The Coinage of the Roman World in the Late Republic: Proceedings of a colloquium held at the British Museum in September 1985 9780860544203, 9781407345970

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The Coinage of the Roman World in the Late Republic Proceedings of a colloquium held at the British Museum in September 1985

edited by

A.M. Burnett and M.H. Crawford

BAR International Series 326 1987

B.A.R. 5, Centremead, Osney Mead, Oxford OX2 ODQ, England.

GENERAL EDITORS A.R. Hands, B.Sc., M.A., D.Phil. D.R. Walker, M.A.

B.A.R. -S326, 1987: 'The Coinage of the Roman World in the Late Republic' © The Individual Author?, 1987

The authors’ moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9780860544203 paperback ISBN 9781407345970 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860544203 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com

C ONTENTS P age I ntroduction A cknowledgement A bbreviations O ne

C eltic C hronology i n s outh G ermany ,

i v v ii v iii 1

b y B .E . O verbeck T wo

S pain , b y R .C . K napp

1 9

T hree

S icily , b y M .H . C rawford

4 3

F our

M acedonia , b y I . T ouratsoglou

5 3

F ive

T hrace, b y O . P icard

7 9

S ix

S outhern G reece, b y M .J. P rice

9 5

S even

A sia M inor , b y P . K inns

1 05

E ight

S yria , b y H .R . B aldus

1 21

N ine

E gitto, b y A . C ara

1 53

T en

C rete a nd C yrenaica , b y T .V . B uttrey

1 65

E leven

A frica, b y A .M . B urnett

1 75

I NTRODUCTION

R oman

c onquest

d id

n ot

n ecessarily b ring R oman c oinage

i n i ts

w ake .

T he m odern c ommentator m ay f ind i t s urprising t hat t he g rowing R oman e mpire d id n ot h ave a s ingle i ntegrated m onetary s ystem , a nd t he f irst a im o f t he p apers g iven a t t he c olloquium w as t o c haracterise t he e xtraordinary v ariety t hat i s e ncountered i n t he d ifferent p rovinces d uring t he l ate R epublic , f rom t he d efeat o f H annibal i n t he w est a nd i ncreasing R oman i nvolvement i n t he e ast u ntil t he b eginning o f t he r eign o f A ugustus . T hese s urveys t herefore i nclude m any o f w hat h ave t raditionally b een r egarded a s " Greek" o r " Celtic" c oins , s ince t hese w ere i n f act p roduced e ntirely i n ap eriod o f R oman c ontrol . A s econd a im w as t o d efine t he e xtent o f R oman i nfluence o ver a nd i ntervention i n t hese v aried c urrencies . R oman i ntervention c an b e s een c learly , f or i nstance , i n t he d emonetisation o f t he H annibalic W ar c oinages i n S pain a nd I taly , i n t he d emonetisation o f P unic g old a nd s ilver i n 1 46 , i n t he c essation o f c istophoric m inting i n A sia i n 6 6 , o r i n t he a doption o f R oman t ypes o n t he b ronze c oinage o f B ithynia i n t he 5 0s . S uch c ases a s t hese , h owever , s eem t o b e e xceptional a nd , g enerally s peaking , t he R omans a dopted ( or a dapted) w hatever t hey h appened t o m eet , a s i n m any o ther a reas . T he a rival o f R ome h ad n o i mmediate e ffect o n t he c oinage o f A sia M inor , C yrenaica o r E gypt ,

a nd n o e ffect a t a ll o n t he b ronze c urrencies o f A frica

o r C yrenaica , t wo a reas w hich w ere l eft f or s everal c enturies t o m ake d o w ith t heir p re-Roman i ssues . E lsewhere l ocal c oinages w ere a dapted t o m eet R oman n eeds . T he A sian c istophori w ere o nly g radually R omanised i n f unction , w hile t he c oinage o f t he S yrian k ings w as m ade i nto t he R oman p rovincial c oinage o f S yria . A gainst t his p attern t here w as a g radual i ncrease i n t he r ole o f t he d enarius . I nitially c onfined t o I taly a nd S icily , i ts i mportance s pread i n t he s econd c entury t o S pain a nd A frica ; t o G reece f rom t he e arly f irst c entury ; a nd t o A sia d uring t he c ivil w ars a nd t o S yria , p erhaps , d uring t he r eign o f A ugustus , a lthough i t n ever a ttained t he s ame m onopoly i n t hese l atter a reas . A s f ar a s o ne c an t ell , f ollowed t he a doption o f R oman c oinage ;

R oman d enominations s eem t o h ave R oman u nits o f r eckoning a re k nown

f rom S icily a nd S pain f rom a n e arly p eriod , a nd a rrived e lsewhere , e .g . i n A sia o r S yria , p erhaps w ith t he a rrival o f t he d enarius . E ven s o t hey d id n ot c ompletely r eplace t he e xisting l ocal s ystems , w hich m ight b e a dapted t o f it i n w ith t hem , a s o ne c an s ee f rom f irst c entury T auromenium o r i mperial A sia a nd E gypt . T hus t he p rocess o f R omanisation w as o nly g radual, a nd t here i s n o t race o f a c oncerted p olicy f or t he c urrency o f t he p rovinces a s a w hole . F rom t ime t o t ime m easures w ere t aken t o d eal w ith p articular p roblems , a s i nstanced a bove , b ut t hese a re e xceptions w hich s tand o ut . t heir

o wn c oinage o n t heir

e mpire , r aises a n i mportant p roblem o f i nterpretation .

T he

f act

t hat

t he R omans

d id n ot

i mpose

H ow c an w e t ell t hat

a l ocally p roduced c oinage w as R oman i n i nspiration a nd p urpose , o r t hat i t was p roduced b y ap articular c ity t o m eet i ts o wn n eeds? A s a r ule o f

t humb ,

i t s eems p lausible t o t hink t hat l arger ,

" Roman" ,

e .g .

t he A esillas

t etradrachms

o f

h igher v alue c oinages w ere M acedonia

o r

t he

A ntioch

t etradrachms o f R oman S yria , b ut t hat s maller , l ow v alue c oins w ere " local" , e .g . t he r estricted b ronze c oinages o f n umerous s mall c ommunities t hroughout t he

e mpire,

p roduced

t o

m eet

a v ariety

o f

l ocal

e xpenses

l ike

t he

d istribution o f l argesse . B etween t hese t wo e nds o f t he s pectrum , h owever , i t i s v ery d ifficult t o d efine t he r ole o f t he d ifferent c oinages . T o w hat e xtent , i f a ny , w ere I berian d enarii , C eltic g old a nd s ilver c oins o r A sian c istophori m inted t o m eet l ocal o r R oman e xpenses? W ho p rovided t he b ullion f or t hem?

T hese a re, o f c ourse, n ot j ust q uestions o f d efinition , b ut

i ssues w hich a ffect o ur p icture o f t he s cale o f R oman s tate e xpenditure , w hich m ight t herefore b e l arger t han j ust r epresented b y " Roman" d enarii .

I I T o a c ertain e xtent t hese i ssues a nd t he t heme o f t he c olloquium o verlap with t he c ontents o f Michael C rawford's C oinage a nd M oney u nder t he R oman R epublic ( London , 1 985) , a nd t he p apers p ublished h ere h ave a r ather u neasy r elationship w ith t hat b ook . T he c olloquium w as h eld i n S eptember 1 985 i n t he e xpectation t hat t he b ook w ould h ave b een p ublished i n t he p revious s pring . I n t he e vent, h owever , p ublication w as d elayed u ntil a fter t he c olloquium, s o t hat t he p articipants w ere a ble t o t ake a ccount o f i t o nly f or t he s hort p eriod a vailable f or r evising t heir p apers f or p ublication . T hat s aid , h owever , t here a re a n umber o f d isagreements b etween C MRR a nd t he p apers p ublished h ere , i n a s ense a s ap artial r eview .

w hich m ay t herefore b e r egarded

T he c overage o f t he v olume i s n ot c omplete .

S ome o f t he g aps a re

d eliberate, s ome l ess s o . T he p eriod, f rom H annibal t o A ugustus, w as c hosen t o a void t he c omplexities o f t he S econd P unic W ar , aw atershed i n t he c urrency o f m any a reas , a nd t o l eave t he I mperial c urrency o f t he p rovinces , w here , f or i nstance , c hronology i s l ess o f a p roblem , o n o ne s ide . S ome a reas a re n ot i ncluded i n t his v olume . I taly w as e xcluded a s h aving l ittle " non-Roman" c oinage , b ut a ccounts o f I talian c urrency c an b e f ound i n C MRR o r i n A .M . B urnett , ' The C urrency o f I taly f rom t he H annibalic W ar t o t he r eign o f A ugustus ' , A IIN 2 9 ( 1982) , 1 25-38 . B . O verbeck , w ho w as a ssigned t he E astern C elts , w isely d ecided t o r estrict h imself t o o ne a rea , g iven t he c omplexities o f e astern C eltic c oinage ; ap aper w as g iven a t t he c olloquium b y D .E .M . N ash o n t he W estern C elts, b ut s he w as n ot a ble t o p ublish i t h ere . More i nformation c an b e f ound i n D .F . A llen a nd D .E .M . N ash , T he C oins o f t he A ncient C elts ( Edinburgh , 1 980) , a lthough t hat b ook w as w ritten f rom a d ifferent s tandpoint a nd n ow s uffers f rom t he r apid c hanges i n C eltic n umismatics . O nce a gain t he r elevant t opics a re t reated i n C MRR , a s i s t he c oinage o f M assalia , w hich w as d iscussed a t t he c olloquium b y C . B renot .

I II T o r eturn t o t he t wo a ims o f t he c olloquium o utlined a bove , i t c an b e r easonably c laimed t hat t he f irst, t he a im o f c haracterising t he d iversity o f

c oinage p roduced ,

h as b een s ubstantially a chieved .

d efine R oman i nfluence a nd i ntervention ,

T he s econd a im ,

t o

h as n ot b een s o s uccessfully

f ulfilled , p artly b ecause o f t he v ery d ifficult p roblems o f i nterpretation w hich a rise . I t i s e asy t o s how t hat t he c irculation o f R oman d enarii c ame t o c haracterise a n e ver g reater n umber o f M editerranean c ountries ;

b ut i t

i s m uch h arder t o p roduce a s atisfying p icture o f h ow d enarii w ere u sed i n

t he

a reas

w here

t hey w ere p resent,

f or

e ven i n t he E ast

t he e vidence o f

i nscriptions a nd l iterary s ources i s o ften i nadequate a nd i n t he W est i t i s a lmost w holly l acking . H ardest o f a ll t o d emonstrate i s t he e ffect o f t he R oman p resence o n l ocal i ssues . P erhaps t he m ost d ramatic r evision o f a ccepted i deas i s a chieved b y t he p aper o f O verbeck ;

h e i s a ble t o s how t hat L a T ane D l

i s t o b e d ated

b etween t he l ate s econd c entury a nd t he 5 0s B C a nd i n c onseqeunce t hat i n many a reas n orth o f t he A lps C eltic c oinage h ad d isappeared b efore t he R omans c ame t o t he s cene . I n o ther a reas R oman i nfluence o n l ocal i ssues i s c learer , f or i nstance i n S pain , S icily , S yria , C yrenaica a nd A frica , a s e merges f rom t he p apers o f K napp , C rawford , B aldus , B uttrey a nd B urnett . I n t he p resent s tate o f t he e vidence t here r emains m uch r oom f or d isagreement o ver t he i nterpretation o f t he c hanges t hat w ere t aking p lace . B ut p erhaps t he m ost i mportant f eature o f t he c olloquium i s t hat i t h as d efined f ields where more work i s u rgently n eeded . T he d ifference o f o pinion b etween T ouratsoglou a nd P rice o ver t he d ating o f t he b ronze c oins o f t he M acedonian r egions a nd t he M acedonian c ities c an o nly b e r esolved w hen t he r elevant h oard e vidence i s f ully o btained . A t t he m oment , n on l i uet . S imilarly t he i nteresting q uestions r aised b y G ara w ill o nly b egin t o b e a nswered w hen s omeone h as s at d own a nd w orked o ut t he a rrangement f or t he A ugustan b ronze c oinage o f E gypt f rom s cratch , i nstead o f d epending o n t he u nsatisfactory a rrangement o f M ilne o f h alf a c entury a go . T he d ifferent

c haracters

o f

t he p apers

b y P icard a nd

K inns

a re

a lso

i nstructive . T he f ormer a ppears t o s how c ity i ssues p roceeding i n u nruffled c alm u nder R oman r ule a s i f n othing h ad h appened . B y w ay o f c ontrast, K inns i s a ble t o p oint t o a v ariety o f d evelopments w ith s ubstantial h istorial i mplications , d espite t he f act t hat m uch o f t he b asic g roundwork s till r emains t o b e d one . A sia i s u ndoubtedly a n a rea w here g iven t he d iversity o f t he s ource material, f urther w ork w ill p ay r ich d ividends.

A CKNOWLEDGEMENTS T he c olloquium w as h eld a t t he B ritish

M useum ,

a nd w e s hould l ike t o

t hank t he D irector a nd T rustees o f t he M useum f or t heir f inancial s upport . W e s hould a lso l ike t o t hank R ozalyn T odd f or h er h elp i n t he p reparation o f t his v olume .

A BBREVIATIONS A Delt

A rchaiologikon D eltion

A IIN

A nnali d el I stituto I taliano d i N umismatica

A JA

A merican J ournal o f A rchaeology

A JP

A merican J ournal o f P hilology

A MC

C .H .V . C oins

S utherland o f

t he

( Oxford ,

a nd

R oman

C . M .

K raay ,

E mpire

i n

C atalogue o f t he

t he

A shmolean M u seum

1 975) .

A NRW

A ufstieg u nd N iedergang d er r ömischen W elt

B CH

B ulletin d e C orrespondance H ellenique

B SFN

B ulletin d e l a S ocigt6 F rancaise d e N umismatique

C AR

C ambridge A ncient H istory

C H

C oin H oards

C Ph

C lassical P hilology

C RAI

C amptes-Rendues d e l 'Academie d es I nscriptions

C rawford, C MRR

M .H . C rawford, C oinage a nd M oney i n t he R oman R epublic ( London,

1 985)

D egrassi

A . D egrassi

E ssays T hompson

0 . M orkholm a nd N .M . W aggoner ( eds.), G reek N umismatics a nd

H istory.

( Wetteren , G iovannini, R ome

I nscriptiones L atinae S electae

E ssays

i n

H onor

o f

M argaret T hompson

1 979)

A . G iovannini, R ome e t l a C irculation M on6taire e n G r ce a u I Ie s iècle a vant J esus-Christ ( Geneva,

1 978)

G rant, F ITA

M . G rant, F rom I mperium t o A uctoritas ( Cambridge,

H SCP

H arvard S tudies i n C lassical P hilology

I GCH

M .

T hompson,

O .

Morkholm

I nventory o f G reek

a nd

C .M .

K raay

C oin H oards ( New Y ork,

1 946)

( eds .),

A n

1 973)

J NG

J ahrbuch f ür N umismatik u nd G eldgeschichte

J RS

J ournal o f R oman S tudies

M MDAI

M adrider M itteilungen ( Deutsche A rchaologische I nstitut)

N C

N umismatic C hronicle

N H

N umario H ispanico

P BSR

P apers o f t he B ritish S chool a t R ome

P rakArchEt

P raktika t es A rch . E taireias N umismatica e d A ntichitä C lassiche.

R addatz

Q uaderni T icinesi

K . R addatz, D ie S chatzfunde d er I berischen H albinsel ( Berlin , 1 969)

R evPhil

R evue P hilologique

R IC

R oman I mperial C oinage

R N

R evue N umismatique

R RC

M .H . C rawford, R aman R epublican C oinage ( Cambridge,

R RCH

M .H .

C rawford,

1 974)

R oman R epublican C oin H oards ( London ,

1 969) S M

S chweizer M ünzblätter

S NR

S chweizerische N umismatische R undschau

S voronos

I .N . S voronos, T a N omismata t ou K ratous t on P tolemaion ( Athens,

T roxell, L L

H .A .

1 904)

T roxell,

T he C oinage o f t he L ycian L eague ( New Y ork ,

1 983) W alker, M etrology

D .R .

Walker,

V ol.

I( Oxford ,

T he M etrology o f t he R oman S ilver C oinage . 1 976)

Z fN

Z eitschrift f ür N umismatik

Z PE

Z eitschrift f ür P apyrologie u nd E pigrafik

C ELTIC C HRONOLOGY I N S OUTH G ERMANY B ernhard O verbeck

I n

1 981

d iscoveries

R ainer C hristlein g ave a t alk o n r ecent C eltic a rchaeological i n s outh B avaria .'

H e

s poke a t

t he

n umismatic

c olloquium

a t

W ürzburg , b ut a lmost n othing w as s aid o n C eltic c oinage . N evertheless , h is t houghts w ere t he f inal c onclusion o f a bout 2 0 y ears o f d iscussion a bout L a T ane c hronology , i ncluding t he c oinage . A nepigraphic a s C eltic c oins o f t his r egion a re , t here i s o nly o ne w ay o f e stablishing a r easonably s ure c hronology , t he e xact o bservation o f t he a rchaeological e nvironment . I n s outh G ermany , t here i s o ne C eltic s ite , w hich a s a n o ppidum o f a n i mmense s ize a nd c ertainly a t ribal c apital h as a lways b een i n t he f ocus o f r esearch : M anching n ear I ngolstadt .2 A ll s cholars u sed t o a gree o n t he c hronology o f t his p lace , a s p resented b y W erner K rämer , t he e xcavator:3 F or h im t here w as , a t t he b eginning o f h is r esearch , n o d oubt t hat t he e nd o f t he o ppidum w as d irectly c onnected w ith t he e stablishment o f t he R oman p rovince o f R aetia i n 1 5 B C , t he c onquest o f t his r egion b y D rusus a nd T iberius . B ones o f m en , e vidently f allen i n c ombat , s eemed t o c onfirm h is v iew , e ven t hough n ot f ound. 4

a s ingle R oman w eapon ,

o r a s ingle

a rrowhead ,

w as

F or c eltic a umismatics t he c oins f ound i n M anching d ated f rom L a T ane C t o D 1a nd , o ne h ad t o s uppose , D 1e nded i n 1 5 B C . T he h oard o f s ilver c oins f ound i n M anching w as a lso n aturally c onnected w ith t he v iolent e nd o f t he p lace . T hese m ere s uppositions b ecame f act i n t he l iterature o n L a T ane c hronology . T he e arthenware p ot , w hich h ad c ontained t he h oard , w as d ated l ate b y t he s o-called e vidence o f c oins .5 T here w ere a lso c onsequences f or t he c hronological a rrangement o f c oins f rom o ther s ites , a nd o f c ourse o f o ther a rchaeological o bjects , a s p ottery , b rooches , b elt b uckles e tc . B ut t here w ere s ome o pen q uestions, w hich c ontradicted t his c hronology : i t w as o dd t hat t he M anching c oin t ypes n ever o ccurred i n t he e arly R oman c urrency i n a nd o utside R aetia .6 F urther , t here i s a nother l evel o f L a T ane m aterial, t he L a T ane D 2 s tage, w hich i s n ot a t a ll r epresented i n M anching , a lthough i t i s t otally " barbarous" , n ot r omanised . I n K rämer 's f irst p roposal o f a c hronology , t his s tage c onsequently w as A ugustan .7 A rchaeological e vidence m ore t o t he W est p rovided a n ew c lue t o t he p roblem . A ndres F urger-Gunti a nd L ouis B erger p roved t hat t he D 2 p hase a t B asel M ünsterhügel s ucceeded t he D 1 p hase a t B asel Gasfabrik ( thereby a lso e stablishing t he c hronological a rrangement o f t he p otin c oins o f t he S equani), A ugustan . s ites. 8

a nd t hat a fter D 2 a t B asel-Münsterhügel t he n ext l ayer i s T his s equence D 1, D 2 , A ugustan c an a lso b e o bserved a t o ther

W hat a re t he h istorical c onclusions? t hat

t he e nd o f B asel Gasfabrik r eflects

F or B asel F urger-Gunti e stablished t he m igration o f

t he H elvetii

t o

s outhern G aul i n 5 8 B C, a nd t he b eginning o f t he s ettlement a t B aselM ünsterhügel t heir r eturn a fter t heir d efeat b y C aesar . F rom h is w ork w e a re t herfore l ucky t o g et a d ate w hich e nables u s t o d ate n ot o nly t hese t wo p laces , b ut a lso t he w hole h orizon o f L a T ane D 1 a nd D 2 i n c entral E urope . O ne o f t hem i s M anching ( for D 1) . T o t hat p hase h ave t o b e a dded c ertainly H üfingen , H eidengraben , A ltendorf n ear B amberg ,9 P ollanten ,1 0

t he v ery i mportant s ite o f

a nd p robably a lso , a s f ar a s t he i nsufficient s tate o f r esearch

1

p ermits , K elheim I , S traubing a nd P assau .1 2 t here i s, h owever , o ne v ery i mportant d ifference b etween B asel a nd a ll t hese o ther s ites : t here a re o therwise n o o ppida a nd n o s ettlements i n t he R aetian a rea s ucceeding t he D I s ites . W e h ave i n s outh G ermany f rom t he D 2 p hase a f ew c remation b urials a t d ifferent s ites, t he f inds o f w hich d iffer f rom t he a rchaeological r emains o f t he D I 2 hase , a nd e ven f ewer s ettlements , p robably f arms , b ut n ot a s ingle o ppidum . 15 T his

c remation-burial h orizon,

H örgertshausen h orizon ,1 4

i s i n e very

t he

s o-called U ttenhofen-Kronwinkl-

r espect

v ery d ifferent

f rom

t he L a

T ene D l h orizon . T he p ottery i s o f t ypically w heel-made C eltic f orm a nd d esign , b ut d iffers f rom D I w are i n t he c omposition o f i ts c lay , w hich l acks t he o therwise t ypical g raphite . B rooches a nd b elt-buckles a re d ifferent t oo , a nd v ery t ypical i s t he e xtensive u se o f i ron i nstead o f b ronze . F rom ac omparison w ith t he f inds i n g ermanic c remation b urials f rom e ast G ermany a nd e ven n orth B avaria a rchaeologists c oncluded t hat t he D 2 s tage i n B avaria w as s trongly i nfluenced b y g ermanic h abits a nd f ashion, a nd e ven b y d ifferent l iving h abits , a s t here a re n o o ppida . B ut o ne h as t o s uppose C eltic o rigin , a s t he w heel m ade p ottery , s ignificant f or t his g roup , s hows i s p robable . T his s parse e ast C eltic g roup s ettled i n j ust s ome a reas i n t he e ast o f B avaria a nd h ad a rrived a fter _ t he w ithdrawal o f t he D l-celts, 5 t he f ounders o f t he o ppidum-civilisation .1 T hus a rchaeology s hows u s w hat C aesar r eports f or t he w est:

p ressed b y

G erman t ribes f rom t he n ortheast t here w as a C eltic m ovement f rom e ast t o w est . T he b est k nown e xamples, r eported b y C aesar , w ere t he m igrations o f t he H elvetii ( 58 B C) a nd t he S uebi u nder A riovistus i n t he w est, w hich i mpinged o n G aulish a ffairs .1 6 A fter 5 8 i n c entral G ermany t he D l C eltic e lement n ever r eturned ; t he o ppida a s t ribal c entres a nd m ints r emained a bandoned , a nd e astern C eltic s ettlers o ccupied o nly p arts o f t he e mpty t erritories . O nly i n t he w est d o w e h ave e vidence o f a r e-establishment o f D 2 o ppida, e vidently b y t he r eturning H elvetii, a nd e vidence o f t he i nstallation o f n ew m ints. E xcept N oricum ,

1 7

w hich e vidently d id n ot c ease s triking c oins u nder t he

a uthority o f l ocal c hiefs t ill t he i nstallation o f t he R oman p rovince u nder C laudius , t he e nd o f t he o ppida-civilisation m eant t he e nd o f a utonomous c oinage i n c entral E urope , t hat i s t o s ay t hat t he s o-called V indelician c oinage e nds i n a bout 6 0 B C . S o

f ar

w e

h ave

o nly

a nswered

t he q uestion o f

s triking o f c oins i n s outh G ermany ;

t he e nd

o f

i ndependent

w e c an n ow t ry t o g ive a m ore d etailed

a ccount o f t he c hronology o f C eltic c oinage f rom s outh G erman s ites . O ne o f t he m ost i mportant c ontributions t o t his p roblem i s a s tudy o f C eltic b urial-inventories f rom c entral E urope c ontaining c oins .1 8 b urials g ave s ome c lues t o t he c hronological a rrangement

T he f ollowing o f s outh G erman

C eltic c oinage : I . G iengen , K reis H eidenheim ( southeast W ürttemberg) 1 9 . T he f inds f rom t his c remation b uria l i nclude a s mall g old 1 /24 s tater w ith j aniform h ead o n t he o bverse a nd h orse t o l eft, w ith a h uman h ead a bove , o n t he r everse ( cf . F ig . 1 ) . T he w hole t ind c an b e d ated t o L a T ene C l o f K rämer 's c hronology , i .e . a bout 2 50/200 B C, a nd n o d oubt r epresents t he o ldest p hase o f c oin s triking i n c entral E urope .2 0 2 .

D ühren ,

C ity o f

S insheim,

R hein-NeckarKreis ( north B aden ) .2 1

2

T his

i nhumation

b urial

i s

t ypical

1 20/05 B C i n a bsolute t erms . ' Tectosagi-type ' ( silver ) , c f . 3 .

