The Eastern Frontier of the Roman Empire, Parts i and ii: Proceedings of a colloquium held at Ankara in September 1988 9781407387277, 9781407387284, 9780860547006, 9781407348490

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The Eastern Frontier of the Roman Empire Proceedings of a colloquium held at Ankara in Sept ember 19 8 8

edited by

D. H. French and C. S. Lightfoot Part i

British Institute of Archaeology at Ankara Monograph No. 11

BAR International Series 553(i)

1989

B.A.R. 122 Banbury Rd, Oxford, OX2 7BP, UK

GENERAL EDITORS A.R. Hands, B.Sc., M.A., D.Phil. D.R. Walker, M.A.

BAR -S553(i), 1989: 'The Eastern Frontier of the Roman Empire', Part i

© Tbe

Individual Auth ors, 1989

The authors’ moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted.

All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9781407387277 (Volume I) paperback ISBN 9781407387284 (Volume II) paperback ISBN 9780860547006 (Volume set) paperback ISBN 9781407348490 (Volume set) e-format DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860547006 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com

T he E as tern F ron t ier o ft he R oman Emp ire

An i n te rna t iona lc oloqu ium a t Ankara i s t -3 rd S ep tembe r 1 988

h e ld

u nde rt he P re s idency o f O rd . P rof . D r . E k rem Aku rga l

w i th t he p e rm i s s ion o ft he M in i s try o fF o re ign A f fa i r s , R epub l ic o fT u rkey

o rgan i sed b yt he B r i t i sh I n s t i tu te o fA rchaeo logy a t Anka ra

w i th t he s uppo r to ft he B r i t i sh C ounc i l a nd t he T u rco -Br i t i sh A s soc ia t ion Anka ra

CONTENTS

( 1 ) F o reword b yO rd .P ro f . D r .E k rem Akurga l E d i to r s 'P re f ace

v-v i v i i -v i i i

A cknow ledgemen t s

i x

P ar t ic ipan t s

x i -x i v

T our I t ine rary

x v

L i s to fP la te s

x i x -x

L i s to fF igure s

x i -xü i

Abb rev ia t ion s

xv -xvü

I n t roduc t ion

1-5

1 .

W . B a l l S ound ing sa tS eh Qubba , aR oman f r on t ie rs t a t ion o nt he T ig r i si nI r aq

2 .

J .B ow she r T he N aba taean a rmy

1 9 -3 0

3 .

D . B raund C op ing w i th t he C auca su s : R oman r e spon se st ol o ca lc ond i t ion si nC o lch i s

3 1 -4 3

4 .

S .H . B raund J uvena la nd t he E a s t : s a t i re a sa n h i s to r ica ls ource

4 5 -5 2

5 .

S .C ampbel T he R oman p o t te ry f r om S eh Qubba , Nor th I r aq

5 3 -6 5

6 .

E . Dab rowa R oman p o l icy i nT ran scauca s ia f r om P ompey t o Dom i t ian

6 7 -7 6

7 .

H . Dev i jve r E que s t r ian o f f ice r si nt he E as t

7-1 8

7 7 -11

1

8 .

J .W .E ad ie S t ra teg ie so fe conom ic d eve lopmen ti n t he R oman E a s t : t he R ed S ea t r ade r ev i s i ted

13 -1 20

9 .

M . G ichon E s t ima t ing t he s t reng th o f q uad r ibu rg ia g a r r i son s , e xemp l i f ied b yE nB oqeq i n t he N egev

1 21 -1 42

1 0 .

D .F . G ra f Z enob ia a nd t he A rab s

1 43 -1 67

1 .

S .G rego ry No t "Why n o tp l ay ing c a rds? "b u t "Why p l ay ing c a rds i nt he f i r s tp l ace? "

1 69 -1 75

1 2 .

N . Hodg son T he E a s ta sp a r to ft he w ide rR oman i mpe r ia lf r on t ie rp ol i cy

1 77 -1 89

1 3 .

K . Hopwood C on sen ta nd c on t ro l : h ow t he p eace w a s k ep ti nR ough C i l ic ia

1 91 -2 01

1 4 .

J . Howa rd -John s ton P rocop iu s , R oman d e fence sn o r th o ft he T au ru sa nd t he n ew f o r t re s so fC i tha r izon

2 03 -2 29

1 5 .

B .H . I s aac L u t twak ' s" G rand S t ra tegy "a nd t he e a s te rn f r on t ie ro ft he R oman Emp i re

2 31 -2 34

1 6 .

D .L .K ennedy T he m i l i ta ry c on t r ibu t ion o fS y r ia t o t he R oman i mpe r ia la rmy

2 35 -2 46

1 7 .

L . J .F . K epp ie T he f a te o ft he n in th l e g ion ap rob lem f o rt he e a s te rn p rov ince s?

2 47 -2 55

1 8 .

A .D . L ee C ampa ign p repa ra t ion si nl a te R oman -P e r s ian w a r fa re

2 57 -2 65

1 9 .

A .L ew in R oman u rban d e fence si nt he E a s t i nl a te a n t iqu i ty : t he c ase o ft he N egev

2 67 -2 75

2 0 .

J .H .W .G . L iebe schue tz T he G a ina sc r i s i sa tC on s tan t inop le i n3 99

2 77 -2 84

2 1 .

C .S . L igh tfoo t S apo rb e fore t he w al so f Am ida

2 85 -2 94

1

2 2 .

H . I . MacAdam E p ig raphy a nd t he No t i t ia D ign i ta tum ( O r i en s3 7 )

2 95 -3 09

2 3 .

S .M i tchel T he s i ege o fC remna

3 11 -3 28

2 4 .

T .M i tford H igh a nd l ow l e ve lr ou te sa c ro s st he T au ru sa nd An t i taurus

3 29 -3 33

2 5 .

M . Mor T he e ven t so f3 51 -352 i nP a le s t ine -t he l a s tr evo l ta ga ins t R ome?

3 35 -3 53

2 6 .

S .T . P a rke r T he f our th c en tury g ar r i son o fA rab ia : s t ra teg ic i mp l ica t ion sf o rt he s ou th e a s te rn f r on t ie r

3 55 -3 72

2 7 .

U . R appapo r t T he J ew sb e tween R ome a nd P a r th ia

3 73 -3 81

2 8 .

Z . R ub in B yzan t ium a nd S ou the rn A rab ia -t he p o l icy o f Anas ta s ius

3 83 -4 20

2 9 .

A . S ega la nd Y . N aor F our s easons o fe xcava t ion sa ta n Helen i s t ic s i te i nt he a rea o f K ibbu tz S ha 'ar h a -Amak im

4 21 -4 35

3 0 .

V . S ev in a nd Z . De nn Af o r t i f ied s i te t ot he e as to f Ma la tya

4 37 -4 60

3 1 .

I .S ha tzman A r t i l le ry i nJ udaea f r om Hasmonaean t oR oman t ime s

4 61 -4 84

3 2 .

S .E .S idebo tham P or t so ft he R ed S ea a nd t he A rab ia Ind ia t r ade

4 85 -5 13

3 3 .

M . S pe ide l F ur ius 'g rave s tone f r om t he C r imea

5 15 -5 18

3 4 .

A .T irpan T he R oman w al so fS amo sa ta

5 19 -5 36

3 5 .

L .M . Wh i tby P rocop ius a nd An t ioch

5 37 -5 53

i l

3 6 .

E . Win te r On t he r egu la t ion o ft he e as tern f r on t ie ro ft he R oman Emp i re i n2 98

5 55 -5 71

3 7 .

L .Z orog lu S ome R oman n ame so n E as tern S ig i l la ta A f r om S amosa ta

5 73 -5 79

T urk i sh S ummar ie s

5 81 -6 00

I ndex

6 01 -6 15

i v

F oreword b y O rd .P rof .D r . E k rem Aku rga l

T urk i sh a r chaeo logy i s g rea t ly d e l igh ted a nd h onoured t ha t t he t h i rd c oloqu ium o n t he s ub jec t o f t he e a s te rn f r on t ie r o f t he R oman Emp i re i sb e ing h e ld h e re i n Ankara , i nt he c i ty i nw h ich o ne o ft he mo s t i mpor tan t monumen t s o f t he R oman p e r iod i ss t i l l s t and ing . T he T emp le o f R ome a nd Augus tus w i th t he i n sc r ip t ion r ecord ing t he R e s G e s tae D i v i Augu s t i i s , i ndeed , n o t o n ly a n u n r ivaled h i s tor ica l monumen t o f mode rn T u rkey b u t a l so a p rec iou s j ewe l i n t he c ommon h e r i tage o f Mank ind . Ana to l ia w i tne s sed i nt he R oman p e r iod o ne o ft he g o lden a ge s o fi t s p as t . T he R oman empe ro r s c ons t ruc ted t he f i r s t s o l id a nd d urab le r oad s a nd s t one b r idge s i n a l p a r t s o f t he Ana to l ian p en in su la a nd s o o pened t he w ay t o a c omme rc ia la c t iv i ty o fi n te rna t iona ld imen s ion s . T he mo s ti mpo r tan tc on t r ibu t ion o fR oman r u le t o Ana to l ian c u l ture c an b e o b se rved i nt he f i e ld o fa r ch i tec ture . T he R oman sw e re t he f i r s t i nw o r ld h i s tory t o d eve lop n ew e ng inee r ing me thod s a nd o u t s tand ing ly f unc t iona l a r ch i tec ture . T he n ew ly inven ted b u i ld ing ma te r ia l o fb r ick sb ound w i th mo r tar w as u sed f o r t he f i r s t t ime i n t he c ons t ruc t ion o f p ub l ic a nd p r iva te b u i ld ing s , w h i le marb le s l ab s d ecora ted t he o u te r s u r face s . T h i s n ew b u i ld ing t e chn ique e nab led a rch i tec t s t o c on s truc t monumen t s e nc lo s ing a h uge i n te r io r s pace . I ndeed , l a rge monumen t s w e re n o l onge r e rec ted o n f ounda t ions o fs t one p i le s o r b y means o ft e r rac ing a nd l e vel ing . T hey w e re n ow b u i l t b y R oman a r ch i tec t s o ve r s ub s t ruc ture s o fb ar re l v au l t ing o r g ro ined -vau l t ing . S im i la r ly , i n R oman t ime s , t hea tre s w e re n o l onge r l o ca ted o n h i l l s l ope s , a sw as t he p rac t ice o fe a r l ie rp e r iod s , b u tw e re s uppor ted b y ac omp lex o fa r cade sa nd t unne lv au l t s . I n p re -Roman Ana to l ia , a r ch i tec t s h ad o f ten e xecu ted i n marb le o n ly t he o rnamen ta l p ar t s o ft he i r monumen t s , c on ten t ing t hem se lve s w i th a nde s i te f o r t he r e s t . I n R oman t ime s , o n t he c on tra ry , m arb le b ecame t he p r inc ipa l ma te r ia l f o r b u i ld ing . T he i n ven t ion o f c en t ra l -hea t ing i n R ome c .8 0 BC , b y mean s o f h o t a i r c i rcu la t ing u nde r f l oo r s a nd t h rough h olow b r ick s i n t he w al s , e ncouraged t he e rec t ion o f h uge t he rma l b u i ld ing s . L arge b a th s , o f ten c omb ined w i th g ymna s ia , w e re b u i l t i na l c i t ie s o fA s ia M inor . One f i ne e xamp le d a t ing b ack t ot he d ay s o f C aracala i st ob e s een a tt he f oo t o ft he c i tade l o f Ankara , c rowned b y t he a bove men t ioned T emp le o f Augus tu s . A sf u r the r e xamp le s o fo u t s tand ing f unc t iona l a r ch i tec ture a nd e ng inee r ing o f t he R oman p e r iod o f A s ia M inor , s t one b r idge s a nd a queduc ts s hou ld b e men t ioned . O the r c harac te r i s t ic s t ruc tu re s o f t he R oman p e r iod i n Ana to l ia a re t he r i ch ly o rnamen ted monumen ta l f a çade s o fl i b ra r ie s , f oun ta ins , a gora g a te s a nd s t age b u i ld ing s . V e ry f i ne e xamp le so fs uch b u i ld ing sh ave s u rv ived i nA s ia M ino r . One o f t he mo s t i mpor tan t i n nova t ion s o f R oman a r ch i tec ts i st he h igh ly i mpre s s ive d eve lopmen t o f t he a r ch a nd o f t he a r cade . R ow s o f a rche s a nd

v

r ece s sed a rch i tec tu ra l e l emen t s s uch a s c o lumns , p ed imen ts o r n i che s g ave a n e n t i re ly n ove l a ppea rance t o e x te r ior s . T he re u se i s i ndeed a p ure ly R oman c oncep t ion w h ich w e a dm i re o n t he monumen ts s t i l l s t and ing a t E phe su s , Aphrod i s ia s , P e rge a nd S ide . T he c o lonnaded s t ree t , w h ich p ro tec ted p eop le b o th f r om s un a nd f r om r a in , w as a r emarkab le i n ven t ion o f R oman a r ch i tec ture . I t r epre sen ted a g rea t a dvance i n c i ty p l ann ing , a nd g ave t he l i fe o f t he t own a d i s t inc t ive , c e remon ia l c harac te r . T he i mpo s ing r ema in s o f c o lonnaded s t ree ts h ave s urv ived a ts eve ra l s i te s i nA s ia M inor . Ana to l ian c i t ie s o ft he R oman p e r iod p os se s sed e ve ry k i nd o f amen i ty . T hey w e re a l a bundan t ly p rov ided w i th w a te r . T he s hady p romenade i nt he c o lonnade s a nd f oun ta ins s pou t ing g rea tj e t s o fw a te r , mus th ave b een v e ry r e f re sh ing a nd s oo th ing i nh o t Ana to l ian d ay s . T he em inen t s cho lar s o f t he t h i rd i n te rna t iona l c o l loqu ium o n t he e as te rn f r on t ie r o f t he R oman Emp i re a re d ea l ing h e re i n Ankara w i th a s e r ie s o f d i s t inc t ive R oman a ch ievemen t s i n t he f i e ld s o f s oc ia l , c u l tura l , e conom ic , r u ra l , u rban i s t ic a nd m i l i tary s ub jec t m a t te r s . T he B r i t i sh I n s t i tu te o f A rchaeo logy a t Ankara ,w i th t he s uppo r t o ft he B r i t i sh C ounc i l a nd t he T urco -Br i t i sh A s soc ia t ion , h as s ucce s s fuly f u l f i l led a n i mpo r tan t d e s ide ra tum o fa nc ien t h i s tory . Many t h ank s f o r t h i s s c ien t i f ic a ccomp l i shmen t . T h i s s c ho lar ly mee t ing w i l l u ndoub ted ly p romo te R oman s t ud ie sw h ich i nT urkey a re o fr e la t ive ly r e cen tf ounda t ion . T he R oman p rov ince s o f Ana to l ia h ad a h i gh l e ve l o f p rospe r i ty . T he R oman s o ld ie r s , t oo ,w ho s e rved i nt he e as te rn p ar t s o fA s ia M inor , t ook t ot he l i fe t he re a nd a dap ted t o l o ca l c u s toms . T hey a ccep ted , f o r e xamp le , t he w or sh ip o f J up i te r Do l ichenus . I ti sw el k nown t h a t t h i s c u l t w as t r ansm i t ted b y t he R oman l e g ion so ft he E as t t oE u rope w he re i tb ecame v e ry p opu lar . L e t me p re sen tt oy ou as mal b u t p l easan t c on t r ibu t ion c once rn ing t he r e l ie f s o fJ up i te r Do l ichenus . On t he se v o t ive s l ab s a re d ep ic ted J up i te r a nd J uno a s am ar r ied c oup le . I t i s i n te re s t ing t on o te t h a t ,w i thou t e xcep t ion , J uno i sp l aced t ot he l e f t o fJ up i te r a nd n eve rt oh i s r i gh t . T h i s i s ar u le o fH i t t i te c e remony a ccord ing t ow h ich t he H i t t i te ma le d e i ty i s mo re i mpo r tan t t h an t he f ema le . H i t t i te k i ng s a nd t he i r s pouse s a re a l so d ep ic ted i n t h i s s chema . Ih ave s hown i n v ar iou s o f m y b ook s t h a t t h i s i c onog raph ic mo t i fc an b e o b se rved t h rough t he a ge s , f r om t he f our teen th c en tu ry BC i n Ha t tu§a u n t i l mode rn t ime s . I n f a c t , i n c our t c e remon ia l o f o ur d ay , t he q ueen i sa lway s t o b e s een s i t t ing o r s t and ing n o t t o t he r i gh t o f t he k i ng , a s p re sc r ibed b y E uropean c us tom , b u t t oh i s l e f t , a cco rd ing t o at r ad i t ion g o ing b ack t oH i t t i te mode l s . T h i si c onog raph ic mo t i fh as t hus b een t r ansm i t ted b yt he a r ta nd s cu lp ture o ft he R oman c i t ie so fe as te rn Ana to l ia , t he p e r iod w h ich w i l lc ons t i tu te a g rea tp ar to fo ur c ons ide ra t ions i nt h i sc oloqu ium .

v i

ED ITORS ' PREFACE

I tw a s o u r s i nce re h ope a nd d ec la red i n ten t ion t h a t t he se P roceed ing s s hou ld b ep ub l i shed w i th in a ss ho r t as pace o ft ime a sp o s s ib le a f te rt he c l o se o ft he C oloqu ium a nd T ou r . O r ig inaly , w e t hough t i tm igh t b e p o s s ib le t o a ch ieve t h i s b e fo re t he e nd o f 1 988 . I ndeed , mo s t o ft he c on t r ibu to r ss ubm i t ted i ng ood t ime , a d ozen o r s o o f t hem p roduc ing t he i r t e x t s o n d i ske t te s o t ha t t hey c ou ld b e e a s i ly a nd q u ick ly t r an s fe r red t oo u rw o rd p roce s so r . T hu sb y t he e nd o fN ovembe r , o n ly t en w eek s o n , w e h ad r e ce ived a lb u t f ou r o ft he p ape r sp re sen ted h e re , a nd m any o ft hem ( t hank s t ot he h a rd w o rk o fC h r i s ta ! T ü rkmen a nd F igen K i r iN iog lu ) h ad a l ready b een f o rma t ted , e d i ted a nd c hecked i np roo f s . T he t h ree p ape r s s ubm i t ted i nT u rk i sh w e re a l so w el o n t he w ay t o c omp le t ion , h av ing b een t r an s la ted i n to E ng l i sh b y Gü lgün K azan . I t i sa s ton i sh ing , t he re fo re , t ha t w e f a i led t o k eep t o o u r s e l f impo sed d ead l ine a nd t h a t m any mon th s o ff r u s t ra t ion a nd i n ac t iv i ty h ave s i nce i n terpo sed . On t he o ne h and , h uman f a i l ing s c augh t u p w i th u s , o n t he o the r t e chn ica l a nd l o g i s t ica l p rob lem s p reven ted u s f r om e xp lo i t ing t he a dvan tage w e h ad g a ined i n t he a u tumn o f 1 988 . T he s i ng le , mo s t i mpo r tan t i mped imen t t o t he s w i f t c omp le t ion o f t he P roceed ing s s t emmed f r om o u r i n ab i l i ty t o p roduce c ame ra r eady c opy i n Ankara . F inanc ia l a nd s im i la r t e chn ica l d i f f icu l t ie s ( t he i n compa t ib i l i ty o f T u rk i sh a nd UK s o f twa re ) p rec luded t he d e spa tch o f t he P roceed ing sa sw o rd p roce s sed d ocumen t st oE ng land . T he i mpa s se w a se ven tua l ly s o lved b yt he p u rcha se o f al a se rp r in te rb yt he B r i t i sh C ounc i li n Anka ra a nd , a f te r s ome f u r the r s t rugg le s w i th t he s o f twa re p r in te r i n te r f ace , t he f i na l v e r s ion o ft he t e x tw as a tl e ng th p r in ted o f fa nd s en tt o BAR . I n a dd i t ion t o t wen ty -n ine o f t he p ape r s t h a t w e re d e l ive red a t t he C o l loqu ium , af u r the r s even p ape r s w e re a c cep ted f r om s cho la r s w ho , f o r o ne r eason o r a no the r , w e re u nab le t o a t tend . J ame s Howa rd -John s ton s ub s t i tu ted a p ape r r epo r t ing o n av i s i t t o e a s te rn T u rkey i n p l ace o f h i s d i scu s s ion o f t he c ampa ign s o f He rac l iu s . S eve ra lp a r t ic ipan t s p re fe r red n o t t o s ubm i t t he i r p ape r s f o r p ub l ica t ion : A .D .H . B iva r , D av id J .B reeze , J .G . C row , C ha r le s M . D an ie l s , P .W .M . F reeman a nd J ohn Ma t thew s . S umma r ie s o f t he se p ape r s a re i n c luded h e re . R icha rd H arpe r ' s p ape r o n t he f o r t le t o f Uppe r Z oha rw i l l f o rm p a r t o ft he s i te ' sf i na le xcava t ion r epo r t . Ac ompar i son b e tween t he l i s t o fp ape r s p ub l i shed i nt he P roceed ing s a nd t he p rov i s iona l l i s t s o f p ape r s a nd p a r t ic ipan t s t h a t w e re c i rcu la ted b e fo re t he C oloqu ium r evea l s s ome n o tab le c hange s . I tw a s as ou rce o fc on s ide rab le r eg re t a nd d i sappo in tmen t t h a t an umbe r o f l e ad ing s c ho la r s i n t he f i e ld s o f R oman a r chaeo logy a nd e a s te rn f r on t ie r s t ud ie s w e re u nab le t o a t tend t he Anka ra C oloqu ium a nd d ec l ined t he i n v i ta t ion t o s ubm i t p ape r s t ot he se P roceed ing s . I t w as a l so r eg re t tab le t h a t am ino r i ty v i ew h e ld t h a tt he T ou r i ns ome w ay d e t rac ted f r om t he a cadem ic c on ten t a nd f o rmed a n u n fo r tuna te d i s t rac t ion f r om t he s e r iou s b u s ine s so ft he C o l loqu ium . Howeve r , t h i sc r i t ic i sm d oe s n o t a l te rt he f a c t t h a t b y a nd l a rge t he f o rma l s e s s ion s a nd t he i n fo rma l d i scu s s ion s t h a t t ook p l ace b o th d ur ing t he C oloqu ium a nd o n t he s ub sequen t T ou r w e re r ega rded a s v a luab le c on t r ibu t ion s t o t he s t udy o ft he e as te rn f r on t ie r . I ti sh oped t h a t t h i s f a vou rab le a s se s smen ti sf uly r ef lec ted i nt he p re sen tv o lume (s ) .

v i i

P ape r sa re a r ranged b e low i ns t ra igh ta l phabe t ica lo rde r . T hey a re f olowed b y t he c or re spond ing T urk i sh s ummar ie s , a nd t he s umma r ie s o f t he p ape r s d e l ive red a tt he C oloqu ium b u tn o tp ub l i shed h e re . I n e d i t ing t he t e x t s , w e h ave e ndeavoured t o i mpo se a med ium o f c on s i s tency , w h i le t r y ing n o t t o i n te r fe re w i th t he i nd iv idua l s t y le a nd c ha rac te r o f e ach c on t r ibu t ion . We a dop ted a s t andard s e t o f a bb rev ia t ion s , b ased o n l i s t s p ub l i shed i nt he Ame r i can J ourna lo fA r chaeo log y Vo l . 9 0 .4 ( 1986 : 3 84 -84 ) a nd t he O xf ord C la s s i ca lD i c t ionar y( 2nd e d . , O x fo rd 1 970 ) . A tt he e nd w eh ave c omp i led a n i ndex o f s i te s a nd p l ace n ame s . T h i s r evea l s s ome o f t he i n cons i s tenc ie s o f o r thog raphy , e spec ia l ly among s tt he A rab ic p l ace n ame s , t ha tf r equen t ly b e se tN ea r E as te rn s t ud ie s . F inaly w e d ed ica te t he se P roceed ing s t o t he memo ry o f Mr s J oyce Hopwood , w ho d i ed t r ag ica l ly i n V an o n S a tu rday 1 0 th S ep tembe r , 1 988 a f te r s uf fe r ing as t roke d ur ing av i s i t t ot he i s land o f Akdamar ( Agh tamar ) . On b eha l fo f a l t ho se a s soc ia ted w i th t he I n s t i tu te a nd C oloqu ium , w e w i sh t o e xpre s s o ur s i nce re c ondo lence st oK e i th Hopwood a nd h i sf a the r , Mr R oy Hopwood .

Dav id F rench C h r i sL igh t foo t B r i t i sh I n s t i tu te o fA rchaeo logy Ankara 3 0J une , 1 989

v i i i

ACKNO WLEDGE MENTS

F i r s ta nd f o remo s t , i tb ehove su st ot hank o ur h o s t s , t he M in i s t ry o fF ore ign A f f a i r sa nd t he ( t hen n amed ) D i rec tora te Gene ra l o f An t iqu i t ie s a tt he M in i s try o f C u l ture a nd T ou r i sm , f o rg ran t ing u sp e rm i s s ion t oh o ld t he C oloqu ium i n Ankara . I ti s ,w eb e l ieve , t he f i r s t t ime t ha t af o re ign a r chaeo log ica le s tab l i shmen t i nT urkey h as p ub l ic ly a r ranged a nd h o s ted a n i n te rna t iona l c onfe rence w i th in T urkey i t se l f . We a re j u s t ly p roud o ft he f a c t t h a t t he T urk i sh a u tho r i t ie s s aw f i t t o b e s tow t h i s h onour o nt he B r i t i sh I n s t i tu te o fA rchaeo logy a t Ankara . We w e re p r iv i leged t o h ave P rofe s so r E k rem Akurga l a s t he C oloqu ium P re s iden t . H i sp ar t ic ipa t ion s ymbo l i sed t he l i fe long s e rv ice t ha t h e h as d evo ted t o t he a r chaeo logy o f Ana to l ia a nd , i n p a r t icu la r , t he e ncouragemen t t ha t h e h a s a lway sg i ven t of o re ign i n vo lvemen ti ni t ss t udy . We w i sh t o a cknow ledge o ur g rea t d eb t o f g ra t i tude t o HE t he B r i t i sh Ambas sador , Mr ( now S i r ) T imo thy D aun t , w ho se h e lp b o th i n p l ann ing t he C o l loqu ium a nd i nh o s t ing ar ecep t ion a tt he R e s idence f o r i t sp ar t ic ipan t s a nd t he a rchaeo log ica l c ommun i ty i n Ankara w a s mo s t w arm ly a pprec ia ted . T he B r i t i sh C ounc i l , u nde r t he l e ade r sh ip o f Mr E dmund Mar sden , a l so p rov ided w e lcome s uppo r t , as i gn o ft he g row ing c o -ope ra t ion t ha t e x i s ts b e tween t he B r i t i sh C ounc i l a nd t he B r i t i sh I n s t i tu te i n Ankara . F ina l ly ,w i thou t t he g ood o f f ice s o ft he T u rco B r i t i sh A s soc ia t ion , w h ich a lowed u s t o u se i t s l e c ture t hea t re a nd o the r f a c i l i t ie s d u r ing t he f o rma l s e s s ions i n Ankara , i tw ou ld h ave b een i mpos s ib le f o r u s t oh o ld t he C oloqu ium i ns uch g en ia la nd c omfor tab le s u r round ing s . B o th b e fore a nd d ur ing t he C oloqu ium , o n t he s ub sequen tT our a nd i nt he p repa ra t ion o f t he se P roceed ing s w e h ave r ece ived u n s t in t ing s uppor t a nd a s s i s tance f r om many q uar te r s b u t mo s t e spec ialy f r om membe r s o ft he I n s t i tu te ' s s t a f f . I n L ondon F iona C hapman -Purcha s d ea l t w i th t he p ay ing i n o f f ee s a nd h e lped w i th m any o the r p rob lems t ha t a rose , b u t mos t o f t he b u rden f el o n t he c apab le s hou lde r s o f t he Ankara s t af f . E ach , i n h i s o r h e r o wn w ay , w as a n i r rep laceab le c omponen t i n t he o rgan i sa t ion o f t he C oloqu ium , a nd i t s s ucce s s r e f lec t s l a rge ly o n t he i r e f fo r t s . I ti s , t he re fore , d i f f icu l t t o s i ng le a nyone o u t f o r s pec ia l p ra i se , b u t i tw ou ld p robab ly b e f a i r t os ay t ha t w i thou t t he c on t r ibu t ion o f o ur Ame r ican s ec re tary , C h r i s ta ! T ürkmen , t he mu l t i f ar iou s a dm in i s tra t ive a nd c l e r ica l t a sk s t h a t f a ced u s w ou ld h ave b een o f i n surmoun tab le p ropo r t ion s . A s e ve r , o ur T u rk ish s e c re tary , Gü lgün K azan , c ar r ied o u t av ar ie ty o f i n va luab le d u t ie s , a nd s he w as l a rge ly r e spons ib le f o r o rgan i s ing t he b uf fe t s uppe r i n t he I n s t i tu te ' s g arden . T he o the r s w ho p l ayed t he i r r e spec t ive p ar t s w e re : Gü le ren B a laban , P e rv in B i lgen , Ahme t C am , T ug ru l c akar , Mus tafa a nd Ümmügü l süm J ane Goddard , a nd F igen K i r iw iog lu . We a re a l so v e ry g ra te fu l t o I NN . D r . E nde r V annhog lu , w ho s pen t s ome c on s ide rab le t ime c heck ing a nd r ev i s ing t he T urk i sh s ummar ie sf o ru s . On t he T our w e a l b ene f i t ted g rea t ly f r om t he w i sdom o f o ur i n v i ted s pec ia l is t s ,P rofe s so r B rye r , J im C row a nd L even t Z orog lu . T hey f u rn i shed u sw i th e xcelence g u idance a ts pec i f ic s i te s a nd , t oge the rw i th E nde r V armhog lu , p rov ided u s w i th much g ene ra l a s s i s tance a nd mo ra l s uppor t . F inaly , w e mus t t h ank o ur T our g u ide , Mr Z afe r K t4 , w ho p e r formed t he d i f f icu l t t a sk o fu she r ing u s r ound e as te rn T urkey w i thou t ma jo r m i shap , a nd t o o ur t h ree d r ive r s , Ha san B a§aran , I sma i l ' Fan a nd O sman Ö z lü , w ho se c are a nd a t ten t ion b rough t u s a l s a fe ly f r om G az ian tep t o T rabzon a l ong r oad s t hey h ad n eve r s een b e fore .

i x

T he t our g roup o nt he h öyük a tT i l le , 7 th S ep tembe r , 1 988 .

x

L IST OF PART IC IPANTS T he f olow ing l i s t i n corpo ra te s t he n ame s a nd a ddre s se s o ft ho se w ho e i the r s poke a tt he C oloqu ium o rw ho h ave s ub sequen t ly c on t r ibu ted p ape r s .

MR . WAR W ICK BALL

I f f ley C o t tage R edpa th , N r .E ar l s ton TD4 6 AD S co t land

DR .A .D .H .B IVAR

S choo lo fO r ien ta la nd A f r ican S tud ie s , Un ive r s i ty o fL ondon Ma le tS t ree t L ondon WC1E 7HP

MR . JUL IAN M .C . BO WSHER

1 22 F e rnb rook R oad L ondon S E13 5NH

DR . DAV ID C . BRAUND

Dep t . o fC la s s ic s , Queen ' sB u i ld ing E xe te r Un ive r s i ty E xe te r , Devon EX4 4QH

DR . S .H . BRAUND

Dep t . o fC la s s ic s , Queen 's B u i ld ing E xe te r Un ive r s i ty E xe te r , Devon EX4 4QH

DR . DAV ID J . BREEZE

H i s tor ica lB u i ld ing sa nd Monumen t s S co t t i sh Deve lopmen t Depar tmen t 2 0B randon S t ree t E d inburgh EH3 5DX S co t land

MRS . BRON WEN CA MPBELL

L arg C o t tage 4T he R ow O x ton , N r . L aunde r TD2 6 PH S co t land

MR .J .G . CRO W

5S haf toe C re scen t Hexham NE46 3DS

DR . E . DABRO WA

J ag ielon ian Un ive r s i ty Anc ien tH i s tory I n s t i tu te u l . S w ie rczew sk iegö 3 3 1 -116 K rakow P o land

MR . CHARLES M . DAN IELS

D ep t . o fA rchaeo logy T he Un ive r s i ty N ewcas t le u pon T yne NE1 7 RU

PROF . DR . H . DEV IJVER

E ikenbo s laan 2 0 B -3200 K e s se ll o -Leuven B e lg ium

x i

PROF .J .W . EAD IE

C olege o fA r t s&L e t te r s O f f ice o ft he Dean L in ton Hal E .L an s ing , M ich igan 4 8824 U .S .A .

MR . P .W .M . FREE MAN

S choo lo fH i s tory T he Un ive r s i ty o fL eeds L eed sL S2 9 JT

DR D .H . FRENCH

B r i t i sh I n s t i tu te o fA rchaeo logy T ah ran C adde s i2 4 K ayak We re TR -06700 Ankara

PROF . M . G ICHON

1 4A s sae lS t r . Z aha la 6 9083 T e lA v iv I s rae l

DR . D .F . GRAF

Depar tmen to fH i s tory Un ive r s i ty o fM iam i C o ra lG ab le s , F lo r ida U .S .A .

MISS J . S . GREGORY

B ar E nd , B a r R oad B a s low , B akewel De rby sh i re DE4 1 SF

MR . R .P . HARPER

B r i t i sh S choo lo fA rchaeo logy i n J e ru sa lem , P .O . B ox 1 9283 J e ru sa lem I s rae l

MR .N ICHOLAS R . HODGSON

Depar tmen to fA rchaeo logy T he Un ive r s i ty N ewcas t le u pon T yne NE1 7 RU

MR . K . HOP WOOD

1 Uppe rC l i f fC lo se P ena r th S ou th G lamo rgan CF6 1 BE Wa le s

DR .J A MES HO WARD -JOHNSTON

C orpus C hr i s t iC olege O x fo rd OX1 4 JF

PROF . B .H . I SAAC

W . R oyaard s s tr . 1 8 H -1077 Ams te rdam WR Holand

DR . D .L . KENNEDY

Depa r tmen t o f Anc ien tH i s tory & C la s s ica lA rchaeo logy , T he Un ive r s i ty o fS he f f ie ld S he f f ie ld S 10 2 TN

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DR . L . J .F . KEPP IE

C u ra tor ( A rchaeo logy ) , Hun te r ian Mu seum ,T he Un ive r s i ty G la sgow G 12 8QQ S co t land

DR .A .D . LEE

T r in i ty C olege C amb r idge CB2 1 TQ

DR . AR IEL LE W IN

V ia Dupre 2 6 1 50131 F i renze I t a ly

PROF . DR .J .H .W .G . L IEBESCHUETZ

Depa r tmen to fC la s s ica la nd A rchaeo log ica lS tud ie s Un ive r s i ty o fN o t t ingham No t t ingham NG7 2RD

DR . C .S . L IGHTFOOT

B r i t i sh I n s t i tu te o fA rchaeo logy T ah ran C adde s i2 4 K ayak Me re TR -06700 Anka ra

DR . H . I . MACADA M

2 19 We s tB u i ld ing S choo lo fH i s to r ica lS tudy P r ince ton , N ew J e r sey 0 8540 U .S .A .

DR .J .F . MATTHE WS

T he Queen ' sC olege O x fo rd OX1 4 AW

DR . S TEPHEN MITCHELL

Depa r tmen to fC las s ic s & Anc ien t H i s to ry , Un ive r s i ty C olege S ing le ton P a rk S wansea SA2 8 PP Wa le s

DR .T .B . MITFORD

O ld S choo l House B u r i ton P e te r s f ie ld , Han ts .

PROF . DR . M . MOR

Depar tmen to fH i s tory C re igh ton Un ive r s i ty Omaha ,N eb ra ska 6 8178 U .S .A .

PROF . S .T . PARKER

Depa r tmen to fH i s to ry , B ox 8 108 N o r th C a ro l ina S ta te Un ive r s i ty R a le igh , No r th C a ro l ina 2 7695 U .S .A .

PROF . U . RAPPAPORT

Depar tmen t o fJ ew i sh H i s to ry Un ive r s i ty o f Ha i fa , Moun tC a rme l 3 1 9 99 Ha i fa I s rae l

PROF . Z . RUB IN

Depa r tmen to f Gene ra lH i s tory T e lA v iv Un ive r s i ty , P .O . B ox 3 9040 6 99778 T e l Av iv I s rae l

DR . ARTHUR S EGAL

2 4O ren S t ree t R omema 3 4732 Ha i fa I s rae l

PROF . DR . VEL IS EV IN

I s tanbu l Ün ive r s i te s i E deb iya tF akü l te s i E sk igag T a r ih iB ö lümü F en /PTT TR -34459 I s tanbu l

PROF . DR .I SRAEL SHATZ MAN

7C a sp iS t ree t 9 3554 J e ru sa lem I s rae l

ASSOC . PROF . STEVEN E .S IDEBOTHA M Depa r tmen to fH i s to ry Un ive r s i ty o f De lawa re 4 01 J ohn Ew ing Hal N ewa rk , De lawa re 1 9716 U .S .A . Un ive r s i ty o f Hawa i ia t Manoa Depa r tmen to fH i s tory S akamak i Hal A203 2 530 Do le S t ree t Hono lu lu , Hawa i i9 6822 U .S .A .

