 , 4 ).

S lash ing i s s een o n t he

e xpanded r im o f ab ucket-shaped v esse l f ro m Emmo t land ( Brewster , 1 963, f ig . 8 7 , 1 ) . A s pec if ic t ype o f f ingeri mpressed r im o ccurs i n a sse mb lages n or th o f P icker ing , a s a t P ercy R igg ( F ig . 4 6 , 5 ) a nd L ev isham Moor A (F ig . 4 9 , 4 ). O ther n or thern d ecora ted s herds i nclude t hose f ro m P a le End ( F ig . 4 6 , 3 ) , Ca tco te ( F ig . 4 7, 2 -4 ) , Thorn ton Da le ( F ig . 5 1, 9 ) , a nd Cos ta Beck ( F ig . 5 1, 1). The o ccurrence o f t h is p las t ic d ecora t ion o n p rof iles s een i n t he s ame l a te a sse mb lages i n u ndecora ted f orm ( note p ar t icu lar ly t he Ca tc ote e xpanded r i ms ;

F ig . 4 7 , 9a nd 1 2 ;

a nd s herds f ro m Ousethorpe ; F ig .

3 5 , 2a nd 7 ) emphas ises t he o vera l l c hrono log ica l u n ity .

A s herd f ro m

B leasby , Not t inghamsh ire ( F ig . 1 6 , 4 ) , w i th c ab led r im a nd f i nger-t ipp ing , 9 5

thought by J. May (in conversation) to date well within the Roman period, may be in place here. The broad grooving of the South Cave rims may be related in some way to that on a sherd from Breedon-on-the-Hill (Fig. 12, 9), which seems to be of a vessel of similar shape. Other grooved rims of different character occur at Garton Slack (Fig. 33, 3 and 7 ). The similarity of these to sherds from Welsh Marches sites from 300 B. C. has already been noted. The slight exterior grooving of a rim from Percy Rigg (Fig. 46, 7), again of a rounded vessel, probably indicates a northward extension of the trait. It is unfortun­ ate that no satisfactory details of the ditches and gullies at Garton Slack cleared by C. and E. Grantham are available. More recent systematic ex­ cavation on what remained of this valley-floor graveJ site has been under­ taken on behalf of the Department of the Environment by T. C. M. Brewster. The results of this work are likely to be crucial, since the Grantham' s col­ lection includes good examples of three of the major rim-forms of late Iron Age Yorkshire. The first is the S-shaped vessel, usually in very coarse ware, either large and almost globular or medium-sized and straighter, with everted rim. To the Garton Slack example (Fig. 34, 9) may be added those from South Cave (Fig. 36, 4 and 7), Hasholme Hall (Fig. 37, 2), Driffield Aerodrome (Fig. 38, 1; and Philips, 1960, fig. 6, 30), Gransmoor (Fig. 38, 8), Faxfleet"A" (Fig. 39, 1-2; Fig. 40, 2), Saltshouse School (Fig. 41, 3 and 7), North Ferriby (Corder and Pryce, 1937, fig. 3, 27-8 and 31), Brough-on-Humber (Wacher, 1969, fig. 53, 1), and Newham's Pit, Staxton (Brewster, 1957, fig. 12, 2 and 6). Related forms occur to the south, as at Melton Mowbray (Kenyon, 1950, fig. 13, 1; a scored vessel), and to the north, as at Catcote (Fig. 47, 14), Levisham Moor B (Fig. 50, 4, 6 and 8), and Normanby (Fig. 48, 7 and 11). The second type is closely related to the first, but has a sharply-everted rim, as seen at Garton Slack (Fig. 33, 10; Fig. 34, 2). This form is par­ ticularly common at Faxfleet "A" (Fig. 40, 5-7) and Emmotland (Brewster, 1963, figs. 85, 6 and 10; 86, 5-6; 87, 9 and 11), and also present at Elmswell (Fig. 37, 3) and Rudston (Fig. 37, 4). To the north it is common at Catcote (Fig. 47, 11, 13, and 15), Pale End (Fig. 46, 1 and 4), Levisham Moor (Fig. 50, 3, 5 and 11), and Stanwick (Wheeler, 1954, fig. 12, 15 and 23). There are also examples at Dragonby (Fig. 18, 2 and 6). In the third type, the rim is not so flared but is markedly thickened and heavy. Possible precursors exist in the rims of large scored jars from Harston and Melton Mowbray to the south (Kenyon, 1950, fig. 9. 1; fig. 13, 3). Good examples from Garton Slack (Fig. 34, 1, 7-9) are typical of this, perhaps the commonest of Yorkshire's late Iron Age forms. It is present in variety at South Cave (Fig. 36, 6), West Furze (Fig. 38, 4), Driffield (Philips, 1960, fig. 3, 1), Emmotland (Brewster, 1963, fig. 87, 2 and 8), Thorn.ham Hill upper layer (op.cit., fig. 90, 9; fig. 91, 12-16), Saltshouse School (Fig. 41, 2), Levisham Moor B (Fig. 50, 1 and 9), Thornton Dale (Fig. 51, 3 and 6), Costa Beck (Fig. 51, 7; Fig. 52, 5-7), and Stanwick (Wheeler, 1954, fig. 12, 17). Related is the upright rim, also thickened, seen at Garton Slack (Fig. 33, 2 and 9), West Furze (Fig. 38, 5), and Levisham Moor A ( ig. 4 9, 1 and 3). 96

A l l t hese r im f or ms a re t o s o me e x ten t s im ilar a nd o ver lapp ing .

Be ing

s i mp le a nd v ery c o m mon i ti s n ot s urpr is ing t o f i nd t hem c on t inu ing b eyond t he Conquest. I n p ar t icu lar , t he t h ird t ype b eco mes t he "Lang ton c ookpot", s een i n e ar ly Ro man c on tex ts a t Knap ton ( Corder a nd K irk , 1 932 , f i g. 3 0 , 1 -8 ), L ang ton ( c . 2 2 .c it., f ig . 7 , 2 2-44 ), a nd Crossga tes ( Ru t ter a nd Duke , 1 958 , f i g . 1 0 , 2 /1-2/10 ).

Much o f t he ma ter ia l f ro m Fax f leet " A" a nd S a l ts-

h ouse S choo l i s l ike ly t o b e l a ter f irs t c en tury A .D . i n d a te.

Ap re-Ro man

o r ig in f or t he f or ms i s q u ite c lear ly d e mons tra ted , h owever , b y t he r ange r epresen ted i n t he s tra t if ied a ssoc ia t ions f ro m Ousethorpe, S ou th Cave , a nd Em mo t land , e ach u nd isturbed b y Ro man mater ia l. An u mber o f o ther t yp ica l l ate I ron Age f orms a re e v iden t f rom t he g roups f ro m e as tern Yorksh ire. S evera l more w il l b e b r ief ly n oted. An u pr igh t r im a bove a r ound-bod ied j ar i s s een a t F ax f leet " A" ( F ig . 3 9 , 7 ) a nd S tanw ick ( Whee ler , 1 954 , f ig . 1 2 , 1 3 ).

S o me r i ms a re f lat tened a nd e xpanded ,

p art icu lar ly o u twards , a nd h ave a s l igh tb eve l : t hose f ro m Ousethorpe ( Fig . 3 5 , 4 ) a nd S a l tshouse S choo l ( F ig . 4 1, 1 ) a re o u tstand ing a nd o thers a re f ro m Emmot land ( Brews ter , 1 963, f ig . 8 5 , 2 ) , Dr if f ie ld ( Ph i l ips , 1 960 , f ig. 5 , 1 7 ), Nor manby ( F ig . 4 8 , 5 ) , a nd S tanw ick (Whee ler , 1 954 , f ig . 1 2 , 1 9 ).

S o me g lobu lar v esse ls h ave r i ms wh ich a re b eaded b u t f la t tened a nd

s l igh t ly e ver ted , a s a t S a ltshouse S choo l ( F ig. 4 1, 8 ) a nd Dragonby ( F ig .18, 4 ).

More u pr igh t , b eaded a nd s l igh t ly e ver ted r i ms a re p resen t o n t a l ler ,

r ounded j ars a t S a l tshouse S choo l ( F ig . 4 1, 1 0 ), L ev isham Moor B ( Fig. 5 0 , 5 ) , a nd S tanw ick (Whee ler , 1 954 , f ig . 1 2 , 5 -6 ).

As f or h and les , c oun tersunk

e xa mp les o ccur a t Em mot land ( Brewster , 1 963, f ig . 8 5, 1 ) a nd T horn ton Da le ( F ig . 5 1, 1 ) , wh i ls t c ruder t ypes , s i mp ly mou lded i n to t he v essel wa l l , a re k nown f ro m R i l l ing ton ( F ig . 3 7 , 5 ) a nd L ev isha m Moor A ( F ig . 4 9 , 5 ) i n " hooked" f or m , a nd f ro m F l ix ton a nd Fresh f ields ( Brews ter , 1 963, f ig. 9 1, 3 a nd 1 r espect ive ly ) i n p la in , r ounded f orm. O f most e astern Yorksh ire l ate p ot tery f orms , Eng land n or th o f P ickeri ng a f fords e xa mp les , a s w e h ave n o ted. The n or thern g roups o f S tanw ick , P ercy R igg , Pa le End , Ca tco te , Nor manby , a nd t o s o me e x ten t a lso L ev is ha m Moor , a re d ist inct ive , h owever. Apar t f ro m u nusua l v esse ls , s uch a s t ha t f ro m Normanby ( F ig . 4 8, 8 ) , p oss ib ly a c rude n a t ive im i ta t ion o f a b ut t-beaker , t he f inger-t ipped s herd f ro m Ca tcote ( F ig . 4 7 , 4 ) , wh ich mus t b e r e la ted t o s im ilar f langed r i ms w ith p last ic d ecora t ion f ur ther s ou th , a nd t he c omp lete p rof i le f ro m S tanw ick (Whee ler , 1 954 , f ig . 1 2 , 1 ; a lso f ig . 1 2, 2 ; a nd c f . L ongdenda le , F ig . 7 , 1 0 ), f or wh ich e a l ier o r ig ins h ave a lready b een s uggested , t here i s ar e markab le d egree o fu n ity b etween t he c o l lect ions , c ons ider ing t he ir sma l l s ize. T he a ssoc ia t ion w ith impor ted wares a t S tanw ick p rov ides r ough d a t ing e v idence. Par t icu lar ly c haracter ist ic o f t he n or th-eas t i s t he s i mp le b arre l j ar , s een a t Ca tco te ( F ig . 4 7 , 1 6 , 1 8-19 ), Nor manby ( F ig . 4 8, 6 a nd 1 2 ) , a nd S tanw ick ( Wheeler , 1 954 , f i g . 1 2 , 2 9-30 ). A c on t inua t ion i n to t he Ro manoBr it ish p er iod f or t he s hape i s s hown b y i t s o ccurrence o n s tone-wa l led s et t lemen ts i n Nor thu mber land ( F ig . 5 3 , 8 -9 ) , b u t ap lace f or i ti n t he l a te I ron Age i s s hown b y e xamp les f ro m e as tern Yorksh ire , a t Dr if f ie ld ( Ph il ips , 1 960 , f i g . 4 , 6 ) , West Furze ( F ig . 3 8, 6 ) , a nd F l ix ton ( Brews ter , 1 963, f ig . 9 1, 3 ).

The e ar l ier c on tex ts f or b arre l j ar s hapes men t ioned i n p rev ious

9 7

c hap ters make t he d a t ing o f s uch s i mp le s hapes n or th o f t he Tyne , s uch a s t hose s hown o n F ig . 5 3, p ar t icu lar ly h azardous , s hou ld t here b e a n a bsence o f more s ubs tan t ia l d a t ing e v idence f ro m t he ir s i tes. Var ious t ypes o f e ver ted r im a re c o mmon i n t he n or th.

Those o f ab ow l

f orm l i nk Ca tcote ( F ig . 4 7 , 8 ) , S tanw ick ( Whee ler , 1 954 , f ig. 1 2, 3 1 ), a nd H uckhoe ( Jobey , 1 959 , f ig . 1 3, 5 ) . S o me o nj ars a re s o marked a s t o p rov ide p oss ib le s ea t ing f or a l i d , a s a t Ca tcote ( F ig . 4 7 , 1), Normanby ( F ig . 4 8, 1 0 ), L ev isha m Moor B ( F ig . 5 0 , 3 ) , S tanw ick (Whee ler , 1 954 , f i g. 1 2 , 8a nd 1 8 ), a nd Gubeon Co t tage ( Jobey , 1 957, f i g . 6 , 1 0 ). O ther p oss ib le l i ds eatings , s trange ly- mode l led r i ms , r a ther more u pr igh t , a re f rom Percy R igg ( F ig . 4 6 , 6 ) , Ca tco te ( F ig . 4 7 , 9 ) , Normanby ( Fig . 5 2 , 2a nd 9 ) , a nd S tanw ick ( Whee ler , 1 954 , F ig . 1 2 , 9a nd 2 0 ).

Var ious t ypes o f e xpanded

r im ( F ig . 4 7, 4 , 9 -10 , 1 2 ; F ig. 4 8, 5 ) a nd a p ar t icu lar f orm o f f i ngert ipped r im ( F ig . 4 6 , 5 ; F ig . 4 9 , 4 ) a lso a f ford c o m mon g round. The q ues t ion o f whence c a me t he p o t tery f orms wh ich c an b e i den t if ied i n e as tern Yorksh ire a nd t he n or th-east i n t he l a te I ron Age i s d if f icu l t t o a nswer . There i s av ague s im i lar ity i n r ounded p ro f i les w ith v essels f ro m B e lg ic s i tes t o t he s ou th s uch a s Ca mu lodunu m a nd Bagendon , p ar t icu lar ly w ith t hose d es cr ibed a s " na t ive" ( Cl if ford , 1 961, 2 50 , f orm 1 79 ; Hawkes a nd H u l l , 1 947 , 2 66 , f orm 2 50 ). A most o u tstand ing s im ilar ity o f p rof i le b etween t wo v esse ls f ro m S ou th Cave ( F ig . 3 6, 5 -6 ) a nd t wo o f P er ichon 's Group F p a in ted p o t tery f ro m L o ire Prov ince , e as t c en tra l France ( Per ichon , 1 964 , f i g . 1 6 , 1 , Opp idu m d e J oeuvre ;

f ig . 1 6, 2 , Co me l le ), s a id t o d a te f ro m A .D. 1 00 , c anno t

p ass w ithou t c o m men t . A l though t hus t o s ome e x ten t i n s tep w ith p o t tery t rends e lsewhere , p ar t icu lar ly i n Be lg ic s ou thern Eng land , t he d ist inct ive l oca l f orms a nd t he l ack o f a ssoc ia ted impor ts o n mos t s i tes , t oge ther w ith t he c on t inua t ion o f c rude b arre l s hapes a nd o ther r ounded p rof iles o f t he e ar l ier p er iod , c lear ly i nd icate t ha t t here w as n o l arge-sca le i n f lux o f c u l ture o r p opu la t ion n or th a nd w es t o f t he Hu mber a nd T ren t i n t he l a te I ron Age. As f or a reas t o t he w est o f t hose f or wh ich e v idence h as n ow b een c ons ide red , t here i s a l most n o p ot tery . S herds f rom w es t Yorksh ire s i tes f or wh ich a n I ron Age d a te h as b een p roposed ( F ig . 8 , 4a nd 5 ) a ppear t o b e long t o t o t he t ype o f c ook ing-po t w ith c haracter is t ic c lubbed r im r ecogn ised i n n or thern Eng land b y J ope ( 1963, 3 34 ) a nd d a ted t o t he t we lf th c en tury A .D . S herds f ro m S tan is tan H il l , n ear O t ley ( F ig . 8 , 1 3-15 ), were p robab ly p icked u p o ver t he s a me a rea a s t he P -brooch d iscussed i n t he p rev ious s ect ion , b ut t here i s n o e v idence o f a ssoc ia t ion . I tr e ma ins t o c ons ider t he e v idence f or a p re-F lav ian o ccupa t ion o f York , r ecen t ly d iscussed b y Wenha m ( 1971, 4 8-53 ).

Excava t ions b y G . F . Wi l lmo t

b enea th S t . Mary 's Abbey i n 1 952-3 p roduced a s herd o fb u t t-beaker , t he f ragmen ts o f t hree t erra n igra v esse ls , a nd s herds o f S t . R6 my-en-Ro l let ware , i n a ssoc ia t ion w ith a t imber h u t .

Excava t ions b y L . P . Wenha m n ear

S t . W il l iam 's Co l lege p roduced t wo s herds o f F irn isware , " varn ished ware", o f C laud ian d a te. Another s herd o f F irn isware was amongs t a n u ns trat if ied c o l lect ion f ound i n 1 968 j ust n or th o f t he l a t ter e xcava t ion. F irn isware i s o f German o r ig in , a pparen t ly b e ing manu factured i n t he Rh ine land a round A .D . 4 0-50.

The mos t impor tan t c o l lect ion c o mes f ro m H ofhe im ( R it ter l ing , 1 913 ).

Wenha m c onc ludes t ha t t here i s as trong c ase f or p re-Flav ian o ccupat ion b y

9 8

t he Ra i lway S ta t ion , as i te b eyond c on te mporary f l ood ing l eve ls wh ich h as p roduced t he we l l-known e name l led b e lt-p la te ( S i mpson , 1 968, f ig . 6 3, 0 ) . Wha tever t he o u tco me o f f uture r esearch , Ro man a ct iv ity i n Br igan t ia t hree o r f our t imes d ur ing Car t i mandua 's r e ign i s i nd ica ted b y l i terary e v idence. i t may b e t ha t t he Y ork o ccupa t ion a nd t he a ppearance o f t he P -brooches f rom Ousethorpe a nd S tan istan H il l , e ach w ith H ofhe im c onnec t ions , s hou ld b e l inked w ith t hese o perat ions. I n s u m mary , t here i s v ery l i t t le ma ter ia l f ro m t he Br igan t ian t err itor ies o f t he P enn ines a nd t he N or th-eas t wh ich c an b e a scr ibed t o t he p er iod b efore t he f i rs t c en tury A .D . T here i s n o e v idence f or Be lg ic s et t le men t : t he t wo h oards o fu n inscr ibed c o ins f ro m t he Ca lder v a l ley d iscussed b y A l len ( 1963, 2 1-2 ) may r ef lect u nsuccess fu l a t te mp ts a t p enetra t ion .

The o n ly s ubstan t ia l

c o l lec t ions o f p re-Conques t p ot te-y , f ro m S tanw ick a nd Y ork , a re l ikely t o r ef lect p o l it ica l a nd m il itary move men ts. A s f or s ou th-eas tern Y orksh ire , t he a rea o f t he Par is i , al i t t le i n trus ion o f p o t tery , b rooches , a nd c o inage c an b e s een ( F ig . 8 2 ), b u t n o th ing o n a ny s ca le wh ich wou ld i n terrup t n a t ive d eve lop men t ( F ig . 8 3 ), p ar t icu lar ly o f p o tc ery . T hese d eve lop men ts w ere s o s trong t ha t s evera l impor tan t p re-Ro man p ot tery f orms c on t inued i n u se i n t he e ar ly Ro man p er iod w ith r enewed v igour , a s a t L ang ton , Ma l ton , a nd Crossga tes.

T here i s n o s et t le men t e v idence t o

s uppor t t he t heory o f Be lg ic i mm igra t ion i n to c oas ta l Eas t R id ing f ro m t he f i rs t h al f o f t he f irst c en tury B .C. ,p roposed b y A l len ( 1963 , 3 7 ) o n t he n um is mat ic e v idence. H owever , t here was e stuar ine a nd c oas ta l t rad ing i n t he f irs t c en tury A .D. ,a nd t ha t Be lg ic manu factur ing t echn iques d id p enetra te P ar isi an t err itory i n t he im med ia te ly p re-Conquest d ecades i s s hown b y o u tstandi ng meta lwork p ieces s uch a s t he E l mswe l l p ane l ( Corder a nd Hawkes , 1 940 ). N o r eappra isa l o f t he c o inage o f t he Cor itan i i s t o b e a t te mp ted h ere , s ince A l len 's c lass ic s tudy i s e xhaus t ive a nd n ot i nva l ida ted b y t he f ew more r ecen t f inds. I t s ee ms p oss ib le , h owever , t o b road ly c orre la te h is Br it ish K , o r S ou th F err iby t ype , a pprox i ma te ly d a ted t o t he p er iod 3 0 B .C. t o A .D . 1 0 ( Al len , 1 962 Tab le I ), w ith t he p o t tery o f Dragonby Phase I a nd a lso w ith t he b rooches o f D ea l t ype , a nd t o c orre la te h is s er ies o f i nscr ibed c o ins , d ated d own t o t he l a te f or t ies A .D . ,w ith Dragonby Phase I I a nd w ith t he more e x tens ive l a ter B elg ic p o t tery a nd meta lwork f inds a nd s e t t le men ts i n t he East Mid lands. There s ee ms t o b e as ubs tan t ia l i n jec t ion o f Be lg ic t ra its w ith in Cor itan ian t err itory ( F ig . 8 3 ) , s uch a s m igh t r ef lect a t l eas t t he impos it ion o f c en tra l ised r u le a nd p oss ib ly a lso s o me p opu la t ion i n trus ion . A l len ( 1963, 2 8-32 ) h as n o ted t ha t most i nscr ibed Cor itan ian c o ins a ppear t o b ear t wo n a mes , a nd h as s uggested t ha t t h is m igh t i nd ica te g overnmen tb y mag is tra tes , a f ter t he a bandonmen t o f k ingsh ip.

I ti s t e mp t ing t o p ress f ur ther a nd s uggest t ha t

t he d ua l ity o f i nscr ip t ion d e mons tra tes c o-opera t ive r u le b y t wo p ara moun t c h iefs o r t wo mag is tra tes , o ne f ro m e ach o f t he c u l tura l n odes i n Cor in tan ian t err itory - L inco lnsh ire e ast o f t he Tren t a nd t he L e ices ter a rea .

Ex tens ions

o f t he c o inage d is tr ibu t ion t o t he n or th a nd w es t ( A l len , 1 962 , Map 6 ) s hou ld b e s een a s t rad ing c on tac ts e ar ly i n t he Ro man p er iod.

9 9

H I .

S ETTLE MENTS AND S TRUCTURES

CHAPTER 7

H ILL-FORT IF ICAT IONS

D efended h i l ltop s i tes i n t he T ren t-Tyne a rea p robab ly a pproach 1 50 i n n u mber ( F igs. 8 6-90 ). Many a re k nown o n ly f ro m f i e ld-work a nd a ir p ho tog raphy. Reg iona l s urveys o f s uch e v idence ( Forde-Johnston , 1 962 ; J obey , 1 965a ; Pres ton , 1 947 , 1 954 ) make d e ta iled a ccoun ts h ere u nnecessary . Abou t 3 0 o f t he s i tes h ave b een e xcavated , b u t a l though d ef in it ive r epor ts a re a va i lab le f or s o me , p ub l ica t ion i s i nco mp le te o r h as n ot y e t b een a t te mp ted f or o ver h a lf o f t he m. Th is d iscuss ion t herefore r el ies t o ac ons iderab le e xt en t o n u npub l ished i n forma t ion g enerous ly made a va i lab le b y e xcavators ( i n p ar t icu lar b y F . A . Aberg , D . Coo mbs , a nd G . T . Emery ). s i tes , h owever , l i t t le i n for ma t ion h as b een s upp l ied.

For s evera l

T he impor tance o f h i l l-top s et t le men ts a nd r efuges w ith c omp lex d efens ive s truc tures , f ro m t he b eg inn ing o f t he f i rs t m il lenn iu m B .C. i n t he c ent ra l a nd wes tern Con t inen t , h as r ecen t ly b een r e-emphas ised b y P iggot t ( 1965 , 2 02 ) , H awkes ( 1971, 8 -11), a nd S avory ( 1971a , 2 59-60 ). An o u ts tand ing a ch ieve men t o f r esearch i n Br ita in w ith in t he l as t d ecade h as b een t he d emonst ra t ion t ha t h ere t oo s o me s uch s i tes mus t d a te t o ap er iod t echno log ica l ly L ate Bronze Age ( Co t ton a nd Frere , 1 968 ; MacK ie , 1 969 ). The c on tr ibut ion o f r ad iocarbon d a t ing h as b een i ncreas ing ly v a luab le , i n s p ite o f i t s a t tendan t p rob le ms. The q ues t ion t o wha t e x ten t d e fended h i l l-top s i tes may b e c ount enanced e ven e ar l ier i n t he Bronze Age i s h ighl igh ted b y t he e nc losures a t Ram 's H il l , U f f ing ton ( P iggo t t a nd P iggo t t , 1 940 ; d i tch a verag ing 3 f ee t d eep a nd 1 0 f eet w ide , c on ta in ing s herds o f Pr i mary S er ies Co l lared U rn ; L ongwor th , 1 961, 2 96 ;

Brad ley , R ., work i n p rogress ), a nd Nor ton F itz-

warren , S o merset ( CA , 2 8 , 16-20 ; h oard o fb ronzes o f"Ornamen t Hor izon" t ype i n o u ter d i tch o fb anked a nd d i tched d efences ). T ha t t he r easons f or h i l lf or t if ica t ion i n e ar l ier p er iods w ere l arge ly e cono m ic a nd s oc io-re l ig ious r a ther t han t he n eed f or c oncer ted a ct ion i n d efence a ga ins t i nvaders h as b een d iscussed b y Cun l if fe ( 1971).

The p lace o f n or thern Eng l ish s i tes i n t he

European s cene , a s s u m mar ized b y H awkes ( 1971, 1 2 ), i s v ita l , a nd d emands r e-exa m ina t ion . Under p reh is tor ic t r iba l c ond it ions , t he c ons truct ion o f d efens ive s ys te ms wou ld h ave d e manded c o m muna l e f for t ( Shaw , 1 970 ) o f a more o r l ess impu ls ive n a ture. One s hou ld n ot e xpect , t herefore , c omp lete c o mparab il i ty o f s truct ure b e tween d i f feren t s i tes , o r , i ndeed , b etween o ppos ite s ides o f t he s a me d efens ive c ircu it .

H owever , s ince b y f ar t he l arges t e f for t o f h i l l-for t e x-

c ava t ion i n t he n or th h as b een d evo ted t o r ampar t s tructure r a ther t han t o t he

1 00

i n ter ior f ea tures o f s i tes , ad iv is ion o f o ur t rea tmen t o n as tructura l b as is i s i nev i tab le . H awkes ' own c l ass if ica t ion ( 1971) w i l l s erve a s a mode l : f ro m f ence , t o w a l l , t o d u mp .

F o l low ing t h is t r ipar t ite t reatmen t c o mes a c on-

s idera t ion o f t he e xcava t ions a t Cas t le H il l , A l mondbury , a nd o f u nexcava ted s i tes i n t he r eg ion. i .

F ences

T he f ence i s t he s i mp les t a nd q u ickes t method o f s et t le men t o r a rea p rot ect ion , a nd mus t h ave b een a w idespread f eature f ro m t he b eg inn ings o f n on-m igratory o ccupa t ion .

S tou t f enc ing a round t he s i tes o f s o-ca l led Devere l-

R i mbury s e tt le men ts i n s ou thern Br ita in i s w e l l-known , a s a t S hearp lace H il l ( t i mbers s et i n ac on t inuous t rench : Rah tz a nd ApS i mon , 1 962 , 2 99-301) a nd I t ford H il l ( t i mbers i n c ha lk-cut p os t-ho les : Burs tow a nd H o l leyman , 1 957 , 1 88 ). B ecause o f t he u b iqu ity ft he f ence a s as tructure , h owever , ad irect o r ig in i n t hese s econd m i l lenn iu m e nc losures f or t he s tockaded a nd p a l isaded s i tes o f t he n or th w ou ld s ee m t o b e u nreasonab le : b oth a re e v idence o f d ev e lop ing p ermanen t s et t le men t. S im ilar ly , where f ence s truc tures a re c learl y o f l a te I ron Age d a te , a s a t Granger 's P it , S tax ton ( Brewster , 1 963, 1 45 ), n o s pec if ic c onclus ions o f c on t inu ity s hou ld b e i nvoked .

The t rea tmen t o f a l l

f enced s et t le men ts a s as ing le c a tegory i s t hus u nsa t isfac tory.

C lear ly d is-

t i nct f ro m t he f enced d o mes t ic s e t t le men ts o f t he M idd le Bronze Age , a nd a lso f ro m t he p a l isaded h o mes teads i n h i l l-s lope a nd v a l ley s i tua t ions s uch a s Wes t Brandon ( Jobey , 1 962 ) a nd Ca t ter ick ( D. o f t he E ., 1 970 , 1 4 ; 1 971, 1 5 ) , i s t he h i l l-top s tockaded c a mp , s uch a s i s f requen t ly r ecogn ised b enea th l a ter r ampar ted f or t if ica t ions.

Fo l low ing H ard ing ( 1972 , 1 7 ) , t he t erm

" s tockaded c a mp" h as b een a f forded a d efens ive c onnota t ion , whereas t he t erm " boundary f ence" h as a d o mes t ic o ne.

" Pa l isade" i s as tructura l d es-

c r ip t ion a pp l icab le t o e i ther a nd a lso t o h i l l-s lope a nd v a l ley s i tes. T he d is tr ibu t ion o f s tockaded c amps i s s hown o n F ig . 8 6.

There a re

s even i nstances i n o ur a rea o f s tockaded d efences o n t he s i tes o f l a ter r a mpa r ted h i l l-for ts. Excava t ions b y F . A . Aberg ( 1967-8 ; t h is a ccoun t i s b ased o n h is i n for ma t ion ) a t t he p romon tory s i te o f Eston N ab , o ver look ing T eess ide f ro m t he s outh , l oca ted a p a l isade t rench , a bou t 1 50 f eet w ith in t he r a mp ar t , f o l low ing a s l igh t s carp a round t he c en tre o f t he s i te.

Th is i s c lear ly

t he s a me f eature a s was e xcava ted b y E lgee ( 1930 , 1 53-4 ), who c leared a l eng th o f o ver 1 00 f eet b u t i n terpreted i ta s as er ies o f h ear ths. T he t rench was a bou t 1f oot d eep a nd w ide , o f u neven s ect ion , c u t i n to n atura l r ubb ly c lay a nd p acked w ith l arge g r itstones u p t o t hree f ee t h igh . The r ecogn it ion o f p os tloca t ions w ith in t he t rench p roved d i f f icu l t , b u t u pr igh ts may h ave b een s et a t i n terva ls o f 8f ee t .

S herds o f p o t tery f ound i n a nd a round t he

p a l isade ( F ig. 4 5 , 1 -4 , 6 -8 , b y Aberg ; 9b y E lgee ) may b e d ated t o t he s eve n th o r s ix th c en tury B .C. o n l oca l a na log ies , a nd a re c lear ly o f L a te Bronze Age r ather t han e ar ly I ron A ge t ype ( see Par t I Chap ter 2 , i i ). Wes t o f t he P enn ines a t S ke l more H eads , n ear U lvers ton , P owe l l ( 1963 ), i n h is e xcavat ions o f ah i l l-for t o n af l at , s ubrectangu lar s um m it , l oca ted a p a l isade t rench a t v ar ious p o in ts o n t he p er i meter.

The b es t e v idence c ame

f ro m S i te D , where t he t rench was 8 i nches d eep a nd 1 5 i nches w ide , o f r ect angu lar s ect ion , o n a n a l ignmen t 4f eet b eyond t he o uter f ace o f t he b ank , a nd f ro m S i te E , where i t was s im ilar b u t s l igh t ly w ider , o n o ne o f t he t hree

1 01

s ides s ee m ing ly u npro tected b y t he b ank a nd d i tch.

Fro m e v idence a t o ther

p o in ts i t was c onc luded t ha t t he p a l isade was t he e ar l ies t o f t he d e fens ive p hases , a nd t hat , a l though a c on t inuous l i ne w as n o t l oca ted , ac o mp lete c irc u it f orm ing a s tockaded e nc losure was i n tended . N o d at ing e v idence was r ecovered , b u t t here w as s l igh t e v idence t ha t t he l a ter b ank was o f t imberf ramed b ox c ons truct ion , a t l eas t i n p ar t. T here a re t hree e xa mp les o f p robab le s tockaded c amps o n t he s ou thwestern marg ins o f o ur a rea .

I n h is e xcava t ions a t Cas t le H i l l , Edd isbury ,

Var ley ( 1951, 3 4 ) f ound a p a l isade t rench i n A rea 4 wh ich u nder lay t he f ron t r evetmen t o f h is i nner r a mpar t o f t he f irst ma jor d efens ive p hase. Th is h e t ook t o b e e v idence f or a s tockaded c a mp. An e n trance s tructure i n Area 3 , a pproached b y ah o l low-way a nd c o mpr is ing a n arrow p assageway d e f ined b y s even p a irs o f p os t-ho les w ith a r ect il inear t imber g uard-roo m t o t he s ou th , may h ave b een c on te mporary ( 2E .c it ., 2 9-33 ).

I t was r econs tructed i n s tone.

No ma ter ia l r e ma ins a ssoc ia ted w ith t he Edd isbury s tockaded c amp h ave b een a va ilab le f or e xa m ina t ion , b u t t he i nner r a mpar t o f t he f or t wh ich s ucc eeded t he c amp was o f e ar th w ith f ron t a nd r ear d ry-s tone r evetmen ts a nd w ith , a t c er ta in p o in ts , q uan t it ies o f t imber t hrown i n to t he c ore ( 22 .c it., 3 4-40 ). Ano ther h i l l-for t e xcava ted b y Var ley a nd u nder la in b y as tockaded c a mp i s O ld Oswestry , S hropsh ire ( Var ley , 1 948, 5 6 ). Un fortuna te ly t he p ub l ica t ion o f t h is s i te i s i nco mp lete , b u t p o t tery f ro m h u ts b eh ind t he f irs t r a mpar ted d e fences i s o f p robab ly s ix th c en tury B .C. d a te ( see P ar t I , Chap ter 3 , i ). F ur ther s ou th , work b y C . R . Musson ( 1970a ; 1 970b ; 1 975 f or thco m ing ) a t t he Bre idd in h as a dded v ita l e v idence t o t ha t r ecovered b y O 'Ne i l i n t he e ar ly 1 930s. I n 1 969 , at imber d efence w as d iscovered o n a g en t ly-curv ing c ourse , i n p arts b enea th a nd e lsewhere o u ts ide t he l i ne o f t he l a ter s tone r ampar t .

Upr igh t t imbers i n s epara te h o les a bou t ay ard

a par t w ere a ssoc ia ted w ith a f ew sma l l p o t tery s herds.

I ti s t e mp t ing t o

l ink t he b ronze n a i l-headed p ins f ro m t he s i te ( .c it ., f igured ), o f e igh th o r s even th c en tury d a te , w ith t h is s tockaded c amp. T here i s a lso e v idence o f as tockaded c amp a t Mam T or , t he s i te a lready s een t o p roduce p o t tery o f e ar ly t ype ( Par t I , Chap ter 2 , i i ). I n ar ampar t s ect ion c u t o n t he n or th-eas t s ide o f t he s i te i n 1 966 , ar ock-cu t p os t-ho le was f ound , o ver a f oot b eyond t he l i ne o f t he o uter s tone r ampart r evetmen t b u t c lear ly s tra t igraph ica l ly e ar l ier .

The l ayer t hrough wh ich t he p ost-ho le

was c u t u nder lay t he r evetmen t , a nd c ou ld b e s een i n as im ilar p os it ion i n t he 1 965 c u t t ing , s o i ti s s uggested t ha t t h is l ayer may r epresen t t he a ccu mul a t ion o f ma ter ia l a ga ins t as tockade d efence. Tha t o n ly a s ing le p ost-ho le was d iscovered w ith in t wo c u t t ings o f aw id th o f s ix f eet o r l ess e ach i s n o t s urpr is ing.

A ma jor p re-ra mpar t d efens ive p hase may b e e nv isaged .

T he l ast s i te t o b e c ons idered where t here i s e v idence f or a f ree-stand ing s tockade i s Breedon-on-the-H i l l. Excava t ion o n t h is s i te h as b een s porad ic s ince 1 946 i n a dvance o f q uarry ing . The mos t r ecen t r epor t ( Norwood , 1 967 ) r efers t o ap a l isade w ith in t he l i ne o f t he l a ter r a mpar t t o t he n or th-wes t o f t he s i te.

O therw ise , t he s tructures were c ons idered v ery s im ilar t o t hose

s een b y Wacher ( 1964 ) i n t he e as tern d efences i n h is 1 957 e xcava t ions. Wacher a lso f ound a r ow o f p osts , s et i n i nd iv idua l h o les 2 f eet a par t , b eh ind h is r a mpar t , b u t i n terpreted i ta s ac on te mporary t a i l r eve tmen t s ince t he

1 02

p ack ing o f t he h o les was h eav i ly c o mpacted . u n l ike ly :

S uch a t a il r evetmen t s ee ms

n one w ou ld b e n eeded g iven t he s lope o f t he h i l l a nd t he s hape o f

t he r ampar t a s r econstruc ted ( 91.. c it ., f ig . 2 ) , a nd n o i nner p os t r ow was f ound b y Kenyon i n 1 946 , s ugges t ing t ha t , i fp resen t , i t s a l ignmen t was d iff eren t f ro m t ha t o f t he r a mpart .

A s tockaded c amp a t Breedon-on-the-H i l l

s hou ld t hus b e c ons idered l i ke ly .

S o me o f t he p o t tery f ro m t he s i te c ou ld

wel l d ate t o t he f i f th c en tury B .C. o r e ven e ar l ier ( see Par t I , Chap ter 4 , i ) . A s f or t he f irst p roper r ampar t a t Breedon-on-the-H i l l , t he e v idence r ec overed b y Kenyon , Wacher , a nd N orwood i s t o s o me e x ten t c o mp le men tary . The ma jor c o mponen t was a r ow o f p os ts s et 1 f oo t a par t i n ac on t inuous r ockc ut t rench.

Beh ind t h is was p i led a l ayer o f r ubb le a nd l arge b ou lders ,

t h icker a t t he f ron t , o ver la id b y at h ick c app ing o f e ar th , p rov id ing a r ough ly l eve l p la t form. Upon t h is t he ma in r a mpar t c ore o f l imestone r ubb le was a dded , h igheA t a ga inst t he t imber f ence a nd s lop ing d u mp-w ise b eh ind. The h e igh t o f t he f ence was e s t i mated b y Wacher ( .c it., 1 27 ) a s 1 0 f eet , a nd , s ince t he p osts were s et l ess t han 2 f eet i n to t he g round , s ome k ind o f h or iz on ta l t imberlac ing f ro m t he p os ts b ackwards i n to t he r a mpar t c ore h as b een e nv isaged.

I n a l l t hese ma jor f eatures , t he s truc ture s ee ms t o b e w el l p ar-

a l le led a t t he L aus itz c u l ture f ort a t S örnew itz , M idd le G ermany ( Hawkes , 1 971, f i g . 1 , a ) , p robab ly e ar l ier t han 8 00 B .C. ( .c it ., 9 ) . A l though b as ica l ly s t il l af ence s tructure , a dded s treng th i s impar ted b y as tone , r ubb le , a nd e ar th b ack ing . Where d at ing e v idence i s a va ilab le , t herefore , i ts ee ms t ha t t he s tocka ded c a mp i s ap re-f if th c en tury t ype a nd p recedes more s ubs tan t ia l r ampar t s tructures wh ich a re t o b e s een a s a more p ermanen t improve men t .

A s pe-

c i f ica l ly L a te Bronze Age d a te may b e o f fered f or Eston Nab , Mam T or , a nd t he Bre idd in. Outs ide o ur a rea , a t F en ton H il l , Nor thu mber land , as tockaded c a mp w as f ound t o u nder l ie t he t wo p hases o f t imber-revet ted r a mpar ts o f t he 1a cre h i l l-for t ( Burgess , 1 972 ).

F ur ther wes t , t he t w in r ows o f c lose ly-set

p ost-ho les b enea th t he r a mpar t o f t he 1 7 a cre f or t a t B irrenswark , Du m fr iess h ire , a re i n terpre ted a s as tockaded c amp , r ad iocarbon d a ted t o 5 00 ± 1 00 b .c. ( McK. 7 80-530 B .C.; G aK-2203b ; J obey , 1 971). To t he n or th , t he s tockaded e nc losure b enea th t he v itr if ied t imberlaced f or t a t Cra igmar loch Wood , Ren frewsh ire , h as b een d a ted t o 5 90 + 4 0 b .c. (McK . 8 30-740 B .C.; GaK-995 ;

MacK ie , 1 969 , 1 8-9 ). A s ix th o r f i f th c en tury d a te h as b een

s ugges ted f or c er ta in s tockaded c amps i n s ou thern Eng land , p ar t icu lar ly B lewbur ton H il l ( Hard ing , 1 972 , 4 6 ), a nd i t may b e t ha t t he Er eedon-on-theH il l s equence , p robab ly t he l a tes t o f o ur g roup , b eg ins h ere. I td oes n ot s ee m j us t if iab le t o d ivorce a c ons idera t ion o f t hose o ther p a l is aded h i l l-top s tructures k nown i n n or th-eas t Eng land a nd t he Border c oun t ies f ro m t hose b eneath h i l l-for ts , s ince t he g enera l a ppearance mus t h ave b een v ery s im ilar ( Feache m , 1 966 , f i g . 1 ) .

S o me o f t he d ist inct ive f ea tures o f

t he f ormer s i tes , s uch a s c on te mporary w ide-spaced c ircu its , a re a lso f ound o n r ampar ted s i tes t o t he s ou th , i n t h is c ase a s a t Danebury a nd O ld Oswes try ( Cun l if fe , 1 971, 6 2 ). The s i tes o f t he Border c oun t ies , e x tens ive ly d iscussed b y J obey ( see b ibl iography ), a re b eyond t he s cope o f t h is s urvey , b u t t hose o f t he Eas t R id ing , o f wh ich S tap le H owe i s t he p r i me b u t b y n o means t he u n ique e xa mp le , a re n o t .

1 03

The d e fences a t S tap le H owe , a ccord ing t o Brews ter 's i n terpreta t ion ( 1963, 9 -15 ), w ere o f t hree ma in p hases .

I n e ach t here was a s ing le l i ne o f

e dge-se t t imbers , s e t i n ac ont inuous t rench , r unn ing a round t he s teep-s ided h il l r ough ly f o l low ing t he c on tours. 2 00 b y 9 0 f eet .

I n it ia l ly , t he a rea e nc losed was o va l ,

S evere e ros ion o f t he s lop ing s ur faces h as o bscured s o me

o f t he d e ta ils , b u t i ti s c lear t ha t t he s econd p a l isade was more s ubs tan t ia l t han t he f irs t a nd was s et o n a n a l ign men t s ome 5 f ee t i n v er t ica l h e igh t d own-s lope.

The t h ird p hase i nvo lved c o mp lete r ep lace men t a nd s ome r e-

a l ignmen t o f t he s econd .

There was s o me e v idence , n ot a ltogether c onclus ive ,

f or t he b rac ing o f t he ma in t imbers b y h or izon ta l t i es t o sma l ler w ooden p egs i n p os t-ho les b eh ind ( .c it., f ig . 7 ) .

T he p a l isade t renches were o f v ar iab le

d ep th a nd s hape , a nd d ense ly p acked.

T he mos t d is t inct ive e n trance s tructure

was t he t hree p ost-ho les , s pann ing t he 9 f oo t n or th-eas tern g ap i n t he f i rs t p hase.

The ma ter ia l r e ma ins s uggest o ccupa t ion f ro m t he e ar ly s ix th c en-

t ury u n t i l t he l a te f i f th ( see P ar t I , Chap ter 3 , ia nd i ). The f act t ha t mos t o f t he p o t tery f ro m t he t renches was i n f i l l ing r a ther t han i n p ack ing s ugges ts t ha t t he b ipar t ite b ow l w ith g roove b e low t he r im ( op .c it ., f ig . 3 3, 1 )n eed n ot i nd ica te a l ate f i f th c en tury d a te f or t he f i rs t p a l isade a nd t hus e x tens ive p re-defence o ccupa t ion . With t he p robab il ity o f t he r ep lace men t o f t imbers i n t he t renches o f a ny p hase w ithout r ecut t ing a nd t hus w ithou t l eav ing o bv ious t races f or t he e xcava tor , ap er iod o f 1 50 y ears o r s o i s n o t u nreasonab le f or t he l i fe o f t he s et t le men t . Brewster h as s ugges ted ( i n c onversa t ion ) t ha t t here a re o ver 1 00 s uch s tockaded e nc losures k nown i n e as tern Yorksh ire.

Exa mp les a re p robably

r epresen ted b y t he e v idence f ro m Graf ton H i l ls ( Waterman , e t a l., 1 955 ) a nd Thornha m H i l l ( see P ar t I , Chap ter 4 ,i ) , b u t i tw il l b e s o me c ons iderab le t ime b e fore h is a sser t ion i s f u l ly s ubs tan t iated .

I ts ee ms t ha t a lthough t hese

e xa mp les k nown a re i n d efens ive s i tua t ions , many o thers s uch a s t ha t a t Cat ter ick ( no ted l ater ) a re l owly ing a nd t hus t o b e c ons idered a s d omes t ic e nclosures r a ther t han h i l l-for t if ica t ions.

Meanwh ile , af ur ther h i l l-top

s i te h as b een e xcava ted b y Brews ter ( on whose v erba l a ccoun t t h is d escr ipt i on i s b ased ) a t Dev i l 's H i l l , H es ler ton .

I t was d iscovered when s eek ing

af i eld s ys te m wh ich m igh t h ave b een r e la ted t o t he S tap le Howe s et t le men t , 1 .5 m iles e ast o f t ha t s i te. S l igh t ly l arger , i t was 2 70 f eet a cross , d escr ibi ng a r ough e gg-shape g overned b y t he c on f igura t ion o f al ow h i l l-top .

I t was

d ef ined b y as ing le c on t inuous p a l isade t rench w ith i t s e n trance t o t he s ou th ( as a t S tap le H owe ), a s i mp le l arge g ap , p resumab ly c losed b y s h if t ing h urd les a s n o p os t-ho les were p resen t. I ns ide t here was a f our-pos t s tructure a nd s evera l h u t-c irc les. T he p ot tery was e xact ly c o mparab le w ith t ha t o f t he l a ter p hases o f S tap le H owe ; i ndeed , l abora tory e xa m ina t ion c onc luded t ha t s o me o f t he f i nger-t ipped d ecora t ion h ad b een made b y t he s ame h and ( T . C . M. Brewster i n for ma t ion ;

s herds n o t a va i lab le f or s tudy ).

I ft hese t wo Eas t R id ing e xa mp les a re t yp ica l , i ts hou ld b e s tressed t ha t a ma jor f ac tor d i f feren t ia t ing t he m f ro m mos t o f t hose s tocka ,ded c amps b en ea th h i l l-forts i s s ize.