N ierstein ,

K reis

f or

t he

L a nne

C 2 h orizon ,

a bout

1 85/70

-

I t c ontained o ne ' monnaie ä l a c roix ' o f t he F ig . 2 .

M ainz-Bingen

( Rhine-Hesse) .2 2

T he

f inds

f rom

t his

c remation b urial a re t ypical f or l ate C 2/early D 1 p hase o f K rämer 's L a T äne c hronology a nd t herefore c an b e d ated t o a pproximately 1 20-100 B C . T his g ives u s a n e xcellent c lue f or t he d ating o f t he ' V indelician ' r ainbow c up ( gold) i t c ontained , c f . F ig . 3 . H oards a nd t heir c ompositions g ive s ome m ore e vidence c hronological a rrangement o f t he s outh G erman C eltic c oinage : 4 .

T he L auterach h oard ,

L ake o f C onstance ,

o n

t he

f ound c lose t o L auterach i n t he v icinity o f t he

i n V orarlberg/Austria .

F or a l ong t ime t his h oard w as

m isinterpreted 23 a s a d ocument o f t he R oman c onquest i n 1 5 B C . 2 4 R oman R epublican d enarii s truck b etween 1 89 a nd 1 17/16 B C , g ive u s t he r are o pportunity o f d ating t he 3 C eltic s ilver c oins i n t his h oard . T he t wo l ocal ' monnaie ä l a c roix ' p ieces o f s outh G erman o rigin a nd t he Taletedu ' q uinarius m ust h ave b een s truck n ot v ery m uch l ater t han a round 1 20/100 5 i f w e s uppose t hat t he h oard w as b uried n ot v ery m uch l ater t han 1 00 B C . T his c ontradicts C olbert d e B eaulieu 's d ating o f t he ' Caletedu ' t ype t o a bout 6 0 B C , w hich I c an s ee n o r eason a t a ll t o a ccept .2 5 T his h oard a lso c ontained a p air o f b rooches , c onnected b y a s ilver c hain , as ilver b racelet a nd t wo s mall r ings ( one s ilver a nd o ne b ronze ) ( cf . F ig . 4 ) . 5 . T he S chönaich h oard 26 , f ound i n t he n eighbourhood o f a n o ld r oad b etween S chönaich a nd R ohr , K reis B öblingen ( Württemberg ) c onsists m ainly o f ' monnaie ä l a c roix ' s ilver o f t he s ame t ype a s i n t he L auterach h oard . T his l ink p uts t he h oard i nto t he s ame c hronological l evel o f a bout 1 20/100 B C a s t he L auterach h oard . F urther t here i s a n i nteresting l ink t o o ther h oards , a s S chönaich c ontained a s ilver c oin o f t he ' bushel ' s eries 2 7 a nd t wo g old c oins , o ne o f t hem a t ypical r ainbow c up q uarter s tater o f t he ' smooth t ype ' w ith a c ross o n i ts c oncave r everse .2 8 ' 6 . T he L angenau h oard, 29 A lb-Donau K reis, W ürttemberg , i s a nother e xample o f a mixed h oard, c ontaining g old a nd s ilver c oins a nd t wo p airs o f b rooches, r ichly d ecorated b y g old a nd c oral b alls . I ts c hronology i s p uzzling . O n t he o ne h and t he s ilver b rooches c ertainly b elong t o t he L a Une D 1 p eriod , a s d oes t he r ainbow c up s tater , w hich i s o f t he s ame b ird 's h ead/torques a nd b alls t ype a s t he N ierstein s pecimen .3 ° T he b ushel s ilver c oins, a lthough o f a n a dvanced s tyle , w ould n ot c ontradict t his d ate o f a bout 1 00 B C . O n t he o ther h and , t he h oard c ontains o ne s ilver q uinarius o f t h N INNO M AVC t ype , a ttributed t o t he R auraci , w hich s hows a v ery d ifferent s tyle , i nfluenced b y R oman d esign a nd s tylistic p erception , a nd s o h as t o b e l ater . E ven i f o ne d oe ' s n ot a gree w ith t he a rguments p reviously u sed f or t he c hronology o f t his c oin t ype ,3 1 o ne h as t o a dmit t hat i t m ust b e d ated c omparatively l ate, i .e . i nto a pproximately t he t ime o f C aesar 's G allic w ar .3 2 7 .

T he N euses h oard f rom N euses, G emeinde E ggolsheim , K reis F orchheim, i n

n orth B avaria 33 i s c omparable t o t he S chönaich a nd L angenau h oards ( cf . F ig . 5 ) . I t t oo c ontains g old a nd s ilver . O f t he f our r ainbow c up s taters , t here a re t hree i n P rähistorische S taatssammlung ( cf . F ig . 6 a-c) . T wo p ieces h ave a b ird 's h ead , a nother h as a d ragon , a nd t he f ourth i s t he s ame t ype a s t he q uarter s tater i n t he S chönaich h oard ( obv . : s mooth , r ev . : s mall c ross) .

T here a re ,

i n a ddition m ore t han 4 00 s ilver p ieces o f t wo s orts:

3

f irstly ,

d ifferent

' n aturalistic '

v arieties

o r a bstract

h ead

o f

t he

o n t he

' bushel '

s ilver

o bverse a nd a h orse

c oins

w ith

a

w ith d ifferent

a ttributes o n t he r everse , r epresenting t he s ilver u nit o f a n a verage w eight o f

a bout

1 . 8g

( cf .

F ig .

6 d-e ) .

S econdly ,

t here w ere

s mall

s ilver p ieces

w ith a n a verage w eight o f e xactly a q uarter ( 0 .42/0 . 4 5g) o f t he b ushel u nit . T his ' hedgehog ' t ype u susally h as a h edgehog-like h ead o n t he o bverse , ah orse a nd d ifferent a dditional m arks o n t he r everse ( cf . F ig . 6 fg ) . T he p ot , w hich c ontained t he c oins 3 4 b elongs t o t he L a T ene C o r e arly D 1 p hase , i .e . t o a bout 1 00 B C , ad ate f itting n eatly i nto t he c hronological f ramework w e a lready h ave f rom t he h oards d iscussed a bove . We h ave s o f ar l ooked a t h oards o f s ilver a lone o r m ixed s ilver a nd g old; n ow w e m ust t urn t o a nother g roup o f h oards, c onsisting o f g old o nly . 8 . T he m ost f amous h oard , n ever c ompletely p ublished w as f ound i n 1 858 i n I rsching ,3 5 K reis I ngolstadt , B avaria , q uite c lose t o M anching . O riginally o f a bout 1 000 r ainbow c up s taters, t his h oard w as d ispersed a nd p artly m elted d own i n t he R oyal B avarian M int . E ighty-five p ieces , a s election o f a ll t ypes r epresented i n t his h oard, a re p reserved i n S taatliche M ünzsammlung ,

M ünchen .

T hese d ifferent t ypes c ontain a lmost e very d esign

k nown o f t he ' Vindelician ' t ype r ainbow c ups, f rom t he b ird 's h ead/torques t o t he c ompletely s mooth t ypes ( c .f . F ig . 7 a-h ) , a ll s hown i n e xcellent s teel e ngravings i n S treber 's p ublications . 9 .

G eographically, a nd b y i ts c ontents, r ather c lose t o t his h oard i s

a nother B avarian h oard f rom G agers , K reis A ichach-Friedberg ,3 6 t he o ldest h oard k nown a nd p ublished . I t w as d iscovered i n 1 751, a nd s oon a fterwards p ublished i n a c opperplate e ngraving ( Fig . 8 ), which h as a llowed t he i dentification o f t hose s taters s till p reserved i n S taatliche M ünzsammlung , M ünchen ( cf . F ig . 9 a-f) . T here a re t wo u nique r ainbow c up s taters 3 7 i n t he h oard, o ne o f t hem w ith a s tag 's h ead m agnificently a nd i ndependently d esigned .

M uch m ore i mportant i s t he f act t hat t here a re m ussel-staters o f

t he B oii i n t his h oard , s howing t hat t hese B ohemian g old c oins a re p robably a pproximately c ontemporary t o t he ' Vindelician ' g old . 1 0 .

I n s ome w ay a p arallel t o t he G agers h oard i s t he S t . L ouis h oard n ear

B asel,

S witzerland,

r econstructed

d iscovered

b y F urger-Gunti .3 8

i n

1 883

T his h oard ,

a nd

r ecently

s tudied

a nd

a nother e xample o f a h oard

c ontaining g old j ewellery ( torques, b racelets , r ings) a nd g old c oins , s hows t he s ame v ariety o f ' Vindelician ' s taters a nd B oiian m ussel s taters , a nd i n a ddition t he b all

s taters o f w estern o rigin ,

a ttributed t o t he

S enones

i n

t he o lder l iterature. 3 9 B oth t he G agers a nd t he S t . L ouis h oard c ontain m ussel s taters o f t he B oil, c onnecting t his w estern g roup o f h oards w ith t he C zechoslovakian g roup . T he m ost f amous o f t hese B oiian h oards i s t he P odmokly t reasure 4 ° o f a bout 3 0/40 k g o f g old , w hich w ith i ts m ixture o f j ewellery a nd c oins w as • c ompared t o t he S t . L ouis d eposit b y A . F urger-Guntl ,4 1 a nd m ost p robably b elongs t o t he s ame c hronological p eriod . 1 1.

O ne o f t he most i nteresting h oards r ecently c ome t o l ight i s t he

N iederzier d eposit f rom N iederzier , K reis D üren ( Rhineland, G ermany) 42 , a nother c ombination o f b racelet, t wo t orques a nd g old c oins , t wenty-six V indelician r ainbow c up s taters a nd t wenty s taters o f t he A mbiani .4 3 T his h oard w as f ound d uring e xcavations eride a s ettlement w hich b elongs t o t he B aselGasfabrik ( La T ene D 1) p eriod .

4

T o s um u p t he e vidence o f t hese C eltic h oards a nd b urials, o ne c an e mphasise t hat a ll t hese f inds h ave t o b elong t o t he D 1 p hase : t he s mall g old f ractions t o i ts b eginning o r e ven t o L a T ene C , t he ' rainbow c ups ' a nd ' mussels ' t o D l. T here i s t oo n o d oubt t hat t he l ocal s outh G erman ' monnaie ä l a c roix ', t he N euses b ushel-silver a nd i ts q uarter d enominations , h as t o b e p ut i nto t his p eriod . I n a bsolute t erms t his means a d ate o f a bout 1 00 B C, o r s ome y ears l ater t o a bout 8 0 B C , i f w e f ollow t he a rguments o f H . P olenz . 45 O nly t he L angenau h oard m ay b e l ater , a s i t c ontained a t l east o ne l ater c oin o f t he R auraci . T he ' bushel ' s ilver o f t his h oard , t oo , i s o f a d ifferent a ppearance a nd m ay b e r ather l ate . I n s pite o f A llen 's g eneral s tudy o f t his t ype " t here i s c ertainly an eed f or a f urther , m ore d etailed s tudy o f t he d ifferent v ariations o f i t , b ased u pon a much l arger q uantity o f c oins . O ne h as t o p oint o ut t hat , w hatever c oin o ne t ries t o d ate , t here i s n o w ay o f m aking a ny p rogress b y l ooking a t t he w eight o f o ne o r e ven a f ew p ieces o f t he s ame t ype . L arge s cale

i nvestigations

c omparisons 4 7 c hronology .

o n

t he

' Vindelician '

a nd

B olian

s taters,

d ie

a nd m etrology 48 m ay l ead t o a r elative a nd m ore d etailed T he s ame m ay b e t he c ase f or t he s ilver , t he ' bushel ' s ilver

a nd t he b nonnaie ä l a c roix ' w hich h as n ot h itherto b een s ufficiently s tudied. 4 9 W e c an n ow g o b ack t o t he s tarting p oint o f t his i nvestigation a nd l ook a t t he c oins f ound i n M anching, i nsofar a s t hey h ave b een p ublished . Ih ave a lready mentioned t he 1 936 M anching h oard, 5 ° which w ith i ts c omposition o f d ifferent b ushel s ilver a nd C aletedu-quinarii f its i nto L a T ene D l . A nother h oard 5 1 , f ound i n 1 982/83 a nd p reserved i n P rähistorische S taatssammlung , M ünchen , i s v ery s imilar t o t he N euses h oard , c ontaining b ushel s ilver c roix ' o f t he

a nd i ts ' hedgehog ' t ype q uarters a nd f urther S chönaich-type ( twenty-eight p ieces i n a ll) .

' monnaie ä l a M any o f t he

b ushel s ilver a nd t he ' hedgehog ' t ypes a re d ie-linked t o t he N euses h oard , w hich c onfirms t hat b oth h oards b elong t o t he s ame c hronological p eriod . T here a re a lso a l ot o f s tray f inds , p robably i ncluding a nother d ispersed h oard , m ost o f t hem i n P rähistorische S taatssammlung , M ünchen ,5 2 o r t he I ngolstadt M useum ( Fig . 1 0a-m) . T his r ecently d iscovered m aterial " s hows l ike t he h oards a l arge s pectrum o f a ll s ilver d enominations, s ome ' Vindelician ' g old ' rainbow ' c ups a nd w estern p otin c oins, i ncluding t he S equani-potin c oins, which c onfirm w hat h as b een s aid a bove a bout t he c hronology : a ll o f t hem b elong t o t he B aselGasfabrik p eriod ,5 4 i .e . a ll o f t hem w ere m ade b efore t he e xodus o f t he H elvetii (. 2 . f . C omparable

t o

M anching

a re

t he

a rchaeological

F ig .

1 0n ) .

f inds

f rom

t he

C eltic

s ettlement o f P ollanten , m entioned a bove ,5 5 w hich a lso b elongs t o t he D 1 p eriod . T he s ilver c oins f ound h ere b ear m any r esemblances t o t he M anching m aterial . F urther , t here a re s ome n ew t ypes o f s ilver c oins , w hich a re n ot y et

k nown f rom

o ther a rchaeological

s ites

( cf .

F ig .

la-g) .

O ther p laces

a nd o ppida o f t he s ame a rchaeological l evel h ave a lready b een m entioned . T his w hole C eltic w orld m ust h ave b een d isturbed - a bandoned o r d estroyed i n t he s ame s equence o f e vents , w hich l ed t o t he m igration o f t he H elvetii a nd w as o ne o f t he c auses o f C aesar 's w ar i n G aul . W hen t he l egions o f A ugustus a rrived i n 1 5 B C ,5 6 M anching a nd t he o ppida c ivilisation o f t his r egion d id n ot e xist a ny m ore, t he m ints o f t hese o ypida h ad c eased t o s trike g old a nd s ilver a nd a d ifferent , t he

a rea .5 7

5

r ather

s parse

p opulation o ccupied

N OTES 1 .

R .

C hristlein ,

' Zu

d en

j üngsten

k eltischen

B ayerische V orgeschichtsblätter 4 7 ( 1982) , 1 982). 2 .

F or g eneral

F unden

S üdbayerns ',

1 75-292 ( cited a s : C hristlein

i nformation - i ncluding b ibliographical n otes - o n t his ,

p robably t he m ost i mportant, C eltic s ite i n c entral E urope s ee : W . K rämer ,

Z wanzig J ahre A usgrabungen

i n

M anching . A usgrabungen

i n

D eutschland ( Catalogue o f t he e xhibition 1 975) ( Mainz , 1 975) , 2 87-297 . T he m ost r ecent c ommentary b y t he s ame a uthor o n t he s tate o f r esearch i n Manching i s: W . K rämer, D ie G rabfunde v on M anching u nd d ie l atanezeitlichen F lachgräber i n S üdbayern . D ie A usgrabungen i n M anching 9 ( Wiesbaden/Stuttgart , 1 985) . N ote e specially h is r emarks o n t he a bsolute c hronology , p . 3 8ff . g iven b y W . K rämer : A ntiquity 3 4 , 3 .

W . K rämer ,

G ermania 3 7 ,

( 1959) ,

A s hort r eport ( 1960) , 1 91-200 .

i n E nglish h as b een

1 47ff . a nd G ermania 4 0 ( 1962) ,

2 93-317 ,

e specially h is t able 1 , p . 3 06 : c ited a s K rämer 1 962) . 4 .

F or d iscussion o n t his e vidence s ee: K rämer 1 962, 3 09 f f .

F or t he

p roblem o f e xplaining t he h uman b ones s cattered o ver t he o ppidum : W . K rämer, D ie G rabfunde v on Manching u nd d ie l atanezeitlichen F lachgraber i n S üdbayern . D ie A usgrabungen v on M anching 9 ( Wiesbaden/Stuttgart , 5 .

1 985) ,

3 6ff .

N umismatic r eport o n t he c oin h oard: G . B ehrens,'Kelten-Münzen v on M anching ' , B erliner N umismatische Z eitschrift 1 951, 2 17-222 . T here B ehrens c onnects t he h oard w ith t he o ccupation o f Manching b y t he R omans: " ... E innahme d er M anchinger F estung i m J ahre 1 5 v .Chr."

6 .

F rom

t he A ugustan m ilitary s ite o f A ugsburg-Oberhausen t here i s n ot a

s ingle ' V indelician ' c oin k nown , b ut o nly t hose c oin t ypes - a s f ar a s o ne c an t ell - which a re t ypcial f or t he c urrency o f t he w estern p rovinces u nder A ugustus : o ne b ronze c oin o f t he B ochum r ainbow c up t ype , a nd b ronzes o f t he A duatuca t ype a nd o f G ermanus I ndutilli L . C f . H .-J . K ellner , ' D ie k eltischen M ünzen v on A ugsburg - O berhausen ' , J NG 2 7 ( 1977), 2 1-27 ., 7 .

T he d iscussion o f t his f act,

t he d ifferences b etween L a T ane a nd D 1 a nd

D 2, i s o ne o f t he m ain t opics o f C hristlein . C f. C hristlein 1 982, 2 79ff. 8 .

R eport o n t he e xcavations b y A . F urger-Gunti,

' Die A usgrabungen i m

B asler Münster I . D ie s pätkeltische u nd a ugusteische Z eit ', B eiträge z ur U r- u nd F rühgeschichte,

B d .

6 ,

B asler

( Derendingen-Solothurn ,

1 979) . O n t he l ate L a T ane l ayers , c f . e specially p . 1 20-136 . O n t he c hronology o f t he S equani p otin: A . F urger-Gunti, ' Oppidum B aselMünsterhügel', J ahrbuch d er S chweizerischen G esellschaft f ur U ru nd F rühgeschichte 5 8, ( 1974/75), 1 06-109; A . F urger-Gunti, H .M . v on K aenel , k eltischen F undmünzen a us B asel ' S NR 5 5 , ( 1976) , 3 5-76 . 9 .

C f. C hristlein 1 982, 2 77f.

1 0 . P reliminary

r eport

b y T h . F ischer, K . S pindler,

S iedlung v on B erching-Pollanten% ( Stuttgart,

1 982),

1 28 ;

' Die s pätkeltische

D as a rchäologische J ahr i n B ayern 1 981

o n t he c oins: H . J . K ellner, ' Die k eltischen

M ünzen v on P ollanten , G emeinde B erching ',

6

D as a rchäologische J ahr i n

B ayern 1 982 , 1 1. C f .

S tuttgart

1 983) ,

C hristlein 1 982,

M itterfeld ,

2 78;

8 0-83 . f urther o n n ew c oin f inds

t he o ppidum A lkimoennis ,

o f K elheim-

a nd t his s ite a s C eltic m int:

B .

O verbeck , ' Fine k eltische K leinsilbermünze v on K elheim-Mitterfeld ', D as a rchäologische J ahr i n B ayern 1 984, ( Stuttgart, 1 985), 8 5f; B . O verbeck , D as a rchäologische J ahr i n B ayern 9 185 , ( Stuttgart , 1 986 , i n p reparation): A lkimoennis a s C eltic m int. 1 2. C f. C hristlein 1 982, 2 78 . 1 3. C f .

C hristlein 1 982 ,

2 81 f f .

c ivilization a nd t he D 2 t his a rticle.

T he d ifferentiation b etween t he D 1 o ppida-

p eriod

i s

o ne

o f

C hristlein 's

m ain p oints

i n

1 4 . S o c alled f rom t he m ain s ites; c f . C hristlein 1 982, 2 81, f urther R . C hristlein,

' Ein s pätkeltischer F riedhof v on H örgertshausen ,

a rchäologische J ahr i n B ayern 1 980,

( Stuttgart,

1 981),

' Das

1 08f.

1 5. C f. C hristlein 1 982, 2 85f a nd f ig. 5 . 1 6. F or

t he

s equence o f h istorical e vents c f .

a nd

t he

a rchaeological

1 982 ,

e vidence ,

s ee

t he

C AH .

I X ,

s hort

5 45-554 .

s urvey

o f

O n C aesar C hristlein

2 77f .

1 7. T hat N oricum w as n ot t otally u ndisturbed b y t he r aids o f S uebi i n t he m iddle o f t he f irst c entury B C m ay b e i ndicated b y C aesar , B G I , 5 3 , 4 . H e m entions A riovistus 's s econd w ife N orica , r egis V occionis s oror , q uam i n G allia d uxerat a f ratre m issam . . ." C ould t his m ean t hat V occio w as u rged t o s eek a g ood r elationship t o t he S uebian k ing? O n t he c hronology o f i ts c oinage, R . G öbl h as g iven a n e xcellent a ccount, s howing t hat t he R oman m ilitary o ccupation o f 1 6/15 B C d id n ot m ean t he e nd o f a l ocal c urrency : R . G öbl, T ypologie u nd C hronologie d er k eltischen M ünzprägung i n N oricum ( Vienna , 1 973) , 5 3-66 . 1 8 . H .

P olenz ,

' M i inzen

i n

l at & lezeitlichen

G räbern

M itteleuropas

a us

d er

Z eit z wischen 3 00 a nd 5 0 v .Chr. G eburt,' B ayerische V orges chichtsblätter 4 7 ( 1982) , 2 8-222 ( cited a s P olenz) . 1 9. P olenz 6 5-69. 2 0 . T he m ost r ecent c ontribution o n t his e arly g roup o f s mall g old m ints: B . O verbeck, ' Der N eufund e iner k eltischen G oldmünze a m D ürrnberg b ei H allein , L and S alzburg/Osterreich% G ermania 6 1 ( 1983) , 5 89-592 . T his g roup o f s mall d enominations t oo i s k nown f rom M anching . 2 1. P olenz,

5 8-65.

2 2. P olenz, 7 8-81. 2 3. O ne c an o nly e mphasize w hat C rawford

w rites a bout t his h oard:

" IC

C astelin . d ates t he f ibulae ( and t he f ind) t o a bout 1 5 B C; t he a rgument i s b ased o n a b izarre v iew o f t he r elevance o f t he R oman c onquest o f t he a rea

S ee C rawford ,

C MRR 3 33 .

2 4. F or a n i nventory a nd g eneral d iscussion o f t he h oard : B . O verbeck , D as A lpenrheintal i n r ömischer Z eit, I ( Munich , 1 982), 1 78181, 2 60f. ---

7

2 5. J .-B . C olbert d e B eaulieu , ' Les m onnaies d e C aletedu e t l e s ystame d u d enier e n G aule ', C ahiers N umismatiques 2 ( 1965), 1 67f . A s s ome o f t hese q uinarii b ear t he n ame S VLA , h e a rgues t hat t his n ame a ppears i n h onour o f t he d ictator S ulla , a r ather o dd i dea , a s t here i s n o o ther h onorary o r c ommemorative i ssue k nown i n t he C eltic w orld , a nd a s t here w as n o r eason f or a ny t ribe i n G aul t o h onour j ust S ulla i n t hat w ay . U ndoubtedly t his c oin t ype i s ad erivative o f t he d enarius s truck i n 1 51 B C b y t he m oneyer P . C ornelius S ulla , R RC 2 05/1 . 2 6. S hort p ublication r efering t o t he o lder r eports o f t he n ineteenth c entury b y K . C hrist, D ie F undmünzen d er r ömischen Z eit i n D eutschland , I I,

4 ( Nordwürttemberg,

g eschichtliche

B edeutung

B erlin , d er

i n

1 964) , n r . 4 089 ;

W ürttemberg

F . H e7ilein ,

g efundenen

' Die

K eltenmünzen ' ,

F undberichte a us S chwaben 1 2 , 1 904 , ( Stuttgart, 1 905) , 7 0-72 ; K . B ittel, W . K immig , S . S chiek ( ed .) , D ie K elten i n B aden-Württemberg , ( Stuttgart , 1 981), 2 33, 2 38 , 2 44f. 2 7. C f . D .F . A llen ,

( contribution o n t he c oinage b y D . M annsberger).

' The C oins f rom t he O ppidum o f A ltenburg a nd t he B ushel

S eries , ' G ermania 5 6 ( 1978) , p l . 3 3 , 3 6 , t he f irst m odern i llustration o f t his o nly b ushel s ilver o f S chönaich , w hich w ill b e d iscussed b elow , w hen r eferring t o t he N euses h oard . 2 8 . F or t he i nventory s ee n ote 2 6,

e specially C hrist 's

l ist

o f c oins,

f urther F . H ertlein ( cf . n ote 2 6), p . 8 8, n r . i ( 1) .

I n s pite o f t he

f act

d ifferent

t hat

t he

h oard

a ssociation o f

t his

p iece

w ith

t ypes e vidently g ives a n e xcellent c lue t o i ts c hronology ,

s ilver

i t h as b een

o mitted f rom C astelin/Kellner 's l ist o f t his p articular t ype o f q uarter s taters: c f. K . Castelin, H .-J. Kellner, ' Die g latten R egenbogenschüsselchen ', J NG 1 3 ( 1963), 1 23f. 2 9. F irst p ublished : E L R eim , ' E in V ersteckfund v on M ünzen u nd F ibeln a us d er S pätlatanezeit b ei L angenau , A lb-Donau K reis ', A rchäologische A usgrabungen 1 979. B odendenkmalpflege i n d en R egierungsbezirken S tuttgart u nd T übingen , ( Stuttgart , 1 980) , 5 Off . D iscussion o f t he b urial d ate : P olenz , 1 55ff . 3 0. C f. P olenz,

1 55, p l. 6 , 3 .