PROF . DR . M .S PE IDEL

S e lguk Ün ive r s i te s i F en /E deb iya tF akü l te s i A rkeo lo j iv eS ana tT a r ih iB ö lümü K onya

DR . AH MET A .T IRPAN

DR . MICHAEL W H ITBY

Depa r tmen to f Anc ien tH i s to ry S tS a lva tor 's C olege Un ive r s i ty o fS t Andrew s S t And rew s KY16 9AL S co t land

DR .E . WINTER

We s t fä l i sche Wi lhe lm s -Un iv . F achbe re ich 1 0 -Ge sch ich te I n s t i tu tf ü rD idak t ik Ge s . D -4400 Mün s te r We s t Ge rmany

DR . LEVENT ZOROÖLU

S e lguk Ün ive r s i te s i F en /E deb iya tF akü l te s i A rkeo lo j iy eS ana tT ar ih iB ö lümü K onya

x i v

THE COLLOQU IU M TOUR I T INERARY S ep tember 1 988

S a tu rday 3 rd -

V i s i t t o t he Ana tol ian C iv i l iza t ion s Mu seum , Anka ra K a le ,t he T emp le o f Augu s tu sa nd t he R oman B a th s

S unday 4 th

A f te rnoon f l i gh tf r om Anka ra t oG az ian tep

Monday 5 th

-

Mo rn ing t ou r t o B e lk i s / Z eugma a nd q ua r r ie sa t Gümü §gün ( Ehne § ) n ea rN iz ip V i s i tt oG az ian tep A rchaeo log ica l Mu seum

R oman

T ue sday 6 th -

Mo rn ing t ou r t o A raban , v i a E l i f , H i sa r a nd t he K a rasu b r idge A f te rnoon b u st o Ad iyaman

Wedne sday 7 th -

Mo rn ing t ou rt oS am sa t /S amo sa ta A f te rnoon t ou rt oT i l le h öyük /G e ld ibu ldu

T hu r sday 8 th -

F ul d ay t ou r t o t he C ende re b r idge , E sk i K äh ta / A r same ia a nd N em ru tD ag

F r iday 9 t h

Mo rn ing t ou r o f Gök su b r idge n ea r Du rak a nd t he E uph ra te sG a te sn ea rK uyu lu A f te rnoon b u st o Ma la tya

-

S a tu rday 1 0 th -

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S unday 1 th -

F ul d ay j ou rney t o E rz incan v i a K ema l iye a nd R e f ah iye E nr ou te t ou ro fS abu sn ea r Du t luca

Monday 1 2 th -

Mo rn ing t ou rt oA l tm tepe A f te rnoon t r ip t oK emah

T ue sday 1 3 th -

F ul d ay j ou rney t o R ize , v i a Gümü §hane a nd t he Z igana P a s s E nr ou te mo rn ing t ou rt oS adak /S a ta la n ea rK e lk i t

Wedne sday 1 4 th -

Mo rn ing v i s i tt oC anaye r A f te rnoon t ou r o f T rabzon a nd t he A rchaeo log ica l Mu seum

T hu r sday 1 5 th -

T ou r st oS ume la a nd Ho r tokop K a le n ea r M nka A f te rnoon b u st oA lwaaba t

F r iday 1 6 th -

Dome s t ic f i gh tf r om T rabzon t o Anka ra E nd o fC oloqu ium a nd T ou r

XV

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PLATES

T he t ou rg roup o nt he h öyük a tT i le ,7 th S ep tembe r , 1 988 . x v i -xv i i i

2 . 1 2 . 2 2 . 3 2 . 4

1 4 .1 1 4 .2 1 4 .3 1 4 .4 1 4 .5

R ou te o f C oloqu ium t ou r , G az ian tep t o T rabzon , 4 th -16 th S ep tembe r , 1 988 . P h i l i s to -A rab ian c o in ( B MC 2 7 : 1 80 n o . 2 5 ) B r i t i sh Mu seum T rophy o n at omb ( no .6 49 ) a t Magha ra lN as sara , P e t ra ( pho to J .McKenz ie ) C en t ra l f i gu re f r om t he f a çade o f t he " Tomb o f t he R oman s o ld ie r " ( no .2 39 ) ,P e t ra ( pho to J .M .C .B . ) C o in o f A re ta s I V (Me sho re r 1 975 : n o . 9 7 ) B r i t i sh Mu seum Gene ra lv i ew o fC i tha r izon f r om t he w e s t Ou te rf a ce o fs ec t ion A I nne rf a ce o fs ec t ion A w i th r oo ft i l e s i nf o reg round a nd n or the rn h i l li nb ackg round T owe r Bs een f r om n or th -we s t T owe r Cs een f r om w e s t

2 3 .1 2 3 .2 2 3 .3 2 3 .4

V aley o nt he w e s ts i de o fC remna ,l ook ing s ou th S i ege -mound f r om t he n or th T he f o rwa rd c i rcumvala t ion w al ,l o ok ing n o r th I n sc r ip t ion o f T e ren t ius Marc ianus , g ove rnor o f L yc ia a nd P amphy l ia

2 9 .1 2 9 .2 2 9 .3

T he Helen i s t ic t owe r ,g ene ra lv i ew ,l ook ing e a s t T he Helen i s t ic t owe r ,t he w e s tw al ,l ook ing s ou th De ta i l o f af r agmen t o f t he l ow w al s ur round ing t he t owe r o n t he s ou th s i de ; n o te t he c our se s o f h eade r s a nd s t re tche r sa r ranged w i th r emarkab le p rec i s ion

3 0 .1 3 0 .2

G ene ra lv i ew o ft he K aram i ldan s i te f r om t he s ou th P a r to ft he c i rcu i tw al ,w i th f a c ing , a nd p ro jec t ing t owe r

3 3 .1

F ur iu s 'g rave s tone

3 4 .1 3 4 .2

L owe rc i ty w al sn ex tt ot he U r fa Ga te T he i n te r io rw al s o f at owe r a nd a d jo in ing w al s -p o in t D 1 Q ua s ir e t i cu la tum o n t he i n te r io r w al s o ft owe r -p o in t D 1 G ene ra lv i ew o ft owe r -p o in tD 1 Wal f a ced i no pu s q uad ra tum b u i l t i nf r on t o f aw al i n o pu sr e t icu la tum -p o in t D2 Wal i no pu sq uad ra tum w i th t i le c ou r se s -p o in t D2 T he a queduc tb r ing ing w a te rf r om Daphne t o An t ioch De ta i l o f af r agmen t o f t he a queduc t b r ing ing w a te r f r om Daphne t o An t ioch

3 4 .3 3 4 .4 3 4 .5 3 4 .6 3 4 .7 3 4 .8

x i x

3 4 .9

T he b a th -bu i ld ing r e t icu la tum

3 5 .1 3 5 .2

Wa te rga te : i nne rf a ce Wa te rga te : o u te rf a ce

3 7 .1

F ragmen t o f ab ow l f r om S amo sa ta , F o rm 1 8B , b a se i n te r io r F ragmen t o f ac up ( c a la thu s ) f r om S amo sa ta , b a se i n te r io r

3 7 .2

XX

a t E leus ia ,

w i th

w al s

i n o pu s

F IGURES ( i ) 1 . 1 1 . 2 1 . 3 1 . 4 1 . 5 1 . 6

2 . 1 2 . 2 2 . 3 2 . 4

No r the rn I r aq , s how ing p l ace s men t ioned i n t he t e x t S i te s e xcava ted i n t he 1 985/86 s ea son o n t he S addam D am S a lvage P ro jec t C on tour p l an o fS eh Qubba S ec t ion o ft he A rea A d eep s ound ing , s how ing t he R oman l e ve l s P lan o f t he s econd p ha se i n t he A rea A d eep s ound ing AR oman t e r raco t ta p ipe f r om t he s econd p ha se i n t he A rea A d eep s ound ing Memor ia lr e l ie ff r om K e rak ( a f te rG lueck 1 965 : p l . 1 55b ) F ragmen tf r om Kh i rbe tT annu r ( a f ter G lueck 1 965 : P l .3 9 ) De ta i l f r om S iq e lB and f r e sco ( a f te r G lueck 1 965 : p l .2 03b ) Wa r r io r r e l ie f f r om P e t ra ( a f te r G lueck 1 965 : p l . 1 55c )

5 . 1 5 . 2 -5

Map o fn o r the rn I r aq P rof i le so fp o t te ry f ound a tS eh Qubba

8 . 1

Map o ft he A rab ian p en insu la

9 . 1 9 . 2

C as telum E nB oqeq -e l eva t ion C a s telum E n B oqeq -i nr e la t ion t o o the r c a s t e l la o n t he l ime sP a lae s t inae ; t he n umbe r s i nd ica te t he n ame so ft he s i te so nt he l i s t C a s telum E nB oqeq -g round p l an A l l round p ro tec t ion o f a q uad r ibur g ium b y b ow sho t ; " f i re p l an " o n ly p ar t ly i nd ica ted a nd t ob e c omp le ted a cco rd ing ly E n B oqeq , m in imum a nd o p t imum g a r r i son s a nd t he i ri n i t ia lb a t t le s t a t ion sd ur ing a s sau l t O ve r lapp ing f i e ld so ff i re f r om s i x me t re l o ng t owe r b a t t lemen t Max imum i n c l ina t ion o f a r row s s ho t f r om b a t t lemen t sw i th n on -beve l led p arape t s Dead g round a nd e dge o f " bea ten z one " a tf oo t o f w al o rt owe r

9 . 3 9 . 4

9 . 5 9 . 6 9 . 7 9 . 8

1 0 .1 1 0 .2 1 0 .3 1 0 .4 1 0 .5 1 0 .6

G raf f i to o f Ge rmano s , s on o fI s aac o fP a lmy ra P a lmy rene g raf f i to , a s soc ia ted w i th t he d raw ing o f aw omen o nt he b ack o f ac ame l L a t in i n sc r ip t ion a tt he C a i rn o f Han i ' Du ra -Europo s g ra f f i to d ep ic t ing c l ibanar i i i n c omba t Du ra -Europo sg ra f f i to d ep ic t ing ac l ibana r iu s G ra f f i to o f ah o r seman

x i

1 2 .1

1 2 .2

1 2 .3

1 2 .4

1 4 .1 1 4 .2 1 4 .3

1 4 .4

T he s ou the rn s e c to r o f t he A rab ian f r on t ie r ; t he s qua re sr ep re sen tp o s s ib le m i l i ta ry s i te so ft he e a r ly s e cond c en tu ry T he S t anega te f r on t ie ri nB r i ta in ,c .9 0 -c .1 05 ; t he s qua re s r ep re sen t a ux i l ia ry f o r t s -o c cupa t ion u nce r ta in a to pen s qua re s T he T aunu sWe t te rau f r on t ie r i n Uppe r Ge rmany , c . 9 0 -c . 1 05 ; i n d e s cend ing o rde r o f s i ze t he s qua re sr ep re sen t 1 )l e g ionary f o r t re s s , 2 ) a ux i l ia ry f o r t s , 3 ) f o r t s l e s s t han 1h ec tare i n s i ze , 4 ) s mal f o r t le t s -o ccupa t ion u nce r ta in a to pen s qua re s T he Ud ru t i s e c to r o ft he A rab ian f r on t ie r , s how ing m i l i ta ry s i te s o f t he f ou r th c en tury ; Udru t i i st he l a rge r s qua re l y ing o n t he v i a n ova ; n one o f t he f o r t s ma rked b y as mal s qua re e xceed s 1h ec ta re i n s i ze , mo s ta re much s male r R oman -Pe r s ian f r on t ie rr eg ion si nl a te a n t iqu i ty S ke tch p l an o f C i tha r izon a nd i t s i mmed ia te e nv i ron s Map o f t he B ingö l p l a in , s how ing a pp rox ima te p o s i t ion s o f C i tha r izon , t he s t ream a nd h i l l t o t he n o r th , t he h i ghe r l e ve l p l a in ( ma rked b y d o t ted l i ne )t ot he s ou th a nd t he s ou th -ea s t , a nd Y en iK öy S ke tch map o f t he r eg ion b e tween t he l owe r A r san ia s a nd u ppe r E uph ra te s v aley s , s how ing p o s i t ion s o ft he f o r t i fed p l ace s l i s ted b y G eo rge o f C yp ru s

1 7 .1 1 7 .2

E p i taph o fA e l iu sA sc lep iade s I n sc r ip t ion t oC amu r iu sN um i s iu sI un io r

1 8 .1

Me sopo tam ia i nl a te a n t iqu i ty

2 0 .1

R ep roduc t ion o f t he F re sh f ie ld f o lde r d raw ing s o f A rcad iu s 'c o lumn .

2 2 .1

F ac s im i le d raw ing o f t he A z raq t e rm inu s i n s c r ip t ion , a sp ub l i shed i nK ennedy a nd MacAdam ( 1 985 : 1 00 ) T he Wad i S i rhan a nd a l -Jaw f r eg ion s , a dap ted b y J ul ie K ennedy f r om Adam s e ta l . ( 1977 : p l . 4 ) w i th p e rm i s s ion f r om t he p ub l i she r D e ta i l o f t he R oman r oad s y s tem i n n o r the rn J o rdan a nd s ou the rn S y r ia . T he m ap i sb a sed o n t ha t o r ig ina l ly a ppea r ing a s t he e nd -map i n K ennedy ( 1 982 ) , d rawn b yJ u l ie K ennedy

2 2 .2

2 2 .3

2 3 .1

C remna : s i ege mound , n o r the rn s e c t ion o f We s t C i ty Wal a nd t he F i r s t S i ege Wal , w i th a s soc ia ted f e a tu re s

2 4 .1

T he C appadoc ian l ime s

2 6 .1

T he n o r the rn s ec to r o ft he A rab ian f r on t ie r i nt he f ou r th c en tu ry T he s e c to ro ft he A rab ian f r on t ie re a s t o ft he Dead S ea i nt he f our th c en tu ry R econ s t ruc ted p l an o f t he l e g ionary f o r t re s s a t e l L e j jün w hen b u i l t c .3 00 ; n o te t he e i gh t b ar rack b lock si nt he p rae t en tu ra P lan o f t he e l -Le j jün l e g ionary f o r t re s s a s r econ s t ruc ted i nt he l a te f our th c en tury ; n o te t ha t t he n umbe r o fb ar rack b l ock si nt he p rae t en tura h a s b een r educed f r om e i gh tt of our P lan o f Q ae r B sh i r , a t y p ica l T e t ra rch ic q uad r ibur g ium , e rec ted 2 93 -305 ; mange r s i n mo s t o f t he g round f l oo r r ooms s ugge s t t ha t i t w a s c on s t ruc ted f o r ac ava l ry u n i t T he f r on t ie r s e c to r u nde r t he d ux P hoen i c i s i n c en t ra l S y r ia i n t he f our th c en tury ( a f te r v an B e rchem 1 952 ) T he f r on t ie r i n s ou the rn T ran s jordan ( l ime s P a lae s t inae ) i nt he f our th c en tury T he f r on t ie r i n s ou the rn P a le s t ine i n t he f our th c en tury

2 6 .2 2 6 .3

2 6 .4

2 6 .5

2 6 .6

2 6 .7 2 6 .8

2 9 .1 2 9 .2

2 9 .3 2 9 .4 2 9 .5

2 9 .6

C en t ra l a nd w e s te rn G a l i lee a nd Moun t C a rme l ( a f te rA v i -Yonah 1 976 : 1 06 , f i g .2 ) T he c en t ra ls t ruc ture , a se xpo sed a f te rf our s ea sons o f e xcava t ion s ; n o te t he t owe r , t he w al t ha t s ur rounded t he t owe r o n t he s ou th s i de a nd t he r ound o pen ing i nt he r oo fo ft he c i s te rn T he Helen i s t ic t owe r , s chema t ic p l an T he Helen i s t ic t owe r , i s ome t r ic v i ew T he l ow w al s u r round ing t he t owe r o n t he s ou th s i de ; n o te t he a l te rna t ing c our se s o f h eade r s a nd s t re tche r s T he u nde rg round w a te r supp ly s y s tem , s ec t ion d raw ing

3 0 .1 3 0 .2 3 0 .3 -13

Map o ft he Ma la tya a rea S ke tch p l an o fK a ram i ldan P ro f i le so fp o t te ry f ound a tK aram i ldan

3 1 .1 3 1 .2

J udaea i n Ha smonaean -He rod ian -R oman t ime s J e ru sa lem i n H asmonaean - He rod ian - R oman t ime s

3 2 .1 3 2 .2 3 2 .3 3 2 .4

T he R ed S ea E gyp t ian R ed S ea p o r t s T he l owe rN i le v aley a nd t he R ed S ea T he I nd ia t r ade

3 4 .1

S amo sa ta -p l an o ft he w aled c i ty

3 5 .1 3 5 .2

An t ioch ( a f te r Downey 1 961 ) S ke tch o fw a te rga te , i nne rf a ce

3 6 .1

Map o fR oman Me sopo tam ia a f te r2 98

3 7 .1

F ragmen t o f ab ow l f r om S amosa ta , F o rm 1 8B , b a se i n te r io rw i th p ro f i le F ragmen t o f ac up ( c a la thu s ) f r om S amosa ta , w i th p rof i le

3 7 .2

x iv

ABBREV IAT IONS

AA : AASOR : Ac taAr chHung : AE : AHR : AJP : AM : AM I ran : Ana lBo l l : Ana tS t : AnnEconSocC iv : ANR W : An tW : Anz W ien : AR : A r c / if : A r chN ew s : ASS : Adak BASOR : BCH : BEO : B ib lAr ch : B ib0 : B IFAO : BMC : BM MA : B onnJbb : B SOAS : B SR : B u l L 1 3 . : BZ : CA H : C hrEg : C IG : C IH : C IL : C IS : C IRB : C l : C IM ed : CP : CPJ :

A r chäo log i sche r Anze ig e r Annua lo ft h e Ame r ican S choo l so fO r ien ta lR e sear ch A c ta a da r chaeo log iam e ta r t ium h i s tor iam p e r t inen t ia L 'Annee é p ig raph ique Amer ican H i s to r ica lR ev iew Amer ican J ourna lo fP h i lo logy M i t te i lung en d e s D eu t schen A r chäo log i schen I n s t i tu t s , A then i sche Ab t e i lung A r chäo log i sche M i t t e i lung en a u sI r an Ana lec ta B o l land iana Ana to l ian S tud ie s . J ourna l o f t h e B r i t i sh I n s t i tu t e o f A r chaeo logy a t Ankara Anna le s . E conom ie , s oc ij t6 s , c i v i l i sa t ions H . T empor in i ( ed . ) Auf s t ieg u nd N ied ergang d er r öm i schen W e l t . B e r l in 1 972 T he Anc ien t Wor ld Anze ig er d e r Akad em ie d e r W i s sen schaf t en , W ien , P h i lo log i sch -h i s tor i sche K la s se A r chaeo log ica lR epo rt s A r chaeo log ica lJ our na l A r chaeo log ica lN ew s Ac ta S anc to rum T he J ou rna lo fS aud iA rab ian A r chaeo logy B u l l e t in o ft h e Ame r ican S choo l so fO r ien ta lR e sear ch B u l l e t in d ec o r r e spondance h e l lin ique B u l l e t in d ' d tude so r ien ta l e s[ Dama scus] T he B ib l ica lA r chaeo log i s t B ib l io theca O r ien ta l i s B u l l e t in d el ' In s t i tu tF rança i se d 'Ar chdo log iO r ien ta l e C a ta logue o ft h e G r eek c o in si nt h eB r i t i sh Museum B u l le t in o ft h e Me t ropo l i tan Mu seum o fA r t , N ew Y ork B onne rJ ahrbücher d e s R he in i schen L ande smuseu rn s i nB onn u nd d e s V e r e in sv on A l ter tum sf r eunden i mR he in land e B u l le t in o ft h eB r i t i sh S choo lo fO r ien ta la nd Af r ican S tud ie s P ape r so ft h eB r i t i sh S choo lo fA r chaeo log ya tR ome B u l l e t in j p ig raph ique B y zan t in i sche Z e i t schr if t C ambr idg e Anc ien tH i s to ry C hron ique d 'ggyp te C orpus I n sc r ip t ionum G raecarum C IS ,p ar sI V . I n scr ip t ione sh imyar i t ica se ts abaea sc on t inens 2 , 3 C o rpus I n scr ip t ionum L a t inarum C orpus I nscr ip t ionum S em i t icarum C orpu sI nscr ip t ionum R egn iB o sporan i C las s ica lJ our na l C la s s ica e t Med iava l ia C la s s ica lP h i lo logy V .A . T che r ikove r , A . F uk s a nd M . S tern , C orpu s P ap y rorum J uda ica rum . Harvard 1 964

CQ : CR : CRAI : C SCO : C SEL : C SHB : DAE : DarSag : DOP :

C la s s i ca lQ uar t e r l y C la s s i ca lR ev i ew C omp t e sr endus d e ss eance s d e l ' Acadim i e d e s I n sc r ip t ion s e t B e l l e s l e t t r e s C o rpu sS a ip to rum C hr i s t iano rum O r i en ta l ium C o rpu sS c r ip to rum E cc l e s ia s t i co rum L a t ino rum C o rpu sS a ip torum H i s tor iae B y zan t inae D eu t sche Ak sum -E xped i t ion C . D arembe rg a nd E . S ag l io ( ed s . )D i c t ionna i r ed e sa n t iqu ia s g r ecque se tr oma ine s . P ar i s 1 875 Dumbar ton O ak sP ape r s

EAEHL :

A v i Yonah ( ed . ) E ncyc loped ia o fa r chaeo log i ca l e x cava t ions i nt h e Ho l yL and . 4v o l s . J e rusa lem 1 975 -8

FHG :

K . Müle r ( ed . ) F ragmen ta H i s tor icorum G raeco rum . 1 841 -1938

GCS : GRBS :

D i e g r i ech i schen c h r i s t l i chen S ch r if t s t e l l e r d e r e r s t en d r e i J ahrhund e r t e G r eek R oman a nd B y zan t ine S tud ie s

HThR : HSCP :

Har vard T heo log i ca lR ev iew Ha r va rd S tud i e si nC la s s i ca lP h i lo log y

I EJ : I GFor sch : I GLS : I GRR :

I rAn t :

I s rae lE xp lo ra t ion J ourna l I ndog e rman i sche F o r schung en I n sc r ip t ione sg r ecque se tl a t ine sd el aS y r ie R . C agna t ( ed . ) I n sc r ip t ione s G raecae a d R e s R omana s P e r t inen t e s . P a r i s 1 906 De s sau ,I n sa ip t ione sL a t inae S e l ec tae B . L a ty schev ( ed . ) I n sa ip t ione s a n t iquae o rae s ep t en t r iona l i s P on t iE ux in ig raecae e tl a t inae . P e te r sbou rg 1 916 I r an i ca a n t iqua

J AOS : J ARCE : J dI : J EA : JHS : J POS : JQR : J RAS : J RS :

J ourna lo ft h e Ame r ican Or i en ta lS oc ie ty J ourna lo ft h e Ame r ican R e sear ch C en t e ri nE gyp t J ah rbuch d e sD eu t schen A r chäo log i schen I ns t i tu t s T he J ourna lo fE gyp t ian A r chaeo logy J ou rna lo fH e l l en ic S tud i e s J ou rna lo ft h eP a l e s t ine O r i en ta lS oc ie ty J ew i sh Q ua r t e r l yR ev i ew J our na lo ft h eR oya lA s ia t ic S oc i e ty T he J ourna lo fR oman S tud ie s

MA MA : MDIK

Monumen ta A s iae M inor i s An t igua M i t t e i lung en d e s D eu t schen A r chäo log i schen I n s t i tu t s , Ab t e i lung K a i ro M i t t e i lung en d e sD eu t schen O r i en t -Ge se l l schaf tz uB e r l in Mé lang e sd el 'Un ive r s i tg S a in tJ o seph ,B e y rou th Mé lang e s d ' ar chjo log i e e t d ' h i s to i r e d e r tco l e F ran a i se d e R ome Monumen ta G e rman iae H i s to r ica Mu seum H e l ve t icum

I LS : I OSPE :

MDOG : MNBey rou th : Mg 1Rome : MGH : Mu sH e l v :

xv i

P a r i s

NC : NumAn tC I :

Num i sma t ic C hron ic l e Num i sma t ica ea n t ich i tä c l a s s iche . Quadem it i c ine s i

OGIS : PAES : PCPS : PEQ : PG : P IR : PLRE : P rocBr i tAc : P rocPh i lAs :

O r ien t i sG raec iI nscr ip t ione sS e l ec tae P ub l ica t ion s o f t h e P r ince ton U n ive r s i ty A r chaeo log ica l E xped i t ions t oS y r ia P roceed ing so ft h e C ambr idg eP h i loog ica lS oc ie ty P a le s t ine E xp lora t ion Quar t e r l y P a t ro log ia G raeca P ro sopog raph ia I mpe r i iR oman i P ro sopog raphy o ft h el a t eR oman Emp i r e P roceed ing so ft h eB r i t i sh Acad emy P roceed ing so ft h e Ame r ican P h i lo log ica lA s soc ia t ion

QDAP :

Qua r te r l yo ft h eD epa r tmen to fAn t iqu i t ie si nP a le s t ine

RB ib l : RBPh i l : RCH M : RE :

R evue b ib l ique R evue b e lg ed ep h i lo log ie e td 'h i s to i r e R oya lC omm i s ion o nH i s to r ica l Monumen t s , E ng land P au ly -W i s sowa , R ea l -Encyc lopäd ie d e r k la s s i schen A l te r tum sw i s sen schaf t R evue d e se t ud e sa nc ienne s A t t id e l l ' Accad em ia Naz iona le d e iL ince L R end icon t i R eper to i r ed ' gp ig raph ie s jm i t ique R evue d el ' h i s to i r ed e sr e l ig ions R .G . C ol ingwood a nd R .P . Wr igh t ( eds . ) T he R oman I n sc r ip t ions o fB r i ta in , 1 .I nscnp t ions o ns t one . Ox ford 1 965 T he R oman I mpe r ia lC o inag e . L ondon 1 923 R iv i s ta s t or ica d e l l 'an t ich i tä M i t te i lung en d e s D eu t schen A r chäo log i schen I ns t i tu t s , R öm i sche Ab t e i lung R evue n um i sma t ique R evue d el 'O r ien tc he ien R evue d ep h i lo log ie , d el i t t&a tur ee td 'h i s to i r ea nc ienne s R oman R oad sa nd M i l e s tone so fA si aM inor

REA : R endL inc : RES : RHR : R IB : R IC : R ivS torAn t : RM : RN : RO rChr : RPh i l : RR MA .M : S A : S aa lbJb : S B Münch :

T APA : T A VO : T ürkArkDe rg :

S ov ie t ska ja A r cheo log i ja S aa lburg -Jahrbuch . B e r ich td e sS aa lburg - Mu seum s S i t zung sbe r ich t e , B aye r i sche Akad em ie d er W i s sen schaf t en , München , P h i lo soph i sch -h i s tor i sche K la s se S i t zung sbe r ich te , d e r Akadem ie d e rW is senschaf ten i nW ien S upp l emen tum E p ig raph icum G raecum D i t t enbe rg er , S y l loge I nsa ip t ionum G raeca rum E . K a l inka a nd R . He rbe rdey ( ed s .) T i tu l i A s iae M ino r i s . Wien 1 901 T ransac t ion so ft h e Amer ican P h i lo log ica lA s soc ia t ion T üb ing e rA t la sd e sv ord e r en O r ien t s T ürk A rkeo lo j iD e rg i s i

VDI :

V e s tn ik d r evne ji s to r i i

ZAeS : ZD MG : ZDPV : ZPE :

Z e i t sch r if tf ür ä gyp t i sche S p rache u nd A l te r tum skunde Z e i t sch r if td er D eu t schen Morg en länd i schen G e se l l schaf t Z e i t sch r if td e sD eu t schen P a läs t ina -V er e in s Z e i t schr if tf ür P apy ro log ie u nd E p ig raph ik

S BW ien : S EG : S IG : T AM :

I NTRODUCT ION D av id F rench T he p r inc ipa l r ea son f o r t he s ugge s t ion ( made d u r ing t he s e cond E a s te rn F ron t ie r s ' C oloqu ium a tS he f f ie ld , Ap r i l 1 986 ) t h a t Anka ra m igh t b e s u i tab le a s t he v enue f o r at h i rd m ee t ing i nt he s e r ie s ,w a s s imp le , s t ra igh t forwa rd a nd u rgen t : t he c on s t ruc t ion o ft he A ta tü rk D am , r ap id ly n ea r ing c omp le t ion , w ou ld r e su l t i n t he p e rmanen t f l ood ing o fl a rge t r ac t so ft he E uph ra te sv aley . Above a l , t he g rea t s i te o fS amo sa ta ( mode rn S am sa t )w ou ld b ei r re t r ievab ly l o s t . T he o ppo r tun i t ie st o v i s i t a nd t o o b se rve t he f r on t ie r l a nd s i n t h i s r eg ion o f t he R oman Emp i re w e re r ap id ly d im in i sh ing . Mo reove r , t he l o s se st oa r chaeo logy w i l l , c l ea r ly , n o tb ec on f ined t ot he l a ke f o rmed b yt he A ta tü rk d am . Two f u r the rd am sh ave b een p l anned s ou th o fS am sa t , o ne b e low Z eugma ( mode rn B e lk i s T epe ) a tB i rec ik , t he s e cond a tC a rcem i sh . I n t o ta l t he re a re t o b e f i ve d am s a l ong t he E uph ra te s b e tween E r z incan a nd C a rcem i sh . Two ( Keban a nd K a rakaya ) h ave b een c omp le ted . A l though s ome e xcava t ion w a sc a r r ied i nt he e a r ly y ea r s o ft he K eban P ro jec t ( 1 968 -1973 ) , n o tab ly a tP agn ik Ö ren i ( Ha rpe r 1 977 : 4 53 a nd f i g . 1 ) , a n i n ten s ive , o n foo t s u rvey w a s n o t u nde r taken i n t he K eban s e c t ion o f t he w e s t b ank n o r l a te r i nt he Ma la tya a rea a bove K a rakaya . S uch a s ur vey i s c u r ren t ly p a r t o f t he T i l le Höyük r e scue o pe ra t ion sc a r r ied o u tb y t he B r i t i sh I n s t i tu te o fA rchaeo logy i n Anka ra . I tw il b e e x tended , a ss oon a sp o s s ib le , t ot he f l ood z one o ft he B i rec ik a nd C a rcem i sh d am s . F ew s cho la r s , h oweve r , h ave h ad t he o ppo r tun i ty e ven t o v i s i t t he mo re r emo te s e c t ion s o f t he E uph ra te s v a l ley a nd t he h i gh g round , l a rge ly i n acce s s ib le t o mo to r i sed t r an spo r t ,b e tween E r z incan a nd T rabzon . I tw a s p rec i se ly t o t he se a rea s t ha t t he o rgan i se r s w i shed t o t ake t he C oloqu ium p a r t ic ipan t s . N o t o n ly w a s i td e s i rab le , w h i le t he p o s s ib i l i ty w a s a va i lab le , t ov i s i t Z eugma , S amo sa ta a nd t he R oman monumen t s l o ca ted b e tween t he t o -a lr e la t ive ly e a sy t oa pp roach -b u t a l so -s oi tw a sp l anned -t he re w ou ld b e e ven g rea te r p ro f i t i nf olow ing ar ou te w h ich w ou ld t ake t he membe r s o ft he t ou r a l ong t he e a s te rn f r inge o f C appadoc ia a nd o ve r t he r i dge s o f t he B lack S ea moun ta in si nP on tu s . Whe the ro r n o t t he f i nanc ia l o u t lay w a sj u s t i f ied , i ti sc e r ta in t ha t s oon t he i d en t ica l i tne rary w i l l n o t b e r epea tab le . T he re w a s an eed , i tw a s f e l t b y t he C oloqu ium o rgan i se r s , t o p rov ide a n o ppo r tun i ty w h ich w ou ld b e u n ique . A s e cond c on s ide ra t ion a l so w a s p rom inen t i n t he m ind o f a l t ho se w ho w e re a cqua in ted w i th t he t e r ra in a nd t he p hy s ica l c ond i t ion s . C appadoc ia a nd P on tu s b o th l a ck t he r e su l t s o fi n ten s ive , n a r row a nd d e ta i led s urvey s . B o th r eg ion s s u f fe r f r om a p auc i ty o f ma te r ia l e v idence o n t he s c a le t h a t i sv i s ib le a nd p re sen t i n mode rn S y r ia a nd J o rdan . Whe rea s am a jo r r oad , r unn ing f r om Z eugma t h rough S amo sa ta a nd Me l i tene t o T rapezu s i s n ow , much mo re t h an p rev iou s ly , a n o b servab le r ea l i ty , r e co rded s i te sa l ong s ide a nd i nt he v i c in i ty o ft h i sr oad a re f ew s urvey o f o b se rved r ema in s b y F rench ( 1983 : 7 1 ) , w i th p a r t icu la r r e f e rence t o t he w o rk o f M i t fo rd i n C appadoc ia a nd Wagne r i n C ommagene . T he c on t ras t w i th S y r ia a nd P a le s t ine i ss t r ik ing , i np a r t icu la r w i th t he f i e ld r e sea rch o n t he l i me s A r ab i cu s ( Pa rke r 1 986 a nd 1 987 ) . A f u r the r c on t ra s t b e tween C appadoc ia ( and P on tu s ) a nd S y r ia ( and P a le s t ine ) i se mpha s i sed b y t he p oo r e p ig raph ic r eco rd i n t he n o r the rn p rov ince s a nd i nt ho se s ou th o f t he T au ru s , e . g . S a ta la ( F rench a nd S umme r ley 1 987 ) a nd Me l i tene ( M i t fo rd 1 988 ) c on t ra s ted w i th Apamea ( Ba l ty 1 988 : 9 9 ) .

1

Z eugma , S amo sa ta , Mel i tene a nd T rapezu s h ad e x i s ted i na n e a rl ie rl i fe a s c i t ie s ; o ne c ou ld p e rhap s a s se s s S a ta la , a s B i l io t t i d oe s (M i t fo rd 1 974a : 2 42 ) , a s a s mal p re -Roman t own a l though t he m a te r ia l e v idence f o r t h i s c h rono logy -a h and fu l o f s he rd s -i s meag re . Al t he se h ave , t o s ome e x ten t , a n a rchaeo log ica l p ed ig ree . A t al owe r h i e ra rch ica l l e ve l , h oweve r , m i l i ta ry s i te s ( t he l o ca t ion s o f c oho r t s a nd a l ae ) a re , i n a r chaeo log ica l r e ckon ing , b ad ly r ep re sen ted a nd r oad i n s tala t ion se ven mo re s o . I nt he se a spec t s , e a s te rn C appadoc ia i sa rchaeo log ica l ly p oo r . A s n o ted a bove , t he p ove r ty i sd ue p a r t ly t o al a ck o fe xp lo ra t ion , p a r t ly t o t he t e r ra in . A t t he s ame t ime , t he s i te -d i s t r ibu t ion may b e af unc t ion o f R oman m i l i ta ry a c t iv i ty . T he p o in t w a s made b y C row a t S he f f ie ld ( 1986 : 7 7 ) ; i ti s e mpha s i sed i nt he se P roceed ing sb y Hodg son ( s ee b e low , p age s 1 77 a nd 1 81 ) . T he e a s te rn f r on t ie ri nC appadoc ia , i th a sb een s ugge s ted ,w a sn o tn ece s sa r i ly p e rce ived a s af i xed l i ne , a nd a c t iv i ty f o rwa rd o ft he Z eugma -S amo sa ta -Me l i tene -S a ta la T rapezu sl i ne w a sa si mpo r tan t , i ti sa rgued , a ss t a t ic d e fence . T he re a re o b jec t ion s t o t he se p ropo sa l s . I ti st r ue t h a t t he r oad w h ich l i nked t he ma in l e g iona ry c en t re s may h ave c ome a sc l o se a sw a sd eemed n ece s sa ry t ot he c r ea t ion o f al i nea r d e fence . N eve r the le s s , t he p hy s ica lp re sence a nd n a tu re o ft he E uph ra te s may h ave l e d m i l i ta ry t h ink ing t ot he a ccep tance o f ad e fen s ive l i ne o n t he r i ve r . S ugge s t ion s f o r a c t iv i ty , m i l i ta ry o r o therw i se , f o rwa rd o f t he E uph ra te s ( Hodg son , b e low p age s 1 77 -189 ; M i t fo rd 1 986 ; C row 1 986 ) h ave n o t b een c on f i rmed . T he c r ea t ion o f t he e a s te rn f r on t ie r p rov ince s w a s n o t p iecemea l . T he R oman s t ook i n v a s t t r ac t s o f t e r r i to ry w i thou t s i gn i f ican t m i l i ta ry s t rugg le . C appadoc ia , ak i ngdom u n t i l 1 7 ,w a si n co rpo ra ted a s as i ng le e n t i ty , a f te r t he d ea th o fA rche lau s . S o , t oo , C ommagene ( annexed i n7 2 ) . P on tu s ( s ub sequen t ly k nown a sP on tu s P o lemon iacu s ) w a s t aken o ve r f r om K ing P o lemon ( i n 6 4 ) . T h i s i sn o t c r eep ing a dvance n o r p iecemea l c onque s t : t he R oman s t ook o ve r t he p o s se s s ion s o fk ing s a t ag u lp . I n e a s te rn A s ia M ino r a nd S y r ia t he d eve lopmen t o f t he r oad s y s tem r ef lec t st he p a t te rn o fa nnexa t ion . A" s ing le -dec i s ion -ac t "c ou ld d e s c r ibe t he o pe ra t ion o fr oad -bu i ld ing i nC appadoc ia a nd i nt he c en t ra lr eg ion s o fA s ia M ino r . T he o ccu r rence o f t wo i n sc r ip t ion s , ( 1 ) a t P agn ik Ö ren i , c e r ta in ly F lav ian , i nd ica t ing t he l o ca t ion o f ac oho r t (M i t fo rd 1 974b : 1 72 n o . 8 )a nd ( 2 ) a t Ada tepe ( f o rme r ly P ingan ) , ag rave s tone , o nw h ich t he d ed i can t i s as o ld ie r i na na l a ( C IL 3 . 6743 )p rec i se ly o nt he w e s tb ank o ft he E uph ra te sr e in fo rce st he c oncep tt h a tt he c r ea t ion o f al i nea r d e f en s ive s y s tem o n t he u ppe r E uph ra te s w a s , i n o r ig in , t he b a s ic i n ten t ion ; r e cal ing t he e v idence p rov ided b yt he d i scove ry o f aC on s tan t in ian f o r t a t P agn ik , o ne may a c cep t t ha t i tc on t inued t o b e s o . When c omb ined w i th o the re p ig raph ic s ou rce s , s uch a st hey a re , t he d a ta e l ic i ted f r om m i le s tone sc an b e u sed t os uppo r t t he h ypo the s i s o f as i ng le , d ec i s ive a c tw he reby t he c on s t ruc t ion o f an o r th sou th r oad , f o r t s( l eg iona ry a nd a ux i l ia ry ) a nd ah in te r land c ommun ica t ion s s y s tem w e re a l c omp le ted , v i r tua l ly i n ad ecade , b y ac omb ina t ion o f i mpe r ia l l e ga te s ,v i z . ( 1 ) G a la t ian a nd C appadoc ian r oad s : 7 9 -82 ,A . C ae senn iu s G alu s a nd 7 6 , C n . P ompe iu s C olega ( RR MA M 2 :5 07 -508 a nd 5 15 ) , ( 2 ) E uph ra te s ( ? )fo r t a t P agn ik : A . C ae senn iu sG alu s ( M i t fo rd 1 974b : 1 72 ) , ( 3 )c ommun ica t ion s y s tem i n to S y r ia f r om ( Se leuc ia a nd ) An t ioch ia : 7 5 , M . U lp iu s T ra ianu s ( v an B e rchem 1 983 a nd 1 985 ) . A r e la t ion sh ip b e tween t he se F lav ian c on s t ruc t ion s i sn o t o pen t o d oub t . T he f i r s t , s i ng le -ac ti ss e l f -ev iden t ( p ace C row 1 986 : 7 9 ) : mu l t i -d imen s iona l , s t ra teg ic i n ten t ion s , i ft he re w e re s uch ( t hen o rs ub sequen t ly ) m ay n o th ave b een s o c l ea rc u t ( C row 1 986 ; I s aac i nt he se P roceed ing s ) . T he b a lance o fe v idence s ugge s t s t h a t i n i t ia l ly , a tl e a s t , as t ra tegy o fl i nea r d e fence o n t he C ommagen ian a nd C appadoc ian s e c t ion s o f t he E uph ra te s ( s ome 4 15 km i nl e ng th f r om S amo sa ta t oS a ta la ) w a st he f undamen ta l i n ten t ion a nd t ha t

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i t c on t inued t o b e s o u n t i l t he p a r t i t ion o f 3 87 . T he s t o l id i ty o f t he C appadoc ian/Commagen ian l i ne i sb roken d own o n ly o n t he n o r th a nd t he s ou th . I ti sh e re t h a t t he r o le o f R oman m i l i ta ry a c t iv i ty h a s c ome u nde r s c ru t iny ( C row 1 986 ; Dab rowa a nd B raund i nt he se P roceed ing s ) . A t t he s ame t ime w e may t u rn t oa dvan tage t he l a ck o fe v idence f r om t he C appadoc ian E uph ra te s a nd a rgue t ha t t h i s p auc i ty r ef lec t s t he s uc ce s s o f t he E uph ra te s b a se l i ne w hen c omb ined w i th a dequa te p rov i s ion o n n o r the rn ( Pon t ic a nd C auca s ian ) a nd s ou the rn ( No r th S y r ian ) f l ank s . L e t u s n o t f o rge t t he t r ad i t ion s o f t he Helen i s t i c ( and e a rl ie r ) k ingdom s a nd t he r o le t ha t p hy s ica l c ond i t ion s p l ayed i nd e te rm in ing t he t e r r i to ry o f ak ing . C appadoc ia u nde r i t s k i ng s w a s d e f ined , t o t he E a s t b y t he E uph ra te s , a s i th ad b een e a r l ie ri nt he f i f th c en tu ry BC ( Hd t .5 . 52 ) . C ommagene w hen i tw a sa b so rbed i n to t he p rov ince o f S y r ia w a s d el im i ted b y t he E uph ra te s . I n a nnex ing b o th k i ngdom s , t he re fo re , t he R oman s w e re u ndoub ted ly f a ced w i th a n i nhe r i ted c oncep t o ft e r r i to r ial i ty . I n C appadoc ia , b e tween a nnexa t ion ( i n 1 7 ) a nd s i ng le -ac t ( beg inn ing i n 7 6 u nde r P ompe iu s C olega ) t he re w a s ap e r iod o f s ome 6 0 y ea r s d u r ing w h ich t he empe ro r sa nd t he i r a gen t sc ame t ot e rm sw i th t he a c t ion s o ft he i r p redece s so r ( s ) a nd t he t r ad i t ion s o f t e r r i to r ial i ty ( Dab rowa 1 986 a nd i n t he se P roceed ing s ) . T he d eg ree s o f s im i la r i ty a nd d i f f e rence b e tween n o r th a nd s ou th i n t he e a s te rn p rov ince s a re w el i l u s t ra ted b y s eve ra l p ape r s i n t he se P roceed ing s , o n s ub jec t so the rt h an t he s t r i c t ly m i l i ta ry a spe c t s . I ti so r thodoxy t ov i ew C appadoc ia a s as ou rce o f manpowe rf o r t he R oman ( and B yzan t ine ) a rmy . T he s ou rce s f o r t h i s v i ew a re s l ow t o ma te r ia l i se a nd t he s o i l o f C appadoc ia i t se l f ( s ee S pe ide l 1 983 : 7 ) s t ubbo rn ly r e s i s t s t he s u r rende r o f e v idence ( doe s i te x i s t? ) . S y r ia , o n t he o the r h and , c an b e s een i n ad i f fe ren t l i gh t ( s umma r i sed h e re b y K ennedy , p age s 2 35 -246 ) . S y r ia p rov ided n amed a ux i l ia ry u n i t s : C appadoc ia g ave n one . B u t b o th p rov ince s s en t men t ot he l e g ion s . T he re i ss ome e v idence t os ugge s td i f f e ren t ia lr e c ru i t ing . C appadoc ia i sn o t e ve rywhe re af e r t i le l a nd ( a s c ou ld b e o b served o n t he C oloqu ium t ou r ) . W in te r s a re h a r sh . T he a l t i tude a nd t he c l ima te p rec lude a b road -b a sed a g r icu l tu re . I n t he se a nd i no the r a spec t sS y r ia s t and s i nc on t ra s t t o t he u p land s o fe a s te rn Ana to l ia . E conom ic f a c to r s i nt he s ou th , i . e . e xchange a nd t r ade , p l ayed ar o le f o rw h ich t he re i sv e ry l i t t le e v idence i nt he n o r th ( e xcep t t he P on t i c c oa s t ) . F o r C appadoc ia w e d o n o t h ave t he e v idence f o r e conom ic a c t iv i ty a nd c on t ro ls uch a se x i s t si nS y r ia ,e . g . t he r egu la t ion s o nc u s tom sd u t ie sa tP a lmy ra ( He iche lhe im 1 938 : 2 50 -254 ) . T he re i se p ig raph ic t e s t imony f o r o ne ( a t l e a s t ) c en su si nC appadoc ia ( C IL 1 4 .5344 ; P f laum 1 960 -61 : 3 04 n o . 1 26 ) b u t n o e v idence ( a sy e t !) f o rc u s tom so rt a xa r rangemen t s . T he e f fec t s o f l ong -d i s tance t r ade a nd t r ade rou te s ( t he " c onme r t ium b a rba ro rum " T ab .P eu t ) o n m i l i ta ry a nd e conom ic a c t iv i ty a re c on f ined t o t he s ou the rn p rov ince s ( d i s cu s sed i nt he se P roceed ing sb yE ad ie a nd S idebo tham ) . N o s uch a s se s smen t c ou ld b e m ade f o r C appadoc ia . T he re i sn o e v idence t ha t t he E r z incan -E r zu rum r ou te t o t he E a s t h ad a l ready a s sumed i n R oman t ime s t he i mpo r tance w h ich i ta cqu i red i nt he B yzan t ine a nd Med ieva l p e r iod s . T he t h ree t r ade -cen t re s n amed i n t he i mpe r ia l e d ic t o f 4 08/9 w e re A r taxa ta , N i s ib i s a nd C al in icum ( Cod . l u s t .4 . 63 .4 )p rec i se ly n o r th a nd s ou th o fC appadoc ia . T he a va i lab i l i ty o f m a te r ia l , o b se rvab le e v idence h a s b ecome a s e r iou s i s sue , c e r ta in ly a nd u rgen t ly i nt he s ou th -ea s t o f T u rkey . N o t o n ly a re t he re t he

3

l o s se s o n t he E uph ra te s b u t t he a rchaeo log i s t i sn ow f a ced w i th t he c onsequence s o f t he d eve lopmen t p ro jec t s o n t he T ig r i s . T ho se p ar t ic ipan t s o f t he Ankara C oloqu ium w ho a re c once rned w i th t he h i s tory a nd a rchaeo logy o f t he T ig r i s r eg ion mus t n ow c on f ron t t he p rospec t o f c on s ide rab le l o s se s i n t he a rea w h ich o ve r t he f ou r c en tu r ie s b e tween S eve ru s ' a nnexa t ion a nd t he A rab e xpans ion f o rmed t he c en tre o fa c t iv i ty b e tween R ome a nd t he e as te rn p owe r s .