Whereas t he f ormer a re l ess t han h a lf a n a cre , t he

l a t ter a re a bou t t wo a cres a t sma l les t ( Eston N ab ), i ncreas ing t o 3 .5 a cres a t S ke l more H eads , t o o ver 1 5 a cres a t Mam T or , Breedon-on-the-H i l l , a nd O ld Oswes try , a nd p robab ly t o 6 5 a cres a t t he Bre idd in . The f ormer a re h o mes teads r a ther t han c o m mun ity s et t le men ts , a nd i fs o n u merous a s Brews ter 1 04

s upposes a re e xa mp les o f ac o m mon l oca l t ype o f d efended s et t le men t w ith t hose b est-known o ccurr ing o n h i l l-tops.

One i s r em inded o f t he p heno mena l

d eve lop men t o f t he Maor i p i n p reh istor ic N ew Z ea land :

b as ica l ly a s tock-

a ded e nc losure , t he t ype o ccurs i n aw ide v ar iety o f l oca t ions ( over 4 ,000 i n n u mber ) w ith c ons iderab le d ivers ity o f p a l isade s tructure ( Be l lwood , 1 971 ). P erhaps t he a bundance o f t he t ype may t o s o me e x ten t e xp la in t he p auc ity o f t rue h i l l-for ts i n t he Eas t R id ing . i .

Wa l ls

F o l low ing t he s tockades o n mos t o f t he s i tes j us t c ons idered a re v ar ious t ypes o f wa l led d efence. T hese a re more s ubs tan t ia l c ons truct ions u s ing e ar th , s tone , a nd o f ten t imber , s t i l l r eta in ing t he i dea o f av er t ica l ly-faced b arr ier .

F or c onven ience , t hose r ampar ts i ncorpora t ing t imber w il l b e c on-

s idered f irs t ( F ig . 8 7 ).

A l though

s upersed ing

t he s tockades a t Edd isbury

a nd p oss ib ly a lso a t S ke l more H eads , t he t imbered b ox r ampar t i s n ot a lways c hrono log ica l ly l a ter .

A mos t u sefu l s equence o f s tructures a nd a ssoc ia ted

r ad iocarbon d a tes h as b een o b ta ined f ro m D inorben ( Savory , 1 971a , f ig . 1 ; 1 971b ).

T he P er iod Ir a mpar t , 1 3 f ee t w ide , was b u il t o f c lay a nd r ubb le

w ith a f ron t r eve t men t o f u pr igh t t imbers i n ac on t inuous p a l isade t rench , a b ack r evetmen t o f w ide ly-spaced u pr igh ts i n i nd iv idua l p ost-ho les , a nd i ntern a l h or izon ta l c ross-t i mbers.

Rad iocarbon d a tes f ro m c harcoa l o f t h is r a m-

p ar t w ere 8 95 + 9 5 ( McK. 150-1110 B .C.) a nd 7 65 ± 8 5 b .c. (McK. 9 70-900 B .C.; V -122 a nd V -125 ; 2 2 .c it., 2 54 ). The P er iod I r ampar t , b u il t o n t he r e ma ins o f P er iod I , was 1 0 f eet w ide a nd a lso t imberlaced , b ut t here was n o s ign o f u pr igh t t imbers.

I nstead , t he v er t ica l r eve tmen ts were o f s tone.

Rad iocarbon d a tes f ro m c harcoa l were 5 35 ± 8 5 ( McK. 8 00-550 B .C.) a nd 4 20 + 7 0 b .c. ( McK. 5 30-470 B .C.; VB 124 a nd V-176 ; i b id .). We t hus h ave a t imber-fra med b ox r a mpar t d a t ing t o a round t he e leven th/ ten th c en tur ies , f o l lowed b y as tone-reve t ted t imberlaced r a mpar t o f t he s ix th c en tury o r e ar l ier . Bo th r ampar ts h ad b een b urn t. There a re t hree d ef in ite a nd t wo p oss ib le e xamp les o f t imber-fra med b ox r a mpar ts f ro m o ur a rea.

T he b est-known i s Gr im thorpe , a n 8a cre s i te o n

t he w es tern e dge o f t he Yorksh ire Wo lds ( S tead , 1 968, 1 52-5 ). The r ampar t h ad b een c o mp lete ly l eve l led b y p lough ing , b u t s urv ived a s ad oub le r ow o f p ost-ho les , s paced a t v ary ing i n terva ls o f 6t o 1 0 f eet , p rov id ing a s o mewha t meander ing f ra mework f or a r ampar t 6f ee t w ide.

Tha t ar a mpar t was p re-

s en t r a ther t han a d oub le-pa l isade i s i nd ica ted b y t he f i l l ing o f l oosely p acked c ha lk , t i pped f ro m t he i n ter ior , i n t he o uter d i tch wh ich was 6 t o 7f eet d eep a nd 1 0 t o 1 5 f eet w ide.

The b er m was 1 2 t o 1 5 f ee t w ide.

An e n trance c ause-

way b e tween b roadened d i tch-term ina ls was n ot matched b y ab reak i n t he p ost-ho le s equence , b u t i ts ee ms t ha t ag a teway c ou ld h ave b een a cco m modated b etween t he r egu lar s pac ings o f t he p os ts.

T he r ad iocarbon d a tes f ro m t he

s i te ( see P ar t I , Chap ter 2 , i i ) i nd icate a n o ccupa t ion b eg inn ing a round 1 000 B .C., a nd s uch i s p oss ib le o n t he D inorben a na logy . H owever , t he e v idence o f t he ma ter ia l r e ma ins d e mands a n e x tens ion i n to t he l a ter s even th a t e ar l ies t , t o wh ich d a te t he s tr ik ing ly s im ilar s truc tures a t I v inghoe Beacon ( Co t ton a nd Frere , 1 968, f ig . 3 ) may b e a scr ibed , a lso o n t he b as is o f p ot tery .

There i s

t hus a s ubs tan t ia l d iscrepancy b etween t he d ates i nd icated . P erhaps t here may h ave b een a mu l t i-per iod o ccupa t ion o f t he s i te : t he p o t tery i n t he d i tch f i l l ings was s tra t if ied a bove t he r ubb le o f t he c o l lapsed r ampar t. 1 05

T he c loses t p ara l le l t o Gr im thorpe i s t o b e f ound i n t he c en tra l o f t he t hree r a mpar ts e nc los ing t he sma l l o va l s i te a t Cas terc l if fe , L ancash ire , e xcavat ed i n 1 970-1 b y D . Coo mbs ( on whose i n forma t ion t h is a ccoun t i s b ased ). Th is r a mpar t was d ef ined b y c on t inuous b edd ing t renches f ron t a nd r ear 6 f ee t a par t i n wh ich w ere s e t c hocked p os t-ho les u p t o 3f eet d eep a nd a bou t 6f ee t a par t . The r ubb le c ore s urv ives u p t o 5f ee t i n h e igh t , a nd t he b owed o u t l ine o f t he r evet t ing , c urv ing f ro m p ressure w ith in , was v is ib le i n t he e xcava ted s ect ions. Beyond t he r a mpar t was a r ock-cu t d i tch , 5f eet d eep a nd 6 f eet w ide a t t he mouth , w ith a p robab le c oun terscarp b ank . T here i s e v idence t ha t t h is d efence was a bandoned b e fore c o mp le t ion : o f t hree a reas e xcava ted , i n o ne b etween t wo r a mpar t s ec tors t he g round h ad n o tb een d is turbed , i n a no ther a t t he e nd o f ar ampar t s ector t he b edd ing t renches w ere s een t o t ermi nate , a nd i n t he t h ird t he b edd ing t renches a nd t he d i tch a l l e nded o n o ne l i ne , p resu mab ly d ef in ing a n e n trance.

T he i nner r a mpar t a t Casterc l if fe w as much

d enuded ow ing t o r e mova l i n t he n ineteen th c en tury ( documen tary e v idence o ff ered b y D . Coo mbs ). I t c ons isted o f l ow r ubb le a nd t imber d epos it , v ery h eav i ly v itr if ied ( l abora tory e xa m ina t ion b y R . F . Ty leco te ), p robab ly o f a s tone-reve t ted , t imberlaced r a mpar t . T here was n o a ssoc ia ted d i tch . E i ther t he o u ter d efences r epresen t a n u n f in ished a dd it ion , o r t he i nner d efences w ere b u i lt a f ter t he o u ter h ad d ur ing c ons truc t ion b een c ons idered u nsa t is fac tory . No r esu l t h as b een o bta ined f ro m e xcava t ion i n t he i n ter ior , a nd t here i s n o s tra t igraph ica l r e la t ionsh ip b etween t he t wo ma in r ampar ts. S a mp les f or r ad iocarbon a ssay h ave b een c o l lected b u t n o t y et e xam ined . Excava t ions o f t he e ar thwork e nclos ing t he 5 0 a cre p ro mon tory s i te a t S u t ton Bank , e as t o f Th irsk , b y A . L . P ac it to i n 1 969-70 p roduced e v idence o f at imber-framed b ox r a mpar t . One a ccoun t ( D. o f t he E ., 1 970, 1 4 ) r ef ers t o e v idence f or f ron t t imbers r is ing v er t ica l ly f ro m t he b o t tom o f af l a tb ot to med d i tch , b u t a no ther ( D . o f t he E

1 971, 1 5 ) r epor ts t ha t t he d i tch ,

6t o 7 metres w ide a nd 2 metres d eep , a ga in f l a t-bo t to med , was s eparated f ro m t he b ank b y ab erm 2 t o 3 metres w ide. T he b ank was s a id t o h ave a r ow o f v er t ica l t imbers 2 t o 2 .5 metres a par t n ear i t s f ron t , w ith a s im ilar lys paced r ow 2 me tres b eh ind , a nd 1 .5 t o 2 metres b eh ind t ha t ap ara l le l t rench wh ich m igh t h ave a nchored d iagona l b rac ing t imbers. Un fortuna tely n o f ur ther i n forma t ion o n t h is s i te h as b een a va ilab le. T here a re t wo p oss ib le e xa mp les o f t imber-fra med b ox r ampar ts t o c ons ider .

A t S ke l more H eads ( Powe l l , 1 963 ), h o l lows i n n atura l r ock a t v ar ious

p o in ts may h ave b een p os t-ho les. T hose o n S i te D s ee med t o d ef ine t he f ron t a nd r ear o f t he b ank , a nd t hose o n S i te A f ormed a r egu lar p at tern d e f in ing t he l im its o f a n e n trance. However , t he c onc lus ion o f t he e xcava tors was t ha t t he b ank o f e ar th a nd s tones was o f s imp le d u mp c onstruc t ion , s ome a tt e mp a t s tab il isa t ion b e ing r epresen ted b y l arger b ou lders a t f ron t a nd r ear . The e xcavat ions o f P or t f ie ld Camp , L ancash ire , a re s t i l l c on t inu ing , b u t e v id ence a lready r ecovered ( Besw ick , 1 970 ) s ugges ts t ha t t he i nner r ampar t w ith as tone a nd c lay c ore h ad b een r evet ted a t t he f ron t b y ad oub le r ow o f l arge u pr igh t s labs s et i n ag u l ly , b eh ind wh ich a s ing le p os t-ho le s ee ms t o i nd ica te at imber f ra m ing . N o e v idence o f t he r ear r eve t men t i s y et a va i lab le. S ome f orm o f t imber r eve t men t s treng thened a t t he b ase b y u pr igh t s labs i s p oss ib le. A l though t he s i te i s t o t he s ou th o f t he a rea w ith wh ich t h is s tudy i s p ri ma r ily c oncerned , men t ion must b e made o f t he r a mpar t s tructures a t H unsbury , 1 06

Nor tha mp tonsh ire , e xcavated i n 1 952 b y R . J . C . A tk inson ( i n forma t ion f rom p ub l ic l ecture ). u s h ere.

The f i rst o f t he t wo ma in p hases d iscovered c oncerns

A c u tt ing a t t he n or th-eas t o f t he 4 a cre s i te s howed t ha t t he e ar l ies t

r a mpar t was d ef ined b y t imber r eve t men ts f ron t a nd r ear , s et i n i nd iv idua l p os t-ho les.

There i s e v idence f or a t h ird r ow o f u pr igh ts a long t he c en tre

o f t he r a mpar t , wh ich h ad a c ore o f i rons tone r ubb le a nd c lay i n wh ich c ou ld b e s een t he v o ids l ef t b y t he d eco mposed v er t ica l t imbers. o f b urn ing i n t he r ubb le i nd ica ted c ross-bea ms.

Hor izon ta l l ayers

Par t icu lar ly i n e v idence

a long t he b ack r eve t men t ( t he f ron t a rea was b ad ly e roded ) was a s uppor t ing s tructure o f l imestone b locks , g iv ing e x tra s treng th t o t he p os ts b e low a nd a bove g round l evel. v er t ica l s ides.

The d i tch was l arge , o r ig ina l ly w ith a f la t b o t to m a nd

A f ur ther c u tt ing t o t he s outh , n or th o f t he e n trance , r evea led

as im i lar d itch , a nd a r a mpar t o f t he s a me g enera l n ature e xcept t ha t t he r ear t imbers were s e t i n ac on t inuous t rench .

Aga in , l imes tone b locks s up-

p or ted t he t imber f ra m ing , p robab ly b ecause o f t he g rea t l atera l p ressures o f ac lay c ore. v ic in ity .

I ti s s ign if ican t t ha t l imes tone d oes n o t o ccur n atura l ly i n t he

A s im ilar s tructure w ith t imber f ra m ing a nd l ac ing , ar ubb le c ore ,

a nd s uppor t ing masonry b locks i n t he r evet men t a t t he S chafberg , L bbau , Midd le G ermany , h as r ecen t ly b een r eil lus tra ted b y Hawkes ( 1971, f ig . 1 , d ).

T he ma ter ia l r e ma ins a t H unsbury s uggest a n i n it ia l o ccupat ion f ro m t he

f i f th c entury B .C. ( see Par t I , Chapter

4 , i ) .

O f t he t ype o f r a mpar t i den t if ied i n Per iod I a t D inorben , t he s tone-revett ed t imber-laced c ons truct ion , t here a re s even e xa mp les f ro m o ur a rea. One , o f wh ich l i t t le i s k nown b ecause o f i t s d es truc t ion i n t he l as t c en tury , h as a lready b een n o ted a t Casterc l if fe. W. J . V ar ley a re t he b es t k nown :

O f t he o thers , t he t hree e xcava ted b y Edd isbury a nd B icker ton , Chesh ire , a nd

Cast le H il l , A l mondbury . S ince a c ons iderab le amoun t o f e v idence f ro m t he Chesh ire s i tes h as b een p ub l ished ( Var ley , 1 935 ;

1 936 ;

1 948 ;

1 951;

r e-

c ons idered b y Cot ton , 1 954 , a nd F orde-Johnston , 1 962 ), o n ly b r ief s u m mar ies w il l b e o f fered h ere. A t Ma iden Cast le , B icker ton , a sma l l p ro mon tory s i te , t he i nner o f t he t wo r ampar ts was c o mposed o f ac ore o f s and a nd t imbers i n l ayers , r es t ing o n al eve l led f loor o f n a tura l g lac ia l d r if t.

T he t imbers were i n l ayers

6i nches t o 1f oot a par t , a nd w ere l a id l eng thways , c rossways , a nd d iagona l ly . They r anged i n s ize f ro m l arge t runks t o sma l l t w igs.

Th is was r evet ted a t

t he f ron t , r ear , a nd a bove b y d ry-stone wal l ing a nd c app ing , f orm ing a c onso l ida ted s tructure u p t o 8f eet h igh a nd u p t o 1 7 f eet w ide. h ave s tood a t o ver 1 2 f eet .

Or ig ina l ly i t may

T he t imber was c arbon ised , a nd a l though i tm ight

h ave b een b urn t t here i s n o c o mmen t o n t he s tate o f t he s urround ing s and t o i nd ica te whether i th ad b een a f fec ted b y h ea t .

A s herd o f ac oarse , p la in ,

h igh-shou ldered v esse l was f ound i n a n o ccupa t ion l ayer c on te mporary w ith t he u se o f t he i nner r a mpar t ( Var ley , 1 964 , f ig . 3 8, 4 ; c ou ld d a te t o t he s ix th c entury o r t hereabou ts.

1 936, 1 05-6 ).

I t

The o u ter r a mpar t a t B icker-

t on was a s and t ip a ga ins t a n o uter s tone r eve t men t wh ich s ee ms t o h ave b een s ubsequen t ly s treng thened .

There i s n o e v idence o f t he d a te o f t h is s truc ture.

A t C as t le D itch , Edd isbury , V ar ley ( 1951) c ons idered t ha t t he f irs t r a mp ar ted d e fence f or med a u n iva l la te e nc losure a round t he e astern h al l o f t he h i l l.

I n A rea 4 , t h is r a mpar t w as f ound t o c ons is t o f a n e ar then c ore , r eve t-

t ed f ron t a nd b ack b y s tone wa l l ing , a nd w ith b ranches o f t rees i ncorpora ted 1 07

i n t he c ore a t i n terva ls. The d itch was n arrow a nd d eep ly V-shaped . The e n trance s tructure i n Area 3 , w ith t imber r eve tmen t a nd t imber g uardroo m , may b e long t o t h is d efens ive p hase. t o e nc lose t he who le Mi.

S ubsequen t ly t he h i l l-for t was e x tended

The e v idence o f l a ter p hases i s n ot c lear , b u t i t

s ee ms t ha t au n iva l la te e x tens ion w ith d u mp r ampar ts may h ave b een s ucceede d b y ab iva l la te d efence w ith s tone r eve tmen ts. Th is l a t ter p hase w as p roba b ly c onnected w ith t he r ebu ild ing o f t he e n trance i n Area 3 i n s tone a nd t he c o mp let ion o f as econd r ec tangu lar s tone g uard-roo m , a nd w ith t he c ons truct i on a t t he n or th-wes tern e nd o f t he c a mp o f a n i n turned e n trance.

T h is

l a t ter e n trance was o f c o mp l ica ted c ons truct ion . The i n turned r ampar ts h ad s tone r eve t men ts f ron t a nd b ack , a nd a c lay c ore w ith h or izon ta l t imber-laci ng , h eav i ly f ired .

Beh ind t he o u ter r evetmen t , r ows o f s uppor t ing p os ts

were f ound , e x tend ing b ack f ro m a d oub le g a te w ith c en tra l s top.

B eh ind t he

s ou thern i n turn , t he r eve t men tb ase was l a id o n ac lay f l oor o n wh ich w ere f ound s herds o f p la in ,h igh-shou ldered v esse ls a nd a lso j ars w ith f inger-t ipp ing o n r im a nd s hou lder.

These s herds c ou ld b e o f s ix th o r f i f th c en tury

d ate. The s equence o f s tructures a t Cas t le H il l , A l mondbury ( Var ley , 1 948, I : 2 : 4s. 2 a nd 5 ; f or d e ta i led d iscuss ion s ee s ect ion i v o f t h is c hapter ), a s i nt erpreted b y Var ley , i s s o mewha t s im ilar t o t ha t a t Edd isbury . The f i rs t f or t was s upposed t o c ons ist o f a sma l l e nclosure w ith r a mpar t a nd o u ter r ock-cu t d i tch t o t he s ou th-west o f t he h i l l-top. I n p er iod I t he f or t w as e xt ended t o e nc lose t he who le s umm it , w ith a r a mpar t o f s ha ley c lay o n ab asa l r a f t o f h or izon ta l t imber p lanks w ith l arge u pr igh t f lagstone r evetmen ts. The who le c ircu it s ee ms t o h ave b een r econstruc ted i n p er iod I I w ith a r ampar t c ore o f s ha ley c lay , s tone , a nd t imbers , l a id d own a bove t he r e ma ins o f t he e ar l ier r ampar t a nd r evet ted w ith d ry-s tone w a l l ing . h eav i ly b urn t .

Th is r ampar t w as

I t s t imbers were a rranged l eng thways , c rossways , a nd u p-

r igh t , a nd were l a id b etween t he s tones o f t he r evet men ts.

The t imbers p ro-

d uced a r ad iocarbon d ate o f 5 55 + 1 00 b .c. ( McK . 8 20-560 B .C.; 1 -4542s amp le f ro m 1 969 e xcava t ions ). I nb oth p er iods I a nd H I t here was a d i tch , r ecu t a nd b roadened i n t he l at ter p hase , a nd a c oun terscarp b ank . Mu lt iv a l la t ions w ere a dded o n t he more g en t ly-s lop ing e as tern s ide. Ou tworks o f d umped s ha le were a lso c onstructed a t s o me s tage , f orm ing a n o u ter e nc losed a rea i n terpre ted b y Cun l if fe ( 1971, 6 2 ) a s t he p rov is ion o f p as ture. These d oub le s ha le t ips h ad a n i n terven ing d i tch i n wh ich were s et o b l iquelya ng led p o in ted s takes s t ick ing u pwards. P erhaps t hese a re a f ur ther e xa mp le o f c oncea led c hevaux-de-fr ise , wh ich Harb ison ( 1971, 2 20 ) s ugges ted c ou ld h ave b een i n troduced i n to Br ita in t ogether w ith t he u se o f t imber-laced r a mp ar ts.

I ti s p oss ib le , t herefore , t ha t t he p reh is tor ic f or t if ica t ion s equence

a t A l mondbury c ou ld h ave r un i t s f u l l c ourse b y t he f i f th c entury B .C . Three o ther e xa mp les o f t imberlaced r ampar ts l i e b etween Chesh ire a nd A l mondbury . A t Ber th H il l , S ta f fordsh ire ( F ig . 5 4 ), t he f irst p hase o f f ort i f ica t ion a s s een o n S i te B ( F ig . 5 8 ) s ee ms t o c ons is t o f ac ore o f s i l t b e low a nd c layey e ar th a bove , s et o n al eve l led p la t form c u t i n to n atura l s andstone, a nd r eve t ted a t t he f ron t a nd a t t he t op o f t he q uarr ied b ack-wa l l b y s andstone b ou lders. There was s o me c harcoa l i n t he c layey e ar th , wh ich i s ad epos it c o mparab le w ith t ha t i ncorporat ing t imber b eams f ound o n S i te C ( F ig . 5 9 ).

1 08

Fro m t he s o mewha t u nsa t isfactory r ecord o f S ite C i t s ee ms t ha t t he r a mpar t was l a id o n an atura l ly l eve l s ands tone s ur face , a nd was a ga in r evet ted a t f ron t a nd r ear w ith b ou lders.

T here i s n o d at ing e v idence f ro m t h is f irs t

d efence , w h ich i s o ver la id b y as and & n ip r a mpar t.

Ap ot tery r i m-sherd

( F ig . 3 , 1 4 ) was f ound u pon L ayer 6 b e low L ayer 3 o n S i te B , a nd s o i s n ot d e mons trab ly c on te mporary w ith e i ther t he d u mp o r t he b ox r a mpar t . T here i s e v idence f ro m o ther e xcavated c u t t ings , p ar t icu lar ly b e low S i te C , t ha t b eyond a d itch a s econd r ampar t c ons ist ing o f as i mp le s ands tone b ou lder wa l l , l a id u pon a l eve l led p la t form , h ad a lso b een o ver la id b y as and d u mp r a mpar t ( G . T . Emery i n format ion ).

T he mu l t iva l la te c ons truct ion a nd c o m-

p l ica ted e n trance t o t h is s i te i nd ica te i t s a rchaeo log ica l p oten t ia l.

The f act

t ha t t he who le o f t he i n ter ior o f B er th H il l h as b een d eep-p loughed a nd p lant ed w i th t rees d ur ing t he p as t f ive y ears r epresen ts a s avage v io la t ion o f Br it ish a rchaeo logy . F ur ther e ast , a t Bunbury H il l , A lton T owers , t he mass ive s urv iv ing r a mpar t o f ap resu med f or t , r epor ted i n 1 686 ( P lo t , R ., Na t. H is t . S ta f fs., 4 10 ) t o h ave h ad d ouble a nd t reb le r a mpar ts e nclos ing 1 00 a cres , was e xcavat ed i n 1 961 b y Miss M.-J. Moun ta in ( on whose i n for ma t ion t h is a ccoun t i s b ased ). A s ing le n arrow c u t t ing r evea led t ha t t he r a mpar t , s et a bove s teep n atura l s lopes , was a bou t 2 0 f eet w ide a nd r evet ted f ron t a nd r ear w ith r ough s ands tone wa l ls.

The c ore w as o f e ar th a nd s andstone n ibb le , a nd i ncorpor-

a ted i n i t was a l arge q uan t ity o f t imber , l a id i n h aphazard manner , ma in ly l eng thways a nd c rossways , s lop ing d ownwards f ro m f ron t t o b ack . i n s ize f ro m l arge b oughs t o sma l l t w igs , a l l was b urn t.

Rang ing

N o d a t ing e v idence

was r ecovered. T he o va l 2 .5 a cre f or t a t W incobank , n or th o f S hef f ie ld , a l mos t c er ta in ly p rov ides a n e xa mp le o f t imber-laced r a mpar t c ons truct ion.

Excava t ions i n

1 899 ( Howar th , 1 899 ) i nd ica ted t ha t t he i n terna l r a mpar t , s urv iv ing t o ah e igh t o f a bou t 3f eet , was 1 8 f eet w ide , a nd h ad w e l l-bu ilt s tone r evet men ts.

The

c ore w as o f s andstone r ubb le , b ad ly b urn t a nd i n p ar ts f used , w ith v ar iab le q uan t it ies o f c harcoa l a nd b urn t t imber.

T here was a n o u ter e ar then r a m-

p ar t w i th a l i tt le b urn t wood a nd b urn t s tones , a nd a d itch b e tween t he t wo r a mpar ts.

N o mater ia l r e ma ins were f ound .

Exc lud ing D inorben , t herefore , w e h ave a t l eas t t hree s i tes w ith t imberf ra med b ox r a mpar ts a nd s even w ith s tone-revet ted t imberlaced r a mpar ts i n t he T ren t-Tyne a rea.

T he D inorben e v idence s uggests t hat t he f or mer

t ype i s e ar l ier t han t he l at ter . c entury ;

Gr im thorpe c ou ld b e a s e ar ly a s t he t en th

A l mondbury I I, B icker ton , a nd Edd isbury s hou ld b e r a ther l a ter ,

o n t he r ad iocarbon a nd f l i msy p o t tery e v idence wh ich we h ave. Th is s uppor ts t he D inorben s equence , b u t a t Cas terc l if fe w e h ave a n i nner v itr if ied t imberl aced r a mpar t a nd a n o u ter i nco mp lete t imber-fra med b ox r a mpar t , p oss ib ly s ugges t ing t he o ppos ite.

The t imber-fra med b ox r a mpar ts o f Hunsbury ,

Ma iden Cas t le , Dorse t (Whee ler , 1 943, P l. I ), a nd B lewbur ton H il l , Berks h ire ( Hard ing , 1 972 , 4 7-50 ), p robab ly d a te t o t he f i f th o r e ar l ier f our th c entury B .C., whereas t he v itr if ied t imberlaced f or ts i n S co t land a t F inavon , Angus , a nd Dun Laga idh , Wester Ross , h ave b een d a ted t o 5 90 + 9 0 (McK . 8 30-740 B .C.) a nd 4 90 + 8 0 b .c. ( McK. 7 40-520 B .C.) r espect ive ly ( GaK1 224 , a nd GX-1121;

MacK ie , 1 969 , 1 8 ).

1 09

One s hou ld b eware , t herefore , o f

a rr iv ing a t o ver-s i mp l if ied c onc lus ions.

The s ign if ican t f act i s t ha t n o

t imberlaced o r t imber-fra med r ampar t i n Eng land n or th o f t he M id lands c an a t p resen t b e p roved l a ter t han t he m id-f if th c entury B .C. I tw i l l h ave b een n oted d ur ing t h is d iscuss ion t ha t a l l e xamp les o f s toner eve t ted t imberlaced s tructures i n o ur a rea , e xcep t p erhaps B icker ton a nd Ber th H il l , h ave b een h eav ily b urn t , l ead ing t o v i tr if ica t ion o r a t l eas t c ons iderab le r educt ion a nd s o me s lu mp ing . The p er iod I I r a mpar t a t A l mondb ury i s a n o u tstand ing e xa mp le o f t h is p henomenon . Bear ing i n m ind t he b uck l ing a nd s lu mp ing wh ich wou ld r esu lt f ro m t he i n tense h ea t o f r ampar t c o mbust ion , v itr if ica t ion c an h ard ly b e i n terpreted a s ad e l iberate a t te mpt o n t he p ar t o f t he b u i lders t o a ch ieve a s o l id s tructure. Even a l low ing f or t he l arge amoun ts o f g reen t imbers i ncorpora ted , s pon taneous c o mbust ion o f c o mp lete d efens ive c ircu its s ee ms h igh ly improbab le. Acc iden ta l o r h ost ile i gn it ion , l ead ing t o i n tense b urn ing made p oss ib le b y t he l arge amoun ts o f a ir i nev itab ly r e ta ined a round t he h aphazard ly-p laced t imbers , i s t he more l ikely i n terpre tat ion. S o me v er t ica l ly-faced r a mpar ts o f h i l l-for t if ica t ions i ncorpora ted n o t imber b u t were e n t ire ly o f e ar th , r ubb le , a nd s tone ( F ig . 8 8 ). b est e xa mp le o f as tone-revet ted b ox r a mpar t i s Ma m T or.

P erhaps t he

Here , t wo s ec-

t i ons w ere c u t t hrough t he d efences o n t he n or th-east s ide o f t he f or t .

Tha t

o f 1 . 965 ( E MAB, V I I I, 2 ) i nd ica ted a r a mpar t 1 8 f eet w ide r es t ing o n a n a r t if i c ia l r ock-cu t p la t form. A l terna t ing l ayers o f c lay , s tone , n ibb le , a nd t h in t ur f s urv ived t o ah e igh t o f 1 0 f eet , r epresen t ing s tages i n e rec t ion r a ther t han d if feren t p er iods. There was e v idence o f d ry-s tone wa l l r eve tmen ts a t t he f ron t a nd r ear , t ha t a t t he f ron t h av ing ma in ly f a l len i n to t he d i tch . The r ock-cu t d i tch was o f v ar iab le s hape , g enera l ly s quare-pro f iled a nd 8f eet d eep. T he ma ter ia l f ro m i ts c u tt ing h ad b een t i pped o u twards t o f orm a l ow c oun terscarp b ank . There was d ist inct e v idence t hat i n t he c ons truc t ion o f t he ma in r ampar t a n e ar l ier , sma l ler r a mpar t h ad b een c u t away l eav ing a t h ickness o fu p t o 5f eet a t t he r ear .

T he s ect ion o f t he ma in r a mpar t e xcava-

t ed i n 1 966 s howed i tt o b e s evera l f eet n arrower , a ga in c o mposed o f s uccess ive l ayers , w ith t he f ron t a nd b ack s tone r evetmen ts s urv iv ing more c o mp lete ly . Accep t ing t he e v idence o f t he p ost-ho le b eyond t he f ron t r eve t men t i n t he 1 966 s ect ion a s i nd ica t ing a s tockaded c amp , t hree p hases o f t he d efences a t Mam T or c an b e s een . N o d atab le ma ter ia l h as b een f ound a ssoc ia ted , b u t t ha t f ro m t he e nclosed s et t le men t s uggests a d a te f or t he s tone b ox r ampar t b efore t he s ix th c entury B .C. S tone-revet ted b ox r a mparts o f p robab ly e ar ly d a te may b e r ecogn ised a t Ba l l Cross , Bakewe l l , a nd Por t f ie ld Ca mp , L ancash ire. O thers a re t he A l len Knot t E ar thwork , H e lsby H i l l , a nd Woodhouse H il l. r eferences , s ee No tes o n F igures 8 8.)

( For l oca t ions a nd

S tone r evetmen ts may a lso b e r ecog -

n ised a t O ld Oswes try , t he Wrek in , a nd t he Bre idd in. I ti s n o t p oss ib le , h owe ver , t o i n terpret s tone-revet ted r a mpar ts a s a lways o f L a te Bronze Age o r v ery e ar ly I ron Age d a te. The s tone r a mpar ts o f Per iods I I a nd I V a t D inorben were a ssoc ia ted w ith p a ired r ectangu lar g uard-cha mbers a t t he s outh-eas t e n trance ( Savory , 1 971a , 2 56 );

p a ired g uard-cha mbers a t Crof t Ambrey a nd

M idsum mer H il l Ca mp i n Herefordsh ire h ave b een d a ted t o t he f our th a nd t h ird c en tur ies B .C. ( S tan ford , 1 971, f i g . 1 0 ).

10

There i s s o me e v idence f ro m

o ur s tudy , h owever , t ha t a s a t Ra insborough ( Avery , e t a l., 1 967 , f ig . 4 ) a nd Ma iden Cast le , Dorse t ( Whee ler , 1 943, P l. I ), a nd i n t he We lsh Marc hes ( S tan ford , 1 971, 5 0 ), r a mpar ts o fb ox o r wa l l c onstruct ion were s ucc eeded b y t hose o f d u mp c ons truct ion t o ac ons iderab le e x ten t f ro m t he t h ird a nd f our th c en tur ies B .C. T he c ons truc t ion o f t he r a mpar ts o f t he sma l l f or t a t Bo l tby S car , e as t o f T h irsk ( P lan :

E lgee , 1 930 , f ig . 5 4 ), i s n ot c er ta in .

G . F . W il l mo t ,

who e xcavated t he s i te i n t he l a te 1 930s , c ons idered ( i n c orrespondence ) t ha t t he r ampar t , 3f eet h igh , was f or med o f as i mp le r ubb le u pcas t f ro m i t s o uter d i tch. T he p a ir o f g o ld b asket-shaped e ar-pendan ts f ound o n t he t ur f l i ne b enea th t he r a mpar t h e c ons idered t o b e av o t ive o f fer ing p laced when t he s tructure was e rected . Ear-r ings o f t h is d is t inct ive t ype h ave b een f ound e lsewhere i n Br ita in , n i .) t ab ly a t Rad ley i n Berksh ire ( I nv. Arch . G .B. 2 ) a nd a t K irkhaugh , Nor thu mber land ( Ta it , 1 965 , 3 1A ) i n b el l-beaker g raves , a nd e lsewhere i n c on tex ts t ha t wou ld s at isfy a n e ar ly Bronze Age d a te. More r ecen t ly , h owever , Mar ien h as a rgued ( 1970 ) f or a l a te Bronze Age ( Ha l ls ta t t A ) d a te f or t he b aske t-shaped e ar-r ings f ro m S ins in , Namur ( Bequet , 1 883, 2 34 a nd P l. I , f ig . X ; Mar ien , 1 952 , f ig . 1 73 ), b as ing h is c ase n o t o n ly u pon t he s ty l ist ic a f f in it ies o f t he Be lg ian e xamp les a nd t he ir r ela ted f inds , b ut a lso u pon me ta l lurg ica l a na lyses wh ich p o in t t o al ate Bronze Age d a te f or t he g roup. I fw e a re t hus o b l iged t o a dm it a l onger t ime-range f or t he t ype , i tc ou ld i ndeed b e t hat t he Bo l tby S car o rna men ts w ere c on te mporary w ith t he c ons truct ion o f t he e ar thwork . a t l east t wo b arrows.

The r ampar ts e nc lose t he s i tes o f

A f ter a l arge p ar t o f t he f or t was b u l ldozed b y t he

f armer i n 1 961, a g rea t d ea l o f N eo l ith ic p ot tery was c o l lected f ro m t he s urf ace b y Mr . T . L ord o f S et t le. However , f ragmen ts o f ac oarse , b ucke ts haped p o t ( F ig . 4 5 , 1 3 ) r ecovered b y W il lmo t t r eca l l av esse l f ro m Ma m T or ( F ig . 1 , 3 ) , a nd t he s i tua t ion a nd c harac ter o f t he p ro mon tory f or t s ugg es t a n e ar ly f irs t m il lenn iu m d ate.

The r e ma ins o f t he l evel led r a mpar t

a re s t il l impress ive ly v is ib le i n p lough-so il , d escr ib ing a g en t le

c urve.

The s i te o f a n e n trance ( not marked o n E lgee 's p lan ) w ith s o me e x terna l s tructure i s w el l-def ined.

C ons ider ing t he e v idence t ha t d u mp r ampar ts

a re g enera l ly l a ter t han wa l ls i ts ee ms l ike ly t ha t s o me v ar iety o f t he l a t ter s tructure was p resen t a t Bo ltby S car. Before t urn ing t o d u mp s tructures , a n e n igma t ic s i te a t Car l Wark n ear Ha thersage s hou ld b e n o ted. T h is s i te o ccup ied a t wo-acre r ectangu lar p ro mon tory , s urrounded b y s teep s carps o n t hree s ides. These n atura l d ef ences a re s treng thened b y wal l ing o f l arge g r its tone b ou lders.

The n arrow

n eck o f t he p ro mon tory , s ome 1 50 f eet a cross , i s d efended b y a mass ive wa l l f ace o f l arge g r itstone b locks , 8f eet h igh , b acked b y a nd b onded i n to as trong t ur f r a mp o n t he i nner s ide ( cu t t ing e xcava ted i n 1 950 ; C . M. , 1 951).

P iggo t t ,

T o t he s ou th o f t he w es tern e nd o f t he t ur f s tone-faced wa l l ,

a n i n turned e n trance a bou t 1 8 f ee t l ong i s f ur ther d efended b y mass ive g r its tone wa l l ing ( p lans a nd p ho tographs i n Cha l l is , 1 969 , f igs. 7 -8 , P ls. 8 -12 ). A r a mpar t o f t ur f w ith o uter s tone f ac ing f orms t he i nner d efence o f t he f or t a t S ou th Barru le , I s le o f Man , c arbon f ro m o ne o f t he h u ts i n t he i nter ior o f wh ich p roduced a d a te o f 5 23 ± 8 4 b .c. ( McK . 7 90-540 B .C.; Harb ison , 1 971, 2 06-8 ).

B irm-119 ;

The o u ter r ampar t a t Ma iden Cas t le , B icker ton

11

( Var ley , 1 935 , 1 00-105 ), s ee ms t o h ave b een o f s im ilar c harac ter i nb o th i t s p hases , h av ing a s trong o u ter s tone wa l l f ac ing b acked b y ab road r amp o f s and a nd , l a ter , n ibb le.

I t may b e t ha t t owards t he m id-f irst m il lenn iu m

B .C. ,when a v er t ical i nner f ace t o ar ampar t was n o t n ecessary , as tone wa l l b acked b y ar a mp o f s o me l oca l ly-occurr ing c o mmod ity was u sed i ns tead . i i.

Du mps There a re f our e xamp les t o b e c ons idered o f h i l l-for ts w ith d ump r a mpar ts

d e mons trab ly s econdary t o wa l l r a mpar ts.

T he f irst i s Es ton Nab , a3 .2 a cre

p ro mon tory s i te o ver look ing T eess ide , p rev ious ly d iscussed b ecause o f t he p a l isaded e nc losure i n i t s i n ter ior .

The s i te ( p lan i n E lgee , 1 930 , f i g. 5 3 )

was r e-excava ted i n 1 968-9 b y F . A . Aberg ( on whose d escr ip t ion t h is a ccoun t i s b ased ).

T he r a mpar ted d efences made u se o f ab reak o f s lope o f a bou t 4f e

f eet i n t he b ou lder c lay moor land s ur face.

Two c u t t ings r evea led a d ry-stone

wa l l , 1 4 f eet t h ick , s urv iv ing i n p laces u p t o 4f eet h igh , r eve tted a t t he b ack w ith l arger b locks. T h is wa l l i s v is ib le o n t he s ur face a round t he who le p er i meter o f t he s i te , a nd s ee ms t o b e o fu n iform w id th . Immed ia te ly a but t ing t he o u ter f ace o f t he s tone wa l l was a s i mp le d ump b ank o f c lay ma ter ia l t aken f ro m t he d i tch b eyond .

Th is b ank w as 1 6 f eet w ide a nd u p t o 6f ee t h igh , a nd

was s een t o c ons is t o f l ayers 3 i nches t h ick s pread f l a t ( t h is o n ly e v iden t i n t he c u t t ing where d i tch-quarry ing h ad p roduced n ibb le w ith t he c lay ). There was n o b erm b eh ind t he d i tch , wh ich was 6 f eet d eep a nd a s i mp le V -shape , c u t t hrough b ou lder c lay .

I n o ne c u t t ing where d i tch-quarry ing h ad r eached

r ock , t he b ot to m was d el ibera te ly s haped i n to a s quared s lot . The c oun ters carp b ank c ons isted o f as i mp le c lay t i p , 6f eet w ide a nd 2 f eet h igh . A t h ick t ur f l i ne a nd i ron p an u nder lay t he d efences , t he l at ter t h icker b enea th t he s tone w a l l.

F ew mater ia l r e ma ins w ere f ound a ssoc iated :

ap ot tery

s herd f ro m b enea th t he s tone wa l l ( F ig . 4 5 , 5 ) i s o f s im i lar c haracter t o t hose f ound i n a nd a round t he p al isade.

Aberg r epor ts t hat , d esp ite e f for ts t o p rove

t he c on trary , t here w as n o u nequ ivoca l e v idence o f t he p r ior ity o f t he s tone wa l l o ver t he c lay d u mp , d itch , a nd c oun ter-scarp b ank .

However , i ts ee ms

u n l ike ly t ha t t he c lay d u mp c ou ld h ave b een c ons tructed w ith a v er t ica l b ackwa l l w ithou t t he r eta in ing e f fect o f t he s tone w a l l a lready i n p os it ion .

T he

c lay d u mp i s g enera l ly h igher t han t he s tone w a l l , a nd c an b e s een t o e x tend o ver i t( par t ly a r esu l t o f c o l lapse ). A t en-foo t w id th o f d efence was s ect ioned , b u t n o p os t-ho les o r o ther r evetmen t e v idence c ou ld b e f ound.

T he s equence

wou ld t hus s ee m t o b e a wa l l f ormed o f s tones c o l lected f ro m t he s urround ing moor land s ur face , f o l lowed b y ad i tch a nd i n terna l d u mp r a mpar t c onstructed immed ia te ly b eyond i t . I n p ass ing , t wo p ara l le ls t o t he Es ton Nab d i tch f orm s hou ld b e n oted. The u npub l ished e xcava t ion o f c u t t ings a cross t he d efences o f t he sma l l h i l lf or t s i tes o f Bur ton L odge a nd Co mbs F arm C amp , N ot t ingha msh ire , r evea led s teep , V -shaped d i tches w ith s quared s lo t ted c hanne ls i n t he ir b o t to ms ( May , 1 966 , 1 88 ). The t imberlaced s tone-revet ted d efences a t Ber th H i l l , S ta f fordsh ire , c an b e s een t o b e d irect ly o ver la id b y d u mp r ampar ts o f s and. The e v idence i s c leares t o n S i tes B a nd C ( F igs. 5 8-59 ). I n t he f ormer , af a ir ly sma l l

12

d ump o f r ed s and was a dded t o t he s t i l l c ons iderab le h e igh t o f t he s toner eve t ted r ampar t , a nd i n t he l a t ter t he r ed s and t i p w as r a ther w ider ( bu t n ote t he d i f ference i n s ca le o n t he d raw ings ) a nd may h ave b een r e ta ined a t i t s b ase b y s ands tone b locks .

On S i te A ( F igs. 5 5-57 ) t he e v idence i s i n-

c omp lete b ecause o f af a i lure t o e xcava te t o t he b ase o f t he r a mpar t d epos it , b u t a ga in i ts eems l ike ly t ha t t here w ere b ase-revetmen ts o f s tone t o r e ta in t he l oose d u mp . T he d ump e xcava ted i n Box 1 ( F ig . 5 7 ) s ee ms t o c ons is t o f s uccess ive t i ps o f s and , b u t i ti s n o t k nown t o wha t e x ten t a ny r econ tr u .ct i ons may b e r epresen ted . G . T . Emery ( who k ind ly l en t e xcava t ion n o tes ) i s q u i te empha t ic t ha t t he l a id s tones a bove L ayer 6 i n B ox 1 .r epresen t a d e l ibera te ly c on temporary c app ing , p resumab ly t o p reven t e ros ion o f t he d ump s ur face. I fs o , t he o r ig ina l r ampar t p ro f i le , p robab ly a pproach ing 2 0 f ee t i n d ep th , mus t r e ma in . S ur face e xam ina t ion o f t he r ampar ts o n t he e as t s ide o f t he s i te b e low t he p ond ( F ig . 5 4 ), where t he c u t t ing a nd i n f i l l ing o f ad ra inage t rench h ad e v iden t ly t aken p lace u nsuperv ised , i nd ica ted t ha t as econd r a mpar t d owns lope was c o mposed o f c lean r ed s and , a t l eas t i n i t s u pper p ar ts. T h is s uppor ts t he e v idence o f e xcava t ion b e low S i te C , wh ich i nd ica ted t ha t a n e ar l ier o u ter r a mpar t o f s ands tone b ou lders h ad b een o ver la id b y as and d ump . T he c u t t ing o f af ores try t rack i n to t he i nt er ior f ro m t he n or th-eas t t o t he c en tra l b reak i n t he i nner r ampar t d ur ing r ecen t o pera t ions h as r evea led a r evetmen t t o t he d u mp r ampar t t erm ina ls o f c are fu l lyla id d ry-s tone w a l l ing w ith a s l igh t b a t ter , s t i l l v is ib le u p t o s ix c ourses h igh . N o d a t ing e v idence was p rov ided b y t he K ee le Ex tra- Mura l Archaeo logy Group e xcava t ions. F ur ther l arge-sca le r escue a ct iv ity o n t h is v a luab le s i te i s u rgen t ly n ecessary . Excava t ions b yR . J . C . A tk inson a t H unsbury r evea led a s econd ma in p hase o f r ampar t c ons truc t ion o ver ly ing t he t imberframed d e fence. The e v idence w as p ar t icu lar ly c lear i n t he s ou thern o f t he t wo s ect ions , j us t n or th o f t he e n trance. T he d i tch h ad b een r ecu t , a nd t he c harred r u ins o f t he o ld r a mpar t w ere e n larged b y p i l ing u p t he d i tch ma ter ia l i n ad ump , ma in ly o fb lue , mo t t led , a nd b rown c lay wh ich u nder l ies t he i rons tone d ep os it o n t he s i te. N o r eve tmen ts w ere f ound . T here w as a c on t inuous s lope f ro m t he b o t to m o f t he d i tch t o t he r a mpar t t op , wh ich s t i l l s urv ives u p t o 8f ee t a bove t he g round s ur face. T he o ccupa t ion o f H unsbury s ee ms t o h ave c eased b e fore t he l oca l a rr iva l o f B e lg ic i n f luence , s o a l though n o d a t ing e v idence f ro m t he r econs truc t ion w as a pparen t , ad a te i n t he t h ird o r s econd c en tury B .C. w ou ld s eem r easonab le. T he s i te a t Ra insborough , 2 0 m i les t o t he s ou th-wes t , was r ebu i l t w ith b anks o f d u mp c ons truc t ion a t as ugges ted d a te i n t he l a te s econd c en tury ( Avery , e t a l ., 1 967 , 2 11). Ma iden Cas t le , D orset , e xh ib its t he s ame s tructura l s equence a s H unsbury : t he w es tward e x tens ion o f t ha t s i te w as e xecu ted i n d u mp c ons truct ion , p robab ly a round 3 00 B .C. ( Whee ler , 1 943 , 3 6-7 ). T he f our th s i te t o i nd ica te t he c hrono log ica l p r ior ity o f wa l ls b efore d umps i s O ld Oswes try , S hropsh ire. Excava t ions b y W. J . V ar ley ( unpubl i shed , b u t n o tes i n Var ley , 1 948 , 4 9 ) r evea led t ha t t he f i rs t b iva l la te h i l lf or t a nd i t s r econs truct ion w ith a dd it iona l b ank a nd d i tch o n t he w eaker s ide w ere e xecu ted w ith s tone b ox r a mpar ts. S ubsequen t c ircu mva l la t ions , mu lt iva l la t ions , a nd c omp lex e n trance s tructures w ere o f mass ive d ump c ons truc t ion .