3 1. T he d esign o f t his c oin t ype i s o nly p ossible i n a t ime o f s trong R oman i nfluence , a s t here a re c oins o f t his d esign k nown w hich d o n ot b ear a ny t race o f n on R oman , C eltic s tyle . C f . t he p ieces o f t he S chweizerisches L andesmuseum Z ürich : K . C astelin , K eltische Münzen . K atal e d er S ammlung i m S chweizerischen L andesmuseum Z ürich , V ol . I ( Stäfa , 1 978) , n r . 9 60-972 . Id o n ot s ee a ny g ood r eason t o c onnect t his c oin w ith t he d enarius o f LC ossutius S abula , R RC 3 95/1 .

N umismatists g enerally d eny

t hat d ie e ngravers o f t he C eltic w orld h ad a ny i magination o f t heir o wn , a nd t hat t hey s lavishly k ept c opying p rototypes . A m ere g lance a t t he s trange d esigns o f t he r ainbow c ups , h owever , s hows t hat t his i s n ot t he c ase . T he R auraci t ype i s n ot p articularly C eltic i n s tyle , b ut l ooks m ore l ike t he p roduct o f aR oman o r R oman-influenced a rtist, c onsidering w hat o ne e xpects a C eltic c oin o f t his a rea t o l ook l ike . O ne c an o nly c onclude t hat t his a rtist w as a ble t o u se h is o wn i magination a nd h is o wn k nowledge o f m otifs a nd m ythology , a nd t hat h e d id n ot j ust c opy s ome R oman c oin w hich h e h appened t o h ave i n h is p ocket o r k ept s pecial c ollection o f " prototypes" .

8

i n a

3 2. T his m eans t hat I c ome t o t he s ame d ates a s t hose p roposed i n K . B ittel e t a l . ( cf . n ote 2 6) , 2 47 ( where t he c ommunity n ame o f W asseralfingen i s u sed i nstead o f L angenau f or t his h oard) , b ut b y ad ifferent r oute . 3 3. B .-U . A bels ,

B . O verbeck ,

S chatzfund k eltischer M ünzen a us N euses ' ,

D as a rchäologishe Jahr i n B ayern 1 981 ( Stuttgart, 1 982), 1 26f . ( preliminary r eport) . B . O verbeck , U ntersuchungen z u d en k eltishchen M ünzen

d es

B üscheltyps.

E in

B eitrag

z ur

G eldgeschichte

d er

S pätlat& lezeit i n B ayern . ( University o f A ugsburg , 1 981: t ype-written h abilitation t hesis) . T he f inal p ublication i s i n p reparation , t wice d elayed b y t he d iscovery o f m ore c oins o f t his h oard , w hich h ad b een d ispersed i nto p rivate c ollections . A ll t hat i s k nown o f t his h oard i s p reserved i n P rähistorische S taatssammlung , M ünchen . 3 4.

Ia m i ndebted t o F erdinand M aier , F irst D irector o f R ömisch-Germanische K ommission d es D eutschen A rchäologischen I nstituts ,

F rankfurt/Main f or

h is d etailed s tudy o f t he h oard's c ontainer. 3 5. S till t he m ost c omplete p ublication i s t he f irst r eport o n t he h oard a nd o ther c omparable B avarian h oards b y F . S treber , U eber d ie s ogenannten R egenbogen-Schüsselchen . E rste A btheilung. V on d er H eimath u nd d em A lter d er s ogenannten R egenbogen-Schüsselchen

( Abhandlungen d er K .

B ayerischen A kademie d er W issenschaften , I . C lasse, 9 . B and, I . A btheilung, M unich , 1 860) ; f or a g eneral s urvey o n t he h oard, more e asily a ccessible : B . O verbeck , i n D ie K elten i n M itteleuropa ( exibition c atalogue: S alzburg, 1 980), 3 22f. 3 6 . T his h oard

t oo i s

c onsidered

b y F .

S treber i n h is c ontribution

( note

3 5) ; s ee f urther R . P aulsen , D ie M ünzpräungen d er B oier ( Vienna , 1 974) , p l . D : B . O verbeck i n D ie K elten i n M itteleuropa ( exhibition c atalogue : S alzburg ,

1 980) ,

3 19-321 .

3 7. S ee E L O verbeck i n D ie K elten i n M itteleuropa ( Salzburg ,

1 980) , 3 20 ,

M 87

a nd 8 8 , p hotographic i llustration o f M 88 , s teel e ngravings o f b oth t ypes a fter S treber ( cf. n ote 3 5). 3 8 . A .

F urger-Gunti ,

' Der " Goldfund v on S aint L ouis" b ei B asel u nd ä hnliche

K eltische S chatzfunde ', u nd K unstßeschichte 3 9. C f .

3 9

Z eitschrift f ür S chweizerische A rchäologie ( 1982) ,

2 -47 .

S . S cheers, T rait6 d e n umismatique c eltique I I, L a G aule B elgique

( Paris,

1 977) ,

5 5-57 ,

3 08-313 .

4 0. R . P aulsen , D ie M ünzprägungen d er B oier ( Vienna , 4 1. A .

F urger-Gunti ( note 3 8) ,

2 6 .

1 974), 6 2f.

H e e xplains b oth h oards a s o fferings t o

C eltic d eities , a n i nterpretation o ne c annot e xclude , f or t hese t wo o r f or o ther C eltic h oards, a nd w hich i s n ot o f a ny c hronological c onsequence. 4 2. M .E .

J oachim ,

' E in b edeutender u rgeschichtlicher F und a us d em H ambacher

F orst ' , A usgrabungen i m R heinland ' 78 , S onderheft V . Z edelius,

( Bonn ,

1 979),

5 6-59 ;

' Die G oldmünzen a us d em G oldring-Depot v om H ambacher

F orst ', o p .cit . 5 9-62 . 4 3 . S .

S cheers,

( Paris,

T rait6 d e n umismatique c eltique I I, L a G aule B elgique ,

1 977), 6 0-65, 2 69-280: s taters o f t he " type b iface".

9

4 4. A . F urger-Gunti ( note 3 8) , 2 8 , g iving a s hort r eport o n t he e vidence o f t he e xcavation , w hich i s n ot y et p ublished i n i ts e ntirety . Ic annot a gree w ith C rawford , w ho s ees i n t his h oard " a n ice p iece o f e vidence o f t he s pread o f R oman m onetary p ractices" , av iew w hich w ould i mply a m uch l ower d ate . T he t otal w eight o f t he h oard ( close t o t he R oman p ound o f 3 24g) m ay j ust b e a ccidental.

C f. C rawford, C MRR 2 18.

4 5 . S ee P olenz 1 27, t able 1 , a nd 1 59, t able 4 . 4 6. C f. n ote 2 7. 4 7. C ertainly Göbl,

t he

b est,

p rogrammatic ,

a rticle

' Technisch-organisatorische

o n

C eltic

G rundlagen

n umismatics : d er

R .

k eltischen

Münzchronologie ' , K eltische N umismatik u nd A rchäologie , P art I ( Oxford , 1 984) ,

5 4-68 .

4 8 . D ie-linked c oins o f t he N euses b ushel t ype v ary i n w eight b etween 1 . 54 a nd 2 .01g, a warning a gainst u sing l oss o f w eight a s a c riterion o f l ater d ate . F or C eltic g old c oinage A . H artmann h as p ointed o ut t hat t he e vidence o f w eight a nd f ineness i s n ot t otally r eliable f or c hronological d eductions: ' Ergebnisse s pectralanalytischer U ntersuchungen a n k eltischen G oldmünzen a us H essen u nd S üddeutschland ' , G ermania 5 4 ( 1976) , 1 02ff . H e e specially c riticises K . C astelin , w ho w as n ot a ware t hat t here i s a l ogical r elation b etween f ineness a nd w eight ,

c aused b y t he h igh s pecific g ravity o f g old ( a g old c oin o f a

c ertain v olume a nd o f al ow g old c ontent w eighs l ess t han a g old c oin o f t he s ame v olume , b ut h igher g old c ontent) . C f" t oo , A . H artmann , ' Zur M aterialzusammensetzung k eltischer G oldmünzen - e inige E rgebnisse u nd d eren D eutung ', K eltische N umismatik u nd A rchäologie P art I ( Oxford , 1 984) ,

8 8-97 .

4 9 . T here a re t wo c ontributions b y K . C astelin o n t he " monnaie ä l a c roix" o f S outh G ermany , w hich m ethodologically a re i nsufficient : K . C astelin , K reuzmünzen b ei d en R ätern u nd A launen ' S NR 5 0 ( 1971) , 9 2124 ; K . C astelin , ' D ie K reuzmünzen i n S üddeutschland' , S NR 4 9 ( 1970) , 7 7108f . Ih ave c ommented o n t his a rticle i n B . O verbeck , ' Zu d en k eltischen F undmünzen u nd d er " Tüpfelplatte" v om D ürrnberg b ei H allein% D ie K elten i n M itteleuropa ( exhibition c atalogue :

S alzburg ,

1 980) ,

1 06-110 .

5 0. C f. n ote 5 . 5 1. M .

E gger ,

' Ein n euer F und k eltischer M ünzen a us

V orgeschichtsblätter 4 9 ( 1984) 6 9-78 ,

p l .

M anching ' ,

B ayerische

1 518 .

5 2. T he M unich m aterial i s p ublished b y M . E gger ,

' Keltische M ünzfunde a us

M anching I I ' , B ayerische V orgeschichtsblätter 5 0 ( 1985) , 2 19-238 , ( pl . 1 3-22) ; M . E gger , ' Keltische M ünzfunde a us M anching I II ' , J NG 3 4 ( 1984) , 1 35-161, 5 3 .

I a m

p l .

1 6-31 .

i ndebted

t o M .

E gger a nd M .

M anching c oins.

1 0

E berlein f or t he p hotographs o f t he

5 4. C f . n ote 8 . F or t he S equani p otin i n M anching: I II ' ( note 5 2), n r . 8 7-92 .

M . E gger, ' Manching

5 5. C f. n ote 1 0. 5 6. F or a c autious a nd d etailed t ime,

p ointing

o ut

t oo

s tudy o f t he h istorical s ituation o f t his

s ome

o f

t he

p roblems

o f

R .

C hristlein 's

d eductions ( which c annot c hange t he f acts o f t he L a T äne c hronology a nd c annot a ffect t he d ate o f t he e nd o f M anching ) , s ee S . v on S chnurbein , ' Die B esetzung d es A lpenvorlandes d urch d ie R ömer ', D ie R ömer i n S chwaben . A rbeitshefte d es B ayerischen L andesamts f ür D enkmalpflege 2 7, ( Munich , 1 985), 1 7-23. 5 7 .

I t i s o n t he b asis o f t his s tudy t hat I c annot a gree w ith t he h istorical i nterpretation g iven b y N L

C rawford o f t he c onquest o f R aetia a nd

t he

d ate o f t he R egenbogenschüsselchen : C rawford, C MRR 2 78.

K EY T O P LATES

F ig.

1 .

G iengen b urial,

1 /24 s tater, g old .

A fter K . B ittel e t a l" D ie

K elten i n B aden-Württemberg ( note 2 6), a ctual d iameter c . 8 mm . F ig. 2 .

D ühren

b urial ,

" monn .aie

f ig .

ä l a c roix" s ilver .

1 40b/1:

e nlarged,

A fter F .

W ielandt,

J NG 1 4 ( 1964), p l. 6 , 9 : n atural s ize. F ig. 3 .

N ierstein b urial ,

r ainbow

c up

s tater ,

g old .

A fter

P olenz

( note

1 8), p late 1 , 2 3: n atural s ize. . F ig. 4

T he

L auterach h oard

( ensemble) .

A fter

( exhibition c atalogue: S alzburg, . F ig. 5

T he

N euses

h oard

D ie K elten i n M itteleuropa

1 980), 2 89.

( ensemble) .

P hotograph

b y

P rähistorische

S taatssammlung, M unich . . F ig. 6

S elected c oins f rom

t he N euses h oard, a ll n atural

s ize .

a -c:

r ainbow c up s taters, g old ; d : b ushel s ilver, ' naturalistic ' v ariety ; e : b ushel s ilver , a bstract v ariety ; f -g : t wo v arieties o f t he N euses ' hedgehog ' s ilver a s q uarters o f t he ' bushel ' u nit . P hotograph b y S taatliche M ünzsammlung , M unich . F ig.

7 .

S election f rom t he I rsching h oard, a ll r ainbow c up s taters o f d ifferent

d esign ;

n atural

s ize .

P hotograph

b y

C hr .

Z ocher,

G arching. F ig. 8 .

T he

1 751

G agers h oard ,

c ontemporary c opperplate

a nd J .B . K lauber, A ugsburg .

e ngraving

b y J .S .

O riginal e ngraving i n S taatliche

M ünzsammlung, M unich: n atural s ize. F ig.

9 .

S elected g old c oins

f rom t he G agers h oard ,

a ll n atural s ize ;

a -d :

1 J indelician ' s taters o f d ifferent d esigns ; e -f : m ussel s taters o f t he B oii. P hotographs b y C hr . Z ocher , G arching.

1

F ig.

1 0. R ecently d iscovered

s trayfinds

f rom

M anching,

K reis

P faffenhofen ,

a ll ( except n , w hich i s e nlarged 2 :1) n atural s ize , a fter M . E gger , ' Keltische M ünzfunde a us M anching I II ' ( note 5 2) ; a : c ontemporary f orgery q uarter

o f a " Vindelician ' s tater, a es/gold, E gger n r . s tater o f t he ' smooth ' t ype, g old, E gger n r .

c ontemporary E gger n r .

f orgery o f

3 ; d :

a ' Vindelician '

q uarter

s tater ,

1 ; 2 ;

b : c :

a es/gold ,

' monnaie ä l a c roix ' o f t he S chönaich t ype , s ilver,

E gger n r . 5 ; e : b ushel s ilver o f t he ' naturalistic ' N euses t ype, E gger

n r .

1 8 ;

f :

b ushel

s ilver

o f

t he

' naturalistic '

N euses

t ype,

E gger n r . 2 4 ; g : b ushel s ilver o f a bstract t ype , E gger n r . 3 4 ; h : s mall s ilver d enomination o f t he ' monnaie ä l e c roix ' t ype , E gger n r . 8 5 ; n r .

i :

5 69 ,

t ype,

s mall s ilver d enomination ,

E gger n r .

E gger n r .

7 8 ; 7 5;

k : 1 :

s imilar t o P aulsen ( note 3 6)

s mall s ilver d enomination o f u npublished s mall s ilver d enomination,

P aulsen ( note 3 6) n r . 5 80, E gger n r . 7 9; d enomination o f t he N euses ' hedgehog ' t ype,

s imilar t o

m : s mall E gger n r .

s ilver 5 4; n :

S equani p otin o f t he B asel Gasfabrik t ype, E gger n r . 8 7 . F ig.

1 1.

S elected c oins f rom P ollanten , a fter D as A rchäologische J ahr i n B ayern 1 982 5 ,

1,

( Stuttgart,

1 983) ,

8 1

( a -g :

1 5 a nd 1 8 o f t hat p ublication) ;

c orrespond

a -c :

t o n rs .

n atural s ize ,

1 ,

2 ,

d -g :

s ize 2 : 1 ; a : b ushel s ilver o f t he ' n aturalistic ' N euses t ype ; b : s ilver o f n ew , h itherto u nknown t ype ; c : s mall s ilver d enomination o f t he N euses ' hedgehog ' t ype ;

d- f :

s mall s ilver d enominations o f

h itherto

s mall

s ilver d enomination o f

' monnaie

u nknown

t ypes;

ä l e c roix '

g :

t ype .

1 2

t he

2

3

P la te 1 .

5

6

a

b

c

d

P la te 2 .

e

f

g

a

7

P la te 3 .

o enwär t io e ' l , ' ,% 3/ t o id.1 1 i inz en . „j e z i nd d en 27 ..V i ni i1 7 . 51 L t i o d ur . : 1 1 e i nen Ar tm z u , ; 1 2 .9y _ e i t r W un then o e a en c h ' ehwah en , r ud er d ergg t er c S i t t en .had iq ek in :g o e n d en e ntd e ek e t w ord en W an w i rd c u t ch ' l o ch m ehr er e » r e x p in91 : r hl e in k o rn en d i r , n in i eht e rn d en z , e i n en . ' 'al e i eh rn i z ecurai en . a idr uck h i epon , m i t zut he i l en/ z u d en tc ! ' i2e d a i i e i n e t r i ch t l i rh er awn q e la jen . w ord en .

8

9

a

P la te 4 .

1 0

11

a

a

P la te 5 .

S PAIN R obert C K napp

G eneral O bservations i ntroduce my t opic b y s etting o ut e xplicitly a nd j ustifying c ertain h ypotheses t hat I h ave w orked b y i n f ormulating a s ummary o f t he c oinage o f S pain d uring t he l ate R epublic . I a m c onsidering h ere t he p ost-Hannibalic p eriod t o 4 5 B C .

T o l imit

t he

s cope o f

t he

s tudy more

w ould p roduce

a rtificial a nd u nhelpful r estrictions o n o ur u nderstanding o f t he c oinage . ( 1) C hronology .

T he t endency n ow i s t o d ate S panish material b y a

c ombination o f m etrological a nd h istorical c onsiderations . T he a ssumption i s m ade t hat s ilver a nd b ronze w ere m inted l ocally i n a ccordance w ith t he w eights o f t heir R oman c ounterparts f rom I taly a nd t hat b oth R oman a nd n ative

w eights

g radually d ecreased

i n t he c ourse o f

t he

s econd a nd

f irst

c enturies B C .' A lthough n ative i ssues a re c learly i ntended t o c omplement a nd c irculate w ith R oman i ssues , c hronological a rguments b ased o n d eclining w eights a re u nreliable . W eights a re , i ndeed , g enerally l ess i n 4 5 B C t han i n 2 00 B C; t he d ecrease, h owever , i s n ot s mooth e ven w ith t he R oman c oinage ,2 a nd t he n ative c oinage c an h ardly b e e xpected t o b e a ny b etter .3 I n a ddition ,

t he

f iduciary n ature o f

t here w ere n o o ther e vidence ,

t he b ronze c oinage

i s

e vident .

I f

t he c onglomeration o f b ronze f ound a t C astra

C aecilia w ould p rove t his . T he m ixture f ound t here o f b ronze g oing b ack t o t he f irst h alf o f t he s econd c entury s hould n ot b e s urprising ; t he m assive b ronze i ssues b y R oman d uring t hose y ears a nd t he f iduciary n ature o f t he c oinage m eant t hat e ven i n A ugustus 's d ay t he b ulk o f b ronze i n c irculation w as f rom t hat e arly p eriod .4 A s tudy o f t he n umerous c oins o f C armo , O bulco a nd C astulo s hows t hat s ize, n ot w eights w as t he f actor i n d etermining whether a c oin was s een a s a n a s, d upondius, s emis o r whatever ;5 t his s ituation c an u sefully b e c ompared t o I taly a fter t he S econd P unic W ar c y hen n on-Roman c oins p robably c irculated a s t he n earest-in-size R oman b ronze .' M etrological a rguments o ften a ccompany ' h istorical ' o nes . T here a re t wo major h ooks u pon which c oinage o rganisation i s h ung: t he o riginal d ivision o f t he p eninsula i nto t wo p rovinces i n 1 97 B C7 a nd a r eorganisation a fter t he N umantine w ar i n 1 33 o r t hereabouts . T wo p oints m ust b e m ade . F irst, e ven i f o rganisation i n 1 97 a nd 1 33 w ent b eyond t he s implest a rrangements , t here i s n o r eason t o s uppose t hat c oinage w ould r eflect t he m easure .8

S econd ,

A ppian

I ber .

9 9

i s

e xplicit

w hen h e

r efers

t he

c ommission o f t en s enators a nd i ts w ork i n S pain a fter 1 33 o nly t o t he t erritory c onquered b y B rutus o r S cipio i n 1 38-133 ; i t w as n ot a s weeping r eorganisation o f a ll o f S pain a s i s t oo o ften a ssumed .9 S o, b oth t he r eorganisations t hemselves a nd t heir i mpact o n n ative c oinage a re p roblematic . 1° A f inal h istorical f allacy a lso c auses e rror . T he a ssumption i s made t hat a t own w ould m int o nly w ith t he p ermission o f R ome ;1 1 f rom t his a ssumption f ollow c hronological s ystems b ased o n w hen s uch p ermission m ost l ikely w as g ranted . A s f ar a s w e k now , h owever , R ome , c ared l ittle f or c ontrolling e ven t he s ilver m inting o f d istant t owns . W hen i t c ame t o b ronze t here w as a pparently n o a ttempt a t a ll t o c ontrol o r o versee i t:

1 3

i ndeed, l ocal b ronze t ook p ressure o ff t he R oman s tate 's

1 9

m inting a ctivities . S o , c hronological a rguments d epending o n w hen R ome w as l ikely t o g rant p ermission t o c oin f ail . ( 2)

C irculation .

T he b asic p rinciple i s t hat b ronze c irculates

l ocally a nd s ilver m ore w idely .

A lthough c asual

f inds a re g ood e vidence

f or n ormal c irculation ,1 4 a ll t oo o ften e xtensive c irculation s tructures a nd a ccompanying n etworks o f c ommerce a nd t rade h ave b een b uilt o n t he b asis o f a f ew f inds o f b ronze c oins; 15 t alk o f ' wide c irculation ' b ased u pon a h andful o f s uch c oins f ound o utside t he m inting a rea i s c ommon w hen d ealing w ith t he l arger m intings s uch a s t hose C astulo , O bulco a nd C arteia . T he b ronze c oins w ere o ccasionally c arried f ar a field - a c oin o f C orduba a ppears o n t he D anube , f or e xample 1 6 -b ut w hen a dequate i nformation i s a vailable a bout f inds, s uch a s i s a vailable f or s ome o f t he m ints i n t he n orth-east , t he v ast m ajority c irculates w ithin a bout 8 0 - 1 00 k m . o f t he m inting s ite .1 7 T his p henomenon a grees w ith t he b ehaviour o f b ronze i n o ther a reas o f t he a ncient w orld .1 8 T he s ilver c oins c irculate m ore w idely w ithin t he p eninsula 1 9 b ut, o nce away f rom t he a rea where t hey w ere r ecognised , t hey w ere a pparently m elted d own , f or v ery f ew a re f ound i n c asual f inds o utside o f t he p eninsula - i ndeed , f ew a re f ound o utside n earer S pain a nd t he i mmediately c ontiguous m ining a reas . ( 3) c ould t here

P urposes

o f

t he

c oinage .

' F iscal ' ,

f inancial

o r

s ocial

r easons

g enerate c oinage . ' Fiscal ' n eeds t ypically r equire g old ( of w hich a re n o i ssues i n S pain ) , s ilver a nd l arge b ronze ( asses , d upondii)

i ssues;

' financial '

n eeds

r equire

s maller

d enominations

o f

s ilver

( widespread i n G aul , f or e xample) o r b ronze ( semisses, q uadrantes , e tc .) .2 0 ' F iscal ' r easons - r easons o f s tate , u sually e xpenditure f or p ublic w orks o r m ilitary n eeds 2 1 -c aused t he m ajor i ssues o f t he R oman R epublic ; i n S pain f iscal n eeds o f l ocal u nits w ould b e , f or e xample , p ayment o f t ribute/taxes, o r p ayment o f s oldiers r equired t o s erve a s a uxiliaries i n t he R oman a rmy . ' F inancial ' r easons i nclude t he n eed t o s upply a l ocal p opulation w ith s mall c hange i n o rder t o e xpedite m arket t ransactions , a s w ell a s t he d esire t o m ake a s mall p rofit o n t he m inting o f c oins . S ilver i s s eldom i ssued f or f inancial r easons o utside S pain a nd w e s hould a ssume t hat n ative s ilver i ssues h ad e ither a f iscal o r a s ocial p urpose . B ronze c ould h ave b een f iscal , e specially i n t he e arly s econd c entury , w hen R ome w as h erself p aying h er t roops w ith b ronze 2 2

b ut p robably w hen t he t roops b egan t o b e p aid i n

s ilver f rom t he m iddle o f t he c entury b ronze w as n ot t hen n eeded t o p ay t hem , b ut t o a llow t hem t o s pend t he s ilver e fficiently ; h ence m ost l ater b ronze i ssues w ill h ave b een f or f inancial r easons . I t i s n ot i mpossible , h owever , t hat s ome w ere i ssued f or ' social ' r easons . N ote t hat a t P aestum l ocal i ssues w ere m ade s imply s o t hat a w ealthy p atron c ould d istribute h is l argess i ssues

t o

t he

t own ;2 3

s imilar m otives m ay b e b ehind

s ome o f

t he s mall

i n S pain .

Iw ould l ike t o t urn n ow t o ad iscussion o f t he c oinage o f S pain i n d etail . T hese c oinages o f S pain a fter t he S econd P unic war a re c oncentrated i n t hree a reas: t he n ortheastern c oast, r oughly modern C atalu i ia ; t he u pper E bro v alley ; a nd t he G uadalquivir ( Baetis) v alley . A t f irst g lance t hese a reas w ould s eem t o h ave s omething i n c ommon , n amely , e arly p enetration b y R ome a nd e arly b eginnings o f R omanization . H owever , t he p atterns o f c oinage a re b asically d ifferent i n a ll t hree .