B ib l iography BALTY ,J .CH .

1 988

Apamea i n S y r ia i n t he s econd a nd t h i rd c en tu r ie s AD . J RS 7 8 : 9 1 -164 .

CRO W ,J .C .

1 986

A r ev iew o f t he p hy s ica l r ema in s o f t he f r on t ie ro fC appadoc ia . I n P .F reeman a nd D . K ennedy ( ed s . ) D ef ence o f t h e R oman a nd B y zan t ine E a s t : 7 7 -91 . O x fo rd ( BAR I n te rna t iona lS e r ie s2 97 ) .

DABRO WA , E .

1 986

T he f r on t ie r i n S y r ia i n t he f i r s t c en tury AD . I n P .F reeman a nd D . K ennedy ( ed s . ) D ef ence o ft h e R oman a nd B y zan t ine E a s t : 9 3 -108 . O x fo rd ( BAR I n te rna t iona l S e r ie s 2 97 ) .

FRENCH , D .H .

1 983

N ew r e search o n t he E uph ra te s f r on t ie r : s upp lemen ta ry n o te s 1a nd 2 . I nS .M i tchel ( ed . ) A rm i e s a nd f r on t i e r s i n R oman a nd B y zan t ine Ana to l ia : 7 1 -101 . O x ford ( BAR I n te rna t iona lS e r ie s 1 56 ) .

FRENCH , D .H . a nd SU M MERLEY ,J .R .

1 987

F our L a t in i n sc r ip t ion sf r om S a ta la . Ana tS t 3 7 : 1 7 -22 .

HARPER , R .P .

1 977

Two e xcava t ion s o n t he E uphra te s f r on t ie r 1 968 -1974 . I n D . Haup t a nd H .G . Ho rn ( ed s . )S tud i en z ud en M i l i tär g r enz en R oms I : 4 53 -460 . K ö ln .

HE ICHELHE IM ,F .M .

1 938

R oman S y r ia . I n T . F rank ( ed . ) An e conom ic s u r ve y o fa nc i en t R ome I V , p t . 2 : 1 21 -257 .

MITFORD ,T .B .

1 974a

B i l io t t i ' s e xcava t ion s a t S a ta la . Ana tS t 2 4 : 2 21 -244 .

1 974b

S ome i n sc r ip t ion s f r om t he C appadoc ian l ime s . J RS 6 4 : 1 60 -175 .

1 986

A l a te R oman f o r tre s s s ou th o f L ake V an . I n P . F reeman a nd D . K ennedy ( eds . ) D ef ence o ft h e R oman a nd B y zan t ine E a s t : 5 75 -602 . O x ford ( BAR I n te rna t iona lS e r ie s 2 97 ) .

4

1 988

F u r the r i n sc r ip t ion s f r om t he C appadoc ian l i me s . ZPE 7 1 : 1 67 -178 .

1 986

R e t rospec t ive o n t he A rab ian f r on t ie r a f te r ad ecade o fr e search . I nP .F reeman a nd D . K ennedy ( ed s . ) D ef ence o ft h e R oman a nd B y zan t ine E a s t : 6 33 -660 . O x fo rd ( BAR I n te rna t iona lS e r ie s2 97 ) .

1 987

T he R oman f r on t i e r i n c en t ra l J o rdan . I n t e r im r e po r to n t h eL ime sA rab icu sp ro j ec t , 1 980 -1 985 . Ox ford ( BAR I n te rna t iona l S e r ie s3 4 ) .

P FLAU M , H . -G .

1 960 -61

L e s c a rr i& e s p rocura to r i enne s 4ue s t r e s s ou s l e Hau t -Emp i r eR oma in . P ar i s .

S PE IDEL , M .P .

1 983

T he R oman a rmy i n A s ia M ino r . R ecen t e p ig raph ica l d i scove r ie s a nd r e searche s . I n S . M i tchel ( ed . ) A rm i e s a nd f r on t ie r s i n R oman a nd B y zan t ine Ana to l ia : 7 34 . O x fo rd ( BAR I n te rna t iona lS e r ie s 1 56 ) .

VAN BERCHE M , D .

1 983

Une i n sc r ip t ion f l av ienne d u d 'An t ioche . Mu sH e l v4 0 : 1 85 -196 .

1 985

L e p o r t d e Seeuc ie d u P ie r ie e t l ' i n f ras t ruc ture l o g i s t ique d e s g uer re s p ar th ique s . B onnJbb 1 85 : 4 7 -87 .

PARKER , S .T .

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Mu s6e

1 . S EH QUBBA , A RO MAN FRONT IER POST I N NORTHERN I RAQ Warw ick B a l l B aghdad T he s i te o fS eh Qubba o ccup ies as t ra teg ic p os i t ion o n t op o f ah igh b luf fo ver look ing t he T igr i s a bou t 9 0 km n or th -wes t o f Mosu l . I t a ppear s t o h ave b een a s ma l l t own o f t he l a te I s lam ic p er iod , s urrounded b y r ampar ts . A d eep s ound ing b e low a l a te I s lam ic a dm in is tra t ive b u i ld ing r evea led a s t ruc ture a ssoc ia ted w i th S asano -Byzan t ine p o t tery . B e low t ha t , t he r ema ins o f a f r agmen tary mosa ic f l oor s ea l ing a t e rraco t ta p ipe l ine w as a ssoc ia ted w i th t h ird c en tury " br i t t le " w are , t yp ica l o f P ar tho R oman s i tes i n I raq . A f ur ther s er ies o f s ound ing s i n t he a rea a long s ide t he r ampar ts r evea led a t l e as t 2m o f d ebr is , t he l ower l a yer sc on ta in ing S asano -Byzan t ine a nd P ar tho -Roman ma ter ia l . A c u tt hrough t he r ampar ts t hemse lves r evea led t ha tt hey w ere i nf a c t e ar thworks made u p o fp acked l a yer s o f g rave l , t hough n o d a t ing ma ter ia l w as p resen t . T he s t ra teg ic l o ca t ion o f t he s i te , t he p resence o f t h ird c entury b r i t t le w are a nd t he e v idence f r om t he s ources s ugges tt ha tS eh Qubba m igh tb et he l o ca t ion o ft he R oman f r on t ier s t a t ion o fC as tra Maurorum .

I n t roduc t ion T he s i te o fS eh Q ubba l i e si nn o r th -we s te rn I r aq s ome 1 00 km t ot he n o r th w e s t o f Mo su l ( F ig . 1 . 1 ) . I tl i e sw i th in t he a rea t ha t i sn ow f l ooded b yt he S addam D am a c ro s s t he T ig r i s a t E sk i Mo su l , t he s c ene o f a n a mb i t iou s r e scue p ro jec t , l a unched b yt he I r aq g ove rnmen t , a imed a tr eco rd ing a nd e xcava t ing a sm any o ft he t h rea tened s i te s a sp o s s ib le i nt he t ime a l lowed . I n 1 985 a nd 8 6 , a f te r t he w a te r s h ad a l ready s t a r ted t o r i se d own n ea r t he h ead o f t he d am , t he B r i t i sh S choo l o f A rchaeo logy i n I r aq b egan o pe ra t ion s f u r the r u p s t ream , a nd o ve r 9 mon th s w e e x cava ted at o ta lo fs even s i te st h rea tened b yt he f l ood w a te r s ( Bal 1 987 ; B al e ta l . f o r thcom ing ) . S eh Qubba w a s o ne o ft he se 7s i te s , a nd o ne o f t he mo re s pe c tacu la r . I t o c cup ie s amo s td rama t ic a nd v e ry c ommand ing p o s i t ion o n ah igh r ocky b l u f fs ome 4 0 m h igh o ve r look ing t he r i gh t b ank o f t he T ig r i s , j u s t 2 km u p s t ream f r om t he mode rn s e t t lemen t ( now s ubme rged ) a nd i mpo r tan t p reh i s to r ic s i te o f T el A bu Dhah i r ( F ig . 1 .4 I t d om ina te s t he r i ve r v aley t ha t s u r round s t h i s s i te , a n i mpo r tan t a rea o f a g r icu l tu re s i nce t he e a r l ie s t t ime s ( S imp son f o r thcom ing ) ; i t o ve r look s o ne o ft he m a in f o rd s a c ro s s t he T ig r i s n o r th o f Mo su l ( Oa te s 1 968 : 7 7 ) , o ne w h ich S i r Au re l S te in s pecu la ted m ay h ave b een t he r ou te o fA lexande r t he G rea t ' s a rmy ( G rego ry a nd K ennedy 1 985 : 1 28 -9 ) ; a nd i tc ommand s t he Wad i S uwa id iya , as ea sona l t r ibu ta ry a nd i mpo r tan t r ou te f r om t he J az i ra t ha tj o in s t he T ig r i s b e tween S eh Qubba a nd Abu Dhah i r ( G reen f o r thcom ing ) . I t s p o s i t ion , t he re fo re , i s av e ry s t ra teg ic o ne , c ommand ing l o ca l r ou te s a nd r e sou rce s . E xcava t ion sw e re c a r r ied o u t o ve r n ea r ly 1 0w eek s u nde r t he s upe rv i s ion o fS u san G i l l w i th aw o rk f o rce o f s ome 2 0 m en , a f te r w h ich r i s ing f l oodwa te r s t u rned t he b l u f f i n to a n i s land ( Bal a nd G il f o r thcom ing ) . T he f l ood w a te r s , h oweve r , w i l l n eve re n t i re ly i nunda te t he s i te ; e xcava t ion sh ave c on t inued , t he re fo re , t h roughou t 1 987 a nd 1 988 u nde r Mr S a lem Y un i so ft he I r aq i An t iqu i t ie s Depa r tmen t .

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De sc r ip t ion T he n ame S eh Q ubba mean s " t h ree d ome s " o r " t omb s " , r e fe r r ing t o t h ree r e la t ive ly mode rn t omb s o c cupy ing t he s i te . T he s umm i t o ft he b l u f fi ss ome 2 6 h a i na rea , a lmo s ta lo fw h ich i so c cup ied b yt he s i te ( F ig . 1 3 ) . A mode rn v i l lage ,n ow d e se r ted , c ove r s a bou t at h i rd o f t he a rea i nt he s ou the rn h a l f o f t he s i te . T ho se p a r t so ft he s i te n o tc ove red b y t he v i l lage c on s i s t o fl ow e roded mound s a nd s t one a nd mo r ta rw al f ounda t ion s , t he w ho le c ove red b y at h ick s c a t te ro fp o t te ry , r ubb le a nd g ene ra l b u i ld ing d eb r i s . T he r ema in s o f r ampa r t s , c on s i s t ing o f l ow mound s a bou t 5m h igh , c an b e t r aced a l ong t he n o r the rn , n o r th -we s te rn a nd w e s te rn e dge s o ft he b l u f f ,b e fo re d i sappea r ing u nde rt he mode rn v i l lage t ot he s ou th . Ad i tch l i e s o u t s ide t he r ampa r t s . T he s i te i sp ro tec ted o n t he e a s t s i de b yt he v e ry s t eep s i de s o ft he e s ca rpmen tw h i ch d rop -a lmo s ts hee ri ns ome p l ace s -d own t ot he T ig r i s . We h ave a p i c tu re , t he re fo re , o f as i te o ccupy ing a n i mpo r tan t s t ra teg ic p o s i t ion , w i th e xcelen t n a tu ra l d e f ence s t h a t h ad b een f u r the r r e in fo rced b y f o r t i f ica t ion s . I ti s , f u r the rmo re , as i te l a rge e nough f o r d ome s t ic o c cupa t ion , s o r a the r mo re t han j u s t af o r t . I n o the rw o rd s , i th ad a l t he h alma rk s o f am i l i ta ry s e t t lemen t . I tw a s w i th t h i s i n m ind t h a t w e b egan o u r w o rk a tS eh Qubba a nd p l anned o u rf i e ldwo rk a c co rd ing ly . T h i s c on s i s ted o f s eve ra l o pe ra t ion s : as u r f ace c olec t ion o f s he rd s a nd o the r a r t i f ac t s , ac on tou r p l an d ep ic t ing a l e x tan t r ema in s ( F ig . 1 3 ) , a nd s ound ing s i n s e le c ted a rea s o ft he s i te . T he s u r f ace s u rvey r evea led ar ange o fd a te sf o r t he s i te , w h ich Iw i l l d ea l w i th l a te r . T he c on tou r p l an d e l inea ted t he r ampa r t s a nd a s soc ia ted f e a tu re s , s uch a s p o s s ib le g a teway s , a nd a l so p i cked u p w al a l ignmen t s a nd o the r s t ruc ture sv i s ib le o n t he s u r f ace ; i tb e came a ppa ren t e a r ly o n , h oweve r , t ha t t he se s u r f ace r ema in s w e re mo s t l i ke ly a s soc ia ted w i th t he l a te s t p ha se o ft he s i te i n t he I s lam ic p e r iod . T he s ound ing s w e re a imed a t r ecove r ing a s much s t ra t i f ied i n fo rma t ion o ve r a sw ide a n a rea o ft he s i te a sp o s s ib le w i th in t he l i m i ted t ime a va i lab le . Mo s t o ft he se e xcava t ion sw e re c oncen t ra ted o n t he h i ghe s t -h ence b e s td e f ended -p a r to ft he s i te t ot he e a s t , i mmed ia te ly o ve r look ing t he r i ve r ( A rea A ) . He re , ad eep s ound ing w a s e xcava ted d own t ob ed rock ( T rench A l ) a nd w al c l ea rance o pe ra t ion sw e re c a r r ied o u t o n r ema in sv i s ib le o n t he s u r f ace ( A rea A 2 ) . I n a dd i t ion , 3s ound ing s ( T renche s B1 ,C l a nd D 1 ) w e re e x cava ted i n t he l owe r , mo re o pen p a r t o f t he s i te t o t he n o r th w he re o ne w ou ld mo s t e xpec t t o f i nd d ome s t ic o ccupa t ion . Af u r the rs ound ing ( T rench C 2 )w a sc u ta c ro s st he l i ne o ft he r ampa r t st ot he n o r th t od e te rm ine t he d a te a nd c on s t ruc t ion o ft he r ampa r t s .

T he E xcava t ion s T he d eep s ound ing i n A rea A c u t d own t h rough s ucce s s ive p ha se s o f o ccupa t ion t or each v i rg in s o i l a t4 . 33 m ( F ig . 1 . 4 ) . I n a l , f our o ccupa t ion p hase s w e re r ecogn i sed , b u t i ti so n ly t he l owe r t wo t h a t a re o fr e levance h e re . I t mu s t b e e mpha s ized a tt h i sp o in t t ha t t he s ound ing , 5x4min a rea a tt he t op ,w a sc on f ined t oo n ly 2x2m b yt he t ime i tr eached t he b o t tom b ecau se o fu n s tab le b au lk s . T h i s w a s b a re ly e nough r oom t o r e cogn i se e ven b a s ic s t ra t ig raph ica l t r end s l e t a l one c omp le te a r ch i tec tu ra l u n i t s a nd t he i r r e la t ion sh ip t o e ach o the r . N eve r the le s s , a n umbe r o f s i gn i f ican t i mpo r tan t a r ch i tec tu ra l f e a tu re s w e re e xpo sed . T he f i r s t p ha se c on s i s ted o fj u s t o ne s i de o f am a s s ive w al , aw id th o fa tl e a s t 1 . 30 m b e ing mea su red f o rt ha tp o r t ion o fi tw h ich l a yw i th in t he s ound ing -t he o the rs i de l a y a t s ome i nde te rm ina te p o in t b eyond t he s e c t ion . I tw a s w el c on s t ruc ted o f mud b r ick so ve r af oo t ing a nd f ounda t ion o fl a rge , d ry -o r mud -bonded s t one si n a3 0c m d eep f ounda t ion t r ench , a nd w a s a s soc ia ted w i th a n e a r the rn s u r f ace . T he se

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s t ruc tu re sa nd a s soc ia ted s t ra ta c on ta ined a lmo s t e xc lu s ive ly P a r tho -Roman p o t te ry ( t he d a t ing e v idence w i l lb ee l abo ra ted u pon mo re f u l ly b e low ) . T he s e cond p ha se o ve r ly ing t h i s w a s ar ebu i ld ing a t ad i f fe ren t a l ignmen t , o r p e rhap s ar e -oc cupa t ion a t al a te r d a te , a ss ome 4 5 c m o fd eb r i s s epa ra t ing t he t wo p ha se s m ay i n d ica te ap e r iod o fa bandonmen t . T he m a te r ia lf r om b o th p ha se s w a s e n t i re ly h omogeneou s , w i th l i t t le o r n o b reak b e ing d i sce rnab le , a l though g rea te r q uan t i t ie s w e re e xcava ted f r om t he s e cond p ha se . T he s econd p ha se , t he re fo re , w a s a l so R oman , a l though i t mu s t b e p o in ted o u t t ha t t he s t udy o ft h i s p o t te ry i ss t i l l i np rog re s s , s o " e a r l ie r " a nd " l a te r " R oman s t y le s may e me rge w hen t he s t ud ie s a re c omp le ted . F a r mo re mean ing fu l a r ch i tec tu re w a s a l so e xpo sed i n t he s e cond p ha se ( F ig . 1 . 5 ) . T h i s c on s i s ted o f p a r t s o f t wo r oom s , b o th o f t hem w i th f a i r ly s ub s tan t ia l f l oo r s , t hough w a l l s w e re o n ly o f d ry - o r mud -bonded u nd re s sed s t one st h roughou t . T he f l oo r o ft he f i r s tw a s made o fg ood q ua l i ty w h i te p l a s te r l a id o n a n u nde r lay o f p acked g rave l a nd p ebb le s . T h i s f l oo r p l a s te r c on t inued u p t he a d jacen t w al f a ce s t ot he i r f ule s t s ur v iv ing h e igh t . T he f l oo r o f t he n ex t r oom w as o r ig inaly amo sa ic , t hough a tt he t ime o fe xcava t ion c on s i s t ing o n ly o f as c a t te r o f b l ack a nd w h i te t e s se rae ( u sualy a bou t 1 5 mm s qua re ) o n a d i s in teg ra t ing p l a s te r b ack ing . B e low t he mo sa ic f l oo rw a s av e ry w el c on s t ruc ted p ipe l ine o f" Roman " t e r raco t ta p ipe s , e ach 3 4 c m l ong w i th i n s ide d i ame te r s o f 1 4 c m ( F ig . 1 . 6 ) , s e ti n as t one l ined c hanne l . O fc ou r se , n o t n ea r ly e nough o ft h i s mo s t t a n ta l i s ing P ha se 2b u i ld ing w a s e xpo sed t ob e a b le t oi d en t i f y i t sf unc t ion . N eve r the le s s , i t sp o s i t ion o n t he h ighe s t p a r t o f t he s i te , t oge the r w i th t he v e ry d i s t inc t ive f e a ture s t ha t w e re e xpo sed -a p l a s te r l ined r oom , a mo sa ic f l oo r ( e x t reme ly u nu sua l f o r I r aq ) , as oph i s t ica ted w a te r s upp ly o r d ra inage s y s tem -mu s t s u re ly i n d ica ted ab u i ld ing o f s ome p ub l ic i mpo r tance . T he l a te s t t wo p hase s i nt he d eep s ound ing o f T rench A l , c on s i s t ing o f S a sano B yzan t ine a nd l a te I s lam ic s t ruc tu re s r e spec t ive ly , n eed n o t c once rn u s i nt he p re s s en tc on tex t . L ikew i se , t he A rea A 2w al c l ea rance s , w h ich w e re o fw al sb e long ing t o al a te I s lam ic a dm in i s t ra t ive b u i ld ing , a re n o t d i scu s sed h e re . A l l o f t h i s i n fo rma t ion b e long s mo re p rope r ly t ot he f i na l r epo r t . T he t h ree s ound ing s i nt he o pen a rea o ft he a nc ien t s e t t lemen t , h oweve r , T renche s B l , C l a nd D 1 ( F ig . 1 . 3 ) , a l c on ta ined P a r tho -Roman p o t te ry , a l be i t i n l e s se r q uan t i t ie s . Due t o t he s ho r tage o f b o th t ime a nd r e sou rce s t h a t t he c on s t ra in t s o f ar e scue p ro jec t d emanded , i tw a s n o t p o s s ib le t oa na ly se t he s t ra t ig raphy o ft he se t h ree s ound ing s i n a s much d e ta i l a s o ne w ou ld h ave w i shed . A l l b u t T rench C l i n a ny c ase c on ta ined f a i r ly u n soph i s t ica ted s t ra t ig raphy w i thou t a ny s t ruc tu re s . E ven t he meag re s t ruc tu re so fT rench C lw e re o n ly t wo s ucce s s ive f l oo rl e ve l s , a bou t ame t re a pa r t , b o th p robab ly b e long ing t o t he S a sano -By zan t ine p e r iod , a l though P ar tho R oman ma te r ia lw as m ixed t h roughou t . S i nce v i rg in s o i li nT rench C l w a s s t i l ln o t r eached a f te r2 . 20 m ( when i tb ecame n ece s sary t of i n i sh t he e xcava t ion s ) , i ts eem s l i ke ly t ha t t h i s P a r tho -Roman ma te r ia lb e long s t ol owe r s t ra ta a sy e t u nexcava ted . I nconc lu s ive t hough t he e v idence f r om t he se t h ree t r enche s may a ppear , i td oe s a t l e a s t i nd ica te t he p re sence o f aR oman p e r iod s e t t lemen t i nt h i sp ar t o ft he s i te a s w el . T rench C 2 ( F ig . 1 . 3 ) w a s ac u t a c ro s s t he r ampa r t s t od e te rm ine t he i r d a te a nd c on s t ruc t ion . Un fo r tuna te ly , i tw a s n o t p o s s ib le t oa n swe rf u l ly e i the r o ft he se q ue s t ion s , a s o nce a ga in t he l a ck o f t ime a nd r e sou rce s e n fo rced b y t he c on t ingenc ie s o f ar e scue p ro jec t l e d t o t he a bandonmen t o f t he t r ench b e fo re i t w a sf i n i shed ,i . e . ,b e fo re v i rg in s o i lw a s r eached . Howeve r , t he 2m o rs o d ep th t ha t w a s r eached d id i n d ica te ac on s t ruc t ion o ft i gh t ly c omp re s sed l a ye r s o f g rave l a nd

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p ebb le s . I tw a sa lmo s te n t i re ly s t e r i le ,w i th t he f ew s he rd sr e cove red b e ing b u tp oo r d i agno s t ic s a t b e s t . One o f t he se s he rd s , h oweve r , s eem s L a te A s sy r ian , s o a R oman d a te f o r t he r ampa r t s i s al e a s t p o s s ib le -a nd w ou ld c e r ta in ly b e mo re c on s i s ten t w i th t he w ide s p read o f P a r tho -Roman m a te r ia l o ve r t he s i te t h an t he mo re meag re e v idence f o r L a te A s sy r ian o ccupa t ion . Whe the r t he l a ye r ing t e chn ique f o rmed ap a r t o f ac a sema ted c on s t ruc t ion , a s a tt he R oman c amp n o t f a r a way a tA in S inu ( Oa te s 1 959 ) , o rw he the rt hey w e re me re ly a n e a r thwo rk s ( o r mo re c o r rec t ly a " g rave lwo rk s " !) w a s n o t p o s s ib le t o d i sce rn i n s uch a s mal e xpo su re . I td oe s s eem l i ke ly , h oweve r , t ha t g i ven t he a bundance o fb u i ld ing s t one i n t he v i c in i ty a nd t he p opu la r i ty o f s t one a nd mo r ta r c on s t ruc t ion i n t he a rea d u r ing t he f i r s t m i l lenn ium AD , b u i ld ing a n e a r thwo rk s may b e e v idence o fh a s ty c on s t ruc t ion . Aga in , t h i sw ou ld b ec on s i s ten tw i th aR oman o c cupa t ion a tt he s i te .

D a te s Av e ry s mal a moun t o fs he rd s r ang ing f r om a pp rox ima te ly t he m id -2nd t o t he m idi s t m i l lenn ia BC -r ough ly c o r re spond ing t ot he M idd le a nd L a te A s sy r ian p e r iod s -w a s f ound i n b o th s u r f ace c ole c t ion s a nd e xcava t ion s . N one o f t hem , h oweve r ,c ou ld b e a s soc ia ted w i th a ny o ft he e xcava ted s t ruc tu re s o r s t ra ta . Wh i l s t t he v e ry s mal n umbe r f r om t he 2 nd mi l lenn ium w e re v e ry p oo r d i agno s t ic s -t hey i n c luded n one o ft he c l a s s ic K habu r , M i tann ian o r M idd le A s sy r ian t y pe s -t ho se f r om t he L a te A s sy r ian p e r iod w e re s l igh t ly mo re n ume rou s a nd w e re s l igh t ly mo re d i agno s t ic . I ts eem s l i ke ly , t he re fo re , t ha t t he re w a s N eo -A s sy r ian o ccupa t ion o f s o r t sa tS eh Qubba , a l be i to f av e ry meag re n a tu re . S u rp r i s ing ly , t he re w a sv i r tua l ly n o e v idence f o r Helen i s t ic o c cupa t ion ; t he o ne s i ng le r ed -g lazed s he rd t h a tw e i d en t i f ied a s Helen i s t ic c ou ld a s e a s i ly b e long t o t he P a r tho -Roman p e r iod , g i ven t he p re sen t s t a te o f o u r k now ledge o f t he c e ram ic sf o rt h i sp e r iod i nn o r the rn I r aq . I ts eem s f a i r ly c e r ta in , t he re fo re , t h a tt he R oman s e t t lemen ta tS eh Qubba w a s an ew f ounda t ion . Ou rd a t ing e v idence f o r t h i s R oman s e t t lemen t r e s t sa lmo s t e n t i re ly o n t he c e ram ic s a nd i sd i scu s sed i n mo re d e ta i l i nB ronwen C ampbel ' s p ape r ( s ee b e low , p age s 5 3 -65 ) , b u t t he ma in p o in t s c an b e s umma r i sed h e re . T he mo s t d i agno s t ic t y pe w a s t he u b iqu i tou s " b r i t t le w a re " , av e ry h a rd , d en se , g r i t ty t empe red w a re , b r ick red t og rey a nd b l ack o n t he e x te r io r . T h i sw a re -o rt y pe sv e ry s im i la r t oi ti so f ten a s soc ia ted w i th ma te r ia l o f t he R oman p e r iod i n t he M idd le E a s t ( f o r e xamp le , C la rk a nd F au lkne r 1 986 : f i g . 2 0 , n o s . 1 ,2 ; Wa t son 1 986 : f i g . 3 ,n o s . 1 ,3 ) a nd , mo re s pec i f icaly , a tt he R oman c amp o fZ agu rae a tA in S inu , as ho r t d i s tance a way n ea r T e l 'a f a r ( Oa te s 1 959 : p l . 5 8 , n o s . 7 5 , 7 7 -85 ) . C lo se ly a s soc ia ted w i th t he " b r i t t le w a re " w e re n ume rou s o the r t y pe s , mo s t ly f i ne s andy t empe red a nd o f ten w i th d i s t inc t ive g rooved a nd/o r s qua re r im f o rm s t h a t o nce a ga in c an b e c l o se ly p a rale led a tA in S inu ( Oa te s 1 959 : p l . 5 9 , n o s . 8 7 -95 , 9 -103 ) . D i s t inc t ive , t oo ,w a s t he d i amond imp re s sed d e co ra t ion o n s ome o ft he s he rd s , amo t i ff ound e l sewhe re i n Me sopo tam ia i nt he P a r tho -Roman p e r iod ( f o r e xamp le , O a te s 1 959 : p l . 5 7 , n o s . 4 9 ,5 0 , 5 4 , 5 5 ; B al , T ucke ra nd W i lk in son 1 988 : f i g . 2 6 , n o . 3) . Ah i gh p ropo r t ion o ft he v e s se l sw e re b i tumen l i ned . O the rd a t ing e v idence f o rt he R oman p e r iod i s ,u n fo r tuna te ly ,v e ry m eag re . T he re w a s n o t ab i ge nough e xpo su re o fa r ch i tec tu re f o r a ny d i s t inc t ive p l an s t ob e i d en t i f ied a nd t he c on s t ruc t ion t e chn ique s o f t he R oman p e r iod w al s i nt he d eep s ound ing a re d i s t inc t ive o n ly o f t he a rea o fn o r the rn I r aq g ene ra l ly r a the r t h an o f a ny p ar t icu la r p e r iod . T he mo sa ic f l oo r a nd a s soc ia ted t e r raco t ta p ipe s f ound i n t he se l e ve l s a re c e r ta in ly s ugge s t ive o f aR oman d a te , e spec ia l ly i n I r aq w he re

1 0

mo sa ic i se x t reme ly r a re . W i thou t t he s uppo r t ing c e ram ic e v idence , h oweve r , s uch amo sa ic c ou ld j u s ta se a s i ly b e long t ot he B yzan t ine p e r iod . Unb roken c on t inu i ty i n to t he p e r iod f olow ing t he R oman w a s p rov ided b y l a rge amoun t s o f p o t te ry -a nd a s soc ia ted s t ruc tu re s -t ha t w e r a the r l oo se ly c al S a sano -By zan t ine . Wh i l s t much o ft h i s p o t te ry w a s d i s t inc t ive o f k nown S a san ian t y pe s f r om Me sopo tam ia , s uch a s " honeycomb w a re " a nd " smea red w a re " , a s t amped c ro s s mo t i fo n o ne o rt wo o ft he s he rd sa nd t he s u r f ace f i nd o f aB yzan t ine c o in m igh t s ugge s t aB yzan t ine r a the r t h an S a san ian p re sence a tS eh Q ubba . T he s e t t lemen t d ec l ined a f te r t h i s a nd , f olow ing a m ino r e a r l ie r I s lam ic o ccupa t ion ( a l though t h i sp e r iod i sa sy e tp oo r ly u nde r s tood a tS eq Qubba ) , t he s i te g rew o nce mo re i n to a m ino r p rov inc ia l t own , p robab ly t he M idd le I s lam ic a dm in i s t ra t ive c en t re o fK a f rZ umma r( Bal a nd G i l lf o r thcom ing ) .

D i scu s s ion T ou nde r s tand t he a rea o fn o r the rn I r aq a nd t he n o r the rn J az i ra i nt he f i r s t f ew c en tu r ie s AD i st ou nde r s tand t he r a the r f o rm idab le t a ng le o fh i s to r ica l e ven t s s u r round ing t he c onf l ic t b e tween R ome a nd P e r s ia , w hen t h i s a rea f o rmed v e ry much t he mea t i nt he s andw ich . B eg inn ing d ur ing t he r e ign o fT ra jan i nR ome a nd o f P aco ru s i n P a r th ia , t he f r on t ie r s h i f ted b ack a nd f o r th a ga in s t ab ackg round m i l i ta ry c ampa ign s , p o l i t ica l a l l iance s a nd s ucce s s ive a dvance s o rr e t renchmen t sb y e i the r s i de . T h i s h i s to ry h a s b een s umma r i sed e l sewhe re ( Oa te s 1 968 ; Angel i B e r t ine l l i 1 976 ) a nd , i na ny c a se , d oe s n o t a lway s h e lp u s i nt r y ing t op inpo in t o n t he g round e xac t ly w ha t p l ace s b e longed t o w h ich s i de a t ap a r t icu la r t ime , a s s ou rce s f o r t he g eog raphy o f t he a rea a re f ew a nd e p ig raph ic e v idence o n t he g round i se ven mo re s l igh t . When t r y ing t oe s tab l i sh a n h i s to r i ca l b ackg round o n w h ich t ow eave t he a r chaeo log ica l e v idence f o r t he R oman s i nn o r the rn I r aq , i ti s p e rhap s s u f f ic ien t me re ly t o o b se rve t h a t i tc ame u nde r R oman r u le f i r s t u nde r T ra jan ( when i tf o rmed ap rov ince f r om 14 t o 17 ) ; t hen , a f te r ar e la t ive ly b r ie f An ton ine o c cupa t ion , i tw a s r e -e s tab l i shed b y S ep t im iu s S eve ru s i n 1 99 a s a p rov ince w i th i t s c ap i ta l a tN i s ib i s u n t i l i t s f i na l l o s s t ot he S a san ian s i n t he m id f ou r th c en tu ry . I ti sf r om t h i s l a t te r p e r iod , b eg inn ing w i th t he S eve ran s , t h a t t he R oman r ema in s a tS eh Qubba p re sumab ly d a te , a l though t he a pparen t h a s ty c on s t ruc t ion o ft he r ampa r t s m igh t b e e v idence o fb r ie fe r , e a r l ie r c ampa ign s , s uch a s t ho se b y T ra jan o r A v id ius C a s s iu s u nde r Ma rcu s A u re l iu s . I ndeed , t he e a r l ie r p ha se o f R oman o c cupa t ion i nt he d eep s ound ing m ay b e t he r ema in s o fj u s t s uch a n e ar l ie r c ampa ign ; i n t h i s c onnec t ion i t i sw o r th n o t ing h e re t ha t o u r o ne p o s s ib le Helen i s t ic s he rd c ame f r om t h i sc on tex t . B u t t he c on t inu i ty o fo ccupa t ion t ha t t he e v idence o f t he S a sano -By zan t ine r ema in s s ugge s t s w ou ld s eem t o i nd ica te a S eve ran f ounda t ion o r r e founda t ion , w hen t he e s tab l i shmen t o f a n o u t ly ing f r on t ie r p o s t i n n ew ly s ub juga ted t e r r i to ry c ou ld j u s t a s e a s i ly e xp la in s uch h a s t i ly e rec ted r ampa r t s . T he t h ree m a in c en t re s f o r t he a rea i nt h i s p e r iod t ha t w e r ead a bou t a re N i s ib i s ( t he c ap i ta l ) , S i nga ra , a nd C a s t ra Mau ro rum . T he l o ca t ion s o fN i s ib i s a nd S inga ra a re w el k nown , w i th t he r ema in s a t S i nga ra ( mode rn S in ja r ) s t i l l v e ry i mp re s s ive t oday . B u t C a s t ra Mau ro rum , w i thou t e i the r t he c on sp icuou s p hy s ica l r ema in s o r t oponym ic e v idence t ha t i d en t i f y S i nga ra a nd N i s ib i s s o e a s i ly , h a s r ema ined mo re e l u s ive . We k now f r om a p as sage i n Amm ianu s Ma rcel inu s ( 2 5 .7 .9 ) t ha t i tw a s o ne o ft he t h ree f o r t re s se s n amed w hen t he a rea w a s c eded t o t he S a san ian s i n 3 63 , t he o the r s b e ing N i s ib i s a nd S i nga ra , s o C a s t ra Mau ro rum

1

mu s t h ave b een as ub s tan t ia lp l ace w i th i mpo r tan t f o r t i f ica t ion s . T he o n ly c l ue a s t oi t s l o ca t ion i sa n e a r l ie r p a s sage i n Amm ianu s Ma rcel inu s ( 18 .6 .9 ) w hen i tw a s r ema rked t ha t " smoke a nd g l eam ing f i re s c on s tan t ly s hone f r om t he T ig r i s o n p a s t C a s t ra Mau ro rum a nd S i sa ra " d u r ing t he c ampa ign o f3 59 . O a te s ( 1968 : 7 7 n o . 4 ) p l ace s t he f o rme r i nt he a rea j u s t t o t he w e s t o f t he T ig r i s a round T el Hugna o r T el a l -Hawa , s ome 2 0 km s ou th a nd 1 0 km s ou th -we s t o fS eh Qubba r e spec t ive ly ( F ig . 1 . 1 ) . An e xam ina t ion o ft he l a rge f o r t i f ied s i te o fT el Hugna , a sw el a st he s i te sa round i ti n1 986 , h oweve r , f a i led t or evea la ny r ema in so ft he R oman p e r iod , w h i le a n i n ten s ive s ur vey o ft he a rea a round T el a l Hawa i n 1 986 a nd 1 987 ( Bal , T ucke r a nd W i lk in son 1 988 ; f u r the r r epo r t s i np rog re s s ) r evea led o n ly r e la t ive ly m ino rt r ace so fR oman ma te r ia l( 1 ) . S eh Qubba , h oweve r , f i t s a l t he r equ i remen t s f o r C a s t ra Mau ro rum . I t s l o ca t ion o n t he T ig r i s i s c on s i s ten t w i th Amm ianu s Marcel inu s ' d e sc r ip t ion i ndeed , t he h igh ly s t ra teg ic a nd e a s i ly d e fendab le p o s i t ion o f S eh Qubba w ou ld m ake i ta n o bv iou sc ho ice f o rl o ca t ing a n i mpo r tan tf r on t ie r p o s tt he re . T he s i te i s l a rge e nough f o r i tt o b e c on s ide red o ne o f t he t h ree t own s t ha t w e re i mpo r tan t e nough t ob e men t ioned i nt he t r ea ty o f3 63 c ed ing n o r the rn I r aq t ot he S a san ian s . F u r the rmo re , i tw a s h eav i ly f o r t i f ied ; a nd l a s t , b u t n o t l e a s t , S eh Qubba h a s a bundan t ma te r ia l d a t ing f r om t he R oman p e r iod . A l lo ft he se f a c to r sa re n o to n ly p e r fec t ly c on s i s ten tw i th C a s t ra Mau ro rum , t hey m ake S eh Qubba b y f a r t he mo s t l i ke ly c ho ice . T he p o s s ib le p ub l ic n a tu re o f t he mo sa ic b u i ld ing e xcava ted i n t he d eep s ound ing s r ece ive s a dded s i gn i f icance i n t h i s c on tex t . Wh i l s t t he v e ry n a tu re o f a r chaeo log ica l d a ta make s h ypo the s iz ing a r i sky b u s ine s s , w e w ou ld b e f a i l ing t o m ake f ul u se o fo u r d a ta i fw ea vo ided c on jec ture a l toge the r . C e r ta in ly , ac au t iou s i d en t i f ica t ion o f t h i s b u i ld ing a s t he r e s idence o ft he R oman m i l i tary c ommande r f o rC a s t ra Mau ro rum w ou ld n o t b ei n con s i s ten tw i th t he r ema in s , t he d a te , a nd t he p o l i t ica l b ackg round t ha t w e h ave r ev iewed , a nd i tc an a tl e a s t b e p re sen ted a s a s t a r t ing p o in tf o rf u r the rd i scu s s ion . S eh Qubba -C a s t ra Mau ro rum , t he re fo re , p robab ly r ep re sen t s t he mo s t e a s te r ly e x cava ted s i te i n t he R oman Emp i re . T h i s w a s u nde r l ined t o me b y t he f a c t t ha t Il i ve i n at i ny v i l lage i nt he S co t t i sh B o rde r s , a bou t 2m i le s a way f r om N ew s tead s , t he s i te o f R oman T r imon t ium , o ne o ft he mo s t i mpo r tan t s t a t ion s o n t he R oman Emp i re ' s n o r th -we s tf r on t ie ra nd o ne o ft he b e s tk nown R oman s i te s i n S co t land . If ound i tr a the r e x t rao rd ina ry , t he re fo re , t o f i nd m y se l f e xcava t ing a s im i la rt y pe o fs i te o nt he e a s te rnmo s tl im i t so ft he s ame e mp i re t hou sand so fm i le s a way i nw a r to rn mode rn I r aq ; i tw a s c e r ta in ly av e ry s obe r ing t hough ti ndeed t h a t i fIh ad made t he s ame j ou rney s ome 1 8h und red o rs oy ea r sp rev iou s ly , Iw ou ld n o t h ave n eeded t oc ro s s as i ng le i n te rna t iona l f r on t ie r ! I tv e ry g raph ica l ly i l u s t ra ted t o my m ind j u s t h ow v a s t a n e mp i re t he R oman Emp i re w a s a nd j u s t h ow l a rge a f i e ld w ea re d eal ing w i th i nt h i sC oloqu ium .