T he o n ly e v idence o f d a te i s t he h ae ma t ite-coa ted f urrowed

13

b ow l f ound i n c ircu lar s tone-kerbed h u ts b eh ind t he o r ig ina l d efences ( Var ley , 1 964 , 9 0 ). p lace.

I ti s n o t k nown h ow much l a ter t he d u mp r econs truct ions t ook

However , S tan ford ( 1971, 5 0 ), s u mmar iz ing t he e v idence o f h i l l-for ts

i n t he We lsh Marches , i nd ica tes a n impor tan t h or izon i n t he e ar ly f our th c ent ury marked b y t he u se o f l arge d u mp r a mpar ts . The mos t o u ts tand ing e ar thworks i n t he n or th o f Eng land , a pparen t ly i nv o lv ing d u mp c ons truct ion i n i t s e ar l ier p hase , w ere e xcava ted b y Whee ler a t S tanw ick , s ou th o f t he T ees , i n 1 951 2 . On t he b as is o f s ur face e xam inat i on o f t hese mass ive f or t if ica t ions , at hreefo ld s truc tura l s equence w as p rop osed ( Wheeler , 1 954 , 3 -6 ), t hough Whee ler 's s equence b y n o means a ccoun ted f or a l l t he e ar thworks i n t he c o mp lex . The f i rst was a 1 7 a cre e nclosure o cc upy ing a l ow h i l lock k nown a s " the T of ts". T he s econd was a n e nc losure o f 1 30 a cres , c u t t ing a cross t he d e fences o f p hase Ia t t he ir n or thern e dge , i nc lud ing a l arge a rea o f r is ing g round b u t e xc lud ing t he d efens ib le H enah H i l l. The t h ird was a n o bv ious e x tens ion t o t he s ou th o f p hase I , e nc los ing a f ur ther 6 00 a cres.

Excava t ion i nd ica ted t ha t t he p hase Id efence was a d u mp b ank o f

u nrevet ted e ar th ( but n ote s tonework o n t he i nner s ide o f S i te E a nd o f t he t rench t o t he s ou th-east ; 2 .c it ., P l. V I I ), 2 5 f eet w ide a nd s urv iv ing u p t o 8f eet h igh , w ith a n o u ter d i tch c once ived a s ab road V -shape u p t o 2 0 f ee t d eep im med ia te ly b eyond , a nd w ith a s l igh t o uter b ank where t he d i tch d ep th was r estr icted b y t he h igh wa ter-tab le. T he p hase I d efence was more mass ive , w ith a r a mpar t 4 0 f eet w ide s urv iv ing t o 1 0 f eet i n h e igh t , r evet ted a t t he f ron t , p robab ly n ear ly v er t ica l ly , w ith a d ry-stone wa l l.

The o u ter d i tch

was u p t o 1 5 f ee t d eep , t he l ower p ar t o n S i te A b e ing r ock-cu t w ith ab road f la t b ot to m. The d efences o f p hase I I s ee m t o h ave b een e ssen t ia l ly s im i lar t o t hose o f p hase I . Whee ler 's d a t ing e v idence f or t he p hases I a nd I I f ort if ica t ions i s f a ir ly c onv inc ing .

T he q uan t ity a nd t he n ature o f t he ma ter ia l f ro m t he d i tches o f

p hase I o n S i tes A a nd B , a nd t he p os it ion o f Ro man p ot tery a nd a c o in i n t he d itches o f p hase I I o n S i tes D a nd H , i nd ica te t he l ikel ihood o f af i rs t c en tury A .D. d a te. The c hrono log ica l p r ior ity o f p hase I b efore p hase I I s eems p laus ib le , a lthough i t was n o t p laced b eyond d oub t b y e xcava t ions a t p o in ts o f j unc t ion .

The s equence o f s tructures a t S tanw ick may i ndeed h ave b een mos t

c o mp l ica ted , b u t Whee ler 's c onc lus ions c anno t b e r efu ted u n t il f ur ther w ork i s c arr ied o u t. H owever , t he s ugges ted d a t ing o f t he p hase Id efence , g iven a s s ubsequen t t o t he c o mpact w ith Os tor ius ( A .D . 4 7-8 ; 22 .c it ., 1 8 ), i s much l ess s a t isfactory . The e v idence i s t aken f rom t he i n ter ior a rea-excava t ion o n S i te F , t he impor ted p o t tery f ro m wh ich i nd ica tes a n i n it ia l d a te a round A .D . 5 0 a nd i s d irect ly c o mparab le w ith t ha t f ro m t he p hase I d e fences. A lt hough S i te F i s w ith in t he p hase Id efence , i ti s n o t s tra t igraph ica l ly r e la ted t o i t .

Prox im ity i s n o t e v idence o f c on te mporane ity .

S i te F l i es w ith in t he

p hase I I d efence , a nd , a l though i tl i es o u ts ide t he p hase I e x tens ion , o n ly t ha t p ar t o f t he p hase Ir a mpar t i nc luded w ith in t he p hase I c ircu it s eems t o h ave b een d es troyed ( S ite G ; P l. V I I ). Moreover , i t wou ld s eem u nreasonab le f or t he p hase I d efence t o c u t a cross p hase Ii ft he who le w ere c once ived a s ac oheren t e x tens ion. The c ascade o f s tones i n t he d itch f i l l ing o f p hase Io n S i te E ( 22 .c it ., P l. WI ), i n terpre ted a s ad es truct ion o f t he s tone l in ing o f t he n earby e n trance ( 92 .c it ., 6 ) , b eg ins a bove a d ep th o f s i lt ing o f

14

a l mos t 5f eet .

The e n trance d estruct ion p robab ly t ook p lace d ur ing t he c on-

s truc t ion o f t he d efences o f p hase I , wh ich p ass s o me 3 0 f eet t o t he n or th . The p hase Id efence i s s ign if ican t ly d if feren t i n s tructura l d eta il f ro m s ubs equen t c onstruc t ions.

A l though t he c oarse p ot tery f ro m S tanw ick i s o f l a te

I ron Age d a te ( cons idered i n P ar t I , Chapter 6 , i ) a nd c o mparab le w ith t ha t i n o ther l a te a sse mb lages n earby a nd f ur ther s ou th , n one was f ound a ssoc iat ed w i th t he p hase Id efence , wh ich p roduced n o mater ia l a par t f ro m a n i ma l b ones d esp ite t he p rox im ity o f S ite E t o t he e n trance o f t hat p hase. I tc ou ld b e a rgued , t here fore , t ha t t he p hase Id efence a t S tanw ick was b u i lt s o me c ons iderab le t ime b efore t he e rect ion o f p hase I , d ur ing wh ich i n terva l f ive f eet o f s i lt a ccu mu la ted i n p ar ts o f i t s d itch .

The s i mp le d u mp

c ons truct ion a nd V -shaped d i tch o f " the T of ts" c on trasts d irec t ly w i th l a ter s truc tures.

The dwel l ing s i tes a nd mater ia l r e ma ins o f t he p hase Io ccupa-

t ion h ave y et t o b e r ecovered .

The g u l l ies o n S ite F ( op .c it ., f ig . 3 ) d o i n-

d icat e a t l eas t t hree s uper i mpos it ions.

I ndeed , r ecen t a ir-pho tographs s ug-

g es t t ha t t he t hreefo ld s equence p roposed b y Whee ler may y et r equ ire s o me r ev is ion , a nd t he s i te c lear ly c a l ls f or f ur ther i nvest iga t ion . A par t f ro m t he S tanw ick f or t if icat ions , t here i s n o e v idence o f t he e x ist ence o f t he l a te I ron Age e ar thwork d efences o f s et t le men t a reas s uch a s migh t c o mpare w ith Dyke H i l ls , Dorchester , a nd t he Gr im 's D itch n etwork o f t he Upper Tha mes ( Hard ing , 1 972, 5 4-60 ), o r t he o pp idu m d efences o f Con t inen ta l l a te L a ' I l ene s et t le men ts.

There a re e igh t p oss ib le e xa mp les ,

b u t i n e ach c ase r ecent work h as i nd ica ted t he l ike l ihood o f al a ter d a te. Aber ford Dykes s ys te m n or th-east o f L eeds ( A lcock , 1 954 ;

The

Brooks , 1 967 )

c ons ists o f l eng ths o f d u mp r a mpar t , s urmounted b y at imber p a l isade a nd w ith a s lop ing f ace s tone-covered i n p laces , w ith o uter U-shaped d itch a nd s o me o utworks.

H . G . Ra mm ( l ecture t o Eas t R id ing Archaeo log ica l S oc ie ty ;

7 .4.1971) c ons idered i tt o b e t he b r idge-head o f t he Eng l ish f ight ing a ga inst E l me t .

Fur ther w est , t he s im i lar e ar thwork a t Bank S lack i n t he Washburn

v a l ley ( Cow l ing , 1 946, 1 48 , f ig . 6 8 ) i s a lso s ou th-fac ing a bove a d eep v a l ley , a ga in r e l inqu ish ing t he mos t o bv ious d efens ive l ine i n i t s s inuous c ourse. A t Ke t t lewe l l i n Whar feda le , t he s trong l inear f ea ture o f T or Dyke , a but ted b y e nc losures a nd p ens wh ich s ee m t o b e c on te mporary , h as b een a ccep ted b y Ra is tr ick ( 1968, 6 3-4 ) a s a Br igan t ian d e fence , b u t w ork b y H . G . Ra m m ( unpub l ished i n for mat ion k ind ly o f fered ) i nd ica tes t ha t i t may b e p ar t o f t he b oundary o f t he Med ieva l p ark g ran ted t o t he Nev il les i n t he e ar ly f i f teen th c en tury .

T o t he n or th , S cots Dyke, a l inear e ar thwork r unn ing f ro m s ou th

o f t he Swa le t o p ass t he S tanw ick f or t if ica t ions t o t he ir e ast , h as b een c ons ide red , a long w ith t he Reeth a nd Fre m ing ton Dykes i n Swa leda le , t o f or m a Dark Ages d efence a ga inst Ang l ian e n try a nd s pread w estwards f ro m t he mou th o f t he T ees ( H . G . Ram m i n for ma t ion ).

S im i lar ly , t he Ro man R ig i n

t he D on v a l ley ( Pres ton , 1 950 ) h as b een s een b y Myres ( Co l l ingwood a nd Myres , 1 937 , 4 17 ) a s e v idence o f p ro longed r es istance t o Ang l ian i nvas ion , a nd G rey D itch , 1 2 m i les t o t he s ou th-west i n Bradwel l Da le ( O 'Ne il , 1 945 ), wh ich c u ts t he l ine o f a Ro man r oad , may b e i n terpre ted l ikew ise. A l though ap re-Ro man d a te c anno t b e c o mp lete ly r u led o ut f or s o me o f t hese e ar thworks ( par t icu lar ly Ro man R ig :

r im f ragmen t o f mor tar iu m o f t h ird c en tury A .D .

t ype f ound a ssoc ia ted w ith c harcoa l a t t he l eve l o f s econdary s i lt ing i n t he

15

d itch o f t he e ar thwork s ou th-eas t o f H i l l T op , K i mberwor th , i n May , 1 947 ), a t p resen t i t s ee ms u n l ikely . The l a test p hase o f f or t if ica t ions a t Cast le H i l l , A l mondbury , c ons is ts o f t he c app ing o f t he e ar l ier d efences b y as ha le d u mp r a mpar t ( F igs. 6 0-63 ). Cou ld t h is b e al a te I ron Age e ar thwork?

P len t ifu l f inds o f Med ieva l p o t tery

f ro m v ar ious p o in ts o n , i n , a nd u nder t he s ha le d u mps h ave e nab led D r . Var ley t o c on f iden t ly a ss ign t he m t o t he t welf th c entury A .D . ( Var ley , 1 969, 1).

Whee ler ( 1954 , 2 3 ) a nd R ich mond ( 1954 , 4 4 ) c hose t h is h i l l-for t s i te a s

t he Ca mu lodunu m o f t he Br igan tes , wh ich e xper ienced t he s equence o f e ven ts c o mp le men tary t o t ha t i n terpreted f or S tanw ick i n t he f irst c en tury A .D . I s t here a ny a rchaeo log ica l e v idence f or t h is? i v .

Cas t le H il l , A l mondbury , n ear H uddersf ie ld Th is 8 a cre h i l l-for t s i te o ccup ies o ne o f t he most impos ing l andmarks

o f t he e astern P enn ine f ooth il ls.

Refor t if ica t ion i n t he l a ter t wel f th c en tury

A .D . a s a mot te a nd b a i ley i nvo lved t he c app ing o f t he r u ined p re-h is tor ic e ar thwork b y as ha le t ip a bou t 1 .5 metres d eep .

Th is c over ing i s p ar t ly r e-

> i pons ib le f or t he p reserva t ion o f ad epth o f u p t o t wo me tres i n t he d epos its b e low .

Un for tuna tely , h owever , Med ieva l a nd l a ter o ccupat ion s ee ms l arge ly

t o h ave d estroyed p re-ex ist ing s truc tures o ver much o f t he i n ter ior. A l mondbury was e xcava ted b y W. J . Var ley b etween 1 936 a nd 1 939 , d ur ing wh ich t ime a l arge n u mber o f s ect ions were c ut t hrough t he d efences ( s ite p lan a nd l ayout o f s ect ions , V ar ley , 1 969 , f ig . 3 ). i n ter ior h as b een a t te mp ted :

A l i t t le e xcavat ion i n t he

t h is h as s hown e x tens ive Med ieva l o ccupa t ion

a nd s o me e v idence o f p re- Med ieva l p ost-ho le s tructures o f u ncer ta in n a ture. Var ley 's ma in r epor ts o f h is e xcava t ions a re g iven i n h is 1 948 a nd 1 969 p ubl i cat ions.

The l a t ter i s ad ef in it ive p a mph let l arge ly b ased o n t he a c t iv ity o f

t he p re-war y ears.

T here i s as u m mary i n h is Chesh ire b efore t he R o mans

o f 1 964 ( 96-7 ).

Co t ton i n 1 954 ( 86-7 ) r esta ted much o f t he p ub l ished e v idence

t hen a va i lab le.

F ur ther e xcava t ions t ook p lace i n 1 969-70 a nd 1 972 , w ith t he

o b jects o f c larify ing s o me o f t he p rob le ms o u ts tand ing a nd o f o bta in ing mat er ia l f or r ad iocarbon d a t ing o f t he p reh is tor ic s tructures.

Before i ndepen-

d en t d a t ing e v idence b eca me a va ilab le , t he ma jor h i l l-for t a t A l mondbury was i nterpreted a s ad efence o f t he f irst c entur ies B .C. a nd A . D. ,d es troyed b y t he Ro mans. The e v idence f or p re-Ro man s tructura l s equences a t Cast le H i l l i s r ather c o mp l ica ted. S ince s tereo typed r econstruct ion s ketches o f t he s ugges ted p hases h ave b een p ub l ished ( Var ley , 1 948, f ig . 5 ; 1 969 , f ig . 1 ) i n p lace o f t he i nd iv idua l r a mpar t s ect ions a s e xcava ted , i ti s n o t e asy t o r e in terpret t he e v idence o f t he e ar l ier e xcava t ions i n t he l igh t o f t he r ecen t o nes. H owe ver , a l l t he u npub l ished d raw ings h ave g enerous ly b een made a va i lab le b y Dr . Var ley . The p er iod Id efence was d escr ibed b y Var ley i n 1 948 ( 46 ) a s as imp le u n iv a l la te e ar thwork o ccupy ing o n ly t he s ou thern h a lf o f t he s teep ly-s ided p lat eau.

Fro m t he e v idence o f t he d efences wh ich c u t a cross t he p la teau , t he

r a mpar t was s a id t o b e b ox-shaped a nd s tone-revet ted w ith a n e ar then c ore , s epara ted f ro m a r ock-cu t d i tch b y ab er m. 16

Excava t ion o f t he e n trance

( S ite 9 ) , c en tra l ly-p laced i n t h is c ross-rampar t , r evea led a r ec tangu lar g uard-roo m t o t he s ou th s ide , a bou t 8f ee t w ide , d ef ined b y wa l ls a t he s a me n a ture a s t he r ampar t . T he s ec t ion d raw ing o f t he p er iod Id e fence g iven i n 1 948 ( f ig . 5 , 1 ) s howed a r ampart 1 2 f ee t w ide , d ef ined b y ak erb o f d oub le e dge-set s tones , a nd w ith a c ore o f f a lse c lay l a id a bove ab ase o f p udd led c lay . T i mber b eams w ere s hown r unn ing h or izon ta l ly l eng thways a t t he b ase o f t he b ack r evetmen t . T he s ec t ion d raw ing o f t he s ame p er iod Id efence g iven i n 1 969 ( f ig . 1 , 1 ) s howed d ry-s tone r eve tmen t wa l ls a nd a c ore o f c lay , ad eep V -shaped d i tch , a nd a sma l l c oun terscarp b ank . T he o n ly d at ing e v id ence c ame f ro m t he r ec tangu lar g uard-roo m . I n 1 959 ( 10 ) i tw as s tated t ha t R oman p ot tery w as f ound i n i t , i n terpre ted a s Ro man d estruc t ion a f ter a bandonmen t . I n V ar ley 's p er iod I d efence t he o r ig ina l c amp was e x tended t o e nc lose t he w ho le o f t he s umm it . Excava t ions a t t he n or thern e nd o f t he p er iod Ic rossd efence ( S ite 6 ) i nd ica ted t ha t t he e arl ier d i tch was b locked w i th q uarr ied s tones a nd t ha t t he n ew r a mpar t w as e x tended a cross i t . H owever , e xcava t ions a t t he s ou thern e nd ( S ite 2 ) s howed t ha t t he p er iod Ir ampar t h ad b een e rec ted o ver t he l i ne o f as ha l low d i tch wh ich e nc losed t he who le h i l l ( W . J . V ar ley i n forma t ion i n c onversa t ion ).

T he e x tens ion d efences w ere s ta ted i n 1 948 t o

c ons is t o f a n i nner r ampar t o f t he s a me s tructure a s p er iod 1 , a n o u ter d i tch , a nd a c oun terscarp b ank . T he s ect ion d raw ing g iven i n 1 948 ( f ig . 5 , 2 ) s howed a r ampar t 2 4 f eet w ide w ith u pr igh t p os t r eve tmen ts f ron t a nd b ack a nd a c ore o f c lay o ver a b ase o f c obb les , ab road V -shaped r ock-cu t d i tch , a nd a c oun terscarp b ank w ith e dge-set d oub le s tone r eve tmen ts , u pr igh t p os t w ith in t he b ack r evetmen t , a nd a c lay c ore. T he s ec t ion o f t he p er iod I d ef ences g iven i n 1 969 ( f ig . 1 , 2 ) s howed a r ampar t 1 5 f eet w ide w i th s tou t r ev et men ts o f d ry-s tone wa l l ing , ac lay c ore , a nd a s ing le h or izon ta l t imber b race f rom f ron t t o b ack , af ree-stand ing t imber p os tb eh ind t he r a mpar t p res u mab ly a ssoc ia ted w i th o ccupa t ion f l oors , an arrow , f l a t-bo t to med d i tch , a nd a s imp ly-t ipped c oun terscarp b ank . H owever , s ect ion d raw ings f ro m S i tes 1 a nd 1 2 a t t he n or thern e nd o f t he e x tens ion e i ther s ide t he s imp le e nt rance ( unpub l ished ) i nd ica te a n i nner r ampar t s ome th ing l ess t han 2 0 f ee t w ide , d e f ined b y e dge-se t d oub le s tone r ows f ron t a nd b ack a nd w ith a c lay c ore , ab road U -shaped d i tch , a nd a c lay-cored , e dge-se t s tone r eve t ted c oun terscarp b ank a s s hown i n 1 948. T he p er iod I I d e fence w as s a id t o c ons is t o f ac o mp le te r ebu i ld ing o f t he i nner r ampar t o f t he e x tended f or t . T he n ew r a mpar t c ore o f e ar th w as l aced w ith t imber l a id h or izon ta l ly , l eng thways , a nd c rossways , a nd t hese t imbers p enetra ted b etween t he s tones o f t he s tou t d ry-s tone wa l l ing r eve tmen t a t t he r ear b u t n o t a t t he f ron t .

Th is s truc ture w as 1 7 f ee t w ide ( 1948, f i g . 5 , 3 ) ,

a nd s eems t o h ave b een v i tr if ied t hroughou t a l mos t a l l i t s l eng th .

T he d i tch

w as r ecu t , b roadened , a nd g iven a f l a tb o t to m. T he c oun terscarp b ank was a lso r econs truc ted w ith d ry-s tone w a l l r eve tmen ts a nd a t imber c ore , a nd h ad b een v i tr if ied ( seen p ar t icu lar ly i nu npub l ished d raw ings o f S i te 1 4 ). A t s o me s tage e i ther b e fore o r a f ter t h is r ebu i ld ing , mu lt iva l la t ions a nd a d e fend ed a nnexe w ere a dded o n t he n or th-eas t , u s ing r ampar ts w i th e ar then c ores a nd d ry-s tone w a l l r eve tmen ts.

I n 1 964 ( 97 ) V ar ley wro te t ha t t he r econs truc-

t i on o f p er iod I I was i n Murus G a l l icus s ty le w ith b ea m-ho les a nd n a i ls , a nd

17

t ha t i t was t he Ro mans who f ired t he r a mpar ts :

t h is i s t he o n ly r eference

t o t he d iscovery o f n a i ls o n t he s i te k nown t o t he p resen t wr iters. Af i na l c ircu mva l la t ion a t A l mondbury was k nown a s p er iod I V ( 1948, f ig . 5 , 4 ) , o r a s t he " u l t i ma te h i l l-for t" ( 1969, 9 ).

T here i s e v idence o n

t he g round o f ad oub le s carp r unn ing a round t he who le s i te b etween 1 00 a nd 2 50 f eet d ov vns lope o f t he o ther d efences.

Excava t ions a t t he s ou th-western

e nd ( S ite 8 ) s howed t hese t o b e d oub le r a mpar ts o f s ha le , o f d ump c ons truct i on , t he o u ter w ith a c app ing o f c lay , w ith a n i nterven ing d itch . T he i l lust ra t ion i n 1 948 s hows a t h ird s ha le t i p im med ia te ly d own-s lope. An i mport an t f ea ture i s t he p resence o f ar ow o f p o in ted s takes , i nc l ined o u twards , s et i n t he n a tura l r ock o f t he d i tch-bo t to m. T he r esu lts o f t he e xcava t ions o f 1 969 a nd 1 970 h ave n ecess ita ted a r ad ica l r eappra isa l o f t he c hrono logy o f Cast le H i l l.

Carbon s amp les f ro m t he t im-

b ers i ncorpora ted i n t he p er iod I I r a mpar t h ave b een d a ted t o 5 55 + 1 00 b .c. (McK . 8 20-560 B .C.; I -4542 ). Prov is iona l r esu lts o f t hermo lum inescence a na lys is o f t he p er iod I I r a mpar t i nd ica te t he l a ter f i f th c en tury a s t he a pprox ima te d a te o f t he b urn ing ( Un ivers ity o f Ox ford Research L aboratory f or Archaeo logy a nd H is tory o f Ar t ). I n 1 970 t wo s ec t ions w ere c u t a cross t he i nner r ampar t o f t he e x tens ion c a mp i n t he n or th-eas tern s ector , 2 00 f eet s ou th o f t he n or thern e n trance. That a t S i te 3 1 was 6 metres w ide , a nd t ha t a t S i te 3 1A , 6 metres t o t he n or th , was 1 metre w ide. One s ect ion was c ut t hrough t he i nner d i tch a t t he s ou the rn e x tre m ity o f t he f or t , im med iate ly b elow t he s i te o f t he g reat s ha f t . Th is t rench , S i te 3 3, was 3 me tres w ide.

The r a mpar t s ect ions ( F ig. 6 0-63 )

c lear ly s how t he N orman s ha le t ip ( Layers 2 a nd 3 ) a bove t he p reh is tor ic r a mp ar t . T he d i tch s ect ion ( F ig . 6 4 ) i s l ess i nformat ive , b u t s hows a l ayer o f c onso l ida ted e ar th ( 4 ) b etween l oose r ubb le f i l l ing w ith Norman d ebr is ( 3 ) a nd f ine s i l ty i n f i l l ing w ith s o me b urn t r a mpar t ma ter ia l ( 6 ).

T he b eg inn ing o f

Nor man d epos its i s t hus c lear ly marked i n e ach c ase. I n t he r a mpar t s ect ions , t he b eg inn ing o f n a tura l d epos its i s i n mos t c ases b eyond d oub t. On S i te 3 1A ( F igs. 6 0-61 ), n a tura l E i l a nd S ha le b eds ( Layer 2 3 ) a re o ver la id b y an a tura l ly-occurr ing t h ick y el low-brown s ha ley c lay ( Layer 2 2 ).

Th is l at ter d epos it c an b e s een u nder ly ing t he r a mpar t o n S ite 3 1

( F igs. 6 2-63 ) ; t he e x is tence o f n atura l r ock a bou t 1f oot b enea th was c on f irmed b y t r ia ltrench ing . The o n ly p rob le m r ela tes t o L ayer 2 1 ( F ig . 6 2 ), i n f ron t o f t he r a mpar t r eve t men t o n S i te 3 1.

Th is i s i n terpreted b y Dr . V ar ley a s a

c o mpacted f i l l ing t o as ha l low d i tch wh ich wou ld t hus b e t he e ar l iest s tructure o n t he S i te.

A l terna t ively , h owever , i tc ou ld b e ab erm a rea t o l end s uppor t

t o t he e dge-set s lab f ounda t ions o f t he f ron t r evet men t. Two d i f feren t r evetmen t t echn iques c an b e s een t o o pera te i n t he r a mpar t . The l ower , a nd t hus t he e ar l ies t , s ee ms t o b e r ows o f e dge-set s labs , u p t o 1 metre i n h e igh t , s et 3 metres a par t.

T hose a t t he f ron t a re s een c o l lapsed i n

a l l s ec t ions ( F igs. 6 0-62 ), wh i lst t hose a t t he b ack a re o f ten s teep lyinc l ined o u twards ( F ig . 6 2 ) u nder t he w e igh t o f o ver ly ing d epos its. The w ide-spaced d oub le r ow wh ich a ppears a t t he b ack o n S i te 3 1 ( F ig . 6 2 ) i s n ot f ound e lsewhere. The r earmos t s lab i s s et a t ah igher l eve l a nd i s r e la ted t o ap os t-ho le , t he p ack ing-stones o f wh ich i ta bu ts.

I ti s t hus t o b e s een a s as epara te s tructure ,

18

p erhaps a ssoc iated w ith a c harcoa l-r ich l ayer ( 18 ). t he r evet ment .

The i nner s lab f orms

Bo th s labs c ut i n to a c harcoa l d epos it ( Layer 1 9 ) wh ich may

r epresen t p re-ra mpar t o ccupat ion a s f ound b y Jr . V ar ley i n o ther s ect ions. Ex tend ing b etween t he s lab r evet men ts o f t he r a mpar t i s ab asa l l ayer o f g reyb rown f l eck ing u pon wh ich a re l a id p lanks , c rossways a nd l eng thways ( F igs. 6 2-63 ).

Th is c lay , o r t ur f w ith p lanks , i s t o b e s een a s ar a f t d epos it u pon

wh ich i s l a id a s ha ley c lay c ore ( Layer 1 6 ;

F igs. 6 0-63 , l ayered b etween

r a f ts o f t ur f ( F ig . 6 3 ). T he s econd r evet men t me thod i s o f d ry-stone wa l l ing u s ing s ha le b locks. The f ron t r evet men t h as c o l lapsed f orwards ( seen i n L ayer 1 4 ; F igs. 6 0-61), b ut t he b ack r evetmen t s urv ives , i nc l ined i nwards o n t he c o l lapse o f t he r a mp ar t w ith in a nd u nder t he w e igh t o f d epos its a bove ( Figs. 6 0-62 ).

T h is b ack

r evetmen t i s c lear ly s een t ob e i n terlaced w ith r ows o f h or izon ta l t imbers p ro trud ing t o t he r evetmen t e dge ( F ig . 6 2 ) a nd p oss ib ly a lso l i nked w ith v ert i ca l t imbers w ith in .

There i s n o s uch e v idence f ro m t he f ron t r eve tmen t

b ecause o f i t s c o l lapse.

T he r eve t men t i s t hus a n i n tegra l p ar t o f t he r a m-

p ar t c ore, wh ich c ons ists o f L ayers 6 -13 a nd 1 5 , a l l o f wh ich , e xcept t he l a t ter , a re a f fec ted b yb urn ing .

Fro m t he l essin tensely b urn t p ar ts o f t he

c ore i tc an b e s een t ha t t he q uan t ity o f t imber i n t he r ampart v ar ies c ons idera b ly . Mos t i s l a id h or izon ta l ly , i n l ayers c rossways a nd l eng thways ( F ig . 6 0 i n p ar t icu lar ). T here i s a lso a c ons iderable q uan t ity o f s tone i n s o me p ar ts , w hereas o thers a re o f c o mpara t ive ly ' c lean ' s ha ley c lay w ith p robab le t ur f l ayers ( F igs. 6 2-63 ). T hese t wo s uper i mposed r a mpar t s truc tures a pparen t ly e qua te w ith Var ley 's p er iods I a nd I I o f h is e ar l ier p ub l ished a ccoun ts.

T he d iv is ion

b etween t he t wo i n t he c ore i s s een t o b e t he u pper s ur faces o f L ayers 1 6 a nd 2 0. L ayer 1 6 d i f fers s ign if ican t ly f ro m L ayer 1 5 i n b e ing more c o mpact a nd h av ing a l esser s ha le c on ten t. The l ower e x ten t o f t he b urn ing c annot b e t aken a s t he d iv is ion b etween t he t wo p er iods , a s i t s d ep th d epends o n t he i nt ens ity o f t he c onf lagra t ion a t a ny p o in t. Ne ither , t herefore , c an t he g racef u l ly-curv ing l ayers b e c ons idered t o f i l l a" ho le" i n t he e ar l ier r a mpar t : t hey a re t he r esu l t o f t he s lu mp ing o f t he r a mpar t ma ter ia l o n r educ t ion , a nd t he ir v er t ica l e x ten t marks t he l im its o f t he b urn ing. The b urn ing h as b een f i erces t i n c en tra l a nd u pper a reas o f t he r a mpar t ( F igs. 6 0-61, L ayer 9 ; F igs. 6 2-63, L ayer 7 ) . I t s ee ms t o h ave b een l ess i n tense o n t he p er iphery , a nd a lso l ess i n tense i n t hose a reas o f t he r a mpar t w ith l eas t t imber c on ten t . I th as b een i nd ica ted b y l aboratory e xper i men t ( arranged b y Dr . V ar ley ) t ha t t he t e mperature r equ ired t o r educe t he s ha ley c lay a nd s tone t o af used c l inker mass ( Layer 9 ) i s C . 1 200 °C , whereas t he d eeper o range/red c o lours a re p roduced a t c . 6 00°C. S pon taneous c o mbust i on o f l arge s tretches o f r a mpar t i s c ons idered u n l ike ly b y N .C.B. c o mbust i on e xper ts. The e v iden t c on tract ion a nd b uck l ing c aused b y t he b urn ing i s h ard ly l i ke ly t o h ave b een t he i n ten t ion o f t he b u i lders.

Exper i men t ( Ch i lde

a nd T horneycrof t , 1 938 , 4 4-9 ) h as s hown t ha t , o nce a b laze , t he i n ter ior o f at imberlaced r a mpar t g enerates t err if ic h ea t j us t s uch a s wou ld p roduce t he f ir ing z ones a t Cas t le H i l l . Presu mab ly t he t i e-bea ms wh ich p enetra ted t he s tone r evet men ts w ere s e t a l igh t i n ad e l ibera te a t te mp t a t d es truct ion .

19

The d a te o f t h is d es truct ion h as b een p rov is iona l ly e st i mated a s 5 00 B .C., t hough when c a l ibra ted , ar ad iocarbon d eterm ina t ion f or t imbers f ro m t he u pper r ampar t s uggests a n e ar l ier t er m ina l d a te.

Our e v idence s uggests ,

t herefore , ad ry-stone r evet ted r a mpar t w ith a t imberlaced c ore , p ar t o f ab iva l la te d efence a round t he who le p la teau , V ar ley 's p er iod I I, a lso s een i n o ther r ampar t s ec t ions , p ar t icu lar ly S i te 1 4. i s l ike ly t ob e s ix th c en tury B .C.

T he d a te o f t h is s truc ture

I t was p receded b y a n e dge-set s lab r eve t-

t ed r ampar t w ith a c lay c ore l a id b etween t imber a nd t ur f r a f ts , a lso p ar t o f ab iva l la te d efence e nc los ing t he who le p la teau , Var ley 's p er iod I , s een a lso p ar t icu lar ly o n S i tes 1 a nd 1 2, p oss ib ly d a t ing t o t he s even th c en tury B .C. o r e arl ier .

There i s ap oss ib i l ity o f a n e ven e ar l ier d efens ive p hase e nclos ing

o n ly h a l f t he h i l l-top. T he d itch s ect ion ( F ig . 6 4 ) i nd ica tes t wo p re-Nor man d i tch p hases , t he l ower p resu mab ly b u t n o t d e monstrab ly a d eeper r e-cu t t ing o f t he u pper .

Wha t r e la t ion t he mu lt iva l la t ions t o t he n or th-east a nd t he o u t-

e r c ircu mva l la t ions h ave t o t hese e ar ly d efences i s n o t k nown , b u t i ft he d est ruct ion o f t he ma in d e fens ive s ys te m t ook p lace a t c . 5 00 B .C., i ti s r easona b le t o e xpec t t he m t o h ave b een i n p lace b efore t h ijt i me. T he r a f ted c ons truct ion o f t he e ar l ies t r ampar t s een o n S i te 3 1 s ee ms t o b e c lose ly p ara l le led b y s truc tures d escr ibed b y S avory ( 1971a , 2 53 ;

1 971b )

i n t he c ore o f h is P er iod Ir a mpar t a t D inorben . Th is w as o f r ed c lay , w ith a l terna t ing l ayers o f g rey c lay , t he l a t ter b e ing r ep laced b y t imbers i n p laces. T he i n terpretat ion o f t ransverse b ea ms , f l a t tened b y t he p ressure o f t he o verl y ing ma ter ia l , l a id i n r a f ts w ith in t he c lay b ank , i s v ery s im i lar t o t ha t s ugges ted a t Cas t le H il l.

The h or izon ta l b ands o f g rey-brown c lay a re s hown

o n F ig . 6 0 a s t ur f l i nes , t he l ower o f wh ich i s r ep laced b y t imber b ea ms i n p laces. T he e dge-set s lab r evetmen t i s p ara l le led b y t he i nner r ampar t o f P or t f ie ld Ca mp , L ancash ire ( Besw ick , 1 970 ;

Tyson a nd Bu 'Lock , 1 958 ),

i n terpreted a s t he e ar l ies t r a mpar t o n t he s i te , r ep laced b y ac lay c ored , s tone r evet ted r a mpar t w ith b erm , d i tch , c oun terscarp b ank , a nd o u ter d itch . T he c oarse b icon ica l p o t tery f ro m P or t f ie ld i nd ica tes a l a te Bronze Age d a te. On t he Con t inen t , t he h or izon ta l r af t a rrange men t s eems t o h ave b een u sed i n t he f irs t p hase o f c ons truct ion a t t he W it tnauer H orn i n Sw itzer land ( Bersu , 1 945 p l. XV I I I ). T he s tructura l p ara l le ls t o Var ley 's p er iod I a re t hus e ar ly , c over ing t he n in th a nd e igh th c en tur ies. Can t he o uter c ircu mva l la t ions a t A l mondbury b e wrested f ro m t he c los ing d ecades o f t he I ron Age o n t he b as is o f s truc tura l p ara l le l?

From V ar ley 's

d escr ip t ions i ts ee ms t ha t , a t l eas t i n t he a rea e xcava ted a round t he s ou thwestern e n trance , t he s tructures were d oub le s ha le d u mps w ith i n terven ing d itch i n wh ich was s et a s ing le r ow o f p o in ted s takes i ncl ined o utwards. T hese s takes may b e i n terpreted a s c hevaux-defr ise , ad efens ive t echn ique d es igned t o h inder t he p rogress o f a n a pproach ing e nemy , r ecen t ly d iscussed b y H arb ison ( 1971 ). I n Br ita in , c hevaux-de-fr ise a re u sua l ly o f s tone a nd a re a rranged o ver b road a reas. o n ly s i te w ith wooden s takes :

The b es t p ara l le l f or Cast le H i ll s ee ms t o b e t he S ou th Barru le , I s le o f Man ( 92 .c it ., 2 06-8 ),

e xcava ted b y P . S . G e l l ing . Th is most e xposed h i l l-fort s i te was e nc losed b y t wo r a mpar ts. T he i nner was o f t ur f w ith o uter s tone f ac ing a nd h ad a d itch im med ia te ly t o t he o u ts ide , o n t he o u ter l i p o f wh ich were a rranged f i ve r ows o fp os ts , most ly i nc l ined o u twards.

1 20

Ou ts ide t h is was a l arger r a mpar t .

A s amp le t aken f ro m a h u t w ith in t he f or t h as p roduced t he r ad iocarbon d a te o f 5 23 + 8 4 b .c. (McK. 7 90-540 B .C.; B irm-1 19 ) . The e xcava tor c ons iders t ha t , a l though t here i s n o s tra t igraph ical r e la t ionsh ip b etween t he h u t a nd t he d e fence , t he who le i s t o b e r egarded a s ac oheren t s e t t le men t . i s t hus impor tan t.

The d a te

Overseas , au sefu l p ara l lel i s t o b e f ound a t K oberstad t ,

Hessen ( op.c it., 2 15-6 ).

W ith in t he d i tches o f t he f or t w ere f ound t races o f

wooden s takes a rranged u neven ly .

The e v idence o f ma ter ia l r e ma ins s uggests

t ha t t h is f or t if icat ion e x isted b y t he s even th c en tury B .C.

Harb ison c oncludes

( op.c i t., 2 20 ) t ha t c hevaux-de-fr ise w ere o f w ooden s takes i n t he ir e ar l ies t f orm , a nd b egan a s e ar ly a s H a l ls ta t t Ci n Cen tra l Europe.

The c oncep t

c ou ld h ave b een b rough t t o Br ita in t ogether w ith t ha t o f t imberlaced f or t if icat ions ( i b id.).

The s et t ing o f s takes i n ad i tch a t Cast le H il l , p resu mab ly i n

c oncea l men t , i s af ea ture w h ich may b e p resen t a t S ou th Barru le.

On t h is

e v idence , t herefore , t here i s n o r eason t o s uppose t ha t t he o u ter c ircumva ll a t ions a t Cast le H i l l a re o f a ny l a ter d a te t han t he d efences o f Var ley 's p er iod I I. T hey a re e ssen t ia l ly o f d efens ive r a ther t han o f p astora l s ign if icance. F o l low ing t he r ecen t p rogra m me o f e xcavat ion a t Cast le H i l l , Dr . V ar ley h as p roduced a n ew r e-appra isa l o f t he s tructura l s equence ( i n Hard ing , 1 975 ), b ased i n o u t l ine u pon t he s a me p r inc ipa l p hases , b ut w ith a f u l ler d eve lop men t o f t he o ccupa t iona l s tages.

T he l a ter p reh istor ic s e t t le men t o f

t he h i l l b e longs w ith in t he b racket o f P hases 2 -7 o f t h is n ew s che me , wh ich r ela te t o s uccess ive h or izons wh ich Var ley h as t ermed t he F irs t I n terregnu m , t he Un iva l la te Enc losure , t he S econd I n terregnu m , t he Open S et t le men t , t he Un iva l la te F or t let , t he B iva l la te F or t a nd t he Mu l t iva l la te F or t , t he I ron Age o ccupa t ion b e ing t erm ina ted b y t he b urn ing a nd c o l lapse o f t he d efences. The p rogress ion s t i l l e n ta i ls a n i n it ia l o ccupa t ion a round t he s outhern e nd o f t he s umm it p la teau , a nd t he s uccess ive e n large men t o f t he c a mp i n t erms o f b o th i t s a rea a nd t he c o mp lex ity o f i t s d efences. I n w ha tever f ash ion w e r eso lve t he o ccupa t iona l s equence o f t he s i te , h owever , t here c an n o l onger b e a ny d oubt t ha t t he p reh is tor ic d efences o f Cas t le H i l l , A l mondbury h ad b een f i na l ly r educed b y t he f i f th c en tury B .C., a nd t ha t t he s i te was a hm idone d t herea f ter u n t il i t s n a tura l d efens ive p os it ion c o mmended i t se lf o nce more i n t he Med ieva l p er iod .

Con trary t o e ar l ier b e l ief , t herefore , t he h eadquar-

t ers o f Car t i mandua , t he p ro-Ro man q ueen o f t he Br igan tes i n t he f i rst c ent ury A .D . must b e s ough t e lsewhere • v .

Unexcava ted S i tes T he d istr ibu tion maps o f h i l l-for t if ica t ions w ith s tockades a nd b ox r a m-

p ar ts ( F igs. 8 6-88 ) s how a t h in b u t f a ir ly e ven s pread , wh ich c orrela tes w e l l w ith t he d is tr ibu t ion o f L a te Bronze Age p ot tery ( F ig. 7 4 ). The d istr ibu t ions o f ma ter ia l r e ma ins o f t he I ron Age p er iods ( F igs. 7 5-78 ) a re more p redo mi nan t ly s ou thern a nd e astern , as i tua t ion n o t r ef lected b y t he f ew d u mp r a mp ar ted f or t if ica t ions ( F ig . 8 9 ) o r b y t he d is tr ibu t ion o f u nexcava ted s i tes ( F ig . 9 0 ; many u nproven e xamp les i nc luded ). S tan ford ( 1971, 5 1 ) h as c o mmen ted t ha t t he s uccess o f I ron Age h i l l-for t c om mun it ies i n t he We lsh Border s tands i n c on trast t o t he p over ty o f t he h i l l-for t e xper i men t i n e as tern Eng land . Tha t t h is i s af a ir g enera l isa t ion i n o ur a rea i s c lear : most e xc ava ted h i l l-for ts a re o f ap er iod e ar l ier t han t he mature I ron Age. Ev iden t ly t he r o le o f t he h i l l-for t was n o t d om inan t i n t he s oc ia l a nd e cono m ic l i fe o f 1 21

t he I ron Age , p ar t icu lar ly i n t he Eas t R id ing a nd o ver much o f t he e as t Midl ands. T he c on tras tb e tween t he s carc ity o f h i l l-for ts a nd t he c oncen tra t ion o f o ther ma ter ia l i s most p ronounced i n t he Eas tR id ing. Apar t f rom G r i mthorpe , a n e ar ly s i te w ith p robab ly s parse i n ter ior o ccupa t ion, o n ly o ne may b e i dent i f ied w ith c er ta in ty . Recen t ly d iscovered b y a ir p hotography i s a n i rregu lar 8 .5 a cre f or t a t G reen L and , n ear Rudston ( P la te I ) . I ti s s i tua ted n or th o f t he v a l ley o f t he Gypsey Race , a bove s teep s lopes t o t he west a nd s ou th a nd a marked n a tura l d epress ion ( band o f d arker s o il w ith s quare-d itched b arrows o n P la te I )t o t he e ast .

A l most c omp lete ly p loughed o u t , t he d efences s urv ive

a s as carp 1f oo t h igh ( RCH M f i e ld i nforma t ion ).

The c rop- marks s how a

d i tch a bou t 1 5 f ee t w ide , a nd p oss ib ly a n arrower i nner t rench . T here i s a n i nturned e n trance t o t he e as t a nd p oss ib ly a n o ver lapp ing e n trance t o t he s ou th . There a re o n ly s l igh t t races ( on o ther p ho tographs ) o f i n terna l c ircu lar f eat ures , s ugges t ing a sma l l s ca le o f i n ter ior o ccupa t ion c o mparab le w ith t ha t a t G r im thorpe. A t h ird h i l l-for t may b e r epresen ted b y ap romon tory s i te a t Ack lam Wo ld , c u t o f fb y at r ip le d yke ( RCH M i n forma t ion ). The d yke may b e r e lated t o ac o mp l ica ted s yste m o f l i near e ar thworks i n t he v ic in ity r a ther t han c once ived i n i so lat ion a s ad efence , h owever . No o ther e xa mp les a re k nown f rom t he E ast R id ing d esp ite e xhaust ive a ir p ho tography a nd r econna issance. T he h i l l-for t c anno t h ave d om ina ted t he p opu la t ion d is tr ibut ion f or l ong , i fa t a l l.

O ther f orms o f s et t le men t mus t h ave b een impor tan t.

I ti s l ike ly t ha t

t he s e t t le men t p a t tern was o ne o f sma l l s ca t tered f arms , o f ten i n n on-defens ive s i tuat ions , e nc losed b y p a l isades e ar l ier i n t he I ron Age ( i f T . C . M . Brews ter 's o p in ions o n n u mbers a re r e l iab le ) a nd b y l inear e ar thworks l a ter . I n n or th-wes t Eng land , p oss ib le h i l l-for ts s ee m more n u merous. a lready n o ted S ke l more H eads a nd t he A l len Knot t Ear thwork .

We h ave

A ir p ho tography

h as l oca ted o ther l ike ly s i tes a t Swar thy H i l l a nd Barrock Fe l l ( see N otes o n F igures , 9 0 ). P erhaps t he o n ly o ther s trong c on tender i s Carrock F e l l ( Co l l ingwood , R . G ., 1 938 ;

P la te I ), a 5 a cre moun ta in-top s i te w i th e x ten-

s ive v iews t o t he n or th a nd e ast . I ts s hape i s i rregu lar , a nd t here a re n o i n terna l s ur face f eatures a par t f ro m t wo c a irns a nd t races o f q uarry ing ; i t s p reh is tor ic t es t i mony i s n ot u nequ ivoca l. O ther p oss ib le s i tes a re n o t c onv inc ing.

Cas t lesteads , Yanwa th ( RCH M , 1 936, 2 53 ), t ermed b y J obey a

' mu l t iva l la te f or t ' ( 1966b , 1 1 ), i s o ppress ive ly o ver looked a nd c overs l ess t han 0 .25 a cres. Cas t le Crag , Borrowda le , a l though p ossess ing l ow p er ip hera l wa l ls o f p reh istor ic c harac ter , h as p roduced ma ter ia l o f l a ter d a te. The s i te a t Dacre i s more a d efended f ar mstead t han a h i l l-for t , a nd d a t ing e v idence i s c o mp lete ly l ack ing . The c on tex ts o f Caermote Bat tery , Cas t le Crag , S hou lthwa ite , a nd Dun ma l lard H il l a re l i kew ise o bscure , a nd may b e p os t-Ro man .