2 0

C ataluna T he G reek c olonies o f E mporion ( Ampurias) a nd R hode ( Rosas) h ad m inted f or m any y ears b efore t he R omans c opied t hese i ssues e xtensively .

c ame ; n ative t owns i n t he v icinity h ad T he i ssues h ad m ostly b een i n s ilver ,

a lthough s ome b ronze d enominations e xisted a s w ell . O ther c oinages, n otably C arthaginian i ssues f rom t he p eninsula a nd G reek c oins f rom M assalia , c irculated t oo , e specially d uring a nd i mmediately a fter t he S econd P unic W ar . T hese s ilver c oinages w ere g enerated b y t he n eeds o f t hat w ar , a nd c ame i nto l ocal h ands t hrough mercenary a ctivity a nd t he s upply o f m ilitary n eeds b y t he l ocal p eoples . T o j udge b y t he h oard a nd c asual f inds o f t he l ater p eriods, m ost o f t he p re-second c entury c oinages w ere t aken o ut o f c irculation e ither t hrough b ooty o r c reation o f b ullion e arly i n t he s econd c entury . A t E mporion , f or e xample , 7 % o f t he f inds a re f rom t he e arlier p eriod while 8 2% a re f rom t he l ater R epublic ( 195-27 B C) . 24 T his c ould b e a ttributed t o t he f act t hat q uantities o f l ater c oinage s imply s wamped t he e arlier c oinages , b ut t he r arity o f p re-second c entury c oins a t s ites w here c oins a ppear o nly l ater t han t he S econd P unic W ar a nd t he l ack o f p re-second c entury c oins i n h oards o f t he s econd a nd f irst c enturies , e ven i n a reas w hich o nce w ere r ich i n s uch e arly c oins , i ndicate t hat t hese c oins w ere r emoved f rom c irculation r apidly . T his a grees w ith t he a ccount o f L ivy i n w hich h uge a mounts o f s ilver w ere b rought b ack t o R ome i n c oin a nd b ullion d uring t he f irst t wenty y ears o f t he s econd c entury . T he l ater c asual f inds a re m ostly o f n ative b ronze ,

r ight d own t o t he

e nd o f t he R epublic . F or e xample, a t I lturo t he c asual f inds f or t he p eriod o f t he s econd a nd f irst c enturies s how 1 30 c oins , 3 s ilver R oman c oins a nd 1 27 n on-Roman c oins o f w hich 7 6% ( 96) a re f rom m ints w ithin 8 0100 k m . o f t he s ite .2 5 A t t he m ajor c entre o f T arraco o nly o ne R oman c oin h as b een f ound c asually , w hile 5 0 n ative S panish c oins a ppear , 8 8% ( 44) f rom m ints w ithin 8 0100 k m . a nd 8 2% ( 41) f rom t he l ocal m int o f K ese ; a lmost a ll o f t hese c oins a re b ronze . E ven i n t he c ollection o f t he P rovincial M useum a t T arraco , w here o ne w ould e xpect a h igher p ercentage o f s ilver a nd R oman c oins , j ust b ecause o f t heir g reater i ntrinsic i nterest, t he R oman m aterial i s o nly 1 8% o f t he t otal, while K ese a nd C atalan m ints a ccount f or 3 7% . T his p attern i s r epeated a t s uch s ites a s I luro 0 R oman s ilver c oins, 4 8 n ative b ronze c oins , 5 6% f rom w ithin 8 0100 k m .) ,2 ° a nd S erra d e L 'Espasa ( 1 R oman s ilver c oin , 2n ative s ilver c oins , 4 1 n ative b ronzes , 7 8% f rom w ithin 8 0-100 k m .) .2 7 h oards f rom t he t hat t hey w ere e njoyed a s c lose

T here i s n o q uestion t hat s ilver w as c irculating , a s t he a rea s how , b ut t he f requency o f t he b ronze c oins i ndicates b eing u sed i n f inancial t ransactions a nd t hat t he a rea t o am arket e conomy a s m ost a reas i n t he R oman w orld e ver

a pproached. T he c hronology o f t he C atalan i ssues i n d etail r emains o bscure . M ixed h oards f rom t he H annibälic W ar g ive s ecure d ating t o t he l ate t hird c entury c oins o f E mporion , b ut s uch h oards d o n ot o ccur a fter t hat w ar a nd r eoccur o nly i n t he l ate s econd c entury . E xcavations h ave y ielded n o p ersuasive d ata e xcept t he w ork c arried o ut s ince 1 947 a t U llastret, n ear E mporion . H ere t he c oins s top b efore n on-Emporitan n ative c oins b ecome a t ypical p art o f t he c asual f inds . 28

A lthough t he s ample o f c oins i s s mall, t hese,

c ombined w ith o ther a rchaeological e vidence , s trongly i ndicate a d estruction o f t he n ative t own i n t he e arly s econd c entury , p robably b y C ato .2 9 I t i s i mportant t o n ote t hat n o c oins f rom K ese/Tarraco a ppear a t U llastret . N earby s ites w hich c ontinued t o b e i nhabited s how a g ood n umber o f s uch c oins i n c asual f inds . 30 Iw ould h azard t hat a n a bsence o f K ese 's c oins a t U llastret

m eans t hat t he c oins o f K ese w ere n ot b eing

2 1

i ssued b y 1 95 B C .3 1

A s ilver h oard

f rom

E mporitan s ilver ; 32

t he d estruction p eriod w as

c omposed

t he p roximity o f E mporion m ight

s eem

e ntirely o f

t o e xplain t he

p resence o f t his m int a nd t he a bsence o f K ese/Tarraco b ut t he l atter 's s ilver a nd b ronze e lsewhere c irculate e xtensively i n C ataluna a nd w ould b e e xpected a t U llastret i f i t h ad b een i n c irculation a t t he t ime o f t he d estruction . 33 t hat ' horseman '

T entatively , t hen , t he e xcavations a t U llastret i ndicate c oinages , o f w hich K ese i s o ne o f t he e arliest, a nd m ost

n ative i ssues c ome a fter 1 95 . T his h as s erious i mplications f or t he i dentification o f a rgentum o scense, a s w ill b e s een . O ther c hronological i ndicators a re l acking u ntil t he l ate s econd c entury B C .

B y t his

t ime

f inds

s uch a s

t he

S egaro a nd L a B arroca h oards 3 4

h ave

h orseman s ilver f rom K ese a nd e lsewhere a lthough t he v ast m ajority o f c oins c omes f rom E mporion . T he d ate w ithin t he s econd c entury w hen K ese a nd s imilar m ints b egan t heir e missions r emains p roblematic . T he i ssues 1 b oth s ilver a nd b ronze, c ontinue i nto t he f irst c entury a s h oards c onfirm .3 . 3 T he r elationship o f

t he c oinages o f

t he

C atalan a rea

t o

p olitical

o r

j udicial a rrangements i s d ifficult t o d etermine . T here i s o ne c lear e xample o f a n a llied p eople , t he T arracenses - p resumably t he p eople o f K ese a nd e nvirons ; 36 E mporion m ust a lso h ave b een a llied , g iven i ts h elp t o R ome i n t he e arly s tages o f t he c onquest . S lightly „ south o f t he a rea , a t S aguntum, w e p robably h ave a nother a llied t own . 3/ A ll o f t hese t owns m inted s ilver i n s mall q uantities d uring t he s econd a nd e arly f irst c enturies . W hether r esources o r s ome o ther f actor k ept t he s ilver e missions m iniscule i s u ncertain ; b ronze w as c ertainly i ssued i n l arge e nough q uantities t o b e u seful i n t he d aily l ife o f t he a rea . A ny c orrelation o f

a llied

c ircular a rgument , a s A usescen . I h ave

t owns

a nd

s ilver-minting

c entres

r uns

t he

r isk

o f

g iven t he d earth o f i nformation a bout s uch s ilver m ints

e lsewhere

3 8

a ttempted

w ith o nly l imited s uccess t o i dentity

r egiones i n n earer S pain a s a dministrative a reas , e ach w ith a s ilver m inting c entre . T his i mage o f R oman o rganisation i n S pain m ay s till b e t rue , b ut c ertainly t he v ery s mall s ilver i ssues c an h ave b een n o m ore t han s ymbolic o f t he i mportance o f t he i ssuing t owns . I n s um, t he c oinages o f t he C atalan a rea g ive u s l ittle i nformation a bout t he p olitical o r j udicial h istory o f t he a rea .

T he E bro v alley T he E bro v alley w as c onquered b y R ome d uring t he s econd c entury . C ato m ust h ave m arched u p m uch o f i t, f or h e a t o ne p oint r eached N umantia a nd e arlier h ad o rdered t he t owns a long i ts b anks t o t ear d own d efensive walls . 39 T here w ere a f ew i ssues o f c oins i n i mitation o f t hose o f E mporion ( and s o p rior t o o r e arly i n t he s econd c entury ) , b ut i n g eneral , u nlike i n C ataluna , c oinage c ame o nly w ith t he R oman c onquest a nd t ook t he f orm o f h orseman d enarii a nd b ronzes. T he d ate o f t he b eginning o f t hese c oinages i s m uch d ebated .

B riefly

s tated , t he p roblem i s t hat L ivy n otes t hat i n 1 95 , 1 94 a nd 1 80 B C a rgentum o scense w as c arried b ack t o R ome a s b ooty f rom S pain . T he l argest i ssuer o f s ilver c oins i n t he p eninsula i s B olskan , m odern H uesca - a n ame e asily c orrupted t o 10EXIa l, a lthough a ll a re n ot c onvinced o f t his e quation .4 0 I n a ddition , t he s cript o f t he I berian d enarii h as a s uperficial r esemblance t o O scan c haracters o f I taly . U nfortunately t he h oard e vidence, t he o nly

2 2

r eally r eliable s ource ,

i s u nhelpful .

I f t he c ore o f a p lated B olskan c oin

a ppeared i n t he R oman c amps a t N umantia 4 1 t his w ould p rovide a t erminus a nte q uem. ( However H ildebrandt, a fter e xamining t he p iece i n M ainz , d enies i t i s a nythi e b ut a r egular b ronze c oin , s o i ts e vidential v alue r emains i n d oubt) . 4L

N o ' horseman ' t urned u p a t U llastret, d estroyed,

p robably , i n 1 95 B C t his m ay b e c onsidered a t erminus p ost q uer n . T he h oards o f m ixed R oman a nd I berian d enarii f rom t he e nd o f t he s econd c entury h ave b een u sed t o p ush t he n ative c oins b ack i nto t he e arly s econd c entury , b ut o nly b e r elying o n d ebatable a ssessments o f r elative c oin w ear .

Ih ave

p reviously d efended a n e arly s econd c entury d ate, 43 s uch a s w as o nce s upported b y C rawford a s w el1 . 44 C rawford h as m ost r ecently d efended a m id-second c entury d ate c orrelating i t w ith t he s witch i n t he m edium o f p ayment

o f

R oman

s oldiers

f rom

b ronze

t o s ilver .

J .S .

R ichardson 4 5

h as

d efended a d ate o f 1 80179 o n t he b asis o f t he t ribute d emanded a ccording t o t reaties s truck t hen w ith C eltiberian t ribes b y T iberius G racchus . V illaronga h as m ade a c ase f or t he c oinages o f B olskan a nd o ther i nterior m ints s tarting a fter a p utative r eorganisation o f S pain i n 1 33 B C .4 6 H e t ries t o t hat i t a rgentum o f K ese ,

a void t he p roblem o f L ivy 's m entions o f a rgentum o scense b y a rguing h as n othing t o d o w ith O sca o r t he B olskan c oins, r ather t he r efers t o c oins o f E mporion , i ts i mitators a nd t he h orseman d enarii a lleged t o h ave b egun e arly i n t he s econd c entury .4 7 T he r eason

t hese s ilver c oins a re r elatively s parse i n l ater h oards i s t hat t hey w ere c ollected a s b ooty i n l arge n umbers b y t he R omans a nd m elted d own o r s hipped o ff t o R ome . I ndeed , t he l arge n umber o f d ies i n r elation t o t he n umber o f s urviving c oins o f K ese m ight s eem t o c onfirm t his . 48 O n b alance , Iw ould i ncline t oward a n e arly s econd c entury r ather t han a m id o r l ate s econd c entury d ate f or t he b eginning o f t he n ative d enarii s imply b ecause I t hink t he h oard e vidence a nd t he p urpose o f t he c oinage s upports t his b est . W ith r egard t o t he m eaning o f a rgentum o scense w e s hall h ave t o b e c ontent w ith t he r ival h ypotheses u ntil h oard e vidence p rovides m ore d efinitive i nformation . T he p attern o f n ative c oinage i n t he C eltiberian a rea o f S pain i s p aralleled b y t he e xperience o f o ther C eltic a reas . I n t he P o V alley C eltic c oinages b egan c . 2 25 B C i n r esponse t o R oman w ars t here ; t he R omans c ontinued a c oinage s ystem t here a fter t he c onquest b ased o n a q uinariuss ize s ilver c oin , b ut w ithout b ronze d enominations . T hese t ednarii ' w ere m inted b y n atives u ntil t he l ate s econd c entury , w hen R oman a gain m inted h er o wn q uinarii f or u se i n t he a rea . 49 I n G aul t oo a s imilar s ituation e xisted . A lthough t he n ative g old c oinage w as e liminated a fter t he c onquest , l ocal s ilver i ssues c ontinued u ntil a bout 3 0 B C .5 ° T he S panish s ituation w as s imilar . N atives b egan m inting b ronze a nd p erhaps s ilver i n t he e arlier s econd c entury . W ith t he R oman c onquest t he m ints w ent o n , s erving f iscal p urposes p rincipally, b ut e nded c . 5 0 B C a s R oman s ilver b ecame s ufficient , t he i nterior m ore R omanised , a nd t he n ative u nits c eased t o b e f iscally i ndependent . I w ould l ike t o t urn m y a ttention t o s ome o f t he o ther a spects o f t he E bro c oinages . A c lear d istinction m ust b e m ade b etween t hose m ints w hich p roduced m ainly s ilver , a nd s o h ad a ' f iscal ' r eason f or d oing s o , a nd t hose w hich p roduced m ainly b ronze , p resumably f or ' financial ' r easons . T he m ints o f t he v alley d ivide t hemselves q uite n eatly . A long t he r iver i tself , g oing u pstream, w e f ind S eteisken , K else ( later t he c olony o f L epida), S altuie ( later t he c olony o f C aesaraugusta) , K araues , L akine , K aiskata a nd K alakorikos ; a t a l ittle d istance f rom t he r iver a dd N ertobis , T erkakom , a nd B ursau .

A ll o f t hese m int o nly b ronze , a ll a sses , s ome w ith s emisses a nd a

2 3

f ew w ith q uadrantes .

I n o utlying a reas w e f ind i n t he a rea o f P amplona

B askunes, A rsaos a nd A rsakos; i n t he a rea o f H uesca S ekia, B olskan a nd S esars . T o t he s outh o f t he r iver i s T uriasu a nd f urther i nland A reikoratikos a nd S ekobirikes . A ll o f t hese i ssue a lmost e xclusively s ilver : t he f inds o f B olskan a re 9 8 .5% s ilver, o f T uriasu 9 9 .9% , o f S ekobirikes 9 9% , B askunes 9 8% , A reikoraticos 9 5% a nd A rsaos 9 6% .5 2 E ven i f t he f inds f rom h oards a re e liminated , t he m inting i s s till a bout 7 5% s ilver f or B olskan , 53 8 6% f or T uriasu , a nd s o o n . I ndeed, t here a re o nly t wo m ints w hich a re n ot e ither e xclusively o r v ery p reponderantly d edicated t o e ither b ronze o r s ilver : B eligio a nd S ekaisa , b oth i n t he l ower E bro v alley . T he f inds f rom t hese m ints s how a bout 1 2% s ilver a nd 8 8% b ronze ;5 4 t hey f it more n early t he c ategory o f ' bronze o nly m ints ' b oth i n l ocation a nd i n o utput . T he a reas a long t he E bro w ere e vidently i n n eed o f s mall c hange , w hile t he i nterior w as n ot . I n a ddition , b e i t n oted t hat R oman c oins d id n ot f ind t heir w ay i nto t he i nterior . I n c asual f inds n ear P amplona , n o R oman c oins h ave b een f ound f rom t he l ater R epublic ; 2 51 c oins f rom n ative m ints, 4 0% o f t hem s ilver , h ave b een f ound .5 5 F rom t he a rea o f L ogrono , o n t he u pper E bro , t here a re 1 2 R oman d enarii i n t he m useum , a long w ith 4 3 n ative c oins , t wo o f t hem s ilver . F rom C alagurris c ome n o R oman c oins ,5 b f rom A rcobriga o nly o ne o r t wo .5 7 F rom B otorrita , w here a r ecently d iscovered p laque a ttests R oman i nvolvement i n t he s olution o f aw ater-use d ispute b etween t wo n ative t owns i n t he e arly f irst c entury B C , c ome n o R oman c oins, b ut 3 4 b ronze n ative c oins . T his f its t he p icture o f t he e xcavation a t A zaila , o n t he l ower E bro : h ere c oins d own t o , p robably , t he S ertorian w ar a re e xclusively n ative a nd 9 7% b ronze . T here w ere R oman c oins i n c irculation , b ut i n t h, E bro v alley w hatever n eeds c oins w ere p ut t o , t hey w ere n ative , n ot R omzo c oins. W hy t his h eavily n ative p attern s hould b e s o i s n ot e ntirely c lear .

I t

w ould s eem t hat b oth c ommerce a nd s torage o f w ealth w ere c onducted i n n ative c urrency . O nly a t E mporion d oes R oman c urrency r each e ven a m oderate l evel o f 1 5-20% o f t he f inds . I t i s c lear t hat a ctual c oin w as s ent o ut t o t he l egions . 58 T he q uestion r emains o f w hat h appened t o t he R oman c oins w hich m ust h ave b een s hipped i n l arge n umbers f rom R ome d uring t he e arly s econd c entury t o p ay t he t roops ; i t s eems t o h ave b een t he e xception n ot t he r ule t hat l ocal e xactions m et t he c ost o f w ar .5 9 S ome w ere u ndoubtedly m elted d own b y n atives a nd r ecoine e ° w hile s ome w ere c arried t o R ome a s b ooty .6 1 T he b ronze c ontinued t o c irculate o ver t he n ext t wo h undred y ears . T he c oin s ample f rom c amp I II a t R enieblas , n ear N umantia , w here R oman c oins f orm 6 7% o f t he c asual f inds, w ould p erhaps s erve a s a model f or c oin d istribution i n h eavily R omanised p laces s uch a s t he p rovincial c apital a t T arraco . 62

T he v ery u sed c ondition o f

C aecilia i ndicates h eavy c irculation ;

t he R oman b ronze

f rom C astra

w hy d o t hese c oins n ot s how u p i n t he

c asual f inds o f t he t own w here b ronze o bviously c irculated w ell?

Ah int a t

t he a nswer m ay b e f ound i n t he f act t hat i n t he B alearic i slands t he R oman c oins f orm a m uch h igher p ercentage o f t he c irculating m edium . O n M enorca R oman c oins t otal 5 8% ;6 3 a t P ollentia , o n M allorca , 6 7% .6 4 H owever , o n E busus R oman c oins s tand a t o nly 6 % . T he d ifference i s t hat a n ative m int e xisted f or m uch o f t he l ater R epublic o n E busus p roducing m any c oins w hich h ad

q uite a w ide d ispersion . 65

T hese r epresent

8 1% o f

t he

f inds

o n

t he

i sland . T he c onclusion i s c lear ; w hen a t own h ad l ocal c oinage , i t w as t he p referred m edium ; w hen i t d id n ot, o ther n ative c oins o f t he a rea w ere u sed ; o nly w hen t hese w ere n ot c oins c ome i nto h eavy u se .

r eadily a vailable b ecause o f d istance d id R oman K ese i s a nother g ood e xample o f t his p rinciple .

T here 7 7% o f t he c asual f inds a re o f t he l ocal m int, 6 6

2 4

n ative m ints s upply

v irtually a ll t he r est . E busus a nd K ese m ade l arge i ssues o f t heir o wn ; a t s maller m ints a h igher p roportion o f n ecessary c urrency w as s upplied f rom n eighbours ( e .g . I llturo, w ith 4 4% c oming f rom t he l ocal m int 67 ) . E vidently n eeds f or b ronze w ere s upplied , w hen p ossible , l ocally . S ilver i s a nother m atter . E ven i n p laces w ith t heir o wn m int t he p ercentage o f o ne m int s eldom e xceeds 4 0% ( e .g . B olskan a t H uesca ,

a bout 4 5% ;1 9 8

I ltirta a t

L grida , 4 0% ; 69 B askunes a nd A rsaos i n t he a rea o f P amplona , 4 0%2 0 g eneral p rinciple t hat s ilver t ravels f urther t han b ronze i s t hus b orne b y t he S panish e vidence . H owever , l ike R oman b ronze , R oman s ilver d id c irculate e xtensive ly i n t he i nterior . W hat u ses n atives t here h ad s ilver w ere m et b y n ative i ssues .

T he o ut n ot f or

T he i ssue a nd u se o f t he I berian d enarii h as r ecently b een r elated t o t he p ay o f R oman s oldiers i n I beria . A c omparison c an b e m ade w ith t he R oman e xperience i n G reece ,

w here R ome a pparently u sed n ative c oinages t o

c arry o n a ll t ransactions .7 1 C rawford h olds t hat t he I berian d enarii w ere w illed b y R ome a fter h er e xperience i n G reece ; s he d id n ot i mpose h er c oinage o n G reece a nd w orked t hrough n ative c oinage b ecause o f t he ' need o utwardly t o r espect G reek a spirations a nd o f t he n eed t o a chieve a m odus v ivendi ' ./ 2 T he s ame s ensibility , t he r easoning g oes , c aused h er t o w ork t hrough I berian i ssues r ather t han h er o wn . I f R ome d id c reate t he l ocal i ssues a s a t ool f or h er o wn n eeds , t his w ould b e i nteresting e vidence o f R oman c ontrol o ver s ubject p eoples . I ndeed t he t heme i s t aken u p b y V illaronga w ho g oes s o f ar a s t o d escribe t he R oman m ilitary a dvance i nto t he i nterior o f t he p eninsula i n t erms o f t he m ints u sed t o s upply t he m oney : f irst, a long t he c oast , E mporion , A usesken , I ltirta a nd K ese ; t he i nland m ints l ater : ' Les a teliers i bgriques q ue f rappent d e l 'argent m arquent l e c hemin d e l a p gngtration d e l 'armge l ike C rawford , i s i nspired b y t he G reek e xample .

r omaine %73 V illaronga , B ut , i t c an b e o bjected ,

h ow w ere I beria a nd G reece s imilar? T here w as n o t radition o f s ilver c oinage i n t he i nterior b efore t he c oming o f R ome a nd s o n o ' aspirations ' t o r espect ; s he c ould h ave u sed h er o wn c oinage w ithout c ausing a ny o ffence , r eal o r i magined . I n G reece p resumably a nd c ertainly i n A sia M inor , w here c istophori w ere u sed a s t he s tandard c urrency, t he R omans h ad t o p ay b ankers ' c ommissions t o e xchange R oman f or l ocal c urrency .7 4 V illaronga n otes t he p resence o f n ummularii i n S pain , a s a ttested b y c oins ( of b etween 7 2/68 a nd 4 3 B C) f rom a h oard f rom A lbacete . 75 I s s uch a s ystem t o b e a ssumed i n S pain a s w ell? P robably n ot a s R oman a nd n ative c oins a re f ound t ogether a nd s eem t o h ave c irculated t ogether . S o, a nother p oint o f c omparison b etween t he s ituation i n G reece a nd A sia M inor a nd i n S pain b reaks d own . A side f rom a p riori s uspicions a bout t he v alidity o f a c omparison b etween o ne a rea ( Greece) w ith a h ighly d eveloped b anking s ystem a nd t radition o f c oinage a s a s ymbol o f l ocal f reedom a nd i ndependence , a nd a nother , w ith t he o utlandish , o nly s lightly m onetised t ribes o f t he S panish i nterior , i t m ust b e a dded t hat t he e vidence o f t he h oards d oes n ot s upport s uch a c omparison . Ih ave n oted e ighteen h oards w ith d atable R oman c oins a nd n ative c oins t ogether . O f t hese e ighteen , t en c lose b y 8 9 B C , a nother f our b y 7 0 B C a nd f our more b y 4 5 B C . O f t he t en b etween 1 12 a nd 8 9, f ive a re f rom t he m ining a reas o f t he s outh ; t hree a re f rom t he l evantine c oast, a nd t wo f rom t he i nterior . H owever , l evantine f inds i nclude o nly c oastal s ilver i ssues ( Ikalkusken , K ese) ; i t i s t he f inds f rom t he s outh a nd i nterior t hat a re o f m ost i nterest . W hy d o n ative s ilver c oins c oncentrate i n t he i nterior a nd u pper G uadalquivir h oards? S urely t his c annot b e b ecause o f R oman u se o f