N o te 1 .

T he " Roman f o r t " men t ioned b yF iey ( 1 964 : 11 ) p roved o ni n ve s t iga t ion t o b eI s lam ic .

1 2

B ib l iography ANGEL I BERT INELL I , M .G . 1 976

BALL , W .

1 987

BALL ,W . , TUCKER D .J . a nd WILK INSON ,T .J . 1 988

IR oman i o l t re l ' Euf ra te n e ! Is eco lo d .C . ( l ep rov ince d iA s s i r ia , d i Me sopo tam ia ed i O s roene ) . I n ANR W 2 . 9 .1 : 3 45 . B r i t i sh e xcava t ion s i nt he Abu Dhah i r a rea . I n te r im r epo r t . R e sear chs [ s ic ] o n t h e a n t iqu i t i e s o f S addam Dam b a s in s a l vag e a nd o the rr e sea r che s : 7 8 -81 . B aghdad .

T he T el a l -Hawa p ro jec t . A rchaeo log ica l i n ve s t iga t ion s i n t he Nor th J az i ra 1 986 -87 . I r aq 5 0 ( i np re s s ) .

BALL , W .e ta l .

f o r th

B r i t i sh e x cava t ion s i nt h e Z umma rr e g ion o n t h eS addam Dam s a l vag ep ro j ec t . 2v o l s .

BALL ,W . a nd G ILL , S .

f o r th

S eh Qubba . I n W . B al e t a l . B r i t i sh e x cava t ion s i n t h e Z umma r r e g ion o n t h e S addam Dam s a l vag ep ro j ec t . 2v o l s .

CLARK , V .A . a nd FAULKNER , R .K .

1 986

T he p o t te ry . J e ra sh a r chaeo log ica l p ro jec t 1 981 -1983 . 1 :2 47 -51 . Amman .

F IEY ,J .M .

1 964

T he I r aq i s ec t ion o f t he Abbas id r oad Mosu l -N i s ib in . I r aq 2 6/2 : 1 06 -117 .

GREEN ,A .R .

f o r th

K h i rbe t S h i reena . I n W . B al e ta l . B r i t i sh e x cava t ion s i n t h e Z ummar r e g ion o n t h e S addnm Dam s a l vag ep ro jec t . 2v o l s .

GREGORY , S .a nd KENNEDY ,D .

1 985

S i r Au r e l S t e in ' s l ime sr e po r t . O x ford ( BAR I n te rna t iona lS e r ie s2 72 ) .

OATES ,D .

1 968

S tud i e s i n t h e a nc i en t h i s tor y o f Nor ther n I r aq . L ondon .

OATES ,D . a nd J .

1 959

A in S inu : a R oman f r on t ie r No r the rn I r aq . I r aq 2 1 : 2 07 -242 .

WATSON , P .

1 986

A rea B : t he C ardo -Decumanu s c orne r . A r epo r t o n s even c en tur ie s o f o ccupa t ion . J e ra sh a r chaeo log i ca lp ro jec t 1 98 1 -1982 . 1 : 3 59 -67 . Amman .

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3 72

2 7 . THE J E WS BET WEEN RO ME AND P ARTH IA U r ie lR appapor t H a i fa T here s eems t ob e as cho lar ly c onsensu s o n t wo p o in ts t ha tc oncern o ur t heme ( a ) t ha t r e la t ions b e tween R ome a nd P ar th ia l o omed l a rge i nJ ew ish p o l i t ic s a nd a t t i tude s , a nd ( b ) t ha t o ur ma in s our ce f or t he p er iod , J o sephu s F lav ius , w a s i n c l ined t o d i sregard P ar th ia 's r o le i nJ ew i sh h i s tory . I n t h i s p aper w ew i l l t r y t ob r idge t he g ap b e tween P ar th ia 's a c tua l r o le i n J ew i sh h i s tory a nd t he r educed p lace a l loca ted t o i ti na nc ien t h i s tor iography . T he p o in ts o r e ven ts t ha t w i l l b e d i scussed a re t he f o l low ing : ( a ) J ohn Hyr canus Ia nd P ar th ia , ( b ) A lexander J annaeus a nd P ar th ia , ( c ) J annaeus a nd A r is tobu lus I a nd P on tus , ( d ) S he lom -Z ion A lexandra a nd T igrane s , ( e ) A n t igonus a nd P ar th ia , ( I ) t he n um i sma t ic e v idence ( N is ib is , e t c . ) , ( g ) t he H erod ians a nd P ar th ia , ( h ) t he G rea t R evo l t ( 66 -70 ) a nd P ar th ia , ( i ) J udaea a nd t he P ar th ian d i aspora i n c lud ing A d iabene , m igra t ions ( Zamar i s ) , c on tr ibu t ions ( h a l f -Sheke l d ona t ions ) , p i lgr image ( s ee A c ta Apos t . ) a nd ( j ) t he r e vo l t s u nder T ra jan . -

-

-

T he re i sn o d oub t t h a t t he P ar th ian Emp i re p l ayed ac e r ta in r o le i nJ ew i sh h i s to ry i nt he t wo c en tu r ie s b e fo re a nd t he t wo c en tur ie s a f te r t he b i r th o f C hr i s t . We w ou ld l i ke t o d i s cus s t h i s r o le i n t he f o l low ing p age s . S uch a d i scu s s ion i s n e ce s sary f o rv ar iou sr e asons , a mong s tw h ich i st he f a c t t h a t t he r o le o fR oman a nd P a r th ian r e la t ions i n J udaean h i s to ry , t hough d i scus sed m any t ime s , w as u sua l ly v i ewed f r om t he R oman a ng le , s ome t ime s f r om t he P ar th ian a ng le , b u t r a re ly f r om t h eJ ew i sh o ne . T he p ro te s t o f Wo l sky ( 1976 ) , a ga ins t i g no r ing t he P ar th ian p o in t o f v i ew i n t he d i s cu s s ion o f R oman e as te rn p o l i t ic s s eems t o me v a l id a l so c once rn ing t he h i s to ry o fJ udaea . How s hou ld t he r o le o fP ar th ia v i s -à -v i s t he J ew s o ft h a t p e r iod h ec on s ide red f r om t he J ew i sh p o in t o fv i ew? We s hou ld o pen o ur d i scus s ion b y p o s ing s ome q ue s t ion s : ( a ) Wha t d ow e k now a bou t J ew i sh P ar th ian r e la t ion s a nd f r om w h ich s ource s? ( h ) Wha t i st he v a lue o f t h i s s ource m a te r ia l? ( c ) A s sum ing w e k now t he f a c ts , h ow s hou ld w e e va lua te P a r th ia ' s r o le i n J ew i sh h i s tory , e spec ia l ly w i th in t he f r amewo rk o f t he J ew i sh R oman r e la t ion s t h a t c ove red mo s t o f t he p e r iod u nde r d i scus s ion? I n o t he r words , w ha t w as t he a t t i tude o f t he J ew s ( r u le r s , p o l i t ic ians a nd t he g ene ra l p opu la t ion ) t oward sP a r th ia a nd h ow d id i ti nf luence t he i ra c t iv i ty? -

-

( A ) T he e ar l ie s t p i ece s o f i n fo rma t ion a re f r om t he t ime o f J ohn Hy rcanu s I ( 1 34 -104 BC ) , w hen P a r th ia i s men t ioned i n d i rec t ly i nt he f i r s t b ook o f Maccabee s ( 1 Macc . 1 5 .22 ; 3 . 31 , 3 7 ; 6 . 1 ) , w r i t ten p robab ly d ur ing h i s r e ign ( 1 ) , a nd J o sephus ' s t o ry a bou t h i s i n vo lvemen t i nt h e e xped i t ion o f An t iochus V I I S ide te s a ga ins t t he P a r th ians ( J o seph .A J 1 3 .250 -253 ) . P ar th ia d oe s n o t l o om g rea t ly i nt he m ind o ft he a u tho r o f 1Macc . , a nd h e d oe sn o t h ave ac l ea r i d ea a bou t i t . He u se st he b ib l ica lp hrase P e r s ia o r" t he u ppe r c oun tr ie s " t o d e sc r ibe I r an , a nd " A r sace s " i sm en t ioned f o r K ing M i thr ida te s Io f P a r th ia ( 1 Macc . , a s c i ted a bove ) . N o t much c an h e d rawn f r om t h i s s i nce m i s c oncep t ions a nd d i s to r ted i n fo rma t ion a bou t f a raway c oun tr ie s i sc ommon a mong a nc ien t h i s to r ians , a nd e ven t he d e ta i led d e sc r ip t ion o f R ome ( 1 Macc . 8 ) a bounds

3 73

w i th m i s take s . T he e ven t s r e f er red t o i n IMacc . b e long t o ap e r iod e a r l ier t han J ohn Hy rcanus I a nd p robab ly d o n o t r ef lec t t h e a u tho r ' s o wn a t t i tude s o r k now ledge a bou t P ar th ia , b u t r a the rt he l a ck o fc l ar i ty i nh i ss ource s . Y e t i ts hou ld b e g ran ted t ha t t he a u tho r o f 1Macc . d id n o t s ee P ar th ia a s ag rea t w o r ld p owe r , e qua li na ny w ay t oR ome , f o r t he l a t te rr e ce ived al o t o fs pace a nd a t ten t ion i n h i s b ook . J ohn Hy rcanus h imse l fw a s mo re d eep ly i n vo lved w i th P ar th ia b ec ause h e t ook p ar t i nt he e xped i t ion o f An t iochu s V I I S ide te sa ga ins t i t . B u t h ow i mpo r tan t w a s t h i s i n vo lvemen t? D id Hy rcanu s c onsp ire w i th t he P ar th ians a ga ins t h i s s ove re ign , An t iochu s V I I , a t t he t ime o ft he e xped i t ion? How d id h e e s cape t he d ébâc le o f An t iochus ' a rmy i n 1 29 BC? Had h e a ny f u r the r r e la t ion s w i th t he P ar th ians a f te r t he i r v i c to ry? D id o ur s ource s , e spec ia l ly J o sephus , d e l ibera te ly s upp re s s s ome r e levan t i n fo rma t ion? S ome s cho la r s a ccep t t he p os s ib i l i ty t ha t a s i gn i f ican t r e la t ionsh ip e x i s ted b e tween Hy rcanus a nd P ar th ia o r e ven t h a t at r ea ty w as made b e tween t hem ( 2 ) . Y e tp o l i t ica l ly i ti si l um ina t ing , o re ven a s ton i sh ing , t os ee h ow l i t t le J ew i sh P a r th ian r e la t ions a re r ef lec ted i no ur s ource s i nc ompar ison t oJ ew i sh R oman r e la t ions a t t ha t s ame t ime . 1Macc . b ea r s v ar ious men t ions o f Rome , i n c lud ing R oman d ocumen ts a nd al e ng thy d i s cus s ion o n R oman i n s t i tu t ions ( 1 Mac c . 8 ) . A R oman l e t te r i s c i ted i n 2 Macc . ( 1 1 .34 -38 ) . J o sephus a l so c on ta in s t h ree d ocumen t s r e la t ing t o Hy rcanu s ' r e la t ion s w i th R ome ( AJ 1 3 .259 -266 ; 1 4 .145 -148 , 2 47 -255 ) ( 3 ) . I n c ompar i son w i th t h i s , P ar th ia 's i mpo r tance i n o ur s ou r ce s s eem s v e ry meag re . -

-

I n J annaeus ' t ime ( 103 -76 BC ) t he i n fo rma t ion a to ur d i sposa l i sn o mo re a bundan t . R e f e rence s t o P a r th ia a re f ew a nd s ome t ime s d ub ious ( see R appapo r t 1 968 ) . E ven mo re s i gn i f ican t i st he a b sence o fa ny n o te o fr e la t ions w i th R ome i n h i st ime a nd , s eem ing ly , t he re o ccur red a n a b rup t d e te r io ra t ion i nJ ew i sh R oman r e la t ion s ( s ee R appapo r t 1 968 ) . T h i s may h ave b o rne s ome r e la t ion t oP ar th ian p o l i t ic s , b u t i na ny c ase t he i r a c t iv i t ie s s eem t ob e s e condary t ot ha t o fM i th r ida te s o fP on tu s a nd o f t he A rmen ian k ing , T ig rane s . We c anno t d i s cus s h e re i nd ep th t he s t a te o f a f f a i r s i n t he e a s te rn Med i te r ranean a tt he t ime ( approx ima te ly f i r s t q uar te r o f f i r s t c en tury BC ) , b u t P ar th ia ' s r o le w a s l i m i ted a nd e c l ip sed b y t he a c t iv i t ie s o f t he t wo o the r e as te rn p owe r s , P on tus a nd A rmen ia , w h ich , t hough t empo ra ry , h ad a g rea te r i mpac t o n t he p o l i t ic s o f t he d ay . B o th T ig ranes a nd M i th r ida te s w e re mo re i n vo lved n o t o n ly w i th R ome , b u t a l so w i th J udaea . T h i s may b e r ef lec ted i n J annaeus ' a s sumed l i a i son w i th M i thr ida te s a nd i nS he lom Z ion A lexand ra ' s d ea l ing s w i th T ig rane s ( Rappapor t 1 968 : 3 37 -8 ) . I ti si n d ica t ive t ha t a l ready i nt h i s e ar ly p e r iod R ome a nd P ar th ia w e re n o t o n a n e qua l f oo t ing . R oman p o l ic ie s w e re d ynam ic a nd a gg re s s ive , w he rea s P ar th ia ' s w e re r e s t ra ined a nd d e fens ive ( 4 ) . E ven w hen J annaeu s g ave u p t he t r ad i t iona l Hasmonaean p ro R oman p o l i t ica l o r ien ta t ion , i tw as n o t r ep laced b y ap ro -Par th ian a l te rna t ive , b u t b ya n o r ien ta l o ne i nw h ich P ar th ia d id n o t p l ay am a jo r r o le . We s hou ld b ear t h i s i mpar i ty b e tween R ome a nd P ar th ia i nm ind w hen w ed ea lw i th l a te rp e r iod s . -

S k ipp ing t he d e ta i l s o fJ annaeu s ' p o l i t ic s , w h i ch c an b e f ound i nm y a r t ic le ( Rappapo r t 1 968 ) ,w ec an p as so n t ot he o n ly e ven t i nw h ich P ar th ia p layed ama jo r r o le , t hough ab r ie fo ne , i nJ udaean a f f a i r s . T h is w a s i nt he y ear s 4 0 -37 BC , when t he P a r th ian s i n vaded S y r ia , d rove a way t he R omans , a nd p u t o n t he Ha smonaean t h rone Ma tha th ia -An t igonus , s on o f A r i s tobu lo s a nd g rand son o f J annaeus ( AJ 1 4 .330 ff ) . I ti so n ly o n t h i s o ccas ion t ha t P ar th ian t r oop s a nd g ene ra ls w e re a c t ive i nJ udaea ( 5 ) .

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Ye t t he r e su l t s o f t h i s s ho r t l ived i n te r fe rence w e re d i sa s t rous f r om t he J ew i sh p o in to fv i ew . He rod w as c rowned a tR ome a st he R oman c and ida te f o rt he t h rone o fJ udaea a ga in s t An t igonu s , a nd s oon a f te rward st he P ar th ian sw e re d r iven o u to fS y r ia a nd J udaea w as c onque red b y He rod a nd t he R oman s . F o r t he p e r iod a f te r t he P ar th ian i n vas ion w e h ave s ome a dd i t iona l i n forma t ion : Hy rcanu s Hw as t aken a s ac ap t ive t o B aby lon ia b u t w a s r e leased s ome y ear s l a te r . R e la t ion s b e tween t he B aby lon ian d i aspo ra a nd J udaea s eem t o h ave b ecome c l o se ro r ,p e rhap s ,s imp ly mo re i n fo rma t ion h as a rb i t rar i ly r eached u s f r om t h i s p ar t icu la r p e r iod . Anyhow , i n He rod ' s t ime at r oop o fJ ew i sh h o r semen f r om B aby lon ia , u nde r o ne Z amar i s , w a s s e t t led b y He rod i n t he B a shan ( A . ! 1 7 .24f f ) ; p robab ly H i l le l t he E lde r , t he f amous J ew i sh s age , c a me f r om B aby lon ia t o J udaea a nd s e t t led t he re ( Neusne r 1 965 -1970 : 1 . 36 -8 ) , a nd a l so a B aby lon ian p r ie s t , Hanane l , w as a ppo in ted h igh p r ie s t b y He rod ( A . ! 1 5 .22 ; 3 9 -40 ) . We a l so h ave a n A rama ic i n sc r ip t ion f r om t ha t p e r iod ,w r i t ten , s t range ly e nough , i nt he o ld H eb rew s c r ip t , c once rn ing t he b r ing ing o f ac orpse f r om B aby lon ia f o r b ur ia l i n J e ru sa lem . I th as b een s ugge s ted t ha t t he b ody b rough t f o r b u r ia l w as t ha t o f A n t igonus , b u t t he re a re t oo many d if i cu l t ie s t o s ub s tan t ia te t h i s h ypo the s is ( 6 ) . A l so Hasmonaean c o in s h ave b een f ound a t Dura -Europo s a nd a t N i s ib i s i n Me sopo tam ia ( Be l l inge r 1 949 : 1 ; S ey r ig 1 955 : 1 05ff ) . A l l i na l l ,w ec an s ay t ha tn o i r on w a l ls epara ted J ew so ne i the rs i de o ft he R oman P ar th ian f r on t ie r ,b u ta l lt h i s h a sv e ry l i t t le t od ow i th p o l i t ic s . -

T he He rod ian s w e re n o t r u le r s w ho e n te r ta ined a n t i -Roman a nd p ro P ar th ian p o l i t ica l p l an s , b u t t h i s d id n o t p reven t t hem f r om c he r i sh ing c onnec t ions i nP ar th ia . T he r e lease o fH y rc anu s If r om B aby lon ia w as s uppo r ted b y a na ppea l m ade b y He rod t o t he P ar th ian k i ng P h raa te s ( Jo seph .A J 1 5 .19 ) . H i s s on An t ipas p l ayed a n i n termed ia ry r o le w i th P ar th ia i nt he s e rv ice o fR ome w hen V i te l l ius w as g ove rnor o f S y r ia u nde r T ibe r iu s ( AJ 1 8 .10 1 105 ) . J ew s f r om P ar th ia w e re i n J e ru sa lem i n t ho se d ay s ( Ac t s o f t h e Apo s t l e s 2 . 9 ) . J ew i sh me rchan ts a nd m i s s ionar ie sw e re a c t ive i nB aby lon ia a nd Me sopo tam ia ,a nd t he r oya lf am i ly o ft he k i ngdom o f Ad iabene w as c onve r ted t o J uda i sm ( AJ 2 0 .34 -35 ) . T he p owe r o ft he B aby lon ian J ew s i ss een e ven mo re c l ear ly i n t he c rea t ion o f a n i ndependan t p r incedom u nde r t he r u le o ft wo J ew i sh b ro the r s , A s ina i a nd Han i la i( AJ 1 8 .314f f ) . P i lg r image a nd c on t r ibu t ion s t ot he T emp le b yB aby lon ian J ew sw e re c ommon ( c f . , f o re xamp le ,A J 1 8 .311 -313 ) , a nd c are w a st aken i nJ udaea t oa nnounce , b yk ind l ing f l a re s , t he b eg inn ing o f t he J ew i sh mon ths t o t he J ew s o f t he d ia spo ra (M i shna , R o sh - HaShana 2 . 2 -4 ) , i n c lud ing t he B aby lon ian b re th ren ( TB , R o sh -HaShana 2 3 .2 [ 4 6 ] ) . J ew i sh p re sence i nt he b o rde ra rea o ft he P a r th ian Emp ire a nd i nB aby lon ia w as i ndeed n o t iceab le . E ven a n t i -Jew i sh c ommo t ion o ccur red i nS e leuc ia , w he re t h eJ ew s f o rmed o ne o ft he t h ree ma jo rc omponen t s o ft he p opu la t ion ( AJ 1 8 .371 3 79 ;s ee Goodb la t t 1 987 : 6 05 -6 16 ) . A t t h i s p o in t i ts hou ld a l so b e men t ioned t h a t , u n l ike h i s meag re s ource s a bou t t he He l len i s t ic p e r iod , J o sephus p rov ide s s ome v e ry i n te re s t ing p iece s o f i n fo rma t ion c once rn ing P ar th ian a f f a i r s ; f o re xamp le , t he c onve r s ion o f Ad iabene , t h e p r incedom o fA s ina i a nd H am i la i , t he m as sac re o ft he J ew s i nS e luc ia , He rod A n t ipas 'p ar t ic ipa t ion i nR oman P ar th ian n ego t ia t ion s ,e t c . ( s ee a bove ) . -

J o sephu s i sa l so i n forma t ive o n P a r th ia 's r o le i nt he J ew i sh r evo l t o f6 6 -70 . H ed i scu s se s , t h rough t he mou th o f Ag r ippa I ( R I 2 . 388 ) , t he c hance s o fP ar th ian i n terven t ion i nf a vou ro ft he J ew i sh r ebe l s , a nd h e r epo r t s t ha t Ad iaben ian n ob le s t o ok p ar t i n t he r evo l t ( R I 2 . 520 ; 5 . 474 ; 6 . 356 -7 ) a nd men t ions a bou t embas s ie s

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b e ing s en t b eyond t he E uphra te s b y t he J ew i sh r ebe l s ( BJ 6 . 343 ) . T h i s p o in t i s d ec i s ive i nt he e va lua t ion o fP ar th ia ' s r o le i nJ ew i sh a f f a i r s , a nd w e s hal r e turn t o i t . R e la ted t ot h i sl a s tp o in t i st he J ew i sh d i aspo ra ' s r evo l t u nder T ra jan i n 14 17 ( Pucc i 1 981a ) . P ar th ia w as i mp l ica ted i nt h i s r e vo l t i n t wo w ay s . F i r s t ly , t he r evo l t w as g ene ra l ly c onnec ted t o T ra jan ' s P ar th ian w ar , w as t r igge red b y i t , a nd may h ave h ad s ome i mpac t o n i t . S econd ly , t he r e vo l t i n c luded J ew s w ho l i ved i n P ar th ian t e r r i tory i n Me sopo tam ia a nd w ho f o rmed p ar t o f t he a rmed o ppos i t ion among s t t he l o ca l p opu la t ion t h a t r evo l ted a g a in s t i t s a nnexa t ion b y t h e R oman Emp i re . S o , t wo p rob lem s s hou ld h e a dd re s sed h e re : ( a ) t he P ar th ian c omponen t i n t he d i aspo ra ' s r evo l t , a nd ( b ) t he p o s i t ion o f P ar th ian J ew s i n t h e R oman P ar th ian c onf l ic t i nT ra jan ' st ime . -

W i th t h is s urvey , c omp lemen ted b y f u r the r c ommen ts i nt he n o te s , w e may c onc lude t he f i r s tp a r to fo ur p ape r .

( B ) Ou rs ource s a re l i m i ted , a sw as c l ear ly s een a bove , a nd o ur mo s t i mpor tan t s ource sa re J o sephus ' An t iqu i t i e s a nd J ew i sh Wa r . J o sephus ' i n forma t ion a bou t t he P ar th ians l ook s i mpar t ia l . T he re i sh ard ly a ny d enunc ia t ion o f t hem , n o r i st he re a ny n ega t ive c harac te r i sa t ion o r a n imo s i ty . I fw e c an r a i se d oub ts o n J o sephu s ' r e l iab i l i ty c once rn ing P ar th ian a f f a i r s , i ti sb ecause o f t he q ua l i ty o f s ome o f h i s s ource sa nd t he ir mo re l i t e rary t h an h i s to r ica l c harac te r , e spec ia l ly i nt h eA d iabene a nd A s ina i a nd Han i la i s t o r ie s . S o , J o sephus c an b e a c cu sed o f n o t b e ing c r i t ica l e nough i n t he u se o f h i s s ource s ( wh ich i st r ue o n m any o the r o cca s ion s i n h i s w r i t ing s ) b u t n o t o fi n ten t iona l ly d i s tor t ing t he h i s to r ica lp i c ture ( 7 ) . T he o n ly f a i lu re i nh i st r ea tmen t o fP ar th ian a f f a ir s t ha t h ec an b ec r i t ic ised f o r i st h a t o f om i s s ion . P ucc i ( 1983 ) r a ised t he p o s s ib i l i ty t h a t J osephu s o m i t ted , p e rhap s i n ten t ionaly , a ny men t ion o ft he r e la t ions t h a t m igh t h ave e x i s ted b e tween t he Hasmonaeans a nd P ar th ia a nd , e ven p robab ly , i n fo rma t ion a bou t at r ea ty w i th P a r th ia a tt he t ime o fH y rcanus I( s ee a l so P ucc i 1 981b ) . T h is w as , i ft r ue , b ecause h ew i shed t o d im in ish t he i mp re s s ion o fH asmonaean a n t i -Roman i n vo lvemen t i n v i ew o f h i s g ene ra l a im t o d e sc r ibe t he J ew s a s f r iend ly t o R ome . S o , a ny i mp l ica t ion o fc o rd ia lr e la t ions w i th P ar th ia t h a t h ec ou ld c enso r , h e d id . Howeve r , t h i s t e n ta t ive c r i t ic ism o f h i s h i s to r ica l v e rac i ty i sh ard t op rove a nd d oe s n o t i mpugn t he r e l iab i l i ty o fw ha t h e d oe s t e l l u s . S ow e d o n o t h ave a ny r eason t o r e jec t J o sephus ' t e s t imony o n g ene ra l g round s , b u t o n ly o n p o in t sw he re s ome p ar t icu lar r ea son m ake s i ti n adm i s s ib le , l i ke l e gendary t r a i t sh e re a nd t h e re .

( C ) L ook ing a tt he d a ta a s semb led a bove a nd l e av ing a s ide t h a t p ar t o fi tw h ich c once rns g ene ra l r e la t ions a nd c on tac t s b e tween t he J ew ish c ommun i t ie s o n b o th s i de s o ft he R oman -Par th ian f r on t ie r , t he p o l i t ica l e ven t s i nw h ich w e c an d e tec t a P ar th ian c omponen t a re b as ica l ly t h ree i nn umbe r : ( a ) t h e r e ign o f An t igonu s ( 40 3 7 BC ) , ( b ) t he G rea t R evo l t ( 66 -70 ) , a nd ( c ) t he r e vo l t o ft he d i aspora ( 1 15 117 ) . I n t wo o f t he se t h ree e ven t s P ar th ian a rms w e re i n vo lved d i rec t ly i n t he e n th ronemen t o f An t igonu s a nd i n T ra jan ' s P ar th ian War . I n t he J ew i sh r evo l t -

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P a r th ia l oom s b eh ind t he s c ene , a nd t he p re sence o f Ad iaben ian J ew i sh n ob le s i n t h e f i gh t ing c an b e v i ewed a s s ome k i nd o f i n d i rec t i n te r fe rence . E ven mo re i mp res s ive i sJ o sephus ' s t a temen t ( BJ 1 . 3 , 6 )t h a t t he f i r s tv e r s ion o fh i s a ccoun t o f t h e t he w ar w as w r i t ten i nA rama ic a nd w as i n tended f o r J ew s a nd n on -Jew s , w ho l i ved i nt he P ar th ian Emp i re ( s ee L adouceur 1 977 : 12 -114 ) . T h is c on s ide ra t ion f o r t he p o s i t ion a nd a t t i tude b o th o f t he J ew i sh c ommun i t ie s i nP ar th ia i . e . i n Ad iahene , Me sopo tam ia i ng ene ra l , B aby lon ia a nd , p o s s ib ly , s ome more e as te rn c ommun i t ie s ( s ee N eu sne r 1 965 -1970 : 1 . 14 ) a nd o f t h e P ar th ian g ove rnmen t i t se l f g i ve s mo re c r edence t o t he i mpo r tance o f t he P a r th ian c omponen t i n t he d e l ibe ra t ion s o f t he J ew i sh r ebe ls t hemse lve s , a s a s sumed b y J o sephus . S uppo s ing t h a t s ound p o l i t ica l a rgumen t s w e re c on s ide red b yt h e r evo lu t ionary p a r t ie s , t he p o s s ib i l i ty o fP ar th ian i n te rven t ion i nf a vour o ft he J ew i sh i n surgen t sc ou ld h ave b een o fs ub s tan t ia lw e igh t . -

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S im i lar c on s ide ra t ion s c ou ld h ave b een r a i sed i n t he D iaspo ra R evo l t , a l though i nt h i s c ase t he R omans t ook t he o f fen s ive a nd t he P ar th ian p ro spec t s d id n o t l ook v e ry b r igh t . A R oman f a i lure c ou ld h ave b een e xpec ted , b u t n o t ag rea t P a r th ian v i c to ry a nd t h e e n su ing P ar th ian c onque s t o f R ome 's e a s te rn p rov ince s . T he r evo l t o ft he J ew s i n Me sopo tam ia m ay h ave b een c once ived a nd e xecu ted o n s ound p o l i t ica l a nd m i l i tary g rounds , b u t i td i f fe r s i n t h is r e spec t ( a s w e l l a s i n o t he r s ) f r om t he s ynchron ic r e vo l t o ft he J ew s o f E gyp t , C y rene a nd C yp rus . F or t h em t he c hance o f P a r th ian i n te r f e rence w as c e r ta in ly a n u nrea l is t ic o ne . T he i mpac t o f t he P ar th ian w ar o n t hem w as t h a t i tt r igge red t he r evo l t , e i the r i n i t s i mpac t o n Me s s ian ic h ope s ( s ee b e low ) o r , i n a mo re mundane w ay , b y t he d ep le t ion o fl o ca l R oman g ar r i sons a s ar e su l t o ft he c oncen tra t ion o fa l l a va i lab le R oman f o rce so n t he P ar th ian f r on t . L e t u s n ow t r y t o e va lua te h ow s ound w e re t he c ons ide ra t ions a bou t t he f e a s ib i l i ty o fP ar th ian i n te rven t ion i nf a vour o ft he J ew sa nd o ft he l o ng te rm e f fec t t h ey c ou ld h ave h ad . An t igonus ' d ec i s ion t or ega in h i s a nce s t ra l i nhe r i tance o fk i ng sh ip a nd h i gh p r ie s thood i nJ udaea w i th P ar th ian s uppo r t , a l though i tp roved t o b e i nc once ived p o s t f ac tum , c ou ld n o t h ave b een c omp le te ly u nsound a t t he t ime . A l though P ompey h ad d emon s t ra ted t he s upe r io r i ty o f R oman l e g ions o ve r t he o r ien ta l a rm ie s o f b o th M i th r ida te s o f P on tu s a nd T ig rane s o f A rmen ia , a nd a l though h e r e so lu te ly f i xed t he R oman f r on t ie r o n t he E uphra te s o r e ven b eyond i t , P a r th ia w a s n o t h umb led b y R oman a rms . Mo reove r , t he i mpac t o f C ras sus ' d e fea t i n5 3 BC w as c on s ide rab le , a nd P ar th ian a mb i t ions t o a nnex S y r ia d id n o t l o ok f a r f e tched ( Sherw in - Wh i te 1 984 ) . A lso , t he s i tua t ion i n R ome w as n o t v e ry b r igh t a t t h a t t ime , a nd w e igh ing t he c hance s o f b o th p owe r s w as n o t a n e a sy t a sk . A n t igonus ' d ec i s ion t ol e an o n P ar th ia p roved f a ta l t oh im , t oh i s d ynas ty a nd t ot he J ew s o fJ udaea a s w e l l , b u t h e w as a c t ing w i th in t he r ea lm o fR ea lpo l i t ik ( 8 ) . H i s r e a l is t ic a pp roach c an h es een b y h i s o wn e f fo r t s t og e t s ome R oman s uppor t , w hen t h e P ar th ians w e re f o rced t o e vacua te S y r ia ( J o sephAJ 1 4 .392 -393 , 4 03 -405 , 4 12 4 35 ) . On t he e ve o ft h e G rea t R evo l t t he s i tua t ion w as c omp le te ly d i f f e ren t . T he a r gumen t o f P ar th ian s uppo r t , t hough moo ted , w as a t t h a t t ime b ase le s s . R oman r u le o ver S y r ia w a s p e rmanen t a nd h ad b een u nd is turbed f o r ac en tury . C lashe s w i th P ar th ia w e re o n ly i na d jacen tt e r r i to r ie s a nd i n mo s tc ase s t he R omans h ad t he u ppe r h and , e spec ia l ly d ur ing C o rhu lo ' s a c t iv i t ie s o n t he e a s te rn f r on t ie r . T he re w a sn o r ea l i s t ic e xpec ta t ion o fP ar th ian i n ter ven t ion a ta l ( 9 ) , e spec ia l ly o ne w h ich w ou ld b r ing i n to e x i s tence aJ ew i sh s ove re ign s t a te ( s ee b e low ) .

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Why , t hen , w as t h i s i s sue b rough t u p a t a l? Why d id J osephus a rgue a ga ins t i t ? It h ink t ha t o ne e xp lana t ion i st he Me s s ian ic b ackg round o ft h e R evo l t ( 10 ) . P a r th ian i n terven t ion w as ac rea t ion o fw i sh fu l t h ink ing . P ar th ia c ou ld s erve t he r o le o f God ' s me s senge r , t h rough w h ich h ew ou ld s ave I s rae l ,p un i sh t h ew icked R oman Emp i re a nd s how h i s p owe r t o a l t he w o r ld . T he God who u sed f o r h i s p urpo se C y rus o r t he k ing s o f A s sy r ia a nd B aby lon ia c ou ld u se t he P a r th ians f o r g ood p urpo se a s w el , a s " Ma te Z aam " ( I sa iah 1 0 .5 : "Woe t o A s sy r ia , r od o f my a nge r , t he c l ub i n t he i r h and s i s my f u r y " ) . I tm ay e ven b e a s sumed t h a t i ti st he P a r th ians w ho c an b e d e tec ted i n as im i la r r o le b eh ind t he v ague wo rd s o f Dan i e l ( 1 1 .44a : " Bu t t i d ing s f r om t he e as t a nd t he n o r th s ha l l a l arm h im " ) . I ft h i s i sr i gh t , t h i s men t ion o fP ar th ia i se a r l ie rt h an t he p as sage i n 1Macc .c i ted a bove ( 1 1) . T he P a r th ian a rgumen tw as c u r ren t among t he J ew s , n o ta s as ound r ea l i s t ic c on s ide ra t ion i n f a vour o f ar evo l t a ga in s t R ome , b u t a s Me s s ian ic e xpec ta t ion w i th in t he t r ad i t iona l Me s s ian ic f r amewo rk ( 12 ) . J o sephus f ough t a ga ins t t h i s a rgumen t , much a sh ec ondemned t he i d eo logy o ft he r evo lu t ionary p ar t ie s . We d oub t t he e xp lana t ion t h a t c onnec t s p o l i t ica l c ons idera t ion s w i th t he a c t iv i t ie so ft he Ad iaben ian d ynas ty i nt he r evo l t o fJ udaea . N eusner ( 1976 : 5 3 -54 ) h a s s ugge s ted t h a t t h i s d yna s ty e n te r ta ined a p o l icy o f a gg rand i semen t , w i th t he i d ea o f b u i ld ing s ome k ind o f " Th i rd P owe r " b e tween R ome a nd P ar th ia , a nd o f u s ing t he J ew i sh e l emen t si nt he N ear E as t t oa ch ieve s uch ag oa l . T h i si ss uppo sed t oa ccoun tf o rt he p re sence o f Ad iaben ian n ob le s a tt he s c ene o ft he w a ri nJ udaea . B u t , o n t he o ne h and , t he re i sn o p o s i t ive e v idence f o r t h i sa s sump t ion a nd , o n t he o the r h and , i tc an b e e xp la ined a l te rna t ive ly , a s a n e xp re s s ion o f s o l idar i ty b y c omp tar io ts , o r e ven a s as i gn o f r e l ig ious a nd n a t iona l d evo t ion o n t h e p ar t o f n ew ly c onve r ted J ew s , l i ke t he Ad iaben ian c onve r t s ( 1 3 ) . S hymeon b en G iora , a mo s te x t reme l e ade ro ft he R evo l t , i ss uppo sed t ob et he s on o f ac onve r tt oo . S o ,w e r ema in w i th t he Me s s ian ic e xp lana t ion , w h ich l ook s t o me t ob e t he mo s t s a t i s f ac to ry . T he Me s s ian ic e xp lana t ion m ay h o ld g ood f o r t he D iaspo ra R evo l t( w i th t he e xcep t ion o f Me sopo tam ia ) a sw e l l ( 14 ) . B u t i nf a c t , s i nce t he re i s n o h in t i no ur e x t reme ly p oor s ource s a bou t a ny P ar th ian i n vo lvemen t , t h e re i sn o n eed f o re xp lana t ion i nt he p re sen ts t a te o fo ur k now ledge o n t h is s ub jec t( 1 5 ) . A s f o r t he p o s i t ion o f t he Me sopo tam ian J ew s a t t he t ime o f T ra jan ' s P ar th ian w a r , h e re w e a re i nt he r ea lm s o fr ea l i ty , n o t o fa poca lyp t ic v i s ion s . I ti s c l ea r t ha t t ho se J ew s p re fe r red t he s t a tu s q uo t o t he R oman c onque s t , a nd f o r o bv ious r eason s . R ome w as h a ted b y t hem o n n a t iona l i s t ic g rounds , a nd P ar th ian r u le w as l e n ien tt ot hem . T he s econd r ea son w as s hared w i th o the rs egmen t so ft he p opu la t ion o ft he r eg ion ( Neusne r 1 976 : 5 8 -9 ) , t he f i r s t o ne w as u n ique t ot he J ew s a nd m igh t h ave m ade t hem mo re b i t te r a s e nem ie s o ft he i n vad ing R oman f o rce s ( 16 ) . ( D ) T o s um u p . P ar th ia w as a n ega t ive f a c to r i nJ udaean a nd J ew i sh p o l i t ic s , e i the ra s a n i n c i t ing a gen tw h ich c ou ld n o t s t and u p t ot he e xpec ta t ions a roused b y i to ra s aMe s s ian ic i l us ion , e n t ic ing t he p opu lace a nd l e ad ing t od i sas te r . B yw ay o fa na logy , i tr e semb le st he r o le o fP haraon ic E gyp t i nt he p e r iod o f t he F i r s tT emp le ,w hen J udaean k i ng sw e re i n c i ted w i th E gyp t ian h e lp t oc ha l lenge t he A s sy r ians o r t he B aby lon ians . B u t t he se m anoeuv re s u sua l ly f a i led , a nd E gyp t p roved i t se l f t o b e M i shene t K aneh R azuz ( I sa iah 3 6 .60 : " r e ly ing o n t h a t b roken r eed , E gyp t , w h ich p r ick s a nd p i e rce s t he h and o f t he p e r son w ho l e an s o n i t " ) . P ar th ia w as n o as t ronge rr eed t ol e an o ns eve ra lh und red y ear sl a ter .

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N o te s 1 . 2 .

3 . 4 .

5 .

6 . 7 . 8 .

9 .