O ther t ypes o f e nc losed d o mes t ic s et t le men t may b e r ecogn ised

i n p re-Ro man Cu mbr ia : i t may b e t ha t al ow p opu la t ion d ens ity a nd a l ack o f d yna m ic s oc ia l o rgan isa t ion f a i led t o p roduce t he c ond it ions n ecessary f or t he f ounda t ion o f h i l l-for t c o m mun it ies. I n t he n or th-eas t , t he r ela t ive ly h igh d ens ity o f h il l-for t s i tes n or th o f t he Tyne ( Jobey , 1 966a , f ig . 1 ) i s n o t c on t inued s ou thwards.

I n Co. Durha m ,

t he ma in d efens ive p hase a t Ma iden Cas t le c ou ld d ate t o t he M idd le Ages , a nd t he s i te a t S haddeton Beacon i s n o t b eyond d oub t , b e ing d a maged b yq uarry ing a nd f ores try . S ou th o f t he T ees , t he s tone-wa l led p ro mon tory s i te a t Cast le

1 22

S teads, Da lton , i s a . r . impress iv3 s trong 1 ) 1d , b u t n o d a t ing e v idence i s a va i la b le.

I n n or th-east Yorksh in ,Es ton

a b , Bo ltby S car , a nd S u t ton Bank

may a l l b e s een i n ap re-500 E . C a. c on tex t .

I n t hese a reas , v ar ious t ypes o f

e nc losed d o mest ic h o mes tead , t ob e n oted i n t he n ex t c hap ter , f orm t he c hara cter ist ic s et t le men t t ype i n t h , 3 I ron Age. I n t he c en tra l P enn ines , t he o nly s i te t o o f fer c onv inc ing e v idence o f u se a s ap reh is tor ic h i l l-for t if ica t ion i s I ng leborough , a1 6 a cre p la teau s i te a t 2 373 f t . 0 .D .

The p rec ip itous e dges a re s urmoun ted b y ag r its tone r a mpar t

wh ich , p ar t icu lar ly o n t he n or th a nd e as t s ides , c an b e s een t o b e f aced w ith u pr ight s tones a nd c oursed w a l l ing . T he r ubb le c ore s ee ms t o b e c o mpar tmen ted w ith in v er t ica l ly-p laced l atera l s to lr r ows s et a t i n terva ls o f 7f ee t , as tructure wh ich A . K ing h as s uggeFted imp l ies t he a pp l ica t ion i n s tonework o f t imberlac ing t echn ic p ies. I n t he i n ter ior , t he f ounda t ions o f a t l eas t 1 9 s tone h ut-c irc les c an b e r ecogn ised , a nd t here a re r epor ts o f t he p oss ib le s i tes o f t imber h u ts u nder ly ing t he s tone o nes ( OS i n forma t ion ).

Ap iece o f

Castor Ware h as b een f ound o n t he s umm i t . b y H . G . Ra mm ( YAJ Arch. Reg ., 1 967 , 4 ), a nd A . Ra istr ick h as r ecovered c oarse s herds o f Ro mano-Br it ish t ype ( Elgee a nd E lgee , 1 933 , 1 2G ). These i ragmen ts may r ela te t o t he s toneb u i lt h u ts. T he c onstruct ion o f 5 . uch a f orm idab le f ort if ica t ion w ith in t he Ro man p er iod i s most u n l ike ly .

G iven t he e v idence f or t imber h u ts , I ng le-

b orough i s o ne o f t he f ew s i tes i n a nd a round t he c en tra l Penn ine l imes tone a rea o f more t han l ike ly f irs t m il lenn iu m B .C. d a te. T he d a t ing e v idence f ro m t he s im ilar ly b leak a nd moun ta inous s i tes o f S ou th Barru le a nd Ma m T or warns a ga ins t ag l ib I ron Age d es igna t ion . I n t he p er iphera l Penn ines , h i l l-for t s i tes o ther t han t hose e xcava ted a re n ot n u merous.

Most a re sma l l , a nd a re n ot r ead i ly d is t ingu ishab le f ro m

o ther d efended e nc losures i n h i l l-s lope s i tua t ions ( so me o n F igs. 9 2-93 ). There i s an otab le c oncen tra t ion i n t he f ooth i l ls s ou th o f S k ip ton a nd H arrog a te.

Barw ick i n E l met , a t 1 5 a cres , i s a more s ubstan t ia l s i te wh ich d e-

mands e xcava t ion .

T o t he w es t , War ton Crag i s o ne o f t he most i mpress ive

s i tes i n Lancash ire , w ith t hree w ide ly-separa ted r ampar ts r unn ing f ro m c l if f t o c l if f a cross a p ro mon tory , e nc los ing a t ota l o f 1 5 a cres. I n t he Derbysh ire P eak , a sma l l g roup o f h i l l-for ts , i nclud ing Co mbs Moss a nd F in C op , i s s ign if ican t ;

i n terpre ta t ion i n t erms o f o vera l l t r iba l f ron t iers i s i nadv isab le ,

h owever , i n v iew o f t he e ar ly d a tes i nd ica ted b y e xcava t ions a t Mam T or a nd Ba l l Cross. T o t he s ou th , g roups o f h i l l-for ts a re o f ac haracter more a k in t o t ha t o f we l l-known s i tes b eyond.

T o t he s ou th-west , t he Chesh ire a nd S ta f fordsh ire

g roups a re impor tan t , w ith s i tes s uch a s Cas t le R ing , Cannock , a nd Berry R ing , i n a dd it ion t o O ld Oswestry a nd Ber th H il l , s ugges t ing o ccupa t ion i n t he mature I ron Age p er iod a nd t hus a n a f f in ity w ith h i l l-for t c o m mun it ies i n t he We lsh Marches.

T o t he s ou th-eas t , ag roup o f sma l l f or ts i n Not t ing-

h a msh ire w es t o f t he Tren t i s n o tab le.

Af ew smal l s i tes o f =cer ta in a ge

a re k nown i n L incolnsh ire , a t I ngo ldsby , Hon ing-t on H il l , a nd Careby . Occup a t ion o f t he m idd le a nd l a ter I ron Age a t Breedon-on-the-H il l , Burrough H i l l , a nd Hunsbury a ga in l inks t he s ou thern marg ins o f o ur a rea w ith s e t t le men t p a t terns t o t he s ou th .

1 23

T he e v idence o f h i l l-for t if ica t ions i n t he T ren t-Tyne a rea i s t o b e s een i n ap redo m inan t ly 1 000-500 B .C. c on tex t . F enced a nd wa l led d efences a re e ven ly s pread , a nd t here i s e v idence o f i n terna l o ccupa t ion w ith in many where i th as b een s ough t . D u mp d e fences a re n o t c o mmon , o u ts tand ing e xamp les o ccurr ing ma in ly i n t he s ou th ( apar t f rom S tanw ick ).

The d u mp

r ampar t , e ssen t ia l ly d i f feren t f ro m t he f ence o r wa l l i n a ppearance a nd c onc ep t ion , w ou ld s ee m t o mark a d im in ished c oncern f or t he n ea t a ppearance o f t he d e fence , a nd t hus p oss ib ly a s h if t i n emphas is o f s oc ia l p r ior it ies i n t he l a ter p er iod .

A par t f rom t hose a t S tan v v ick , n o g rea t l a te I ron Age d e-

f ences c an b e i den t if ied , a l though s uch p robab ly e x isted a round B e lg ic s e t t lemen ts s uch a s O ld S lea ford a nd Ra tae C or itanoru m . P ar t icu lar ly d ur ing t he I ron Age , t ypes o f d o mes t ic s e t t le men t o ther t han t he h i l l-for t a ppear t o h ave b een o f p aramoun t i mpor tance i n t he s e t t le men t p a t tern . c ons idered i n t he n ex t c hap ter .

1 24

T hese a re t o b e

CHAPTER 8 TYPES OF DO ME S T IC S ETTLE MENT i .

E a 1 , y1 c ) L ate Bronze Age

T I ‘e I d en t if ica t ion o f Bronze Age d o mes t ic s et t le men t s i tes i n n or thern Eng lar 21h as p roved d i f f icu l tb ecause o f t he l ack o f c harac ter is t ic f i e ld monumen ts a nd t he p auc i ty o f mater ia l r e ma ins , o ther t han me ta lwork . H owever , a n impor tan t c lass o f f i e ld monumen t wh ich c an b e b road ly a t tr ibut ed t o f te Ear ly Bronze Age i s t he c a irn f ie ld , o r e x tens ive s et t le men t ( F ig . 8 4 ). 9 -, h e s evere ly l im ited g eograph ica l d is tr ibu t ion o f t h is t ype , o n h ea ther moor lands o f ten o f g r its tone , s ands tone , o r l imestone h i l ls , s ee ms t o r ef l ect n o t mere ly t he l ack o f s ubsequen t d is turbances o f t hese a reas , a l lowi ng p reservat ion a nd p resen t-day f i e ld s urvey . T he marg ina l n a ture o f t hese u p lands f or a gr icu l tura l s e t t le men t a nd t he e co log ica l h avoc wrough t b y t he o ccupa t ion wh ich t he c a irn f ie lds t es t ify a re c harac ter is t ic f eatures , t he mse lves c on tr ibu t ing d irec t ly t o u nsu itab i l ity f or l a ter s e t t le men t . C a irn f ie lds u sua l ly o ccur w ith in 4 00 f ee t a bove o rb e low 1 000 f t . 0 .D . , d epend ing o n l oca l t opography . T hey c ons is t o f g roups o f sma l l s tony c a irns , n u mber ing u p t o s evera l h undred i n i nd iv idua l c lus ters. T he c a irns , u sua l ly f ro m 6 t o 1 0 f ee t i n d ia meter , a ppear a s s hape less h eaps o f s tone , o r a re o ccas iona l ly more r egu lar w i th r ud i men tary s tone p er i meters. O f ten t hey a re a ssoc ia ted w i th l eng ths o f r ough w a l l ing wh ich r un b e tween t he c a irns o n i rregu lar a l ignmen ts , a nd s omet i mes f orm sma l l e nc losed a reas. T here a re t hree ma in c oncen tra t ions i n t he d is tr ibu t ion : c en tra l B lackamore o f t he N or th Y ork Moors , t he g r its tone moors o f t he s ou thern P enn ines , a nd t he p er iphera l f e l ls o f t he L ake D is tr ic t . T he f unc t ion o f t he c a irns h as b een c ons idered e n t ire ly f unerary ( Elgee , 1 930 , 1 00 ), b u t t he a ssoc iat ion w ith wa l l ing a nd t he e v idence o f e xcava t ion ( see b e low , p . 1 27-8 ) s ugges ts t ha t f i e ld c learance w as a n i mpor tan t , a nd p robab ly t he p r i mary , o b ject . I n c ons ider ing S cot t ish c a irn f ie lds , G raha m ( 1957 , 2 1-3 ) h as s ugges ted t ha t t he f unc t ions o fb ur ia l a nd l and c learance n eed n o t b e c ons idered mu tua l ly e xc lus ive. T he e v idence f ro m n or th-eas t Y orksh ire h as r ecen t ly b een r econs idered b y F le m ing ( 1971 ) a nd H ayes ( i n McDonne l l , 1 963 , 3 7-42 ). There a re t hree a spec ts t ob e n o ted h ere : t he e cono my w h ich t he c a irn f ie lds r epresen t , t he ir d a te , a nd t he s et t le men tu n its o f wh ich t hey a re a p ar t . F le m ing ( 2E . c i t . ) h as made o u t as trong c ase t ha t t he c learance was n o t f or p as tora l u se. F ores t b rows ing w ou ld h ave p roduced a dequa te n u t rit ion i fp roper ly c on tro ll ed .

Ra ther , c learance f or a gr icu l ture i s s ugges ted , b y sma l l g roups o f

1 25

s h if t ing c u lt iva tors a nd mos t l ike ly b y ap opu la t ion o fb etween 2 50 a nd 5 00 o ver a p er iod o f 2 00 t o 4 00 y ears. i n terpreta t ion . f or b ur ia l.

Two t ypes o f e v idence a re c en tra l t o t h is

F irs t , e xcava t ion o f t he c a irns h as p roduced l i t t le e v idence

Cre ma t ion p i ts w ith ma in ly Co l lared Urn p o t tery h ave b een f ound

u nder a f ew o f t he l arger c a irns , b u t s igns o f f i re , c harcoa l , f l in t c h ipp ings , a nd s o met i mes b urn t b ones ( no t d e mons trab ly a b ur ia l ) a re t yp ica l b eneath t he ma jor ity . T h is s uggests s crub-c learance b y f ire p r ior t o r emova l o f s ur face s tone a nd c u lt iva t ion . ( S i m mons , 1 969 ;

S econd , t he e v idence o f p o l len a na lys is

Cund il l , 1 971 ) i nd icates a ma jor c learance p hase c onst itu-

t ing t he f irst ma jor impact o f o ccupa t ion i n t he a rea. Ex tens ive z ones o f t h in a lder a nd h aze l s crub were c leared o n a n u npreceden ted s ca le , l ead ing t o e ros ion o f t he l and s ur face a nd d es truc t ion o f t he s o i l p rof i le. e xhaust ion a l lowed o n ly a marg ina l r egrow th o f f ores t :

Th is l and

t here i s l i t t le s ign i-

f i can t e v idence f or s ubsequen t p opu la t ions i n t he c en tra l moors u n t i l t he Med ieva l p er iod . F inds o f c harcoa l a t c learance l evels i n t he c ores , a nd t he p resence o f af ew g ra ins o f c erea l p o l len i n s o me p rof i les, i nd ica te b urn ing o f t he w ood land a nd a rab le o pera t ions. T hese o pera t ions , a ga in j udg ing b y t he p o l len d iagra ms , w ere r e la t ive ly s hor tl ived . T he d a te o f t he c a irn f ie lds a nd o f t h is a c t iv ity i s u ncer ta in o n a rchaeo log ica l e v idence. E lgee ( 1930 , 9 9-100 ) was c onv inced t ha t t he c a irns mus t b e a ss igned t o t he Co l lared Urn p er iod .

F le m ing ( 1971, 2 1-2 ) p o in ts t o t he a s-

s oc iat ion w ith r ing-ca irns a t G rea t Ay ton Moor a nd Danby R igg .

R ing-ca irns

a re a ssoc iated w ith a t ypo log ica l ly l a te g roup o f Co l lared Urns , t he n or thwestern s ty le o f L ongwor th 's S econdary S er ies ( Longwor th , 1 964 , 1 95-6 ). However , a t A lnha m i n Nor thu mber land , o ne o f 2 2 s tone c a irns p roduced a l a te I ron Age r ing-headed p in i n as pread o fb urn t b one b enea th t he mound ( Jobey a nd T a it , 1 966 , f i g. 1 1 ).

A lthough s o me n or thern c a irn f ie lds may

b e l a te i n d ate , c arbon f ro m t he l evel o f t he c learance p hase i n ap o l len c ore t aken f ro m Whee lda le G il l , n or th-eas t Y orksh ire ( NZ 7 60997 ), h as b een d a ted t o

1 260 ± 9 0 b .c. ( McK. 1 580-1530 B .C.;

G aK-2712 ;

Cu m l i l l , 1 971, 2 56 ).

Th is r esu l t , t ogether w ith t he b road c o mparab il ity o f p o l len d iagrams f ro m t he N or th York Moors , f irm ly i nd ica tes a n Ear ly Bronze Age d a te f or t he c a irn f ie lds t here. A lthough s o me o f t he n or th-eastern c a irn f ie lds a re sma l l , o thers a re v ery l arge a nd f orm impress ive s e t t le men t a reas. P erhaps t he mos t o u ts tand ing i s a t Danby R igg ( Elgee , 1 930 , 1 34-7 , f i g . 4 4 ). On a s l igh t ly s lop ing b road p la teau a rea a round 1 000 f t . 0 .D . a re o ver 8 00 c a irns. W ith in t he g roup i s t he s i te o f as tone c irc le wh ich p roduced t wo Co l lared Urns i nver ted o ver b urn tb ones a nd c harcoa l. The c a irn-f il led p la teau i s c u t o f f a t i t s b ase b y as l igh t b ank 4 00 y ards l ong . Beyond i ti s a n a rea i n wh ich a f ew c a irns a nd an u mber o f i rregu lar l i nes o f d ry-s tone w a l l ing a re e v iden t ( a f ter s ur face f ires , s pr ing 1 972 ).

T h is i nd icates s tone c learance o f c harac ter is t ic t ype.

Mos t o f t he o ccupa t ion a rea i s e nc losed w ith in a c ross-dyke o f d oub le r a mp ar ts a nd d i tches t o t he e as t a nd t reb le t o t he w est . E lgee c ons idered t ha t t he p urpose o f t hese w orks was t o e nc lose a nd d efend t he s et t led a rea. S uch d efences h ave b een s een b y Hayes ( i n McDonne l l , 1 963 , 3 8-9 ) a s i nd ica t ing t ha t t he l i fe o f Bronze Age p eop le was l ess n o mad ic t han h as s omet i mes b een s upposed .

There a re a n u mber o f o ther e xamp les o f l i near e ar thworks a d-

j acen t t o c a irn f ie lds.

One , a t H orn Nab , F arnda le , ac ross-r idge b ank

1 26

and ditch 300 yards long, was sectioned in 1959-60 (�.cit., 40). The ram­ ·part was of rubble and earth faced with stone, 24 feet wide and 8 to 9 feet high.The ditch was V-shaped, of variable depth, and not rock -cut. Inside the defended area was a single cairn, and beyond it an extensive cairnfield. No absolute proof of contemporaneity can be offered, but the presence of defended areas, some with settlement and burials within them and_ others as simple refuges, in the Middle Bronze Age is very likely. It should be re­ membered that promontory settlements with cross-ridge defences are well­ known elsewhere in pre-first millennium B.C. Europe (Piggott, 1965, fig. 22). Othier areas of cairnfields and thus of likely extensive settlement and similar economy are known, and of these the southern gritstone Pennines are most important. A considerable quantity of field-work evidence has been recorded by the Ordnance Survey. Perhaps the clearest is at Birchen Edge, north-east of Chatsworth. On a gently-sloping south-east facing moor­ land between 1000 and 900 feet O.D. is an extensive area of cairns and ir­ regular walling, including some lengths of well-built stone walling and com­ pletely stone-free areas. Particularly important is a system of four or five cleared fields, each about 50 by 70 yards and defined by lynchet banks. As. for dating evidence, clearance heaps and cairn.fields are associated with ring-banks at Ramsley Moor (Barbrook II) and Totley Moor (Brown Edge), Collared Urns from which have been dated by associated charcoal to the Early Bronze Age (see discussion in Part II, Chapter 2, ii). Pollen analysis on the gritstone uplands has demonstrated an important clearance phase dated by a sample from Leash Fen (SK 295738) to 1500 ± 100 b.c. (McK. 19401880 B.C.; GaK-2287: Phillips, S. P., 1969). Phillips has suggested on stratigraphical evidence that the activity of the Collared Urn population lasted only 180 to 120 years. There are arable indications including a variety of weed species in the pollen diagrams from the north Derbyshire gritstone. It seems that Fleming' s hypotheses of shifting agriculture, land exhaustion, and population numbers are also applicable here. Further north in the Pennine eastern foothills, but still on Millstone Grit, are a number of similar extensive remains, particularly on parts of Rombalds Moor. At Green Crag Slack (Cowling, 1946, 131) an area 1.5 miles long and 400 yards wide is said to have been covered with old walls, cairns, and hut sites. Remains can still be seen to cover an extensive area, and in particular, groups of cairns are visible. At Snowden Moor (.2£.cit., 135) one cairn of a group of 30 was sectioned in 1926. A small amount of charcoal was found on the old land surface beneath, but there was no indica­ tion of a burial. This recalls the evidence for burning beneath cairns on the North York Moors._ The most impressive evidence comes from Baildon Common to the south. Remains not now visible (stone apparently removed for road-building) were first described by Collis ( 1846, PI. VIII). Numer­ ous traces of slight earthworks were seen to run nearly parallel, between 50 and 80 yards apart, and to be intersected by others at right angles. These formed a field system, about 300 yards across, of rectangular plots. Dotted within and around the plots were stone cairns about 8 feet across. Two as­ sociated features of especial importance were circular earthworks 93 and 80 feet in diameter, formed by earth banks 8 feet wide and 2.5 feet high. It

127

seems reasonable to interpret these earthworks as ring-banks of normal Early to Middle Bronze Age funerary type, and to date the cairns and rectan­ gular fields accordingly. In Cumbria a number of sites of similar character have been reported. At Barnscar (Dymond, 1893; Walker, 1965) an extensive settlement, includ­ ing about 400 cairns, some arranged in lines, and banks and walls suggesting a cultivation system, has been reported. Excavation of 14 of the cairns in 1890 recovered two Collared Urns. Other similar areas of cairns are known, particularly at Heathwaite Fell (Cowper, 1893, Pl. XXVIII), Moor Divock (Spence, 1934), and in the vicinity of Carrock Fell (Barker, 1934). Pennington (1970), synthesising the evidence for the vegetational history of north-west England, considered that the most striking change which could be attributed to Bronze Age times was a permanent reduction in upland oak forest, which activity seems to have been limited to those areas where cairns abound, and in particular to the uplands of Cumberland between 700 and 900 ft. O.D. and other marginal zones. A significant fall in the organic content of Devoke Water sediment is interpreted as evidence for increased erosion of mineral soils following forest destruction. At Seathwaite in the south-western Fells this clearance phase is assigned by radiocarbon to 1080 ± 140 b.c. (McK. 1390-1300 B.C.; .2E..cit., 72). Evidence from Ehenside Tarn, in the Cum­ berland lowland south of St. Bees, indicated an increased frequency of cereal pollen and a much increased r3:te of clearance from about 1600 B.C. (Walker, 1966, 199-200). This, together with abundant charcoal in the deposits from which the pollen cores have been obtained, indicates renewed settlement and clearance for arable activity. It is during this period that serious irrever­ sible changes in the vegetational balance began. Childe' s early statement that Cinerary Urn peoples spread into less­ attractive lands too marshy or barren to have been colonized previously (1940, 156) is thus credible. This spread may be linked with the practice of shifting agriculture, which quickly led to land exhaustion on these areas of poor soils. Evidence of clearance heaps, irregular walling, cairns, small barrows, and ring-banks is to be seen as a type of extensive settlement typical of the Early to Middle Bronze Age, probably beginning substantially earlier in some areas and surviving much longer in others. A different type of settlement, perhaps characteristic of the Bronze Age but less well-defined chronologically and structurally as a group, is the iso­ lated hut site, presumably unenclosed (Fig. 85). A typical example has been excavated by Hodgson (1940) at Woodhead, Cumberland. Cut back into the hill-slope, the circular hut was 26 feet across with a stone rubble wall 2.5 feet thick and an entrance to the east. The floor was a layer of clay with flattish stones. Two post-holes 1 foot in diameter were placed just within the entrance, not centrally. Finds included a V-perforated conical button and a ring with three oval perforations, both jet objects known from the earliest Bronze Age in Britain. To the south, in the Pilling district of Lancashire, circular stone pavements have been found associated with stone rubbers, and possibly with a decorated bronze flat axe and a bronze spearhead (Thornber, 1952; Sobee, 1953, 16). Raistrick has described a hut at Comb Scar, Mal­ ham, typical of those in Pennine limestone areas considered by him to be of 128

Bronze Age d a te ( Ra is tr ick a nd H o l mes , 1 992 , 8 , f ig . 2 ) .

Rough ly c ircu lar ,

a bou t 1 8 f eet a cross , t he h u t h ad a s tone r ubb le-f i l led wa l l 5t o 6f eet t h ick a nd 3 f eet h igh .

Ap aved p assage-en trance 1 2 f eet l ong was s i tua ted b etween

t he h u t wa l l a nd a r ow o f l arge r ocks a t t he f oot o f an atura l s cree s lope. A t t he c en tre o f t he h ut , ap os t-ho le 1 5 i nches d eep may h ave p rov ided s uppor t f or a r oof , t he t imbers o f w h ich may h ave b een a nchored i n t he t op o f t he s tone wa l l-founda t ions. F inds f ro m t he h ut f l oor i nc luded f l in t f ragmen ts , t wo o f t he m worked , a nd sma l l p ieces o f d ark b rown c oarse p o t tery.

A t

West Brandon , Co. Durha m , t he p os t-ho le c irc le o f a sma l l r ound-house 2 1 f ee t a cross u nder ly ing t he e nc losures i n Area 5 o f t he e xcava t ions ( Jobey , 1 962 , f ig . 8 ) i s c ons idered t ob e t ypo log ica l ly a s we l l a s s tra t igraph ica l ly e ar l ier t han t he l arger c oncen tr ic-r ing h ouses o n t ha t s i te. With i t s c en tra l p ost s uppor t i ti s c o mparab le w ith t he h u t a t Co mb S car a nd w ith o thers i n s ou thern Br ita in ( as a tI t ford H il : , H ouse Type A w ith i nner p os t s uppor ts : Burs tow a nd H ol leyman , 1 957 , 1 90 ). The Wes t Brandon e xcava t ions were n o t e x tended t o s earch f or o ther f eatures wh ich m igh t h ave b een c on te mporary w ith t he Area 5 h u t , a nd i t may b e t ha t i t marks e ar ly I ron Age o ccupa t ion immed ia te ly p r ior t o t he b u i ld ing o f t he e nc losure. H owever , t he r e la t ionsh ip i n h or izon ta l s tra t igraphy i s s ign if ican t , a nd t he h u t may we l l r epresen t i sol a ted u nenc losed s et t le men t . O ther r ound h uts o f p oss ib le Bronze Age d a te, a s a t Bur ton F le m ing , a re n oted e lsewhere ( No tes o n F igures , 8 5 ).

The f ew

k nown may r ef lec t t he r e la t ive ly f l i msy c ons truct ion , t he sma l l a rea d is turbed , a nd t hus t he d if f icu l ty o f s ur face i den t if ica t ion o f t he t ype. Men t ion mus t b e made o f at h ird t ype o f Bronze Age s et t le men t , t h is t ime i n af en land s i tua t ion , b est r epresen ted b y t he r e ma ins r ecovered b y Var ley ( 1968 ) a t Bar mston , East R id ing .

H ere , t imber s tructures , h ear ths , a nd

c obb led f l oors were f ound b enea th a l ayer o f p ea t i n d epos its i nd ica t ing a p er iod ica l ly-f looded wood land e nv iron men t .

On S i te B , s truc tura l t imbers

w ere r ecovered i n measurab le c ond it ion b ecause o f c on t inuous s ubsequen t wa ter logg ing. They i ncluded a lder r a f ters , b ea ms , a nd u pr igh ts , a nd p lanks o f v ar ious l eng ths , wh ich c ou ld b e r econs tructed , t hanks t o t he s urv iva l o f a c o mp le te c o l lapsed g ab le e nd , i n to a r ec tangu lar f ra me s tructure 1 8 f eet l ong , 1 2 f eet w ide , a nd 8 f eet h igh , w ith a c onven t iona l p itched r oof . The g ab le e nd f i ts e xac t ly i n to a d oub le p os t-ho le s et t ing wh ich was l oca ted . I ti s s ugges ted t ha t a lder p lank ing a nd t he l arge s heets o f t r ip lelayered b irch b ark w ith i nt erven ing b irch t w igs i n t wo i nner l ayers f ormed t he wa l l c over ing , a nd t ha t masses o f o ak a nd b eech l eaves f ormed t he r oof ing ma ter ia l ( 22 .c it ., 1 8-20 ). The f loor was o f c obb les , a nd t here may h ave b een a n i n terna l h ear th .

The

d a te i s s uggested b y r ad iocarbon d eterm ina t ions f ro m s truc tura l t imbers o n S i te A o f 1 010 ± 1 50 (McK . 1 310-1210 B .C.) a nd 9 50 + 1 50 b .c. ( McK. 1901 150 B .C.; BM-122 a nd BM-123 ). Var ley c ons iders t ha t t he s et t le men t a t Barmston c ons is ted o f ah am let o f s evera l r ectangu lar s tructures i n t he f en h ono s,

hs e x -ava t ions d isturbed o n ly a p ar t.

The s e tt le men t o f

t imber h ouses a bou t 2 5 b y 3 0 f eet a t P er leberg , East G er many , d a ted t o t he e ar ly f irs t m i llenn iu m B .C. ( P iggot t , 1 965 , f ig . 8 4 ), was c i ted a s ac o mpara b le l ayou t . Barms ton i s n o t l ike ly t o h ave b een u n ique i n t he Eas t R id ing. T he r e ma ins r ecorded a t Wes t F urze ( Sm ith , R . A . 1 911) s ee m t o b e v ery s im i lar .

A r ectangu lar p la t form 5 0 b y 7 2 f eet was f ound a t ad ep th o f 3f eet

b enea th p ea t.

L arge t runks o f o ak , w i l low , b irch , a sh , h aze l , a nd a lder ,

1 29

u pr igh t p i les , t w igs , a nd b ark were f ound .

T he f act t ha t t he t imbers w ere

i n ah aphazard a rrange men t s uggests t ha t t hey r epresen t ac o l lapsed s tructure. The r eferences t o t w igs a nd b ark i nd ica te d eta i ls s im ilar t o t hose a t Barms ton . The p resence o f a sma l l b ronze p egged s pearhead w ith l ea f-shaped b lade i nd ica tes t he p oss ib il ity o f o ccupa t ion i n t he t en th c en tury B .C. ( t he t ype h ad al ong l i fe t herea f ter ).

L a te I ron Age p o ttery f ro m Wes t Furze ( F ig. 3 8,

4 -6 ) may , t ogether w ith o ther ma ter ia l n o ted b y Sm ith ( 22.. c it ., 6 02 ), i nd ica te ar eoccupa t ion j us tb efore t he Ro man o ccupa t ion . Our e v idence f or Bronze Age s et t le men t t ypes t hus s ee ms t o b e p redo mi nan t ly o f t he M idd le Bronze Age f or e x tens ive s h if t ing a gr icu ltura l s e t t le men t , o f t he e ar ly f irs t m il lenn iu m B .C. f or f en land s et t le men t w ith r ectangu lar h ouses , a nd o f ab road d a t ing r ange , p robab ly c on t inu ing t hrough t he L a te Bronze Age , f or t he i so la ted h ut .

Much o f t he e v idence f or h i l l-for t if ica t ions

o f f ence a nd wa l l t ype r ela tes t o t he f irs t h a l f o f t he f irs t m il lenn iu m , a nd i t s ee ms t ha t h il l-top s i tes s uch a s Ma m T or , t he Bre idd in , Eston Nab , a nd Gr im thorpe a re t o b e s een a s ad om inan t t ype i n as et t lemen t p hase o f d ist inct ive c haracter . L a te Bronze Age p o t tery , a l though e ven ly s pread ( F ig . 7 4 ), i s n ot f ound i n z ones o f M idd le Bronze Age s h if t ing c u lt iva t ion ( F ig . 8 4 ). Th is p rov ides f ur ther i nd icat ion o f t he e xhaus t ion o f t he l a t ter a reas. (M idd le Bronze Age o ccupa t ion was n o t c on f ined t o t he m ; n e ither i s i tl ike ly t ha t i t was p redo m inan t ly a rab le i n c haracter e lsewhere.

The e v idence o f

wha t may h ave b een more s et t led c o m mun it ies i n h igher q ua l ity f ar m ing a reas , s uch a s t he Wo lds , h as b een l arge ly e rad ica ted b y l a ter l and u se.) The f ound at ion o f d efended s e t t le men ts a nd t he d ec l ine i n e v idence f or e x tens ive c u lt iva t ion a nd o pen s et t le men t mark t he c o m mence men t o f an ew p a t tern . i .

I ron Age Enc losures

As i n o ther p ar ts o f Br ita in , e xcava t ions o n I ron Age s i tes i n t he Tren tTyne a rea u sua l ly r evea l l eng ths o f d i tch , g u l ly , p a l isade t rench , a nd b ank i n a dd it ion t o p its a nd p ost-ho les.

I ron Age s i tes o n a ir p ho tographs a re

s een a s t yp ica l ly d i tched e nc losures o f r ect il inear , c urv i l inear , o r i rregu lar s hape.

On t he g round , u np loughed s i tes g enera l ly e xh ib it b anks i n a dd it ion

t o t he q uarr ied f eatures. Enc losures a re a u b iqu itous I ron Age t ra it . H owe ver , i ti s r are ly p oss ib le i n o ur a rea t o d e mons tra te a r ela t ionsh ip o f c ont e mporane ity b etween e nc losures.

On ly where t here a re l ink ing f ea tures

s uch a s d roveways c an t he a t te mp t b e made t o r econs truc t at o ta l r ura l s ett l e men t s tructure o f a n a rea .

S uch l ink ing f ea tures a re u sua l ly f ound o n ly

f ro m t he f irs t c en tury A .D . w ith t he l ay ing o u t o f c onnect ions t o Ro man r oads , a s a t T a l l ing ton i n t he We l land Va l ley ( S i mpson , W. G ., 1 966 , f igs. 1a nd 5 ) .

I t s ee ms t ha t i n t he p re-Ro man p er iod t he s et t le men t p a ttern was

o f s ca t tered s ing le u n its , a l though t here wou ld p resu mab ly h ave b een c onc en tra t ions i n t he e nv irons o f t rackways. A c ons idera t ion o f t ypes o f d o mes t ic s et t le men t e nc losure h as t o p roceed o n t he b as is o f s hape , t herefore.

T h is i s n o t a l toge ther s a t isfactory .

The

n o t ion t ha t r ec t il inear e nc losures , a s t hey s uggest a more o rder ly c oncep t ion o f l ayou t , a re n ecessar ily l ater t han c urv il inear o nes i s n ot a ccep tab le , p art i cu lar ly s ince e xcava t ions a t Ca t ter ick h ave i nd ica ted t he p r ior ity o f a sma l ler r ectangu lar p a l isaded e nc losure o ver a l arger i rregu lar ly c ircu lar

1 30

o ne ( D. o f t he E

1 971, P l. I ) .

S hape a lone c annot b e t aken a s d is t inct ive

o f as pec if ic l im ited p er iod o r o f ac u lture o ver w ide a reas.

N e ither c an i t

b e s een a s i nd icat ive o f f unc t ion , s ince o n ly f rom t he i n ter ior c an e v idence o f d omest ic h ab ita t ion , r itua l f unc t ion , o r u se a s as i mp le s tock e nc losure b e d rawn .

With t hese l im ita t ions i n m ind , we w il l p roceed f ro m r ect il inear

t o c urv i l inear . Sma l l s ub-rec tangu lar e nc losures a re w e l l-known i n s outhern Br ita in . A g roup o f f ive i n n or th Wi ltsh ire , e ach w ith e nc los ing b ank a nd o uter d i tch , u sua l ly l ess t han 1 a cre i n e x ten t , i s a ssoc ia ted w ith Devera l-R i mbury p o tt ery ( P iggo t t , C . M. 1 942 ). These h ave b een i n terpreted a s c a t t le e nclosures , a s h as t he s ub-rectangu lar e ar thwork a bou t 2 00 f eet a cross a t Harrow H il l , S ussex ( Ho l leyman , 1 937 ). A t t h is l a t ter s i te a p r imary p a l isade u nder lay t he b ank o f t he u n iva l la te e ar thwork . S uch may w el l b e t he f unc t ion o f Ds haped a nd s quare e ar thworks i n n or th-eas t Yorksh ire , s uch a s P i rm ican H il l a nd G irr ick Moor ( f or r eferences a nd l oca t ions o f t hese , many s ubseq uen t ly- men t ioned s i tes , a nd o ther e xa mp les , s ee N otes o n F igures , 9 2 ), a nd s ome i n s outh-wes t Yorksh ire s uch a s Threshf ield , Meg Dyke , a nd K irkl ees. One a t L eaver ing Wo ld , e ast Yorksh ire , 1 50 b y 1 20 f ee t , i s a t tached b y o ne s ide t o L eaver ing Wo ld l inear d yke , wh ich , w ith o thers , f orms t wo l arge e nc losures u p t o 5 00 y ards a cross.

Two s quare-d itched b arrows

s ee m t ob e d e l ibera te ly a l igned a ga ins t t he d ykes , s o i ti s l ike ly t ha t t he who le c o mp lex d a tes t o t he L a T ene p er iod. T he e nc losures c ou ld b e f or s tockc on tro l . T o t he n or th , D-shaped a nd s quar ish e nc losures o f ten c on ta in d o mest ic s et t lemen t .

The b est-known e xa mp le a t West Brandon , w ith d oub le-pa l isaded

e nclosure r ep laced b y d itch a nd u pcast b ank , i s t yp ica l o f many wh ich h ave b een r ecogn ised b y a ir p ho tography i n Co. Durha m i n r ecen t y ears .

Par t ic-

u lar ly g ood e xa mp les a re a t Wh ickha m ( P la te I V ), Thorn ley ( Hard ing , 1 974 , p l. I ), Broo ms ide ( P l. V ) a nd a t Brawn 's Den , Brandon ( P l. V I ), o n ly a f ew h undred y ards f ro m t he s et t le men t e xcava ted b y J obey .

O f ten t here i s s o me

i nd ica t ion o f a n i n terna l c en tra l ly-p laced c ircu lar h ut .

T ha t a t Wes t Brandon

was i n t wo ma in p hases , t he f i rst w ith f our c oncen tr ic r ings o f p os t-ho les a nd t he s econd s im i lar b u t w i th a c on t inuous r ock-cu t t rench ( r ing-groove ) f or t he ma in t imber wa l l. Exa mp les n or th o f t he Tyne , o f w h ich t ha t a t Burradon ( Jobey , 1 970a ) i s o u ts tand ing , i nd ica te t he c on t inua t ion o f t he d ist r ibu t ion a cross t he b ou lder c lay a reas o f s ou th-eas t N or thu mber land a nd b eyond ( recen t map : J obey , 1 970b , f ig . 1 ) , a nd t he p oss ib le e x tens ive u se o f s quar ish d o mes t ic e nc losures i n t he n or th-eas t i n t he p re-Ro man p er iod . The e v idence f ro m West Brandon s ugges ts t ha t t he p a l isade was u sed a s a n e nc losure s tructure o n t h is t ype o f s i te e ar l ier r a ther t han l a ter i n i t s c urr ency . I n C u mbr ia , sma l l r ec t il inear e nc losures i den t if ied b y a ir p ho tography a re a s l i ke ly t o b e o f Ro mano-Br it ish d a te a s a ny e ar l ier.

No tab le a re t he

e xamp les a t O ld Car l is le , a t tached t o ac o m mon d roveway , r em in iscen t o f t hose a t T a l l ing ton .

The w e l l-known s i te a t H ug il l , Wes t mor land , w ith D-

s haped s tone wa l l e nc losure o f o ver a n a cre , a nd i n terna l h u ts a rranged o n l eve l led t erraces ( Dymond , 1 893a ), r eca l ls t he s tone-wa l led s e t t le men ts i n Nor thumber land o f Ro mano-Br it ish d a te ( Jobey , 1 966a , f ig . 1). The method

1 31

o f c lass ify ing a nd p rov is iona l ly d a t ing e nc losed s i tes i n t he n or th a nd w est f ro m f i e ld e v idence o n t he b as is o f e xcava ted e xa mp les i s an ecessary a nd a ccep tab le t heoret ica l s tep , a lthough t he e x ten t t o wh ich e v idence f ro m d iff eren t r eg ions c an b e c o mpared i n t h is way i s q uest ionab le.

Cu mbr ian s i tes

wh ich s ee m t o b e o f p re-Ro man d a te a re c urv i l inear , a nd w i ll b e n o ted s hort ly . The s treng th o f t he s tructures o f s o me r ect il inear e nc losures i s s o met imes s uch t ha t i t warran ts t he t i t le " defens ive s i te" r a ther t han " enc losed h o mes tead".

One s uch c ase i s t he h i l l-s lope s i te a t O ld f ie ld H il l , n ear

H uddersf ie ld ( Too mey , 1 960b , e t s eq ., a nd f ur ther i n for ma t ion ), w here i n t he ma in d efens ive p hase t he 1 a cre D -shaped e nc losure h ad a r ampar t o f r ubb le a nd e ar th 7 f eet w ide f aced w ith d ry-s tone wa l l ing o f ap resumed o r ig ina l h e igh t o f o ver 1 0 f eet , aV -shaped r ock-cu t d i tch 5 .5 f eet d eep a nd 6 f eet w ide , a nd a c oun terscarp b ank s im i lar t o t he i nner r a mpar t w ith d rys tone r eve t men t s urv iv ing t o f our c ourses. Ear l ier e xcava t ions b y R ich mond ( 1924 ) s howed t ha t t he n or th-eas tern e n trance t hrough t he r a mpar t h ad a d oub le t imber g a teway . Ap re-ra mpar t p a l isade t rench h as b een i den t if ied o n t wo s ides o f t he e nc losure , i n wh ich v er t ica l p os ts h ad b een s et a bou t 2 f eet a par t .

F inds i nc luded t wo s tone d iscs , ar ough-out b eeh ive q uern , i ron

s lag , a nd v ery sma l l f ragmen ts o f p ot tery . An I ron Age d a te i s s uggested b y t he l ack o f s pec if ica l ly Ro man ma ter ia l. T he s i te a t Lev isha m Moor A s ee ms t o b e c o mparab le , a nd o f l a te I ron Age d ate ( po t tery : F ig . 4 9 ). I n t he e as t R id ing , t he o n ly r ect i l inear e nc losures t o h ave b een e x tens ive ly e xcava ted a re t hose o n t he v a l ley-f loor g rave l s i te a t G ar ton S lack ( T . C . M. Brews ter i n forma t ion ). One , i n Area V , was 1 20 b y 6 0 f eet . I ts d i tches c on ta ined c arved c ha lk b locks a nd f igur ines a ssoc ia ted w ith l a te I ron Age p ot tery . Another , i n t he 1 971 a rea o f e xcava t ion , was a bou t 1 50 f ee t s quare. I t s V -shaped d itch was 1 0 f eet w ide a nd 5 f ee t d eep a nd a lso c on ta ined c arved c ha lk b locks. With in i tw ere t wo h u t c irc les a bou t 3 0 f eet a cross a ssoc ia ted w ith l ate I ron Age p o ttery , a nd t o t he n or th o f t he h u ts a s er ies o f o ver 3 0 i n fan tb ur ia ls , s evera l l a mb b ur ia ls , a nd a n o xb ur ia l.

The e nc losure d itch

h ad b een r ecu t i n t he e ar ly Ro man p er iod o n as l igh t ly d if feren t a l ignmen t , a nd a f ur ther sma l ler r ec tangu lar e nc losure , w ith f ew i n terna l f eatures , a dd ed t o t he n or th . T he b ur ia ls a nd r i tua l d epos its w il l b e r ev iewed l a ter ( Par t I I, Chap ter 1, i ) . S ince n o f eatures o f d o mes t ic e cono m ic s ign if icance were a ssoc ia ted w ith t he e nc losures , i ti s e v iden t t ha t t hey s erved a s pec ia li sed r i tua l f unct ion . A lso e xcava ted b y T . C . M. Brewster i s t he s et t le men t s i te o n ag rave l t errace a t Ca t ter ick , N or th R id ing . H ere , t he e ar l ies t f ea ture may b e t he s ing le p os t-ho le r ing o f at imber h u t a bou t 2 0 f eet a cross. Th is was o verl a id b y t he c on t inuous s tockade t rench o f ar ectangu lar e nc losure a bou t 1 00 f eet l ong , wh ich h ad a n e n trance a cross o ne c orner d ef ined b y s tou t p osth o les i n t he t rench t erm ina t ions. W ith in t he e nc losure was a s er ies o f t hree c ircu lar h u t-gu l l ies , p robab ly f or m ing a s ing le h u t w ith t wo e x tens ions. Th is o ccupat ion was o ver la id b y al arger i rregu lar ly c ircu lar e nc losure d ef ined b y aw ider a nd d eeper t rench .

W ith in w ere a h u t s i te , o va l i n p lan w ith a

c ircu lar e x tens ion a t o ne e nd , a sma l ler c ircu lar s lo t-syste m , a nd , i n t he c en tre , af our-pos t s tructure a bou t 8f eet a cross.

1 32

Po t tery c o mparab le w ith

s o me a t S tap le H owe , i nc lud ing j ars w ith f i nger t i pp ing o n t he e dge o f t he r im a nd t he s hou lder , i nd ica tes t he l i ke l ihood o f ad a te f ro m t he s ix th o r f i f th c en tury o nwards.

T he impor tance o f t he C a tter ick s i te l i es i n t he p os it ion

o f t he r ectangu lar e nc losure i n t he s equence o f o ccupa t ion , t he u se o f ap al is ade , t he p resence o f af our-pos t s tructure , a nd i t s s i tua t ion w e l l n or th-wes t o f c omparab le Eas tR id ing s i tes.

T he f u l l e xcava t ion r epor t i s f or thco m ing .

Excava t ions b y t he K ee le Ex tra- Mura l Archaeo logy G roup a t as ub-rec ta ngu lar e nc losure a t Maer f ie ld G a te , S ta f fordsh ire , r evea led p erp lex ing e v id ence ( G . T . Emery i n forma t ion ). T he s i te w as d iscovered b y a ir p ho tog raphy , a nd was p roved t o b e c onnec ted w i th B er th H i l l t o t he n or th b y a n u nme ta l led t rackway 8 f ee t w ide w ith s ha l low d i tches a t e ach s ide. T he e nc losure was a bou t 2 30 f eet a cross , a nd w as marked b y aV -shaped d i tch , 7 f eet w ide a nd u p t o 3f eet d eep , w ith a n i n terna l s and t i p .

Ar oadway f ound

t o r un f ro m e as t t o w es t a cross t he s i te was l a id o n as and embankmen t 1 0 f ee t w ide , b a t tened w i th t imber a nd s ur faced w ith c lay a nd w a t t le. En trances t hrough t he e nc losure d i tch w ere g uarded , t ha t o n t he e as t b y at imber g a teway . N o d a t ing e v idence w as r ecovered a par t f ro m a f ragmen t o f Ro man g lass a t ah igh l eve l i n t he d i tch . T he t rackway u p t o B er th H i l l imp l ies c on temporane ity w i th e i ther t he t imberlaced o r t he d ump r ampar t p hases o f t he h i l l-for t s i te. I ti s s uggested t ha t Maer f ie ld G a te w as a f arms tead ( E mery a nd M i l ls , 1 966 ). O ther r ec tangu lar e nc losures a re k nown f rom a ir p ho tography p ar t icu lar ly o n t he Tren t a nd We l land g rave ls ( see N o tes o n F igures , 9 2 ; RCH M , 1 960 ). One e xcava ted a t Twy ford , D erbysh ire , w as s urrounded b y as tockade a nd e x terna l d i tch a nd h ad t wo e n trances ( Hughes , 1 961 ).