2 5

t he c oins f or ,

e ven i f t he c oin w ere u sed t o p ay R oman t roops,

w ould b e e xpected w here t he c oins c ould b uy s omething ,

i .e . ,

c irculation

t he m onetised

a reas o f t he l evant a nd l ower G uadalquivir . T he f ew s ilver c oins t hat d o a ppear i n c hance f inds a nd h oards i n t hose a reas a re a lmost e xclusively R oman o r a t a ny r ate n on-Celtiberian . T he c onnection b etween t he s ilver h oards a nd c hance f inds i n t he C eltiberian i nterior a nd t he m ining a reas o f C astulo c ould b e a t l east p artially e xplained b y t he d emands o f t he s ilver m ines f or s laves . D iodorus 5 .36-38 i ndicates t hat t he l abour i n t hese m ines w as s lave . S trabo ( C147) , f ollowing P olybius, i ndicates t hat 4 0 ,000 m en w orked t he C arthago N ova m ines i n m id-second c entury ; a s imilar n umber m ust h ave b een r equired i n t he C astulo m ines . T he l ifespan o f a s lave i n t he m ines w as n otoriously s hort . R eplenishment w as a lways n ecessary . F or e xample, s laves w ere a major p roduct o f G aul, o ften s upplied b y n ative c hieftains f rom r aids . P ayment t o l ocal c hiefs d oing t he s ame t hing i n S pain w ould m ost n aturally b e i n s ilver f rom t he m ines . I f t he C eltiberian c oinage w as f inanced i n s ome p art b y s laving ,7 6 o ne w ould e xpect t he h oards t o c oncentrate i n t he i nterior , n ear a reas w here s laves w ere r eadily a cquirable . T his i s i ndeed t he c ase . I n f act , w ith t ime t he h oards m ove w estward ; t he m ain m ints a re a t B olskan a nd B askunes, w ell s ituated t o a cquire s laves f rom t he P yrenean a nd/or V asconian a reas, a nd f rom T uriasu , o n t he u pper E bro , o n t he h ighway i nto C antabria . I f s laving i s am otivating f actor i n t he c oinage - a nd t he h oards p oint i n t his d irection - t hen

t his

i s

o ne

i ndication t hat R ome d id n ot u se t he n ative

m ints i n a w ay s imilar t o h er u se o f l ocal m ints i n G reece . T he q uestion o f w hy t he c oinages e xisted i s m uch m ore c omplicated t han t hat. T he _ purpose o f t he c oinages , c omplex .1 7

T he

C eltic

e specially t he s ilver o nes ,

t endency

t o m int

w hich i s

t herefore ,

i s

s een t hroughout C eltic

E urope i s c ontinued i n t he E bro v alley i ssues . L ikewise , C eltic c oinages t end t o b e c opies o f a lready e xisting t ypes a nd/or w eights f rom n earby a reas . 78 T hus i t i s n o s urprise t hat t he C eltiberian c oinages , o nce b egun , c opy e ach o ther a nd p rovide s uch a c onsistency o f b asic t ype - h orseman/male h ead 7 9 - t hat s ome h ave s upposed s uch u niformity c ould c ome o nly f rom R oman c ontrol

o r a t

l east e ncouragement .8 °

T he u ses t he c oins w ere p ut t o a re

t he n ormal o nes - s ocial d isplay , s torage o f w ealth , e ven , t o a l imited e xtent , p erhaps c ommerce . B ut t he p urpose o f t he i ssues w as s urely f iscal -t he m ints n eeded b ronze a nd/or s ilver c oin t o m eet o bligations . t hree p ossibilities c ome t o m ind - t he n eed t o p ay n ative t roops ,

A t l east t he n eed

t o p ay R oman t roops ( i .e" t he i ssues w ould b e t axes/tribute w hich R ome w ould t hen u se t o p ay t ie a rmy ) , a nd/or d istribute b ooty .5 1

a nd t he n eed t o d eal w ith h ostile t ribes

I f t he c oinages w ere i ntended t o p ay n ative a uxiliaries i n t he R oman a rmy - a nd w e c an s uppose t hat, a s i n I taly, t he n ative t own s upplying a uxiliaries h ad t o p ay t hem 8 2 -o ne w ould e xpect t hat t he a rmy w ould m uster f or c ampaigns , f ight f or a s eason a nd d isband , f or p resumably a uxiliaries d id n ot w inter w ith t he l egions . T his m eans t hat t he n atives w ould b e p aid o n c ampaign , i n

t he

w hich a lmost a lways ,

i nterior o f

t he

i n t he s econd a nd f irst c enturies , m eant

p eninsula .

T hey w ould

t hen r eturn h ome t o t owns

w hich , a gain , w ere i n t he i nterior , f or C eltiberians m ade t he b est s oldiers a nd w ere h eavily r ecruited . O n t his m odel o ne w ould e xpect t he n ative s ilver t o c oncentrate i n t he i nterior , w here i t w as e arned a nd w here t he r ecipients m ade t heir h omes . L ikewise m en r ecruited f or s ervice p robably b uried t heir r esources ; s ome w ere k illed a nd n ever r etrieved t he h oards . 83 T his , t oo w ould h elp e xplain t he c oncentration o f n ative s ilver i n t he i nterior .1 3

2 6

A p artial a nalogue t o t his s ituation e xists i n t hird c entury I taly . T here I talian a llies o f R ome b egan t o m int c oinages t o p ay t roops r equired b y R ome s ince R ome h ad b egun t o p ay h er t roops i n c oin . T he r esult i s a m ixed a ssemblage o f c oins i n t he f inds f rom t hese t owns - R aman c oins , w hich w ere r un i nto o n c ampaign a nd l ocal c oins, which t he a llies w ere p aid w ith ., 8 5 I n S pain t he c oin u sed f or p ay w ould b e t he o nly o ne b rought b ack b ecause w here t he t roops c ampaigned t here w as s cant o pportunity t o a cquire o ther c oins , b ut t he p rinciple w ould b e t he s ame . R ichardson h as p resented a v ery i nteresting s cenario i llustrating t he u se o f m oney b y n atives t o m eet o bligations t o R ome . F rom t he e xamples o f t he S cipios ( father , u ncle a nd f amous s on ) e xacting s tipendium o n c ampaign , n otices i n L ivy o f I lergetes i n C ataluna s upplying s tipendium t o t he a rmy i n t he e arly s econd c entury ,

a nd C ato a nd F laccus b oasting t hat t hey n eeded n o

f inancial s upport f rom t he h ome g overnment, 8 6 i t i s c lear t hat n atives p aid -a nd p aid p resumably i n c ash . A s A fricanus s ent e xactores a round t o c ollect f unds t o p ay h is t roops i n a n e mergency ( Livy 2 8 .25 .9) , h e s urely w anted c ash h e c ould d isburse i mmediately . I n 1 71 B C t he g overnors o f t he S pains w ere f orbidden t o s end p refects a round t o n ative t own a d p ecunias c ogendas . S uch e xactions h ad o bviously b een n ormal ; p ecuniae c ertainly m eans c oins . S ince t he f inds i ndicate a d earth o f R oman c oins b oth t he e vidence a nd l ogic p resuppose t hat n ative i ssues w ere t he m edium f or s uch t ransactions. I f t he n ative c oinages w ere m eant t o p ay t he R oman t roops w e w ould h ave t o s uppose t hat t ribute w as l evied o n t he n atives,

t hey p aid i n t heir o wn

c oin , t his c oin w as d istributed a s p ay t o t roops i n t he f ield ( for t he d earth o f n ative c oins i n f inds a long t he c oast makes d istribution i n c oastal b illets , o r t he t ransport o f m uch n ative c oin b ack t o c oastal a reas , u nlikely ) w ho t hen s pent i t t here . 87 S ince t he e xample f rom I taly c ited a bove a nd, i ndeed, c ommon s ense, l eads t o t he s upposition t hat s oldiers d o n ot s pend a ll t heir p ay w hile a ctually o n c ampaign , a nd s ince t he t roops u sually w intered i n c oastal a reas - a nd w e h ear o f o nly o ne c ase w hen a R oman a rmy w intered i n C eltiberia 88 - i t s eems u nlikely t hat t he n ative c oins w ere u sed t o p ay R oman t roo m a lthough s ome m ay h ave b een u sed t o b uy s upplies l ocally i n t he i nterior. " I n s ummary , t hen , t he n ative c oins w ere s urely u sed f or ' local ' f iscal n eeds o f t he t ribes - p ay f or l ocal s oldiers o perating a gainst o ther n ative e nemies ( as e lsewhere i n t he C eltic w orld) , p ayment o f b ribes t o e nemies, d istribution o f b ooty a nd s o o n . " T he d istribution o f h oards r ather i ndicates t hat t he n ative c oins w ere n ot e xtensively u sed b y R omans . I nterior h oards a re h eavily n ative w hile c oastal h oards , e xcept i n t he a rea o f E mporion , a nd a f ew f rom t he s outh , a re h eavily R oman . T his i s n ot w hat o ne w ould e xpect i f t he l egions w ere b eing p aid i n n ative s ilver . W ithin t he c ontext o f t he c irculation p attern o f t he s ilver c oinage ( for t he b ronze c irculates b eyond l ocal a reas i n s uch a h aphazard w ay t hat i t p rovides n o p oint f or d iscussion) i t i s s triking t hat t he h oards a re c oncentrated c hronologically i n t hree . periods a nd g eographically i n t hree a reas . T he e ighteen f inds w ith n ative c oins a long w ith d atable , t hat i s, R oman , c oins c oncentrate i n t he t ime p eriods 12-98 , 7 9-70 a nd 4 9-45 .

T he

r eason i s p lain t o s ee : t here w as u nrest , e specially i n t he s outh , d uring t he l ast y ears o f t he f irst c entury B C ; S ervilius C aepio t riumphed i n 1 07 f rom U lterior ;9 1

S ertorius b egan h is f ame a s at ribunus m ilitum i nvolved i n

a n u prising a t C astulo i n t he m id t o l ate 9 0s , f or e xample . T he S ertorian w ar p rovides t he c ause f or b urial o f h oards i n t he 7 0s w hile t he c ivil w ar 's

2 7

t raumas c reated t he h oards o f t he 4 0s . T he g eographical a reas a re a lso e xplicable . T he h oards i n t he s outh a re i n t he m ining a reas, l ong r ecognised a s ' monetised ' a nd a t arget f or a ny a nti-Roman m ilitary a ction ; t he C eltiberian a rea w as a wash i n n ative c oins h oarded i n t he u ncertainties o f t he S ertorian c risis; a long t he l evantine c oast where money h ad c irculated w idely f or h undreds o f y ears h oards a re t o b e e xpected . T here i s l ittle a dministrative o r p olitical i nformation t o b e g leaned f rom t he c oinage o f t he E bro v alley . T he h istorical i nformation i s t oo s potty t o b e a ble t o s ay , f or e xample , i f O sca h ad a ny s pecial s tatus s uch a s b eing a n a lly ; l ikewise t he s tatus o f P ompaelo b efore P ompey m ade i t a R oman-sponsored s ettlement i s u nknown - a nd i t w as i n t he ' pre-Roman ' p eriod t hat t he d enarii o f B askunes w ere i ssued . T uriasu i s a c omplete m ystery ; n o h istorical i nformation a t a ll i s a vailable e xcept t hat i t, a long w ith B ilbilis , p roduced g ood i ron p roducts .9 2 S ekobirikes , v ery u nlikely t o b e l ocated a t t he t raditionally a ccepted s pot o f C abeza d el G riego/Segobriga i n C arpetania b ecause o f t he p attern o f c oin f inds ,9 3 a ls o r emains a n e nigma .

T he G uadalquivir v alley A t horough s tudy o f t he c oinages o f f urther S pain i s s till w anting, a lthough i nvestigations o f i ndividual m ints h ave b een c arried o ut .9 4 T he p attern o f c oinage h as f undamental d ifferences f rom t hat o f t he c oinage o f n earer S pain . M ost b asically , s ilver i ssues w ere n ever p rolific i n t he s outh ; i ndeed , e xcept f or s mall i ssues o f G ades b efore t he e nd o f t he S econd P unic W ar ,9 5 n o m int, n ot e ven G ades , i ssued s ilver ; o nly s ix p re-Second P unic W ar h oards o f s ilver h ave b een p ublished , m ot v ery s mall ;9 ° as tudy o f t he f inds o f t his p eriod i s p romised b y C haves .9 / T he p rolific m ints o f C astulo , O bulco a nd C arteia i ssued o nly b ronze .

D uring t he t ime a fter t he

S econd P unic War n o m int i ssued s ilver . S ometimes t he s ilver i ssuer I kalkusken h as b een l ocated i n t he f urther p rovince - f or n o g ood r eason ; t he f inds i ndicate a l ocation i nland f rom C arthago N ova , p erhaps e ven n ear C uenca . 98

A c olony i s l ater p ut d own i n A cci .

M ight t his b e t he s ite o f

t he n ative m int? K elin l ikewise i ssues s ome s ilver , b ut i t i s p robably a lso t o b e c lassified w ith t he n ative c oinages o f t he n orth a nd e ast ,9 9 n ot w ith t he i ssues o f s outhern S pain . I n s um , s ilver i s n ot i ssued i n t he s outh .

L ikewise ,

w e

a re

l acking

t he

h oard

e vidence

f or

c irculation

o f

s ilver t hat w e h ave i n t he n orth . T hree s mall h oards n ear C ordoba ( Cordoba i tself , M arrubiales d e C ordoba , M olino d e M arrubial lW a nd t wo a t G ranada 1 01 a re a ll b esides t he n umerous h oards i n t he m ining r egions o f t he G uadalquivir v alley . C asual f inds o f s ilver a re u nusual, a s w ould b e e xpected. O n t he o ther h and , m ints o f b ronze a re c ommon a nd m int a h igh v olume o f m aterial

p ossibly

C astulo ,1 °2

f rom

l ate

i n t he

t hird

c entury

i n s ome

b ut m ost l ikely f rom t he l ate s econd c entury .1 °3

c ases ,

s uch

a s

W hile i n t he

n orth t he b ronze i s r ather s imilar f rom t own t o t own , t he i ssues o f t he s outh h ave a v ery g reat v ariety o f t ypes , m etrology a nd a lphabets .1 °4 A ll t his v ariety i ndicates i ssuing c ircumstances f undamentally d ifferent f rom t hose i n t he n orth . T he n ative m ints o f t he u pper G uadalquivir t ypically b egin w ith i ssues s igned i n n ative s cript, t hen s hift t o L atin l etters. O ther n ative m ints s imply b egin w ith L atin i nscriptions . U nfortunately , n o s tudy o f c irculation e xists o f t he t ype M artin V alls a nd R ipolles h ave d one f or t he n earer p rovince .1 °5 C oins o f C astulo, O bulco a nd C arteia c irculate i n t he s outhern p art o f t he p eninsula a nd e ven b eyond; o ther, s maller m ints a re r estricted t o s mall a reas.

2 8

Whereas

i n

t he n orth,

e specially i n t he i nterior,

f iscal d emands

p roduced t he m inting o f s ilver , U lterior 's n eeds w ere m ore f inancial - t he n eed t o s upply s mall c hange t o a n a rea w hich , l ike t he l ower E bro v alley a nd t he e ast c oast, b ecame i ncreasingly m onetised f rom t he l ate s econd c entury o n . T he m ost i mportant f actor w as o f c ourse t he a rmy o f o ccupation , b ut t he n eeds o f a n i nflux o f I talian s ettlers i ncreasingly u sed t o am onetised e conomy i n t heir h omelandl° 6 w ere c ontributors .1 °7 T he a rea o f t he m ines s eems t o h ave b een h ighly m onetised ; t he h oards o f s ilver a ttest t his a nd p erhaps t he b ronze o f C astulo w as i ssued p artly i n r esponse t o t his .1 08 A f ew m ints d eserve s pecial a ttention .

F irst o f a ll, i t s hould b e

n oted t hat f rom t he s tandpoint o f c oinage t he m ints a nd t he f inds o f t he u pper G uadalquivir ( i .e . t he m ining d istrict o f t he S ierra M orena ) h ave m ore i n c ommon w ith t he c oinage p atterns o f t he n earer p rovince t han o f t he f urther .

N ative s cripts a re u sed ,

a t l east i nitially ,

a nd s ilver i s f ound

c irculating a nd h oarded . A lthough t his a rea w as d etached f rom f urther S pain a nd a ttached t o n earer S pain b y A ugustus , p resumably t o k eep t he m ines i n a n i mperial p rovince , n umismatically i t b elonged t here a ll a long . I n t he s outh , t he m int a t C arteia s tands o ut . T his L atin c olony , t he f irst o utside I taly , w as f ounded i n 1 71 B C . S ubsequently , a t a n u ncertain t ime i n t he l ater s econd c entury , i t b egan t o i ssue e xtensive s eries o f b ronze

c oins

i n

a ll

d enominations

a nd

w ith

d istinctive

t ypes

a nd

m agistrates ' n ames .1 °9 T hese c oins t urn u p a ll o ver S pain . C arteia w as a n aval b ase f or t he n atives b efore , a nd c ontinued t o b e s uch d uring t he l ater R epublic .1 10 T he f inancial n eeds o f a t own w ith a l arge m ilitary e stablishment a ttached h elps e xplain t he i ssue o f s o m uch b ronze c oinage ; n ote t hat i n I taly , t oo, d uring t he s econd c entury l ocal b ronzes a re c onfined t o h arbour t owns , a nd s hould b e r elated t o n aval a ctivities . 11 T he t own w as a lso a ctive c ommercially , b eing a m ajor p roduction a nd e xport p oint f or g arum f ish-sauce . O utside t he m ining a reas , w here f inancial n eeds

a gain m ay

h ave

p rompted

t owns

t o

p rofit

b y

m inting

s mall

c hange ,

r esponse t o t he n eeds o f as alaried a rmy f or b ronze c hange p robably p rompted o ther l arger i ssues s uch a s t hose o f q uadrantes a t C ordoba. 112 T he

l ack o f

h oard

e vidence

m akes

d ating

d ifficult e xcept i n t he m ost g eneral w ay .

t he

b ronze

o f

U lterior v ery

T here a re n o e xcavations w hich

h ave p roduced c oins i n c losely d atable c ontexts - j ust a f ew c oins i n s econd c entury c ontexts w hich i ndicate t hat C armo a nd C astulo w ere m inting a t t hat t ime ,

a d ate

a nyway d educible

f rom g eneral

c onsiderations . 13

C arteia 's

a nd I talica 's e xcavations , t he m ost e xtensive i n t owns i mportant d uring t he R epublic , h ave s o f ar y ielded d isappointingly l ittle i n t he w ay o f n ew d ata o n c oins . 14

T he m ain h oard

w ith

s ome

s outhern t ypes ,

f rom A zaila ,

h as

b een d ated t o b oth t he S ertorian a nd C aesarian p eriod a nd s o i s o f l imited h elp . B ut t he C astra C aecilia f inds d o i ndicate t hat c oins f rom a n umber o f t owns w ere c irculating i n t he e arly f irst c entury a nd i t w ould b e r easonable t o s uppose t hat t he S ertorian w ar g enerated m any o f t he s mall b ronzes a s a r esponse t o t he n eed f or c hange g enerated b y al arge i nflux o f m oney f rom t he w ar e ffort o f b oth s ides . 15 T here a re n o s outhern c oins i n t he f inds a t N umantia , b ut s o f ar a field t hat i s p erhaps n ot r elevant. T his l ack o f h oard e vidence h as r educed s cholars t o t heories . C haves , f or e xample , b uilding o n h er v iew t hat R ome g ranted p ermission t o m ints a s a r eward f or l oyal s ervice, d ates t he c oins a ccording t o ' politically o pportune moments ' i n t he a rea 's r elations w ith R ome .1 16

Y et e ven i f

' permission ' w as t he k ey t o t he i ssues, 1 33 B C p rovides n o r eason f or ' permission ' i n U lterior o ther t han a c anonical f aith i n t hat d ate a s a

2 9

g eneral p olitical w atershed. P eriods o f f iscal a ctivity m ost l ikely g enerated t he b ronze c oins . w ars o f t he 1 40s a gainst V iriathus,

T he

t he u nrest a round t he t urn o f t he

c entury , 17 t he C aesarian c ivil w ars - t he a rmies o f t hese p eriods g enerated s pecial n eeds a nd p robably p roduced s pecial l ocal i ssues . T he C astra C aecilia f inds i ndicate t hat n ative i ssues e specially f illed t he n eed f or b ronze s mall d enominations o f t he a s : o f 5 2 R oman b ronzes , 4 8 a re a sses w hile o f 1 60 n ative b ronzes o nly 2 9 a re a sses, a nd t he r est a re s mall d enominations . T he c oins o f O bulco a nd C astulo , n ear t he m ining a reas , m ay g o b ack w ell i nto t he s econd c entury ; m ost i ssues p robably h ave t heir o rigins i n t he S ertorian o r C aesarian p eriod , a nd p erhaps m et n eeds p eculiar t o t he m ining a reas. 18 T aken a s a w hole ,

t he c oinage s ituation o f U lterior i s s trikingly l ike

t hat o f I taly a fter t he H annibalic w ar . R oman c oin i s c learly t he m ajor c irculating s ilver c urrency , b ut, i n t he R oman s tate 's d isinterest i n s upplying b ronze a fter i t w as n o l onger u sed t o p ay t roops i n a bout m ids econd c entury , t he R oman w orld w as l eft s mall c hange b y c ontinuing t o c irculate o ld o fficial b ronze . I n I taly a bout a d ozen a nd b eyond - a ll i n s mall d enominations ,

o n i ts o wn t o m eet t he n eeds o f b ronze a nd m int l ocal o r i mitate l ocal c oinages c ontinue t o 8 9 B C a s w as u sual i n U lterior ; 19 f or

e xample a t V elia a nd C aelia o nly q uadrantes w ere s truck , a s a t C orduba a nd e lsewhere i n S pain . I mitations o f R oman c oins , a lmost a ll s emisses a nd q uadrantes , c oncentrate i n s outhern S panish f inds , a nd a lso a re c ommon i n I taly a way f rom R ome h erself .1 2 ° T hese i mitations d ate f rom c . 1 00-25 B c121 - j ust t he h eyday o f U lterior b ronze , i n a ll p robability . T he n eed f or l ocal b ronze w as e xacerbated b y d istance f rom R ome , s o i ssues w ere m ore p rolific

i n U lterior

-b ut

i n s ubstance

t he c oining n eeds

a nd h abits a re

v ery ' Italian ' , a n ot u nexpected s ituation g iven t he i nflux o f s ettlers a nd t he n atural w ealth a nd I talian-like c limate o f m uch o f t he G uadalquivir v alley. I n s hort , t he c oinage o f t he s outh c an t ell d isappointingly l ittle a bout j uridical a nd p olitical a rrangements . A s i n t he n orth , a ny c orrelation b etween m inting b odies a nd p olitical s tatus w ould b e v ery h azardous . F or e xample , o f t he t wo k nown f ederated t owns , G ades a nd E pora , G ades m ints b ronze t hroughout t he l ater R epublic w hile E pora i ssues n one . C arteia a s aL atin c olony h as e xtensive i ssues while C orduba, i n a ll p robability a nother L atin e stablishment , i ssues o nly o ne d enomination . I talica i ssues n o c oinage b efore t he A ugustan p eriod .1 22 S urely R ome c ared n ot a t a ll w ho i ssued s mall ,

l ocal m intings ;

t houghts o f ' permission ' o r ' consent ' t o m int

a s a r eward f or l oyalty a re o ff t be m ark ,1 23 a s a re u proven t heories o f c oins m arking a c hange o f s tatus .1 24 T he r hyme a nd r eason m ust b e m ainly l ocal , f iscal o r f inancial, a nd o ften i diosyncratic - a nd h ence i n d etail u nknowable.

3 0

N OTES 1 .

L . V illaronga , N umismatica a ntiqua d e H ispania ( Barcelona,

1 979),

a t,

e .g ., p . 1 43 where t he c hronology o f s outhern c oins i s d etermined o n t hese p rinciples . H .J . H ildebrandt, ' Die R oemerlager v on N umantia: D atierung a nhand d er M ünzfunde ' , M MDAI 2 0 ( 1979) , 2 58 a lso p roceeds i n t his m anner . 2 .

3 .

C rawford, B RC 5 95-97 . V illaronga r ecognises t hese f luctuations s upposes t hat n ative c oins f luctuated a long w ith t he R oman . C ompare t he c ase o f I taly ,

b ut

w here l ocal b ronze a fter t he H annibalic W ar

c annot b e d ated t hrough a c orrelation o f ' non-Roman w eight s tandards t o R oman s extantial,

u ncial o r s emuncial ( or w hatever) s tandards ':

A .

B urnett , ' The c urrency o f I taly f rom t he H annibalic W ar t o t he R eign o f A ugustus', A IIN 2 9 ( 1982), 1 26. 4 .

B ahrfeldt

i n

S chulten N umantia I V ( Munich ,

A.

1 929)

1 314 :

M .

B eltran

L ion s, ' Problemas d e l a a rqueologa c acere l ia : E l c ampamento r omano d e C aceres . E studio N umismatico ,' C ronica I V C ongreso'Arqueologico d el S udeste E spanol ( Elche , 1 949) 2 60. 5 .

R .C .

K napp ,

1 977) ,

8 1 .

A spects

o f

( Cartagena ,

1 949) ,

t he R oman E xperience

2 23-27 ;

i n

C rawford

I beria

T his i s o ne r esult o f m inting a l m arco ,

C MRR

( Valladolid ,

a p rocess a cutely

d iscussed , w ith c hronological c onclusions w hich r emain d ubious, b y H .J . H ildebrandt, ' B eitrage z um r oemisch-republikanischen Münzumlauf i n S panien ', C hiron 9 ( 1979), 13135 . 6 .

C rawford, C MRR 7 1.

7 .

L ivy 3 2.28 .11.

8 .

N ote t hat e ven a l l o rganisational m easure s o s weeping a s t he L ex I ulia o f 8 9 B C d id n ot t erminate l ocal b ronze c oinage i n I taly ( Burnett,

o p . c it .