T he u sua l ly a c cep ted d a t ing , b u t Go lds te in ( 1976 : 7 2 -8 ) s ugge s t s J annaeus ' r e ign . S ee Debevo i se ( 1938 : 9 4 ) , c i t ing J o s ippon , c h . 2 8 , ( acco rd ing t o t he V en ice e d i t ion o f 1 544 , i n c luded i nH . Hom ine r e d i t ion , J e rusa lem 1 956 : 1 07 -108 , a nd s ee P uc c ib e low ) ; F i sche r( 1970 : 5 6 ) a nd P ucc i( 1981b ) . F o r t he a t t r ibu t ion a nd c hrono logy o f t he se d ocumen t s , s ee S te rn ( 1965 : 1 43 -165 ) a nd S herw in - Wh i te ( 1984 : 7 6 -77 ) ,b o th w i th f u r the rb ib l iog raphy . S cho lar s s t a te t h a t t he P ar th ians h ad w an ted t o e xpand w e s tward t oS y r ia a nd b eyond ( She rw in - Wh i te 1 984 : 2 19 , w i th f u r the r b ib l iog raphy ) . N eve r the le s s , i ti sc l ea r t h a t w hen t he R oman s i n vaded a nd a nnexed S y r ia , t he P ar th ian s a cqu ie sced , w i th o ne e xcep t ion ( 40 BC ) , i n s p i te o f t he i r c l a ims f o rt h i sr eg ion . P ar th ian s uppo r t o f An t igonu s w as r easonab le , s i nce P ha sae l a nd He rod w e re R oman p uppe t s . T he r easons b rough t b y J o sephu s o r h i s s ource s a re b o th r edundan ta nd h o s t i le t o An t igonu s a nd s hou ld n o t b ea ccep ted a tf a ce v a lue . Had t he re b een s ome c onnec t ions b e tween P ar th ia a nd An t igonus p redce s so r s ,t he i rs uppo r to fh im i ss e lf -ev iden t . T he re i s ac op ious b ib l iog raphy , mos t ly i n Heb rew , o n t h i s i n sc r ip t ion ; i t w as p ub l i shed i nE ng l i sh b y R o sen tha l a nd N aveh ( 1973 ) . S ee T äub le r ( 1 904 ) i ng ene ra l , a nd o n t he se s t o r ie s i np ar t icu la r ( 1904 : 6 2 ff ) a nd Goodb la t t( 1987 : 6 19 -621 ,w i th f u r the rb ib l iog raphy i nt he n o te s ) . On t he b a t t le o fC ar rhae , s ee t he c on s ide red o p in ion o fT impe ( 1962 ) ; f o r t he p o s i t ion o fP ar th ia a tt ha tt ime ,s ee Wo l sk i ( 1976 : 4 12 -414 ) ; f o ra n e va l u a t ion o fA n t igonu s 'c a ree r , s ee S te rn ( 1974 -1984 : 1 . 284 -5 ) . S ee t he d i s cu s s ion o f L adouceur ( 1977 : 14 -140 ) , w he re t he p o l icy o f Vo logae se s( r u led 5 1/52 7 9/80 ) i sd ea l tw i th i nd e ta i l . On t he Me s s ian ic b ackg round o ft he r evo l t , s ee R appapo r t ( 1983 : 1 7 -20 ) . We h ave n o td ea l t h e re w i th c u l tura l i nf luence , o fw h ich D an i e li so ne o ft he mo s tc onsp i cuous e xamp le s( s ee , f o re xamp le , W ideng ren 1 957 ) . On t he Me s s ian ic i d eo logy a nd P e r s ia ' s p l ace i n i t , s ee r e fe rence s i n N eusne r ( 1965 -1970 : 1 . 30 , n .2 ) . Ic anno t s ee t he v a l id i ty o fN eu sne r ' ss uppo s i t ions ( 1976 , a nd i ns ome o fh i s f o rme r p ub l ic a t ions ) , e i the r c once rn ing t he A d iaben ian d ynas ty o r r e la t ing t o He rod ( 1 976 : 5 2 -53 ; a nd s ee 1 965 -1970 : 1 . 33 , 6 2 -4 ) . I ti ss urp r i s ing t o f i nd s uch u nc r i t ica l s uppo s i t ion s s ugge s ted b y s o h igh ly a nd r i gh t ly c r i t ica l h i s to r ian . Mo s t w r i te r s a g ree o n t he Me s s ian ic mo t iva t ion o f t he r evo l t i n C yp rus , C y rene a nd E gyp t ( s ee F uks 1 961 : 1 03 -104 ; N eu sne r 1 976 : 5 8 ; Sma l lwood 1 975 : 3 87 ) . Sma l lwood ( 1 976 : 3 95 ) i ss omewha t i ndec i s ive , b u t f o r n o g ood r ea son , a nd N eu sne r ( 1 976 : 5 8 , a nd s ee 1 965 -1970 : 1 . 72 ) t heo r ise s , b u t w i th n o f a c tua l b as i s a t a l l . F or t he B ar -Kokhba ' s r evo l t , t oo , t he re i sn o e v idence o f P ar th ian i n vo lvemen t , a sr i gh t ly s t a ted b yN eu sne r ( 1965 -1970 : 1 . 73 ) . F o r ag ene ra le va lua t ion ,s ee S te rn ( 1974 -84 : 2 . 154 -5 ) . -

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2 8 . BYZANT IU M AND SOUTHERN ARABIA THE POL ICY OF ANASTASIUS

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Z . Rub in T e lA v iv * The p aper d ea ls w i th t he c omp lex n e twork o fr e la t ions b etween t he e as tern R oman Emp ire a nd v ar ious e l emen ts i n t he A rab ian p en insu la , n o tab ly t he r ea lm o f H imyar a nd t he t r iba l c onf edera t ion o fa l -K inda , f rom t he r e ign o f Anas tas ius t o t he r e ign o f J us t in ian . I tw i l l b e a rgued t ha t t he ma in p urpose o f Roman p o l icy i n t ha t r eg ion w as t o ma in ta in a nd t o c onso l ida te a c om merc ia l r ou te t o t he F ar E as t , ar ou te t ha t wou ld c i rcu mven t t he S asan ian monarchy , a nd e nab le R oman t rade , e spec ia l ly t he s i lk t rade , t o a vo id t he e xorb i tan t c us toms -dues i mposed b y t he S asan ians . I n t h is p o l icy t he e as tern R oman Emp ire s hared a c ommon i n teres t w i th t he E th iop ian emperors o fA xum . Th is i st he b ackground t o t he c onvers ion o f t he A xum i te Emp ire t o Chr is t ian i ty a nd t o t he p ersecu t ion o f Chr is t ians i n t he r ea lm o f H imyar b y i t s J ew ish k ing Q5 -Nuw s . The a t temp ts o f t h is monarch t o e s tab l ish a n i ndependen t b lock b etween t he g reat p owers o f l a te a nt iqu i ty c aused c oncern n o t o n ly i n C ons tan t inop le b ut a lso i n t he S asan ian k ingdom . T h is w i l l b e p roved w i th t he a id o fs ome h i ther to i nsu f ic ien t ly n o t iced P ah lav i s ources .

I t i s aw e l l k nown f a c t t h a t R oman h i s to r ians s howed o n t he w ho le a r emarkab le l a ck o f i n te re s t i n t he e conom ic p rob lems o f t he ir e mp ire . T he d ep lorab le s c arc i ty o f i n fo rma t ion i n t he h i s tor ica l s ource s c once rn ing t he m a in tenance o f c omme rc ia l t i e s b e tween t he R oman , l a te r t he B yzan t ine , Emp i re a nd t he F ar E as t i so n ly o ne p ar t icu lar e xamp le o ft h i s t r u th ( 1 ) . T he p re sen t p ape r w i l l c oncen t ra te o n t he i mmense e f fo r t s m ade b y t he B y zan t ine e mpe ro r s t oward s t he e nd o f t he f i f th c en tury a nd d ur ing t he f i r s t t wo d ecades t he s i x th t o r eopen as ou the rn n ava l r ou te t o t he F ar E as t a nd t o k eep i t o pen ( 2 ) . T he a rgumen t i n t h i s p re sen t p ape r w i l l n ece s sar i ly b e r a the r s ke tchy , e s pec ia l ly i n t he s u rvey o f e ven t s o f t he y ear s 51 8 -525 a p e r iod v e ry f r equen t ly d i scus sed b y mode rn s c ho lar s , i nt he f i r s tp l ace b ecause o fi t s c ruc ia l i mpo r tance i n d e te rm in ing t he b eg inn ing o f t he S ahaean e ra ( 3 ) . On t he o the r h and , a mo re d e ta i led r ev i s ion i sn eeded o f B y zan t ine p o l icy i ns ou the rn A rab ia d ur ing t he r e ign o fA nas tas ius , a nd a r e as se s smen t o f S asan ian r e sponse s t o d eve lopmen t s i n t h i s a r ea s eem s t oh e r equ i red , e spec ia l ly i nr e spec t o ft he B yzan t ine s ' a t t i tude t owards t h er o le p l ayed b yJ uda i sm i nt he r e a lm o fH imyar . -

T o s t ar t w i th , t h e p hrase " r eopen as ou the rn n ava l r ou te t o t he F ar E a s t " o ugh t t o h e e xp la ined . l ti mp l ie s t h a t s uch ar ou te h ad e x i s ted i nt he p as t , a nd t h a t i th ad s ome h ow c ea sed t of unc t ion b e fo re t he e nd o ft he f i f th c en tury . I ndeed , t he g l impse s a f fo rded b ys u ch w r i te r sa s R uf inus (HE 1 . 9 ) , P h i lo s to rg ius (HE 3 . 4 , [ e d .J . B idez ] G S 2 1 : 3-36 ) a nd A thanas ius ( Apo log ia a d C ons tan t iu m 3 1 , PG 2 5 : c o l . 6 36 ) i n to t he o pe ra t ion o fR oman d ip lomacy i nE th iop ia a nd s ou the rn A rab ia f r om t h er e ign o fD ioc le t ian o nwards g o f a r e nough t oe xpose i t sp urpo se s . C omme rc ia l t r a f f ic f r om I nd ia a nd T ap rohane ( S r i L anka ) t o t he R oman Emp i re w as t o b e s a f eguarded a t t he s ou the rn a pp roache s o f t h e R ed S ea b y a l iance s w i th t he A xum i te r e a lm i nE th iop ia o n t he o ne h and a nd t he H imyar i te r e a lm o f s ou the rn A rab ia o n t he o the r ( P igu lew ska ja 1 969 : 7 2 -78 , 2 11 -213 ) . T he e v idence o f t he

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e cc le s ias t ica l s ou rce s i sc o r robo ra ted b y an umbe r o fE th iop ian i n sc r ip t ion s ( DAE 4 :n o s . 4 ,6 , 7a nd 1 ) . T he m a in c once rn o f t he e c c le s ias t ica l s ources i s ,h oweve r , n o t t he emp loymen t o f d i p lomacy i n t he f u r the rance o f c omme rce , b u t t he c onve r s ion o fE th iop ia a nd s ou the rn A rab ia t o C hr i s t ian i ty . T he i n sc r ip t ions b ear o u t t he h i s to r ic i ty o ft he i rp l ea t h a t t he E th iop ian N egu s E zana o n t he i n s c r ip t ions a nd l i kew i se i n al e t te r o f C on s tan t ius p re se rved b y A thanas iu s ( Gk . A I zanä s ) emb raced C h r i s t ian i ty s ome t ime i nt he m idd le o f t h e f our th c en tury ( 4 ) . A l l t he r e s t i si n deed am a t te ro fs pecu la t ion ,b u tg i ven o ur k now ledge o ft he r o le p l ayed b y C h r i s t ian i ty i nc emen t ing a l iance s b e tween t he R oman Emp ire a nd i t s n e ighbour s a nd f ede ra te s , i tmus tb er eg arded a ss ound s pecu la t ion ( 5 ) . -

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T h i sp o l icy w as s ucce s s fu l f o r at ime . E ge r ia ' s d e sc r ip t ion o fC ly sma a s q u i p or tu s m i t t i t a d I nd ia in y e l e x c ip i t v en ien t e s n av e s d e I nd ia ( 6 ) , a sw e l l a s P a l lad ius ' a ccoun t o f t wo v oyage s t o I nd ia t h rough t he E th iop ian p o r t o f Adu l i s o ne u nde r taken b y h imse l f i n t he c ompany o f Mo se s , t he b i shop o f t ha t c i ty , a nd a no the r , b y a n a nonymou s s c ho las t icus , h i s i n fo rman t c once rn ing t he p eop les o f I nd ia a nd t he B rahman s t e s t i f y t o t he p ro spe r i ty o f t he E ry thraean c omme rc ia l r ou te u n t i l a sl a te a s t he t u rn o f t he f our th c en tury ( 7 ) . F rom t he p o in t o fv i ew o f t he R oman g ove rnmen t i t s m a in a dvan tage w as t h a t i tc i rcumven ted t h e t r ade r ou te s w h ich p a s sed t h rough S asan ian t e r r i to ry , a nd i tc ou ld b e e xp lo i ted b o th e conom ica l ly a nd f i sca l ly t ot he f u l lb ene f i t o ft he Emp i re . -

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T he e conom ic a nd f i s ca lb ene f i t so fu t i l i s ing t h i sr ou te , a sw e l l a so t he rs t ha t b y -pas sed t e r r i to r ie s u nde r S asan ian d om ina t ion ( 8 ) , o ugh t t o b e e mphas ised , e spec ia l ly s i nce t hey a re n o t i mmed ia te ly a pparen t w hen t he p rob lem o f i n te r n a t iona lt r ade i nl a te a n t iqu i ty i sd ea l tw i th o n ly i nt h ec on tex t o f n ego t ia t ions a nd a g reemen t s b e tween B yzan t ium a nd t he S asan ian monarchy . T he c omme rc ia l p a rag raph st end t oc rea te t he i mp re s s ion t h a t f r om t h eB yzan t ine p o in to fv i ew t he ma in d rawback o f i mpo r t ing g ood s t h rough S asan ian t e r r i tory i st o b e s ough t i n c on s ide ra t ion s o f s e cu r i ty . T he r e s t r ic t ion o f c omme rc ia l t r af f ic t o an umbe r o f a g reed t r ad ing p o s t s m ay i n deed b e e xp la ined a t l e as t p ar t ly a s a n a t temp t t o f o re s ta l l t he i n f i l t ra t ion o fs p ie si nt he g u i se o f me rchan t s (W in te r 1 987 : 6 2 -5 ) . I ti s , h oweve r , s e l f -ev iden t t h a t aP e r s ian monopo ly o ft h e e as te rn t r ade wou ld f o rce u p t he p r ice s o ft he i mpo r ted me rchand i se , w he reas c ompe t i t ion m ade p o s s ib le b y t he a va i lab i l i ty o f a l te rna t ive r ou te s w ou ld b r ing a bou t ar educ t ion o f p r ice s . T h i s e conom ic b ene f i t w as c l o se ly c onnec ted w i th t h e f i sca l o ne . T he B y zan t ine monopo ly o ve r t he s i lk t r ade , e xe rc i sed t h rough t he c ompu l sory i n termed ia t ion o f t he c om i t e sc omme r c io ru in , w ou ld b e much mo re p ro f i tab le t ot he i mpe r ia l t r easury i ft he r aw s i lk w as p urchased b y t hem a tr e la t ive ly c heap p r ice s ( 9 ) . O n t h e o the r h and , l e av ing t he P e r s ian monopo ly o f t he f a r e as te rn t r ade r ou tes i n tac t wou ld e nab le t he S a san ian monarch s t o l e vy t he ir o wn c u s toms q u i te u n re s t r ic ted ly . E xp l ic i t e v idence t h a t t he S asan ian s p ro f i tee red i nt h i s w ay i sl a ck ing , b u t i ti sn o t e a sy t os ee h ow t he P e r s ian k i ng s ,w ho w e re a lway s p re s sed f o r money , c ou ld r es i s t t he t emp ta t ion o f t app ing t h i s o bv iou s s ource o f i n come . T ha t t wo o f t h e t h ree o f f ic ia l t r ad ing p o s ts t ow h ich e xchange o fg oods w i th P e r s ia w as l im i ted i n4 08 -9 ( Cod l u s t . 4 . 63 .4 ) , N is ih i s a nd A r taxa ta , w e re u nde r S asan ian i nf luence i si n i t se l f a n i n d ica t ion t h a t t h i s a r rangemen t , a t at ime w hen r e la t ions b e tween t he t wo p owe r s w e re a t t he i r b e s t ( Rub in 1 9 86a : 6 79 -80 ) , r ef lec ted t he i n te re s t s o f t he S a san ian sn o l e s s t h an t ho se o ft he R oman s (W in te r 1 987 : 6 4 ) . F ac i l i ty i ne xac t ing c us tom s d ue s , n o l e s s t h an s e cu r i ty r e asons , m ay h ave b een a m a jo r c on s idera t ion i n t he i r c a se , j u s t a s i tw as i n t h a t o f t he R oman s . T he e x to r t ion o f e xo rb i tan t c u s toms m ay i n deed h e t he t r u th b eh ind t he a lega t ion r e co rded b y S oc ra tes ( HE 7 . 18 , PG 6 7 : c o l . 7 73 ) t h a t R oman me rchan t sw e re p l unde red b y t he P e r s ian s . T h is m ay a l so b e t he t r ue mean ing o f as t a temen t m ade b yJ u l ianus , J us t in ian ' se nvoy t o t he E th iop ian k i ng , t h a t b y b uy ing s i lk f r om t h e E th iop ians r a the r t han f r om t he

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P e r s ians , t he R oman sw i l lp ro f i t o n ly i no ne w ay , t h a t t hey w il n o t b e f o rced t op ay money o ve rt ot he i re nemy ( P rocop .P e r s . 1 . 20 .9 c f . 8 . 17 .1 ; Anec . 2 5 .16 ) . I t i s , t he re fo re , n o w onde r t h a t t he P e r s ian s w e re h igh ly i n te re s ted i n b l ock ing t he e x tens ion o fR oman i nf luence i nt he A rab ian p en in su la . I ti sl i kew i se as t r ik ing p henomenon t h a t t he p e r iod o fr a the r f r ag i le p eace b e tween t he e a s te rn R oman Emp i re a nd t h e S asan ian monarchy i n t he f i f th c en tu ry ( Rub in 1 986 ) c o inc ided w i th ap e r iod o fd ec l ine o fR oman i nf luence i nt h a t a rea . *

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T he v e ry f a c t t h a t s uch ad ec l ine d id i nf a c t t a ke p l ace i sn o t i n f requen t ly i g no red . A f a l se i mp re s s ion i sc r ea ted t h a t u pheava l s i n s ou the rn A rab ia a t t he b eg inn ing o f t he s i x th c en tury s t emmed m a in ly f r om l o ca l o ppo s i t ion t o a c on t inuous a nd w e l le s tab l i shed E th iop ian h egemony , s uppo r ted b yC on s tan t inop le , o ve r t he a rea ( 10 ) . T he i mp l ic t n o t ion t h a t t he s ou the rn t r ade r ou te s t o t he F a r E a s t p ro spe red t h roughou t t he f i f th c en tury o f fe r s af a l se p e r spec t ive o ve r t he e conom ic p rob lems o f t h e B y zan t ine Emp i re i n t h a t p e r iod a nd p reven t s t he c o r rec t u nde r s tand ing o fs ome r a the r s t ar t l ing d eve lopmen t s t h a t o ccur red d u r ing t h er e ign o f Ana s tas ius ( 4 9 1 -518 ) . I ti s ,t he re fo re , h i gh ly i mpo r tan tt os urvey a l t he e v idence w h ich i nd ica te st h a t f o r mo s t o ft he f i f th c en tury t he s ou the rn c omme rc ia l r ou te w as n o l o nge r u nde r B y zan t ine c on t ro l a nd t hus c ou ld n o t c on s t i tu te a c ompe t i t ive a l te rna t ive t ot he r ou te sd i rec t ly c on t ro l led b yt he S asan ians . I ti si mmed ia te ly e v iden t t h a t i t s e ndur ing s ucce s s d epended o n as e r ie s o f r a the r v u lne rab le a r rangemen t s . T he R oman i mpe r ia l g ove rnmen t c ou ld h ard ly e xe r t i t s i nf luence e f f e c t ive ly o ve r t e r r i to r ie s f a r b eyond i t s i mmed ia te m i l i tary c on t ro l . An o rde r , b a sed o n ac ha in o fa l iance sw i th p owe r st ha t s hared ac ommon i n te re s t w i th t he R oman Emp ire b u t n eve r a cknow ledged i t s s uze ra in ty , c ou ld s ub s i s t o n ly s o l o ng a s n one o f t he se a l iance s f ounde red . I tm igh t p rove h i gh ly p recar ious e ven i fa l o f t hem r ema ined v a l id , b u t a t l e as t o ne o f t he a l ie s l o s t c on t ro l o fi t so wn i n te rna la f f a ir s . Wo r r y ing s i gns t h a t s ome th ing w as g o ing a m i s s a re r e co rded a l ready i nt he l a te s even t ie s o f t h e f o ur th c en tury , w hen t h i s r ou te w as , s eem ing ly , s t i l l u nde r R oman c on t ro l . T he R e la t io Am ,non i i , as omewha t p rob lema t ic b u t c e r ta in ly a u then t ic d ocumen t ( 1 1) , h as p re ser ved t he memo ry o f ar a id c a r r ied o u t b y t he B lemmye s i n t he v i c in i ty o f C ly sma . T he r a ide r s , w ho s l augh te red a w ho le m onas t ic c ommun i ty a t R a I thu o n t he e as te rn s ho re o f t he Gu l f o f S uez , l a nded f r om t he s ea , h av ing c on f isca ted as h ip t h a t w as o n i t s w ay t o A i la a nd d i ve r ted i t b ack t o C ly sma i no rde r t op l unde r t he r eg ion o ft h i s i mpo r tan t k ey p o r t a l ong t he s ou the rn r ou te . E ge r ia ' s i tne rar y r evea l s t he a l arm ing t r u th t h a t t he v oyage f r om C ly sma t o F acusa w a s c on s ide red u n safe , s i nce i tp a s sed t h rough l o ca s u spec ta w he re c aravans c ou ld m ove o n ly u nde r t he p ro tec t ion o fm i l i tary e s co r t s f r om o ne s t ag ing p o s t t o a no the r ( 12 ) . T ha t t he w ay s b e tween C ly sma a nd A i la w e re c on s ide red u nsafe a s e a r ly a s t owards t he e nd o f t he f our th c en tury h a rd ly b oded w e l l f o r t he f u ture . T he i n road s o f t he B lemmye s i n to E gyp t s eem t o h ave b een much mo re f r equen t t h an i ss ugge s ted b y t he r e co rd t hey h ave l e f t i nt he w r i t ten s ource s . T he f a c t t ha t App ion , b i shop o f S yene , h ad t o a ppea l t o t he i mpe r ia l g ove rnmen t f o r m i l i ta ry a i d a ga ins t t h em i n3 98 i sk nown t h ank s t o ap apy rus t h a t p re se rve s h i s l e t te r (Wi l cken 1 912 : 1 2 -13 , n o .6 ) . F ur the r i n road s a re k nown t oh ave t a ken p l ace

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t oward st he m idd le o ft he f i f th c en tury ( 1 3 ) ,w hen t h eg ene ra l Max im inu s m anaged t o i nf l ic t o n t hem ad e fea t t h a t t empo rar i ly k ep t t h em a tb ay . T he hu n dr e dy ea r s ' p eace w h ich h e n ego t ia ted w i th t hem d id n o t o u t la s th i s u n t ime ly d ea th ,w h ich t ook p l ace i mmed ia te ly a f te r i t sc onc lus ion ( P r i scus f r .2 1 [ e d . Mü l le r , FHG 4 :1 00 ] = f r . 2 7 .1 [ e d . ß lock ley ( 1 983 : 3 22 -4 ) ] ) . Ano the r g ene r a l , F lo rus ( 1 4 ) , h ad t o t ake t h e f i e ld a ga in s t t hem a nd b ea t t h em h ack f r om t h e r eg ions o f P h i lae a nd S yene ( J o rdane s R omana 33 , [ e d . Mommsen ] MGH , AA 5 :4 3 = P r i scus f r . 2 7 .2 [ c d . B lock ley ( 1983 : 3 24 ) ] ) . T o a n o b se rve r f r om w i th in t he R oman Emp i re w r i t ing a bou t t he se e nc roachmen t s t hey m igh t e a s i ly a ppea r a sc om ing f r om E th iop ia , f o r t h i si sa ta ny r a te h ow J o rdane sd e sc r ibe st hem . B eh ind t h i s d e sc r ip t ion t he re m ay b e e ven a measure o f t r u th . T here i s g ood r ea son t o b e l ieve t ha t o ne o f t he m a in o b je c t ive s o f a l l iance s b e tween t h e R oman Emp i re a nd t he A xum i te k i ngdom w as t he c on ta inmen t o f t h e B lemmye s a nd t he N obadae , w ho se i n road s mus t h ave a f fec ted E th iop ia n o l e s s t h an Uppe r E gyp t . An a l iance w i th t he E th iop ian r ea lm h ad b een i ne x i s tence f o r s ome t ime b e fo re t he j ourney t h a t b rough t Me rop iu s t oE th iop ia " i n t he t ime s o fC on s tan t ine " a nd w as t empo rar i ly i n te r rup ted w hen h e g o t s t randed o n i t s s ho res , t o ge the r w i th h i s t wo s ons , A ede s ius a nd F rumen t iu s , t he l a t te r o f w hom w as d e s t ined t o b e n om ina ted b y A thanas iu s a s t he f i r s t b i shop o f t he E th iop ians ( 15) . T h i s a l iance mus t , t he re fo re , d a te b ack t ot he r e ign o fD ioc le t ian . I n s o f a r a s i th ad ad e f in i te m i l i tary p urpo se , t h i s p urpo se c an h ard ly h e c onne c ted w i th a ny th ing e l se b u t t h e g row ing t h rea t o f t he B lemmye s . I ft h i s d a t ing i sa c cep ted , i tw i l l h ave c o inc ided w i th t he c onc lus ion o fa no the ra l iance t he o ne w i th t h e Nobadae ,j u s t a tt he t ime w hen t he R oman Emp ire w as f o rced t ow i thdraw i t s f o rce s f r om P r ima t o P h i lae ( 16 ) . T he d ec l ine o ft he Me ro i t ic k i ngdom a pparen t ly c rea ted av acuum t h a t mus t h ave b een f i l led b y means o f t h e a l iance w i th A xum , f o r t he c onsequence s o f t h i s d ec l ine mu s t h ave b een f e l t b yb o th p owe r sf o rd ecade s( 17 ) . F ur the rs pecu la t ion i s r ende red n eed le s s i ft he i d en t i f ica t ion o f t he B lemmye s a s t he B eg7 a o f t h e E th iop ian i n sc r ip t ion s i sa ccep ted . T he f a c t t h a t E z ana g l o r i f ie s i nt he s uppre ss ion o f ar ebe l l ion o f t h is p eop le s how s c l ear ly t h a t t h ey p o sed a p rob lem t o t h e E th iop ian s a s w e l l a s t o t he R omans ( 1 8 ) . T he f a i lu re o f b o th p owe r s t o c on t ro l t hem f r om t he e nd o ft he f our th c en tury o nwards i so ne o ft he c l eare s t i n d ica t ion s t h a t t he A xum i te k i ngdom w as l o o s ing i t s g r ip a nd t h a t t he i r a l l iance w i th t he e as te rn R oman Emp i re c eased t oh ee f fec t ive . -

T he e n feeb lemen t o f E th iop ia , w h ich w as s u ch a n i mpor tan t l i nk i n t he c ha in o f a l iance s a l ong t he s ou the rn c omme rc ia l r ou te , w ou ld u navo idab ly c au se o the r l i nk s t o w eaken a nd e ven t o b reak . T h i s i st r ue p ar t icu lar ly o f s ou the rn A rab ia .

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C h r i s t ian i ty s e rved t o c emen t t he a l iance b e tween R ome a nd E th iop ia d u r ing t he r e ign s o f C on s tan t iu s a nd E zana . T he A r ian d i spu te t ha t t o re a sunde r t he C hu rch w i th in t he R oman Emp ire m ay h ave c l ouded f o r aw h i le t h e r e la t ion s b e tween C ons tan t ius , a n a rden t s uppo r te r o f Homoean A r ian i sm , a nd E zana w ho s eem s t o h ave s t ood f i rm ly b eh ind t he o r thodox F rumen t ius ( 19 ) . T here i s , h oweve r , l i t t le r e ason t ob e l ieve t h a t i tw as a lowed t ou nde rm ine t he s t ra teg ic a nd t he e conom ic b as i so ft he a l iance . I n s ou the rn A rab ia C on s tan t ius s eem s t o h ave e n joyed a l a rge r d eg ree o f s ucce s s , i n s o f a r a s h e m anaged t o b r ing a bou t t h e c onve r s ion o f a n " I nd ian "

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e t hnarch o f t he H imya r i te s t o h i s o wn c r eed t h rough t he a gency o f h i s A r ian e m i s sary , T heoph i lu s ( Ph i lo s to rg iu s HE 3 . 4 , [ c d .J .B idez ] GCS 2 1 : 3 4 ) . T h i s s t o ry , w h ich h as b een s o f r equen t ly d oub ted i n t he p as t , n ow s t and s v i nd ica ted o n t he b a s i so ft he s ou th A rab ian i n sc r ip t iona l e v idence t h a t i n d ica te st he a bandonmen to f p agan ism a t Mär ib e i the r b y Ma lk ika r ib Y uh 'amr n o r a l ready b y h i s f a the r I ' aran Y uhan ' im a ta bou t t he t ime o fC on s tan t iu s I( J . R yckman s 1 964 : 4 16 -20 ) . T h i s s ucce s s , h oweve r , w as v e ry s ho r t l ived . A l ready T heophi lu s h ad t o c on tend a ga in s t J ew i sh i n f luence i ns ou the rn A rab ia . " The p ecu l iar madne s s o ft he J ew s a nd t he i r i n t ran s igence s ank u nw i l l ing ly i n to d eep s i lence , w hen T heoph i lu s h ad s hown t ime a nd a ga in t he C hr i s t ian b e l ie f t o b e i n v inc ib le b y mean s o f i n c red ib le d eeds " ( 20 ) . T he r ebuf f o f J uda i sm w as o n ly t empo rary . T he c on s tan t p re sence o fJ ew ish me r chan t s i ns ou the rn A rab ia l e f t i t s i n ev i tab le i mpac t o n t he H imyar i te a r i s toc racy ( 2 1 ) . T he re i sn o r e ason t o d oub t t he a t trac t ion o f t he i r r e l ig ion t o t he p roud e l i te o f ar e a lm , e age r t o p re serve i t s i n dependence a ga in s t t h e E th iop ian s , a ga in s t t h e R oman s a nd ( a s w i l l b e a rgued i nt he s eque l ) a ga in s t t h e S asan ian s a nd t he i r s a te l l i te s , t he L akhm id p r ince s o f I i ra . I fp agan i sm i n s ou thern A rab ia w a s i n deed u nde rgo ing a p roce s s o f d ec l ine a nd w as n o l o nge r c apab le o fh o ld ing i t s o wn a ga ins t C h r i s t ian i nf luence s , J uda i sm m igh t p rov ide t he r e l ig ious b u lwark a g a in s t t he o ns laugh t o f af o re ign p owe r , s k i l led i n t he u se o f r e l ig ion a s ap o l i t ica l w eapon . T he f u tu re w ou ld s how t h a t i tw as a n e f fec t ive a n t ido te a ga in s t Z o roas t r ian i sm p romo ted b yt he S a san ian monarchs . R em in i scence s a bou t t he p ene t ra t ion o f J uda ism i n to H imyar a nd i t s g r ow ing i nf luence u pon i t s l e ade r sh ip a bound ( 2 2 ) . T he A rab ic H i s tor iog raphy h as r e ta ined at r ad i t ion c once rn ing t he c onve r s ion o f aH imyar i te k i ng , n amed T ubb 'a a l -As jar T ubin ' A s 'ad ' Abukar ib t o J uda i sm ( T ahar i [ c d . Dc Goe je ] 1 :9 01 -902 , o m i t ted i n N ö ldeke 1 979 ) . T he l e gend s a bou t t h i s k i ng d o i n deed c on ta in much t h a t i su n re l iab le a nd c o loured b y l a te r e ven t s a nd t r ad i t ion s ( J . R yckman s 1 964 : 4 26 -428 ) . T he k i ng h im se l fi s ,h oweve r , e p ig raph ica l ly a t te s ted ( Ph i lby 1 950 : 2 70 ;J . R yckman 1 964 : 4 32 a nd n .1 00 ) , a nd a l though t he re i sn oc e r ta in ty a bou t t he n a tu re o fh i s r e l ig ion , i th a sb een s ugge s ted o n t he b a s i s o ft he i n sc r ip t ion s o fh i s s on a nd s u cce s sor , a rahb i ' i l Y 'afur , t h a t at r an s i t ion f r om C hr i s t ian i ty a s t he r oya l r e l ig ion t oJ uda ism m ay h ave t a ken p l ace a l ready i nt he l a s t d ay s o f Abukar ib h imse l f( 2 3 ) . J uda ism , o r a tl e as t aJ uda is ing mono the i s t ic r e l ig ion , m ake s i t se l fm an i fe s t i nt he a ppearance o f an ew d i v ine a ppe l la t ion R a l manan ( " the Me rc i fu l " , mode l led a lmos t c e r ta in ly o n t h e J ew i sh A rama ic R a l : imana ) o n t he S abaean i n sc r ip t ion s , p robab ly d ur ing t he r e ign o f t he s ame S arahh i 'i l Y 'afur , t he a u tho r o f t he f amou s D am I nsc r ip t ion o f Mã r ib ( 2 4 ) . An E th iop ian h ag iog raphy o f aC hr i s t ian m i s s ionary n amed A zg i r r e vea l s a n a c t ive J ew ish i n vo lvemen t i na n a n t i -Ch r i s t ian p e r secu t ion i nN a jrãn ( 2 5 ) . I ti s s a id t o h ave t a ken p l ace u nde r t he k i ng S a ra t ib i ' i l Y akkuf ( t he E th iop ian t e x t h as S a r bh i 1 Dnke f , a n u nde r s tandab le a nd e as i ly c o r r ig ib le c o r rup t ion ) , w ho i s i n sc r ip t iona l ly a t te s ted a s r e ign ing t oge the r w i th h i s t h ree s on s i n 5 82 H im ./467 ( 2 6 ) . Wa s h e a c tua l ly J ew i sh? S cep t ic s m ay p o in t o u t t ha t t he Ma r ty r ium o fA zg i r n owhe re e xp l ic i ty a s c r ibe sJ uda i sm t ot he k i ng a nd t oh i s n ob le s , b u t e ven t hey w i l l h ave t o a dm i t t h a t t he p e r secu t ion w as c a r r ied o u t b yp eop le s t rong ly i nf luenced b y t h eJ ew s , e ven i ft hey w e re s t i l l n on -Jew i sh ( 2 7 ) . T h i sc i rcumspec tv i ew i s ,h oweve r , g r a tu i tou s i n v i ew o f t h e i n sc r ip t iona l e v idence w h ich h a s t u rned u p s i nce t h i s d ocumen ts aw t he l i gh t . T oday t he re s eem s t oh e n ov a l id r e ason t od i sbe l ieve t h a t t h e Mar t y r ium o fA zgf r p re serve s t he memo ry o f a n a n t i -Chr i s t ian p e r secu t ion i n i t ia ted b y t he a u tho r i t ie s o f H imyar , w ho p ro fe s sed J uda i sm ( J . R yckmans 1 964 : 4 21 -2 , 4 35 -6 ) .

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F u r the rmo re , t he e v idence o ft h e Mar ty r ium o fA zg i r m us t b e r e ad t oge the r w i th t h a t o fo the r C h r i s t ian s our ce s . A cco rd ing t ot he se , t he k i ng s o f Y emen h ad b een J ew i sh f o r s ome t ime b e fo re t he g rea t p e r secu t ion o f Q ü Nuwis a t t he b eg inn ing o f t he s i x th c en tury . T he h ead ing s o f t h e l o s t t wo f i r s t c hap te r s o f t he B ook o ft h eH imyar i t e s s how t h a t t hey w e re b o th d ed ica ted t o t h e c onve r s ion o ft he H imyar i te st oJ uda i sm . T ha t i tw as w ide ly a s sumed t oh ave t a ken p l ace b e fore t he s p read o f C hr is t ian i ty a mong t h em i sm ade p e r f e c t ly c l ear b y t he h ead ing o f t he t h i rd c hap te r w he re t h is s ub jec t i sf i r s t b rough t u p ( Mobe rg 1 921 : 3 B , S y r iac ; c i , t r an s la t ion ) . T h is t h i rd c hap te r a l so i n t roduced t h e a ccoun t o f t he p e r secu t ion s l a unched a ga ins t t he C hr i s t ians i n H imyar b y t he J ew s , f o r t he f o l low ing c hap te r d ea l t w i th t he j ourney m ade b y ab i shop n amed T homa s t o E th iop ia , t oi n fo rm i t s r u le r s o f t he se p e r secu t ion s ( Mobe rg 1 921 : 3 1 3 , S y r iac ; c i , t r an s la t ion ) . I ft he se p e r secu t ions w e re n o t i mpu ted t ot he J ew s i nt he l o s t c hap te r s , t he h ead ing s o ft he f i r s t t h ree c hap te r s a re j u s t m ean ing le s s . T he Ma r t y r ium A r e thae f o l low s s u i t i n d e sc r ib ing J uda i sm a s t he o f f ic ia l ly e s tab l i shed s t a te r e l ig ion i nH imyar ( M ar ty r ium A r e thae 1 . 1 ; [ e d . E . C arpe ' n t ie r ] A .SS , O c tobe r 2 4 : 7 21 -2 ) . T he w e igh t o f t he c umu la t ive e v idence , t he re fo re , p o in ts t oo ne i n ev i tab le c onc lu s ion . B y t h e m idd le o ft he f i f th c en tury s ou the rn A rab ia h ad s l ipped a way f r om t h e s phe re o f R oman i nf luence .