I ts ee ms t o b e c o m-

p arab le w i th a r ect i l inear e nc losure a t S p ithooks , Ruds ton , e as tern Yorksh ire , e xcava ted b y S tead , wh ich w as d ef ined b y ad i tch 9 t o 1 0.5 f ee t d eep a nd a n i n terna l s tockade. T hese t wo s i tes a re l i ke ly t ob e s e t t le men t e nc losures o f t he l a te I ron Age p er iod . T he p a l isade i s n o t ap reroga t ive o f t he e arl ier c en tur ies o f t he f i rs t m i l lenn iu m B .C. One p ar t icu lar t ype o f sma l l s quar ish e nc losure r ema ins t o b e d iscussed : t ha t d e f ined b y i nner d i tch a nd o u ter b ank . S uch a n a rrange men t i s n o tu nc o mmon , b e ing f ound a t t h irteen s i tes i n t he P enn ines a nd t he n or th-eas t ( F ig . 9 1 ), n ine o f wh ich a re D -shaped , a ngu lar , o r r ec t il inear . Two h ave b een e xcava ted . T ha t a t G rea t Ay ton Moor h as p roduced t he mos t s a t is fact ory e v idence ( F igs . 6 9-71 ). T he s ec t ion c u t t hrough t he d e fences ( F ig . 7 1 ) s howed a d u mp b ank o f s uccess ive l ayers o f ma ter ia l q uarr ied f ro m t he d i tch , w ith l ayers o f s andy e ar th ( 4 a nd 5 )b enea th r ock a nd r ubb le ( 2 a nd 3 ) . A s lop ing s tone c app ing s ee ms t o h ave b een l a id o n t he i nner f ace t o p reven t s i l t ing . T he d itch w as r ock-cu t a nd s urpr is ing ly d eep . A s l igh t i n terna l b ank ( l ayers 6 -8 ) o ver ly ing a n o ccupa t ion l ayer ( 10 ) p robab ly i nd ica tes p er iod ic c lean ing o u t o f t he d i tch s i l t ing . I n terna l o ccupa t ion ( F ig . 6 7 ) c ons is ted o f ah u t s i te c u t i n to t he s l igh t s lope , w ith a f ounda t ion w a l l o f s tones , a nd a ni n terna l r ough ly p aved a rea ( t he r es t r obbed? ). A h ear th , ac layl i ned , f l ags tone-r i mmed p i t , a nd s evera l p os t-ho les w ere f ound i n t he i n teri or . Ad ra inage c hanne l a nd f ur ther p aved a reas w ere c leared o n t he e xt er ior .

Ac o mp lex o f p os t-ho les w as f ound , b u t e xcava t ion w as l e f t i nco m-

p leted .

T he p oss ib i l ity o f ap os t-ho le s truc ture a t t he e n trance t o t he h u t ,

1 33

o r o f a n e ar l ier p hase e n t ire ly o f t imber c ons truct ion , c annot b e d iscoun ted. Pot tery f ro m t he s i te ( Fig . 4 6 , 8 -13 ) may i nd ica te a d a te i n t he t h ird t o f irst c en tury B .C. p r ior t o t he d eve lop men t o f d is t inc t ive l a te I ron Age f orms a s s een a t S tanw ick a nd e lsewhere ( see P ar t I , Chap ters 5 , i , a nd 6 , i ).

One

s tone i n t he f l oor-pav ing was marked w ith a r egu lar c up-and-r ing d es ign. The s econd e xcava ted s i te i s a t Royd Edge , n ear H uddersf ield , as ubr ec tangu lar 1 a cre e nc losure d iscovered b y a ir p ho tography i n 1 960. I t was e xcava ted b y J . P . T oo mey ( on whose i n forma t ion t h is a ccoun t i s b ased ), a nd was f ound t o b e s urrounded b y as tone-revet ted r ubb le r a mpar t a nd i nner r ockc u t d itch , o f d i mens ions s im ilar t o t hose a t O ld f ield H il l.

En trances e x is t

o n t he e as tern a nd w es tern s ides : t he e astern h ad a r ampar t g ap o f 2 2 f eet a nd a d i tch c auseway o f 1 2 f eet , t he l at ter s panned b y ad ouble t imber g ate w ith c en tra l s top. D el ibera te ly b roken s tone w as t hrown d own t o c onso l ida te t he e n trance-way , a nd amongs t i t af ragmen t o f b eeh ive q uern u pper-stone was f ound .

Ear l ier o ccupa t ion was i nd ica ted b y a n i nner p a l isaded e nc losure

o n ar a ther d i f feren t a l ign men t wh ich c rossed a nd p ar t ly d estroyed a n e ar l ier c ircu lar h ut .

L ater o ccupa t ion was a lso s hown b y al eng th o f p a l isade t rench

ru in ing a t a n a ng le a cross t he f i l ledin d i tch.

T he f inds , i nclud ing f l in t c h ips ,

c l inker a nd b aked c lay s craps , a nd a l ead s p ind le whor l , i nd ica te t he l i kel ih ood o f ad a te i n t he l a te p re-Ro man I ron Age p er iod . O ther sma l l e nc losures w ith d i tch a nd o u ter b ank a re g rouped i n n or the astern a nd w estern Y orksh ire. Those a t S nowden Carr a nd S tuc l fold R ing a re p ar t icu lar ly n o tab le ( f or l oca t ions a nd r eferences o f t hese a nd o thers , s ee N o tes o f F igures , 9 1 ).

Two a re k nown i n Wes t mor land .

Cas t le H il l ,

Du f ton , i s aD -shaped 1 a cre s i te w ith p oss ib ly t wo e n trances a nd i n terna l f ounda t ions f or s even c ircu lar s tone h u ts w ith i n terna l d ia meters o f 1 t o 2 0 f eet.

Ar ough ly s quare f ounda t ion 4 0 f eet a cross i nd ica tes p oss ib le r eoccupa-

t i on .

Ab eeh ive q uern h as b een r epor ted f ro m t he s i te , wh ich i s i nc luded b y

R itch ie ( 1969 ) i n h er c a tegory o f " ear thwork e nc losed s et t le men ts". T he o va l 1 .5 a cre s i te a t Crog la m Cas t le n earby i s b road ly c o mparab le. I n a dd it ion t o o ther e xa mp les wh ich a ppear t o b e s et t le men ts , t hose a t S teer l ing H i l l a nd Park H il l , A ir ton , w est Yorksh ire , a re t hough t t o b e p as tora l e nc losures. A l l a va ilab le e v idence i n o ur a rea f ro m t h is e nc losure t ype i nd ica tes a l ater I ron Age d a te. ( Note t he c ircu lar e nc losure 9 0 f eet a cross w ith d i tch a nd o u ter b ank , p robab ly c on te mporary w ith a r ing-groove t imber h u t i n t he i nt er ior , a t Wes t P lean , S t irl ingsh ire : S teer , 1 956.) The d is tr ibu t ion map o f sma l l r ect il inear a nd D -shaped e nclosures ( F ig . 9 2 ) i s f ar f ro m c o mp lete : t he e v idence o f many a va i lab le a ir p hotographs o f t he s ou thern a nd e as tern r eg ions h as n o t b een f u l ly s tud ied , s o t he c oncen trat i on i n t he n or th-eas t may b e o ver-exaggera ted .

T he d is tr ibu t ion map o f

c urv il inear e nc losures ( F ig . 9 3 ) i nd ica tes a f a ir ly e ven s pread o ver u p land p er ipher ies i n t he n or th , t he w est , a nd t he s ou thern P enn ines.

L ikew ise ,

h owever , t he f ew e xa mp les i n t he l ow lands o f t he s ou th a nd e ast p ar t ly r ef lec t t he f act t ha t t he e v idence d er ived f ro m s ur face f i e ld-work h as b een e xa m ined more e xhaus t ive ly t han t ha t f ro m a ir p hotography .

Many o f t he s i tes o f t he

Wo lds a nd Eas t M id lands , where l im ited e xcava t ion h as r evea led d itches a nd g u l l ies , a re i nc luded o n F ig . 9 4 , a s t he s hapes o f t he e nc losures s o f or med a re n o t d ef inab le.

1 34

Av ar iety o f c urv i l inear e nc losure t ypes may b e i den t if ied.

One o f t he

most c o m mon i s t he s i mp le r ough ly c ircu lar o r e gg-shaped h o mes tead e nc los ure.

Aw e l l-known Cu mbr ian e xa mp le i s Wo lsty Ha l l ' ova l ' ( f or t h is r efer-

e nce a nd o thers , s ee N otes o n F igures , 9 3 ). Th is e nc losure , 2 70 f eet l ong , was d ef ined b y at imber s tockade , s et i n d eep s tone-packed h o les e very 3 t o 4f eet , a nd a n e x terna l d i tch . T here was a s ing le s i mp le e n trance. T he i nt erna l h u t c ons is ted o f ar ing-groove 4 3 t o 4 5 f eet i n d iameter w ith t wo o pposi ng e n trances , a n i n terna l w a l l o r r a mp o f t ur f , ac ircu lar f l oor o f c obb les w ith in t he t ur f c irc le , a nd f our d eep p ost-ho les f or r oof s uppor ts mark ing a n 1 f oo t s quare i n t he c en tre. N o d irect e v idence o f d a te was p roduced , b ut Hadr ian ic p ot tery w as f ound i n t he u pper l evels o f t he d i tch , s uggest ing o ccupat ion i n t he p re-Ro man p er iod .

O ther e nc losures c o mparab le w ith Wo lsty Ha l l

' ova l ' h ave b een i den t if ied b y a ir p hotography a t L ow H esket , L ong Meg , a nd P enr ith . S im ilar s i mp le e nc losures a re k nown e lsewhere.

T o t he e as t , e xcava t ions

a t Corbr idge r evea led a p a l isade t rench e nc los ing a n a rea 6 0 f eet a cross i n wh ich was p ar t o f ap ost-ho le c irc le a bou t 2 2 f eet i n d ia meter.

Ap re-Ro man

d ate i s p resu med . I n n or th-eas t Yorksh ire , r esearch b y D . A . S pra t t h as l oca ted c urv i l inear e nc losures i n p er iphera l h i l l-s lope p os it ions o n t he moors. One i n p ar t icu lar , a t Harr ison 's P lan tat ion , i s a sma l l c ircu lar s i te d ef ined b y ap oss ib le p a l isade t rench 1 0 i nches d eep a nd 2 0 i nches w ide , w ith a c ent ra l h ut .

F ie ld-wa lk ing h as p roduced r ubb ing-stones a nd f l ints.

There a re

o ver a d ozen e nc losures o f a bout a n a cre e ach i n t he s ou th-wes tern P enn ine f oo th i l ls b etween H o lm f ir th a nd S k ipton , k nown f ro m e x tan t e ar thworks o r a ir p hotography.

T ogether w ith t he sma l l r ec t il inear a nd D -shaped e nc losures

i n t he s a me a rea t hey mark a s ign if ican t c oncen tra t ion .

I n t he East R id ing ,

af ew c ircu lar o r o va l e nc losures a re k nown f ro m p lough- marks o r c ropmarks , o f wh ich a g ood e xa mp le i s Ma iden 's Grave S lack , Re ighton ( P la te V I I ).

A ir p hotographs s how a n o va l e nc losure a bou t 2 00 f eet a cross w ith a n

e n trance t o t he s ou th-eas t , s i tua ted o n t he s u mm it o f as l igh t r idge.

The

s i te may b e ap as tora l e nc losure ( are t here t races o f af unne l-shaped e n trance? ). At h ird p hase o f o ccupa t ion a t Ca t ter ick , j us t d escr ibed , e nc losed b y ap a l isa de , i s o f s im ilar c haracter . T he o va l e nc losure w ith t imber s truc tures t hus s ee ms t o b e aw ide ly-d is tr ibu ted p re-Ro man t ype. The s tone-wa l led c ircu lar o r o va l e nc losed h o mestead , u sua l ly w ith i nt erna l s tone-bu il t h u ts , i s at ype w e l l-known i n t he Tyne-For th p rov ince i n t he Ro mano-Br it ish p er iod ( Jobey , 1 966a , f ig . 1, 1 ) . H ow f ar s tone-bu il t s et t le men ts must a lways b e p os tPax Ro mana i n Cu mbr ia i s u ncerta in , h owe ver , p ar t icu lar ly i n v iew o f t he p resence o f s tone h u ts i n t he e nc losure o f I ron Age t ype a t Cas t le H i l l , Du f ton .

I n t he a bsence o f e xcava t ion t he p os-

s ib i l ity o f mu lt i-phase o ccupa t ion o f t ha t s i te mus t b e c ons idered l ike ly . Many s tone-wa l led s et t le men ts a re l ike ly t o b e Ro mano-Br it ish b y n or the astern a na logy : K en t mere , B o lton Wood , a nd Ursw ick S tone Wa l ls , f or e xa mp le. A Ro mano-Br it ish d a te a lso s ee ms p oss ib le f or t he s tone-wa l led e nclosures w ith i n terna l s tone h u t-c irc les i n u pper T eesda le , t hough t hese h ave p roved o n e xcava t ion t o b e n otor ious ly l ack ing i n d a teab le a r tefac ts ( i n forma t ion b y -c our tesy o f K . F a ir less a nd D . Cogg ins ). Two e xcava ted e xa mp les o f s tone-wa l led e nc losures f rom f ur ther s ou th d o a ppear t o b e p re-Ro man :

a t H orse C lose Farm , S k ipton , a nd a t S cra t ta 1 35

Wood , n ear Worksop. Horse C lose F ar m h as b een e xcava ted b y F . A . Aberg ( on whose i n for ma t ion t h is a ccoun t i s b ased ). T h is r ough ly c ircu lar e nc losu re , a bou t 2 40 f eet a cross , i s s i tua ted o n ap rom inen t b u t n on-defens ive l ow r ounded s pur . T he e nc losure wa l l c ons is ts o f ad oub le r ow o f e dge-se t s tones u p t o 3f eet h igh t igh t ly p acked w ith r ubb le a nd b ou lders f orm ing a wa l l 4t o 6f eet w ide.

T he o n ly p oss ib le e n trance i s t o t he n or th , where t here i s s o me

e v idence o f as tone-bu il t g ate-house. Excava t ion o f S i te 1 o n t he s ou th s ide r evea led a p oss ib le a rc o f ah u t-c ircu m ference c o mpr is ing f our p os t-ho les , a nd i nd ica ted t wo o ccupa t ion l evels r unn ing u p t o a nd u nder t he e nc losure wa ll . S i te 4 i n t he n or thern p ar t o f t he i n ter ior r evea led t wo h ut s i tes. The f i rs t was c ircu lar , d ef ined b y ar ock-cu t g u l ly 1f oot w ide a nd 9 i nches d eep i n wh ich w ere p acked s tones t o r eta in c lose-set p osts 6i nches i n d ia meter , f orm ing a c on t inuous p a l ing wa l l 2 7 f eet i n d iameter . h o les p rov ided a r ing o f r oof-suppor ts. t he s i te o f a n o ven .

F ive i n terna l p ost-

A c en tra l s lab 2 f eet s quare marked

T here was e v idence f rom much mut ila ted s tructures

t ha t t h is c ircu lar h ut h ad r ep laced a n e ar l ier o va l o ne , 3 5 b y 2 7 f eet , o f t he s a me c ons truct ion . T he s econd h u t s i te was s ub-rec tangu lar , 8b y 1 3 f eet , d ef ined b y ad eeper a nd w ider r ock-cu t g u l ly f or c lose-set p os ts 9 i nches i n d iameter .

T he r oof may h ave b een c o mp le ted i n as ing le s pan , b ut o ne i n-

t erna l p os t-ho le 1 5 i nches d eep marked a p oss ib le s uppor t. The d oorway was p aved , a nd p ar t o f t h is p av ing was s een t o c on t inue b enea th t he e nclosure wa l l.

I t s ee ms , t herefore, t ha t H orse C lose F ar m was a t l east a t wo-phase

s i te, w ith t he o va l a nd s ub-rectangu lar h u ts p reda t ing t he c ircu lar h ut a nd t he e nc losure wa l l. T he ma ter ia l r e ma ins f ro m t he s i te , i nc lud ing a b ronze t ogg le ( wh ich l ay o n t he r ock o u tcrop w ith in t he c ircu lar h ut ), a sma ll b lue g lass b ead , s tone r ubbers , p ounders a nd h ones , f l in t a nd c her t c h ips , a nd af ew sma l l wa l l-sherds o f h ard , s andy , u neven p ot tery , s ugges t ad a te i n t he c los ing c en tur ies o f t he I ron Age. S crat ta Wood h as b een e xcava ted b y t he Worksop Archaeo log ica l Research S oc iety d irected b y G . F . Wh ite ( on whose i n format ion t h is a ccoun t i s b ased ). T he ma ter ia l r e ma ins f ro m S cra t ta h ave a lready b een c ons idered ( Par t I , Chap ter 6 , i ;

F ig . 1 7, 4 -18 ). T he s i te ( F ig . 7 3 ), wh ich was b ad ly d a maged

b efore e xcava t ion b y w ood land b u l ldoz ing , c ons is ted o f a n o va l e nc losure d el im ited b y ar ubb le b ank o f l imestone r evet ted f ron t a nd b ack b y l arge s tandi ng s labs s et i n f ounda t ion t renches. T he o r ig ina l e n trance, wh ich l ay t o t he e as t , w as marked b y at imber g a teway . F ro m i tt o t he n or th b eyond t he wa l l r an a d itch u p t o 2 .5 f eet d eep , c hocked w ith s tones e xcept n ear t he e nt rance where a g uard-wa l l was b u il t a round i t .

Th is d i tch wou ld s ee m t o b e

f or d ra inage , a nd p erhaps a lso f or wa ter s upp ly . I n ter ior a nd e x ter ior s truc tures h ave b een b ad ly d a maged , a nd u n for tuna te ly t he p lan ( Fig . 7 3 ) i s n ot c o mp lete. d iv is ions.

A s er ies o f l imes tone wa l ls i n t he i n ter ior d ef ined h u ts a nd

Ap oss ib le p os t-ho le s tructure w as f ound wh ich may p re-da te

t he s tone e nc losure wa l l.

Rock-cu t s torage p i ts w ere r evea led , ma in ly i n

n or th-wes tern p ar ts o f t he e nc losure.

S o me w ere b e l l-shaped , u p t o 4 .5

f eet d eep a nd 4 f eet a cross , l ined w ith c oursed s tone , a nd c apped w ith c lay , t he r e ma in ing e dges o f wh ich were c lear ly v is ib le.

O thers were l arger , u p

t o 1 0 f eet a cross a nd 6 f eet d eep. A l l w ere r ubb ish-f i l led . There was e v id ence f or r e-cut t ing , n ew p its e ncroach ing o n t he r ubb ish f i l l ings o f o ld o nes. F inds i nc luded i ron s lag , wa t t le a nd d aub , a nd b eeh ive q uerns. 1 36

The p o t tery

i nd icates a d a te f ro m t he m id-f irs t c en tury B .C. o nwards. S econd a nd t h ird c en tury A .D. ma ter ia l s uggests l a ter s qua t t ing : f l anged d ish f ragmen ts w ere f ound i n t he r ubb le c o l lapse o f t he p er i meter wa l l , a nd a l l o ther Ro man mat er ia l was e i ther u ns tra t if ied o r f ro m b eyond t he e nc losed a rea. The e v idence f ro m t hese s i tes i s impor tan t , a s i ti nd icates t ha t s tonewa l led e nc losures i n t he P enn ine f ooth i l ls h ad a p re-Ro man o r ig in. S o me c o mparab le s i tes k nown f ro m f i e ld-work a re l ike ly t o b e o f s im ilar d ate. A t Wh itwe l l , n ear S crat ta , a n o va l e nc losure w ith t he r e ma ins o f s ix h u t c irc les h as b een r epor ted .

The o va l e nc losure a t H orsborough , De mon 's Da le , 2 40

f eet a cross , d ef ined b y ar ubb le wa l l b e tween e dge-set s tones i n ad oub le r ow 3 .5 f eet a par t , a nd w ith t he s i te o f ap robab le h u t i n o ne c orner , i s n ot u n l ike H orse C lose Far m i n o u t l ine a nd s tructure , t hough n ot i n s i tua t ion . T he Auc issatype b rooch k nown t o S hef f ie ld Museu m ( No tes o n F igures , 8 2 ) was f ound n earby .

T he p resence o f s tone-wa l led e nc losures i n t he Ro mano-

Br it ish p er iod i n t hese a reas s hou ld n o tb e u ndere mphas ised , h owever. I n p ar t icu lar , t he r ound s tone-wa l led e nc losure 2 00 f eet a cross a t Cros ley Wood , B ing ley ( SE 19386 ), d a ted b y p o t tery t o a round A .D . 3 00 , s hou ld b e n o ted ( YAJ , XL I I, 1 9 ). Curv i l inear e nc losures w ith mu lt ip le d i tches a re g enera l ly t hough t o f a s d efens ive s i tes. T hose o n h i l l-tops r ecorded b y a ir p hotography a re i nc luded i n t he l i st o f u nexcava ted h i l l-for ts ( Notes o n F igures , 9 0 ).

S evera l i n l ow-

l y ing o r f l a t l and s i tua t ions d eserve s pec ia l men t ion , h owever .

P erhaps t he

b es t-def ined i s a t App leby Magna , L e ices tersh ire ( P la te V I I I ).

An o va l a rea

i s e nc losed b y t hree c lose-set c oncen tr ic d i tches w ith a p oss ib le e n trance a nd ac ircu lar f eature t o t he e as t.

Tr ia l t renches ( records i n L e ices ter Museu m )

c onf irmed t he p resence o f d i tches , wa l l-scraps o f p o ttery f ro m wh ich may b e o f I ron Age d a te.

A ir p ho tographs s how a f ragmen t o f as im i lar t r ip le-

d i tched e nc losure a t T uf t H i l l F arm , K i lha m , n ear t he I ron Age s i te r evea led b y t he Gran tha ms a t Manor F arm.

I t may b e t ha t t he t r ip le-d itched e nc losure

i s as pec if ica l ly I ron Age s e t t le men t f orm , a l though t he s a me t ype i n t he York a nd T adcas ter a reas h as b een a t tr ibu ted t o t he Med ieva l p er iod ( H . G . Ram m i n forma t ion ). Men t ion s hou ld a lso b e made o f at ype o f sma l l e nc losure ( norma l ly l ess t han 1 .5 a cres ) w ith l ong e n trance-way wh ich i n t he ma jor ity o f c ases i s f unne l-shaped :

t he b an jo e nc losure ( Perry , 1 966 ).

T he d is tr ibu t ion s ee ms

t o b e c on f ined ma in ly t o Ha mpsh ire , Dorse t , a nd W i l tsh ire , where t he d ate o n a va i lab le e v idence s ee ms t o c over t he m idd le a nd l a ter I ron Age.

Two

e xamp les a re k nown f ro m t he n or th o f Eng land . One a t R isehow , n ear Maryp or t , Cu mber land ( Blake , 1 959 , 1-2 , f ig . 2 ) , w as d ated b y f i nds f ro m a n i n ter ior b u i ld ing t o t he l ater f our th c en tury A .D .

T he c orr idor e x tend ing

f rom t he e nc losure l ed t o ad r ink ing-p lace s t i l l u sed b y c a t t le. T he o ther , a t Ma iden C ast le i n Swa leda le ( cen tred S E 0 22981), i s s i tua ted o n ah il l-s ide t errace. An a rea 3 20 b y 2 40 f eet i s d ef ined b y mass ive e ar thworks , i nc lud ing a d i tch u p t o 9f eet d eep a nd a n i n terna l r a mpar t o f r ubb le w ith c oursed d ry-stone f ac ing .

T he s hape i s a ngu lar ly o va l , w ith t wo r ounded c orners a t

t he b roader w ei tern e nd , a nd a n e n trance a t t he e as tern , n arrower , e nd d ef ined b y we l l-constructed w a l l t erm ina t ions 1 5 f eet a par t .

1 37

Ex tend ing f ro m

t he e n trance i s a wa l led c orr idor 3 90 f eet l ong a nd 1 7 f eet w ide. d at ing e v idence f or Ma iden Cas t le ; n earby Reeth a nd Fre m ing ton d ykes. c ludes a m il itary f unct ion .

T here i s n o

i t may b e p ost-Ro man a nd r e la ted t o t he H owever , i t s h i l l-s lope s i tua t ion p re-

Both t hese n or thern b an jo e nc losures p robab ly

s erved a s c a t t le e nc losures a nd d e fended h o mesteads. There a re o ther l arger e nc losures i n o ur a rea f or wh ich a p astora l f unct i on may b e a ssu med. Perhaps t he b es t e xamp le i s t ha t k nown f ro m a ir p hotographs i n Boyn ton p ar ish , Eas t R id ing ( P la te I X ). About h a lf t he c irc um ference o f a n o va l e nc losure 2 60 metres a cross i s s een d ef ined b y t he s o il- marks o f an arrow d i tch .

Added t o t he s ou th e ast i s al arger s ub-rec-

t angu lar e nc losure , 3 00 b y 2 00 me tres. The e n trance t o t he l arge e nc losure i s a t t he p o in t o fj unct ion w ith t he sma l ler , a nd t he c urve i n t he d i tches t o t h is e n trance makes a f unne l-shape s u itab le f or d r iv ing c a t t le.

( The wr iters

a re i ndebted t o H . G . Ra m m f or a ccess t o RCH M r ecords o n t h is s i te.) T he w ider d i tch o f as quare-d itched b arrow p ar t ly o ver l ies t he c ircu it o f t he s ubr ec tangu lar e nc losure , c onven ien t ly p rov id ing r e la t ive d a t ing e v idence. P erh aps a n u mber o f o ther l arge e nc losures , ma in ly r ectangu lar , o n t he Wo ids a nd i n t he East M id lands ( see N o tes o n F igures , 9 6 ), may b e o f s im ilar f unct i on . T he e v idence o f a ssoc iated l i near e ar thworks w i l l b e e xam ined l a ter i n r e la t ion t o p astora l e cono my ( Par t I I, Chap ter 1 0 , i ). i i.

Ex tens ive a nd Unenc losed S et t le men t

F ig . 9 4 s hows t he d is tr ibu t ion o f e x tens ive , u nenc losed , a nd u n iden t if iab le s et t lemen ts. Ex tens ive s et t le men t may b e d e f ined a s t ha t w ithou t d ist inc t l im its wh ich e x tends o ver b road a reas i n as er ies o f e n large men ts f ro m n odes. I nc luded o n t he map a re t hose s i tes , ma in ly i n t he s ou th a nd e as t , where mat er ia l r e ma ins h ave b een r ecovered f ro m d i tches a nd g u l l ies t he c o mp lete p lan o f wh ich h as n ot b een o bta ined. A lso i nc luded a re e x tens ive s et t le men t s i tes k nown f ro m s ur face f i e ld-work , ma in ly i n t he n or th a nd w es t , f or wh ich n o d at ing e v idence i s a va ilab le.

T hus , o n t he o ne h and s i tes a re i nc luded

wh ich , i f more was k nown a bou t t he m , w ou ld b e e n tered i n t he l i s ts o f r ec t il inear o r c urv il inear e nc losures , a nd o n t he o ther h and a l arge n u mber o f s i tes o f p robab ly Ro mano-Br it ish d a te a re a lso marked . I n n o a rea i s t he d is tor t ion o f t he d is tr ibu t ion r esu l t ing f ro m t he l at ter p robab il ity more e v iden t t han i n t he l imes tone u p lands o f west Yorksh ire. C er ta in ly v ery l i t t le wou ld b e k nown o f t he a rchaeo logy o f t he P enn ine l imes tone w ithou t t he l ong t erm e f for ts o f s urvey ing a nd e xcava t ion u nder taken b y Dr . Ar thur Ra is tr ick .

V irtua l ly a l l p ub l ished w ork i s b y h im .

Cop ies o f

h is s urveyed p lans h ave b een d epos ited w ith t he Archaeo logy D iv is ion o f t he Ordnance S urvey . I ti s u n for tuna te , t herefore , t ha t a t f irs t s igh t t he work o f Ra is tr ick i s o f ten m is lead ing , i n g enera l b ecause o f t he u se o f t he t erm I ron Age t o c over a who le m il lenn iu m f ro m 5 00 B .C., a nd i n d eta i l b ecause h is s i te p lans o f ten s how i nd iv idua l s tructures o u t o f c on tex t w ith t he ir n e ighb ours , a nd b ecause l i t t le a t te mp t i s made t o i nd ica te t he i rregu lar e xpans ion o f s et t le men t u n its o ver t ime wh ich e v iden t ly o ccurred . Typ ica l e ar ly s et t le men t o n t he P enn ine l imes tone i s o f a n i rregu lar a nd e x tens ive n ature.

Many s epara te a nd i so la ted h u ts a nd f i elds r e ma in a s

1 38

n ibb le f ounda t ions s ca t tered b etween n atura l o u tcrop. I n s o me a reas im medi ate ly n or th o f t he M id-Craven F au l t t he t races a re a l mos t c on t inuous. Examp les o f l ayout a re i nc luded i n Ra is tr ick 's v ar ious p ub l ica t ions. e v idence o f d ate, t here i s n o u nequ ivoca l p re-Ro man ma ter ia l.

As f or

Rather , a

r epresen ta t ive s er ies o f p o t tery t ypes s pann ing t he who le Ro mano-Br it ish p er iod h as b een r ecovered f ro m o pen s i tes a nd c aves.

As f or t he o pen s i tes ,

s econd c en tury e v idence h as c o me f ro m s i tes a t Ma lham a nd I ng le ton ( SD 7 41760 ;

S D 8 94652 ;

S D 9 01643 ), s econd a nd t h ird c en tury f ro m Trouga te ,

S et t le , H e lw ith Br idge , Con is tone , a nd K et t lewe l l ( SD 8 98647 ; SD 8 16694 ;

S D 9 91691;

i ng ton ( SD 8 81672 ;

S D 8 45641;

S D 9 77708 ), t h ird c en tury f ro m Ma lha m a nd G rass-

S D 9 96663 ), a nd f our th c entury f ro m A t term ire ( SD

8 46641). I th as n o t b een f ound p oss ib le t o u nder take e x tens ive f i eld e xam ina t ions o f s i tes i n Yorksh ire wes t o f S k ipton t o r ecover e v idence o f s uccess ive p hases o f s et t le men t d eve lop men t. t ure b y t he RCH M.

S uch a p rogram me i s e nv isaged f or t he n ear f u-

However , ah as ty i nspect ion h as s hown t ha t , i ft he we l l-

k nown s et t le men t a t Grass ing ton a nd o thers a t Ket t lewe l l a nd L angc l if fe a re t yp ica l , s o me h u ts a nd e nc losures p re-da t ing k nown Ro mano-Br it ish f eatures c an b e i so la ted .

Meanwh i le , t he o n ly e v idence f or p re-Ro man I ron Age o c-

c upa t ion wh ich c an b e o f fered c o mes f ro m a n e x tens ive s et t le men t w ith h u tc irc les a nd e nclosures a t G auber L i mek iln P asture , I ng leton ( SD 7 61788 ), where e xcava t ion r evea led n o Ro mano-Br it ish ma ter ia l ( YAJ Arch . Reg ., 1 966 , 5 58, f ig. 1 ;

CBA Group 4 Annua l Newsheet , 1 965 ).

O f t he s ix h u t-

c irc les , t he m idd le h u t o f ag roup o f t hree was f ound t o b e 2 0 f eet i n d ia meter w ith i t s c ircu lar l imestone f l oor l evel led o u t o f n atura l r ock . The wa l l f oundat ions w ere a l ow r ubb le l imes tone b ank u p t o 9i nches h igh . Another h ut , t he l arges t i n t he g roup , was 2 7 f eet i n d ia meter , w ith a n ibb le wa l l f oundat ion 4f eet t h ick f aced b o th s ides w ith s ands tone b ou lders a nd wedged l imestone. There was n o s ign o f ad oorway o r p ost-ho les i n e i ther h u t , b u t d eep g rykes i n t he l imes tone f l oors c ou ld h ave a cco m moda ted p os ts. T he f l oor l evels h ad b een c h ipped d own t o 1 2 t o 1 5 i nches b e low t hose o f t he wa l l f ounda t ions. F inds i ncluded f l in t f l akes , h a lf a s ands tone r ubber , a nd a h orse b one, s o t here was n o d irect d a t ing e v idence.

I ti s s ugges ted t ha t t he s i te i s l ike ly

t o b e p re-Ro man , a nd t ha t t he h u ts a re c o mparab le w ith t hose v is ib le a s s tone f ounda t ions i n t he I ng leborough f or t .

I t may b e t ha t ap ropor t ion o f t he wes t

Yorksh ire s ett le men ts mapped a re o f I ron Age d a te. Co mparab le s et t le men t f orms a re k nown i n Cu mbr ia , a s a t S craw Moss , Con is ton ( Cowper , 1 893 , f i g . 5 ) , i n t he Crosby Ravenswor th a rea ( Co l l ingwood , R . G . , 1 933b ), a t Askha m ( Spence , 1 935 ), a nd e lsewhere. J obey ( 1966b , 1 2 ) h as we l l-su m mar ized t he s i tua t ion b y s ta t ing t ha t whereas a c ase h as b een a dvanced f or t he s e t t le men t a t Ewe C lose t o p re-da te t he Ro man r oad ( Co l l ingwood , R . G ., 1 933 1 3 ), t he ma ter ia l r e ma ins f ro m t h is a nd s im ilar s i tes r ange f ro m t he s econd t o t he f our th c en tur ies A .D.

E lsewhere t here

a re s im ilar d o mes t ic s et t le men ts w ith c ircu lar a nd r ec tangu lar b u ild ings w ith sma l l e nc losures :

f or e xamp le , n ear H igh Force , T eesda le ( OS i n forma t ion :

NY 8 65284 a nd NY 8 80290 ), n ear Rudston , East R id ing ( crop- mark s i te , TA 0 97680 ; f our th ic en tury A .D . p ot tery ; RCH M i n forma t ion ) , n ear Wor t ley , n or th o f S hef f ield ( SK 2 99987 a rea ; s econd c ent ury A .D. p o t tery ; OS i n format ion ),

a nd a t Chee T or , B lackwe l l , o n t he Derbysh ire l imestone ( SK 1 26733; 1 39

o ne e xamp le o f many d iscovered i n f i e ld-work b y L . H . Bu tcher a nd r epor ted i n i ssues o f EMAB ).

We a re s ee ing , t here fore , at ype o f e x tens ive d o mes t ic

s et t le men t wh ich was w idespread p ar t icu lar ly i n P enn ine a nd n or th-wes tern Eng land i n t he Ro mano-Br it ish p er iod , a nd w h ich may h ave b een p resen t a lso i n t he l a te I ron Age. A s im i lar f orm o f u ndefended s et t le men t i n n or th-east Yorksh ire i s r ep resen ted b y t he h u t-c lus ter e xcava ted b y R . S . C lose a t Percy R igg , K ild a le ( F ig . 7 2 ;

C lose , 1 971 ).

T he f ounda t ions a nd d ra inage d i tches o f f ive

c ircu lar h u ts h ave b een u ncovered , a nd a re s t i l l o pen t o p ub l ic v iew . The sma l l s et t le men t l i es i n o ne c orner o f al arge r ect i l inear e nc losure d ef ined b y as l igh t d i tch , p robab ly a f ar m b oundary ( v is ible o n a ir p ho tographs ; D . A . S pra t t i n forma tion ). S evera l p hases a re r epresen ted . Hu ts D a nd E , t he sma l les t , wh ich h ave h ear ths a nd s ome p av ing s labs , w ere s ucceeded b y Hu t B , t he d ra inage g ul ly o f wh ich c uts i n to t he a rea o f E a nd d ra ins a cross D .

H u ts A a nd C a re p robably l a ter s t il l.

They a re d ef ined b y p en-

a nnu lar wa l l f ounda t ions a nd p aved f l oors. T he h ear th o f A was u nused , a nd t he d i tches o f Cw ere n ot f in ished , s o as hor t p er iod o f o ccupa t ion i s l ike ly . N o p os t-ho les w ere f ound , b u t t he p aved f l oors h ave n ot b een r a ised t o s eek t he m. I th as b een s uggested t ha t t imber s tructures w ere e rected o n t he s tone f ounda t ions a nd h eld u pr igh tb y b rac ing ( .c it., 6 ) . t he s i te ( F ig . 4 6 , 5 -7 ) i nd ica tes a l a te I ron Age d a te.

The p o t tery f ro m

O ther f inds i ncluded

9s add le q uerns , ab roken b eeh ive q uern l ower-stone , aj et f ragmen t , a nd f l in ts. Research b y D . A . S pra t t h as i nd ica ted t ha t P ercy R igg i s n o t u n ique i n t he p er iphera l h i l ls o f n or th-east Yorksh ire. Par t icu lar ly n o tab le e xamp les o f t he s i tes o fh u ts w ith s urround ing d i tches h ave b een l oca ted n ear Gu isborough ( NZ 5 97171; 5 57163 ;

D . A . S pra t t s i te 2 6 ) a nd o n Upsa l l Bank ( NZ

D . A . S pra t t s i te 8 ) .

An ew t ype o f e x tens ive s et t le men t h as r ecen t ly b een i dent if ied i n t he East R id ing f ro m t he s tudy o f a ir p hotographs ( H. G . Ra m m a nd RCH M i n forma t ion ). I th as b een t ermed t he ' l inear s et t le men t '. A g ood e xa mp le i s k nown a t Bur ton F le m ing ( TA 1 0857185-TA 1 0727097 ). A s er ies o f r ect il inear e nc losures i s s een s trung o ut o n e i ther s ide o f ad oub le-d itched t rackway 3 0 metres w ide. The e nc losures v ary i n l eng th f ro m 8 0 t o 1 00 metres , a nd a re c lear ly l a ter t han b arrows o f L a V ene t ype.

A t S peeton , as er ies

o f r ec tangu lar e nc losures i s b u il t u p a ga ins t al inear d yke. One o f t he e nc losures c on ta ins r ound h u ts. A l i near s e t t le men t a t Boy thorpe ( cen tred TA 0 00722 ) s ee ms t o b e l a te I ron Age o r v ery e ar ly Ro mano-Br it ish. A d oub le-d itched c urv ing t rackway i s e nc losed a t e ither s ide b y af ur ther d itch f orm ing t wo l i near s tr ips v ary ing b etween 3 0 a nd 1 40 f ee t w ide. These s tr ips a re s ubd iv ided i n to e nc losures b y l a tera l d i tches a nd p oss ib ly a lso b anks. Three sma l l r ing-d itches i nd ica te h u ts. One e nd o f t he t rackway a s v is ib le o n a ir p hotographs i s b locked b y as quare-d itched L a T bne b arrow . The o ther e nd i s n o t v is ib le, b u t ak nown Romano-Br it ish s et t le men t l i es i n i t s p a th . I ti s s ugges ted t ha t t he l inear s e t t le men t i s n ot t herefore l ike ly t o h ave b een c on te mporary w ith e i ther t he b arrow o r t he s et t le men t , a nd t ha t i ti s t hus i n ter med ia te b etween t he m i n d ate.

T he e xcava t ion o f al inear

s et t le men t i s o f h igh p r ior ity f or f u ture r esearch .

S o many s ee m t o o ver l ie

l inear e ar thworks ( as a t B lea land 's Nook , n ear S ledmere ;

H . G . Ra m m i n-

f orma t ion ) t ha t f ina l p roof o f t he ir d a te wou ld b e o f g rea t v a lue.

I ron Age s et t le men t s i tes i n s ou thern a nd e as tern p ar ts o f o ur a rea when e xcava ted o r o therw ise d is turbed a lways p roduce e v idence o f d i tches a nd g u ll i es. W ithou t t he a id o f i n forma t ive a ir p ho tographs i ti s s e ldo m p oss ib le t o i n terpre t t hese f eatures a s p ar t o f a n o vera l l s et t le men t p a t tern . Ag ood e xamp le o f t he p rob le m i s a f forded b y e xcava t ions a t Dragonby ( May , 1 970 ). C u t t ings i n t wo a reas i nd ica ted t ha t ac o mp l ica ted s er ies o f o ver lapp ing d i tches may h ave b een d ug f or d ra inage p urposes , s ince t he c hanne ls b ecame d eeper a nd w ider t owards t he e as t . T he g enera l impress ion g a ined w as o f r ec t il inear e nc losures , b u t many d e ta i ls w ere o bscured b y r ecu t t ing . S im i lar ly , w ork a t Ancaster r evea led d i tches a nd g u ll ies , b u t i t was n o t p oss ib le t o b e c er ta in t ha t t he l arges t d i tch , 4 .5 f ee t d eep a nd 5 f ee t w ide , t raceab le f or 1 40 f ee t , f ormed ab oundary t o t he s e t t le men t ( Bar ley , e t a l ., 1 966 ). Excava t ions a t S a l tshouse S choo l , n ear H u l l ( J . Bar t let t i n forma t ion ), w ere more s uccessfu l i n d ef in ing o vera l l a l ignmen ts. A l arge a rea h ad b een s tr ipped o f t opso il a nd l eve l led f or a p lay ing f i e ld . T he t runca ted p ro f i les o f d i tches , g u l l ies , a nd h u t-c irc le d ra inage t renches w ere r evea led ( F ig . 6 8 ) a nd c ou ld b e p lanned . P o t tery f ro m t hese f ea tures ( F ig . 4 1 ) i nd ica tes a f i rs t c en tury A .D . d a te. H owever , a l though t wo sma l l d i tched e nc losures w ere d ef ined , an u mber o f l i near d i tches c ou ld n o t b e f o l lowed b eyond t he s tr ipped a rea . T he o vera l l f orm o f t he s e t t le men t , a nd t he s equence o f t he v ar ious p hases w h ich mus t b e r ep resen ted , r ema in u nknown . The i mpor tan t g roups o f ma ter ia l r e ma ins f ro m F ax f lee t " A" , H asho l me H a l l , S ou th Cave , Dr if f ie ld A erodro me , a nd L oughb orough w ere a l l r ecovered f ro m d i tches. F ur ther n or th , e xcava t ions a t C a tco te ( Long , 1 964 ) r evea led n u merous d i tches , s ome s tra igh t , s o me c urv il i near , a nd many mu l t ip le. P erhaps t he r ecogn it ion o f as epara te c a tegory o f " co mp lex d i tched s e t t le men ts" m igh t b e j us t i f ied . The d is tr ibu t ion maps o f d o mes t ic e nc losures a nd s e t t le men ts , F igs. 9 29 4 , when t aken t oge ther may b e e xpec ted t o g ive a r epresen ta t ion o f p opu la t ion d ens ity i n t he I ron Age p er iod , s ub jec t t o t wo ma jor q ua l if ica t ions : f i rs t t ha t t he l imes tone P enn ine a reas a nd t he n or th-wes t may b e o ver-represen ted b ec ause o f t he i nc lus ion o f s i tes o f Romano-Br it ish d a te , a nd s econd t ha t t he s ou thern a nd e as tern l ow land a reas may b e u nder-represen ted b ecause o f a n i nco mp le te c o mp i la t ion f rom a ir p ho tograph e v idence. Even s o , t he w e igh t o f t he d is tr ibu t ion i n p ar ts o ft he n or th a nd w es t s hows a v ery d i f feren t p a t tern f ro m t he maps o fI ron Age ma ter ia l r e ma ins , F igs. 7 6-83, wh ich c arry t he g rea tes t d ens it ies i n t he s ou th a nd e as t . T h is d icho to my o f emphas is r esu l ts i n p ar t f ro m t wo a dd it iona l f actors : f i rs t t he r e la t ive l ack o f s ur face f i e ldw ork e v idence f ro m t he s ou th a nd e as t a s ar esu l t o f s ubsequen t l and u se , a nd s econd a n i ncreas ing ma ter ia l p over ty t owards t he n or th a nd w es t . Wha t r e la t ive w e igh ts s hou ld o ne a l loca te t o t he ma ter ia l r e ma ins a nd t o t he f i eld-work e v idence i n a n a t te mp t t o d e term ine p opu la t ion d ens it ies? I f o ne a ccep ts H ogg 's map o f p opu la t ion d ens ity i n A .D . 100 ( Hogg , 1 971, f ig . 2 7 ) a s r epresen t ing r e la t ive d ens i t ies i n t he I ron Age p er iod , t he c onc lus ion mus tb e t ha t t he ma ter ia l r ema ins s hou ld b e a ccorded t he g rea ter w e igh t . T he map s hows t ha t t he a verage p opu la t ion d ens ity i n t he T ren t v a l ley a nd L inco lnsh ire w ou ld b e a t l eas t s ix t imes t ha t o f L ancash ire , t he n or th-wes t , t he c en tra l a nd n or thern P enn ines , a nd n or th-eas t Eng land , a nd t wo o r t hree t imes t ha t o f t he D erbysh ire P eak a nd t he Eas t R id ing .

1 41

I s t here a n e cono m ic e xp lana t ion o fb o th t he s uggested d ens ity f igures a nd t he i ncreas ing ma ter ia l p over ty t owards t he n or th a nd wes t? The f igures wh ich H ogg a ccep ts a re much more l ike ly t ob e c o mparab le w ith t he s i tua t ion i n t he l a ter f irst m il lenn iu m B .C. t han w ith t ha t i n t he e arl ier .

F igs . 7 4-75

a nd 8 5-88 s how much more e ven d ens it ies , p robab ly a s ar esu lt o f a n i nab ili ty t o wres t e conom ic a dvan tage f ro m h eav ier s o ils.

L a ter , F igs. 7 8-80 i n-

d ica te g row ing p opu la t ions i n t he Eas t R id ing a nd t he East M id lands , a nd l a ter s t i l l F igs. 8 2-83 a ga in s how t he r e la t ive wea lth o f t he s ou th a nd e as t a nd a t h in s ca t ter b eyond .

The o bv ious a nswer i s t ha t c l i ma t ic a nd t opograph-

i ca l f actors l im it t he c apac ity o f a reas t o s uppor t p opu la t ions.

Fur ther c on-

c lus ions mus t awa it a d eta i led d iscuss ion o f t he e v idence f or f ood-produc ing e cono my , wh ich i s s o c er ta in ly o f r e levance. Meanwh ile , we t urn t o t he e v idence o f dwe l l ing s tructures.

1 42

CHAPTER 9

DWELL ING STRUC TURES I n t he l ast c hap ter , an umber o f dwe l l ing s tructures h as a lready b een c ons idered i n d e ta i l , i nc lud ing sma l l c ircu lar h u ts o f Bronze Age t ype a nd t he r ec tangu lar h ouse a t Barms ton w ith r eference t o t he s e t t le men t t ypes wh ich t hey r epresen t , t he h u ts a t Horse C lose F arm i n r e la t ion t o t he s tonewa l led e nc losure o n t hat s i te , a nd t he h u ts a t G auber L i mek i ln P asture a s p oss ib le p recursors o f a Romano-Br it ish t ype o f s e tt le men t . t ypes t he mse lves n ow d eserve c loser e xam ina t ion .

T he h ouse

Ev idence f or t hese

c ons ists p r inc ipa l ly o f e xcava t ion p lans o f p os t-ho les , g u l l ies , p la t forms , p avemen ts a nd s tone f ounda t ions. C ircu lar s tructures p redo m ina te , o ccurr ing a bou t f i ve t imes more f requen t ly t han r ec tangu lar o nes.

Examp les o f

b o th c a tegor ies a re k nown t hroughou t t he f i rst m il lenn iu m B .C. ,a s i n s outhern Eng land ( Hard ing , 1 973 ), b u t i ti s c onven ien t t o d iscuss t he m s epara te ly . i .