1 26). 9 .

E .g . ,

V illaronga ,

o p . c it .

1 32 ;

R omanas d e C arteia ( Barcelona,

F .

C haves

T ristan ,

L as m onedas H ispano-

1 979).

1 0 . A t hird f undamental r eorganization i s s ometimes n oted - t hat a fter t he C aesarian c ivil r omanas e n E spa i la

w ars

o f

4 9-44

( Zaragoza,

B C ( M .

1 970) ,

2 2) .

B eltran L loris, T his

s upposedly

L as a nforas r esulted

i n

t he I berian c oinages b eing r eplaced b y ' H ispanoroman ' i ssues . W hile s ome i ssues , e specially i n t he s outh , m ay d ate f rom t his p eriod , t here i s n o w ay t o r elate a ny s pecific c oinage t o a n a dministrative, o rganisational c hange a t t his t ime . 1. E .g .

F .

1 62-64 .

C haves

T ristan ,

( 1980) ,

9 9-122 .

' temismatica

a ntigua

d e

l a

U lterior , '

1 2. S ilver i n I taly s outh o f t he P o i s a nother matter .

N umisma

H ere R ome d id

e vidently d emonetise p revious s ilver c oinages a fter t he H annibalic W ar a nd w ith t his b egan ' an a gressive p olicy o f d ominating a ll m onetary t ransactions w ith R oman c oins ' ( Burnett,

3 1

o p . c it .

1 26) .

H owever o utside

I taly t here i s n o e vidence t hat R ome a ttempted t o c ontrol s ilver i ssues i n s ubject t owns a lthough s uch i ssues d o o ften c ease s ince a nd r esources f or s uch c oinage d isappear a fter t he c onquest .

t he r eason

1 3. C rawford , C MRR 1 85 : " One i s l eft w ith a n i mage o f as tate w hich d id n ot g ive a d amn f or t he p rovision o f s mall c hange" . 1 4. M .H . C rawford , 1 5. R .

' Money a nd e xchange i n t he R oman W orld ' , J RS 1 970 , 4 0-48 .

Martin V alls,

C haves,

o p . c it .

L a c irculacion m onetaria i berica ( Valladolid ,

( n .

1) ,

18

i s

t ypical o f

s ome c urrent

1 966) ;

t hought

w hen

s he i ndicates t hat t he c irculation o f b ronze c an s how c ommercial r outes. 1 6. R .C .

K napp ,

' The

c oinage o f

C orduba ,

C olonia P atricia ' ,

A IIN

2 9

( 1982) ,

2 00. 1 7. P .P .

R ipollgs A legre,

L a C irculacion m onetaria e n l a T arraconense

m editerranea ( Valencia ,

1 982) ,

3 31-512 .

1 8. C rawford, C MRR 2 5 . 1 9. M artin V alls, o p. c it. ( n . 2 0 . C rawford, o p. c it. ( n .

1 5).

1 4), 4 4.

2 1. C rawford, R RC 6 33. 2 2. C rawford, C MRR 7 2. 2 3. C rawford, C MRR 7 2. 2 4 . R ipollgs, o p. c it. 3 33-52. 2 5. R ipollgs, o p. c it. 3 62. 2 6 . R ipollgs, o p. c it. 3 54. 2 7. R ipollgs, o p. c it. 3 82. 2 8 . R ipollgs, o p. c it. 3 52-57. 2 9 . R .C . K napp, ' Cato i n S pain, 1 95/195 B C .: C hronology a nd G eography ', S tudies i n L atin L iterature a nd R oman H istory I I, e d . C . D eroux ( Bruxelles , 3 0 .

I lturo h as ( Ripollgs,

1 980) ,

3 3 .

1% s uch c oins ( Ripollgs , o p . c it . 3 62) ; I luro a f ew a t l east o p . c it.

3 1. V illaronga,

3 54) .

o p . c it.

( n .

1 ),

19-120

d ates

t he

b eginning o f K ese 's

c oinage t o t he l ate t hird c entury B C . 3 2.

I GCH

2 339 ;

J .

M aluquer

d e

M otes,

M .

O liva,

H allazgo d e d racmas

yd ivisores a mpuritanos e n l as e xcavaciones d e U llastret

( Instituto d e

A rquelogia y P rehistoria,

P ublicaciones

e ventuales

1 0 .

1 965) ,

U niversidad d e B arcelona:

2 7 .

3 2

3 3. R ipollgs ,

o p . c it .

3 77 ;

t his d istribution m ap s hows a s ingle K ese c oin

f rom U llastret b ut n one i s l isted a mong t he c asual f inds, p p . 3 52-357. 3 4. R RCH 1 80,

1 75; R ipollgs, o p. c it. 4 9-51, 2 7-29.

3 5. A .M . d e G uadan , N umismatica i berica e i bero-romana ( Madrid , 1 47 w ith m aps f acing p . 1 64 , 1 70 . 3 6. R .C . K napp,

1 969) ,

1 34-

' The d ate a nd p urpose o f t he I berian d enarii', N C 1 977, 7 5.

T arracenses, n ot T arraconenses, i s t he r eading a t P liny H N 3 .24. 3 7. C f. L ivy 2 8.39 . 3 8 . K napp, o p. c it. ( n . 3 6), 6 6-79. 3 9. K napp, o p. c it. ( n . 2 9), 3 6-38 . 4 0. C f .

K .

B aldinger ,

L a f ormacion d e l os d ominios l ingüisticos e n l a

P eninsula i berica ( Madrid,

1 972).

4 1. S chulten ( n . 4 ). 4 2. G .K .

J enkins,

' Notes

o n I berian d enarii

f rom

t he

C ordova h oard ' ,

A NSMN

1 958, 1 37 a nd p late 1 .8 i dentifies i t a s a c ore; c f . H aeberlin i n S chulten ( n . 4 ) , 2 45 N o . 1 77 . H ildebrandt, o p . c it . ( n . 1 ) , 2 48 d enies i t i s a c ore,

b ut o n p .

2 52 h e

s ays

t hat

i t

i s a c ore a nd

e arliest e vidence f or t he n ative d enarius i n S pain . i s c ertainly a ppropriate f or a n ative d enarius .

i s

t he

T he w eight ( 3 .72g )

4 3. K napp, o p. c it. ( n . 3 6). 4 4 . 4 5.

' The f inancial o rganisation o f R epublican S pain ', N C 1 969, 7 9-93. ' The

S panish m ines

s econd 4 6.

o p.

a nd

c entury B C ' , J RS

c it. ( n .

4 7 . O p . c it .

( n .

t he

d evelopment

1 976 ,

o f

p rovincial

t axation

i n

t he

1 49 .

1 ), 1 67. 1 ),

14 .

T he

t erm o scense w ould d erive f rom a R oman

m isidentification o f t he n ative s cript o n t he c oins a s " Oscan" . 4 8. J enkins, o p. c it. 6 0. 4 9. C rawford, C MRR 8 0-81. 5 0. D .F . A llen, T he C oins o f t he A ncient C elts ( Edinburgh, 5 1. C f . C rawford ,

C MRR 2 70 .

1 980), 9 3.

M ost n ative i ssues i n S pain e nded a bout 4 5 B C .

P robably s ome o f t he l ast w ere t hose w ith I berian t ypes b ut L atin l egends ( Segobriga , S egovia , T oleto a nd C lounioq - V illaronga , o p . c it . ( n . 1 ) , 2 40-242) , a lthough t o s peak o f a ny R oman p olicy w hich f orbade n ative l egends a fter t his d ate i s u nnecessary ( Villaronga , 2 28) . T he c ivil w ar w as o ver , t he n eed f or b ronze d ecreased . S ome t owns c ontinued t o m int e ither t o p rovide n eeded c urrency o r t o c ommemorate e vents . T hese i ssues w ere n ot a s w idespread a s b efore . S ome w ere c ontinuations o f e arlier i ssues ( Grant, F ITA 4 72-474) ; a n umber G rant i nterprets a s f oundation

i ssues

( Dertosa ,

T uriaso ,

3

B ilbilis ,

C alagurris,

O sca

-p p .

1 58170) .

T hese i ssues , a ll w ith L atin l egends , i n t urn s hade o ff i nto

A ugustan a nd l ater c oinages w hich c ontinue w ell b eyond t he l imits o f t his i nvestigation ( Villaronga , 2 43-252 , f or t he i ssues) . T he i ssues f rom c . 4 5 t o 2 7 B C r epresent a g roup o f i ssues v ery m uch i n n eed o f d etailed s tudy ; t hey m ay c ontain i mportant h istorical a nd a dministrative i nformation , b ut t he p resent l ack o f c areful r esearch m akes c onclusions d ifficult t o s ustain . 5 2. T able i n M artin V alls o p. c it. 5 3 . M artin V alls, o p . c it. 3 21-324 . 5 4 . M artin V alls, o p. c it. 5 5. R ipollgs, o p. c it. 4 69-72. 5 6 . R ipollgs, o p. c it. 4 79 . 5 7 . R ipollgs, o p . c it. 4 82-83 . 5 8 . S ee ,

f or e xample ,

S allust B J 2 7 .5 ;

3 6 .1 a nd P lutarch P omp .

1 .

I f t he

a nalysis o f R oman c oins f ound i n S ardinia i s s ound t hen i t i ndicates s hipments o f d enarii t o t he t roops o n t he i sland d uring p eriods o f u nrest: J .R . R owland, ' Numismatics a nd t he m ilitary h istory o f S ardinia ', L imes . A kten d es X I i nternationalen L imeskongresses ( 3udap (m 3t „ , 1 976) ( Budapest , 1 977) , 8 7112 . 5 9 . R ichardson , o p. c it. 1 44-47. 6 0 . C f . L . V illaronga , MIN 1 982 , 2 20 ; A llen , o p . c it . 3 5 n otes t he C eltic c oins i n g eneral o ften w ere m inted f rom m elted d own R oman i ssues. C oins o f K aletedou i n E ast G aul h ave e xactly t he s ame m etal a s c ontemporary R oman d enarii. 6 1. S ee L ivian b ooty l ists g iven , e .g., i n K napp , o p. c it. ( n . 3 6), 1 67-69. 6 2. H aeberlin , o p . c it . ( n . 4 2) , 2 36-243 l ists 1 2 s ilver a nd 2 8 b ronze R oman p ieces p lus 2 0 n ative b ronze c oins . C rawford, o p . c it . ( n . 1 4) , 4 5 s tates : " . t he c oinage o f t he a rmy c amps h ardly i ncluded d enominations s maller t han t he a s a nd t he p roduction o f t he s emis a nd t he q uadrans h as t herefore s till t o b e e xplained" . T he f inds f rom N umantia s upport t his b ut a t C astra C aecilia m any n ative s mall d enominations w ere f ound: B eltran L ion s, o p . c it. ( n . 4 ). 6 3 . R ipollgs, o p . c it. 4 48-450 . 6 4 . R ipollgs, o p. c it. 4 54. 6 5 . M . C ampo, L as m onedas d e E busus ( Barcelona, 1 976). 6 6 . R ipollgs, o p. c it. 3 75 . 6 7. R ipollgs, o p. c it. 3 62. 6 8 . R ipollgs, o p. c it. 4 49 . 6 9 . R ipollgs, o p. c it. 5 09.

3 4

7 0. R ipollgs, o p. c it. 4 71. 7 1. A . G iovannini ,

' La c irculation m ongtaire e n G rAce s ous l e p rotectorat d e

R ome', A IIN 2 9 ( 1982),

1 65-82.

7 2. C MRR 1 32. 7 3 . A IIN 2 9 ( 1982), 2 27, m ore f ully s et o ut i n o p. c it.

( n .1) 1 30-37.

7 4 . C rawford, C MRR 1 60. 7 5. L . V illaronga, Ampurias 1 971-72, 3 05-320 , A IIN 1 982, 2 21. B ut t his c loses i n T iberius 's r eign a nd s o , e ven i f n ummularii e xisted t hen , i t i s n o p roof t hat t hey e xisted d uring t he l ate R epublic . 7 6. O f c ourse o ther s ources t ransport c harges e tc.

e xisted

a s

w ell

- b ooty ,

m ercenary

p ay ,

7 7. K napp, o p. c it. ( n . 3 6). 7 8. A llen , o p. c it. ( n . 5 0) 2 . 7 9 . T he h orseman/male h ead i s v ery t ypical o f C eltic c oinages i n g eneral ( Allen , 3 8-39) . I t i s r ather s tartling n onetheless t o n otice t hat t he B iatec s ilver t etradrachm f rom B ohemia a nd s outh S lovakia i s v ery s imilar t o C eltiberian c oins . I n C eltic a reas h omogeneity o f t ypes i n a l arge a rea o f d ifferent t ribes o r t owns w as c ommon . A p ropos o f S pain , c omparison w ith t he C eltic c oinages o f t he t ranspadane a rea i n I taly a nd w ith t he R hone c oinage c an b e m ade . I n b oth a reas - i n t he c ase o f t he P o ac onquered a rea - a q uite h omogeneous t ype w as m inted a t d ifferent s ites . N o R oman c ontrol s eems t o h ave b een i nvolved ( Allen , 8 9). 8 0. C rawford , C MRR 9 4-95 . I n G aul n ative i ssues o f t he R hone a rea h old t o ac ommon t ype a nd s tandard w ithout R oman c ontrol , s o u niformity n eed n ot i ndicate a d irect R oman h and i n o verseeing t he m intings ( Allen , o p . c it . ( n . 5 0), 3 1). 8 1. C rawford,

C MRR 5 1 - s ome c oins o f t he t hird c entury w ere i ssued t o

d istribute b ooty . 8 2. C ic .

V err .

2 .5 .60

his . i ndicates t

A lthough t he I berian c oinages b egin

a fter t he i nitial c onquests t he c oins w ere p robably a lso u sed t o f inance c ontinuing w arfare i n t he i nterior . C ertainly i n G aul t he n ative s ilver p aid n ative t roops t o f ight e ach o ther - b ut t here , o f c ourse , R oman d omination w as a voided m uch l onger t han i n S pain . ( Allen , o p . c it . 1 5 .) V illaronga, o p . c it. ( n .1) 1 67 s upposes t hat R ome u sed n ative c oin t o p ay h er n ative t roops. T here i s n o e vidence o r p robability t hat n ative t roops w ould h ave b een p aid i n t his w ay u nless a s p ure m ercenaries - a s tatus s eldom a ttested f or n atives i n t he R oman a rmy i n S pain . 8 3. C rawford ,

' Coin h oards

a nd

p atterns

P BSR 3 7 ( 1969), 8 0 . 8 4 . C f. C rawford, C MRR 1 93.

3 5

o f v iolence i n

t he

l ate R epublic ' ,

8 5.

C rawford, C MRR 2 6-27.

8 6.

C ato: F r. 3 5M 3 ; F laccus: L ivy 4 0 .35.4.

8 7.

H .B . M attingly , A IIN 1 982 , 2 39 n otes , c iting A A lföldi , t hat c ertain d ies o f t he l ast M assaliot d rachmas a re v ery l ike t he c oins s truck b y F laccus t here i n 8 2/81 t o p ay h is t roops , a nd s peculates t hat a s pecial M assaliot i ssue h elped p ay t hose t roops . V illaronga , o p . c it . ( n . 1 ) 1 37 s eems t o h old t hat n ative i ssues w ere u sed t o p ay R oman t roops .

8 8 .

F ulvius N obilior i n 1 53 ;

s ee ,

i n g eneral ,

K napp o p . c it .

( n .

3 6) 1 48 .

8 9.

H owever i t d oes s eem t hat l ocal c oins w ere e lsewhere u sed t o p ay R oman t roops . Q uinarii f rom G aul p erhaps w ere p aid t o C aesar 's t roops ( Allen , o p . c it . ( n . 9 0) 2 02, o 2 . c it . ( n . 5 0) 2 ) .

9 0.

D .F .

A llen ,

' Wealth ,

M oney a nd C oinage i n C eltic S ociety ',

P resented t o S . P izgot ( London , K napp, o p . c it. ( n . 3 6), 1 4-18 . 9 1.

D egrassi 5 61.

9 2.

A .

D ominguez

A rranz ,

1 976),

2 01;

o p . c it .

( n .

L as c ecas i bgricas d el v alle d el E bro

E ssays

5 0) ,

9 3;

( Zaragoza ,

1 979), 1 73 . 9 3.

V illaronga, 9 p. c it. ( n .

9 4.

C haves, o p. c it.

9 5.

F ull b ibliography i n G uadan o p. c it.

9 6.

I GCH 2 310 , 2 319 , 2 323 , 2 324 , 2 326 , 2 327 , 2 329 - a t otal o f 8 2+ c oins .

9 7.

O p. c it.

9 8 .

V illaronga , o p . c it . ( n . 1 ) 1 39 ( near C uenca) . B eltran M artinez , o p . . c it . ( n . 4 ) ( near A lmeria) ; h e a lso r eviews e arlier o pinions f or s uch

( n .

( n .

1),

1 ), 8 7.

1). ( n . 3 5),

1 05.

1 06 n .3.

l ocations a s A cci ( Zobel) a nd C arthago N ova ( Gomez M oreno) . 9 9.

L ocated

a t

L os

V illares ,

C audete

d e

l as

F uentes

( Valencia)

R ipollgs ,

o p . . c it. 4 04 . 1 00. D ominguez, o p. c it. 2 0, 2 8 , . 3 0 p . 3 30 . 1 01. D ominguez ,

o p . c it . 2 2 p . 3 30 ;

C haves,

o p . c it . ( n .

1 1),

18 n . 4 .

1 02. V illaronga, o p . c it . ( n . 1 ) 1 19 ; M . P az G arcia y B ellido , ' Las s eries m as a ntiquas d e C astulo ' , N umisma 1 38-43 ( 1980) , 9 7110 . 1 03. C rawford, C MRR 3 41. 1 04. C haves, o p. c it. ( n . 1 05 . C haves, o p. c it.

1),

1 00 .

17-119.

1 06. C rawford, C MRR 1 77-181.

3 6

1 07. C haves , o p . c it . i s n ot b lind t o t hese s ocio-economic f actors - 1011; s ee a lso K napp o p. c it.

( n .

1 6),

1 87-89.

1 08 . G arcia y B ellido , i n C haves o p . c it. 1 09 . F . C haves 1 979).

T ristan ,

1 21.

L as m onedas H ispano-Romanas d e C arteia

( Barcelona ,

10 . S trabo 3 .1.7 ( C140) ( from T imosthenes) f or a n ative p ort. 11. C rawford, C MRR 7 1; B urnett, o p. c it. 12. K napp, o p. c it. ( n . 1 6), 13. C haves, o p. c it. ( n .

1 1),

14 . D .E . Woods, C arteia ( Madrid , 1 982) .

( n . 3 ).

1 516. 14.

( Madrid,

1 967),

F .J .

P resedo V elo,

C arteia I

1 15 . B eltran L ion s o p . c it . ( n . 4 ) f or t he C astra C aecilia f inds . M any q uestions r emain a bout t his f ind ; H ildebrandt h as p romised a n ew, t horough s tudy .

T he l atest d enarius R RC 3 35/3c i s f rom a bout 9 6 B C .

16 . C haves, o p. c it. ( n . 17. P lutarch S ert .

1),

1 07108 .

3 ; t he S ertorian w ar w ith i ts w ar n eeds a nd c oncomitant

i ncrease i n l ocal t axes - M etellus l owered - C haves o p . c it . 1 09 . 1 18. G arcia

y B ellido ,

o p . c it .

( 1 .

1 02)

r aised

t axes

f or a n

i nteresting

t he s pecial c oinage h abits o f t he m ines .

w hich

C aesar

l ater

d iscussion o f

T he e arly C astulo c oins s eem

o n t he s ame s tandard a s t hose o f K ese ( Villaronga o p . c it .) while K ese 's c oins a re p reternaturally c ommon i n t he S ierra M orena m ines , p uzzling f act a s G arcia y B ellido a dmits. 19. B urnett, o p. c it. ( n . 3 ), 1 20 . C rawford, A IIN 1 982, 1 21. C rawford o p. c it.

1 28.

1 40-41; V illaronga, A IIN 1 982, 2 23.

1 40 .

1 22. F . C haves T ristan, L as m onedas d e I talica ( Seville, 1 23. E .g. C haves o p. c it. 1 24 .

a

( n.

1),

1 973).

1 06 ; B eltran L ion s, o p . c it. ( n . 4 ), 8 3.

C haves , o p . c it . 19 . C f . B urnett, o p . c it . ( n . 3 ) , 1 26 ( in I taly t he m ints w hich c ontinued t o p roduce b ronze a fter t he H annibalic w ar d id s o w ithout r egard t o ' status o r s ignificant d ates s uch a s 8 9 B C ') a nd C rawford o p. c it.

( n .

1 20),

1 41.

3 7

A dditional n ote: I berian d enarii i n a ction M .H . C rawford T he p urpose o f t his s hort n ote i s t o d raw a ttention t o as triking d ifference b etween t he c irculation p attern o f R oman d enarii i n S pain i n t he s econd c entury B C a nd t hat o f I berian d enarii .'

T he e vidence i s a s f ollows :

H oards i ncluding R oman d enarii i n S pain b etween 1 25 a nd 9 1 1 .

P ozoblanco b efore 1 870 - R RCH 1 74

2 .

C ordoba a fter 1 945 - R addatz, 2 68

3 .

S egaro 1 881 - R RCH 1 80

4 .

L a B arroca n ear G erunda 1 953 - R RCH 1 78

5 .

E l C entenillo 1 911 - R RCH 1 81

6 .

M öntoro

7 .

B aix

=E pora 1 936 - R RCH 1 82

L lobregat

1 937

-C H

1 ,

1 57 ;

L .

V illaronga ,

i n X IV C ong . N ac .

A rq., 8 71 8 .

S arria n ear B arcelona 1 870 - G aceta N umismatica 6 4 ( 1982), 2 4

9 .

C ordoba 1 916 - s ee b elow

1 0.

A lbanchez d e U beda - G ac. N um . 7 4-5 ( 1984),

1.

S ierra M orena 1 920 - R RCH 1 86

1 2.

C azlona 1 618 - R RCH 1 88

1 3 .

T orre d e J uan A bad 1 934 - R RCH 1 89 ; A cta N um .

1 4.

P enhagarcia a bout 1 920 - R RCH 1 91

1 5 .

1 07

1 982, 7 9

A znalcollar b etween 1 908 a nd 1 919 - M . 1 1 . C rawford , A C atalogue o f t he R oman R epublican C oins i n t he R oyal S cottish M useum , E dinburgh ( Edinburgh, 1 984), x i

1 6.

C ogo llos d e C uadix 1 959 - N umisma 1 978 , 2 5

1 7.

S anta E lena

1 8.

R io T into b etween 1 903 a nd 1 9 10 - R RCH 1 94

1 9.

S ierra M orena 1 929 - R RCH 1 96

2 0.

O liva 1 848-9 a nd 1 961 - R RCH 1 97

2 1.

M ogon 1 914 - R RCH 2 00

1 903 - R RCH 1 93

3 8

2 2.

C azlona s hortly b efore 1 978 - N umisma 1 978,

2 3.

A zuara 1 890 - s ee b elow

2 4.

S alvacanete a bout 1 930 - s ee b elow

2 5.

P ortugal - M üseu N acional , L isbon

2 6.

P ozoblanco

1 9

1 925 - B ol . R eal A cad . B ellas L etras y N obles A rtes d e

C ordoba 1 928, 5 1; C H 3 ,

19 i s p erhaps a nother p arcel

2 7.

C revillente b efore 1 949 - R RCH 2 06

2 8.

O rcera 1 940 - R RCH 2 11

2 9 .

I danha-a-Velha 1 974 - C H 3 , 1 20

3 0.

S an J oao d os C aldereiros 1 941 - A rquivo d e B aja 1 955, 6 5 a nd 1 62

Io mit t he h oard o f 1R oman 2 I berian d enarii o f S oto I ruz, R RCH 1 85.

3 9

H oards o f I berian d enarii G roup A 1

I ltirta(salirban)

2

G roup B 3

1 73

I kalesken 2

5

6

7

8

1 4 9

K ese

4

2

A usesken

4 5 1

9

1 0

1 5 5

+ 140

1

8

1

2

3

S esars

6 0

S ekaisa

1

B askunes

3

1

K onterbia

1

2

B olskan

1

3

1 00

2 4

A reikoratikos

2

A rsaos T uriasu

2 33

1 + 20

1 1 6

1

2

1

1

1

2

1

S ekobirikes

2

1

2

5 2

4 00

7 00

1

B elikiom

9

1= L erida ( 3 I ltirta,

1 70 I ltirtasalirban) ;

3

t he c orresponding b ronze

i ssue o f S esars o ccurs a t N umantia ( G .K . J enkins, A NSMN 1 958 ,

5 9 ) = 3 1

o n M ap 2= A rcas = 3 2 o n M ap 3= 4=

F uentes d e E bro = 3 3 o n M ap C ordoba ( 1 I ltirtasalirban ) ;

a lso 1 d rachm o f S aguntum ;

b ronze i ssue o f K ese o ccurs a t N umantia , h oard

t he s ubsequent

d enarii o f K ese i n t he S egaro

5= G ranada = 3 4 o n M ap 6= A zuel = 3 5 o n M ap ;

t he R oman d enarii i n t he h oard a re d escribed b y J .