T he u n s tab le o rde r e s tab l i shed w i th s o much p a in s tak ing c a re b y D ioc le t ian , C ons tan t ine a nd C ons tan t ius I h ad f ounde red . T he e conom ic c on sequence s o f t he n ew s t a te o f a f f a i r s i n t h e A rab ian p en insu la m us t b e a ccura te ly d e sc r ibed i fm i sunde r s tand ing s a re t o b e a vo ided . T h i s s t a te o fa f fa ir s d i d n o t mean t h a tc omme rc ia l r ou te s t h a tp as sed t h rough t he A rab ian p en insu la o r a l ong i t s s ho re s w e re n ow c omp le te ly b l ocked . Me rchand i se c ou ld s t i l l r e ach t he R oman Emp i re t o t he i mpo r tan t p o r t s o f A i la a nd C ly sma b y s ea o r b y l and t h rough t he s ou th A rab ian c a ravan r ou te s . I td i d , h oweve r , m ean t h a t a l t hese r ou te sw e re n o l o nge r u nde r t he c on t ro l o ft he e as te rn R oman Emp ire a nd t ha t a l l t he a dvan tage s i th ad e n joyed b yv i r tue o ft h i s c on t ro l i nt he p as t n o l onge re x is ted . C ly sma a nd A i la s eem t oh ave l o s t much o ft he i r f o rme rg l o ry . T hey w e re d e s t ined t or e cove rs ome o fi t ,b u to n ly f o r av e ry s ho r tp e r iod , u nde r Anas tas ius . T he s e izu re o f t he i s l and o f l o tabe i n t he G u l f o f Aqaba b y t he S aracen c h ie f ta in Amo rce so s w ou ld s e rve a s t he b e s t e xamp le o f t he c onsequence s o f t h i s s i tua t ion . H av ing d e f ec ted t o B y zan t ium f r om h i s f o rme r S asan ian a leg iance i n 4 73 , h e m anaged t of ound am i l i tary c o lony o n t h i s i s l and a nd t oe l ic i t , s o i ts eems , t he Empe ro r L eo ' s r e luc tan t r e cogn i t ion o f h i s p o s i t ion a s i t s g ove rnor ( Ma lchus , f r . I ,[ e d . Mü l le r ] FHG 4 : 13 ) . T he l o ca t ion o ft h i si s l and i ss t i l l amy s te ry . T ir n h as b een s ugge s ted , b ecause i ta g ree s w i th P rocop ius ' d e sc r ip t ion o f i ta s b e ing mo re t h an 1 000 s t ade s d i s tan t f r om A i la ( P rocop . P e r s . 1 . 19 .3 -4 ) . N o r ema ins f r om t he B yzan t ine p e r iod , h oweve r , h ave b een f ound o n t h a t i s l and , a nd J az i ra t F ara ' n h a sf r equen t ly b een p re fe r red a st he c o r rec t i d en t if ic a t ion ( 28 ) . S i nce h i sp hy larchy s eems t o h ave e x tended o ve r v as t t r ac t s o f t he s u r round ing t e r r i tor ie s a l ong t he s ho re s o f t he Gu l f o f Aqaba , h e c ou ld e as i ly c on t ro l m ar i t ime t r af f ic a s f a r a s t he s t ra i t s o fT i rãn , a nd e ven b eyond , a sw e l l a s s ome o ft h e i mpo r tan t l a nd r ou tes i n t he S ina i p en insu la , a nd i mpo se h i s o wn e conom i c r eg ime o n t he e n t i re a rea . Unde r h i s a eg is a J ew i sh c omme rc ia l c o lony p ro spe red a t T o tabe ( P rocop . P er s . 1 . 19 ; c f . T heophane sa .m . 5 990 , [ c d . D e B oo r ] 1 4 1) . l ts eems t oh ave b een o n ly t he n o r the rn o u tpo s t o f av as t J ew i sh c omme rc ia l e n te rpr i se w h ich g a ined t h e u ppe r h and a l a l ong t he e as te rn s ho re s o ft he R ed S ea , p u t t ing t he C h r is t ian m e rchan ts

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a t as eve re d i sadvan tage . C us toms o n g ood s t ha t r eached B yzan t ine t e r r i to r ie s t h rough Amo rce sos ' p hy larchy n a tura l ly f l owed i n to h i s o wn t r easury . T heophane s m ake s i tq u i te c l ear t h a t ac ons ide rab le f i nanc ia l l o s s t o t he B y zan t ine i mpe r ia l g ove rnmen tw as i n vo lved ( 29 ) . I tw as q u i te o bv ious t h a t t h i s s i tua t ion c ou ld h ard ly b e t o t he l i k ing o f t he a u thor i t ie s i n C ons tan t inop le , a nd t h a t s oone r o r l a te r aB yzan t ine e n te rp r i se t o r e d re ss i tw ou ld s uper vene . On t he o the r h and , i ti sv e ry o f ten t a ken f o r g ran ted t h a t a ny d eve lopmen t i n t he R ed S ea z one c on t rary t o B yzan t ine i n te re s t s w a s f o s te red b y t he S a san ian k i ng s a nd b y t he p r ince s o f I i ra . I t i s , t he re fore , i mpor tan t t os t re s s t h a t Amo rce so s w a s ad e se r te r f r om P e r s ian t e r r i tory a nd t h a t h i sd e se r t ion c ou ld h ard ly h ave b een t ot he l i k ing o fe i the r t he S a san ian s o r o ft he L akhm ids ,w ho t ime a nd a ga in c rop u p i nt he s ource s a st he s upreme p hy larch s o f t h e p ro -Pe r s ian S aracens . A s w i l l h e s hown i n t he s eque l , h i s p a t ronage o f t he J ew i sh me rchan ts w as q u i te i n l i ne w i th t he e conom ic a nd r e l ig ious p o l icy o f t he H imyar i te k i ng s i nt he s e cond h a l fo ft he f i f th c en tury . H i sp o s i t ion w i l l s hed much l i gh t b o th o n t he t r ue n a ture o f DU N uws 'a pp roache s t oa l - Mund i r I I o fH i ra a nd o n t he d ep ic t ion o ft he A rab ian p en insu la i nS asan ian p ropaganda .

F ur the r s ou th , b o th t he r o le o f J uda i sm a nd t he a dve r se i mpac t o f i t s a s cendancy i n H imya r o n B y zan t ine t r ade w i th I nd ia a re w e l l a t te s ted b y t h ree s ource s , d e r iv ing i n a l l i ke l ihood f r om o ne c ommon s ource a nd r e co rd ing a n e p i sode w h ich h as b een f r equen t ly m isunde r s tood a nd w ho se h i s to r ic i ty h as b een u n jus t i f iab ly d oub ted . T he a ccoun t o f J ohn o f E phe su s , e mbedded i n t he C hron ic le a s c r ibed t o D iony s iu so fT e lMah re ( [ ed . L .B . C habo t ] C SCO ,S c r ip to r e sS y r i5 3 : 5 4 -56 ) a nd t he s l i gh t ly d i ve rgen t , a l though b as ica l ly i d en t ica lv e r s ion s o fJ ohn Ma la las ( CSHB 4 33 4 )a nd T heophane s ( am . 6 035 , [ e d . D e B oo r ] 2 22 -3 ) , h ave p re served t he memo ry o f a n E th iop ian p un i t ive e xped i t ion t o t he r e a lm o f H imyar i n r e spon se t o a s l augh te r o f R oman m e rchan t s p e rpe tra ted b y aH imyar i te k i ng , w ho j u s t i f ied h i s d eed b y t he p l igh t o fJ ew s u nde r B yzan t ine r u le . T he E th iop ian k i ng w ho l e d t h i s e xped i t ion ( A idog , a cco rd ing t oJ ohn o fE phe su s , Andas , a cco rd ing t o Ma la la s , a nd A dad , a cco rd ing t oT heophane s ) i s d e sc r ibed a s ap agan , w ho se m a in c once rn w as t h ep ro tec t ion o ft he c omme rc ia l i n te re s t s o fh i s r ea lm ,w h ich h appened t oc o inc ide w i th t hose o f t he R omans . J ohn o f E phe su s , w ho se v e r s ion i st he mos t d e ta i led , c i te s h i sl e t te rt ot he k i ng o ft he H imyar i te s : " You h ave d one i lw hen y ou k i l led t he C hr i s t ian me rchan ts o f t he R omans , f o r t h us t he c omme rce o f m y o wn k i ngdom , a s w e l l a s o f o the r s , h a s b een a bo l i shed ; b u t i ti sm y k i ngdom w h ich y ou h ave e spec ia l ly d amaged . " I ti so n ly o n t h e e ve o f h i s A rab ian e xped i t ion t h a t h e v ow s t o e mb race C hr is t ian i ty , i fs ucce s s fu l i n t h i s w ar . H i s c onve r s ion d u ly t a ke s p l ace a f te r h i s v i c tory . I n o rde r t oe ncourage t he s p read o fC hr i s t ian i ty i nh i s c oun tr y , h e i n v i te s J ohn , t he p aramonar io s o f t h e monas te ry i nA lexand r ia , h ence i n a l l i ke l ihood a Monophy s i te , t o b e c onsec ra ted a s b i shop f o r h i s p eop le . T he p e r secu t ing H imyar i te k i ng i sk i l led i nb a t t le , a nd t he E th iop ians l e ave a n a nonymous C h r i s t ian v i ce -regen t i nh i sp l ace , b e fo re r e tu rn ing t ot he i rh ome land .

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I ti sa l t oo e asy t o w r i te o f f t h i s n a r ra t ive a s c omp le te ly wor th le s s . T he n ame o ft he e mpe ro rw ho g ave h i s b l e s s ing t ot he n om ina t ion o fJ ohn a sb i shop o f t he E th iop ian s i sg i ven a s J us t in ian i na l t h ree a ccoun t s . I t s e menda t ion t oJ us t in h ard ly d i s so lve s ah o s t o fd i f f icu l t ie sc rea ted b yt h i ss t o ry a si ts t ands ( 30 ) . I ti sg ene ra l ly a s sumed t h a t t wo E th iop ian e xped i t ion s t o s ou the rn A rab ia t ook p l ace i nt he f i r s t h a lf o ft he f i f th c en tury , w ho se d ec lared p urpose w a s t o p u t a n e nd t o a n t i -Ch r i s t ian p e r secu t ion s i n t he r ea lm o f H imyar . On t he b as is o f C o sma sI nd icop leu s te s ' e v idence ( T opog raph ia C hr i s t iana 1 . 14f f , PG 8 8 : c o l . 1 0 1) , i t h as b een h ab i tua l ly s hown t h a t p repara t ion s f o r t h e s econd a nd , a s h a s b een s uge s ted , d e f in i t ive o ne w e re t a k ing p l ace c . 5 22 ( P igu lew ska ja 1 969 : 11-2 ; L ound in 1 974 : 3 15 ; b u ts ee b e low , p age 4 00 ) . T he t wo e xped i t ions a re a t te s ted i na g roup o f s ource s w ho se s ub jec t m a t te r i st he p l igh t o f t he C hr i s t ians i nH imyar , s pec i f ica l ly t ho se o f t he c i ty N a jran , n ame ly t he t wo e p i s t le s o f S imeon o f B e th A r m , t he B ook o ft h e H imyar i t e s a nd t he Ma r ty r ium A r e thae ( 3 1) . T h i s g roup w i l l b e r e fe r red t o f o r t he c onven ience o f p re sen ta t ion a s t he h ag iog raph ica l g roup . T he l a s t n amed s ource g i ve s at e rm inu sp o s tq ue rn f o rt h e s econd , t he P en teco s t , i . e . May , o f 5 25 (Mar ty r ium A r e thae 7 . 30 ; A .SS . O c tobe r 2 4 : 7 47 ; s ee v an E sb roeck 1 974 : 1 29 ; L ound in 1 974 : 3 15 ) . T he v e r s ion c ommon t oJ ohn o fE phe su s , Ma la las a nd T heophane s ( wh ich w i l l h e r e fe r red t o a s t h a t o f t he h i s to r iog raph ica l g roup ) h a s l i kew i se t wo i n vas ions , t he o ne a l ready men t ioned , a nd a no the r i n va s ion t ha t t ook p l ace l a te r . N ow ,w he reas t he d e ta i l s o ft he s e cond i n vas ion a s g i ven b y t he se t wo g roup s o fs ou rce s c an b e h armon i sed i ns p i te o fs ome d i f f icu l ty ( 32 ) , t h e re c an h a rd ly b e a ny d oub t t h a t i ns o f a r a s t he f i r s t i n vas ion i sc once rned t he t wo g roups a re n o t i na cco rd . T he f o l low ing d i sc repanc ie s m ay h e p o in ted o u t . T he p e r secu t ing H imyar i te k i ng i si d en t i f ied a s Dunaa s i nt he Ma r t y r i tun A r e thae , n one o t he r t ha t Q ü Nuws o f t he A rab ic t r ad i t ion . T h i s i sp robab ly o n ly a n i ckname h i s o f f ic ia l n ame , Y usuf A s 'ar Y a t 'ar , i sn ow w e l l a t te s ted f r om a s e r ie s o f s ou th A rab ian i n sc r ip t ions ( 3 3 ) p o s s ib ly a p e jo ra t ive o ne , d e r iv ing f r om t he h o s t i le C h r i s t ian t r ad i t ion s , w ho se mean ing m ay h e r ende red a s " h e o f t he w e [ l -kemp t l o cks " . D e sp i te much m isg iv ing , t he n ame Mas rüq g i ven b y t h e p reamb le t o t he h ymn o f J ohn P sa l te s o n t he H imyar i te m ar ty r s ( Sch rö te r 1 877 : 4 02 ) b y t he B ook o f t he H i inyar i t e s , a nd b y t he C hron i c l e o fS e ' e r t ( [ ed . A dda lS che r ] P a t ro log ia O r i en ta l i s 5 : 3 31) i sc l o se ly a s soc ia ted w i th t he v e rb mean ing " t o c omb " b o th i n S y r iac a nd i n Heb rew ( 34 ) . T he s t r ic t mean ing o f Mas rüq i nA rab ic , i . e . " t he s t o len " , s ugges ts a no the r a t t rac t ive p o s s ib i l i ty ; a par t f r om b e ing a n e qu iva len t t o t he p e r se cu tor 's d e r i s ive n i ckname , i tm ay a l so c on ta in av e i led a lu s ion t oh i s o f f ic ia l n ame Y usuf , b y mean s o f t he b i b l ica l p as sage i nw h ich J o seph d e sc r ibe s h imse l f t o P har aoh a s h av ing b een s t o len f r om t he l a nd o f t he H eb rew s ( 3 5 ) . T he c on ten t ion t ha t D im ion , o r D imno s , i nt he h i s to r iog raph ica lv e r s ion m ay h ey e t a no ther c o r rup t ion o fD i i N uwãs i si mp robab le b o th p hone t ica l ly a nd p a laeog raph ica l ly ( 36 ) . -

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Mo re s e r ious ly , t he n ame A idug , Andas , o r A ddad f o r t he E th iop ian k i ng c anno t b e i d en t if ied b y a ny s t re tch o f t h e i mag ina t ion w i th t he E lesbaa s o f t he Mar ty r ium A r e thae w ho eme rge s a s C a leb b o th i nt he E th iop ian s ources a nd i nt he B ook o ft h e H imyar i t e s ( s ee a bove , n o te 3 2 ) . T h is l a t te r monarch i sd e sc r ibed a s a d evou t C h r i s t ian b e fo re h e u nde r took t he f i r s t e xped i t ion , a nd t he re i sn o v a l id g round t oq ue s t ion t h is d e sc r ip t ion ( 37 ) . F ina l ly , t he p e r secu t ing D D N uwã sw as n o t k i l led d ur ing t he f i r s t e xped i t ion a sw as D im ion , o r D imno s , i nt h e h i s to r iog raph ica l v e r s ion ; h e me re ly f l ed t ot he moun ta in s a nd b i ded h i s t ime u n t i l h e s aw h i s c hance . T he l u c id t e s t imony o f t he Mar ty r ium A r e thae c once rn ing t h is c anno t i n deed h e v e r if ied b eyond a ny p o s s ib le

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s hadow o f d oub t b y t h e r ema in ing f r agmen ts o f t he B ook o ft h e H imyar i t e s , b u t i t s hou ld h e n o ted t h a t t h i s i st he i mpre s s ion c r ea ted b y t h e r ema ins o f t he e i gh th c hap te r . F o r t he re Ma s rüq o rde r s Här i t ( no d oub t Hr i t b ar K a 'ab , t he l e ade r o f t h eN a jran i te C hr i s t ian s ) t os end o u t a l t he men -a t -arms o fN a jran t oj o in h i s a rmy i nv i ew o f a n i mpend ing i n vas ion . Hãr i t o bey s t h i s c ommand o f Ms rüq , w hom h e s t i l lc ons ide r st ob eh i sm as te r ( Ma s rüq ma r eh ) , a nd i ti so n ly w hen n ew sa bou tw ha t h ad h appened t ot he E th iop ian g ar r i son i nZ a f ar r each t h i s e xped i t ionary f o rce o n i t sw ay t ha t i tr e turn s , s oi ts eem s , t of a ce as i ege i nN a jran . T he E p i s t l e s o fS imeon o f B e th Arg , a m i n ten s i f y t h i s i mp re s s ion , i n s p i te o f s ome i n i t ia l a mb igu i ty , i f p rope r ly r ead i n c omb ina t ion w i th t he o the r h ay iog raph ica l s ou rce s ( 3 8 ) . F u r the rmo re , a ny l i nge r ing d oub t o ugh tt ob er emoved b y t he f amous i n sc r ip t ion o f K awkab , i ft he r e f e rence t o a" r e turn ' o f t h e k i ng Y usu fA s 'ar r e s ts o n ac o r rec t r e ad ing ( 39 ) . T he c ho ice f a c ing t he h i s to r ian w ho w i she s t or e cons t ruc t t he r i gh t o rde r o f e ven t s mus tb es t a ted i nt he c l eare s t t e rms . Two E th iop ian e xped i t ions t os ou the rn A rab ia a re a t te s ted i nt h e B yzan t ine h i s to r iog raph ica l s ou rce s ; t he memory o ft wo e xped i t ions h as b een l i kew i se p re se rved i nt h e h ag iog raph ica l s ou rce s ; t he d e ta i l s o ft he s econd , d ec i s ive e xped i t ion , a s r e con s t ruc ted a c co rd ing t o e ach o ne o ft he se t wo s epara te g roup so fs ource s , c an b eb rough t i n to l i ne w i th e ach o the r ; n o t s ot he d e ta i ls o ft he f i r s t e xped i t ion , f o r h e re n o e f fo r tc an e l im ina te t he d i sc repanc ie s . O f t h e se t wo g roups t he h ag iog raph ica l i st h e o ne t h a t s eems t o h ave r e ta ined t he mo re d i rec t a nd mo re r e l iab le memor y o f t h e e ven t s . T he t ime s w hen S imeon ' s f i r s t E p i s t l e l a y u nde r h eavy s u sp ic ion ( Ha lévy 1 889 : 2 6 -42 ; f o l lowed b y P e re i ra 1 899 :x i i i -xv ) a re l o ng s i nce p as t . T he d i s covery a nd t he p ub l ica t ion o ft he B ook o f t h eH imyar i t e s (Mobe rg 1 924 ) a nd S imeon ' s s e cond E p i s t l e ( Shah id 1 97 1) s eems t o h ave s e t t led t he p rob lem o f i t s a u then t ic i ty i n ah i gh ly c onv inc ing m anne r . A l l t h ree s ou rce s v a l ida te i n e s sence t he i n fo rma t ion p rov ided b y t he Ma r ty r ium A r e thae . Hence t wo e xped i t ions h ave t ob e a s sumed , o ne i nt he s umme r o f5 25 a nd t h e o the r a t a n u nknown d a te b e fo re 5 22 ( s ee a bove , p age 3 90 ) , b o th o f t hem i n i t ia ted b y aC hr i s t ian k i ng , E la A sheha ( Ca leb ) , a ga in s t DU N uwis ( Yüsuf A s 'ar Y a t 'ar ) , r ebe l a ga in s t t he E th iop ian o c cupa t ion o f H imyar a nd a f oe o f t he C h r i s t ian r e l ig ion . T h i s r a i se s t h e q ue s t ion o f t he f i r s t e xped i t ion i n t he h i s tor iog raph ica l s ou rce s i n t he mo s t s e r ious m anne r . O ne p o s s ib i l i ty i s i n deed t o r e jec t i t c omp le te ly a se i the r i n c red ib le o r i r re levan t ( 4 0 ) . O the rw ise , i t mus t b ep o s tu la ted t h a t t he f i r s t e xped i t ion i nt he h i s tor iog raph ica l s ou rce s i s at o ta l ly d i f f e ren t e ven t f r om t he o ne o ft he h ag iog raph ica l s ou rce sb u t o ne t h a tw as c l o se e nough i nt ime t o t he r e igns o fJ us t in a nd J us t in ian t ob r ing a bou t t he e r roneous i n t roduc t ion o ft he l a t te r ' s n ame i n to t h e s t o ry . I ft he l a t te r p o s s ib i l i ty i su phe ld , t h ree E th iop ian e xped i t ions t o s ou the rn A rab ia w i l l h ave t oh e a s sumed ; f i r s t , t he o ne a t te s ted b y J ohn o f E phe su s , Ma la las a nd T heophane s a n e xped i t ion u nde r taken t o e nsure t he c ommon c omme r c ia l i n te re s t so fB yzan t ium a nd A xum , mo re t h an o u t o fp ure ly r e l ig ious mo t ive s ; s e cond , t he f i r s t e xped i t ion a ga in s t D ü N uws , r eco rded b y t he Mar ty r ium A r e thae a nd i n d ica ted b yt he B ook o ft h eH imyar i t e s a nd b yt he E p i s t l e s o f S imeon o fB e th -A r m t he re i sg ood r e ason t o b e l ieve t h a t t he m a in o b jec t ive o f t h i se xped i t ion w as t op u t d own ar ebe l l ion ( no te t h a t i nt he Mar ty r ium A r e thae D N uwã s i sd e sc r ibed a s ( Gk . ) h upopho ro s o ft h e E th iop ian k i ng ) ( 4 1) , t he n a tu re o f w h ich a tt h i ss t age w a ss t i l l mo re p o l i t ica l t h an r e l ig ious , a nd t h i sw ou ld a ccoun t n o t o n ly f o r t he l a ck o f a ny d e ta i ls c once rn ing p e r secu t ions d u r ing t he s pe l l o f DU N uwãs ' a s cendancy t h a t p receded i t ,b u t a l so f o r t he t r u s t ing a t t i tude o fI är i t a nd t h e N a jran i te s t oward s h im b e fo re t hey h eard o f h i s t r ea son i n Z af ar ( 4 2 ) ; a nd t h i rd , t he f i na l e xped i t ion i nt he s umme r o f5 25 , w h ich c u lm ina ted i nt he o ve r throw a nd e xecu t ion o fD O N uws . -

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T h i s p o s s ib i l i ty i s p a r t icu lar ly a t t rac t ive . l t i n d ica te s a ga in a l a p se o f E th iop ian h egemony o ve r s ou the rn A rab ia d u r ing t h e f i f th c en tury , f o l lowed b y i t s t empo rary r e -e s tab l ishmen t s ome t ime b e fo re t he r e ign o fJ us t in . I tw as d u r ing t he e vane scence o f E th iop ian i n f luence f r om s ou the rn A rab ia t ha t t h e g row ing i nf luence o fJ uda i sm e nab led J ew ish me rchan t s t oe s tab l i sh t he i r p r ior i ty a l ong t he s ou the rn t r ade r ou te s w i th t he F ar E as t . T he m as sac re o fB y zan t ine me rchan ts i n H imyar w h ich c a l led f o r th t h e f i r s t e xped i t ion w i l l h ave b een t he c l imax o f t he i r a t temp t t oe s tab l i sh amonopo ly , a nd t he i r s ucce s s i si n d ica ted b y t he p ro sper i ty o f t he J ew i sh me rcan t i le c ommun i ty o f l o tahe u nde r t h e a eg is o f Amorce so s . T he r e conque s t o f t h i s i s l and b y t h e B y zan t ine s t ook p l ace i n 4 98 ( Theophanes a .m . 5 990 [ e d . Dc B oo r ] 1 4 1) . T h i s i so n ly c l ue p o in t ing t ot h e r e ign o f Anas ta s iu sa s t he t ime w hen a n a t temp t w as m ade t o r e s to re B yzan t ine c on t ro l o ve r t he s ou the rn t r ade r ou te sw i th t he F ar E a s t . O the rc l ue sm ay h e p o in ted o u t . I tc an b e s hown t ha t t he d e ta i l so ft he f i r s t E th iop ian e xped i t ion a s r e la ted i nt he B y zan t ine h i s to r iog raph ica l s ource s a re n o t o n ly c ompa t ib le w i th t he k nown c i rcums tance s t h a t p reva i led b o th w i th in a nd o u t s ide t he B y zan t ine Emp ire d ur ing t h i s e mpe ro r ' s r e ign , b u t a re a l so h igh ly p robab le w hen v i ewed i nt he l i gh t o ft he se c i rcum s tance s . T he t empo rar y s ucce s s o ft he E th iop ians i nr e as se r t ing t h e i r a u tho r i ty i ns ou the rn A rab ia w i l l p rov ide y e t a no the r e xp lana t ion f o r t he a maz ing r e cove ry o f t h e i mpe r ia l t r easur y u nde r Anas tas iu sa f te rt h ree d ecade so ft he g rave s t d e f ic i t ( 4 3 ) .

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A s h as b een s ugge s ted a bove , o n ly t he l a s t o f t he t h ree E th iop ian e xped i t ion st os ou the rn A rab ia c an h e s e cure ly d a ted t ot he s umme r o f5 25 . I th as a l so b een s ugge s ted t h a t t he s e cond e xped i t ion t h a t e nded w i th t he f l i gh t o f DO N uws a nd t he i n s ta l l ing o f a n E th iop ian d epu ty ( t he p os s ib i l i ty o f aH imyar i te p uppe t k i ng w i l l h ave t ob e t a ken i n to c on s ide ra t ion ) t ook p l ace b e fore c .5 22 when p repara t ions f o r t he t h i rd e xped i t ion w e re u nderway ( s ee a bove , p age 3 90 ) . A mo re e xac t d a t ing w i l l d epend u pon t he e qu iva len t o ft he y ear 6 33 i n t he S abaean e r a , w hen a n i n sc r ip t ion c ommemo ra t ing t h e e xp lo i t s a ccomp l i shed b y Y ü suf A s 'ar f o r 1 3 mon ths b e fo re t he mon th DO Mad ra 'in o ft h a t y ea r w a s s e t u p a tB ' ir H imä ( J a 1 0 28 , l i ne s 1 0 11 ; c f . R y5 07 , o ft he s ame mon th , a tt he s ame a rea , w i thou t r e fe rence t o t he d ura t ion o f t he m i l i tary o pe ra t ions ) . Q ü Ma ra 'in f als b e tween J u ly a nd S ep tembe r ( Bee s ton 1 956 : 3 7 ) , mo re p robab ly i n J u ly ( Bee s ton 1 985 : 4 5 , 5 0 ) . T he e ven ts r e co rded o n t he i n sc r ip t ion s o fB ' ir H im, a sw e l l a s o n a n e a r l ie ro ne , f r om K awkab , s e t u p i n DO Q ayzin ( May o rJ une ) o ft he s ame y ear , a re t ob e c on s ide red a s ap re lude t ot he p e r secu t ion t h a tt ook p l ace i nN a jran l a te r o n i n Novembe r ( be low , n o te 4 6 ) . T he f i r s t e ven t m ark ing t he c omeback o f DO N uws b o th o n t h e i n sc r ip t ions a nd i n t he h ag iog raph ica l s ourcce s w as t he a nn ih i la t ion o f t he E th iop ian g ar r ison i n Z af ar , a n e ven t w h ich , t he re fo re , t ook p l ace t h i r teen mon th s b e fore J u ly o f t he y ear c o r re spond ing t o t he S ahaean 6 33 . T he s econd e xped i t ion mus t b e d a ted af ew mon ths e a r l ie r , s i nce i tw as f o l lowed b y as pel o fE th iop ian g ove rnmen t ( o r H imyar i te k i ng sh ip u nde r E th iop ian a u sp ices ) . A l lt ha t c an h e s a id a tt h i s s t age a bou t t he f i r s t e xped i t ion i st h a t , i ns o f a r a si td id t a ke p l ace , i tmus t h ave o ccur red c ons ide rab ly e ar l ie r t h an t he s e cond o ne . A l l t h i sb r ing su sh ack t ot h ev exed q ue s t ion o ft h eb eg inn ing o ft he S ahaean e r a . T he p l igh t o fe ve ry h i s tor ian d ea l ing w i th t he r e ign o fQ i Nuws i nH imyar i s p rec i se ly t h i s , t h a t t he e v idence o f e ven ts c onnec ted w i th h i s r e ign , a nd more

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s pec i f ica l ly e ven t s t ha t b rough t a bou t h i s d ownf a l l , h ave s e rved a s ak ey f o r a s o lu t ion o ft h i s p rob lem . Y e t , i ti sn o t v e ry e asy t ob r ing t he f r equen t ly c on fu s ing , s ome t ime s c on trad ic to ry , e v idence o f t he l i t e rary s ource s i n to l i ne w i th t he i n s c r ip t iona le v idence w h ich i si t se l fi n comp le te a nd w hose i n terp re ta t ion i so f ten a s ub jec t o f d eba te a mong e xpe r t s o f S abaean p hi lo logy . T he f e e l ing , t he re fo re , p e r s i s ts t h a t ac e r ta in c i rcu lar i ty o f a rgumen t c anno t b e a vo ided w hen t r ea t ing t h i s s ub jec t a nd o n ly f r e sh e v idence m ay p e rhap so f fe r ac onc lus ive a n swe r . T he p re sen t s t a te o f t he p rob lem m ay b e s ummar i sed a s f o l low s . A c onven t iona l d a t ing ,u s ing 15 BC a s as t ar t ing -po in t ,w as c a lcu la ted o n t he b a s is o f t h ea s sump t ion t ha t a n i n sc r ip t ion o f6 40 S ah . , f ound a tH i sn a l -Ghurib ( C IH 6 21 ) , p re serves t he memory o f D i i N uw ? is ' d own f a l l a nd s hou ld , t he re fore , b e d a ted i n 5 25 ( 44 ) . T h is s y s tem w as w ide ly a ccep ted u n t i l af ew d ecade s a go . I n 1 954 t he a c cep ted i n te rp re ta t ion o f t he H isn a l -Ghur h i n sc r ip t ion w as c ha l lenged , a nd a n ew s t ar t ing p o in tw as p ropo sed 10 BC ( Bee s ton 1 954 : 3 7 -40 ) . T h i s s y s tem w as m e t w i th a pproba t ion , i n s p i te o f a mod i f ica t ion o f t he i n te rp re ta t ion o f t he i n sc r ip t ion a round w h ich s o much o f t he d i scu s s ion h inge s ( J . R yckmans 1 956 , r e v i s ing h i s e ar l ie rv i ew ; s ee n o te 4 , a nd a l so J amme 1 966 : 1 0 ) . A ccep tance w as , h oweve r , b y n o mean s u n ive r sa l , a nd t he o l de r s y s tem c on t inued t o b e u sed a s a b a s i s f o r c ompu ta t ion ( 45 ) . T he w e igh t o f t he c umu la t ive e v idence n ow l e ans t owards t he e ar l ie r d a te , p ar t icu lar ly s i nce t he p ub l ica t ion o f t he s econd l e t te r o f S imeon o fB e th -A r m , w ho se e xp l ic i t g i ve s t he d a te o fJ u ly i n8 30 o ft he S e leuc id e r a , n ame ly i n5 19 . S i nce i tw as w r i t ten a f te r t he m a in w ave o f t he p e r secu t ion s , w i th o bv ious r e fe rence s t ot he f i r s t l e t te r , a nd w i th u pda t ing s a nd c or rec t ions o fi t s i n forma t ion , i tw ou ld s eem t o p o in t a ga in t owards 5 18 a s t he y ear w hen t he p e r secu t ion t ook p l ace a t N a jran , a nd h ence a l so o f t he e ven t s r eco rded o n t he t h ree i n sc r ip t ions o f6 33 S ah . T h is d a t ing h as l i kew i se a no the r a dvan tage ; i tt a l l ie s w i th t he o ne t ha t e me rge s f r om t he c on s i s ten t c o r re spondence b e tween w eekday s a nd mon th d ay s i nt he B ook o ft h eH imya r i t e s ( 46 ) . -

I f5 18 i sa c cep ted a s t h e e qu iva len t o f 6 33 S ah . , J u ly o f t h i s y ear m ay h e u sed a s ap o in t o f r e f e rence . T he o ns laugh t o n Z af ar t ook p l ace t h ir teen mon ths e a r l ier h ence i nJ une 5 17 . A l low ing f o r af ew mon ths r equ ired b y D i i N uwis t o e s tab l ish h imse l f i np owe r a f te r t he d ea th o ft he E th iop ian d epu ty a nd t o mob i l i se a n a rmy o fs uppo r te r s f o r t he c ampa ign , w e r e ach t he w in te r o f5 17 a s t he d a te o f h i s c omeback . T h i s i si nf u l l a g reemen t w i th t he a ccoun t o f t he c i rcums tance s o f Q ü Nuws ' c oup d ' é tt b o th i n t he f i r s t l e t te r o f S imeon o f B e th A r Sim ( Gu id i 1 8 81 : 5 02 , S y r iac ; 4 82 ,I t a l ian ) a nd i nt he Mar ty r ium A r e thae ( 1 .3 ; A .SS , O c tobe r2 4 : 7 22 ) . T he u navo idab le c onc lus ion i st h a t t he s e cond i n vas ion i nt he r e cons t ruc t ion s ugges ted i n t he p re sen t s t udy t ook p l ace t owards t he e nd o f Anas tas ius ' r e ign . T h i ss hou ld s e rve a s at e rm inu sa n t eq uem f o r a n e ar l ie r i n va s ion , i fw e a s sume t h a t s u ch a n i n vas ion t ook p l ace . O nce a g a in t he b eg inn ing o f A nas tas ius ' r e ign i s i n d ica ted . -

*

T he e v idence o f t he h i s to r iog raph ica l s ource s mus t n ow b e a na ly sed i n g r ea te r d e tai l t o s ee i ft he i n fo rma t ion t hey c on ta in a bou t t he f i r s t E th iop ian e xped i t ion c an b e l i nked t o k nown o r p rovab le o ccurence s i n B yzan t ium , i n E th iop ia a nd i nA rab ia t oward s t he e nd o ft he f i f th c en tury o r i nt he f i r s t d ecade o f t h es i x th .

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L e t u s s t ar t w i th t he p rob lema t ic n omenc la tu re o f t he p ro tagon i s t s . Our k now ledge o ft he d i f fe ren t n ame s a nd t i le so ft he A xum i te k i ng s i s ,t os ay t h e l e as t , v e ry i n comp le te . T he s ou th A rab ian i n sc r ip t ion s d o i n deed y i e ld l i s t s o f n ame s w h ich l ook r e la t ive ly c op ious b u t a re h ard t o r e la te t o o ne a no ther a nd t o t he i n fo rma t ion f o r thcom ing i n o the r s ource s , a nd o ne mu s t a lway s a l low f o r s undry d i s to r t ions i nt he t r an s l i te ra t ion o f n ame s a nd t i le s f r om o ne l a nguage t oa no ther ( 47 ) . I n o ur c ase , h oweve r , ah i gh ly p l aus ib le s o lu t ion t o t he r i dd le o ft h e n ame s o f t he E th iop ian k i ng s , a s p re se rved i n t he mo re d e ta i led a nd a pparen t ly more r e l iab le v e r s ion o f J ohn o f E phe sus ( CSCO , S c r ip to r e s S y r i 5 3 .54 -6 ) , h a s b een s ugge s ted ( Ha lévy 1 889 : 1 69 ) . T he n ame A idug i sn o t ap e r sona l n ame a ta l b u t a p l ace n ame , t he d i s to r ted f o rm o f Adu l , n ame ly A du l i s ( s ee a bove , n o te 7 ) , t he f amous h arbou r o f t he A xum i te k i ngdom . S uch a d i s to r t ion i sn o t u n l ike ly i n t he t r ansm i s s ion o f aS y r iac t e x t i nv i ew o f t he g r aph ic s im i lar i ty b e tween t h e l e t te r s Gäma l a nd L ãmadh . T he s ource u sed b y J ohn o f E phe su s d oe s n o t s eem t o h ave g i ven t he k i ng ' sn ame b u t r a the rt oh ave r e fe r red t oh im a sk i ng o f Adu l i s . B u t w hy " k ing o f Adu l i s " , w hen t he c ap i ta l o f t he E th iop ian r e a lm w as d emons t rab ly A xum? S t ar t l ing t hough t h i s n omenc la ture m ay a ppea r o n t he s u r f ace , i td oe s i n f a c t m ake p e r fec t s en se i n t he c on tex t o f J ohn o f E phe sus ' a ccoun t . T h i s n ame i sf i r s t m en t ioned i n ab ackg round s urvey o f t he p o l i t ica l s i tua t ion i nE th iop ia p r io r t ot he e xped i t ion t o s ou the rn A rab ia ( a s urvey om i t ted b y Ma la las a nd T heophane s ) . He d e sc r ibe s as t rugg le b e tween t wo k i ng s o f t he " I nd ians " . " A idug " i so ne o ft hem ,w he reas t he o ther ' s n ame i sg i ven a sA xundun o r A xondon . Once a ga in , ap l aus ib le s ugge s t ion i st ot r ea t i ta s t he c or rup t f o rm o fa p l ace n ame n one o the r t h an t h a t o fA xum . A xumon c ou ld e as i ly b e m i s read a s A xundon b ecause o ft he s im i lar i ty b e tween t he S y r iac M Tm a nd t he c omb ina t ion o f Nün a nd Dä la th ( 48 ) . -

Hence a s t rugg le f o r p owe r b e tween t wo p r ince s i n ad i v ided E th iop ian r ea lm may b e p o s i ted , o ne b ased i n Adu l i s a nd t he o t he r b ased i n Axum . S uch a s t rugg le , p robab ly o ne o f as e r ie s o f s im i lar d ynas t ic s t rugg le s , m ay e xp la in why a f f a i r s i ns ou the rn A rab ia h ad b een a lowed t ot a ke t h e i r o wn c our se f o r t h e mos t o ft he f i f th c en tury . I tm ay a l so e xp la in t he p ag an i sm o f ap r ince c on tend ing f o r s up reme p owe r a ga ins t a no the rw ho f i gh t s f r om t he p o in t o fv an tage o ft h ec ap i ta l . Mu s te r ing ap agan o ppo s i t ion m ay w e l l h ave b een au se fu l p loy i n t he h ands o fa r oya lp re tende r . H i s a g i le r e turn t oC h r i s t ian i ty f o l low ing h i s v i c tory wou ld n o t b e mo re d i f f icu l t t o e xp la in . T he e conom ic i n te re s t s o f t he A xum i te k ingdom w ere c l o se ly l i nked w i th t ho se o f B yzan t ium . A s w e h ave s een , ac l ear p roc lama t ion o f t h i s f a c t i sp u t i n to t he k i ng ' s mou th b y J ohn o f E phe su s . H i s v ow t o b ecome a c onve r t t oC h r i s t ian i ty , i fv i c to r iou s , b ecause h e w as f i gh t ing a s t he c hamp ion a nd a venge ro fC h r i s t ian b l ood ( d emä g e rd ak r i s tyänë b a 'êanã ' e t ba 'm eneh) , i sn ol e s s a p o l i t ica l measure t han h i sf o rme r . I ti sn o t e asy t o d e te rm ine w hen t h i s p ar t icu lar e p isode c ou ld h ave t aken p l ace . T he h i s tory o fE th iop ia f o r mo s t o ft he f i f th c en tury i st o av ery l a rge e x ten t ab l ank p age . L i s t s o f k i ng s p rov ide n ame s a nd d a te s w i thou t a ny f u r the r d e ta i ls ( D i l lmann 1 853 : 3 46 -9 ; B udge 1 928 : 2 58 -60 ) . O the r n ame s a re k nown f r om c o in l e gend s , b u t t he e v idence i sc on fus ing a nd p e rhaps e ven m is lead ing ( 49 ) . B y a nd l a rge t he re s hou ld b e n o d i f f icu l ty i na ccep t ing a ny p i ece o f e v idence p o in t ing t o t h i sp e r iod a s o ne o fd ec l ine a nd c on t inuou s i n te rna ls t r i fe . T he c ur ta in r i se s f or a momen t i nt he m idd le o ft h e f i f th c en tury t h ank st ot h e l e gends a bou t t he a r r iva l o f t he n i ne s a in t s , i nt he 5 t h y ea r o f' E la 'Am ida , s on o fS a ladoha ( t hus , f o r e x amp le , A c ta Y a r ed e tP an ta l ewon [ c d . C on t i R o s s in i ] C SCO , S c r ip to r e s A e th iop i c i 1 7 :44 ,