C ircu lar Types

We h ave a lready r e marked t he s i mp le p os t-ho le c irc le w ith c en tra l p osth o le a nd o f f-cen tre h ear th mark ing t he s i te o f ah u t 2 1 f eet i n d iame ter , e ar l ier t han e i ther o f t he e nc losed s tructura l p hases , a t West Brandon , Co. Durha m.

A l though i t may r epresen t a n i so la ted u nenc losed s e t t le men t , t here

i s t he p oss ib il ity t ha t i t was o ne o f an u mber o r t ha t i t was e nc losed i n s o me way.

Ar e markab ly s im ilar s tructure , a ga in a s i mp le r ing o f p os t-ho les

2 3 f eet i n d ia meter w ith a c en tra l s uppor t , marks t he f i rs t c en tra l h ouse a t West P lean , S t ir l ingsh ire ( S teer , 1 956 , f ig . 3 ) , wh ich i s l ike ly t o h ave b een c on te mporary w ith a s urround ing p a l isaded e nc losure 9 5 f eet i n d iameter . A t Corbr idge , s ix p os t-ho les f orm ing a n a rc o f ah u t 2 2 f ee t i n d iameter were l ocated s o me y ears a go b enea th t he Roman o ccupa t ion ( R ichmond a nd G il la m , 1 955 , f ig . 1 ) . S ince i t s o r ig ina l f l oor s ur face h ad b een s haved o f f w e c anno t b e c er ta in t ha t t he h ut h ad n o c en tra l p ost-ho le. I tw as s i tua ted w ith in a p a l isaded e nc losure , r ough ly c ircu lar , a nd u p t o 6 0 f ee t a cross. F ur ther s ou th , a t Ca t ter ick t he f irs t p hase o f o ccupa t ion , t o b e f o l lowed b y p a l isaded e nc losures , was marked b y ah u t a bou t 2 0 f ee t i n d ia meter c ons is t ing o f a s ing le r ing o f p os t-ho les w ithou t e v idence o f c en tra l s uppor t. T hese f our h uts a re o f v ery s im i lar s ize.

Two a re w ith in sma l l p a l isaded e nc losures a nd t wo

p re-da te l arger p a l isaded e nc losures. T he a bsence o f c en tra l h o l lows , o uter g rooves , a nd e n trance s truc tures makes d irec t c o mpar ison w ith s ou thern Br it i sh h u ts a t S hearp lace H il l a nd I t ford H il l i mposs ib le , b u t ac ase may b e made o u t f or a L a te Bronze Age , o r a t l eas t a n e ar l ies t I ron Age , d a te f or t he f our

1 43

n or thern e xa mp les.

N ew t rad it ions may b e r epresen ted b y l arger mu l t i-

r ing s tructures o f t he I ron Age.

However , s i mp l ic ity a nd sma l l s ize n eed

n ot b e d ec is ive c hrono log ica l o r c u l tura l c haracter is t ics.

There i s n o c lear

e v idence o f a bso lu te c hrono logy f ro m a ny o f t he n orthern s i tes a t p resen t. The s ing le-r ing p os t-ho le s tructure may w e l l h ave c on t inued i n u se d ur ing t he I ron Age whenever a sma l l h u t was r equ ired , e ven i fi td id n o t c ons t itu te t he ma in t ype o f dwe l l ing s tructure. Ap ar t icu lar t ype o f mu l t i-r ing c onstruc t ion h as c er ta in ly b een f ound i n L a te Bronze Age c on tex ts i n t he n or th c o mpr is ing a n o uter wa l l o f n u merous sma l l s take-ho les , a nd i nner p ost-ho les f or r oof s uppor t. amp les a re Hu ts 2 a nd 3 a t Ma m T or , 1 01 f ig .

) .

Two g ood e x-

r ecen t ly p ub l ished b y Coo mbs ( 1971,

These w ere o n l eve l led p la t forms c u t i n to t he h i l l-s ide.

No

c o mp le te s tructure h as b een e xcava ted , b u t t he o u ter w a l l o f e ach h u t s ee ms t o h ave c ons is ted o f sma l l s take-ho les l ess t han 2 f ee t a par t , i n al ine s et r igh t u p t o t he q uarry-edge , a nd a p enannu lar g u l ly o n a l mos t t he s a me l i ne. These s take-ho les may f orm a d oub le r ow , may b e w ith in o r o u ts ide t he g u l ly i n p laces , o r t he v ar ious f ea tures may r epresen t t wo o r t hree s tructura l p hases.

W ith in t he o u ter wa l l t here was e v idence o f a t l eas t o ne r ing o f p ost-

h o les f or r oo f s uppor t .

T he h uts w ere a bou t 3 0 f eet i n d ia meter .

A l l t he

s tructura l f ea tures p resen t a t Ma m T or a re r epresen ted a t Green Knowe , Peeb lessh ire ( Feache m , 1 961, f ig . 3 ).

There , o n al eve l led h i l l-s ide p la t-

f or m , ah u t a bou t 3 0 f eet i n d ia meter was marked b y ad oub le r ow o f c loses et s take-ho les 2 .5 f ee t a par t , w ith a n i nner r ing o f w e igh t-suppor t ing p os th o les , o ther sma l ler i n terna l p ost-ho les , p oss ib ly r a f ter s uppor ts , a nd a n e n trance w ay .

A t b o th Ma m T or a nd Green Knowe t here were i n terna l h ear ths.

The Ma m T or h u ts w ere c u t i n to a n e ar l ier c harcoa l l ayer wh ich g ave r ad ioc arbon d ates i n t he t wel f th c entury b .c.

Po t tery e v idence i nd ica tes c on t inued

o ccupa t ion d own t o t he s even th c entury ( see P ar t I , Chap ter 2 , i i ).

Fro m

Green Knowe , t he s i mp le b arre l-shaped p o t w ith i nterna l ly-beve l led r i m may a lso b e o f L a te Bronze Age d a te.

I ti s s ign if ican t t hat p ar t o f t he p lan o f a

s tr ik ing ly s im i lar h u t , a bou t 2 5 f eet i n d ia meter , h as b een e xcavated b y C .R . Musson a t t he Bre idd in ( 1970a , f ig . 6 9 ,3 ;

1 970b , 2 18, f ig .

) •

Aga in o n al eve l led p la t for m c u t i n to t he s lope , t he e x ter ior wa l ls o f a s many a s f ive s uper i mposed s tructures were l oca ted , e ach d e f ined a t t he p er iphery b y n arrow g u l l ies , o r i nd iv idua l s take-ho les a bou t 1f oot a par t . v ea led i s v ery s im ilar t o t ha t o f Ma m T or H ut 2 .

The p lan r e-

I nsu f f ic ien t o f t he i n ter ior

o f t he h u t a t t he Bre idd in h ad b een c leared t o c onf ir m o r d eny t he p resence o f i n terna l p os t-ho les.

Ab ronze n a il-headed p in ( t he l arger f ro m t he s i te ) was

r ecovered f ro m a n u pper l ayer i n t he h u t . c oarse a nd u ndecora ted.

S herds f ro m t he h u t f loor w ere

More r ecen t ly , Musson ( CA , 3 3, 2 63-7 ) h as s ug-

g es ted t ha t t he Bre idd in wa t t le a nd d aub h ouses b e long t o al a te I ron Age p er iod .

I n v iew o f t he s im ilar it ies w ith Ma in Tor a nd G reen Knowe , s uch a

l a te d a te wou ld s ee m a t f irst s igh t t o b e u n l ike ly . A l mos t a l l o ther t imber-bu il t h u ts o f t he f irst m il lenn iu m B .C . i n n or thern Eng land a re e ither o f r ing-groove o r r ing-d itch t ype. t erms a re c o m mon ly u sed ( Jobey , 1 966a , 9 4 ;

These

RCAH MS , 1 967 , 2 1-2 ) n or th

o f t he T yne t o d escr ibe i n t he f irs t c ase h ouses where o ne o f t he c ircu lar t imber a rrange men ts , o f ten t he o uter wa l l , i s s et i n ac ont inuous b edd ing-

1 44

t rench , a nd i n t he s econd c ase h ouses f ) f av ar iety o f t ypes b u t i nc lud ing t hose s urrounded b y d i tches f or d ra inage p urposes .

There a re , h owever ,

c er ta in i mpor tan t e xcep t ions amongst mu lt i-r ing c ons truct ions , wh ich h ave n ei ther r ing-d i tch n or r ing-groove .

The b es t i s H ouse A a t Wes t B randon ,

t he e ar lier o f t he t wo w ith in t he e nc losed h o mestead ( Jobey , 1 962 , f ig . 5 ) . I th ad f our c oncen tr ic r ings o f p ost-ho les , t wo w i th in t he l ine o f t he s ugges te d o u ter wa l l a nd o ne , t he e aves s uppor t , o u ts ide . o f 5 0 f ee t i s i nd ica ted .

A wa l lto-wa l l d iameter

Th is h u t , wh ich d id g ive s o me e v idence o f p ost-

r ep lace men t , wou ld s ee m t o b e c on te mporary w i th t he d oub le p a lisaded s tructura l p hase o f t he s urround ing e nc losure . T hree more e xamp les o f mu lt i-r ing c onstruct ion w i thou t g rooves o r d i tches a re t o b e f ound i n t he s tockaded h o mestead a t S tap le H owe ( Brewster , 1 963 ).U nfor tuna te ly , c o mp le te p lans o f t hese h uts c ou ld n o t b e r ecovered b ecause o f e nerget ic n a tura l e ros ion a nd e v iden t i rregu lar i t ies i n t he o r ig ina l c ons truct ions . c i t . ,f ig . 2 5 ) .

P erhaps t he s i mp les t t o i n terpret i s H ut I I ( op .

S evere e ros ion h as e l im ina ted t he e v idence e xcep t i n t he

s outh western p ar t o f t he c ircu i t . i den t i f ied :

F our ma jor s tructura l e le men ts may b e

a n o uter r ing o f p os t-ho les ( 2 , 3 , 4 , P 1, P 4 , P 5 , P 9 , P 10 , 7 ) ,

a n i nner r ing ( CII I , 6 , 5 , P 6 , P 8 , 8 ) , al ike ly e n trance ( P2 , P 3 ) , a nd t wo c en tra l ly-p laced p os t-ho les 8f eet a par t ( 9 a nd 1 0 ) .

The o vera l l d iameter

o f t he h u t , t ha t o f t he o uter r ing , wou ld t hus h ave b een 3 8 f eet .

T he o n ly

r es tra in t o n s uch a n i n terpreta t ion i s t he l im i ted w id th a va i lab le o n t he e astern s ide o f t he H owe .

Wi th t he e v idence o f t wo s uch r egu lar c oncen tr ic

a rcs o f h o les , h owever , as l igh t p lat for m e x tens ion , a t l eas t t o t he n or th , may b e a l lowed f or . The e v idence o f H u t I ( op . c i t . ,f ig . 1 7) i s l ess s a t is factory .

B rewster 's

i n terpreta tion t ha t t he g u l ly t o t he n or th-eas t was f or med b y wa ter d r ipp ing f ro m t he r oo f i s n o t a ccep tab le , s ince i t s p roduced c ircu m ference i s c ons ide rab ly w i th in t he l ine o f t he o uter wa l l o f t he h u t .

Th is wa l l wou ld h ave b een

c arr ied a bove t he s outhern l ip o f t he q uarr ied p la t for m f or r easons o f d ra ina ge .

Ledges o f d o mest ic f unct ion were f ound i n t he q uarr ied f ace .

The f ive

p os t-ho les ( P15-P19 ) b eyond t he f ace , c ons idered t o b e u nre la ted t o t he h ouse s tructure , wou ld s ee m t o b e e aves s uppor ts , a s a t Wes t B randon A a nd B , a l igned w i th t he e n trance .

The " wa ter c o l lectors" h ypothes is i s

i ngen ious b u t n o t c onv incing : P la tes 2 7-34 s how q ui te a ccep tab le p ost-ho les , wh ich were e v iden t ly c o mp le te ly d evo id o f a ny l in ing wh ich wou ld a l low wa ter s torage .

T ha t d r ink ing wa ter s hou ld h ave b een s tored a t f loor l eve l d irect ly

b es ide t he ma in e n trance t o t he h u t wou ld s ee m u n like ly .

I n a dd i t ion t o t he

e xterna l p os t-ho les , t herefore , we migh t c ons ider t ha t ar ough ly o va l s er ies o f f ea tures ( Wa ter c o l lector 1 , P 7 , P 8 , p ar ts o f wa ter c o l lector 2 , P 1 , A , a nd t he ' dr ip g u l ly ' ) c ons t itutes a n i n terna l r ing o f r oo f s uppor ts , w i th s o me i n terna l p ar t i t ions .

O ther p os t-ho les ( P5 , P 6 , P 9 , P 13 , P 23 , P 3 ) may

r epresen t i rregu lar r oof-props o r o ther s tructures .

The p rox im i ty o f s o me

p os ts t o t he o ven s tructure p oses a n o b ject ion t o t h is s che me . h ave b een c ons iderab le e rosion o f f ea tures t o t he n or th .

There may

H owever , t he i n ter-

p reta t ion o f ah ut w i th o vera l l d i mens ions o f 3 8 b y 3 5 f eet a nd a t l eas t t wo r ings o f s uppor ts s ee ms r easonab le . B rews ter i n terpre ted H u t Ia s as i mp le s tructure w i th a c en tra l p os t a nd

1 45

as ing le wa l l-r ing o f p ost-ho les 3 0 f eet i n d iameter .

T he s ing le o uter r ing

o f h o les wh ich h e d ef ined ( op . c i t . ,f i g . 1 3 , h o les 1 -2 , 5 -17) i s c er ta in ly c red ib le , a s i s t he e n trance s tructure ( ho les 3 -4 ) v ery l ike t ha t o f H ut I I . The l oo m s i te ( ho les A-F ) , t he h ear th , a nd t he o ven a re a lso w e l l-def ined f ea tures .

I ti s n o t e asy t o s ee a ny o rder i n t he r e ma in ing h o les , b u t n ine

c an b e i den t i f ied o n a n a pprox i ma te ly c ircu lar a l ignmen t a bou t f our f eet w i th in t he o u ter r ing . S evera l o f t hose n earer t he c en tre may r epresen t p rops a nd p ar t i t ions .

We migh t e xpect t ha t as tructure 3 0 f eet i n d ia me ter

o n a n e xposed h i l ltop wou ld d e mand more s uppor t t han wou ld b e a va i lab le f ro m t he o u ter wa l l c ircui t a nd a s ing le c en tra l p ost . P erhaps f ur ther f ea tures a l igned w i th t he p os t-ho le t o t he n or th-wes t o f h o le 1 3 ( op . c i t . , f ig . 1 3 ) may h ave b een p resen t . I ti s u n for tuna te t ha t t he e xcava ted a rea was n o t e x tended . O f t he sma l ler r ectangu lar s tructure a t S tap le H owe , more w i l l b e s a id i n t he f o l low ing s ect ion . B y f ar t he c o m mones t f or m o f t imber d we l ling i n t he n or thern Eng lish I ron Age i s t ha t u t i lizing af or m o f r ing-groove .

West B randon a ga in

p rov ides a n e xce l len t e xa mp le i n i t s l a ter H ouse B ( Jobey , 1 962 , f i g . 5 ) . T he o u ter w a l l o f e dge-set s p li t t imbers was a cco mmoda ted w i th in a c on ti nuous r ock-cut t rench 1 f oo t w ide a nd d eep . B eyond i tr an a c irc le o f e aves-suppor t ing p ost-ho les , a nd w i th in was a s ing le c o mp lete c irc le a nd ac en tra l s quare o f p os t-ho les . An e n trance was i nd ica ted b y t wo a dd i t iona l h o les a nd p ro ject ing t renches . T he i n terna l d iameter o f t he h ouse was 5 0 f eet . I t was p resu mab ly c on te mporary w i th t he l a ter e nc losure s tructu re o f d i tch a nd u pcast b ank . C lose p ara l le ls t o Wes t B randon H ouse B o ccur f ur ther n or th . A t T yne mouth P r iory ( Jobey , 1 967, f ig . 1 ) , t he e ar lies t s tructure was a h ouse 3 8 f eet i n d iameter w i th a wa l l o f c lose-set u pr igh ts i n ac on t inuous t rench 1 8 i nches w ide a nd d eep , w ith a r ing o f e x terna l e aves s uppor ts a nd p oss ib ly a lso a n i n ter ior r ing o f r oo f s uppor ts . A t West P lean , H ouse I ( S teer , 1 956 , f i g . 3 )c ons is ted s im i lar ly o f ar ingg roove 3 8 f eet i n d iameter f or a n o uter wa l l , t h is t ime o f p os ts s et 3 f ee t a par t , w i th a n i n terna l p os t-ho le r ing a nd p ro ject ing e n trance t renches . A t S co ts tarv i t C over t , F i fe ( Bersu , 1 948 , f i gs . 6 -7) ,H ouses Ia nd I , 5 8 a nd 4 9 f eet i n d iameter , h ad t heir o u ter w a l ls o f e dge-set t imbers e rected i n r ing-grooves i n t he s a me way , b u t o f t he t wo i nner r ings o f s uppor ts t he o u ter was a lso s et i n ar ing-groove . T here i s n o s ecure e vidence f or t he d a t ing r ange o f t he r ing-groove h ouse i n t he n or th . The a ssocia t ion o f t hree o f t he f our e xamp les h ere q uo ted w i th e ar thwork e nc losures r a ther t han w ith p a lisades s ugges ts a d a te l a ter r a ther t han e ar lier i n t he I ron A Age .

T he d a te o f Wo lsty H a l l ' o va l ' , w i th a r ing-groove h ouse w i th in

s tockaded a nd d i tched e nc losure ( see

Par t I I , Chap ter 8 , i ) , c anno t b e

c lose ly d e term ined . H owever , e xamp les i n R oxburghsh ire ( RCAHMS , 1 956 , n os . 6 50 a nd 9 94 ) w i th in p a lisaded e nc losures i nd ica te t ha t al a te I ron Age c on tex t i s n o t n ecessar i ly i nvar iab le . The s ha l low g u l lies f or s takes o f t he o u ter wa l ls o f h uts a t Mam T or a nd t he B reidd in a re s im i lar i n p r incip le . R ing-groove h ouses t o t he s ou th d o s ee m o f ten t o b e l a ter i r d a te , h owever . Those w i th in t he l a te I ron Age s tone wa l led e nc losure a t H orse C lose Farm h ave a lready b een e xam ined .

1 46

T he o uter wa l ls o f s ub-

r ectangu lar , o va l , a nd c ircu lar h u ts w ere d ef ined b y g u l lies f or c lose-set p osts .

The f or mer may h ave b een r oo fed b y as ing le s pan , wh i le t he o thers

h ad i n terna l p os t-ho le r ings . Two c ircu lar d i tches e xcava ted a t Ca tco te ( Long , 1 964 , 2 ) a ppear t o h ave b een h ut f ounda t ion t renches , s ince n o r oofs uppor t ing f ea tures were f ound i n t he e nc losed a reas , wh ich were c overed b y t h icker a nd d arker o ccupa t ion l ayers . O ne h u t , 3 3 f eet i n d iameter , h ad i n terna l p ar t i t ion wa l ls a nd a n i ron-s me l t ing f urnace . p ar t ly e xcava ted , b ut s ee med t o b e e ar lier .

The o ther was o n ly

Ma ter ia l r e ma ins f ro m

Ca tcote i nc lude l a te I ron A ge p o t tery ( F ig . 4 7) . T he dwe l l ing s tructures a t Ca t ter ick ( D . o f t he E ., 1 971 , P 1. 1 ) w ere s uppor ted o n ly b y t he ir wa l ls , wh ich w ere s e t i n c on t inuous f ounda t ion t renches e v iden t ly b road a nd d eep . N o f ur ther i n for ma t ion o n t he C a t ter ick s i te . wh ich may d a te f ro m t he f i f th c en tury B .C. o nwards , i s v et a va ilab le. F our r ing-groove s tructures a re k nown f ro m t he East M id lands . H ut 4 a t Wi l l ing ton ( CBATVARC , 1 970 , 1 0 , f i g . 2 ) c ons is ted o f ap enannu lar r ingg roove a bout 2 2 f eet i n d iame ter w i th e xpanded t erm ina ls mark ing a n e n trance 7 f eet w ide t o t he e as t . p assed t hrough t h is e n trance . t hree sma l l c laylined p i ts .

Ac hanne l

p resu mab ly f or d ra inage ,

I ns ide t he h ut were a c en tra l h ear th a nd O u ts ide was a s em i-circu lar d ra inage g u l ly

a bou t 8f ee t b eyond t he r ing-groove , wh ich may h ave b een c on te mporary . Al arge p i t t o t he s ou th h ad b een s evera l t imes r ecut . P o t tery f ro m t he p i t a nd t he r ing-groove ( F ig . 1 5 , 1 -10 ) i nd ica tes a d a te i n t he s econd c en tury B .C. ( Par t I , Chap ter 5 , i ). T he s i te a t Wi l ling ton h ad b een b ad ly d amaged b y p lough ing a nd a ny p os t-ho les w i th in t he h u t h ad b een r e moved .

A t Ramp ton , N o t t inghamsh ire ( E MAB , I X , 4 1-2 , f i g . 9 ) , a

s im i lar h u t a ssocia ted w i th h and made a nd whee l t hrown p o t tery o f B e lg ic t ype was e xcava ted b enea th R o man o ccupa t ion . T he h u t was d ef ined b y a p enannu lar r ing-groove a bou t 1f oo t d eep a nd 1 8 i nches w ide , i n wh ich h ad b een s et a n i rregu lar s er ies o f p os t-ho les a bou t 6i nches a par t . e nc losed b y t h is wa l l was a bou t 1 7 f eet i n d iameter .

T he a rea

Wi th in t he h u t were

t wo o f f-cen tre p os t-ho les , p resu mab ly f or r oof s uppor t , e v idence f or a r ad ia l s creen , a nd a sma l l b ronze-s me lt ing h ear th . F ur ther e as t , a t T a l l ing ton S i te 3 5 ( S i mpson , W .G ., 1 966 , f i g . 2 ) a n I ron Age h ut 2 0 f eet i n d iameter was e xcava ted i n o ne c orner o f a n u nusua l ly l arge r ectangu lar e nc losure 4 80 b y 3 20 f eet . T he h u t wa l ls were o f w i th ies woven b etween u pr igh t s takes s et i rregu lar ly i n as ha l low c ircu lar r ing-groove o ver 2 f eet w ide . T here were n o i n terna l f ea tures . S i mpson r efers ( op . c i t . ,1 5 ) t o a s im i lar h u t , 4 3 f eet i n d iameter , f ound n ear K ing S treet n earby , wh ich was o f l a te I ron Age o r e ar ly R oman d a te . We t hus h ave f our e xamp les o f r ingg roove h ouses i n t he Eas t M id lands , e ach o f l a te d a te . H owever , t o c on e lude t ha t t he t ype i s o n ly c haracter is t ic o f t ha t p er iod wou ld b e u nw ise , s ince n o dwe l ling s tructures o f p reth ird c entury B .C . d a te a re y e t k nown f rom t he a rea . R ing-d i tch t imber r ound-houses , w i th c ircu lar d i tches f or d ra inage i mmed ia te ly s urround ing t he h ut p la t form , a re r a ther l ess c o mmon i n t he Tren t-Tyne a rea . P erhaps t he b es t e xamp le i s t o b e f ound a t S tanw ick ( Whee ler , 1 954 , f i g . 3 ) , o n s i te F . Ag u l ly w i th a g ap 1 1 .5 f eet w ide e nc losed a c ircu lar a rea 2 8 f eet a cross .

1 47

The g u l ly s ee ms t o h ave b een

a bou t 2f eet w ide a nd a t l east 1 f oo t d eep , a nd was c hocked w ith s tones i n p ar ts.

I t was t hough t t ha t at imber h u t s tood w ith in t he a rea , a l though o n ly

1 0 i rregu lar ly-spaced p os t-ho les were f ound .

Po t tery i nd ica tes t he l ike-

l i hood o f o ccupat ion i n t he m idf irs t c en tury A .D .

O ther h u ts w ith s urround-

i ng d ra inage d itches a re k nown a t Ancas ter ( gu l ly 4 1 f ee t i n d ia meter : Bar ley , e t a l ., 1 965 ), Dragonby ( gu l ly 2 8 f eet i n d ia meter : Co ls terwor th ( many , u p t o 5 0 f eet i n d ia me ter : L inco lnsh ire.

May , 1 970 , 2 27 ), a nd

Gr i mes , 1 958 , 2 3-4 ) , a l l i n

Excava t ions a t t he Ro man V i l la s i te a t Rudston East R id ing ,

r evea led u nder ly ing f ea tures , many o f wh ich a re l ike ly t o h ave b een l a te I ron Age.

Recen t work h as i den t if ied a t l eas t s ix h u t s i tes ( S tead , 1 971, f ig . 3 ) ,

b ordered b y p enannu lar d ra inage d i tches a bou t 2f eet w ide c u t t hrough t he s urf ace b ou lder c lay t o t he u nder ly ing c ha lk .

T he e nc losed c ircu lar a reas were

1 6 t o 2 6 f ee t i n d ia meter , a nd many g ave e v idence o f i n terna l t imber s tructures. Un for tuna te ly i t was n ot p oss ib le t o d is t ingu ish a s ing le c o mp lete p a t tern b ec ause o f t he d ens ity o f o ver lapp ing s tructures. There s ee m t o b e n o c hrono log ica l o r c u ltura l c onc lus ions t o b e d rawn f ro m t he r e la t ive p resence o r a bsence o f r ing-d itch o r r ing-groove s truct ures i n a reas , s ince t he o ccurrence o f ad ra inage d i tch wou ld s o o bv ious ly r ef lect t he n eeds o f t he i nd iv idua l s i te. u ing i n to t he Ro mano-Br it ish p er iod.

T i mber h ouses c an b e s een c on t inThe f our th c en tury Ro man v i l la a t

Den ton , n ear Gran tha m , was u nder la in a t i t s e astern e nd b y ar ing-groove f or a t imber h u t , a nd t imber s tructures a lso u nder lay t he v il la a t Mansf ie ld Woodhouse. t ion ).

These a re Ro man h ouses , n o t I ron Age o nes ( M. T odd i n for ma-

T o t he n or th , a t Wes t H il l , East R id ing ( TA 1 68668;

T SDAS , I , 1 ,

3 1), r ound t imber h u ts h ave b een a ss igned t o t he f our th c en tury A .D .

G en-

e ra l ly , h owever , dwel l ings o f t he Ro mano-Br it ish p er iod were o f s tone. I n ar ecen t s u m mary , J obey ( 1966b , 1 -8 ) h as c lear ly s ta ted t he e v idence t ha t i n t he Tynefor th p rov ince d is t inct ive r ound s tone-bu il t h u ts a re Ro manoBr it ish i n d ate.

Enc losed , n on-defens ive s et t le men ts c on ta in ing t he m c an b e

s een t o o ver l ie t he a bandoned h i l l-for ts , p a l isaded e nc losures , a nd t imberb u il t h u ts o f t he p re-Ro man p er iod.

Where d atab le r ound s tone-bu i l t h u ts

may b e a scr ibed t o t he s econd t o f our th c en tur ies A .D . i n d ia meter .

S o me h ave i n terna l p ar t it ions.

They a verage 2 0 f ee t

Where r ectangu lar h u ts o ccur ,

t hey a re c lear ly l a ter . T h is s i tua t ion i s t o s o me e x ten t r e f lec ted f ur ther s ou th.

I n t he n or th-

west o f Eng land , s tone-bu i lt h u ts h ave b een r ecogn ised i n ad irec t ly c o mp arab le a rchaeo log ica l c on tex t . d ia meter ,

T he r ound h u ts , f ro m 5 0 t o 2 0 f ee t i n

a t Ewe C lose , Crosby Ravenswor th ( Co l l ingwood , W. G . ,1 908 ,

1 909 ), were a ssoc iated w ith Ro mano-Br it ish ma ter ia l.

I n n or th-eas t

Yorksh ire , e xcava t ions a t Pa le End , K i lda le ( TSDAS , I ,

1 3,

5 5 ),

r evea led

t hree c ircu lar p aved f l oors , w ith f our th c en tury Ro mano-Br it ish p o t tery i n c on tras t t o t he l a te I ron Age ma ter ia l d iscovered i n 1 958 n earby ( F ig . 4 6 , 1 -4 ).

I n w es tern Yorksh ire , w ork b y Ra is tr ick a lready o u t l ined h as p ro-

d uced r ecurren t e v idence f or t he Ro mano-Br it ish ( genera l ly s econd t o f our th c entur ies ) d a t ing o f r ound s tone-bu il t h uts.

P ub l ished p lans o f h uts

a t M idd le House Pasture a nd a t T rouga te ( Ra is tr ick a nd Ho l mes , 1 962,

1 48

f i gs . 6a nd 1 0 ) s how c ircu lar h u ts w i th i n terna l d iameters o f 1 0 t o 2 0 f eet a nd wa l ls o f b ou lders w i th ac lear i nner f ace . There i s e v idence t ha t s takeh o les i n t he r ubb le wa l ls , a bout 3 f eet a par t , h e ld s uppor ts f or t he u pper wa l ls a nd t he r oof s tructures . H owever , t here i s n ow s o me e v idence o f t he u se o f s tone i n t he c ons truct i on o f c ircu lar h uts i n t he l a te I ron Age p er iod . Much o f i th as a lready b een n o ted i n t he p rev ious c hap ter . Excava t ions o f r ubb le h u t f ounda t ions a t Gauber L i mek i ln Pasture , I ng leton , f a i led t o p rov ide p roof o f aR o manoB r i t ish d a te . F ur ther e as t , t he p o t tery f ro m t he s tone-bu i lt h ut-c luster a t P ercy R igg , K i lda le , c lear ly i nd ica tes a d a te p r ior t o R o man i n f luence , a lbei t p robab ly i n t he f irs t c entury A .D . The e nc losed h o mestead a t Grea t Ay ton Moor p roduced p o t tery o f e ar lier t ype . I t s h ut ( Fig . 7 0 ) h ad a f ounda t ion wa l l o f s tones a nd a p a ‘ed f l oor , b u t u n for tuna te ly t here was n o e v id ence t o i nd ica te h ow i t was r oofed .

The h u ts i n t he s tone-wa l led s et t le-

men t a t S cra t ta Wood ( Fig . 7 3 ) h ad r ock-cu t l eve l led f l oors , s tone wa l lf oo t ings , a nd s tone p ivo t-ho les f or ma in d oors . Aga in , al a te I ron Age d a te i s i nd ica ted . Excava t ions b y W .J . Var ley a t O ld O swes try r evea led a s tone-kerbed h ut , p robab ly o f a much e ar lier d a te a s i t was s tructura l ly i n tegra ted w i th t he r ear r eve t men t o f t he n or thern i n turn o f t he western e n trance t o t he e ar lies t s tone-revet ted r ampar t f or t i f ica t ion ( Var ley , 1 948 , 5 6 ). F ro m t h is h u t c a me af ragmen t o f c ar ina ted f urrowed b ow l ( men t ioned i n Par t I , C hap ter 3 , i ) . I n t he a bsence o f d ef in i t ive p ub lica t ion , h owever , t he p oss ib i l i ty o f ac o mpar ison w i th a h u t a t t he n or th e n trance o f t he h i l lf or t a t Cast le D i tch , Edd isbury , mus t b e men t ioned . T here , a f ter t he p reh is tor ic d efences h ad f a l len i n to r u in , t he d ebr is t o t he e ast o f t he e n trance h ad b een c leared , a nd a sma l l D-shaped s tone-wa l led h ut w i th a s tone p ave men t h ad b een e rected ( PPS , 1 936 , 2 19-20 ; Var ley , 1 964 , P 1 . 7 ) .

Th is

h u t may b e o f R o mano-Br i t ish o r e ven p os t-Ro man d a te . Wh i le r ing-d i tch a nd r ing-groove t imber r ound-houses d o s ee m t o c on t inue i n to t he R o mano-Br i t ish p er iod i n s o me a reas , t herefore , s tone h u ts o f ac haracter u sua l ly t hough t t o b e p os t-Conques t may b e r ecogn ised a t t hree s i tes , a nd p oss ib ly a lso a t t wo o thers , i n t he I ron Age .

Ear lier ,

sma l l s ing le-r ing p os t-ho le h uts s ee m t o p re-da te more c o mp lex s tructures , a l though t he p resence o f mu lt i-r ing s take-wa l led h u ts o f r a ther l arger s ize a t Mam T or s ugges ts t ha t l a te B ronze Age c ircu lar dwe l lings were n ot a lways u npreten t ious . i . R ectangu lar T ypes T he a spect o f t he s i te a t S tap le H owe t o h ave r ece ived t he mos t d isc uss ion i n r ecen t y ears i s t he c en tra l ly-p laced s quare s tructure ( Brews ter , 1 963 , f i g . 2 8 ) . F our p os t-ho les , o r ig ina l ly p robab ly 3 .5 f eet d eep , t o t ake t imbers 1 4 i nches i n d iameter , were a rranged i n as quare f orm ing a s tructure o f max i mu m e x terna l w id th o f 1 0 f eet .

Af i f th h o le i n l ine o n t he

e as t s ide may h ave b een p ar t o f t he s ame b u i ld ing .

An u mber o f s urround-

i ng sma l ler p os t-ho les may h ave b een f or s hor ter t imber p rops .

B rews ter

i n terpre ted t h is s tructure a s ag ranary , o n t he g rounds t ha t t he o u ter s ides o f t he p os t-ho le p ack ings h ad e v iden t ly b een s ub jected t o g rea t s ide t hrust a s ar esu l t o f t he b u i ld ing c arry ing ah eavy we igh t o n ar a ised f l oor .

The

a l terna t ive e xp lana t ion o f ah igh t ower was n o t c ons idered p laus ib le .

H ow-

1 49

e ver , t here was n o g ra in d epos i t f ound i n t he p ost-ho les o r i n t he i m med ia te v icin i ty s uch a s wou ld h ave l en t c onv ict ion t o i t s i n terpre ta t ion a s a g ranary . R ecen t e xcava t ions b y B rews ter a t t wo o ther p a lisaded s i tes h ave l ikew ise g iven e v idence o f c en tra l ly-p laced s quare s tructures .

One was i n t he

h i l l-top s i te a t D evi l 's H i l l , H es ler ton , 1 .5 mi les t o t he e as t o f S tap le H owe ( T .C .M . B rews ter i n for ma t ion ) .

The o ther was c en tred i n t he c urvi linear

p a lisaded e nclosure a t Ca t ter ick ( D . o f t he E ., 1 971 , P 1 . I ) .

B oth t hese

were s i mp le f our-pos t s quare p lans w i th p ar t icu lar ly l arge h o les . A t b o th s i tes , a s a t S tap le H owe , t he ma in dwe l ling-structure s ee ms t o h ave b een at ype o f c ircu lar t imber h u t .

The p resence o f s tou t s quare s tructures i n

t he c en tre o f e ach o f t he t hree p a lisaded s i tes i n Yorksh ire t o h ave b een e x tens ive ly e xcava ted s uggests t ha t t hey h ad a s peci f ic s pecia lised f unct ion . I th as r ecen t ly b een a rgued t ha t t he i dea o f ac en tra l h igh p la t for m o r wa tcht ower , t o g uard h erds a nd f locks a nd t o warn o f a t tack , i s i n f act al ike ly e xp lana t ion ( El lison a nd Drewet t , 1 971 , 1 86) .

A lterna t ive ly , c ou ld t hey

h ave b een h ouses o f s o me k ind? Excava t ions b y S tan ford i n t he We lsh Marches h i l lfor ts o f Credenh i l l Ca mp , Cro f t Ambrey , a nd M idsu m mer H i l l Camp h ave s hown t ha t dwe l ling h uts s tra t i f ied w i th e ar ly p hases o f t he d e fences were u sua l ly sma l l r ecta ngu lar b ui ld ings n o l arger t han a bou t 1 0 b y 1 2 f eet ( S tan ford , 1 971 , 4 7) . S tan ford h as a rgued t ha t af am i ly o f f our o r f i ve c ou ld q u i te r easonab ly b e h oused w i th in a g round f l oor a rea o f 1 00 s quare f eet o r s o ( 1970 , 1 12 ) . F urther more , h e h as a t te mp ted t o d e mons tra te t ha t e ach o f t hese t hree s i tes was p acked

i n terna l ly w i th r ectangu lar s tructures i n s o me th ing

a pproach ing a g r idiron p a t tern ( 1971 , 4 7-8 ) .

One o f t he Credenh i l l h u ts

s howed s ix p hases o f r econs truct ion , i nd ica t ing t ha t t he f or ts w ere p er mamen t ly o ccup ied .

F ur ther s ou th , e xcava t ions b y C un li f fe a t Danebury ,

Hampsh ire , h ave r evea led s im i lar h ouses , 9b y 1 1 f ee t , t h is t ime s ix-pos t s tructures , a l igned i n c lose-se t r ows a long p ara l le l s treets .

T he o ccupa-

t ion o f t he r ectangu lar l ayou t b egan a round 4 00 B .C. ,a nd c on t inued w ith much r ebu i ld ing ( CA , 3 0 , 1 77-183 ) .

I n e ach c ase , t he p os t-ho les o f t he

s tructures were s ubstan t ia l . Excava t ions a t Gr im thorpe ( S tead , 1 968 , f ig . 4 ,155) r evea led e igh t g roups o f f our p os t-ho les , d ef in ing s quares f ro m 5 b y 5f eet t o 1 0 b y 8 feet , a l l w i th in 4 0 f eet o f t he s urround ing h i l lfor t r ampar t .

I n p ar t icu lar , t wo

p a irs s ee m t o b e a l igned s y m me tr ica l ly e ach s ide o f t he e n trance , l ess t han 1 5 f eet f ro m t he r a mpar t .

S tead h as i n terpreted t hese a s g ranar ies ,

a l though t he p os t-ho les were n o t mass ive ( 10 t o 1 3 i nches a cross , 6t o 1 8 i nches d eep ) .

I th as r ecen t ly b een s ugges ted t ha t a t l eas t f our were f igh t-

i ng p la t for ms ( El lison a nd Drewet t , 1 971 , 1 86) . A lthough s uch a n e xp lanat ion i s n o t a l together s a t is factory f or t he s tructures f ur ther a way f ro m t he r ampar t , t he p resence o f g uard-s tructures n ear t he e n trance ( and n o te t ha t t hese wou ld i nc lude t he sma l les t s quares ) i s n o t u n like ly . T he p oss ib i l i ty t ha t a t l eas t t he l arger s quares ( S tead , 1 968 , f ig , 4 , 1 , 2 , a nd 3 ) were dwe l l ings c anno t b e r u led o ut , h owever . S tan ford

( 1971 , 4 7) h as c onc luded t ha t t he Gr im thorpe s tructures were

h ouses , p ara l le led b y t he more-orless s quare s tructures a t t he f or t a t

1 50

I v inghoe B eacon ( Co t ton a nd F rere , 1 968 , f i gs . 7 -8 ) , wh ich h ad a t imberf ramed b ox r a mpar t c lose ly c o mparab le t o t ha t a t G r imthorpe .

H e h as

a lso p o in ted t o s im i lar s quare o r r ectangu lar b u i ld ings a t Ma iden Cas t le , Dorse t ( Whee ler , 1 943 , P ls . V I I a nd XX ) , a t Ra insborough ( Avery , e t a l ., 1 967, f i g . 7 ) , a nd a t Ba lksbury , Hampsh ire ( Wa inwr igh t , 1 969 , 3 2 ) .

The

l ess c lose ly-bu i lt s i te p lans a t G r i mthorpe , I v inghoe a nd B a lksbury a re s een t o r ef lect a s ign i f ican t d i f ference f ro m t he We lsh Marches s i tes i n b oth i n tens i ty o f o ccupa t ion a nd d a te .

I n v iew o f S tan ford 's a rgu men ts ,

t here s ee ms l i t t le a l terna t ive b u t t o c ons ider i tl i ke ly t ha t a t l east s o me o f t he G r imthorpe f our-pos t s tructures were dwe l l ings . Ca t ter ick , D ev i l 's H i l l , a nd S tap le H owe?

Wha t , t here fore , o f

T he p resence o f s ubs tan t ia l

c ircu lar d we l lings , t he s ize o f p os t-ho les , a nd t he c en tra l s i tua t ion i n e ach c ase s ugges t t ha t t he wat chtower h ypo thes is i s more c onv incing . The a bove-ground g ranary t heory i s o f c ourse n ot c o mp lete ly d iscredi t ed i n e very c ase .

F inds o f g ra in i n t he p os t-ho les o f s uch s tructures a t

R other ly Group I I ( P i t t-R ivers , 1 888 , 5 5) a nd a t T o l lard R oya l Aa nd B (Wa inwr igh t , 1 968 , 1 12 ) e nab le t hese t o b e r egarded w i th f a ir c er ta in ty a s g ranar ies . B oth s i tes a re o f l a te I ron Age d a te . There i s o ne o ther f ourp ost s tructure o n t he marg ins o f o ur a rea t o b e c ons idered : t ha t s i tua ted i n t he n or th-eas t c orner o f t he r ectangu lar f arm e nclosure a t Ta l ling ton S i te 3 7 ( S impson , W. G ., 1 966 , 1 9 ) . The r a ther i rregu lar s hape o f t he s tructu re a nd i t s p er iphera l s i tua t ion i nv i te d irect c o mparison w i th T o l lard R oya l A (Wa inwr igh t , 1 968 , f ig . 3 ) . P erhaps i t was a g ranary . Ta l l ing ton 3 7 i s c lose ly d a tab le t o w i th in t he p er iod A .D . 5 0 t o 9 0 . Thus , o f t he r ectangu lar o r s quare s tructures s o f ar c ons idered , o n ly s o me a t G r i mthorpe may b e r egarded a s d we l l ings . There a re t hree o ther e xamp les o f r ectangu lar h ouses t o b e men t ioned , e ach o f t he l a te I ron Age p er iod . The s ub-rectangu lar h ouse , 8b y 1 3 f eet , a t H orse C lose Farm h as a lready b een d escr ibed . O f s im i lar c ons truct ion may h ave b een t he b u i ld ing d ef ined b y ar ectangu lar s lo t s yste m 1 0 b y 2 0 f eet a t Gar ton S lack I X , u nf ortuna te ly n ot a ssocia ted w ith ma ter ia l r e ma ins ( D . o f t he E ., 1 971 1, 1 4 ) . The c ons truct ion d eta i ls o f t he r ectangu lar h ut a ssocia ted w ith p re-Conques t wheel made p ot tery a t Ad P on te m , N o t t inghamsh ire ( E MAB , V I , 1 6 ) , a re n ot y et a va i lab le . I n a dd i t ion t o t hese t here a re t hree f ur ther s i tes where p ossib le e xamp les o f r ectangu lar h ouses h ave b een d iscovered . Excava t ions i n 1 952 a t t he o va l e ar thwork a t N ew ton , Wes t Yorksh ire ( see N o tes o n F igures , 9 0 ) , u ncovered t wo a r t i f icial f l oors o f c her t a nd g rave l a bout 4 0 f eet s quare ( OS i n for ma t ion ) . Ap oss ib le t ur f wa l l f ounda t ion-s tr ip f or a r ectangu lar s tructure h as b een i den t i f ied a t C a tcote , C o . D urham ( Long , 1 964, 2 -3. Beyond t he l im its o f o ur a rea t o t he s ou th , a t G len P arva L eices tersh ire ( SP577981) , e xcava t ions b y K .C . C larke s ince 1 963 h ave r ecovered e v idence o f a n I ron Age b u i ld ing w i th c obb led a rea , p os t-ho les a nd a g u l ly .

A lthough n o c oheren t p lan i s r ecoverab le , t he p os t-ho les a re

i n r ect i l inear a l ignmen t , p oss ib ly f or a s tructure 2 5 f eet l ong .

T hermo-

l um inescen t d a t ing o f p o t tery f ro m t he s i te g ave r esu lts o f 3 90 B .C . a nd 8 0 B .C . +1 5% ( one s tandard d ev ia t ion o f t rue a rchaeo log ica l a ge -n ote l ow l eve l o f a ccuracy : Z i m merman a nd H ux tab le , 1 969 ) . Th is l im ited e v idence f or r ectangu lar dwe l lings c on tras ts s harp ly w i th

1 51

t he w e l l-represen ted t rad it ion o f c ircu lar t imber h ouses i n l ater p reh istory i n t he T ren t-Tyne a rea. T ha t t h is f ac t d oes n ot r ef lect a t echno log ica l i na b i l ity t o b u ild t o al i near p lan i s e v iden t f rom t he f ine r ectangu lar h ouse r econstruc ted b y Var ley ( 1968 ; s ee P ar t I I , Chap ter 8 , i )f ro m h is e xcavat i ons a t Barms ton a nd d a ted t o a round 1 ,000 B .C. ,a nd a lso f rom t he l ike ly s quare h ouses a t G r im thorpe a nd t he b u ild ings w ith a l terna t ive f unct ion o n p a l isaded s i tes.

H ad a l l s quare f our-pos t s tructures i n o ur a rea b een i n-

t erpre ted t rad it iona l ly a s g ranar ies , w e wou ld b y n ow h ave t respassed i n l arge measure u pon o ur n ex t c hap ter , wh ich e xam ines f ood-produc ing e cono my .

1 52

CHAPTER 1 0

FOOD-PRODUCING ECONO MY I n h is w e l l-known s tudy o f I ron Age f arm ing e cono my i n Br ita in , P iggo t t ( 1961 ) c onc luded t ha t r e la t ive ly i n tense g ra in-grow ing was c harac ter ist ic o n ly o f a reas t o t he s outh a nd e as t o f t he J urass ic R idge.

The d is tr ibut ions

o f f i e ld s ys te ms , s torage p i ts , b eeh ive q uerns a nd f i nds o f c arbon ised g ra in were c oncen tra ted i n s ou thern a nd e as tern Eng land . N or th o f t he h eav ilywooded M id land p la in , t he l ack o f s uch e v idence h e r egarded a s i nd ica t ive o f a n e cono my b ased o n p astora l ism w ith a n e le men t o f l im ited n o mad is m. L iterary s ources a ppeared t o s ubs tan t ia te t h is d iv is ion b etween t he s oc a l led S tanw ick t ype o f e cono my i n t he n or th a nd w es t , a nd t he g eograph ica l ly d ispara te Woodbury e cono my i n t he s ou th a nd e as t .

Whee ler , i n h is

r epor t o n t he S tanw ick e xcava t ions ( 1954 , 2 7-9 ), h ad a lready n oted t he a pparen t l ack o f p its , f i e lds a nd b eeh ive q uerns i n n or thern Eng land , a nd h ad i n terpreted t he f or t if ica t ions a s t he d efence o f ap as tora l c o m mun ity , d es igned t o i nc lude w ith in i t s c ircu it wa ter a nd p asture f or p ro tected h erds. H ow f ar i s t h is g enera l isa t ion s t i l l t enab le? I ti s e v iden t t ha t e ven o n t he b as is o f i nforma t ion a va i lab le i n t he 1 950s t he s u m mar ies o f Whee ler a nd P iggo t t r epresen t o vers tate men ts.