Z obel y Z angroniz, MNE 4 , 2 77, a s a l ittle l ater t han t hose i n t he C azlona h oard ,

s o a re l ate s econd c entury

7= M ogon = 3 6 o n M ap

4 0

8=

S alvacenete ( 1 I ltirta); a lso 2 d rachms o f S aguntum

9= A zuara 2 1 0 =C alatayud ( Aluenda) = 3 7 o n M ap

L erida ( sometimes k nown a s H ostalrich o r T arrasa) - P .P . R ipollgs A legre , L a c irculacion m onetaria e n l a T arraconense M editerranea ( Valencia , 1 982), 3 6-A reas - L . V illaronga, L os d enarios c on l eyenda i calgusken ( Barcelona, 1 962) , 2 1; a f urther s mall p arcel o f 7 p ieces o f I kalesken , a pparently , i s p ublished i n G ac . N um . 7 4-5 ( 1984) , 1 05 ; t he d enarius o f C . A rnius M ust b e e xtraneous h oards.

s ince d enarii

o f

I kalesken a re

C ordoba - G .K . J enkins , A NSMN 8 ,

1 958 ,

G ranada - G .K .

1 958,

J enkins,

N H 7 ,

5 7 ; 1 35,

n ever

p resent

i n

R RCH 1 84 ; N C 1 969 ,

f irst

c entury

7 9

s uggesting t hat 2 d enarii

o f

B olskan , 1o f A reikoratikos a nd t he 2 o f S ekobirikes a re l ater t han t he r est o f t he h oard A zuel - R addatz , 1 99 ; t he p ieces o f I kalSeken a re f rom V illa d el R io a nd f rom p art o f t he s ame h oard M ogon - R addatz, 2 27 S alvacanete

R RCH 2 05; R addatz, 2 44;

R ev . A rch . B ibl. M i ls. 7 9,

1 976,

3 89

A zuara 2 - R RCH 2 04 C alatayud - F . M ateu y L lopis, N H 1 , 1 952, 2 2Off., n o. 5 03

I n t he B aetis ( Guadalquivir) v alley R oman a nd I berian d enarii a re o f c ourse b oth p resent , b oth i mported f rom e lsewhere . B ut i f w e l ook a t S pain n orth-east o f t he S ucro ( Jucar ) r iver , i t i s a t o nce a pparent t hat R oman d enarii c irculated i n t he c oastal s trip b etween B arcino a nd E mporiae, w hereas h oards c omposed e xclusively o r a lmost e xclusively o f I berian d enarii a re f ound i nland , i n t he m iddle E bro v alley ( 23 ,31,33 a nd 3 7) o r t he h eadwaters o f t he S ucro a nd T un s ( Guadalariar ) ( 24 a nd 3 2) . I mperfectly k nown h oards w hich m ay b elong t o t he s econd c entury d o n ot c ontradict

t he

p attern :

L os

H uesca ( middle E bro v alley ) ,

V illares

( Baetis

v alley ) ,

B urgo ,

L as

C asetas,

L arrabezua ( beyond t he u pper E bro v alley ) .2

T he S ucro a nd T un s b asins a nd t he m iddle E bro v alley w ere f irmly i n R oman h ands i n t he w ars o f t he 1 50s a nd 1 30s B C : p lausible a reas f or t he l evying o f t axation i n I berian d enarii b y t he R omans a nd t heir u se f or t he p ayment o f R aman s oldiers o perating f rom b illets i n t he a rea. 3

N OTES 1 .

Ih ere s lightly c orrect a nd s upplement C MRR ,

a ppendices

d ifferent p atterns a re d iscussed a bove, b y K napp.

4 1

2 9-30 .

T hese

S ICILY M .H . C rawford O ne w ould s uppose a p riori t hat t he c oinage o f S icily u nder R oman r ule w ould b e r elatively s traightforward . T he a rea i nvolved i s s mall , i t r apidly b ecame a z one o f d enarius c irculation , l ike I taly , a nd p roduction o f c oinage d id n ot l ast b eyond t he r eign o f T iberius . Y et i n f act t he p icture i s e xtraordinarily c omplex a nd a lso e xtremely h ard t o w ork o ut. L et

me

b egin

w ith

t he

c irculation

o f

s ilver .

T he

l arge-scale

c irculation o f R oman c oinage i n S icily , w hich w as o ne o f t he f actors w hich m ade

p ossible

a s ymbiosis

o f

R oman

a nd

n ative

s ystems

o f

r eckoning

a nd

c oins , w as i n ac ertain s ense t he r esult o f a n a ccident . F or R oman c oinage c ontinued t o f low t o S icily i n s ubstantial q uantities a fter t he e nd o f t he S econd P unic W ar , i n c lear c ontrast t o w hat h appened i n S pain . N o d oubt t his w as i n p art t he r esult o f t he p resence o f R omans a nd I talians a s m en o f b usiness f rom s oon a fter t he f all o f S yracuse .' B ut t he p rincipal c ause s urely l ies i n t he f act t hat t he R omans n ot o nly t ook o ver t he t ithe s ystem f rom H ieron I I , b ut a lso b y b uying a s econd t ithe f ollowed h is p ractice o f s hipping g rain o ut o f t he i sland i n e xchange f or s ilver .2 T he d ifference i s t hat u nder R oman r ule t he s ilver w hich a rrived w as n ot m elted d own t o m ake n ew c oinage , b ut c irculated a s d enarii . T hus S icily r apidly b ecame a z one o f d enarius c irculation ,

b ut a z one w here n ative s ystems o f r eckoning

s urvived. T he b ronze c oinage o f R oman S icily - t here i s n o s ilver - w ould r equire a m onograph t o d o j ustice t o i ts v olume a nd d iversity . A part f rom t he i ssues w hich

o f

t he c ities ,

w ere

c ertainly

t here a re a lso t he c oins k nown a s Tomano-Sicilian% s truck

b y

t he

R oman

a uthorities

i n

w estern

S icily .

D espite t he m onograph b y M . B ahrfeldt ,3 t heir c hronology r emains f or t he m ost p art u ncertain . W hat I s hould l ike t o d o h ere i s t o r aise a n umber o f g eneral i ssues a nd t hen t ake o ne s mall a rea o f e astern S icily a nd s how t he s ort o f e vidence w hich i s a vailable a nd t he n ature o f t he r esults w hich a re p ossible. I f o ne b egins w ith S yracuse ,

t here i s n o r eal d oubt w hich i ssues f ollow

t he f all o f S yracuse i n 2 12 B C , s ince t he h oard e vidence w hich i dentifies t he i ss, v es s truck d own t o t hat p oint i s v ery g ood . T here a re f our l ater g roups: 1 )

R andom d ie-axis, l egend i n l ine(s), o pen o mega

2 )

F ixed d ie-axis, l egend i n o pen l ine(s), o pen o mega

3 )

F ixed d ie-ax is, l egend a round, o pen o mega

4 )

F ixed d ie-axis,

l egend a round, c losed o mega

T here a re n o p articular g rounds f or s upposing t hat t here w as a l ong i nterval i n p roduction a fter t he f all o f S yracuse a nd t here a re o ver t wenty i ssues i n a ll . I f o ne w ished, o ne c ould s uppose t hat c oinage a t S yracuse w as r elatively c ontinuous b etween 2 12 a nd A ugustus ( the l atest i ssues o ccur i n t he M egara H yblaea h oard , o n w hich s ee b elow) .

4 3

I f o ne t urns a way f rom S yracuse ,

t he p attern i s v ery d ifferent .

D own

t o 2 12/211, t he e vidence i s n ot t oo b ad, t hough n ot a s g ood a s f or S yracuse . T he h oards d o g ive s ome i ndication o f t he m aterial i n c irculation when t he R omans r ecovered S icily ( Table 1 w ith CMRR , 1 10-111) . A fter 2 12/211 t hey p rovide a lmost n o h elp a t a ll . I t i s n ot t hat h oards , e ven b ronze h oards, a re e ntirely l acking . B ut w hat t hey a ppear t o s uggest i n t he m iddle o f t he s econd c entury B C i s t he c omplete R omanisation o f t he c irculating m edium o f S icily - R oman s ilver a nd R oman a sses a nd a f ew l arge b ronzes o f t he p eriod o f t he S econd P unic W ar s till f loating a round ( Table 2 ).

T ABLE 1 :

T ripi - R RCH 5 5 a nd 6 6;

S econd P unic W ar h oards i n S icily

I CCH

p robably f orlorn t o a rgue a s d oes

2 237-8 ; In o l onger t hink , w ith P . M archetti, 4 91, t hat w e a re

P . M archetti, 4 89, c ompare R BN 1 971, 8 8, n .20, t ht w e a re d ealing w ith t wo h oards

d ealing w ith t wo h oards

S an M arco I GCH 2 236; e arlier p ieces i nclude K AINON ( 1), A bacaenum ( 1)

A idone 1 908 - R RCH 6 8 ; A idone 1 909 I GCH 2 239; i t s eems t o m e t hat w e a re d ealing w ith o ne h oard ; t he H ISPANORVM p iece i s c learly o n g rounds o f p atination e xtraneous , c ontra G . M anganaro, A rchivo S torico p er l a S icilia O rientale 1 969 , 2 91, n .22 ; t he T auromenium p iece l ike wise, contra P . M archetti , 4 89 , w hose a ccount o f

G rammichele - l ist b ased o n m y o wn i nspection a nd t hat o f T .V . B uttrey Iv iew w ith g rave s cepticism t he

t he i ssues o f t he M amertini a nd R hegium s upplements t hat i n R RCH 6 8; t he l atest S yracusan i ssue,

r eport i n t he s ale c atalogue , B onhams 4 /12/1980, p . 1 9, t hat a n a nonymous v ictoriatus ( RRC,

h owever , i s o f t he S yracusan

n o.44/1), a n a nonymous d enarius ( RRC, n o . 7 5/1c), a d enarius o f C . V arro a nd a d enarius o f C .A (i)lius w ere f ound w ith a s ilver i ssue o f H ieran I I b eneath t he d estruction l evel o f 2 11 a t M organtina ; n o p ieces l ater t han t he v ery f irst m oments o f t he d enarius s ystem h ave t urned u p i n t he o fficial e xcavations o f M organtina.

d emocracy M andicini - R RCH 7 1;

A IIN 1 962-4 ,

2 29, P . M archetti, 4 90, w hose a ccount c orrects t hat i n R RCH 7 1 M ontagna d i M arzo - R RCH 9 9 ; g iven t he l oss o f m ost o f

t he

h oard d uring t he w ar i t i s

Y et, a s w e h ave s een, b etween m ints

2 12/211

w hich h ave

a nd

t here I s a l ot o f b ronze c oinage o f S yracuse

A ugustus .

t o b e

p laced

A nd

t here a re a n umber o f

s omewhere

a fter 2 12/211 .

i ssues o f o ther O ne

c ould e asily

o bject t o t he c onc lusion w hich T able 2 a ppears t o s uggest, b y o bserving t hat t he h oards s imply f ail t o r epresent f ractional b ronze c oinage . P ursuing t his l ine o f a rgument , o ne c ou ld s uggest t hat w e o we t o r egular e xcavation k nowledge o f t he o ne h oard w hich r eveals a t t he v ery e nd o f t he R epublic s ome d iversity o f c irculation o f s mall b ronze c oins . Ir efer t o t he M egara H yblaea h oard

( Table

2 ) .

4 4

T ABLE 2 :

C atania

S econd a nd f irst c entury b ronze h oards i n S icily

M organtina

A sses

A vola

B iancavilla

A sses

A sses

D enarii

t o 1 60s B C

t o 1 60s B C

V ictoriatus

S yracuse t o H ieron I I

H ieron I I

A sses t o 1 50s B C H ieron I I

M amertini

M amertini

C enturipae R hegium

C enturipae R hegium

L eontini M amertini

M amertini

R hegium C arthage

C atania - I GCH 2 244 M organtina - i nformation H ISPANORVM i ssue)

f rom

R .

R oss

H olloway

( sealed

d eposit

i ncluding

A vola - R RCH 1 22; a lso 1 p iece o f P tolemy I I B iancavilla - R RCH 1 27 Ih ave e xcluded t he r e-deposited v otive o fferings f rom M organtina, I GCH 2 248

B isacquino

M egara

C ampobello

S icily

A sses

A sses

A sses

P anormus

P anormus S yracuse

P anormus

L . N aevius

C . C assius

S urdinus

C eler

S yracuse C atana E nna a s m unicipium

B iascquino - I GCH 2 251;

A IIN 2 3-4,

1 976-7, 3 04; t he w ear o n t he a sses

s hows t he h oard t o b e l ate s econd o r e arly f irst c entury M egara H yblaea

1 949 - I GCH 2 252 ;

G .K . J enkins,

T he C oinage o f G ela ( Berlin ,

1 970), 1 17, n . 1 3 R hegium: H ead o f A pollo r ./Lyre R EG ( in m onogram) I NON C atana: G abriel, n os. 9 14 S yracuse: G abrici, p l. 9 ,

1 5 ( 23) ;

p l. 9 ,

2 1

( 1) ;

p l. 9 ,

1 3 ( 8) ;

S NG

( Cop.) 9 01-2 ( 11) E nna: G abriel, n o.

1 2

C ampobello - I GCH 2 253 S icily - A IIN 3 , 1 956, 2 10 ; a lso 1 p iece o f M amertini,

W here d oes

t he t ruth l ie?

1p iece o f E busus

W as t here a h iatus i n c irculation b etween

t he S econd P unic W ar a nd t he L ate R epublic?

4 5

O r n ot?

I s hould l ike t o t ake o ne a rea,

n ot l east b ecause i t i s c lear t hat

c irculation o f b ronze c oinage i n R oman S icily w as

f airly l ocalised .

T he

e vidence i s q uite d ifferent f or d ifferent a reas a nd i t i s l ikely t hat t he p attern o f p roduction w as q uite d ifferent t oo . T he a rea I s hould l ike t o c onsider i s e astern S icily , s outh o f M ount E tna , w hich i s b asically a s ingle r iver s ystem d raining e ast i nto t he s ea. A part f rom b rief g lances a t S yracuse , C enturipae, M enae, C atana a nd L eontini. T he l ate i ssues o f A etna ,

Is hould l ike t o d eal w ith A etna ,

C enturipae a nd M enae c onsist o f f undamentally

s imilar a nd i nternally h omogeneous g roups, o ne t o e ach m int: A etna

3u nciae + 2 u nciae ( Gabrici, 2 18)

C enturipae 1 0 u nciae + 6 u nciae + 3 u nciae + 12 u nciae + a n u ncertain d enomination w ith X I t o which I s hall r eturn ( Gabrici, 4 -33) 5 M enae

5u nciae

+ 4u nciae + 3 u nciae + 2u nciae ( Gabrici, 1 -22).

T he i ssues o f M enae a re r emarkable f or t he d iversity o f t heir m arks o f v alue .

E o r

f or f ive , f our d ots , f our s trokes o r

f or f our .

B ut I

t hink t hat t he e ntire c oinage w as p roduced i n a r elatively r estricted p eriod ; t hat t he p eriod w as t he S econd P unic W ar e merges f rom t he p resence o f s pecimens o f o ne i ssue G ranmichele h oards ( Table 1 ). T he

i n g ood

c ondition

i n

i ssues o f C enturipae c an a lso b e a ssigned ,

P unic W ar .

t he

A idone

I t hink ,

1 909

a nd

t o t he S econd

T here a re v ery w orn s pecimens o f t he l argest d enomination i n

t he A vola a nd B iancavilla h oards ( Table 2 ) ; a nd s ome o f t he o bverses o f t his d enomination s how a h ead o f Z eus w hich i s v ery s imilar t o t he H ead o f S aturn o n s ome R oman s emisses w ith c orn-ear .6 Ih ave e ven w ondered w hether t his i ssue w as p roduced a t C enturipae . A s f ar a s A etna i s c oncerned , t o m e ,

t here i s n o h oard o r f ind e vidence k nown

b ut o n t he a dmittedly f allible g rounds o f s tyle a nd t he r ather l ess

f allible g rounds

o f

d enominational

s tructure ,

I s hould a ssign t he i ssues

a lso t o t he S econd P unic W ar. N one o f

t hese m ints

e ver s truck a gain ,

a part

f rom a c urious g roup o f

o bjects p roduced a t C enturipae . T he t ypes a re H ead o f A pollo/Tree , l egend i s s ometimes i n G reek a nd s ometimes i n L atin ( Gabrici , 3 4-40) . r esemblance m ost o bvious

t o m e i s t o t he l ate q uadrantes

t he T he

o f P aestum .

w onder i n t he c ase o f C enturipae i f w e a re d ealing w ith a r eal p art o f t he m onetary s ystem a t a ll . L et u s t urn t o C atana a nd L eontini. I n t he c ase o f C atana a lso m uch m aterial c an b e a ssigned t o t he S econd P unic W ar. 1 )

o f t wo a ssociated i ssues w ith B usts o f S erapis + I sis/Two c orn-ears

a nd H ead o f S ilenus/Bunch o f g rapes ( Gabrici, 5 1-3) ,

4 6

t he f irst t urns u p i n a

d eposit f rom N ocera U mbra , A pp ., n o . I X) .

u p

2 ) i n

w hich c loses

d uring

t he S econd P unic W ar ( see

o f t hose i ssues w ith i n , X II a nd I I ( Gabrici , 4 1-50) , t he l ast t urns t he G rammichele h oard a lready mentioned . I n g eneral, t he

d enominational s tructure r ecalls t he c oinage o f C enturipae a nd t here i s i n p articular o ne v ery c lose r esemblance , b etween t he p ieces w ith X II h ere a nd t he p iece w ith X I a t C enturipae . I n t hink t hat X = 1 /2 a nd t hat w e h ave h ere a p iece o f 2 1 /2 u nciae , a nd a t C enturipae a p iece o f 1 1 /2 u nciae . I n a ny c ase, t here i s n ot, w ithin t he c oinage o f C atana, a g reat q uantity t o a ssign t o t he p eriod 2 00-50 . T here a re o f c ourse t wo v ery l arge g roups w ith d ifferent m onograms ( Gabrici , 4 -22) ; o ne o f t hese t urns u p i n t he Megara H yblaea h oard, a nd b oth b elong t o t he v ery e nd o f t he R epublic o r t he r eign o f A ugustus. T hat l eaves: 1 )

C atanaean b rother/Catanaean b rother ( Gabrici, 3 2-8)

2 )

B usts o f S erapis + I sis/Apollo ( Gabrici, 3 9-40)

3 )

R iver g od/Caps o f D ioscuri ( Gabrici, 2 3-6)

4 )

D ionysus/Catanaean b rothers ( Gabrici, 2 7-31)

F rankly ,

Ih ave n o i dea where t o d ate t hese i ssues .

I w ould n ot

e xclude t he p ossibility t hat o ne o r m ore m ay b elong t o t he f irst h alf o f t he s econd c entury B C ; b ut I s ee n o r eason f or b elieving t his. A t a ny r ate i n t he c ase o f L eontini, t here a re c lear g rounds f or b elieving t hat t he r esumption o f c oinage b elongs a fter t he m iddle o f t he s econd c entury B C. T he l ate b ronze i ssues o f L eontini a re, f irst: 1 )

D emeter/Sheaf o f c orn ( Gabrici, 9 12)

2 )

A pollo/Lion w alking ( Gabrici,

3 )

A pollo/Two f ishes ( Gabriel, 1 718).

1 5)

F or t his g roup t here i s i n p rinciple a bundant a rchaeological d ating e vidence , i n t he s hape o f t he g reat c emetery e xcavated b y G . R izza . T he p roblem i s h ow t o i nterpret t he e vidence ( App., n o. V I). T here i s n o d ispute t hat f our s pecimens o f t his g roup t urned u p i n t he l atest l evel o f t he c emetery , e ither i n g raves o r i n t he s oil s urrounding t hem .

R izza o riginally

c entury B C ,

d ated

t his

l evel

o f

t he

c emetery

t o

t he

s econd

s ince h e o bserved i n G abrici t hat t he c oins w hich h e f ound w ere

d ated g enerically t o t he R oman p eriod .

H e w as b riskly p icked u p b y

O rlandini w ho m ade t hree p oints: 1 )

t hat t he s outhern e nd o f L eontini w as a bandoned i n t he R oman p eriod

a nd t hat t herefore t he n ecropolis w as p robably a lso a bandoned ;

4 7

2 ) B utera ;

t hat t he material i s s imilar t o t hird c entury B C material f rom

3 ) t hat t he m aterial i s u nlikely t o b e s eparated b y o ver a c entury f rom f ourth c entury B C m aterial i n t he l owest l evel o f t he n ecropolis. T he p remise o f t he f irst a rgument i s o nly p artly t rue , s ince t he e nd o f t he n ecropolis w as m arked ( presumably a fter a g ap ) b y t he c onstruction o ver i t o f a b uilding o f u ncertain f unction i n t he l ate s econd c entury B C , w hich c learly i ndicates s ome f orm o f o ccupation i n t he a rea . I n a ny c ase t he a rgument i s w eak , s ince h abit m ay w ell e nsure c ontinuing u se o f an ecropolis f or a g eneration e ven a fter t he h abitation h as s hifted. T he s econd a nd t hird a rguments m ay b e c onsidered t ogether .

T he c rucial

g rave i s G rave 4 5 , w hich c ontains a p ot l id s een b y O rlandini a s b eing c lose t o a f ourth c entury p ot l id . B ut i t a lso c ontains a n A res/Nike b ronze o f S yracuse ( Gabrici , 5 85-94) , w hich f alls a bout h alf-way i n t he s equence o f i ssues which a re l ater t han 2 12 B C . U nless w e a re t o s uppose m assive i ssues o f S yracuse i n t he i mmediate a ftermath o f t he R oman c onquest , w e a re s omewhere i n t he m iddle o f t he s econd c entury . I n m y v iew i t i s a t t hat p oint t hat t he H ellenistic c oinage o f L eontini b egins. T here a re n ext t wo g roups o f i ssues , o ne w ith L EONT i n m onogram , a nother w ith W arrior r everse a nd Two c orn-ears r everse, t he s econd r egularly o verstruck o n t he f irst ( Gabrici , 1 4 , 1 3 , n ot l isted) . T hereafter, t he i ssues w hich r emain b elong t o t he v ery e nd o f t he R epublic a nd I s hall r eturn t o t hem i n am oment. A t

t his

p oint,

s peculation

t akes

o ver .

I h ave

s uggested

b riefly

i n

C MRR t hat t he R omans e ncouraged t he r evival o f l ocal c oinage i n S icily a fter t he F irst S lave W ar, a nd t his model m ight a ccommodate b oth C atana a nd L eontini7 I t m ight e qually b e t hat s ome o f t he i ssues w ere s truck d uring t hat w ar , t hough i f t his i s s o o ther c onsiderations e nsured t he c ontinuation o f c oinage . I t m ight a lso b e t hat s ome o ther r easons a pplied o r t hat t here w as n o p articular p attern a t a ll . I n a ny c ase ,

a lthough t here a re n o m arks o f v alue ,

t he i ssues w hich I

w ould a ssign t o t he l ate s econd c entury a re G reek i n c haracter . W hat i s c lear i s t hat a t ac ertain p oint t he R omans o rganised o r a llowed a m onetary s ystem

f or S icily w hich i n s ome w ays

r elated

l ocally p roduced

b ronze t o R oman s ilver a nd b ronze. T he s ystem w as c ertainly i n e xistence b y t he t ime o f t he V errines o f C icero, where w e r ead ( II i n V err . 3 , 1 81) ' For h ow c an t here b e a n a gio w hen e veryone u ses t he s ame k ind o f c oins? ' S ince l ocal b ronzes w ere p roduced i n S icily a t l east d own t o t he t ime o f A ugustus ' the s ame k ind o f c oins ' m ust

r efer t o t he u nitary n ature o f t he m onetary s ystem a nd n ot t o

t he o rigins o f t he c oins t hemselves . T he R oman c haracter o f t he m onetary s ystem o f S icily e merges f rom t he f act t hat i n t he V errines C icero a lways c alculated i n s estertii ( compar t _ Q uintilian v i, 3 , 8 0 , f or t he v ictoriatus = q uinarius u sed a s a u nit o f r eckoning u nder A ugustus) . B ut t he i nscribed a ccounts f rom T auromenium , w hich a re c ertainly l ater t han t he V errines, r eckon i n

t alents ,

n omoi,

h eminoma ,

t etralitra a nd l itrai .8

I t i s c lear

t hat t his s ystem m ust h ave b een c ompatible w ith t he s estertius a s au nit o f r eckoning , p erhaps w ith a t etralitron a s t he e quivalent o f a s estertius a nd

4 8

al itra a s t he e quivalent o f a n a s . B y t he t ime w e g et t o t he e nd o f t he R epublic , Ia m f airly s ure ,

t he p icture i s d ifferent .

t hough I s ee n o w ay o f p roving t his ,

t hat t he b ronzes o f

C atana a nd S yracuse i n t he M egara H yblaea h oard a re a sses a nd t hat t he l ast i ssues o f L eontini, w ith D emeter a nd L ion r ampant r everses a re a s a nd q uadrans ( Gabrici , 6 -8 , 1 6) . I h ave a lready m entioned t he q uadrantes o r p seudo-quadrantes o f C enturipae . O ne l ast w ord . I f t he e nd o f t he R epublic a nd t he r eign s aw t he f inal R omanisation o f t he m onetary s ystem o f S icily , a lso p rovides e vidence f or t he d ecline o f t he i nterior, a t e astern S icily . I t w ill n ot h ave e scaped n otice t hat i n t he b een

d iscussing,

R epublic ,

a ll

t he m ints w ith

C atana , L eontini ,

f unctional

c oinages

o f A ugustus t he c oinage a ny r ate i n a rea I h ave i n t he

S yracuse , w ere c oastal c ities .