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G e 'ez ; 4 0 -41 , L a t in ; a nd s ee S e rgew 1 972 : 15 -21 ; C on t i R o s s in i 1 925 : 1 67 -201 ; C ou lbeaux 1 928 : 1 67 -86 a nd D i l lmann 1 880 : 2 4 -7 ) . T he c o re o f h i s to r ica l f a c t i n t h e se l e gends i si n deed v e ry t h in . I tm ay o n ly b es ugge s ted w i th t he h ighe s t d eg ree o f c au t ion t ha t a bou t t h e m idd le o f t he f i f th c en tury C hr i s t ian i ty m ade a g rea t o n s laugh t a ga ins t p agan i sm i nE th iop ia , e ncou raged b y t he k i ng ' E la 'Am ida , w ho w a s a b le t o b ene f i t b y t he a r r iva l o f ah o s t o f e n thu s ia s t ic monk s , p robab ly Monophy s i te sw ho h ad b een f o rced i n to e x i le b y t he u pheava l s i nt he w ake o ft he C ounc i l o fC ha lcedon ( D i l lmann 1 880 : 2 6 ; F e l l 1 881 : 2 1 -23 ) . T he c i rcums tance s u nde r w h ich t hey c ar r ied o u t t he i r m i s s ion r ema in v e ry m uch ama t te r o fs pecu la t ion . One mus t , h oweve r , g uard a ga ins t t he t emp ta t ion t o i d en t if y A idug , o r r a the r A ndas , a cco rd ing t o Ma la las ' v e r s ion o f t he n ame , w i th ' E la 'A tida ( Fe l l 1 88 1 : 2 1 -23 ) , b o th b ecause J ohn o f E phe sus ' a ccoun t i si n a l l i ke l ihood c l o se r t o t h e o r ig ina l a nd b ecau se t he o ne p rom inen t c harac te r i s t ic o f ' E !a 'Am ida t h a t l o om s l a rge i n a l t he t r ad i t ions a bou t h im , i sh i s d evo t ion t o C h r i s t ian i ty f r om t he v ery s t ar t , a nd t h i s i sh ard ly i nk eep ing w i th t he s t ory a bou t A idug 's i n i t ia lp agan i sm . ' E la 'Am ida ' s s on , T azën ? i , s eems t oh e ab e t te r c and ida te f o r t he r o le o fa p r ince o f Adu l i s ,w ho s u rged o n aw ave o f moun t ing a n t i -Chr i s t ian s en t imen t i nt he w ake o fh i s f a the r ' s a c t ive p o l icy o fC hr i s t ian isa t ion i no rde r t od epo se as ucce s sor , p robab ly h i sb ro the r ,w ho s uppo r ted t h i sp o l icy ( 5 0 ) . I th as b een s ugge s ted t h a t t he l e gends a bou t t he n i ne s a in t s i n d ica te at empo rary e c l ip se i nt he i r p o s i t ion u nde r T az n, ' E Ia 'Am Tda ' s s ucce s sor , a nd a r ea son h as b een p roposed : t he i r i n vo lve m en t i n ad ynas t ic d i spu te f o r t he s ucce s s ion ( Se rgew 1 971 : 16 ) . No r e fe rence h as b een a dduced i ns uppo r t o f t h is o p in ion , a nd n o a rgumen t h as b een a dvanced . A c l u s ter o ft r ad i t ions a nd l e gend s a bou t t h e t h ird r e ign o ft he S e rpen tA rwe ,w h ich i s s a id t o h ave o ccured b e tween t he r e igns o f' E la 'Am ida a nd C a leb m ay h e r e levan t . T he i r k e rne l o f h i s to r ica l t r u th i s mo s t p robab ly a t empo rary r e lap se t o t he o l d c h thon ic p agan ism , a t l e a s t i n s ome p ar t s o f t he A xum i te r ea lm ( 5 1 ) . One p a r t icu lar v e r s ion o f t h i s l e gend r e ta in s t he v ague r em in i scence o f ac i v i l w ar , c onnec ted w i th t he r i se a nd f a l l o f A rwe : a cco rd ing t o t h i s p ar t icu lar t r ad i t ion , A rwe w as n one o the r t h an at y ran t n amed Y aköb , n i cknamed A rwe b ecau se o fh i s w ickedne s s ( Budge 1 9 28 : 2 6 1) . T he E th iop ian t r ad i t ion s a bou t at empo rary p agan r e ac t ion , a l be i t f abu lous a nd c onfused , s eem t oc o r robo ra te J ohn o fE phe sus ' s t ory a bou t ah id f o r p owe r m ade b y ap ag an p r ince , w ho w as s ub sequen t ly c onve r ted t o C h r is t ian i ty . T he f a c t t h a t h i s o pponen t ' s f a i th i sp as sed o ve r i n s i lence i se a s i ly e xp l icab le i n t he c i rcums tance s . T he p agan v i c to r b ecame ad evou t C hr i s t ian a nd b ene f ac to ro fC hr i s t ians . l tw as n o tv e ry c onven ien t t oi n s i s tu pon t he f a c t t h a t t he r u le rh e h ad o us ted f r om p owe r h ad b een aC h r i s t ian h imse lf . O the rh in ts t h a t A idug , o r r a the r t he " p r ince o f Adu l i s " , i nJ ohn o fE phe sus m ay h ave b een n one o the r t h an C a leb ' s f a the r , T azën, m ay b e p o in ted o u t . A c e r ta in d eg ree o f c on fus ion b e tween t h i s k i ng a nd E zana , w ho s hou ld h e d a ted m o re t han ac en tury e a r l ie r i sn a tura l , n o t o n ly w hen w e e ncoun te r i ti n mode rn s t ud ie s ( s ee a bove , n o te 5 0 ) , b u t a l so w hen i tc rop s u p i n a nc ien t E th iop ian t r ad i t ion s . I ti sa ccoun ted f o r n o t o n ly b y t he s im i lar i ty o ft he i r n ame s , b u t a l so b y t h e f a c t t h a t b o th h ad f a the r s o f t h e s ame n ame ( i . e . ' E la 'Am i da ) . E th iop ian s ou rce s t r ied , s o i ts e em s , t o r emedy t he s i tua t ion b y a s s ign ing t he a c t iv i ty o f F rumen t ius ( Fe remena to s = Ahba S a lama ) t ot he r e ign o f Ah reha a nd A sheha , b u t t h e reby t hey a ppea rt oh ave f a l len v i c t im t oa no the rc onfus ion t h a t o ft r ans f e r r ing E la A sheha a nd A b raha f r om t he s i x th c en tury t oa n e p i sode t h a t b e long s t o t he f o u r th ( D i l lmann 1 880 : 1 7 -8 , c ommen t ing o n D i l lmann 1 853 : 3 44 , l i s t A , n o . 3 1 ; 3 46 -7 , l i s t A , n o s . 7 , 1 3 a nd 1 8 ) . O ne s hou ld , t he re fo re , t r ea t w i th s ome c are E th iop ian t r ad i t ion s t h a t a s c r ibe t o as ucce s sor o f ' E la 'Am ida , n amed Z i t n, t he -

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c onque s t H imyr , a n e xp lo i t E zana h ad c l a imed f o r h imse l f w i tne s s h i s t iu la ture o n h i s i n sc r ip t ion s ( Budge 1 928 : 2 60 -261) . One p a r t icu la r v e r s ion , a c co rd ing t o w h ich T azEn5 c onque red I nd ia , l o ok s mo re p rom i s ing : t he r e fe rence i sa lmo s t c e r ta in ly t os ou the rn A rab ia , a nd t h e t y p ica l a pp l ica t ion o ft he n ame " I nd ia " t o t h i s p ar to ft he w o r ld i n aGe 'ez s ource w ou ld i nd ica te a nu nde r ly ing B yzan t ine , p os s ib ly S y r iac , s ou rce ( 52 ) . -

A c i v i l w a r i n E th iop ia , f o l lowed b y ac onque s t o f s ou thern A rab ia , i s t he re fo re s ugge s ted b yE th iop ian t r ad i t ion sq u i te i n dependen t ly o fJ ohn o fE phesu s a nd i n a pparen t a g reemen t w i th h i s n ar ra t ive . C an t h e se e ven t s h e d a ted mo re a ccura te ly? T he s up remacy o f Monophy s i t ism i nE th iop ia o f fe r s ac l ue . I ti n d ica tes t ha t ad ec i s ive s t age i nt he c onve r s ion o fE th iop ia , w i th a c t ive r oya l s uppor t , m u s t h ave t aken p l ace a f te r t he C ounc i l o fC ha lcedon i n4 51 ( D i l lmann 1 880 : 2 6 -7 ; F e l l 1 881 : 2 3 ) . T he m idd le o ft he f i f th c en tu ry i s ,t he re fo re , ah i gh ly p robab le p e r iod f o r t he r e ign o f ' E la 'Am Tda a nd f o r t he g rea t a dvance o f Monophy s i t ic C hr i s t ian i ty i n t he A xum i te r ea lm , c ommemo ra ted b y t he l e gends o ft h e n i ne s a in t s . Ac i v i lw ar a f te r h i s d ea th , f o l lowed b y a n e xped i t ion t o s ou the rn A rab ia a nd , s t i l l l a te r , b y t he c onve r s ion o fT azZ �n 7 i t oC h r i s t ian i ty , b r ing u sc l o se r t ot h e e nd o ft he f i f th c en tury . I t w as t hen t h a t J ohn , t he P aramonar ios o f t he A lexandr ian mona s te ry , w as s e lec ted b y t he e nvoy s o f t he E th iop ian monarch f o r t h e p o s t o f B i shop o fA xum . T he s e lec t ion o f t h i s Monophy s i t ic monk w as d one w i th t he b l e s s ing o f aR oman e mpe ro r . I t i s much mo re c r ed ib le t h a t t h i s e mpe ro r w a s t he Monophy s i t ic Anas tas ius t h an t he C ha lcedon ian J u s t in ( s ee a bove , p age 3 90 a nd n o te 3 0 ) . One d e tai l i sa dded b y Ma la las t o t he n ar ra t ive w h ich h e h a s i nc ommon w i th J ohn o f E phe su s , a pparen t ly f r om a n i n dependen t s ou rce o f i n fo rma t ion . T he m an w ho a c ted a s a n i n te rmed iary b e tween t he e mpe ro r a nd t h e E th iop ian e nvoy s w as t he p raef ec ru s Augu s ta l i s , L ic in iu s . Am an o f t he s ame n ame w as t he r ecep ien t o f a n i mpe r ia l e d ic t i n5 24 , a s mag i s t e ro ff i c ior um ( 5 3 ) ; h e m ay w e l l h ave b een p r ae j èc tu s Augu s ta l i s b e fo rehand , a nd t h i sw ou ld b r ing u sb ack t ot h e r e ign o f Anas ta s iu s . Ano the r c l ue p o in t ing i n t he s ame d i rec t ion m ay h e a dded . A G eorg ian v e r s ion o f t he V i ta C y r iac i b y C y r i l o f S cy thopo l i s c on ta in s ap as sage a b sen t f r om t he G reek o r ig ina l i n i t s p re sen t f o rm . Whe the r i td e r ive s f r om a n i n dependen t m anusc r ip t t r ad i t ion , n ow l o s t , o r h as b een i n te rpo la ted f r om a n e n t ire ly d i f fe ren t s ou rce , t he re i sg ood r e ason t o b e l ieve t h a t i tc on ta in s g ood a nd t r u s two r thy i n fo rma t ion ( Ga r i t te 1 962 : 4 15 = c hap te r 1 0 ; a nd s e e 1 962 : 4 06 ) . A c co rd ing t o t h i s p a s sage , ac e r ta in T homas , d eacon o f t he o f t h e c hurch o f J e ru sa lem , w as r e commended t ot he P a t r ia rch o fA lexand r ia b y Mar ty r ius , P a t r ia rch o fJ e ru sa lem , b e tween t he y ear s 4 78 a nd 4 86 ( 5 4 ) . A f te r h e h ad s t ayed i nA lexandr ia f o r s o me t ime , h e w a s n om ina ted t o ab i shop r ic i n E th iop ia , o r mo re p rec ise ly i n " t er ra K u s im i n Aby s s in ia " ( a c co rd ing t oG ar i t te ' s L a t in t r an s la t ion ) . Af ew y ea r s s hou ld b e a lowed f o r T homas ' s t ay i n E gyp t b e fo re h e w a s n om ina ted t o h i s E th iop ian s ee . T h i sw i l l h ave b een e i the r t owa rd s t he e nd o fZ eno ' s r e ign o ra tt he b eg inn ing o ft h a to f Ana s ta s ius . We d o n o t k now w he re T homas r e a l ly h e ld o f f ice . T he p a s sage t ha t c once rns u s h e re c l ear ly i mp l ie s t h a t h e w ande red a g ood d ea l a l o ve r t he E th iop ian r e a lm . He m ay h ave e nded u p a s as u f f ragan b i shop o f J ohn t he P aramono r io s i n E th iop ia p rope r . T he re i s , h oweve r , a much more a t t rac t ive p o s s ib i l i ty . He m ay b e n one o the r t h an t he T homas w ho b rough t , a cco rd ing t o t he h ead ing o f t he f our th c hap te r o f t h e B ook o f t h e H imyar i t e s , t he t i d ing s o f a p e r secu t ion t oE th iop ia ( Mobe rg 1 924 : 3 h , S y r iac ; c i , E ng l i sh ) . I nc onsequence o f h i sm i s s ion a n E th iop ian i n vas ion o fs ou the rn A rab ia t o ok p l ace t he s econd i nt he -

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r e cons truc t ion h e re in p ropo sed ( s ee a bove , p age s 3 90 -92 a tn o te s 3 0 -43 ) . He m ay w e l l h ave a r r ived i ns ou the rn A rab ia i nt he w ake o f ap rev iou s i n vas ion , p rec i se ly t h eo ne n a r ra ted i nt h eB yzan t ine h i s to r iog raph ica ls ource s . T ime a nd a ga in w e h ave c ome u pon t he t r ace s o fa n E th iop ian i n va s ion o f s ou the rn A rab ia d a tab le t o t he r e ign o f Ana s ta s ius . E th iop ian t r ad i t ion s ( 55 ) a nd B y zan t ine s ource s a ppea r t o b e i np e r fec t h armony . T he s ou the rn A rab ian s c ene o ugh t t o b e s urveyed w i th mo re a t ten t ion t ov e r i f y w he the r i ts how s t he ma rk s o f s u ch a n i n vas ion .

*

Ou r s t ar t ing p o in t s hou ld a ga in b e t he p rob lema t ic n omenc la ture i n t he B y zan t ine h i s tor iog raph ica l s ou rce s . T he i d en t i f ica t ion o f t he H imya r i te k i ng , w hose n ame i sg i ven a sD im ion b y J ohn o fE phe sus a nd D imno s b y Ma la las , w i th D U Nuwãs c anno t b e a ccep ted ( above , p age 3 90 ) . Ano the r s ugge s t ion m ay c au t ious ly b e made . I fs ub sequen t e ven t s m ay s e r ve a s ac l ue , t he t r ibe o f Y az 'an p l ayed av e ry p rom inen t r o le i nt he r ea lm o f H imyar . L eav ing a s ide t he t r oub led q ue s t ion o f t he i d en t i f ica t ion o f v ar ious p e r sona l i t ie s b e long ing t o i t s l e ad ing f am i l ie s , i tc an b e s hown t h a t t hey a re t ob e f ound b o th among t he s uppor te r s o f Y t isuf A s 'ar a nd a mong h i s o pponen t s ( 56 ) . Ou t s tand ing among t he f o rme r w as a r ah ' i l Y akbu l , t he c om i s s ione r o ft he t h ree f amous i n sc r ip t ion s o f 6 33 S ab/518 , r e cord ing t he e ven t s t h a t p receded t he o u tb reak o ft he g rea t p e r secu t ion i nN a jran ( Ry 5 07 , 5 08 ; J a 1 028 ) . I n a l t h ree i n sc r ip t ion h e i sd e sc r ibed a sb e ing i nc ha rge o f m i l i tary o pe ra t ions a ga in s t N a jran ( Ry 5 08 , l i ne 6 ;R y 5 07 , l i ne 9 ;J a 1 028 , l i ne 6 ) . H e i sa lmo s t c e r ta in ly i d en t ica l w i th t he Di Y azan l e f t i nN a jran t op re s s o n w i th t h ep e r secu t ions l a te ro n , i nN ovembe r o ft he s ame y ear , a f te r t he k i ng h imse l fh ad l e f t t he c i ty ( t he B ook o ft h e H i inyar i t e s , Mobe rg 1 924 : 2 5b a nd f o l low ing , S y r iac ; c x c i i a nd f o l low ing , E ng l i sh ; s ee a l so I rnv i i lx xx v i i i ) . N a jran h ad w i tne s sed a p e r secu t ion b e fo re , i n t he r e ign a r ahb i ' i 1 Y akkuf ( above , p age 3 87 ) . T h i s p e r secu t ion m ay w e l l h ave b een t he p re sage o f as e r ie s o fa n t i -Chr i s t ian measure s t h a t c u lm ina ted i nt h e m as sac re o f t he B y zan t ine me rchan ts . Once a ga in N a jran m ay h ave b een o ne o ft he w o r s t h i t p l ace s , a nd aDi Y azan may h ave l oomed l a rge . T he l e t te r s r epre sen t ing m a nd za re s im i lar i nt he s ou th A rab ian s c r ip t . As ou th A rab ian d ocumen t d ec iphe red b y aC hr i s t ian v ague ly f am i l iar w i th t he S abaean d i a lec t a nd s c r ip tw ou ld e as i ly g i ve r i se t ot he d i s to r ted f o rm o f DY MAN i n s tead o f DYZAN ( 57 ) . Ap l au s ib le s e t t ing f o r a n E th iop ian i n vas ion o fs ou the rn A rab ia l a te i nt he f i f th c en tury i st hu s e s tab l i shed . C an i tb es hown t h a t t he t r ace so fs uch a n i n va s ion a r e d i sce rn ib le i nt he e v idence c once rn ing t he H imyar i te r ea lm a tt ha tt ime? T rad i t ions p re ser ved i n A rab ic h i s to r iog raphy h ave r e ta ined a c l ear m emory o f o ne E th iop ian i n va s ion o n ly , t he o ne t h a t t e rm ina ted t he r u le o f DU N uw s . W i th s ome e f fo r t s h i n t s o f ap rev ious i n vas ion m ay b ep o in ted o u t , l i kew i se i n t he r e ign o f D G N uwis , h ence t he s e cond i n vas ion i n o ur p ropo sed r e cons t ruc t ion ( 58 ) . N o t r ace s o f as t i l le ar l ie ri n vas ion a re e x tan t . S ome u se fu l i n fo rma t ion i s , n eve r the le s s , f o r thcom ing i n t he se s ource s i n s p i te o f t he i r f abu lou s c harac te r , a nd a f ew p o in t s o f d e ta i l , s uch a s t he o f f ic ia l n a me o f t he H imyar i te p e r secu to r h ave b een f u l ly v i nd ica ted b y t he i n sc r ip t iona l e v idence . When a na ly sed i nr e la t ion t o o the r t y pe s o fe v idence , t hey m ay l e ad t o s u rpr is ing c onsequen ce s .

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T hus , f o r e xamp le , t he n ame o f t he t y ran t a s as s ina ted b y ] D U N uw s , L ahra ta Y an if ( Tahar i [ c d . D c Goe je ] 9 17 -19 ; N ö ldeke 1 879 : 1 72 -6 ) , i s ap e r fec t ly h i s to r ica ln ame , n o l e s s t h an t he o f f ic ia ln ame o fD D N uws ( s ee J .R yckman s 1 951 : 2 20 -23 ; P h i lby 1 950 : 2 70 -71 , f o r t he e v idence ) . One s t ar t l ing f a c t , h oweve r , may i mmed ia te ly b e p o in ted o u t . Whe reas Labi 'a ta Y an t i f ( n icknamed D i i S ana t i r ) o f t he A rab ic t r ad i t ion i s au surpe r ( f awa taba ' a layh im r a gu lun m in H imyar l am y ak in m in b uy tt i ä l -mam laka t i m in / zum , i . e . " a nd am an o fH imyar r o se o ver t h em who w a s n o t o f t he i r r oya l h ou se s " ; T abar i [ c d . Dc Goe je [ 9 19 ) , h i s n ame sake o f t he i n sc r ip t ion s i s ar oya l p r ince p ar e xcelence , w ho r u led j o in t ly f i r s t w i th h i s f a ther a nd a b ro the r , t hen w i th t h i s b ro the r , t hen a ga in w i th t wo b ro the r s . T he f a ther 's n ame i s s i gn i f ican t , n one o the r t h an S a rahh i ' i l Y akkuf , t he p e r secu to r o f t he Mar ty r ium o fA zq i r . One m igh t h ave e xpec ted Labi'ata Y anif h im se lf t o b e e i ther a J ew o r o fp ronounced J ew i sh l e an ing s . Y e t , i ti sh i s m u rde re r w ho i sd e s c r ibed i n t he A rab ic t r ad i t ion sa st he o ne w ho a s sumed J uda ism , a nd t he c on tex t i mp l ie s t ha t i tw a s i nc on t raven t ion t ot he r e l ig ious p o l icy o fL a l jra ta Y an t if . P ropaganda m ay h ave i n te r fe red w i th h i s to r ic a l f a c t , b u t t he k e rne l o ft r u th i sd e f in i te ly t he re . I tw as s ugge s ted l o ng a go t h a t t h e r o le s o ft he a s sas s in a nd t he v i c t im o ugh t t oh e r eve r sed ; f r om t he p u re ly d ynas t ic p o in t o fv i ew Di N uws w as t he u surpe r ( G lase r 1 987 : 2 7 , n . 1 ) . A f u r the r c o r robo ra t ion i sp rov ided b y t he i n sc r ip t ion s t h a t d e sc r ibe Ysu f ' A s 'ar a s ak i ng w i thou t a ny r e fe rence t oh i s r oya l d e scen t ( 59 ) . I td oe sn o t , h oweve r , f o l low t h a tw ha t w eh ave i nt he A rab ic t r ad i t ion i s ad i rec t e cho o f Di N uwis ' p ropaganda . T he re i s al i m i t t o t he d eg ree t ow h ich p ropaganda c an d i s to r t t he t r u th a nd y e t b e t a ken s e r ious ly . L ab i ' ta Y anf l f mus t h ave b een u n ive r sa l ly k nown a s S arahh i ' i l Y akkuf ' s s on,c o r egen tw i th h i s f a the r a nd w i th h i s b ro the r . Two c oun ts o n w h ich a n i n d iv idua l c an b e d esc r ibed a s a u su rpe r i n a monarch ic r eg ime mu s t h e c on s ide red i n o rde r t o u nde r s tand wha t p robab ly h appened . One i so bv ious ly t he a s sump t ion o fr oya l p owe r i nv i o la t ion o f d ynas t ic r i gh t s ; t he o the r m ay b e t he p rema ture a r rog a t ion o fa n u ndue a moun t o f p owe r b y a n i nd iv idua l w ho d oe s e n joy h e red i tary r i gh t s b u t u se s i l ic i t m eans t o f a ci l i ta te h i s p urpo se s a t t h e e xpen se o f o the r l e g a l c l a iman t s . R e l iance o n a f o re ign c onque ro r m ay h e o ne o ft he se means . I n o u rc a se t he p o s s ib i l i ty o ugh t t o b e e xp lo red t h a t L ab i 'a ta Y an t if w as c ondemned b y p ub l ic o p in ion a s au surpe r b ecau se h e h ad u sed E th iop ian s uppo r t t od epo se h i s t wo b ro the r s a nd t oa c t a s a p uppe t k i ng f o r h i s b ene f ac to r s . I tn ow r ema ined f o r f o lk memo ry t o c on f u se t he i s sue o ve r t he g ene ra t ion s a nd t o p a in t h im a s t he u surpe r b ecause o f al a ck o f r oya l b l ood ( 60 ) . One c i rcum s tanc ia l d e ta i l m ay h e a dduced i ns uppor t o ft h i s h ypo the s is . I n h i s r a the r c on fused g eog raph ica l s urvey J ohn o f E phe su s r e fe r s t o t h ree r e a lms o f t he I nd ian s o n t he o ne h and a nd f our r e a lms o f t h e E th iop ian s ( kuVäy ë ) o n t he o the r . T he c on te x t m ake s i tc l ea r e nough t h a t , b eh ind t h e t e rm " I nd ian " , s ou thern A rab ia o ugh t t o b e s ough t . T he t h ree H imya r i te r e a lm s t ha t h ad e x is ted s hor t ly b e fo re t he E th iop ian i n vas ion h e d e sc r ibe s m ay w e l l h ave b een t he d oma ins o f L ab i 'a ta Y anüf a nd h i sb ro the r s ( Ma 'ad ika r ib Y an 'am a nd N aw f ; s ee J .R y ckmans 1 951 : 2 23 ) . I n o ne o f t he se , i tm ay b e a s sumed , v i go rous mea su res w e re t aken a ga ins t B yzan t ine me rchan t s a nd a g a in s t l o ca l C hr i s t ian s w ho c o l labora ted w i th t hem . Ap o ten ta te o f t he t r ibe Y az 'an w ho w a s p ar t icu lar ly a c t ive s eem s t oh ave o ve r shadowed t he a c tua l k i ng i nt h e v e r s ion o f J ohn o fE phe su s . L abia ta Y anif , w ho a c ted a s h enchman f o r t h e E th iop ian s i n o rde r t oc oncen t ra te a l l t h e p owe r w i th in H imyar i nh i s o wn h ands , p a s sed i n to A rab l e g end s a s at y ran t , d e f i led w i th e ve ry p o s s ib le v i ce . An a pp rox ima te d a te c an b e s ugge s ted f o r t h e a s cendancy o f L a l j i 'a ta Y an f o n t he b as is o f t he s ou th A rab ian i n sc r ip t iona l e v idence . T he t e rm inu sp os t

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q uem wou ld b e 5 82 S ab ./467 , w hen a rahb i ' i l Y akkuf i sa t te s ted i np owe r t oge the r w i th h i s t wo s on s ( C IH 5 37 a nd RES 4 919 , a s c omb ined a nd a na ly sed b y J . R y ckman s 1 951 : 3 41 -6 ; s ee 1 964 : 4 35 ) . He may h ave c on t inued i np owe r f o r af ew y ea r s , a nd a no the r s pan mu s t b e a lowed f o r t he j o in t g ove rnmen t o f L ab i 'a ta Y anüf a nd h i s b ro the r s a f te r t he i r f a the r ' s d ea th . A d a te a t t he b eg inn ing o f t he n i ne t ie s o f t he f i f th c en tu ry i s , t he re fo re , n o t i mp robab le . I ti si np e r fec t a cco rd w i th t he o ne t ha t h a s b een y i e lded a bove i nt he a na ly s i s o ft he B yzan t ine a nd t he E th iop ian e v idence . O nce a ga in t he r e ign o f Anas tas iu s i si n d ica ted . T he g rea t p rog re s s o fC hr i s t ian i ty i ns ou the rn A rab ia a tp rec i se ly t h i s t ime m ay b e b rough t t o b ear . T heodo re L ec to r , i t may b e r eca l led , b e l ieved t h a t J uda ism h ad t aken i t s r oo t i nH imyar a s e a r ly a st he t ime o fS o lomon a nd t ha t t he H imyar i te s h ad t a ken t he c ruc ia l s t ep o f e mb rac ing C hr i s t ian i ty a nd c al ing f o r a b i shop p rec i se ly u nde r Anas tas ius . One s uch b i shop , S y lvanus , t he m a te rna l u nc le o ft he e c c le s ias t ica l h i s to r ian J ohn D iak r inoumeno s , a n swe red t he c a l l ( Theodo re L e c tor H i s tor ia E cc i e s ia s t i ca 2 . 58 , PG 9 6 : c o l . 2 11 ; c f . J ohanne s D iak r inoumeno s E p i tome 1 . 525 M , 1 . 559 MB , [ e d . G .C . H an sen ] GCS 1 97 : 1 52 , 1 57 ) . He i sn o t t he o n ly B yzan t ine b i shop a t te s ted i n H imyar a t a bou t t he s ame t ime : T homa s h is b een d i scu s sed a bove ( s ee a bove , p age s 3 96 -7 ) . Two b i shop s n amed P au l , w ho f o l lowed e ach o the r i n N a jran a s t he a ppo in tee s o f P h i loxenu s o f Mabbog ( H ie rapo l i s ) , may b e a dded ( Shah id 1 971 : v i , S y r iac ; 4 6 , E ng l i sh ) . S uch ap rog re s s i sb e s t c once ivab le i fC h r i s t ian i ty s udden ly s t a r ted e n joy ing o f f ic ia l s uppo r t . I t s p romo t ion b y t he E th iop ians w i th t he a c t ive c olabo ra t ion o f aH imyar i te p uppe t k i ng , w ho w as e i the r t o le ran t o f o r h imse l f ac onve r t t o C hr i s t ian i ty , i s ah i gh ly p l au s ib le h ypo the s i s . O the r p iece s o fe v idence c onve rge t o s how t h a t a n E th iop ian e n terp r i se i n s ou thern A rab ia w i th B y zan t ine p romp t ing a nd b l e s s ing w i l l h ave b een j u s t o ne l i nk i n ac ha in o f o the r m easure s t a ken b y A nas ta s ius t o f u r the r t he r e s tora t ion o f B y zan t ine c omme r c ia l i n te re s t s i nt he s ou th . T he r emova l o f Amo rce so s ' c o lony f r om l o tabe h as a l ready b een m en t ioned . T he a l iance s w i th t he t r iba l g roup s o f t h e K inda a nd t he G has sin h ave b een g i ven d e ta i led s t ud ie s i n t he p as t . T he i r d a t ing t o t he r e ign o fA nas ta s iu s i sa n e s tab l i shed f a c t . T he ir s t ra teg ic s i gn i f icance i n as y s tem o f a n t i -Sa san ian a l iance s h a s b een e mphas i sed ( 6 1) n o t s o t he i r i mpor tance i n s e cur ing t he t r ade r ou te s b e tween H imyar a nd t he s ou the rn e n t repo ts o f t he B y z an t ine s . T h i s s ub jec t d e se rve s as epara te s t udy , o ne t h a t c anno t h eu nde r taken i nt he f r amewo rk o ft he p re sen tp ape r . -

T h i ss y s tem w a s , h oweve r , n o l e s sf r ag i le a tt he t u rn o ft he f i f th c en tury t h an i th ad b een i nt he f ou r th . I t sw eakne s sw a se xpo sed t oward s t he e nd o f Ana s ta s ius ' r e ign , w hen Dü N uwi s m anaged t os e i ze s up reme p owe r i nH imyar . A cco rd ing t o t h e h ypo the s i s p ropo sed a bove , t h i s b id f o r p owe rw as s ho r t l ived . T he E th iop ians m anaged t o r eac t p romp t ly a nd t o i n s ta l a no the r H imyar i te h enchman o n t he t h rone , n one o the rt h an M 'ad ikar ih Y 'afur ,w ho se e xpo l i t s a re g l o r i f ied i nt he Wad i Ma s i l i n sc r ip t ion ( Ry 5 10 ) a nd w ho i sa lmo s t c e r ta in ly t o b e i d en t if ied w i th t he M 'ad ikar im d e sc r ibed i nt he B ook o ft h eH imyar i t e s a st he p redece s sor o f Ma s ruq w ho h ad e n joyed t h e g ene ro s i ty o f R uhm , d augh te r o fA zma , a nd a ccep ted f r om t h i s C hr i s t ian l a dy a l o an o f t we lve t hou sand d i nar s (Mobe rg 1 924 : 4 3b , S y r iac ; c x x x i i i , E ng l i sh ) . T he o bv ious o b jec t ion t o h i s i d en t i f ica t ion a s a n E th iop ian h enchman i st he f a c t t h a t h e u se s t he l o ng t iu la tu re " k ing o f S aba , a nd DE R aydan , a nd Hadramü t , a nd Y amana t , a nd o ft he i rA rab s o n t he moun ta in a nd o n t h e c oas ta l p l a in " o n t he Wad i Mas T l i n sc r ip t ion ( Ry 5 10 , l i ne s 1 2 ) . T h i s s hou ld i n d ica te h i sp o s i t ion a sa n i n dependen t r u le r , b u t t he f a c t t h a t Ab raha c ou ld d i sp lay t h e s e lf same l o ng t iu la ture a t a t ime w hen h e u ndoub ted ly a cknow ledged -

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E th iop ian s uze ra in ty , a s w e l l a s t he f a c t n o r oya l d e scen t i s i nd ica ted o n t he i n sc r ip t ion , r un c oun te rt ot h i s a s sump t ion ( 62 ) . On t he o the r h and , t he n a ture o f t he m i l i ta ry o pe ra t ion s a t te s ted b y t he Wad i MasH i n sc r ip t ion i n d ica te s t h a t M 'ad ikar ih w a s a c t ing w i th in t he f r amework o f ap ro -Byzan t ine a l iance . l tr e co rd sa n e xped i t ion w h ich h e l e d t oc en t ra lA rab ia a ga ins t a n i n vad ing f o rce o f a l - Mund i r I I o f T i ra , i nr e spon se t o ac an f o r a id made b y t he o ccupan t s o f am i l i tary o u tpo s t o f M 'a s i l Gumban ( 63) . T he a rmy u nde r h i s c ommand c omp r ised b o th t he K inda a nd t h e B any T 'a lba t t h e l a t te r p e rhap s i d en t i f iab le w i th t he Ghas sin . S uch a n e xped i t ion w ou ld b e p e r f ec t ly i n k eep ing w i th t he i n te re s t s o fB y zan t ium i nt he a rea . T hu s at e rm inu sa n t eq uer n f o r t he s e cond E th iop ian e xped i t ion i sy i e lded b y t he d a te o f t he i n sc r ip t ion 6 31 S ab ./5 1 6 . -

Ap o s s ib le o b jec t ion t o t h i s r e con s t ruc t ion o ugh t t o b e f o re s ta l led . T hree s uc ce s s fu l E th iop ian e xped i t ion s t o s ou the rn A rab ia a re p o s tu la ted , t wo o f t hem a l ready b e fo re 5 16 i nt he c ou r se o fA nas tas ius ' r e ign . T h i s w ou ld l e ave t o o l ong a l a p se b e tween t he s e cond a nd t h i rd i n vas ion mo re s i gn i f ican t ly b e tween t h e g rea t p e r secu t ion i nN a jran a nd t he t h i rd E th iop ian e xped i t ion . T h i s o b jec t ion c an e as i ly b e d i spo sed o f . E th iop ian e xped i t ion s t o s ou the rn A rab ia mus t h ave b een h igh ly c omp lex a nd c o s t ly o pe ra t ion s . N o t a l o f t hem w e re n ece s sar i ly s ucce s s fu l . T he Mar ty r ium A r e thae e xp l ic i t ly s t a te s t h a t o ne s uch e xped i t ion w a s a bo r t ive ; t he d ea th to l l w a s e no rmou s f i f teen t hou sand E th iop ian s a nd " b arbar ian s " . T h i s a bor t ive a t temp t i ss a id t oh ave t aken p l ace s ho r t ly b e fo re t he f i na l s uc ce s s fu l o ne (Ma r ty r ium A r e thae 7 . 31 ; A .S S , O c tobe r 2 4 : 7 47 ) . O the r a bor t ive a t temp t s may b e t aken i n to a ccoun t . One o f t hem i sp o s s ib ly a n t ic ipa ted i nt he i n sc r ip t ion s o f 6 33 S ab/518 . Ano the r m ay h ave b een t he c ampa ign t ow ho se p repara t ion s C osma s I nd icop leu s te s w as w i tne s s i n c .5 22 ( s ee a bove , p age 3 90 ) . A s t he Ma r ty r ium A r e thae c l ea r ly s how s , a n e xped i t ion m igh t b e p repared a nd e ven l a unched w i thou t s o much a sl e av ing t he c oa s t o fE th iop ia . -

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T he c on sequence s o f t h e n ew s i tua t ion c r ea ted b y Ana s tas ius ' p o l icy a re e v iden t i na n e d ic t p romu lga ted b y t h i s e mpe ro r , w ho se c on ten t i sk nown f r om s i x f r agmen tary i n sc r ip t ion sf r om B o s t ra ( IGLS 1 3 : n o . 9 046 ) . Two d e ta i ls o ft h i s e d ic t a re r e levan t t o t he p re sen t d i scu s s ion . T he e d ic t p rov ide s t ha t t h e d ux Me sopo tam iae b e f i nanced f r om t he r e venue s o ft he c omme r c iar iu s o ft he p rov ince ; f u r the rt ha t t he d ux P a lae s t inae b e f i nanced f r om t he r e venue s o ft he c omme r c iar iu s o fC ly sma ( f ragmen t b ,l i ne s 1 18 ) . We k now v e ry l i t t le a bou t t he f unc t ion ing o f t he c omme r c iar i ia nd c o in i t e sc omme r c io rum i ng ene ra l , a nd o ft he t wo c ommer c iar i i i nq ue s t ion i np ar t icu lar ( s ee a bove , n o te 8a nd o nw a rd s i nt he t e x t ) . A l l t h a t c an b e s a id w i th c e r ta in ty i st h a t , i no rde r f o r t h i s a r rangemen t t o b e f e as ib le , b o th o f t he se o f f ice s s hou ld h ave b een h i gh ly p ro f i tab le i nl e vy ing t he c us toms o n b eha lf o f t he R oman Emp i re . T he r e sumed p ro spe r i ty o f t he c omme r c iar iu s o fC ly sma h as a l ready b een l i nked w i th t he r e conque s t o fl o tabe ( S a r t re i nI GLS 1 3 : 15 -7 ) . T h i s i so n ly p a r t o f t he t r u th . T he r e -e s tab l i shmen t o f t h e w ho le s y s tem o f a l iance s i n s ou the rn A rab ia a nd i nE th iop ia w a s n ece s sary t o m ake i tp o s ih ie . F u r the rmore , t he u n in te r rup ted f l ow o fm e rchand i se f r om t he F ar E a s t t h rough t he R ed S ea a nd t he A rab ian p en insu la w i l l h ave f o rced t he P e r s ian m e rchan t s t o r educe t he i r p r ice s . T he u pheava l s t h a t s hook t he S asan ian m onarchy d ur ing t he r e ign o f K awad Im ay w e l l h ave m ade t he i mpo s i t ion o fc u s tom s o n t he S a san ian s i de o ft he b o rde r much l e s se f fec t ive . T he i nf lux o fc heap m e rchand i se w h ich l e f t much s cope f o r t he t a xa t ion o f t he B y zan t ine Emp i re w as t hus n o t l i m i ted o n ly t o t h e s ou th . T he d ev ice t h a t m ade t he m i l i tary c ommande r s o f P a le s t ine a nd Me sopo tam ia d ependen t u pon t he l o ca lc omme r c iar i i f o r s u s tenance m us t h ave b een ah appy o ne .

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T he i n cen t ive o ft he se m i l i tary c ommande r si ns a fe -guard ing t he c omme rc ia l r ou te s a nd i np o l ic ing t he b o rde r s a ga in s ts mugg l ing w a st he reby g rea t ly i n c reased . *

Ana s tas ius m ay h ec on s ide red a s af o r tuna te e mpe ro r . B ene f i t t ing f r om t he d i f f icu l t ie s o f t he S a san ians a th ome , h e m anaged t o a vo id t he p aymen t s o f o ve r e xo rb i tan t d i p loma t ic s ub s id ie s f o r mo s t o fh i s r e ign ( r e fe rence s i nn o te 4 3 a bove ) . H i s s ucce s s i n r e -e s tab l i sh ing a n e pheme ra l B yzan t ine h egemony i n t he A rab ian p en insu la e nab led h im t oi n c rease t he r evenue s o ft he i mpe r ia l t r ea sury . I ti sp ar t o f h i s g ood f o r tune t h a t mode rn s c ho lar s c r ed i t t he f i nanc ia l r e cove ry t h a t t ook p l ace u nde r h i s r e ign e n t i re ly t ot he s oundne s s o f h i s f i nanc ia l p o l icy ( J one s 1 964 : 2 35 -7 ; B ury 1 958 .1 : 41 -7 ) . T ha t i tw a s , h oweve r , a n e pheme ra l s ucce s s i n deed , b a sed t o av e ry l a rge e x ten t o n ah appy c omb ina t ion o f c i rcum s tance s , i sm ade a b so lu te ly c l ear b y t he f a i lure o f J u s t in a nd J u s t in ian t o r epea t t he s ucce s s o f Anas tas iu s , i n s p i te o f t he v i c to r ious e n te rp r i se a g a ins t D U N uwãs a nd t he e s tab l i shmen t o fa n E th iop ian , p ro B yzan t ine r eg ime i n H imyar . T he e f fo r t s o f g i f ted d ip loma t s s uch a s Ab ram io s , N onnosus a nd J u l ianu s w e re t o n o a va i l i n so f ar a s t he r e s to ra t ion o f c omme rc ia l p ro spe r i ty w as c once rned . T h i s s t ory h as b een f r equen t ly r e to ld , a nd a d e ta i led r epe t i t ion i n t he p re sen t c on tex t m ay b e s pa red . S uf f ice i tt o s ay t h a t t he b a s ic t r u th o f P rocop ius ' s t a temen t c once rn ing t he c ause s o f t he f a i lu re o f J us t in ian ' s p o l icy r ema ins u n shaken . Unde r as t rong a nd e f fec t ive mona rch , C ho s roe s I ,t he P e r s ian me rchan ts s imp ly m anaged t oe s tab l i sh t hem se lve s a tt he p o r t s o fI nd ia ( by i mp l ica t ion a l so C ey lon ) a nd t op re -emp t t h e B y zan t ine me rchan t s ( P rocop . P e r s . 1 . 20 .11 -12 ) . -

T he s t ory h a s ap o s tsc r ip t t h a tc once rn sJ uda i sm . I ts hed s much l i gh t o n t he s pec ia l p o s i t ion o f t h e A rab ian p en insu la i n t he s t rugg le b e tween t he t wo g rea t p owe r o f l a te a n t iqu i ty , a nd i t mus t t he re fo re b e t ouched u pon v e ry b r ief ly , a l though ad e tai led d i s cus s ion b e long st oa na l toge the rd i f fe ren t o ccas ion . I ti sa l t oo f r equen t ly t a ken f o rg r an ted t h a t D O N uws w a st he p uppe t k i ng o ft he P e r s ians , j u s t a sS umya f 'a A gw 'a w a s t he h enchman o f t he E th iop ians ( 6 4 ) . T he re i sn o th ing t o i n d ica te t h a t t h i s w as r e a l ly t he c ase , a nd t he re a re af ew v ery c l ear i nd ica t ions p o in t ing i n a n e n t i re ly d i f f e ren t d i rec t ion . T he p urpo se o f t he d e lega t ion h e s en t t o a l - Munj i r a f te r t he g rea t p e r secu t ion i n N a jran c an b e v ery e a s i ly m i sunde r s tood . A l l t h a t D i i N uws s a y s i nh i s l e t te r , a sq uo ted b yS imeon o f B e th A rãm , i s t h a t a l - Mund i r s hou ld f o l low h i s e xamp le , e x te rm ina te t he C h r is t ians i n h i s c oun try a nd g r an t h i s f a vour a nd p ro tec t ion t o t he J ew s . He l i kew i se p rom i se s t o e x tend a ny k i nd o f h e lp t h a t w ou ld b e r equ ired f o r t he a ccomp l i shmen t o ft h i st a sk ( Gu id i 1 881 : 5 07 ,S y r iac ; 4 86 , I t a l ian ) . I ti si n deed t r ue t h a t a n a ppea l t o t h e p r ince o fI i i ra t og e t r i d o ft he C h r i s t ians a t at ime w hen h e w a s n o t o n ly s how ing at o le ran t a t t i tude t oward s t hem , b u t a l so e n te r ta in ing i nh i s c our t B y zan t ine d ip loma t ic d e leg a t ion s m igh tb e e as i ly i n te rp re ted a s ar em inde ro f t he n a ture o f h i s l o ya l t ie s . Y e t , i ft h i s h ad b een Di N uws ' p u rpose , t he re s hou ld h ard ly h ave b een a ny u se fu l p o in t i n ap l ea i nf a vou ro ft he J ew s . I ti sa s aJ ew t h a t iNuws s ends h i sm e s sage t oa l - Mund i r , a nd h e m ake s i ti no re ra ch ieve h i s o wn J ew i sh p u rpo se s , n o t i no rde r t os e rve t he i n te re s t so f ap agan , Z o roa s t r ian e mp i re . Q ü Nuws ' t r ue a im m ay h ave b een t he f o rma t ion o fa n i n dependen t b l ock w i th a l Munir a t aj unc ture w hen w eakne s s w i th in t he S a san ian mona rchy c aused a l MunW rt ow ave r i nh i sl o ya l ty .