Beeh ive q uerns were k nown i n l arge

n u mbers , p ar t icu lar ly i n n or th-eas t Yorksh ire , t hough a dm it ted ly n o t i n c onv inc ing p re-Ro man c on tex ts.

On f la t p la teau a nd g rave l a reas where

p lough ing wou ld n o t c rea te l ynchets , s urv iv ing l i near e ar thworks m igh t w el l b e i n terpre ted a s c rop-pro tect ion r a ther t han s o le ly a s a n i ma l e nc losures. A d e ta i led c ons idera t ion o f t he e v idence n ow a va ilab le s uggests t ha t , wherea s f or l arge a reas o f t he n or th a nd w es t P iggo t t 's v iew r e ma ins v a l id , f or t he m idd le a nd l a ter I ron Age o f t he Eas t R id ing a nd t he East M id lands t he f ood-produc ing e cono my was much l ess s pec ia l ised t han h as p rev ious ly b een s upposed.

I n t he f o l low ing d iscuss ion , w e s ha l l c ons ider t he a rab le a nd

p ostora l e v idence s epara te ly , t hough t hese t he mes w i l l o f ten o ver lap , s ince t hey a re c lear ly i nex tr icab ly l i nked. i .

Arab le Ev idence T he e x tens ive s h if t ing a gr icu l tura l e cono my wh ich o pera ted i n t he l ater

s econd m i l lenn iu m B .C . o ver c er ta in u p land a reas , s uch a s t he Nor th York Moors , t he s outhern g r its tone P enn ines a nd p ar ts o f Cu mbr ia . h as a lready b een e xa m ined ( Par t I I , Chap ter 8 , i ) .

H ere w e s ha l l d ea l o n ly w ith t he

e v idence o f a rab le e cono my i n t he f irs t m il lenn iu m B .C . Carbon ised g ra in i s k nown f ro m f our s i tes i n t he T ren t-Tyne a rea.

1 53

Samples from Staple Howe were identified as Club Wheat (Triticum compactum) with no mixed barley or weeds (Brewster, 1963, 139). Storage pits at Garton Slack (D. of the E., 1971, 14) contained wheat and barley (no detailed analysis yet available). Excavations at Dragonby have produced grains of barley, and several types of wheat, principally Spelt and Emmer (G. C. Knowles information). The only sample west of the Wolds is the wheat recovered from a trench through the rampart of one of the enigmatic enclosures on Sutton Common, near Askern (Whiting, 1938, Camp B). Helbaek (1952, 208) demonstrated that the introduction of Spelt, allowing a significant intensification of agricultural methods and so an increase in production, was a principa! 1_ nov3.tion of the southern British Ir01: Age. Its appearance at Dragonby is thus significant. Barley was considered (op.cit. fig. 6) to be 17'dr�inally dominant over wheat in the economy. The examin­ atior o t.i'"' iarge number 0f .:;amples recovered in recent years from Garton Sla.0 may tt-· ::x--pected to produce significant evidence of the relative prop­ ortions of different grains grown. The implications of the Club Wheat at S��ple Howe are not clear. Like Spelt, this subspecies is a hexaploid wheat, but it does not seem to have been common in any period of British prehistory. Although the Staple ·Howe samples are large (8, 000 grains from the Quarried Hollow), it must be remembered that animal bones suf­ ficient to fill 14 packing cases were recovered during the excavations (Brewster, 1963, 136). The accurate dating -+ fie s is not possible without excavation or un­ equivocal assoc · at10n with known settlements. The presence of rectilinear systems of s:;,- �n fie � plots in later second millennium B.C., contexts has 8.l.r-:,, • :, L�en mentioned. Examples probably belonging to a later period are known in many parts of the north of England, but most are likeJy to be Romano-British or post-Roman in date. In the north-west, fieldwork in the Lune valley has identified typical fields, farmsteads, and enclosures over 150 acres at Eller Beck (Lowndes, 1963), all apparently contemJX)rary. Excavation produced pottery of the second to the fourth centuries. Work by E.J.W. Hildyard in Co. Durham (1948, 8-9) located a number of early field systems in Weardale, from none of which is there any archaeoloo-ical evi­ dence of date. Surveys by Raistrick in Wf'St Yo-rk.su1re have ctefin,.,d large areas of enclosures incJ!lding lyncheted rectangular fields, but :i. pre-Roman date for any is not yet demonstrable. Further south, excellent examples of Celtic fields are known at Blackwell (Thomas, F., 1961, fig. 16) and C omfo.:...ci (Posnansky, 1956b) in Derbyshire. Moving east, others have been noted north of Doncaster and north-west of Bawtry (RCHM information). In north-east Yorkshire at Cold Cam, a fine series of fields was damr-tge.d by bulldozing in 1952; the remains of a Romano-British kiln and late third to mid-fourth century A.D.pottery were recovered (McDonnell, 1963, 407). Those noted by Elgee (HHO, 218) in Crag Bank Wood, Kildale, may be rEila.t �d to a small early Romano-British settlement nearby (excavations by R. Close). Of the ancient fields in Yorkshire known to the writers, those most likely to be of first millennium B.C.date are to be found on the slopes behind Eston Nab (NZ570180 to NZ572176). Celtic fields are virtually unknown in Lancashire and Cheshire, the only possible examples so far re­ ported being at Kelsall. Cheshire (Bu'lock, 1955). From this summary of 154

r a ther i nadequa te e v idence i t may b e c onc luded t ha t n o e x tens ive a reas o f l ike ly I ron Age f i e lds a re k nown i n t he n or th a nd wes t o f o ur a rea , a l though t here may b e e xamp les i n n or th-east Yorksh ire a nd t he s outhern P enn ines . I n s o me a reas o f t he n or th a nd west , C e lt ic f i e lds a nd o ther e v idence o f s et t lemen t migh t u sefu l ly b e s ough t .

O ne s uch i s l ow land C u mber land .

A lthough t he p reva len t d r i f t s o i ls i n wes t C u mber land a nd t he a rea n or th o f Bramp ton a re c o mpa ct a nd h eavy , l ead ing t o b ad ly d ra ined a cid s o i ls , i n t he l ow lands s outh a nd west o f Car lis le t here i s a much g rea ter v ar iety o f f luv iog lacia l d epos i ts , i nc lud ing much g rand mora ine o f l i gh t t exture a nd v ery l i t t le h eavy c lay .

Much i s s andy l oam o r med iu m l oam , a nd d esp i te

t he mo is ter c l i ma te a rab le f ar m ing wou ld h ave b een p oss ib le . P o l len a na ly s is ( Penn ing ton , 1 970 , f i g .1 7) d oes i n f act i nd ica te c ont inued a rab le f ar mi ng t hroughout t he f irs t mi l lenn iu m B .C. i n p ar ts o f t he l ow land. T h is s ugge s ts t ha t a l though t he t heory o f t he S tanw ick t ype o f e cono my migh t b e a pp l icab le i n many a reas , a rab le f ar m ing may n onethe less h ave b een i mport an t i n s o me .

I n t he a bsence o f a rchaeo log ica l e v idence , h owever , we m igh t

e xpect t ha t e ven i n l ow land C u mber land , w i th i t s mo is t c l ima te , t he p astora l e le men t wou ld h ave b een d om inan t , a nd t he p opu la t ion d ens i ty s parse . As f or t he Tren t Va l ley a nd o ther a reas o f r iver g rave ls t o t he s outh a nd e ast , n o C e lt ic f i e lds a re k nown .

I th as b een p o in ted o u t , h owever ( RCH M ,

1 960 , 1 3 ) , t ha t t h is i s n o t a l together s urpr is ing , s ince l ynchets wou ld n o t b e c rea ted o n f la t g round , a nd t herefore t ha t l ong l inear e ar thworks f orm ing l inear e nc losures may h ave f enced o f f b locks o f f i e lds . S uch migh t b e t he f unct ion o f t he l arge r ect i l inear e nc losures a t Wes ton u pon Tren t a nd S ax i lby ( Notes o n F igures , 9 6) . Much more s a t isfactory e v idence h as b een r ecovered b y a ir p ho tography i n t he Eas t R id ing . Pho tographs o f as i te a t Gr inda le ( P la te X ) i nd ica te a l arge r ound b arrow a nd a c e me tery o f sma l ler r ound-d i tch a nd s quare-d i tch b arrows i n t he a rea o f af i e ld s yste m . At rack ,b etween d i tches i s s een a pproach ing a n a rea e nc losed b y a n i rregu lar d i tch . W ith in t h is e nc losure , as er ies o f r ectangu lar f i e lds 1 10 t o 2 00 f eet b y 5 50 t o 7 50 f eet i s d ef ined b y c ross-d itches . T he f act t ha t t he d i tches o f t he sma l l b arrows w i th in t he f ie lds a re l ess c lear t han t hose o uts ide m igh t s ugges t t ha t t he f i e ld-sys te m p ost-da tes t he b arrows , b ut i ti s t he o p in ion o f RCH M i nvest iga tors ( t he wr iters a re i ndeb ted t o H .G . Ram m f or a ccess t o t h is ma ter ia l ) t ha t t he o ppo si te i s t he c ase , s ince t he b arrow d i tches , a l though n o t c lear ly marked , s ee m t o o ver lie t he f i e ld d iv is ions . C on f irma t ion b y e xcava t ion i s r equ ired . Near R udston ( TA115687) , ar ound-hu t ted s et t le men t n ear a t rackway l eadi ng f ro m t he Green Land h i l lfor t i s s een t o b e a ssocia ted w i th a s ys te m o f r ectangu lar f i e lds ( P1. I I ) . Par ts o f t he n earby R uds ton s quare-d i tch a nd r ound-d i tch b arrow c e metery ( TA1168 a rea ) c lear ly p re-da te a f i e ld s ys te m , t he d i tches o f wh ich d ev ia te t o a vo id t he b arrows . A t S pr ingda le ( TA081683 ) , al arge n u mber o f r ectangu lar d i tched e nc losures p ost-da te a t l eas t p ar t o f a La T ene c e metery .

The e v idence f ro m t he East R id ing , a lbe i t u nsuppor ted

b y e xcava t ion , d oes i nd ica te t he p resence o f c u lt iva ted f i e ld s ys te ms i n t he l a ter p hases o f t he I ron Age a nd p robab ly e ar l ier . E v idence f or t he t echn ique o f c ross-p lough ing h as c o me f ro m o ne s i te

1 55

within our area. Excavation of a Romati &ite in Frodsham Street, Chester. in 1966 1:1ncovered a turf layer beneat 11 the surfacing of a legionary parade­ ground. This layer, up to 9 inches thick, covered an area of 0 . . 8 acres. Removal of the turf revealed a clean clay subsoil which was marked by a cross-hatched pattern of grooves, filled with rich earthy material. This evidence pre-dates the foundation of the fortress wall in the Trajanic per­ iod(CBA Group 5 Annual Newsletter, 9, 1967). Pollen analysis indicated· a pre-clearance phase, a complete woodland clearance and cultivation, and a final re-establishment of grassland and mixed deciduous woodland. The clearance phase woulrl therefore seem to considerably pre-date the founda­ tion of the legionary fortress, but no exact chronology is yet available. In a similar stratigraphical situation were the crossed plough-marks in the boulder clay beneath a Roman road at Stott's House, Walker, Northumber­ land(Jobey, 1965b, 85). Clearly pred2ting the construction of the Military Way(�- A.D. 140), the plough-marks are possibly pre-Roman. At both Chester and Walker there was no unequivocal denial of the possibility of ploughing in different directiotls on two separate occasions, but cross­ ploughing is more likely if the evidence from Gwithian, Cornwall(Megaw, et E:-!·, 1961), is to be considered representative 'of traditional practice. There is little evidence from our area of the ploughs themselves. For the cultivation of heavy soils, as on the clays of Walker and Chester, a strong and heavy ard, presumably using iron share-points of the type found at Hunsbury(Fell, 1937, 66), should be envisaged in widespread use from the mid-Iron Age. The type of modified ard represented in the Pierce­ bridge plough group bronze model of the second or third century A.D. (Manning, 1971, fig. 2, b) could turn a furrow if tilted under heavy press­ ure. From earlier in the first millennium B. C. perhaps we should envisage the fonn of ard lmo�rn from Don'.'ler.u.pland, Denmark(Aberg and Bowen, 1960), and capable only of rather lighter work. It is possible, though not Ii. -�ly, th·•.� striated quartzite pebbles lmown f�om eastern Yorkshire and northen1 Lincolnshire (Phillips, C.W. , 1938) represent the presence of ploughs with studded mould boards in pre-Roman Britain. No balanced s·ckles of the type lmown at Hunsbury(Fell, 1937, 66) and LlJ, . Cerrig Bach(Fox, 1946, Pl. XXXVIII) have been found in northern England. The single example of a curved reaping-hook comes from Brack­ enhall Green, Shipley, near Bradford(SE 129392), and was thought by W. H. Manning(BAGS, 10, 12, 1965) to be Iron Age. It i� of iron, badly· corrod­ ed, and in two fragments. The slightly curving blade seems to have been about 0.75 inches wide and 8.5 inches long, with a short narrow tang set at right-angles. There seems to be little reason why this long narrow blade need necessarily be of Iron Age date.· The item of equipment connected with arable practice which is most numerous in northern England is the quern. The saddle quern and the man­ ufacture of the beehive quern have already been considered(Part II, Chap­ ter 1, v). The distribution of beehive querns is shown on Fig. 98. To the south of ou r area, at Maiden Castl.�, Dorset, Wheeler(1943, 322) found beehive querns of Curwen's Wessex type in association with his Iron Age B pottery but not with Iron Age A. This suggests that beehive querns may 156

ha e begun th ir urrency there in the earlier second century B. C. or per-­ haps before. To the north, Jobey (1959, 269-72) has shown that conical beehive types ar current with lower bun-shaped beehives in the first and seco d centuri s A.D. in the Tyne-Forth province, and that although they may begin earlier, their main currency is in the earlier Roman period. It thus seems that many of the entries on Fig. 98, particularly towards the north, may represent Romano-British activity. What of the evidence from wit in our area? In the north-east, Percy Rigg (Close, 1971) has nine saddle querns and only one eehive quern, suggesting the latter's introduction late in the site's life. Beehive querns are present at Catcote, Normanby, Stanwick, and Levisham Moor, sites with late Iron Age coarse potte y of the first century A.D. However, their presence at Crag Bank, Kildale, with Romano-British material (R. Close information) and at Old Pasture, paunton, with pottery of the third and fourth centurie A. D. (YAJ Arch. Reg., 1964, 174) indicates that a though th ir currency included the first century A.D., their distribution reflect a ultiv tion of southe n and peripheral northern hills m re likely to be Rom no-British in pattern than Iron Age. In the Pennines the association with the second to fourth century A.D. pottery at the previously­ mentioned manufacturing site at Helwith Bridge and their occurr nee at Bu ton nd Me andra Castle in the first century A.D. or later (Curwen, 1941, figs. 8-10), indicate a similar situation. In the eastern foothills, at Milner Wood, Scarcroft, an upper stone was recovered from a field with part of an inscribed Roman alta and a sherd of a second century bowl (SE :388418: YAJ Arch. Reg. 1965, 329). There are relatively few kn wn finds of beehive querns in the East Riding. Their asso iation with pottery solely of later I on Age type (Fig. 40, 8-13) at Littlethorpe, near Rudston (J. Bartlett information), and with ore characteristic late Iron Age pottery at Driffield aerodrome (one fragmentary example: Philips, 1960, no. 42) indicates a pr -Roman urr ncy, probably f om the earlier first century B.C. How­ ever, their occurrence with Romano-British pottery on a settlement cut by pipeline excavations at Thwing (CBA Group 4 Annual Newsletter, 1970, 10) indicates that they continued in use at least down to the third centu y A.D. when flat rotary types became dominant (a suggested by an association at Rudston: ibid.). As for the East Midlands, second century beginnings for beehive quern are indicated by the· r presence on several sites, potte y from which is here illustrated, such as Ancaster (early Iron Age site), Breedon-on- he-Hill, Loughborough, and Willington. Late I on Age use is seen at Scratta Wood, Denton, and Rampton. An upper chronological limit in the area is not apparent. It thu ap ears that although there may have been a second century B. C. int duction of the beehive quern to reas north and west of the East Mid­ land nd the East iding the major weight of the distribution of the type ( ◄ • 98) in the ea tern Pennines and the No th York Moors must be ascr·bed l r ely t Ro ano-Britj a tiv·ty. The absence of the beehive quern i emonstrabl pre-fir t century A.D. contexts might be seen to demand the explanation of an absence of settled agricultural communities in these areas i t e pr -Roman period, a conclusion which might well be reflected by the

157

a pparen t ma ter ia l p over ty o f t he n or th a nd w es t i n t he I ron Age g enera l ly . H owever , ad egree o f c onserva t is m i n s add le-quern u se i s n o t u n like ly . T he q uan t i ty o f s add le-querns p resen t a t P ercy R igg s uggests t he p resence o f a rab le f ar m ing s o mewhere w i th in c on tact o f mos t s et t le men t s i tes , i f n o t i n t he i m med ia te v icin i ty . The s torage p i t i s o ne o f t he mos t r ecurren t s tructures o n s outhern B r i t ish I ron Age s i tes , a nd i s c haracter is t ic o f t he Woodbury Type o f e cono my .

T he d is tr ibu t ion o f p i ts w ith in o ur a rea i sg iven o n F ig . 9 7 .

( The p resence o f s o me p i ts o n t he map wh ich a re u ndoub ted ly f or p urposes o ther t han s torage r esu lts f ro m t he i nev i tab le i nc lus ion o f e xamp les where p roo f o f u se i s l ack ing ) . D eta i ls a nd r eferences o f e ach a re g iven i n No tes o n F igures , 9 7 . Nor th o f P icker ing , t he b es t e xamp le i s a t Grea t Ay ton Moor ( Figs . 6 9-70 ) : i th ad a l in ing o f y e l low c lay a nd a c app ing o f f la t s tones .

I n t he East R id ing , a n o u ts tand ing s er ies h as r ecen t ly b een e xcav-

a ted b y T .C .M . B rewster a t Gar ton S lack : ac o mp lex o f 8 0 , r ang ing i n s ize f ro m 4 t o 6f eet d eep a nd 8 t o 3f eet a cross , u sua l ly v er t ica l-s ided , a nd s o met i mes w i th a 5 t o 6i nch l ayer o f c arbon ised g ra in i n t he b ot to m . Exc ava t ions a t Mam T or , Derbysh ire , c leared s evera l l arge p i ts , i nc lud ing o ne o f b e l l-shape l i ned w i th w icker-work . S torage p i ts a t S cra t ta Wood were u p t o 4f eet d eep , s o me b e l l-shaped , a l l r ock-cu t , l i ned w i th s tones , a nd w i th c lay c app ings .

The d is tr ibut ion map s hows i mpor tan t c oncen tra-

t i ons o f p i ts i n t he East M id lands a nd t he East R id ing . I ti s e v iden t , h owever , t ha t s o me p i ts w ere n o t u sed f or s torage .

T he

p i ts o n Cas t le H i l l , S carborough , d o s ee m t o b e d eep e nough : h a lf a re o ver 2 0 i nches d eep . H owever , o n t he b as is o f t he r ap id wa ter logg ing ( cu t i n to b ou lder c lay ) a nd t heir o f ten s ha l lo* n a ture , R ut ter ( 1959 ) h as i n terpreted t he m a s h ear ths o r f or wa ter s torage . P i ts a t S tret ton a nd Wi l lington i n t he Tren t Va l ley were s hown t o c on ta in h ear ths .

Excava t ions a t B reedon-

o nthe-H i l l i n 1 952 b y J .W . B ur ford ( unpub l ished ) c leared a t l eas t n ine p i ts , t yp ica l ly a bout 5 f eet o r more a cross a nd a bou t 2f eet d eep , c on ta ini ng b urn t a nd c racked s tones n ear t heir b o t to ms . I ts ee ms t ha t t hese w ere h ear ths o r c ook ing-p i ts . T he p i ts a t A tw ick a nd R o lston e xcava ted b y Mor f i t t i n t he e ar ly y ears o f t h is c en tury w ere u sua l ly a bou t 5f eet d eep , b u t u p t o 4 0 f ee t l ong a nd 9 t o 1 0 f ee t w ide w i th s lop ing s ides . There was o f ten e v idence o f f i re i n t he b ot to ms ( Greenwe l l a nd Ga t ty , 1 910 , f i g . 1 ) . were p robab ly n o t f or s torage .

These

D esp i te t he p resence o f p i ts w i th o ther f unct ions , t he d is tr ibu t ion o n F ig . 9 7 d oes i nd ica te a n e v iden t t rend i n p i t s torage . La ter I ron Age e xamp les i n t he East R id ing a t Gar ton S lack , Dr i f f ie ld , a nd R uds ton , a nd i n t he Eas t M id lands a t S cra t ta Wood , C o ls terwor th , Ancaster , a nd T a l ling ton , may b e s een a s e v idence f or i ncreased g ra in-grow ing . O u t liers t o t he n or th ( Grea t Ay ton Moor a nd Ca tcote ) a re a lso l a te . The w es t Yorksh ire o ut l ier a t Ha lton G i l l i s a l most c er ta in ly R o mano-Br i t ish . T he Mam Tor p i ts , p res u mab ly c on te mporary w ith t he o ther o ccupa t ion o n t ha t s i te , a re o u ts tandi ng b ut n o t r e la ted t o t he l a ter p a t tern . On ly i n t he P enn ines a nd t he n or th-west d oes t here s ee m t o b e a n a bs ence o f a rchaeo log ica l e v idence f or g ra in-grow ing i n t he f i rs t mi l lenn iu m B .C. ‚ there fore .

There a re s ound e nv ironmen ta l r easons f or t h is r ef lected

1 58

i n t he p resen t d ay l and u se p a t tern .

Arab le f i e lds a re s pread o ver t he

e as tern f oo thi l ls b e low a bou t 4 00 f eet , b u t e ven t he f l oors o f t he P enn ine d a les a re b eyond t he p ract ica l l im i ts o f c rop-grow ing ( Boer . 1 967, 3 78 ) . The i nh ib i t ing f actors a re t he l a te s tar t t o t he g row ing s eason , t he d ryness o f t he e ar ly s u m mer , t he w et p er iod o f J u ly

a nd Augus t , a nd t hus t he l i ke-

l ihood o f t he c rops r e ma in ing u nr ipe a t t he o nset o f w in ter c ond i t ions i n Nove mber . Much o f t he h igh land p la teau a rea e xceeds t he l im i t o f h u man h ab i tab i li ty .

Wes t o f t he P enn ines , b eyond t he p ea t a reas a nd t he s tony

Carbon iferous s lopes , t he l arge a reas o f P enn ine Dr i f t a nd N or thern Dr if t d epos i ts i nh ib i ted e ar ly a gr icu lture b ecause o f t he s ur face wetness a nd t he h igh c lay c on ten t r equ ir ing a u tu mn p lough ing ( Ha l l a nd F o l land , 1 970 ) . Even o n t he l i gh ter , b et ter-dra ined s o i ls n or th o f L iverpoo l a nd a round C lit he r oe , a nd o n t he l ow lands o f C umber land , t he h igh i ncidence o f wet o vercast d ays mus t h ave i nh ib i ted l and u se . T hus e ven t oday i n t he r ura l a reas o f n or thern a nd w es tern Eng land , a n a nnua l r hy th m o f s tock move men t b e tween h igher a nd l ower p as turage t akes p lace .

Hay p roduct ion i s v i ta l .

T he a bsence o f a Woodbury T ype o f

e conomy i n t he n or th a nd w es t i n t he I ron Age wou ld s ee m t o b e d icta ted b y c lima te a nd t opography . P opu la t ion d ens i t ies wou ld t hus b e l im i ted b y t he e nv ironmen ta l c ons tra in ts o n f ood-producing c apaci ty . H owever , t o t he s outh a nd e as t , c arbon ised g rain , s torage p i ts , a nd f i e ld s ys te ms i nd ica te t he p resence o f a rab le f arm ing . C li ma te a nd s o i ls p erm i t ted s et t led c o mmun i t ies t o i n tensi fy a gr icu ltura l p ract ice , a nd t hus a l lowed p opu la t ion i nc rease . S uch wou ld b e p ar t icu lar ly p oss ib le , a nd i ndeed l i ke ly , f ro m t he midIron Age , when t he u se o f s tronger a nd h eav ier a rds e nab led c u l t ivat i on o f h eav ier s o i ls .

We n ow t urn t o t he e v idence u sua l ly t hough t t o i n-

d ica te ap astora l e cono my , ac ons idera t ion o f wh ich w i l l r evea l more o f t he i mpor tance o f t he a rab le s ector . i . P as tora l Ev idence T he S tanw ick T ype o f e cono my h as b een d escr ibed a s as em i-nomad ic p astora l o ccupa t ion b ased o n c a t t le ( P iggo t t , 1 961, 1 4-6 ) .

T he a n i ma l

b ones f ro m S tanw ick i t se lf (W hee ler , 1 954 , 5 7) w ere o f l arge q uan t i ty b u t v ery f ragmen tary . R e la t ive p ropor t ions were a pprox i ma te ly 4 0% c a t t le . 2 3% s heep ,1 6% p ig , a nd 1 3% h orse , i nd ica t ing t he f i rm p redo m inance o f b eef i n t he d iet .

A n a na lys is o f t he b ones f ro m Ca tcote , a bou t 2 5 m i les t o

t he n or th-eas t , s howed a s im i lar p a t tern ( Hodgson , 1 968 ) . T he m in i mu m n u mbers o f a n i ma ls r epresen ted were 8c a t t le , 6s heep , 3p igs , a nd 2 h orses .

Assu m ing t ha t a l l d o mes t ic a n i ma ls were e a ten , 7 8 .6% o f t he mea t

wou ld h ave b een b ee f . T he c a t t le w ere e v iden t ly o f t he C e lt ic S hor thorn v ar iety , B os t aurus l ong i frons . T here a re n o o ther s ta t is t ica l a na lyses o f a n i ma l b ones f ro m t he n or th a nd west , s o f or t he p resen t t h is e v idence mus t b e p rov isiona l ly a ccep ted a s r epresen ta t ive o f t hese a reas i n t he a bs ence o f i nd ica t ions o f a n o therw ise m ixed e cono my . Two l arge c o l lec tions o f a n i ma l b ones f ro m p re-La T ene East R id ing a re a va i lab le : f ro m S tap le H owe ( Brews ter , 1 963 , 1 36-7) a nd f ro m Gr i mt horpe ( Jar man , e t a l ., 1 968 ) . T he f our teen p ack ing c ases o f ma ter ia l f ro m S tap le H owe h ave n o t b een a dequa te ly a na lysed , a nd a pparen t ly t he

1 59

ma jor i ty h as n ow b een d es troyed . mos t a bundan t .

Ca t t le , s heep , a nd p igs were s a id t o b e

O f t he b ones a nd f rag men ts i den t i f ied f ro m Gr im thorpe ,

5 4 . 9 % were c a t t le , 2 5 . 0 % s heep o r g oa ts , 7 .8 % p igs , a nd 7 .3% h orses . The q uan t i t ies o f b ones r ecovered were l arge c ons ider ing t he e x ten t o f t he e xcava t ions . N o a na lyses o f a n i ma l b ones a re a va i lab le f or l a ter s i tes i n t he East R id ing .

F ro m t he d i tches o f t he l a te I ron Age s i te a t Dr i f f ie ld

a erodro me c ame b ones ( Ph i lips , 1 960 , 1 91) .

o f c a t t le , s heep , g oa ts , p igs , h orses , a nd d ogs

T he La T ene p eop les o f Yorksh ire were s een 'by F ox

( 1958 , 1 9 ) a s b reeders o f p ony , p ig , a nd p robab ly c a t t le , o n t he e v idence f ro m t he b ur ia ls . The v ery c o m mon o ccurrence o f p ig s ke letons a nd b one s i n g raves , a nd t he p resence o f s o me r e ma ins o f h orses w i th c ar t-bur ia ls a nd o f r i tua l o x a nd l amb b ur ia ls a t G ar ton S lack ( D . o f t he E . 1 971, 1 2-4 ), c er ta in ly s how t he p resence a nd r i tua l s ign i f icance o f t hese a n ima ls , p art i cu lar ly o f t he p ig .

N o i nd ica t ion i s g iven , h owever , o f t he ir r e la t ive

impor tance i n t he f ood-producing e cono my . I n t he East M id lands , t he a n i ma l b ones f ro m Wacher 's e xcava t ions a t B reedon-onthe-H i l l ( H iggs , 1 964 ) i nd ica te t he f o l low ing min i mu m t o ta ls : 2 8 c a t t le , 2 0 s heep o r g oa ts , 5p igs , a nd 1h orse . T here were v ery f ew b ones a t S cra t ta Wood , s ugges t ing t ha t a l though t he u sua l d o mes t ic a n i ma ls were p resen t t he e cono my was b ased o n a rab le f arm ing , r ef lec ted i n t he s torage p i ts o f t he s i te .

The v ery a bundan t a n i ma l b ones f ro m D ragonby

h ave y et t o b e p ub lished i n d eta i l , b u t p re l im inary i nd ica t ions a re t ha t t he f ar m ing e cono my was m ixed , w i th c a t t le , g oa ts , p igs a nd p ar t icu lar ly h orses b eing k ep t , a nd whea t a nd b ar ley g rown ( G .C . Know les i n for ma t ion ) . The b ones f ro m O ld S lea ford h ave b een e xam ined , h owever ( H iggs a nd Wh i te , 1 963 ) . T hose a ss ignab le t o t he l a te I ron Age i nd ica te a h igh i ncide nce o f s heep , a t l eas t 2 7 a n i ma ls b e ing r epresen ted a longs ide 1 4 p igs , 7 c a t t le , a nd 2 h orses . These p ropor t ions r epresen t as ign i f ican t d ivergence f ro m a l l o ther p ub l ished a na lyses i n o ur a rea . C lark ( 1947, 1 28-32 ) h as s hown t ha t aw idespread r e la ti ve e nergence o f s heep i n t he La te B ronze Age a nd e ar ly I ron Age i n s outhern B r ita in was a r esu lt o f a n i ncrease i n f ores t c learance a nd i n p ressure o f p opu la t ion , l ead ing t o more i n tens ive a rab le f arming .

S heep wou ld b e f avoured u nder s uch c ond i t ions s ince , u n-

l ike c a t t le a nd p igs , t hey c ou ld f eed o n f a l low g round , a nd s ince t hey c ou ld b e w in tered i n t he o pen wh i lst p rov id ing manure f or s oi l ma in tenance . The e v idence o f t he a n i ma l b ones t herefore s ugges ts t ha t c a t t le-reari ng was t he p redo m inan t o ccupa t ion i n t he n or th a nd w es t i n t he p re-Ro man p er iod , a nd a lso t o ac ons iderab le e x ten t i n t he Eas t R id ing a nd t he Eas t • M id lands i n t he p re-La T ene p er iod a nd t he e ar lier p er iods o f t he I ron Age r espect ive ly . E v idence f or l a ter p er iods i sl im i ted a t p resen t t o t ha t f rom O ld S lea ford , wh ich i nd ica tes a s et t led f arm ing e cono my i n wh ich s heep were i mpor tan t a nd i n wh ich a rab le f arm ing , b y i mp lica t ion , was d om inan t . The d istr ibu t ion o f s torage p i ts s uggests t ha t am ixed f ar m ing e cono my was p resen t i n t he Eas t M id lands a nd t he Eas t R id ing . i n t he l ater I ron Age . A ma jor f actor wh ich P iggo t t s aw c on tr ibu t ing t o t he t heory o f t he S tanw ick T ype o f e cono my was t he p resence o f l inear d yke s ys te ms o n t he Yorksh ire Wo lds ( 1961 , 1 4-5 ) , wh ich h e c ons idered t o b e r e la ted t o t he r anch ing o f c a t t le a nd p robab ly a lso o f h orses . 1 60

I ti s u sefu l , t herefore , t o

e xa m ine t he e v idence o f l i near a nd b oundary e ar thworks i n more d eta il. ( The wr iters a re i ndebted t o H .G . Ra m m f or d iscuss ion a nd a ccess t o mat er ia l ).

The wea l th o f e x tan t e ar thworks i n t he E as t R id ing k nown i n t he

n ineteen th c en tury a nd mapped b y Mor t i mer ( 1905 , e nd map ) h as n ow b een a l mos t t o ta lly o b l itera ted b y d eep-p lough ing , a nd s o me e xamp les a re n o l onger v is ible e ven b y a ir p ho tography u nder i dea l c ond it ions. T he e ar thworks a re g enera l ly l i near , o f d i tches a nd b anks , s ing le o r mu l t ip le , a nd i fs een a s as ing le n etwork t hey d ef ine a who le s er ies o f e nc losures.

H ow-

e ver , t he r ecen t work o f t he RCH M h as i nd ica ted t ha t t hey r epresen t a v ar ie ty o f f unc t ions a nd c ons truc t ion o ver a l ong p er iod . T here s ee ms l i tt le r eason t o d oub t t he p reh is tor ic o r ig in o f many , p ar t icu lar ly i n v iew o f t he r e la t ionsh ips t o o ther s tructures wh ich s o me o f t he m a re s een b y a ir p hotography t o e xh ib it . T hree ma in f unc t ions o f t he d y les may b e d ef ined ; s o me e xa mp les may p er form a l l , b u t o thers o n ly o ne. T he f i rst i s a s ar oadway . T he o b l ique a ng les o f d yke j unc t ions i n s o me a reas a re t yp ica l o f ar oad s ys te m , t he b road d i tches f unct ion ing a s h o l low-ways. T he s yste m n ear S pee ton ( TA 1 574 a rea ) i s o ne s uch , s een t o b e l a ter t han Bronze Age n arrows a nd e ar l ier t han t he Med ieva l s et t le men t p a t tern , a nd t hus p robab ly I ron Age o r Ro manoBr it ish .

Excava t ion o f ad oub le d yke a t R ip l ingha m ( TA 9 58322 Wacher ,

1 965 , 6 08-12 ) c orrobora ted t he r oadway t heory ;

t he i nner e as tern d i tch ,

aw ide , r egu lar V -shaped p ro f ile , h ad i t s b o t to m w orn smoo th a nd n ear ly r ectangu lar i n s ec t ion b y t ra f f ic.

Beneath t he b ank o f t he R ip l ingham d yke

w ere f ound a f ew s craps o f p o t tery , t oo sma l l t o b e a ss igned t o a ny s pec if ic p er iod , b u t p robab ly o f t he f i rs t m i l lenn iu m B .C. T he f act t ha t t he i nner d i tch w as u sed a s at rackway r a ther t han t he o uter i nd icates a s econd f unct i on o f t he d yke a s as em i-defens ive b oundary .

A s im ilar d ua l ity o f f unc t ion

i s s hown b y o ne o f t he mos t c o mp l ica ted o f t he d yke s i tes , a t H uggate , where s ix p ara l le l d ykes o ccupy t he n arrow s add le o f l and b etween t wo s ys te ms o f d ry v a l leys wh ich p rov ide o ne o f t he n arrowes t c ross ing-po in ts o f t he Wo ids. F ie ld-work b y t he RCH M h as i den t if ied f i ve p hases o f c ons truct ion , o f wh ich t he e ar l ies t i s ah o l low-way r unn ing u p t he v a l ley s ide. A d oub le d yke t hough t t o b e l a ter h as b een e xcava ted b y W.J . Var ley ( F ig . 6 5 ). I t was f ound t o c ons ist o f ac ha lk r ubb le b ank w ith a c oursed f ace t o t he s ou th a nd a U -prof i led d i tch t o t he n or th. A s herd o f p o t tery w ith f i ngert ipped d ecora t ion o f e ar ly I ron Age t ype w as f ound i n t he p r i mary s i lt o f t he d i tch a nd i s t hough t b y Var ley t o d a te t he e ar thwork , b u t a ir p ho tographs s how a n i rregu lar d i tched e nc losure c rossed b y t wo o f t he l a ter d yke s ys te ms , s o i t may b e t ha t t he s herd r ela tes t o t he o ccupa t ion o f t h is e nc losure. A d a te i n t he I ron Age o r s l igh t ly l a ter i s l i ke ly f or a t l east p ar t o f t he H ugga te s ys te m , h owever . S ince t he b ank e xcavated b y V ar ley i s t o t he o u ter s ide o f i t s d i tch a p r i ma r ily d e fens ive f unc t ion i s r u led o u t . T he mu l t ip l ica t ion o f t he ' d ykes t hus h as t o b e e xp la ined i n t erms o f ab oundary f unct ion. w orks a re l ike ly t o b e p ost-Ro man .

S o me o f t he a dd it iona l

T he t h ird f unc t ion o f s o me o f t he d ykes i s t ha t o f l and d iv is ion f or p ast ora l o r f ar m ing p urposes.

S o me d ykes h ave i n f act b een r e-dug w ith in

l i v ing me mory t o d iv ide p as ture f ro m a rab le l and .

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Th is a spect i s t he mos t

r e levan t h ere . e d .

Two g roups o f d ykes i n p ar t icu lar may b e b r ief ly men t ion-

On L eaver ing Wo ld ( SE 8 062 a rea ) as er ies o f l inear e ar thworks , u su-

a l ly o f as ing le d i tch w i th a t l eas t o ne b ank , f or ms an u mber o f e nc losures , i nclud ing o ne 4 00 b y 5 00 metres a nd a nother 1 70 b y 1 30 metres .

I ti s s ig-

n i f ican t t ha t a t o ne p o in t ( SE 8 0056302 ) t he d i tch o f ad yke i s d e libera te ly a l igned b etween t wo a d jacen t s quare-d itched b arrows , a nd t ha t a t t wo o thers ( SE79856302 a nd S E80236301) s quare-d i tched b arrows a re s een t o a bu t t he d yke , i mp ly ing i t s c o-ex is tance . 4 0 b y 5 0 metres a bu ts t he l arger s ys te m . wou ld s ee m t o b e o f La T& ie d a te .

Af ur ther r ectangu lar e nc losure T he who le e nc losure n etwork

A s im i lar b u t l ess r egu lar s er ies o f

d ykes f or m ing sma l l e nc losures i s t o b e s een s ou th o f B irdsa l l ( SE 8 263 a rea ) . An u mber o f a dd i t ions t o a sma l ler s ys te m o f f arm e nc losures c an b e d is t ingu ished . H .G . Ram m c onsiders al a te I ron Age o r Ro manoB r i t ish d a te l i ke ly .

C on f ir ma t ion o f d a te b y e xcava tion i s r equ ired .

Thus , a t l eas t s o me o f t he Eas t R id ing d ykes a re t o b e s een a s l and d iv is ions .

T he e nc losure b y d ykes o f a rab le f i e lds a lready i n e x is tence ,

a s a t G r indale ( P la te X ), i nd ica tes t ha t a l though many o f t he b oundar ies may h ave d ef ined s tock e nc losures o thers s urrounded c u lt iva ted a reas . I t i s s ign i f ican t t ha t mos t o f t he a reas o f a rab le s o f ar d iscovered f ro m t he a ir a nd p rov isiona l ly a ss igned t o t he I ron Age p er iod o ccupy s lop ing a reas a round 2 50 f t . 0 .D . ,whereas t he L eaver ing Wo ld a nd t he l arger o f t he B irdsa l l e nc losures , among o thers , d iv ide t he h igher Wo lds p la teaux . P ub lica t ion o f t he RCH M work s t i l l i n p rogress w i l l p resen t more d eta i led c onc lusions .

F or t he p resen t , t he i mpor tance o f t he a rab le s ector s hou ld

n ot b e o ver-e mphas ised , b u t t he i nd ica t ions f ro m t he p resence o f l and d iv is ions i n t he Eas t R id ing , u sua l ly c on te mporary w i th o r l a ter t han La r ene b ur ia l e nc losures , a re o f as et t led c o mmun i ty e ngaged i n mixed a gr ic u lture . Land d iv is ions i n t wo more a reas mus t n ow b e c ons idered : i n t he East Mid lands a nd n or th-east Yorksh ire . I n t he Eas t M id lands , f arm b oundari es g enera l ly r ect i linear i n p lan s ee m t o h ave b een marked i n p ar t b y d itches , i n t he s ame w ay a s i n t he East R id ing , b u t i n a dd i t ion o ne o f t he mos t d is t inct ive t ypes o f b oundary work i s t he p i t a l ign men t ( Fig . 9 5 : n o te t ha t t he d istr ibu t ion p robab ly r ef lects i n c ons iderab le measure s e lect ive a ir p ho tography , a l though t he r iver g rave ls w ou ld h ave b een p ar t icu lar ly a t tract ive t o s et t le men t ) . S o me p i t a l ignmen ts i n t he Upper Thames r eg ion h ave b een s een t o b e B e lg ic i n d a te ( Hard ing , 1 972 , 5 5 ) , a nd i n p ar t icu lar i th as b een s uggested t ha t o ne a t N or th f ie ld F arm , L ong Wi t tenham , d ef ines a n a rea o f c u lt iva ted l and a longs ide t he r iver T hames . I n t he We l land v a l ley , f ar m p roper t ies s ee m s im i lar ly t o h ave b een d ef ined , a nd i th as b een s hown b y e xcava t ion t ha t t he p i t a l ignmen t b oundar ies were i n troduced i n t he I ron Age ( S i mpson; W. G ., 1 966 , 1 8-21 , f ig . 5 ) . Excava t ions a t Ta l l ing ton 3 8 ( Fenne l l , 1 961) i nd ica ted a n a l ignmen t o f p i ts 8f eet a cross a nd 4 f eet d eep .

F ro m o ne p i t s evera l s herds o f ag lobu lar v esse l w i th

s o me k ind o f i ncised d ecora t ion were r ecovered . Th is a l ignmen t i s p ar t o f as ys te m o f t hree , r unn ing p ara l le l , a ssocia ted w i th sma l l s ub-rectangu lar d i tched e nc losures . s hou ld b e e nvisaged .

Al andscape o f s ca t tered f arms w i th l inear b oundar ies The s i tua t ion i n t he T ren t v a l ley s ee ms t o h ave b een

1 62

s o mewha t s im i lar .

Ap i t a l ignmen t a t Weston u pon Tren t ( E MAB , V I I , 4 )

i s c lear ly a n a dd i t ion t o ar ectangu lar e nc losure 3 60 b y 1 70 f eet .

The e n-

c losure d i tch , 1 5 f eet w ide a nd 5 f eet d eep , c on ta ined s evera l I ron Age s herds .

F ur ther w es t , a n a l ignmen t a t S henstone may b e o f l a te f irs t o r

s econd c en tury A .D .d a te ( S i mpson , 1 966 , 1 8 ) .

I ts ee ms t han i n s o me a reas

t owards t he e nd o f t he I ron Age a c o mp lete s ys te m o f l and d iv is ion was d ev e loped f ro m e ar l ier l ess e x tens ive e nc losures .

On t he b as is o f t he s truct-

u res a t T a l ling ton 3 7 a nd t he a n i ma l b ones a t O ld S lea ford , a mixed f arm ing e cono my may b e i n ferred .

R o man r oads a nd l and d iv is ions were t hus n o t

c ons tructed t hrough a n o pen c oun trys ide . ( S t . J oseph , 1 958 , P 1 . XV I ) . S tructures r e la ted t o t he M id lands p i t a l ignmen ts h ave l ong b een k nown i n n or th-east Yorksh ire . E lgee ( 1930 , 1 51 , f i g . 5 1) d escr ibed a d oub le r ow o f c ircu lar p i ts l y ing a cross t he s pur o f Eas ing ton H igh Moor a t a bout 7 50 f t . 0 .D . b e tween n arrow v a l leys .

Excava t ion h ad s hown t he p i ts t o b e 4t o

5f eet d eep a nd 1 0 t o 1 2 f ee t a cross .

O n t he o u ter s ide o f e ach r ow r an a

p ara l le l b ank o f s tones . A s im i lar b oundary was r epor ted a t t wo l oca t ions t o t he e as t . Mor t imer ( 1895 , 2 67-8 ) r eferred t o t wo p ara l le l l ines o f p i ts o n A l lers ton Moor o ver look ing t he V a le o f P icker ing , s et 2 t o 3f eet a par t a nd c ons is t ing o f p i ts 5 t o 6f eet a cross a nd 3 .5 f eet d eep , a nd a s im i lar d oub le l i ne o n E bbers ton Moor . S ince i n t he l a t ter c ase t he p i ts b ecame e longa ted , a nd f ina l ly merged i n to a c on t inuous d i tch , h is c onclus ion was t ha t t he p i ts r epresen ted u n f in ished d ykes . A lthough t h is may b e s o , t here i s a n e v iden t c o mparab i li ty w i th t he Eas t M id lands p i t a l ignmen ts , a nd w i th o ther e xamp les f ur ther n or th a t I nveresk , M id lo th ian , a nd a t L in ton , R oxb urgsh ire ( RCH M , 1 960 , 3 0-1) . D esp i te t he ma jor d is t inct ive f actor o f a d oub le r ow o f p i ts , t he i n ference s ee ms t o b e t ha t i n s o me l ower a nd more p er iphera l a reas o f t he Nor th Y ork Moors t here was s o me d eve lopmen t o f l and d iv is ion i n t he l a te I ron Age a nd R o mano-Br i t ish p er iods . P erhaps i t i s r e la ted t o t he b eeh ive q uerns f ound i n t he a reas (F ig . 9 8 ) , a nd t hus i nd icat i ve o f a mixed f ar m ing e cono my . F ew o ther n or th-east Yorksh ire l i near e ar thworks a re i nc luded o n F ig . 9 6 .

Those a t P ercy R igg a nd L ev isha m Moor s ee m t o b e f arm b oundar ies

a ssociated w i th s et t le men ts ( see No tes o n F igures , 9 6) , b u t t here s ee ms l i t t le p os i t ive i nd ica t ion o f a n I ron Age d a te i n t he many o ther c ases . S o me e ar thworks s ee m t o b e i n a ssocia t ion w i th sma l l c a irn g roups a nd i rregu lar wa l l ing , a nd may b e B ronze A ge ( see P ar t I I , C hap ter 8 , i ) . Many a re n o t d efens ive i n t he h i l lfor ti f ica t ion s ense , a s t hey h ave t he ir ma in b anks d own s lope o f t he ir d i tches ( as o n C as t leton R igg , n or th d yke : E lgee , 1 930 , 1 39 ) . An u mber may b e p os t-Ro man . S im i lar ly , o n ly we l l-subs tan t ia ted e xamp les f ro m t he Eas t R id ing a re marked o n F ig . 9 6 .

I t may b e t ha t o ne o f t he mc4

s ign i f ican t a dvances i n I ron A ge s tud ies i n t he n ear f uture w i l l b e t he i den t i f i ca t ion o f e x tens ive s yste ms o f l inear e ar thworks a t tr ibu tab le t o t he p er iod . I th as b een s ugges ted ( Brad ley , 1 971, 7 7) t ha t a n i ncrease i n p opu la t ion b eyond t he c apaci ty o f a va i lab le n on- marg ina l l and t o a cco m moda te i tl eads t o a more a cute c oncep t o f t err i tor ia li ty . c a l ly b y t he b u i ld ing o f l and b oundar ies .