0

• a u romen ium

a tana i n i Mega ra H yb laea S y racuse

4 9

l ate

A ppendix T his

c heck-list

o f

f inds

o f

S icilian b ronze

c oins

i n h oards a nd

a rchaeological c ontexts o f t he H ellenistic p eriod i s p rovisional a nd i s i ntended t o s erve a s a b asis f or f urther s tudy . I t d oes n ot i nclude t he h oards w hich f eature i n T ables 1 -2 o r t he s ealed d eposits f rom M organtina w hich a re t o b e p ublished b y R . R oss H olloway.

H OARDS 1 .

C ibali n ot

1 894 .

4 ,

A IIN

1 962-4 ,

a s S tudi d i N um .

2 21

1 ,

2 .

C ibali 1 907.

3 .

M egara H yblaea 1 953-7 ( ?).

4 .

M onte C ane 1 888.

5 .

P alermo 1 980.

= I GCH 2 255

( 18

b ronzes

o f

S yracuse,

6 4) .

A IIN 1 962-4, 2 23 = I GCH 2 254. M EFR 1 958 , 5 01.

A IIN 1 956, 2 10. R . C alciati, C orpus N ummorum S iculorum I ( 1983), 3 66-8.

A RCHAEOLOGICAL C ONTEXTS I .

B utera .

R ass . M ed . 7 ( 1954),

1 956 ,

F ast . A rch . V I ,

2 ;

I I.

E rice.

I II .

F ontana C alda .

I V .

G ela . 1 53 ,

1 1; A rch . A nz .

1 954,

6 30 ; R ev . A rch .

6 30 .

N Sc 1 971, 6 40. A IIN 1 955, 2 13.

A IIN 1 955, e sp .

2 07,

w ith A rch . C lass . 1 957, p l . 7 7;

i bid . 4 4,

1 70-1 .

V .

H eraclea M inoa.

V I.

L eontini .

A IIN 1 958-9, 2 96.

G . R izza ,

N Sc

1 955 ,

2 89 ;

P . O rlandini ,

A rch . C lass .

1 956 ,

2 10 ; G . R izza , B d 'A 4 2 , ( 1957) , 6 3 ; A rch . C lass . 1 959 , 7 8 ; P . O rlandini , A rch . C lass . 1 960 , 1 08 ; F . C oarelli , i n S ocietä R omana ( 1981), I , 6 -7 . V II.

L ilybaeum .

N Sc 1 971, 6 62.

V III.

Monte A dranone . e xcavations d enarius).

K okalos 1 972-3, 2 41; 1 976-7, 4 51 ( note t hat t he

p rovide n o

e vidence

I X .

N ocera U mbra.

N Sc 1 891, 3 08 .

X .

P izzo

A tti A cc .

9 9 , X I.

C annita .

. . P alermo S er .

a t 2 83-4 .

R hegium .

f or a h igh d ate

N Sc 1 957, 3 94.

5 0

4 ,

1 3 ,

2 ,

f or t he R oman

3 ( 1953) ,

2 65-

X II.

R ome.

N Sc 1 953,

X III.

S yracuse.

X IV .

S yracuse.

X V .

T roina.

X VI.

T usa .

1 48.

N Sc 1 938, 2 96. N Sc 1 954, 3 63 a nd 3 74. N Sc 1 961, 3 50, 3 61, 3 86 .

N Sc 1 959, 2 93;

1 961, 2 66.

N OTES 1 .

A .

F raschetti ,

i n S ocietä R omana ( 1981) I ,

5 1,

' Romani e I talici i n

S icilia'. 2 .

I n t he p eriod a fter t he S econd P unic W ar c overed b y L ivy ,

t he R omans

b ought a s econd t ithe i n 1 91, 1 90 a nd 1 89, a nd a gain i n 1 71. D enarii p erhaps a lso a rrived i n S icily i n r eturn f or s laves, w hose e xport f rom S icily i s e nvisaged i n t he l ex c ensoria p ortus a nd c ase l aw a rising t herefrom , D . 5 0 , 1 9 , 2 03 . W ool w as a lso p roduced i n S icily , S trabo v i, 2 , 7( 273), a nd p erhaps s erved t o c lothe R oman a rmies, I I i n V err . 2 , 5 . 3 . 4 .

M . B ahrfeldt, S NR 1 904, 3 31, I s hould

l ike

t o

' Die r ömisch-sizilischen M ünzen '.

t hank A ndrew B urnett

f or

s haring

h is

c onclusions

w ith m e. 5 .

T he

s eries

c ronologia

i s

r educed

t o d isarray b y M .

C accamo C altabiano ,

d elle s erie H ispanorum l, Q T 1 985,

6 .

C rawford, C MRR , F ig. 3 7.

7 .

C rawford, C MRR , 15.

8 .

ppendix L . C rawford, C MRR, A

5 1

1 59, a t 1 64.

' Sulla

M ACEDONIA I . T ouratsoglou

T he d efeat o f P erseus a t P ydna ( 168 B C) w as f atal n ot o nly t o t he A ntigonids b ut a lso t o t he M acedonian s tate i tself .

N evertheless , R ome d id

n ot i mmediately p roceed t o a nnex c onquered M acedonia b y t ransforming i t i nto a r egular p rovince , e ither b ecause s he l acked t he m eans t o k eep s o v ast a c ountry i n s ubjection , o r b ecause s he w ished t o d isguise h er e xpansionist a ims . T he d efeated k ingdom , s tripped o f a ll i ts f oreign p ossessions , w as d ivided i nto f our d epartments ( merides) ; l and c ould n ot b e s old a cross t he b oundaries a nd m arriages b etween i nhabitants o f d ifferent d istricts w ere n ot a llowed . E very m eris w as o rganised a s a n a dministrative u nit w ith a c apital ( Amphipolis , T hessaloniki , P ella a nd P elagonia ) . N o a ttempt w as m ade t o e xploit t he r esources o f t he c ountry ; t he g old a nd s ilver m ines w ere c losed, a nd t ribute, n ow p ayable t o R ome, w as h alved. D uring t he f ollowing p eriod

i nternal t roubles a re o ften m entioned ,

d ue

e ither t o i ncreasing a nti-Roman f eelings o r t o c onflicts b etween p rivileged c lasses a nd t he m asses. T he a ttempt o f A ndriscos i n 1 50148 B C t o r estore t he m onarchy p rovoked n ew m ilitary i ntervention b y R ome . T he s uppression o f t he p retender 's r evolt b rought t he d ecisive e nd t o a ny d ynastic m ovement ; t he S enate a t l ast r ealised t hat a nnexation w as u navoidable . T he p eriod w hich e xtends f rom 1 48 B C t o t he A ugustan e ra i s o ne o f t he m ost d ifficult M acedonia e xperienced . A lthough i t w as u p t o t he R oman g overnors t o d efend t he p rovince, a ll t he d estruction a nd p illage o f b arbarian i nvasions w as n ot w ithout e ffect o n M acedonia i tself . A nd , a s w ell a s t he b arbarians f rom t he n orth d uring t he s econd h alf o f t he s econd a nd t he f irst h alf o f t he f irst c enturies , t he t roops o f M ithradates V I a lso i nvaded t he c ountry i n 8 7 B C , d evastating t he p rovince . F inally , t he t wo c ivil w ars , a ccomplices

f irst C aesar a gainst P ompey ( 49-48 B C ) a nd t hen B rutus a nd h is a gainst M ark A ntony a nd O ctavian ( 44-42 B C) , t ook p lace , i n

t heir f inal p hases ,

i n n orthern G reece .'

S ILVER V arious i ssues o f s ilver w ere m inted i n M acedonia i n t he l ate s econd a nd e arly f irst c entury B C .

T he c hrnnology o f t hese i s v ery c ontroversial ,

t he

l atest s cheme, o f C rawford, 2 i s a s f ollows: 1 .

A fter t he c reation o f t he f our m erides: a ) t etradrachms w ith Z eus/Artemis T auropolos ( first m eris); b ) t etradrachms

w ith A rtemis

s econd m erides); c ) t etradrachms

o n s hield/club

i n o ak

3

w reath

( first

a nd

4

w ith M gcedon ian s hield w ith w hirling s tar/club i n o ak

w reath ( Amphaxitis).

5 3

2 .

F rom t he t ime o f S ulla o nwards: a ) t etradrachms w ith M acedonian s hield/club i n o ak w reath M AKEDONON ;

6

b ) t etradrachms w ith M acedonian s hield/club i n o ak w reath L EG M AKEDONON ;7 c -d) t etradrachms w ith A lex rder w reath ( Aesillas, S uura).

t he G reat/club ,

f iscus,

a nd

s ella

i n

O f t hese t he l ast ( 2 c -d) i s a v ery l arge i ssue , w hose c hronology h as b een m uch d ebated i n r ecent y ears . I t s hould b e d ated t o t he y ears a fter 9 4 B C , a nd c irculated u ntil a nd e ven l ater t han 6 5 B C .9 I ts p urpose w as 0 p resumably t o c over , d uring a p eriod o f s hortages i n t he R oman t reasury ,' t he e xpenditure r equired f or t he e xpulsion o f t he T hracian t ribes a nd o f t he t roops

o f

M ithradates

V I .

T hey

w ere

p erhaps

i ssued

a t

m ints

i n

P ella ,

T hessaloniki a nd A mphipolis . A s w ell a s t he i ssues p roduced i n M acedonia i tself ,

R oman d enarii a lso

p layed a n i ncreasingly i mportant p art i n t he s ilver c urrency o f t he a rea . A s tudy o f h oards s hows t hat t he " invasion" o f Macedonia b y t he R oman d enarius s hould b e d ated t o t he f irst p art o f t he f irst c entury B C , i n c onnection w ith t he m ovements o f t he R oman l egions t o r epel t he t hreats f rom T hrace , a nd p artly f rom M ithradates 's a rmies . T his c onclusion i s s upported b y t he f act t hat d enarii a re o ften f ound t ogether w ith t etradrachms o f A esillas i n h oards. T he f ollowing h oards a re r elevant: 1 .

K erassia ,

T hessalomiki ,

1 960 ,

d eposited a fter 7 6 B C ;

I GCH 6 53

= R RCH

2 83. 2 .

T hessalomiki a rea,

3 .

K avala,

4 .

M acedonia,

1 976, p erhaps d eposited i n 7 5 B C ; C H V ( 1979), 5 5.

1 963, d eposited 5 5-50 B C ;

I GCH 6 60 = R RCH 3 36.

1 980 ( ?), d eposited c . 5 4 B C ; C H V II ( 1985), 1 39.

T he t hree h oards o f u nmixed R aman c oinage f rom t his p eriod a re: 1 .

H oard f rom t he A ncient A gora o f T hessaloniki , d eposited a round 5 0 B C ; 2 21 _ 1 984,

1 39-145.

2 -3 H oards

f rom

M acedonia ,

a nd 3 5 B C ; C H I II ( 1977),

I n c ontrast,

e xact f ind-spot n ot k nown ,

d eposited i n 5 5 B C

1 27 a nd 1 31.

t he t ypical c oinage c irculating i n t he s econd h alf o f t he

s econd c entury B C i s m ainly A then ian N ew S tyle t etradrachms a nd o ccasionally T hasian t etradrachms a s s hown b y t he h oards : V eroia ,

1 962 ( IGCH 4 79), M acedonia ( ?),

( IGCH 5 50).

1

5 4

T hessalonik i,

1 929 ( IGCH 4 78) ,

1 958 ( IGCH 4 82) a nd S erres,

1 913

B RONZE A s ummary

o f

t he c oin p roduction i n M acedon ia d uring t he p eriod f rom

1 48/7 o r 1 46 B C ( the d ate o f i ts c onversion t o a R oman p rovince 1 2 u ntil 3 12 7 B C c annot b e m ade w ithout f irst e xamining t he c oinage o f t he y ears o f t he r eign o f P hilip V a nd o f P erseus , a s w ell a s o f t he t wenty y ears o r s o f rom 1 68/7 t o 1 48/7 o r 1 46 p rotectorate o f R ome .

B C w hen t he c ountry w as, i n s ome r espects, a T his i nvestigation d oes n ot c oncern s o m uch t he

c oinage o f t he l ast t wo M acedonian k ings o r o f t he m erides 1 3 a s t hat o f t he M acedonian c ities , s ince t he t raditional c hronology o f t heir i ssues w ithin t he p eriod 1 8 7 /6 31 B C ( that o f H . G aebler)I 4 i s, a s w ell k nown , c onventional a nd , i n m any c ases , e rroneous . T he r evision o f t he c hronologies w hich h ave b een p roposed i n t he p ast, p articularly f or t he i ssues o f t he m ints o f T hessaloniki , A mphipolis a nd P ella c an b e m ade b y ( a ) t he e xamination o f a ll t he h oards a s ag roup ( table A ) , ( b ) s tudy o f o verstrikes ( table B ) a nd m onograms ( table C ) a nd ( c ) b y c omparing a nd c ontrasting t he t ypes w hich a re o ften u sed n ot o nly b y t hese m ints , b ut a lso - a nd t his c onstitutes t he m ain p oint o f i nterest f or t heir c lassification - b y t he r oyal i ssues o f t he A ntigonids a nd b y t hose i ssued i n t he n ame o f t he M acedonians a nd t he d istricts o f l ower M acedonia . F irst r esults f rom a p reliminary i nvestigation a re: T he m ajority o f t he i ssues ( always b ronze) o f t he t hree M acedonian c ities s hould b e p laced i n t he p eriod 1 87/6-168/7 B C .1 5 F irst m ost o f t he i ssues

A l s o

f rom t he t hree m ints - t hat i s , t hose w hich h ave i conographic p arallels w ith t he c oinage o f t he l ast A ntigonids ( both o f t he r oyal h ouse i tself a nd o f t he d istricts o r t he i ssues o f t he M acedonian n ation )1 6

-a re r epresented i n

9 0% o f t he h oards . 17 T hese h oards a re t o b e d ated t o t he t ime o f P erseus, a nd p robably t owards t he e nd o f h is r eign , s ince i ssues o f t he m erides ( i .e . 1 68/7148/7 B C ) a re u sually a bsent , w hereas i n s ome c ases i ssues o f e arly M acedonian k ings ( e .g . K assander , A ntigonos G onatas , e tc . ) , P hilip V a nd o f P erseus h imself a re p resent . S econdly , t hese s ame i ssues f rom t he s ame t hree m ints , a nd o nly t hese , h ave t he s ame s tyle a nd f abric, a nd, a s i s p roven b y t he h oards, w ere p roduced i n a n i nterrelated s equence .1 8 Moreover , t he s ame m onograms s ometimes o ccur n ot o nly o n t he v arious i ssues o f am int , b ut a lso o n r oyal i ssues a s w el1 .1 9 W hether t his o bservation a lso i ndicates t hat t he s ame m int w as r esponsible f or t he c ity , t he r oyal a nd t he d istrict c oinages , w ould , h owever r equire a s eparate s tudy . F inally , c oins w hich a re n ot r epresented i n t he h oards m entioned a bove -e xcept f or t hose w hich, a s w ill b e s hown, c ertainly b elong t o l ater p eriods - c an b e a ssigned t o t his e arly p hase o n t he b asis o f i conography a nd f abric .

B . D uring t he f ollowing t wo d ecades ( i .e . 1 68/7-148/7 o r 1 46 B C) w hen M acedonia w as d ivided i nto f our m erides , t he c oin p roduction o f t he t hree m ints , w hich w ere t he c apitals o f t hree o f t he f our m erides , s eems t o h ave b een r educed c onsiderably a nd r estricted t o t he b eginning o f t he p eriod . T his c onclusion i s s upported b y t he c onsideration t hat t hese i ssues a re f ew i n n umber a nd f ollow t ypologically a nd s tylistically s ome o f t he i ssues o f t he q uaestors C P ublilius a nd L F ulcinius , n amely t hose w ith t he h ead o f

5 5

t he g od ess R oma o n t he o bverse , w hich P . M acKay h as c orrectly d ated t o 1 681 66 B C . u T his a lso s hows t hat, i n t his p eriod t oo , t he t hree m ints a nd t he c entral g overnment f ollowed a c ommon c hoice o f d esign . T he a ssignment t o t hese t wo d ecades o f c ertain i ssues o f T hessaloniki a nd A mphipolis ,

w hich

r ecall

h ead o f J anus o n t he o bverse ,2 1

R oman c oinage

b y u sing

t he

b ifacial

i s , f or t he m oment, p roblematic .

b earded

T he h oard

e vidence s eems t o f avour a n e arlier d ate , i n t he f inal y ears o f P erseus, b ut t he s election o f t his ' Roman ' t ype m akes s uch a h ypothesis most i mplausible. 2 2 E qually p roblematic i s t he q uestion o f t he e xtent t o w hich d uring t his p eriod, a nd a lso i n t he f ollowing p eriod b eginning i n 1 48/7 o r 1 46, t he M acedonian m ints c ontinued t o i ssue c oins w ith s ome o f t he s ame t ypes a s i n t he p revious p eriod . T his e nigmatic c ategory i s r epresented b y c oins w ith p oorly e xecuted d esigns , v irtually b arbaric i mitations , w hich a re l ighter i n w eight , s maller i n s ize a nd c rudely s truck . T hey a re k nown f rom s tray f inds , m useum p ieces a nd f rom o n ly a s ingle h oard o f t he m iddle o f t he f irst c entury B C ( the P latania 1 969 h oard = I GCH 6 63) , w hich i s i tself c urious i n c omposition . C . I n t he p eriod 1 48/7 o r 1 46 - 3 2/1 B C ,

d uring w hich t he n ew p rovince w as

o verrun b y b arbarian h ordes a nd b ecame t he t heatre o f t he c ivil w ars , t he m ints o f T hessaloniki, A mphipolis a nd P ella s eem t o i ssue c oins o nly o ccasionally a nd f or s pecific e vents w hich a re r elated t o R oman a ctivities i n t he

e ast ,

r ather

t han t o

t hose o f t he c ities t hemselves .2 3

P recisely

f or t his r eason t hese i ssues a ppear o nly a t i solated p oints i n t ime a nd , i n c ontrast t o e arlier i ssues which w ere c ontrolled b y s tate o r l ocal a uthorities , t hey d o n ot b ear m onograms , a nd a re n ot c haracterised b y a c ommon s tyle . F rom

t he

l ater f irst c entury,

h owever,

e vents

i n M acedonia i tself

d irectly i nfluenced t he c oinage . D uring t he s tay o f P ompey i n T hessaloniki i n 4 8 B C , a f ew m onths b efore t he b attle a t P harsalus , t here m ust h ave b een p roduced t here a r elatively s mall i ssue w hich i s a c opy o f a d enarius f rom t he m int o f R ome o f 8 1 B C .2 4 T his i ssue c onstitutes t angible e vidence f or ah istorical e vent :2 5 a ccording t o D io , P ompey w as o bliged t o h old e lections f or t he n ew m agistrates o n R oman s oil , a nd t herefore d ecided t o s olve t he d ilemma b y p urchasing a p lot o f l and i n t he m iddle o f T hessaloniki u pon w hich t o p erform t he c ustomary c eremonies .2 6 T he r everse o f t his c oin c elebrates t he n ew ' Roman s oil ' b y d epicting a p loughman t racing p rimigenius s ulcus o f P ompey 's p srudo-colony .

t he

U ntil n ew e vidence, e specially t hat o f b etter p reserved s pecimens, a ppears , t he p rovisional a scription b y G rant t o t he m int o f T hessaloniki o f t he i ssues w hich , a ccording t o h im , w ere p ut i nto c irculation b y M A cilius f or J ulius C aesar j ust a fter t he d efeat o f P ompey , a nd b y QH ortensius H ortalus a s p raefectus c oloniis d educendis u nder B rutus ,2 7 n o m atter h ow c leverly p resented , s till l acks t he p roof o f h oard e vidence a nd o f c ertain M acedonian p rovenance . T he f oundation c oinages o f C assandreia ,

D ium a nd P hilippi a re n o l onger

p roblematic f ollowing c ontributions o n t he s ubject b y M . S utherland ,

M .

A rm andry ,

a nd P .A .

B runt .2 8

5 6

G rant,

C .H .V .

T he p roclamation o f T hessaloniki a nd A mphipolis a s ' civitates l iberae ' 29 b y t he T riumvirate s hortly a fter t he d efeat o f t he R epublicans a t P hilippi s aw a t T hessaloniki t he p roduction o f f our n ew i ssues r elated t o e ach o ther b y c ommon s tylistic c haracteristics a nd b y t he e xistence o f t he l etter E i n t he g round o f t he o bverse . 3° I n t hese i ssues p rominence i s g iven t o t he l iberators a nd t o t he n ew r elationship b etween t he c ity a nd R ome . U sing t he s ame e xample, w ithout e njoying t he s ame s tatus, P ella p ut i nto c irculation a n i ssue w hich h as t he s ame s pirit o f c elebration .3 1 A mphipolis h owever , e ven t hough f avoured b y t he n ew s ituation, s eems n ot t o h ave p roduced a ny s imilar n ew i ssues . A nother s ingle i ssue o f T hessa loniki , w hich G aebler d ated t o t he r eign o f A ugustus, 3 2

c ould b e a ssigned t o t he p eriod 4 2-32 B C :

t he Z eus A mmon o n t he

o bverse a nd t he e agle o n t he r everse , f ollowing l ate P tolemaic p rototypes ,3 3 c ould r eflect t he p resence o f M ark A ntony i n t he E ast , a nd b e c onnected w ith t he i nfluence o f h im a nd C leopatra o n t he c ity , a s k nown f rom e pigraphic t exts a nd b uilding a ctivities .3 4 T he e xtent t o w hich t he o ther c ities o f M acedonia i ssued c oins d uring t he p eriod o f A ntony 's p re-eminence r emains t o b e i nvestigated .3 5 P robably t he l ast c hronologically c ertain M acedonian i ssue b efore t he p roclamation o f O ctavian a s A ugustus

i n 2 7 B C

b ut a fter

t he v ictory a t A ctium , i s t he T hessalonikan i ssue o f 2 8/27 B CJ6 o n w hich t he n ew r uler o f t he w orld a ppears a s s uccessor t o J ulius C aesar .3 7 T his i ssue i naugurated ,

i n M acedonia ,

w hat m ay b e s een a s

t he b eginning o f t he

t radition o f R oman p ropaganda o n p rovincial i mperial c oinage .3 8

5 7

r l ‘

0 ,

1 968

0 , 4 • -

1 938

1 932

R hIzarI,

1 984 1 971

P rosotsanl,

D ojran,

M i l tropolis, 1 966

P entapo1fs,

P rosotsani,

M Ikrochorl,

1 984

1 81

a

a

A thena/Cow ( Bottlaea)

A thena/Cow ( PubIllius)

N J

0

A rtemls/Tauropolos

4 .J

Z eus/Thunderbolt

A pollo/Tripod

1 955

N ea E phesos,

Z ygos,

C halkidiki,

P oseidon/Club

A rtemis/Two g oats

G I [ 1 9 ] 6 7 r a A m e n ,

P an/A lkidemos

A thena/Cow

P oseidon/Cow

A thena/Chariot

J anus/Dloscuri

D ionysos/Grape

A rtemis/Quiver

D ionysos/Pegasos

Z eus/Two g oats

D ionysos/Goat[A ]

T EESSALONIKI

0 • •1

/ A I h k E i t t r e m s n o n

/ h A H t e n a o r s e

/ J C t a n s n r u e a s u

N otes t o T able A : 1 .

T he

D ojran ,

1 932 h oard

c ontained a lso

c oins

o f P hilip V ,

P ella a nd M acedonia which a re n ot m entioned i n I GCH 5 55 . M im ik, N umismaticke V ijesti ( 1986), 4 4.

2 .

T he P rosotsani ,

A mphipolis, S ee n ow I .

1 984(B ) h oard c ontained a lso t hree A mphipolis c oins o f

t he e arly P rincipate .

T he f act t hat t he h oard w as f ound i n ap ot w ithin a n

u nviolated c ist g rave r enders h e c ase p eculiar , a s t he w ear o f t he c oins , t hose o f t he 2 nd c entury B .C . a nd t hose o f t he t ime o f A ugustus, i s i dentical f or a ll s pecimens . A n " enrichment" o f t he m ain b ulk w ith t hree m ore c oins e arly i n t he i st c entury A D s eems n evertheless i mprobable .

T ABLE B :

O VERSTRIKES

1

T hessaloniki

A mphipolis

P ella

D ionysos/Goat[A ]

Z eus(?)/Bull

A thena/Chariot f A thena/Horse

( G .

( G . X VIII, 2 6)

( G . X XII, 2 3)

r

I X .

1)

T hessaly f -

( SNG C op . 3 24-28)

Z eus/Two g oats ( G . X XII, 2 5)

A thena/Cow ( G . X XIII, 3 )

Z eus/Bull

r

( G . X XII, 2 8)

H ercules/Lion

A thena/Cow

( G . I X ,

( G . X IX , 4 )

1 2)

P oseidon/Club

M aroneia

( G . I X , 2 ) D ionysos/Dionysos ( SNG C op . 6 45-46)

D ionysos/Grape ( G . X XII, 2 1) Z eus/Eagle o n t h . ( G . X XIII, 7 )

1

Z eus/Prow ( G . I X .

1 6)

Z eus/Prow ( G . X XIII, 5 a nd 1 2) — J anus/Centaurs ( G . X XIII, 9 a nd 1 0) M acedonia A pollo/Tripod ( G . I I, 2 8)

5 9

( -

TABLE

P H IL IP V

C:

MONOGRA MS

( Ma mroth- b ronze)

A P P A < A l AMPH IPOL IS

( SNG

e l E

K

H P

N