T h is i s r epresen ted a rchaeo log iI ti s u sefu l t o n o te t ha t mos t l inear

a nd c ross-dykes i n t he s ou thern E ng lish c ha lk d own land l ack a ny e n trances wh ich c ou ld b e u sed a s t hrough r outes f ro m o ne a rea t o a no ther ( i b id ) . P re-

1 63

c ise ly t he s ame f a ct i s e v iden t f ro m t he d ykes i n e astern Yorksh ire , where n ot a s ing le e n trance i n b oundary works i s k nown . ( H .G . Ram m i n format i on ) .

I ti s t hus t e mp t ing t o s ee t he d eve lopmen t o f l and b oundar ies i n t he

Eas t R id ing a nd t he Eas t M id lands a s ar esponse t o ap opu la t ion i ncrease ( wh ich may b e s hown o n t he b as is o f b ur ia l n u mbers : s ee n ex t c hap ter ) a nd t he s carci ty o f l and . B rad ley h as a lso a rgued , o n t he b as is o f t he c hang ing c harac ter o f h i l lf or t o ccupa t ion i n s ou thern E ng land d ur ing t he f irs t m i l lenn ium B .C. ,t ha t a n i n tensi f ica t ion o f a rab le f arm ing o ccurred d ur ing t he I ron Age ( op . c i t . , 7 7) . We h ave s een t hat e ar ly e cono my a t G r in i thorpe was l arge ly c a t t leb ased , wh i le t ha t r a ther l a ter a t S tap le H owe may b e i n terpreted a s t o s o me d egree m ixed , a l though s t i l l p redo m inan t ly p as tora l . P as tora l is m emp loys o n ly a l im i ted l abour f orce u t i lised o ver aw ide a creage , a nd p rov ides l i t t le work o r s urp lus c apac i ty f or a n i ncreased p opu la t ion ( op . c i t . , 7 9 ) . O n t he o ther h and , a rab le i n tensi f ica t ion o f fers a n i ncrease i n f ood p roduct ion i nvo lv ing a more t han p ropor t iona te work i npu t ( op . c it . ,8 0 ) . I t may b e a rgued t ha t more i n tensive a rab le f arming n eed o n ly o ccur u nder p opu la t ion p ressure , h in ted a t b y t he p resence o f b oundary d i tches .

I n t h is

c on tex t we may s ee t he i n troduct ion o f S pe lt a s p erm i t t ing i ncreased p rodu ct ion . S uch c hanges a re o n ly l i ke ly t o c ome a bou t u nder c en tra l d irect ion ( i b id . ) :p erhaps we h ave e v idence o f t h is i n t he c ar t-bur ia ls o f t he Yorks h ire Wo lds am ids t t he myr iads o f p oor a nd u nacco mpan ied g raves i n c e meter ies e xcava ted a nd s een b y a ir p ho tography . I ti s s uggested , t herefore , t ha t t he l inear e ar thworks a re n o t t o h e i n terpreted s o le ly a s p ar t o f ap as tora l r anch ing e cono my , b u t r a ther a s t he l and d iv is ions o f s et t led c o m mun i t ies e ngaged i n mixed f arm ing . A c a t t le b ased e cono my o ver t he n or th a nd w es t o f o ur a rea r igh t d own t o t he Ro man p er iod i s l i ke ly b ecause o f e nv iron men ta l c ons tra in ts. H owever , a lt hough t he s ame may b e r ecogn ised a t Gr im thorpe , a nd t o s ome d egree a lso a t S tap le H owe a nd B reedon-on-the-H i l l i n t he e ar lier I ron Age o n t he b as is o f a n i ma l b ones , t he I ron Age i n t he Eas t R id ing a nd t he Eas t M id lands s aw i ncreas ing ly s et t led c o m mun i t ies a nd d ivers i f ied a gr icu lture .

S torage p i ts

a t C ow lam , Manor Farm , K i lham , a nd G rea t K enda le s ugges t t ha t i ncrease d a rab le f arm ing c ame w i th t he La T ene p er iod .

T he p i ts a t Gar ton S lack

i nd ica te s torage o f g ra in i n t he l a te I ron Age o n av ery l arge s ca le .

A l-

t hough a n i ma ls p robab ly c on t inued t o b e a measure o f s ocia l w ea lth ( see c o m men ts i n n ex t c hap ter ) , w i th p as tora l is m t hus r e ma in ing i mpor tan t , t he p ropor t ion o f a rab le c rops i n t he d iet e v iden t ly i ncreased . An ima l b ones a t O ld Sea ford s how a c hanged b a lance i n f avour o f s heep . Land b oundar ies i nd ica te d iv is ions b etween p opu la t ion u n i ts a nd b e tween t ypes o f l and u se . I n c onc lusion , a l though t he c oncep t o f t he S tanw ick T ype o f e cono my may b e r ead i ly a pp lied t o a reas o f t he P enn ines , t he west , a nd t he n or th i n t he p reR oman p er iod , e lsewhere f arm ing b eca me i ncreas ing ly mixed a nd i n tens ive , e co log ica l c ond i t ions a nd a gr icu ltura l t echn iques s o a l low ing . As f or t he d eta i ls o f t he o rgan isa ti on o f t he p as tora l e cono my , l i t t le c an b e g leaned , p ar t icu lar ly s ince H iggs a nd Wh i te ( 1963 ) s howed t ha t a ny e v idence f or a utu mn k i l ling b ased o n a n a na lys is o f t he a ge o f s pec i mens d eterm ined b y t he e rup t ion a nd wear o f t ee th i s l ike ly t o b e i l lusory . I ti s

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t hus n ot p oss ib le t o a ssu me t han a n a bnorma l ly h igh p ropor t ion o f t he l i ves tock w as k i l led i n t he a u tumn b ecause o f as hor tage o f w in ter f odder.

An-

a na lys is o f t he Gr im thorpe ma ter ia l ( Jar man , e t a l., 1 968, 1 88 ) s howed t hat n ot o n ly t he b reed ing h erds b u t t he ma jor ity o f t he a n i ma ls w ere o verw in tered . Th is e v idence s ugges ts t ha t t here was n o p rob le m o f w in ter f odder r esources , a nd t ha t t here may w e l l h ave b een n o h u man p opu la t ion p ressure. 7 5% o f t he c a t t le a nd 6 3% o f t he s heep w ere s laugh tered b etween t he a ges o f 1 2 a nd 3 0 mon ths ;

t ha t i s when modera te w e igh t w ou ld h ave b een a ch ieved.

The e v idence f ro m Breedon-on-the-H il l i s i n a ccordance w ith t hese c onc lus ions ( H iggs , 1 964 , 1 40 ) : t he ma jor ity o f t he c a t t le w ere o ver-w in tered a t l east o nce. A t Ca tcote a lso t here s ee ms t o h ave b een a c ons iderab le c apac ity t o o ver-w in ter l i ves tock ( Hodgson , 1 968, 1 30 ). C onnected w ith t he t he mes o f p as tora l is m , p opu la t ion i ncrease , s urp lus p roduc t ion , a nd t rade i s t he s a lt i ndus try . S a l t p roduct ion s i tes i n H a l lsta t t a nd L a f ene t imes h ave b een mapped b y P iggot t ( 1965 , f igs. 9 4 a nd 1 40 ) o n t he b as is o f w ork b y N enqu in ( 1961 ). Ro mano-Br it ish s a lt ings a re e x tens ive o n t he L inco lnsh ire , t he F en land , a nd t he East Ang l ian c oasts ( Ha l lam , 1 960 ; 1 970 , 6 7-70 ). There i s e v idence f or s a l t- mak ing i n t he l a ter I ron Age f ro m an u mber o f L inco lnsh ire s i tes , n o tab ly I ngo ldme l ls ( Baker , 1 959 , 3 1-4 ), S outh F err iby ( H MP , 2 14 , 1 963, 2 3, 3 3 ), Add lethorpe a nd Wrang le ( LAASRP , I X , 1 961, 1 3 ), a nd H e lpr ingham F en ( TF153407 ; J . May i n forma t ion ). A r econs truc t ion o f t he p rocesses o f s a l t-bo i l ing h as b een o ut l ined b y R ieh m ( 1961). T here s eems t o b e l i t t le d irect e v idence o f t he a ssoc ia t ion o f e ar l ier p o t tery f ro m I ngo ldme l ls ( Baker , 1 959 , 2 9-31 ) w ith s a lt manu facture, h owe ver . S uch a ct iv ity o n a n i ndus tr ia l s ca le i n M id land a nd n or thern Eng land i n t he e ar ly I ron Age h as y et t ob e p roved . The p resence o f mar ine mo l lusca o n s evera l e ar ly s i tes i nc lud ing S tap le H owe ( Brews ter , 1 963, 1 38 ) a nd Harborough Rocks ( Ward , 1 890 ) s trong ly s uggests s ea-shore c on tacts e ven f ro m c en tra l i n land s i tes , p robab ly p r i mar i ly f or b r ine-co l lect ion . Dur ing e xcava t ion o f t he l ower l ayer o f o ccupa t ion ma ter ia l r evea led i n s and q uarry ing a t T hornha m H i l l , E as t R id ing , i n 1 950-51 ( f or d escr ip t ion o f s i te, s ee Par t I , Chap ter 4 , i ) , Messrs. C . a nd E . Gran tham r ecovered al arge p o ttery v esse l , a l mos t c o mp lete , f u l l o f s eeds m ixed w ith d ark f r ia b le s andy e ar th . Un fortuna te ly t he v esse l c o l lapsed o n e xposure t o a ir a nd s un l igh t , a nd n o s herds a re n ow a va ilab le f or s tudy . O ther p o t tery f rom t he l ower o ccupa t ion l ayer s ugges ts a d a te i n t he f i f th c en tury B .C.

T hrough

t he k ind o f f ices o f Dr . J ud ith T urner o f t he Depar tmen t o f Bo tany i n t he Un ivers ity o f Durha m , as a mp le o f t he s eeds was i den t if ied .

They w ere

e lder s eeds , w ithou t t he s urround ing b lack b erry . T he e lder i s c om mon a s ac o lon iser o f l and w here c u l t iva t ion o r g raz ing p ressure i s r e laxed , a nd o f t he marg ins o f f ores ts a f ter e x tens ive c learance h as t aken p lace ( Penn ing ton , 1 969 , 1 06 ).

There w ou ld s eem t o b e n o r eason , h owever , why e lder s hou ld

b e d e l ibera te ly p lan ted . T he o bv ious a nd mos t a t tract ive c onclus ion i s t ha t t he d epos it r epresen ts e lder-berr ies c o l lected f or t he p roduct ion o f w ine. S trabo ( Geography , I V , 5 , 5 ) r e fers t o t he p roduct ion o f d r ink f rom g ra in a nd h oney. The e lder-berr ies f ro m T horn .ha m H i l l a re a r e markab le s ubs tan t ia t ion o f t he a ssu mpt ion t ha t i nexpens ive f ermen ted d r ink w as c onsu med b y t he c om mon p eop le i n I ron A ge s oc iety .

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CHAPTER 1

RELIG IOUS AND BUR IAL S ITES The r ar i ty o f b ur ia l s i tes i n B r i t ish l a ter p reh is tory s tands i n c on tras t w i th t he ir a bundance i n t he N eo li th ic a nd E ar ly B ronze Age p er iods .

Apar t

f ro m t he d is t inct ive g roups o f La T ene b ur ia ls i n e as tern Yorksh ire a nd o f c re ma t ion c e meter ies o f t he B e lg ic p er iod i n s ou th-eas t Eng land , t he i nf requency o f b ur ia l r e ma ins i s s u f f icien t ly p ronounced t o p rov ide a " negat i ve t ypefossi l" f or H odson 's Woodbury C u lture ( 1964b , 1 05 ) , at erm wh ich i s a pp lied t o t he r es t o f t he B r i t ish I ron Age . As f or t he B ronze Age , we h ave a lready s een ( i n Par t I , Chap ter 2 , i ) t ha t B urgess h as c la i med ac o mp lete a bsence o fb ur ia ls o ver w ide a reas o f B r i ta in i n t he M idd le a nd La te p er iods . I n o ur a rea , w e h ave s een ( i b id ) t ha t i n t he La te B ronze Age i n c er ta in a reas c e meter ies w i th b ucket a nd b arre l u rns may c on t inue . S evera l o ther b ur ia ls may b e a ss igned t o t he p er iod . The Tren t-Tyne a rea p rov ides n o c o mp lete ly u nequ ivoca l e v idence o f a ny p re-Ro man I ron Age f or ma l b ur ia ls , a par t f ro m t he we l l-known e astern Y orksh ire s er ies . B ef ore embark ing o n ac r i t ica l e xamina t ion o f t he e v idence f or t he d isposa l o f t he d ead i n d im lyli t l a ter p reh istory i n g enera l , ac ons idera t ion must b e o f fered o f r ecen t r esearch o n t he r e l ig ion a nd b ur ia l o f La T ' ene e as tern Yorksh ire . i . T he La r ene B ur ia ls o f Eas tern Yorksh ire I ti s n o t p roposed t o r econs ider i n c omp lete a nd s ys te ma t ic d eta i l a l l t he e v idence o f t h is c o mp lica ted b u t we l l-de f ined a rchaeo log ica l s ub ject , t he Arras C u lture .

Ad ef in i t ive c o m men tary a lready e x is ts ( S tead , 1 965) ,

t o wh ich S tead h i mse lf h as a dded b y t he p ub l ica t ion ( 1971) o f s o me s ubseq uen t r esearch .

H owever , s o me o ther r ecen t work h as b een u nder taken :

p ar t icu lar ly i mpor tan t a re t he a ir p ho tography a nd f i e ld-work o f t he RCHM ( Eng land ) , a nd t he e xcava t ions c arr ied o u t b y t he D epar tmen t o f t he Env ironmen t a t Gar ton S lack . ( The wr i ters a re i ndeb ted t o H . G . Ram m a nd T .C . M . B rews ter f or a ccess t o ma ter ia l a nd f or d iscuss ion ) . There i s t hus a n eed t o p o in t o ut c er ta in a dd i t ions i n d eta i l a nd a lso s h if ts o f emphasis t o c o mp le men t S tead 's work . The r e markab le b ur ia l a t A ldro h as a lready b een d escr ibed ( Par t I , Chap ter 3 , i ) . Ac re ma t ion d epos i ted i n ap i t b enea th a r ound-d i tched b arrow was a cco mpan ied b y aq uan t i ty o f o b jects , ma in ly o f b ronze , n ow l os t o r mis la id . Mos t i mpor tan t was t he p resence o f ad isc-headed s ocke te d moun t ing o f at ype i n terpreted e lsewhere a s at op-p iece moun t ing a t e ach o f t he f our c orners o f t he c oachwork o f a Ha l ls ta t t f our-whee led waggon .

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The c loses t p ara l le l i s f ro m t he s ix th c en tury Tu mu lus d 'Ohnenheim i n A lsace , a n e x tended i nhu ma t ion w i th awaggon b enea th a r ound-d i tched b arrow .

T he A ldro c re ma t ion marks t he f irs t u na mb iguous C on t inen ta l i n-

f luen ce o n I ron Age b ur ia l i n t he Eas t R id ing .

H owever , t he d 'Ohnenhe im

b ur ia l a nd a l mos t a l l t hose o f e as tern Yorksh ire L a T ene a re i nhu ma t ions . Crema t ion wou ld h ave b een t he La te B ronze Age i nd igenous r i te , a s k nown w i th b ucket a nd b arre l u rns a t Ca t foss n ear H ornsea , a nd F laxby n ear Harrowga te , a nd b enea th sma l l r ing-d i tched b arrows r ad iocarbon d a ted t o t he s ix th c en tury o n Amp lefor th Moor , west o f P icker ing ( a l l n oted i n Par t I , C hap ter 2 ) .

P erhaps a t A ldro we h ave t he e ar lies t e v idence o f t he move-

men t f ro m n or th-eas tern F rance , o r i t s e nv irons , wh ich l ed t o t he c rea t ion o f t he La n ne c u ltura l g roup w i th u nusua l b ur ia l r i tes i n t he Eas t R id ing . C re ma t ion i s o therw ise u nknown amongs t a l l e xcava ted b ur ia ls , a par t f ro m t wo sma l l g roups o f e n ig ma t ic c haracter .

The t wo p o t tery v esse ls

f rom R iggs Far m B arrow 3 3 , Group I X ( F ig . 3 1 , 1 0-11) , a re s im i lar t o b u t n o t d irect ly c o mparab le i n e very r espect w i th o thers f ro m k nown La fene b ur ia ls .

They a cco mpan ied c re ma t ions i n ap i t a nd a h o l low i n t he

s ur face b enea th t he b arrow mound ( Mor t i mer , 1 905 , 1 75) . R iggs Far m migh t b e e ar ly i n t he L a T& ie s er ies . A t S k ipw i th C o m mon a nd Thorganby Common i n t he V a le o f York ( S tead , 1 965 , 2 2-3 ) , t he e v idence s ugges ts c e me ter ies o f s quare-d i tched b arrows , ac onc lus ion s uppor ted b y t he i den t i f ica t ion b y a ir p ho tography o f as quare-d i tched b arrow a t R ice a l l , n earby ( R i ley , 1 971, 7 ) . Excava t ion r epor ts o f t he S k ipw i th a nd Thorganby b ur ia ls i nd ica te c re ma t ions i n mos t c ases , w i th t wo c rouched i nhu ma t ions i n t he l arges t b arrow a t t he f ormer . I ron o b jects w i th t he c re ma t ions , a nd Romano-Br i t ish p o t tery i n t he d i tch f i l l ings , i nd ica te t he l i ke l ihood o f a n I ron A ge d a te .

I n v iew o f t he p redo m inan t c re ma t ion r i te , o ne migh t

s ugges t t ha t t hese wes tern o u t liers t o t he ma in d is tr ibu t ion ( Fig . 1 00 ) r ep resen t e ar ly e xp lora t ion r a ther t han l a ter e xpans ion . S t ead h as n o ted t ha t s evera l o f t he e xcava ted b arrows i n t he Eas t R id ing h ave r ound d i tches r a ther t han s quare d i tches , p ar t icu lar ly t hose a t Eas tb urn ( Sheppard , 1 938 ) a nd R uds ton ( J . B ar t let t e xcava t ions , 1 960 ) . I n s o me c ases r ound d itches a s we l l a s s quare d i tches s urv ive o n c e metery s i tes i n t he Marne r eg ion ( S tead , 1 965 , 8 6) . The f act t ha t i n e ast Yorksh ire r oundd i tch b arrows a re c o m mon a nd o ccur a longs ide s quare-d i tch b arrows i n t he s ame c e me ter ies d eserves more a t ten t ion t han i th as r eceived , h owever . I ti s p ar t icu lar ly e v iden t f rom a ir p ho tographs o f t he R uds ton , B urton F le m ing , B oy thorpe , a nd G r inda le c e meter ies ( see N o tes o f F igures , 1 00 , f or l oca t ions a nd r eferences ; a nd P la te X ; s ee a lso Hard ing , 1 974 , P 1 . XX f or a n e xamp le a t R i l ling ton ) . The mos t r ecen t e xcava t ions i n Area 4 o f t he B ur ton F le m ing c e metery l oca ted t wo i nhu ma t ions i n s ha l low g raves b enea th mounds ( mounds p resu med , s ince t he a rea h as b een e x tens ive ly p loughed ) s urrounded b y c ircu lar d i tches ( I . M . S tead i n for ma t ion ) . I n a dd i t ion , t here s ee ms t o h ave b een s o me v ar ia t ion i n t he s tructure o f t he s quare-d i tch b arrows t he mse lves , s ince o ne e xcava ted a t Gar ton S lack i n 1 965 h ad a n e n trance c auseway 4 f eet w ide a cross o ne o f t he s ides ( D . o f t he E . ,1 966 , 8 ) . O ne o f t he mos t o utstand ing r esu lts o f a ir p ho tography i n t he Eas t R id-

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i ng h as b een t o s how t ha t c e meter ies a re o f ten d e l ibera te ly a l igned a long o r p laced w i th in o ther d itched e nc losures .

F or e xa mp le , t he B oy thorpe c e m-

e tery l i es a longs ide a d oub le-d i tched t rackway o n t he f l oor o f at r ibutary v a l ley t o t he G ypsey R ace .

About t h ir ty s quare-d itch b arrows a nd t hree

r ing-d itch b arrows , w ith c en tra l b ur ia l p i ts , a re l a id o ut i n r ough l i nes i n az one 1 00 f eet w ide ( RCH M i n for ma t ion ) .

T he s quare-d i tch b arrows a t

B ur ton F le m ing Area 1 a re c lose ly p acked , a rranged r ough ly i n f our l ines , w ith in a b oundary d i tch 4 f eet d eep a nd 8f eet w ide ( S tead , 1 971, f i g . 1 ) . A t Gar ton S lack S i te V I I , f our s quare-d i tch b arrows , o ne c on ta in ing a n a du lt f e ma le c rouched b ur ia l a cco mpan ied b y t he i ron mirror w ith b ronze moun ti ngs ( see Par t I , Chap ter 5 , i ) , a nd t hree p robab le c ircu lar s hr ines o r r itua l h ouses , a l l l ay w i th in a d itched e nc losure 1 20 b y 6 0 f eet wh ich p res u mab ly f or med a r e l ig ious s anctuary ( D. o f t he E ., 1 971, 1 3 ; T .C. M . B rewster i n for ma t ion ) . T he f act t ha t t hree s quare-d i tch b arrows a re s een d e l ibera te ly a l igned a ga ins t p ar ts o f t he L eaver ing Wo ld d yke s ys tem ( noted i n Par t I I , Chap ter 1 0 , i) i s h ard ly l i ke ly t o b e a cciden ta l . The i n ference i s t ha t t he b ur ia ls f or med a n i n tegra l p ar t o f a n e nclosed l andscape , a nd t ha t t he l arger c e meter ies were d iv ided f ro m a reas o f o ther l and u se b y t rackway d i tches a nd b oundar ies . S tead h as r e marked t ha t t here i s a s y e t i nsuf f icien t ma ter ia l t o c ons tru ct a r e la t ive c hrono log ica l f ramework f or t he d if feren t c e meter ies o f t he La T ene p er iod ( 1971, 2 6 ) .

H owever , t he e x tens ive e xcava t ions a t B urton

F le m ing may make i tp oss ib le t o s ugges t s o me h or izon ta l s tra t igraphy , s ince i ta ppears t ha t t here were s o me v ar ia t ions i n b ur ia l r i te i n a dd it ion t o t hose a lready men t ioned . There s ee ms t o h ave b een a t endency t o r ed uce t he s ize o f t he b arrow p la t for m w i th t he p assage o f t ime , s ince t hose a t C ow lam , 3 2 t o 4 6 f eet a cross , a nd Arras , 3 5 t o 4 1 f eet a cross , a re c ons iderab ly l arger t han t hose r ecen t ly e xcava ted a t B ur ton F le m ing , wh ich r ange f ro m 1 1 t o 2 8 f eet a cross .

G enera l ly t he i nhu ma t ions a re c on tracted

a nd o r ien ta ted f ro m n or th t o s ou th .

H owever , i n Area 3 a t B ur ton F le ming

as er ies o f 1 3 e x tended i nhu ma t ions o r ien ta ted f ro m e as t t o wes t was e xc ava ted . They were s et i n sma l ler g rave p i ts w i th in sma l ler e nclosure d i tches f i t ted i n to a p re-ex ist ing p a t tern o f b arrows . The g rave g oods were c o mp lete ly d i f feren t , i nc lud ing f ro m k n ives , as pearhead , a nd a h am merh ead , a nd e xclud ing p o t tery , p ig b ones , a nd b rooches . I n Area 4 , o n ly o ne b ur ia l was e x tended a nd o r ien tated f ro m e as t t o wes t ; t h is h ad a s hor t i ron s word p laced d iagona l ly b enea th t he b ody ( I .M . S tead i n for ma t ion ) .

Ex-

t ended i nhu ma t ions a t Gar ton S lack s ee m a lso t o h ave b een o r ien tnted f ro m e as t t o west ( D . o f t he E ., 1 971, 1 3 ) . O f ten , a s a t B ur ton F le m ing b ut a lso a t B oythorpe a nd Gr inda le ,r ound-d i tch b arrows s ee m t o h ave b een f i t ted i n to a p re-ex is t ing p a t tern o f s quare d i tch b arrows . T he r ing-d i tch b arr ows a t Eastburn a re a l a te g roup . Thus i ts ee ms t ha t e x tended e as t-wes t o r ien ta ted i nhu ma t ions , a nd r ound-d i tch a nd sma l ler-d itch b arrows t end t o b e l a ter r a ther t han e ar l ier .

B u t h ow f ar d oes s uch a c onc lus ion r e f lect t he

f act t ha t a l l t he c e me ter ies e xcava ted u nder modern c ond it ions a ppear t o b e f a ir ly l a te , t ha t i s mos t ly a f ter 2 00 B .C . ,d a ted o n t he b as is o f i nvo luted a nd f la t tened b ow b rooch f or ms a nd o ther M idd le La T ene c haracter is t ics? Two o ther f ea tures o f t he Gar ton S lack a nd B ur ton F le m ing c e meter ies

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a re n o tab le : s econdary b ur ia ls a nd i so la ted b ur ia l p i ts .

I n Area 1 a t B ur ton

F le m ing t here were f our i so la ted p i ts , p resu mab ly f la t g raves , i nser ted w ith in t h e b arrow p a t tern ( S tead , 1 971, f ig . 1 ) .

I n t wo t he b ur ia ls were

o r ien ta ted f ro m e as t t o wes t , a nd i n o ne c ase t he g rave c u t i n to a no ther . I so la ted p i t b ur ia ls w ere a lso e xcava ted a t Gar ton S lack i n 1 965 , 1 969 a nd 1 970 .

A s f or s econdary b ur ia ls , i n Area 4 a t B ur ton F le m ing t hree s quare-

d i tch b arrows h ad s ix s econdary b ur ia ls , f i ve i n t he d i tches , a nd o ne o n a b arrow b er m .

I n t hree o f t he b arrow d i tches a t Gar ton S lack S ite V I I t here

were s econdary i nhu ma t ions ( D . o f t he E ., 1 971, 1 3 ) .

I t i s n o t k nown t o

wha t e x ten t t he i so la ted a nd s econdary b ur ia ls a re l a ter r a ther t han e ar lier i n t he L a T ene p er iod , b ut t he e v idence a t p resen t s ugges ts t ha t t hey were l ate a nd t ha t t he ir s i tes were o f ten u n marked . An i mpor tan t f act a bout s o me o f t he i so la ted a nd s econdary b ur ia ls i s t ha t t hey c on ta ined i n fan t s ke letons .

One s uch was r ecovered a t Garton

S lack i n1 965 , t hree i n t wo p i ts i n ab arrow d i tch i n 1 969 , a nd f ive i n t he d itch a t B arrow 3 o f S ite V I I i n 1 970 .

O u ts ide o ur a rea , t wo c h i ld b ur ia ls

were d iscovered w i th in t he a rea o f ac irc le e nc losed b y s take-ho les b enea th t he R omano-Ce lt ic t e mp le o n S i te A a t F r i lford ( Hard ing , 1 972 , 6 4 ; 1 974 , f ig . 2 4 ) . A s epara te p i t w ith in t he c ircle p rov ided p ot tery a nd a s word c hape f rag men t i nd ica t ing a d a te i n t he f irs t c entury B .C. o f C h i ld s acr i f ice i n t he C e lt ic wor ld i s r ecorded i n I r ish a nd C lass ica l l i tera ture ( noted , i b id ) . The p resence o f i n fan t b ur ia ls w i th s quare-d itch b arrows a t Gar ton S lack p rov ides a u sefu l l oca l p receden t f or l a ter e xa mp les t o b e men t ioned p res en t ly . A s ign i f ican t r esu lt o f t he Gar ton S lack e xcava t ions h as b een t he i den t if i ca t ion o f c ircu lar r i tua l s tructures a ssocia ted w i th t he b ur ia ls .

T o t he

n or th-wes t o f t he n ow f amous c ar t-bur ia l e xcava ted i n 1 971 ( Brewster 1 971, 2 90 ) was a d itch , e v iden t ly d iscon t inuous a nd u neven i n d ep th , e nclosing a n a rea a bout 3 0 f eet a cross i n wh ich was a n umber o f p i ts d ef in ing a rcs o f a n i nterna l c irc le ( op . c i t . ,P 2 . XL IV ) . The p ub lica t ion i s i nco mp lete , b ut e v iden t ly t hese p i ts c on ta ined d epos i ts : o ne a s heep b ur ia l , a no ther a n i nv erted h u man s ku l l , a nd a no ther a p ig 's s ku l l , t wo b one weav ing c o mbs , a nd t wo b one s l iders .

Brewster c ons iders t ha t t he s tructure was a r oofed

c ircu lar r i tua l h ouse ( op . c i t . ,2 91) . S im i lar h ouses h ave b een f ound a ssocia ted w i th o ther g roups o f s quare-d i tch b arrows . On S ite V I I , Barr ows 1 a nd 3 were f ound t o o ver lie s em i-circu lar s lo t-syste ms a bout 2 5 f eet i n d ia meter w ith p os t-ho le o r p i t t er m ina ls .

Wi th in t hese e nclosures

were s ha l low p i ts , o f ten c on ta in ing c ha lk b locks .

One h ad a s ku l l a nd t he

a r t icu la t ed l imb b ones o f a n o x .

Excava t ions o n S i te V r ecovered a n o x

b ur ia l , c ut a cross b y aR o mano-Br i t ish d itch , a nd a lso a s heep b ur ia l , s urrounded b y ar ing o f n arrow-d iameter d eep p i ts .

I n 1 965 a nd 1 969

s im i lar r i tua l p i t g roups a nd p ost-ho le s tructures h ad b een f ound i n a ssoc ia t ion w i th s quare-d itch b arrows .

A p ro m inen t t r iangu lar e nc losure w i th

s ides 1 00 f eet l ong s et a ga ins t t he t rackway b eyond t he b arrows o f t he Boyt horpe c e metery ( RCH M i n for ma t ion ) may d ef ine a c o mparab le r itua l s tructure o r s hrine . The o ccurrence o f r i tua l o x a nd s heep b ur ia ls i n t he s ame n etwork o f r e lig ious s tructures a t Gar ton S lack a s t he w e l l-known b ur ia l t ypes i nd ic-

1 69

a tes a p ract ice n o t u nco m mon i n t he P i t »sh l .

in

Age .

The p resence o f

j ust t he s ku l l a nd l imb b ones o f a n o x i n ap i t o n S i te V I I p rovides a d irect l ink w ith t he ma jor l ong-bones a nd

o i ah orse b ur ied i n ap i t b eh ind

t he e n trance p assage a t B lewburton H i l l , B erksh ire , a nd t hose o f ah orse a nd a n o x b ur ied a d jacen t t o t he s ou thern g a teway o f t he I ron Age c amp a t P i mperne , D orset ( Hard ing , 1 972 , 7 0 ) .

Hard ing h as r eca l led t ha t i t was

t hese s a me b ones wh ich p layed a k ey r o le i n t he p ract ice o f a n i ma l b ur ia l a t La T ene i t se lf .

The p resence w i th p oorer e astern Yorksh ire L a T ene

b ur ia ls o f ap ig h u merous i s ac o m mon o ccurrence , a nd c o mp lete s ke letons o f h orses , p igs , a nd g oa ts a re r epor ted w ith b ur ia ls a t Arras a nd D anes Graves. The p rov is ion o f f ood o r e ar th ly f l ocks i n t he a f terl ife i s ar easo nab le e xp lana t ion s ince mea t , a nd p arL cu lar ly p ork , was a t rad i t iona l f avour i te f ood o f t he C e lts ( Jackson , 1 964 , 3 7-8 ) .

The d iscovery o f t he

s epara te r i tua l b ur ia l o f t he a n t i1 1 , 7 1s t he mse lves a dds a n ew d i mens ion t o o ur i ns igh t i n to r e lig ious p ract ices .

Can o ne e nv isage a n i mpor tan t p lace

f or a rab le f ar m ing i n t he e cono my o f g roups wh ich h e ld a n i ma ls i n s uch r everence?

The p resence o f s torlge p i ts , c arbon ised g ra in , b oundary

e ar thworks , a nd f i e ld s ys te ms d icta tes t ha i w e mus t , e ven t hough c a t t le , p igs , a nd p oss ib ly a lso s heep n o d oub t f ormed t he b as is o f s ocia l w ea lth . Three i n teres t ing p o in ts a r is ing f ro m t he B urton F le m ing c e metery e xc avations may b e b r ief ly n oted .

T he c rouched s ke letons o f ten s eem t o b e

s o t i gh t ly c on tracted t ha t i ti s c lear t ha t t he c orpses mus t h ave b een b ound . A t l eas t t hree i nhu ma t ions i n Area 1 a nd a t l eas t f ive i n Area 2 h ad b een b ur ied i n s o me k ind o f wooden c o f f in, u p t o 2f eet w ide a nd 3 t o 5f eet l ong , s een a s ad ark s ta in i n t he g rave f i l l ing ( Sf rad , 1 971, 2 6-7) .

On ly i n o ne

c ase were t wo s ke letons p resen t i n as ing le g rave : i n Area 3 , c rouched a nd e x tended i nhu ma t ions h ave b een p roved t o b e s is ters , h av ing t he s ame c ong en i ta l d efor m i ty o f t he s p ine ( I . \ i . S tead i n for ma t ion ) . S tead s ees t he Danes Graves a nd Eas tburn c e meter ies c on t inu ing i n u se a l mos t u p t o t he b eg inn ing o f t he Ro mano-Br it ish p er iod ( 1965 , f i g . 3 7 ). H owever , i ti s n o t p ossib le t o p rove t ha t t yp ica l b ur ia l i n s quare-d i tch a nd r ound-d i tch b arrows c on t inued b eyond t he midf irs t c entury B . C.

T here i s

n o i nd ica t ion o f ad a te much b eyond 1 00 B .C . f ro m t he p ot tery , i nvo luted b rooches , a nd b race lets f ro m Danes G raves .

T he o n ly p oss ib ly l a te i t em

i s t he " harp-shaped f ibu la o f i ron" f ro m Grave 1 2 , n ow l ost ( op . c i t . ,1 09 ) . The b rooches , p o t tery , a nd b ronze s p ine-covers f ro m a s h ie ld among t he g rave g oods f ro m Eas tburn d o n o t d e mand a d a te l a ter t han t ha t i nd ica ted b y t he t ogg le a nd s tr ip-brace le t , p robab 1 2i i n t he midf irs t c en tury ;

S im i-

l ar ly t here i s n o u nequ ivoca l ly l a ter d a t in L . , e v idence f or t he t ypes o f b ur ia l a t B ur ton F le m ing a nd Gar ton S lack a lready d iscussed .

Brooches a nd

p c , tery o f B e lg ic t ype h ave n o t b een f ound w i th Arras C u lture b ur ia ls ( apar t f ro m p oss ib ly t he f ibu la f ro m Danes G raves 1 2 j ust men t ioned ) . Wha t , t herefore , was t he n a ture o f r e l ig ious a nd b ur ia l s i tes i n t he i m med ia tely p re-Ro man p er iod? C er ta in c hanges o f emphas is a nd d if feren t t ypes o f d epos i t c an b e d is t ingu ished . There a re v ery f ew b ur ia ls t ha t may w i th c er ta in ty b e a scr ibed t o t he l a te f irs t c en tury B .C . a nd t he . i r e-F lav ian p er iod .

H owever , t he e v idence

o f e xcava t ions o f l ayers a nd s tructures b enea th t he R o man v i l la a t R udston

1 70

( Stead , 1 971, 3 0-2 ) i nd ica tes t ha t f or ma l b ur ia ls i n d o mes t ic d i tches t oo l : p lace r a ther t han b ur ia l i n b arrow c e meter ies .

An u mber o f l arge d i tches

a t R uds ton c leared i n t he 1 930 's a nd more r ecen t ly a re l i ke ly t o b e p reRo man .

I n t he f i l ling o f o ne , g raves h ad b een e xcava ted f or t hree i nhu ma-

t i ons , o ne w ith a n e ar ly R o man b rooch a nd a no ther w i th a b ronze t ype C p enannu lar b rooch a nd B e lg ic t ype ( op . c i t . ,f ig . 7 , 4 ) .

I n a no ther , ap i t

h ad b een e xcava ted i n t he u pper e dge o f t he o r ig ina l d i tch p ro f i le , i n wh ich h ad b een d eposi ted a n i n fan t b ur ia l ( S teer , 1 937, f i g . I ) .

I ti s i mpor tan t

t o n o te t ha t as im i lar p ract ice h as b een f ound e lsewhere , a t Dragonby ( May , 1 970 , 2 27) .

I n Area 1 o f t he e xcava t ions , s ix i nhu ma t ions w ere f ound ,

ma in ly i n t he u pper f i l lings o f d i tches .

Grave g oods were a bsen t , b ut a

p i t d ug t hrough t he midd le o f ab ur ia l d epos i t c on ta ined a f ew s herds o f I ron Age p ot tery , s ugges t ing t ha t t h is b ur ia l a t l eas t was p robab ly o f I ron Age d a te . T he p ract ice o f i n fan t b ur ia l , a nd s o p erhaps a lso i n fan t s acr i f ice , s ee ms t o h ave i ncreased i n p ro m inence i n t he l a te I ron Age a nd c on t inued i n to t he R oman p er iod .

D ur ing e xcava t ions i n 19 71 a t G ar ton S lack , t he

i nter ior o f ar ough ly s quare d i tched e nc losure 1 50 f eet a cross was c leared . Two h u t c ircles o f r ing-d itch t ype were f ound t o t he n or th o f wh ich was a s er ies o f o ver 3 0 b ur ia ls o f i n fan ts l ess t han s ix weeks o ld , t hrown h aph azard ly i n to sma l l p i ts o f o va l s hape u p t o 1f oo t d eep . a ted r e ma ins were b urn t s heep b ones .

The o n ly a ssoci-

An o x b ur ia l a nd s evera l l amb b ur i-

a ls w ere f ound n earby ( T .C .M . B rewster i n for ma t ion ) .

The e nc losure

d itch was c ons tructed i n t he l a te I ron Age b ut r ecut i n t he e ar ly R o man p er iod w i th a n e x tens ion t o t he n or th .

The d a te o f t he i n fan t b ur ia ls i s n o t

c o mp letely c er ta in , b ut B rewster a ss igns t he m t o t he e ar ly R o man p er iod . I n t he v icin ity o f t he c urved r ing-d itches o f p re-Ro man h ut s i tes a t R uds ton , r ecen t e xcava t ions u ncovered f ive b ur ia ls o f n ew-born i n fan ts a nd s ix p its w i th t he a r t icu la ted s ke letons a nd c re ma ted r e ma ins o f y oung a n i ma ls . These may b e c on te mporary w i th t he h u ts ( S tead , 1 971, 3 0-2 ) .

Ano ther

i n fan t b ur ia l i s k nown f ro m b enea th t he r ampar t o f ab oundary e ar thwork a t Gar ton-onthe- Wo lds ( Gran tha m a nd Gran tha m , 1 965 , 3 56 ) .

The e ar l ier

e xamp les o f i n fan t a nd r i tua l a n i mal b ur ia l a ssocia ted w ith Gar ton S lack s quare-d itch b arrows , a nd t he p ara l le ls i n t he Upper Thames r eg ion a nd e lsewhere i n t he C e lt ic wor ld , i nd ica te t he b read th o f t he I ron Age b ackg round o f t hese p ract ices , wh ich s ee m t o h ave b eco me p ar t icu lar ly p ro m in en t i n e as tern Yorksh ire i n t he f irs t c en tury A .D .

C on t inua t ion i s s hown

b y t he d iscovery a t t he R o man f or t a t Mal lon o f 2 8 i n fan ts b ur ied u nder t he f loors o f af our th c entury b u i ld ing ( Gray , 1 930 , 9 4 ) .

There a re o ther

Ro man c on tex ts f or i n fan t b ur ia l i n s ou thern Eng land ( op . c i t ., 9 3-4) . At h ird t ype o f r i tua l d epos i t p ar t icu lar ly c o m mon i n t he Eas t R id ing l a te I ron Age i s t he v ot ive o f fer ing o f c arved c ha lk f i gures a nd s h ie lds , o r more c o m mon ly o f b locks a nd d iscs .

B rews ter r epor ts t ha t o ver 1 00 h ave

n ow b een r ecovered a t Gar ton S lack .

They n ear ly a l l c a me f ro m t he f i l l-

i ngs o f e nclosure d i tches , p ar t icu lar ly t hose o f t he s quare e nclosure n o ted i n t he p rev ious p aragraph , a nd t hose o f ar ectangu lar e nc losure , 1 20 b y 6 0 f eet , o n S ite V .

A l l a re f rom b eyond t he l im i ts o f a ny R o man r ecu t t ing .

The o n ly f igurp i n a Ro mano-Br i t ish c on tex t i s o ne b ad ly b urn t f ro m a h ear th d epos i t a nd t hus p robab ly a r ubb ish-surv iva l .

1 71

S evera l f ine e xamp les

r ecovered f rom Gar ton S lack d i tches b y C . a nd E . G ran tham h ave b een p ub l ished b y S tead ( 1971, f i g . 4 . P 1. 4 ; CA , 1 7, 1 70 ) .

The f i gures a re

wedge-shaped , w i th f lar ing s k ir ts , b e lts , a nd s o met i mes s words . o ne w ere d ecap i ta ted .

A l l b ut

T he s urv iv ing s izes r ange f ro m 3 t o 6 .5 i nches .

c ha lk s h ie ld mode l i s o f o va l f orm w i th c en tra l c ircu lar c arv ing .

A

O ther

f igures a re k nown , f ro m a d i tch a t B lea lands Nook w i th Ro mano-Br i t ish p ottery ( Mor t i mer , 1 905 , 1 98 , f ig . 4 92) , a nd f ro m t he s i te o f t he H arpham R o man v i l la ( DPM ) .

S im i lar v o t ive d epos i ts o ccur f ur ther s outh : amin ia-

t ure s word a nd s h ie ld f ro m t he R o mano-Br i t ish s hr ine a t Fr i l ford S i te C ( Hard ings , 1 972 , 6 2 ) , a nd t hree m in ia ture b ronze s h ie lds , t wo f ragment ary , f ro m p re-Ro man l eve ls b enea th t he R o mano-Br i t ish t e mp le a t Wor th ( K le in , 1 928 , 7 9-80 , f i g . 1 1 ; Hard ing , 1 974 , f ig . 2 5) . The c ha lk f igures a nd s h ie lds f ro m Gar ton S lack t hus c onv incing ly d e monstra te a r itua l f unct i on f or t he d i tched e nclosures .

S o me c on t inu i ty f ro m e ar lier r i tua l a ct iv i ty

i s i nd ica ted b y t he p resence o f r ough ly-squared c ha lk s labs w ith t he f e ma le i nhu ma t ion i n Barrow 2 a nd i n t he s ha l low p i ts w ith in t he c ircu lar r i tua l h ouse s tructures o n S i te V I I ( D . o f t he E ., 1 971 . 1 3-4 ) . The d is tr ibu t ion o f s quare-d i tch a nd r ound-d itch b arrows a nd c e meteri es e xcava ted a nd i den t i f ied b y a ir p ho tography a nd o f o ther La T ene b ur ia ls i n e as tern Yorksh ire i s s hown o n F ig . 9 7 a ga ins t t he s ur face g eo log ica l o utc rops o f c ha lk a nd C ora l l ian b eds .

I tw i l l b e s een t ha t ac ons iderab le n u m-

e r ica l i ncrease o n t hose k nown t o S tead i n 1 965 ( f ig . 1 ) may n ow b e p res en ted .

S evera l f ea tures o f t he d is tr ibu t ion s hou ld b e n o ted .

The most

o uts tand ing c oncen tra t ion i s i n t he n or th-eas tern Wo lds i n a nd a round t he v a l ley o f t he G ypsey Race , wh ich i s s ign i f ican t ly t he o n ly v a l ley t hrough wh ich a s ur face s trea m p enetra tes t he c ha lk lands .

One migh t i n fer f ro m

t h is t ha t t he s upp ly o f wa ter f ro m t he s tream , b eing o f c ons iderab le e conomic i mpor tance , migh t a lso h ave h ad a r i tua l s ign i f icance .

An i mpor tant

f act i s t ha t many o f t he l arges t c e meter ies , s uch a s t hose a t Gar ton S lack , S corborough Park , B ur ton F le m ing , K i lham , Danes G raves , C ans D a le , a nd B oy thorpe , a re i n v a l ley-f loor o r v a l ley-s ide s i tua t ions , a nd o f ten o n g rave l d epos its r a ther t han s o lid c ha lk .

O n ly a f ew , s uch a s Arras a nd

C ow lam , p robab ly f a ir ly e ar ly i n t he s er ies , a re o n t op o f t he Wo lds . There a re n o tab le o u t ly ing g roups .

T o t he n or th o f P icker ing t here a re

s evera l e xamp les o n t he C ora l lian .

A ir p ho tography h as l oca ted b arrows

t o t he n or th-wes t o f t he Wo lds , a ga in o n a nd a round C ora l lian d epos its wh ich p rov ide w e l l-dra ined p la teau a reas . Examp les t o t he e as t a re o f ten o n g rav e l a nd r are ly o n b ou lder c lay . mos t c o m mon .

P la teautop c ha lk s i tua t ions a re n o t t he

Now t ha t a ir p hotography h as i den t if ied L a T ene b ur ia ls i n s uch n u mbers i n e astern Yorksh ire t he q uest ion a r ises whether t hey may b e f ound e lsewhere i n n or thern a nd c en tra l Eng land .

S ince r ound-d itch b arrows a s We l l

a s s quare-d i tch b arrows may b e s een t o b e c haracter is t ic, i t may b e t ha t more a re p resen t o n e x is t ing a ir p hotographs t han h ave b een r ecogn ised . S evera l l i ke ly s i tes i n t he T ren t v a l ley a re k nown .

Ag roup o f f ive s quare-

d i tch b arrows a t Aston u pon Tren t were r ecogn ised b y S t . J oseph ( 1966 , P 1. XV I ) , a nd o ne was e xcava ted i n 19 67 b y J . May ( who h as k ind ly o f fered i nf or ma t ion i n a dvance o f p ub lica t ion ) .

The e nc losure d i tch was l oca ted , a nd

t he c en tra l p lat for m 2 7 f eet a cross was e xam ined .

1 72

No c er ta in t race o f a

burial was found, but at the precise centre was a small oval patch of fine reddish loam. To the north-west of the area was an oval pit 10 inches deep with no archaeological finds. Very small sherds of coarse, gritty pottery, and an abraded piece of jar in Derbyshire Ware were recovered from the upper filling of the enclosure ditch. May considers that the coarse sherds should be ascribed to the fifth to third centuries B. C. The absence of evi­ dence for a burial suggests that one was placed on the old ground surface in the centre of the area and has been removed by ploughing. The only other examples in the Midlands to be excavated are a row of three square­dit.ch enclosures, each about 24 feet across, at Bardyke Field, Maxey (C.B.A . Welland Valley Res. Com. Rept., 1962-3 7). Again there were no central pits or traces of burials, but the enclosures underlay a large rectangular enclosure which yielded mid-first century A. D. pottery from the