4 01

One s hou ld b ea r i n m ind t he a n teceden ts o ft h e H imyar i te k ing . E nough h as b een s a id a bove t o s how t h a t J uda i sm , o r am ono the i s t ic r e l ig ion s t rong ly i nf luenced b y J uda i sm , w as o ne o f t he e l emen t s t h a t h ad c on t r ibu ted t o t he c ohe s ion o f t he H imyar i te k i ngdom a nd i t s p ro spe r i ty i nt he f i f th c en tury . I th as b een s hown , f o r i n s tance , t h a t t he r i se a nd f a l l o f Amo rce so s ' p hy larchy a r e c l ose ly l i nked w i th t he f a te o f t he H imyar i te k i ngdom ( above , n o te s t o p age s 3 88 -9 , 3 92 a nd 3 99 ) . Amo rce so s , i ts hou ld b er emembe red , w a s ar enegade f r om t he S asan ian k i ngdom . T he f a c t t h a t J ew i sh me rchan t s t r ad ing w i th I nd ia p ro spered u nde r t he a eg is o f t h i s p ar t icu lar p e r son c ou ld n o t h ave b een a ny means t ot he l i k ing o f t he S a san i a n s . Much mo re d i rec t ly r e levan t , t he p rom inence o f t he J ew i sh p r ie s t s o f T ibe r ias a t t he c our t o f Q 1 1 N uws mu s t h e p o in ted o u t ( Gu id i 1 881 : 5 15 , S y r iac ; 4 94 , I t a l ian ; Mobe rg 1 924 : 7 a , S y r iac ; c v , E ng l ish ; S hahi d1 97 1 : i iv , S y r iac ; 4 4 -5 , E ng l i sh ) . T he i r p re sence t he re , a nd t he r o le s a s s igned t ot hem , i n d ica te t h a t u nde r Dü N uwis J uda i sm w a s t a ken v e ry s e r ious ly a s as t a te r e l ig ion , e ven i f t he h i e roc ra t ic c harac te r i ta s sumed m igh t n o t h ave b een a ccep tab le t o t h e J ew i sh s p ir i tua l l e ade r sh ip e ve rywhe re . Heb rew i n sc r ip t ion s t u rned u p i n t h i s r ea lm e nume ra t ing t he p r ie s t ly g uard s ( Go i te in 1 972 ; D eyen 1 973 ) . T hey b e long i n a l l l i ke l ihood t o t he s ame p e r iod , a nd t hey p o in t i n t h e s ame d i rec t ion . N ow i th as b een a p t ly p o in ted o u t t h a t t he r e ign o f D D N uws i nH imyar c o inc ide s w i th t he a s cendancy o f Mar Z u t ra i nT ibe r ias a nd t h a t t he a c t iv i ty o ft he J ew i sh p r ie s ts i n t he H imyar i te r ea lm m ay w e l l h ave s t emmed f r om t h e i n i t ia t ive o f t h i s J ew i sh p o ten ta te . Mar Z u t ra w as t h e s on o f aJ ew i sh e x i la rch w ho h ad r ebe l led a ga ins t K awid Ia nd h ad b een e xecu ted w hen t he r ebe l l ion w as c rushed . T he S a san ians c ou ld h ard ly h ave f a vou red t he a l iance b e tween h i ss on a nd Qü N uwäs ( H i r schbe rg 1 967a ; 1 967h ) . I ti si nt h is c on tex t t h a t l a te P ah lav i t r ad i t ions c once rn ing s ou the rn A rab ia c ome i n to t he i ro wn . One p as sage o f t he S ha r e s tänya i -E rän S ha r ac a ta logue o f t he p rov ince s a nd c ap i ta l s o ft he P e r s ian Emp i re c omp i led i nt he n i n th c en tury s eems t or ef lec t t he n a ture o fS asan ian p ropag anda c once rn ing t he p ar t o f t he w o r ld t ha t c once rns u s , i n s p i te o f t he a mb iqu i ty o f t h e n omenc la ture i tu se s . I tc e r ta in ly r e f e r s t o a c ap i ta l o f ap rov ince i n s ou the rn A rab ia , w hose f o unda t ion i ta sc r ibe s t o t he m y tho log ica l P e r s ian h e ro , F ar idun (Marquar t 1 931 : 2 0 ; N ybe rg 1 964a : 16 -117 ) . Whe the r S amrin i n t h i s c on tex t o ugh t t o h e i n te rp re ted a s r e fe r r ing d i rec t ly t o H imyar ( t hu s Marquar t 1 931 : 9 -10 1 ; s ee 1 9 01 : 2 6 ) , o rt o al a rge r a rea i ns ou the rn A rab ia ( t hu s N ybe rg 1 964 1 ) : 1 06 -107 ) , i ti sp e r f ec t ly c l ear t h a t t h i s p as sage r ef lec ts S a san ian c l a ims t o d om ina t ion i nt h is a rea , o n t he b as i s o f ar emo te my tho log ica l p e r iod , w hen monarchs o f t h e h ou se o f K ay a re s a id t o h ave e n joyed u n iver sa l d om ina t ion . T he c ap i ta l i nq ue s t ion h ad b een f ounded , a c co rd ing t oo ur d ocumen t , w hen F ar idun h ad l i be ra ted t h a ta rea f r om t h ey oke o f ak i ng w ho se n ame s eems t o h ave b een c o r rec t ly d ecoded a s Mex -Var , i . e . " t he P o le -Beare r " , a nd i n te rp re ted o n t he b as i s o ft he S y r iac w o rd f o r p o le , q a i s ? i , a s ar e f e rence t o t he K ind i te p hy larch , Q a i s . T h i s w ou ld s eem t o b r ing t he w ho le p as sage h ome t o t h e B yzan t ine s a nd t h e i rS aracen a l ie s i nt he A rab ian p en in su la ( Nybe rg 1 9 64 1 ) : 1 05 -106 ) . -

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T h i s i s , h oweve r , s t i l l t oo s pecu la t ive . A no the r p as sage o ft he s ame p e r iod h as b een a dduced : t he o pen ing o ft he f i f th h ook o ft h e D enkar t , t he s o -ca l led Ada R e l ig io sa o f t he Z o roas tr ian p r ie s t s . T h is p as sage i n s i s t s , w i th g rea te r s t re s s , o n P e r s ian ( Zo roas t r ian ) c l a ims t o s uze ra in ty o ve r t h e t e r r i to r ie s o f S imra i . e . s ou the rn A rab ia . T h i s t ime , h oweve r , ad ec ided ly a n t i Jew i sh v e in c reep s i n . T he f i f th b ook o ft he D enkar tp urpo r ts t oh e at r ac tc ompo sed b yt he g rea t n in th c en tury -

4 02

D a s tur , A tu r F aranbag i -Fo r rux -Za tan , i nr e sponse t o t he q ue s t ion o f o ne Y akup . T h i s Y akup i sd e sc r ibed a so ne o ft he r i gh teou s p eop le o ft he t r ibe o fY akup , w ho h ad c onve r ted t o t he c r eed o f t h e Hudënan ( " tho se o f g ood r e l ig ion " ) l o ng b e fo re a nd w ho h ad a ccompan ied B ux t -Nar seh ( p robab ly c o r rup t f o r N abuchadnez zar ) , t h e l i eu tenan t t he P e r s ian k i ng K ay -Lah rasp , o n a n i mpo r tan t e xped i t ion . I t s p u rpo se w as t he l i be ra t ion o fb o th J e ru sa lem ( H ror n B a i ta Maqd i s , t he t emp le o f t h e R oman s ) a nd S im ra ( i . e . s ou the rn A rab ia ) f r om t he e v i l p rac t ice s o f B an ik S a rayë l i . e . t he J ew s ( Nybe rg 1 964a : 1 00 -10 1 , t e x t ; 1 0 1 102 , t r an s la t ion ; 1 02 -112 , c ommen tary a nd d i scu s s ion ) . -

Two , o r p e rhap s e ven t h ree , t heme s o f S asan ian p ropaganda s eem t o b e l umped t oge the r i n t h i s s ource . One r ef lec t s , s o i t s eem s , t he c onque s t o f J e rusa lem b y K hus ro I P arwez i n6 14 . T he s e cond i sp o s s ib ly aj u s t i f ica t ion o ft he c onque ro r s ' v o l te -f ace , s i nce s ho r t ly a f te r t he o ccupa t ion o fJ e ru sa lem t hey t u rned t h e i r b ack u pon t he i r J ew i sh a l ie s i n a n a t temp t t o p l aca te t he l o ca l C hr i s t ian p opu la t ion . T he t h i rd t h eme , h oweve r , i st h e mo s t s i gn if ican t f o ro u r p urpo se s . I t c l ear ly r e fe r s t o s ou the rn A rab ia , a nd i tc l ear ly b rand s t he J ew s a s r e spons ib le f o r t h ei n t roduc t ion o fa pa r on d a t / ic u V ad K un i shn ( " had l aw s a nd e v i l p rac t ice s " ) i n to t h a t a rea . I ts t rong ly i mp l ie s t h a t , j u s t a s t h i s t e r r i tory h ad h ad t o h e l i be ra ted i n t h ep as t b yK a i -Luh ra sp a nd B ux t -Nar seh , s oi tw as t he t a sk o ft he P e r s ian monarch t ol i be ra te i ta t al a te r s t age . P a r t o f t h i s t heme mus t b e v i ewed i nt he c on tex t o f t h eP e r s ian c onque s t o fs ou the rn A rab ia i nc .5 70 . T he re i sg ood r ea son t ob e l ieve t h a t e ven a t t h a t l a te r s t age t h e re w e re s t i l l s t rong J ew i sh i nf luence s i n t he a rea , a nd t ha t t he P e r s ian c onque ro r s w ou ld h ave t o c on tend a ga in s t t hem a f te r t he r emova l o ft he E th iop ians . P ar t o fi t ,h oweve r , a lmo s t c e r ta in ly h earken s b ack t oa p e r iod w hen t he e n t i re a rea w as u nde r J ew i sh d om ina t ion , a nd t h i s p e r iod w as b y n o means r emembe red a s ag ood t ime b yS asan ian s ( 6 5 ) . *

T he A rab ian p en insu la p l ayed a n i mpo r tan t r o le i nt he s t rugg le b e tween t he t wo g rea t p owe r s o fl a te a n t iqu i ty . B y zan t ium t r ied t o e s tab l ish i t s h egemony a nd t os e cure amonopo ly o ft he c omme rc ia l r ou te s t ha t p as sed t h rough t he a rea . T he S asan ians v i ewed t h e m anoeuv re s o ft he r i va l p owe r w i th much c on s te rna t ion , b u t m anaged t o r e ac t o n ly v ery i n te rm i t ten t ly , t h rough t he a gency o f t he p r ince s o f H i ra . T he r e ason sw hy t hey f ai led t or eac t e f fec t ive ly u n t i l t he s even t ie so ft he s i x th c en tury mus t h e d i s cu s sed e l sewhe re . I ts eem s , h oweve r , q u i te p robab le t h a t t he e me rgence o f a n i n dependen t J ew i sh p owe r i n t he a rea a p owe r t h a t c on t ro l led t h ec o mme rc ia l r ou te sf o r i t s o wn b ene f i t w as d e t r imen ta l n o l e s s t ot he i n te re s t s o ft h e S asan ian s t h an t ot ho se o ft he B y zan t ine s . -

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T he B yzan t ine s w e re b e t te r p l aced t ot ake a c t ion f i r s t . T hey d i d s o u nde r A nas tas ius w i th al a rge d eg ree o fs ucce s s . Unde r Q t i N uwis t he H imya r i te r ea lm r e g a ined f o r a momen t i t s i n dependence a nd t r ied , s o i ts eems , t o c r ea te a n i n dependen t b l ock b e tween t h e t wo g rea t p owe r s . T he B yzan t ine ss t ruck a ga in , b u t t h ey s eem t oh ave e xhau s ted t h em se lve s i nt h i sa rea n o l e s st h an e l sewhe re . T he f i f th c en tur yw as ap e r iod w hen t he A rab ian p en in su la e xpe r ienced f o r aw h i le t he i mmense p owe r t h a t w as i n he ren t i n i t s p o s i t ion b e tween B y zan t ium a nd S asan ian P e r s ia . T he e ff lo re scence o fJ ew i sh H imyar w as ap re sage o ft ime st o c ome .

4 03

N o tes *

1 .

Iw ish t o t hank t he Memor ia l F ounda t ion o fJ ew ish Cu l ture , w i thou t whose a id t he p repara t ion o f t h is p aper wou ld n o t h ave b een p oss ib le . Il i kew ise w ish t o t hank Wo lf son Co l lege , w hose h osp i ta l i ty e nab led me t o b enef i t f r om t he u se o ft he O xford l i brar ies d ur ing v ar ious s t ages o fi t s p repara t ion . U l t ima te ly Io we ag rea t d eb t t o Mr . F red L e s s ing f or h i sg eneros i ty . T he mos t c omprehens ive s t udy o f t he w ho le o f t h is p rob lem i s s t i l l P igu lew ska ja ( 1969 ) ; s pec ia l s t ress o n t he r o le o f Roman f ar e as te rn t r ade i nt he f r amework o fi t s d ip loma t ic r e la t ions w i th t he S asan ian monarchy w i l l h e f ound i nW in ter ( 1987 ) .

2 .

F or a f u l l d i scuss ion o f t h is r ou te u p t o t he b eg inn ing o f t he t h ird c en tury , w i th s pec ia l s t ress o n t he a rchaeo log ica l e v idence , s ee S ideho tham ( 1986 , w i th ac omprehens ive b ib l iog raphy ) ; s ee a l so P igu lewska ja ( 1969 : 3 3 -149) .

3 .

P igu lewska ja ( 1969 : 1 75 -210 ) i ss t i l l i n va luab le a s ad e ta i led r econs truc t ion w i th s pec ia l s t ress , n o t o n r e l ig ious c on f l ic ts , b u t o n e conom ic a nd c ommer c i a l a f fa irs . I t s w e l l -def ined Marx is t s t andpo in t ( s ee e spec ia l ly 1 969 : 9 10 , 2 5 -45) d oes n o t d im in ish i t s v a lue i n t h is r e spec t . F or t he p rob lem o f t he S ahaean e ra , s ee a bove ( page 3 93) . A b i l ingua l t e x t , i n G reek ( DAE 4 : n o . 4 ) a nd i n Ge 'ez , t he l a t ter b o th i n S ahaean s c r ip t ( DAE 4 :n o . 6 ) a nd i nu nvoca l ised Ge 'ez ( DAE 4 :n o . 7 ) , w as d ed ica ted b y t h is monarch w hen h e w as s t i l l ap agan . On al a ter i n sc r ip t ion ( DAE 4 : n o . 1 ) , t h is t ime i n v oca l ised Ge 'ez , h e p rofesses mono the ism w hose o b jec t o fv enera t ion i s" t he L ord o f Heaven " ( 'Egz i 'a S a inay ) . Any d oub t a s t o t he C hr is t ian b e l ief t ha t u nder l ies t h is f ormu la o ugh t t o h ave b een d i sspe l led b y t he d i scovery a nd p ub l ica t ion o ft he G reek v ers ion o ft h is t e x t ( SEG 2 6 : n o . 1 8 13) , w h ich e xp l ic i t ly p roc la ims t he D iv ine T r in i ty ; s ee a l so B ees ton ( 1980 : 1 49 ) . An a t temp t b y A l the in i ( 1962 : 1 57 -80 ) t o r e la te R uf inus ' a ccoun t n o t t o E th iop ia b u t t o I nd ia p roper , t o d eny t he i den t if ica t ion o f t he a ddressee o f Cons tan t ius ' l e t ter a s t he E zana o f t he i n scr ip t ions , a nd t o d a te t he l a t ter t o t he s econd h a lf o ft he f i f th c en tury h as b een r e jec ted b y D ih le ( 1965 : 3 6 -64 ) . A l the im 's p o in ted a nd a n imated a rgumen ts a ga ins t D ih le i n d efence o f h i s t heory ( A l the im a nd S t ieh l 1 967 : 3 06 -319 ; a nd s ee e spec ia l ly A l the im a nd S t ieh l 1 968 : 3 44 -58) f a l l s hor t o f v ind ica t ing i t . A l the im a nd S t ieh l ( 1971 : 3 93 -431 ; 1 976 : 4 71-479 ) a dd n o th ing s i gn if ican t ly n ew t o t he b as ic a rgumen t . Af u l ler d i scuss ion b e longs e l sewhere ( s ee a l so n n . 1 5 , 3 7 a nd 5 0 ) .

4 .

5 .

T he e p isode o f Mav ia , Queen o f t he S aracens , i sp ar t icu lar ly i n s truc t ive , s i nce i ti sc l ose i n t ime t o E zana 's c onvers ion t o C hr is t ian i ty . I t s f u l les t r ecen t d i scuss ion i si n S hah id ( 1984 : 1 38 -142 ) ; s ee , h owever , R uh m ( 1988 : 4 6 -9) f o r t he r e fu ta t ion o ft he n o t ion t ha t Mav ia a nd h er p eop le h ad a l ready

6 .

b een O r thodox C hr is t ians b efore h er r ebe l l ion a ga ins t V a lens a nd t he r enewa l o f a n a l l iance b e tween R ome a nd h er p eop le i n t he w ake o f t h is r ebe l l ion . T ransm i t ted b y P e trus D iaconus , L iher d c Locis S anc t i s 7 6 [ cd . Geyer ] C SEL 3 9 : 16 = CC 1 75 : 1 0 1 . A f u l ler d i scus s ion o f E ger ia 's v oyage i n S ina i a nd t h rough E gyp t i sc on ta ined i n ap aper Ir ead i n ac onference h e ld a t A rezzo i n c e lebra t ion o f t he c en tenary o f t he p ub l ica t ion o f t he manuscr ip t p reserv ing E ger ia 's i t inerary , t he A rre t inus 6 . 3 t o h e p ub l ished i nt he Ac ta o ft ha t c on ference i nt he n ear f u ture . F or P a l lad ius ' o wn v oyage , c f . h i s D c G en t ihus I nd iae e t Brag im in ihus 1 . 2 , [ ed . B erghof f ( 1967 : 2 ) = Derre t ( 1960 1 ) : 1 08 ) ] . F or t he v oyage o f t he S cho las t icus , c f . D c G en t ihus i nd iae e t B rag inan ihus 3 10 [ cd . B e rghof f ( 1967 : 2 -8 ) = Derre t ( 1 960b : 1 09 -111) ] . E ger ia 's v i s i t t o S ina i h as c onc lus ive ly b een d a ted t o D ecember 3 84 ( Devos 1 967 : 1 88 -94 ; s ee a l so -

7 .

4 04

8 .

9 .

1 0 ,

1 .

1 2 .

1 3 .

1 4 . 1 5 .

Devo s 1 968 ) . T he d a t ing o f t he t wo v oyage s i nP a l lad iu s p re sen t s a mo re s e r iou s p rob lem . A c co rd ing t o D e r re t ( 1 960a : 7 6 -8 ) , t he S cho la s t icus ' j ourney t ook p l ace e i the r b e tween 3 55 a nd 3 61 o r b e tween 3 57 a nd 3 63 , whe rea sP a l lad iu sh im se l ft r ave l led i n3 75 . Monne re t d e V i l lard ( 1947 : e sp . 6 21) d a te s b o th e ven t s t ot he f i r s t h a l fo ft he f i f th c en tury , b u t h i s d a t ing i s i n conc lus ive . S ee a l so P igu lew ska ja ( 1 969 : 7 0 -71) , w ho g i ve s o n ly t he d a te o f t he H i s to r ia L au s iaca , 4 19/20 , a s at e rm inu s a n t e q uem . F o r t he i den t i f ica t ion o fA du l i sa s Mas sawa , s ee C as son ( 1981) . On s uch a l a nd r ou te i n t he n o r th , s ee P igu lew ska ja ( 1969 : 1 55 -8 ) a nd Win te r ( 1987 : 4 9 -50 ) . T he g rea t d i f f icu l t ie s i n vo lved i nt he u se o ft h i sr ou te made i t much l e s s a t t rac t ive i nt he e ye s o f R oman p o l icy -make r s t h an t he s ou the rn r ou te h e re in u nde rd i scu s s ion . F or t he monopo ly , c f . C od l u s t . 4 . 40 .2 ; s ee W in te r ( 1987 : 6 2 -3 ) c once rn ing t he c ome s c o inme r c io rum . I ti sh ard t oa ccep t t he v i ew o fJ one s ( 1969 : 1 91 ) t ha t " t he o b jec t o ft h is monopo ly w as t hen n o t t om ake p ro f i t " , u n le s s " t hen " r e fe r s t o J u s t in ian ' s a t temp t t o r egu la te t he s i lk m arke t u nde r t he c ond i t ion s o f ac r i s is . S o l o ng a s t he monopo ly w as e nfo rced a nd t he c om i t e s c omme r c iorum c ou ld b uy c heap ly , t h ey c ou ld r e ap p ro f i ts f o r t he g ove rnmen t w i thou t p r ic ing t he i r g ood s o u t o f t he m arke t , a nd t he i mpo s i t ion o f s i zeab le e xpo r t d ue s o n f i n i shed s i lk p roduc t s w ou ld s t i l l b e f eas ib le . T hu s P igu lew ska ja ( 1969 : 1 75 ) : " D ie d om in ie rende S te l lung , d i e Ä th iop ien b e i d en H imya r i ten e r lang t h a t te , g e r ie t i m e r s ten V ie r te l d e s 6 . J ah rhunde r ts e twas i n s Wanken " . S ee C ombe f i s ( 1 660 : 1 07 -8 ) ; t he a u then t ic i ty o f t he R e la t io Ammon i i w a s c ha l lenged b y D ev ree s se ( 1 940 : 2 16 -2 1) b u t h as r e cen t ly b een empha t ica l ly v i nd ica ted b y Meye r son ( 1980 ) a nd b y S hah id ( 1984 : 3 09 -319 ) . F ur the r a rgumen t s i n f a vou r o f i t s a u then t ic i ty w i l l b e f ound i n m y A rezzo p ape r ( above , n o te 6 ) . E ge r ia 7 . 2 -6 , a nd c f . 9 . 3 , [ e d . G eye r ] C SEL 3 9 : 3 8 f , 4 1f = CC 1 75 : 4 0 , 4 9 . F or t he i d en t i f ica t ion o f E ge r ia ' s " A rab ia " a sF acusa , s ee W i lk inson ( 1981 : 2 16 ) a nd a bove ( nn . 6a nd 1 ) . T he d a t ing o f t h e se i n road s e me rge s f r om E vag r ius , HE 1 . 7 [ e d . J .B idez a nd L . P armen t ie r ( 1 898 : 1 3 -14 ) ] . A cco rd ing t o t he se e d i to r s , N e s to r ius h ad f a l len c ap t ive t ot he B lemmye s d u r ing h i se x i le i n Uppe r E gyp ta nd w a s r edeemed b y T heodo s ius . T h i s w ave w ou ld b e c hecked b y F lo ru s ( s ee f u r the r ,b e low ) o n ly d ur ing t he r e ign o f Ma rc ian . On w hom c f . f u r the r P r i scus f r . 2 [ c d . Mü l le r ] FHG 4 : 1 02 = f r . 2 8 .1 [ e d . B lock ley ( 1 983 : 3 24 ) ] . T he a t temp t o fA l the im t o l o ca te t h e w ho le e p i sode i n I nd ia p rope r ( f o r r e f e rence s s ee a bove , n o te 4 ) c anno t b e d i scus sed h e re i nd e ta i l . S uf f ice i t t os a y t h a t h i s s t ronge s t a rgumen t , t he p reamb le t o R u f inu s ' a ccoun t , w he re h et r ie s t oi d en t i f yt he c oun t r ie s i nw h ich , a cco rd ing t oa nc ien t t r ad i t ion , S t . Ma t thew , S t . B ar tho lomew a nd S t . T homas c ar r ied o u t t he i r m i s s ion s , i s u n tenab le , m a in ly b ecause t he re i s n o c ompe l l ing r ea son t o c onnec t w ha teve r R u f inus s t a te s i n t h i s p as sage w i th t he a c coun t h e h ea rd f r om Aede s ius a n a ccoun t w h ich h e m ay w e l l h ave r e co rded f r om memory a nyway . N o c ogen t a rgumen tc an h eb ased o n t he v aguene s s o fh i s memory a nd o n t he i mp rec i s ion o f h i s g eog raph ica l k now ledge . T he a rea o f F rumen t iu s 'a c t iv i ty i sc l ea r ly a t te s ted b y C ons tan t iu s ' l e t te r t oA izana s a nd S azanas , a nd A l the im ' s i n te rp re ta t ion o f t h i s l e t te r ( 1 962 : 1 66 -8 ) i sn o t c onv inc ing . I ti sh ard t os ee h ow C on s tan t iu sc ou ld h ope t oi n vo lve ap agan mona rch i n C h r i s t ian d oc t r ina l d i spu te s a nd i n duce h im t o t ake a c t ion i n t he n ame o fC h r i s t ian o r thodoxy a g a ins t ab i shop w ho j u s t h appened t op a s s t h rough h i sr e a lm . -

4 05

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T he s c ep t ic i sm o fT örök ( 1 986 : 39 ) c once rn ing t he h i s to r ic i ty o fP rocop iu s ' a ccoun t ( P e r s . 1 . 19 .27 -37 ; c f . O lymp iodo ru s , f r . 3 7 [ e d . Müle r FHG 4 : 6 0 ] = f r . 3 5 .2 [ e d . B lock ley 1 983 : 1 99 ] ) i s n o t e n t i re ly w e l l f ounded . S ee B lock ley ( 1983 : 2 19 n .7 1 ) ,w ho t a ke s i tf o rg r an ted , a nd b e low ( n . 1 8 ) . T h i s a ppear s t ob e t r ue e ven i ft he v i ew o fT ö rök ( 1986 : 8 ,3 54 ) t h a t Me roë c on t inued t oe x i s t i n as t rong ly mod i f ied m anne r u n t i l c .3 70 i su phe ld . T h i s i d en t i f ica t ion i s m ade a l ready i n as c ho l ion o n t he t e x t o f t he Monumen tum Adu l i tanur n , a s c op ied b y C o smas I nd icop leu s tu s i n h i s T opog raph ia C hr i s t iana , PG 8 8 : c o l s . 1 03 -105 , c f . OG IS 1 :n o . 1 9 9 , 2 85 -96 , e sp . 2 90 ; s ee L i t tmann ( 1 913a : 4 4 ) a nd e spec ia l ly A l the im ( 1 962 : 1 84 -5 ) ; a l so C h r i s t ide s ( 1980 : 1 3 1 ) . T he C h r i s t ian i n sc r ip t ion o fE zn g l o r i f ie s h i s e xp lo i t s a ga in s t t he Nobä , n one o the r t h an t h e N ohadae , o r t he N ouhade s , w ho h ab i tualy a ppea r t oge the r w i th t he B lemmye s i nt he G reek a nd L a t in s ou rce s . T h i s d oe s n o t i n va l ida te P rocop iu s ' t e s t imony a bou t a n a l iance c onc luded b y D ioc le t ian w i th t h i s p eop le a t at ime w hen , a cco rd ing t o t he r econs t ruc t ion h e re in p ropo sed , h e a l so r eached h i s a g reemen tw i th Axum . E zãnä ' s i n sc r ip t ion c l ea r ly i mp l ie st h a t h i s m a in b u s ine s sw i th t h e N ohä w a s t he s upp re s s ion o f ar ebe l l ion ( DAE 4 :n o . 1 , l i ne s 7 8 ) . T h i s m eans t ha t f o rme r ly t hey h ad b een i nt he s phe re o f R oman i nf luence , a nd o ne o f t he m a in c on sequence s o f E z n' s s ucce s s i n p u t t ing d own t he i r u p r i s ing w i l l h ave b een t ob r ing t hem b ack i n to as y s tem o fR oman a l iance s . S ee a bove ( no te s 4a nd 1 4 ) . P h i lo s to rg iu s HE 3 . 4 , [ e d . J .B idez ] GCS 2 1 : 3 4 : 5 6'

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F o r aJ ew i sh p re sence i no the r p ar t s o ft he A rab ian p en insu la , s e eA l the im ( 1968 : 3 04 -316 ) a nd G i l ( 1 984 ) . F or t he b e s t d e ta i led d i scu s s ion o ft h i ss ub jec t , s ee J .R y ckmans ( 1 964 : 4 20 2 1 , 4 27 -38 ) . T he me t icu lou s s urvey o f H i r schbe rg ( 1 946 : 3 6 -74 ) i s s t i l l a dm irab le i nm any r e spec t s , e spec ia l ly i fo ne c ons ide r s t he f a c t t h a t i tw a s w r i t ten w i thou t a cce s s t o s ome o f t he m a te r ia l a va i lab le a t t he t i me o f i t s c ompo s i t ion . J .R yckmans ' m a in a rgumen t ( 1964 : 4 32 -4 ) h i nge s a round a c hange i n t he f o rmu la r e fe r r ing t o t he mono the is t ic d e i ty f r om m r ' s inyn , o r t iw ' s myn w ' rin ( a cco rd ing t o J .R yckman s , C h r is t ian f o rmu lae , s i gn if y ing s ome th ing l i ke " ou r L o rd o f Heaven " , o r " our L o rd o f H eaven a nd E ar th " ) t o ' i hn b ' l s myn w ' rdn ( C IH 5 40 , l i ne s 8 1 -2 ) , o r ' I n b ' 1 s myn ( RES 5 085 ) . T he l a t te r e xp re s s ion s , t r ans la ted a s " God , L o rd o f H eaven a nd E ar th " , a nd " God , L o rd o f Heaven " r e spec t ive ly , s i gn if y at o ta l ly o b jec t ive m as tery o fG od o ve r t he u n ive r se a nd l a ck t he p e r sona l a nd s ub jec t ive e l emen t i mp l ic i t i n t he f o rme r . E ven i ft he i r i n te rp re t ion a s J ew i sh i sc o r rec t , t he e v idence i s l a ck ing , o n J .R yckman s ' o wn a dm i s s ion , t oa s c r ibe t he c hange t ot h e r e ign o f Ahuka r i b . S ee J .R yckman s ( 1964 : 4 34 -5 ) . T he D am I n sc r ip t ion i t se lf c on ta ins o n ly t he f o rmu la " God , L ord o f H eaven a nd E a r th " ( C IH 5 40 , l i ne s 8 1 -82 , a nd s ee a bove , n .2 3 ) . I ti sd a ted t o y ear 5 65 o ft he H imyar i te e ra , i . e . 4 50/1 . S ee G lase r ( 1897 : 2 1 -2 ) a nd b e low f o r f u r the r o n t h e p rob lem o f t he H imyar i te S abaean e ra ) . T he a ppe l la t ion R ahmanan i sm i s s ing , i ft he a t temp t o fG lase r ( 1 897 : 9 ) , o fw h ich h e h im se l fw as n o t s ure ( 1 897 : 1 2 ) , t o r ead i ti n to a l a cuna i n l i ne 3 2 i si g no red . D a ted i n sc r ip t ion s w i th t h i s d i v ine n ame a re CI H 6 ,o f 5 73 H im ./458 , a nd R y 5 20 , o f 5 74 H im ./459 , -

4 06

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w i thou t men t ion o f ak i ng . T hey m ay b e long t o t he r e ign o f S ara k ib i ' i l Y 'a fu r . E ven i fB e s s ton i sr i gh t i n d raw ing a d i s t inc t ion b e tween g ou th A rab ian R ahman i sm a nd J uda i sm , h e h im se l f u l t ima te ly f o l low s J . R yckmans a nd a dm i t s t ha t i t w a s a mono the i s t ic r e l ig ion , s t rong ly i nf luenced b yJ uda i sm . T he G e rman t r an la t ion o f t h i s d ocumen t w as f i r s t p ub l i shed b y W inck le r ( 1893 ) . B o th t h e Ge 'ez t e x t a nd a n I t a l ian t r an s la t ion w e re t hen p ub l i shed b y C on t i R o s s in i ( 1910 ) , w ho s eem s t o h ave b een u naware o f W inck le r ' s wo rk . F or t he c omb ina t ion o f C IH 5 37 w i th RES 4 919 , s ee J .J .R yckman s ( 1 951 : 3 41 -6 a nd 1 964 : 4 35 ) . T hu s C on t i R o s s in i ( 1 910 : 7 ) : " i nf luenza g r ande d eg l i E b re i , ma n on u na p aro la c he a f fe rm i i lg i uda i smo d e l r e ed e i n obi i , c e r tamen te , q u ind i , P agan i . " S ee S a r t re ( i n I GLS 1 3 : 16 , n . 4 ) f o r t he d i scu s s ion . Aga in s t S ar t re ' s c on f idence i n P rocop iu s ' a ccoun t i tm ay b e a rgued t ha t t h i s s ou rce i nn o t i n f a l l ib le i n m a t te r s o f g eog raph ica l i n fo rma t ion . T he s ma l lne s s o f t he t e r r i to ry o fJ az T ra t F a ra ' t in c anno t d e t rac t f r om t he i mpo r tance i t s s t ra teg ic p os i t ion . A t a ny r a te , t he re i sn o th ing i ni t s s i ze t h a tw ou ld h ave p reven ted i tf r om p rov id ing t he E th iop ian k i ng w i th s even s h ips f o r h i s c ampa ign a ga in s t DU N uws ( Mar t y r ium A r e thae 7 . 29 ; [ e d . E . C arpen t ie r ] A .SS , O c tobe r2 4 : 7 47 ) , a sS ar t re s ugge s t s . T h i s i st he p l ace t o e xp re s s a ga in m y i n deb tedne s s t h roughgou t t h i s p ape r t o m yl a te c o l league Y aron D an ; s ee D an ( 1 980 ) a nd R ub in ( 1 986a : 6 88 ) . T hus a l ready A s seman i ( 1709 , 3 43 , a nd s ee 3 62 n .1 ) . T h i s e menda t ion i s l i kew i se s ub sumed i nS hah id ( 1 964 : 1 29 n .2 ,a nd S hah id 1 971 : 2 26 -7 , 2 53 4 ) . Appea l s f o r h e lp t o t he E th iop ian k i ng a g a ins t t he p e r secu t ing H imyar i te s a re m ade t owards t he e nd o f S imeon ' s f i r s t l e t te r ( Gu id i 1 881 : 5 14 , S y r iac t e x t ; 4 94 , I t a l ian t r an s la t ion ) a nd a re i mp l ied i nh i s s econd l e t te r ( Shah i d 1 971 : wi , S y r iac t e x t ; 6 3 , E ng l i sh t r an s la t ion ) . T he s c r ibe 's p o s t sc r ip t t ot he f i r s t l e t te r men t ions t he s e cond e xped i t ion t h a t f o l lowed t h i s a ppea l a s a n a c comp l ished f a c t ( Gu id i 1 881 : 5 15 , S y r iac ; 4 95 , I t a l ian ) . T he c onsequence s o ft he f i r s t e xped i t ion , t he o ne t h a t p receded t h i sw ave o fp e r secu t ion s , a re i mp l ied b y t he v ery p re sence o ft he E th iop ians i nH imyar b e fo re t he d ea th o ft he i rv i ce roy h ad e nab led D U Nuws t os t ar t i t( Gu id i 1 881 : 5 02 , S y r iac ; 4 82 , I t a l ian i nt he f i r s t l e t te r a nd c f . S hah id 1 971 : i i v , S y r iac ; 4 4 -5 , E ng l i sh ) . I n t h e b ook o f t h e H imy ar i te s , t he h ead ing o f t he 5 th c hap te r (Mobe rg 1 924 : 3 , S y r iac ; c i , E ng l i sh ) o ugh t t o b e c ompa red w i th t he h ead ing s o fc hap te r s 3 8 o nwa rd s ( Mobe rg 1 924 : 6 ,S y r iac ; c i v , E ng l ish ) a nd t he r ema in ing f r agmen t s o f c hap te r s 4 3 -49 ( Mobe rg 1 924 : 4 6 -61 , S y r iac ; c x . Kx v -cx l v i , E ng l ish ) . F or t he t wo e xped i t ion s i nt h e Mar ty r ium A r e thae , c f . 1 . 1 -2 ; [ e d . C arpen t ie r ]A .SS , O c tobe r2 4 : 7 21 -2 , 7 f f , a nd 7 47 f f . J ohn o f E phe su s i n t he C h ron i con P seudo -D iony s ianum ( [ ed . L .B . C habo t ] C SCO ,S c r ip to r e sS y r i5 3 : 6 8 -9 ) , Ma la las ( CSHB 4 57 ) , a nd T heophane s ( a .m . 6 064 , [ c d . D e B oo r ] 2 44 ) ,w ho t a ke su p Ma la las ' a ccoun t r i gh t i nt he m idd le a nd c ause s n eed le s s c on fu s ion i n a n a t temp t t o r e c t if y i tb y s ub s t i tu t ing " A re thas " f o r " E la shoas " ( s ee D i l lmann 1 880 : 4 3 ) a s t he n ame o f t he E th iop ian k i ng . J ohn o fE phe sus i sl i kew i se r e spons ib le f o r t wo e r ro r s . A s w i l l b e s hown b e low , o ne o ft hem i sh i s a s se r t ion t h a t t he k i ng w ho c a r r ied o u t t h is i n va s ion w as i d en t ica l t o t he o ne w ho k i l led a k i ng o f H imyar a nd a dop ted C h r i s t ian i ty . T he o t he r i sh i s i d en t i f ica t ion o f t he A xum i te k i ng s ' d epu ty i nH imyar a s Ab raham . B o th e r ro r s a re c o r rec ted b y Ma la las , b u t Ma la las ' o wn i d en t i f ica t ion o f t he A xum i te d epu ty a s Angane s r a i se s s ome d i f f icu l t ie s a s w e l l . A s a t i s f ac to ry s o lu t ion h as b een s ugge s ted b y G la se r -

3 2 .

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3 3 .

3 4 .

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3 7 .

( 1897 : 9 4 -6 ) ; i . e . H gn ( i n C IH 5 41 , l i ne 2 3 ) t ob e r ead H angãn o r Hagg n . A t a ny r a te , t h is i d en t i ty o f E la Abe 1a a s t he k i ng w ho u nde r took t h i s s e cond e xped i t ion i s w e l l e s tab l i shed , a nd i t i s q u i te i n k eep ing w i th " E le shaas " o f t he Mar t y r ium A r e thae . T he h i s to r ic i ty o f t he n ame C a leb , g i ven t o h im i nt he G e 'ez v e r s ion o f t he Ma r ty r ium A r e thae ( Pe re i ra 1 899 : 7 9 -122 , t e x t ; 1 23 -65 , P o r tugue se t r an s la t ion ) , a nd i n t he E th iop ian S ynaxar ie s ( Pe re i ra 1 8 99 : 1 6 9 -73 a nd 1 7 9 -80 , t e x t ; 1 75 -8 a nd 1 81-2 , P o r tugue se ; s ee a l so D i l lmann 1 880 : 4 5 -9 ) i s f u l ly v i nd ica ted b y t he n um isma t ic e v idence ( Pe re i ra 1 8 99 : x l v x l v i i i ) , a nd a ny d oub t t h a t XAAHB o ft he c o ins i st he o f f ic ia l n ame o fE la Abe t ia ( c f . I s t . 7 608 h i s , l i ne s 6a nd 1 4 ) h as n ow b een r emoved b y t he B ook o ft h e H in zyar i t e s . F ur the rmore , i t Ge 'ez i n sc r ip t ion i nS abaean s c r ip t p ub l i shed b y S che ide r ( 1974 : 7 67 -70 ) , w as s e t u p b y " Ca leb , E la Abeha , s on o f T azena " ( l ine s 7 8 ) . T he n omenc la ture o ft h i sk i ng i st hus w e l le s tab l i shed . R y 5 07 , 5 08 a nd J a 1 028 . P ar t icu lar ly i n te re s t ing i st he s c r ip t io p l ena , Yw sf , i nJ a 1 028 , l i ne s 1a nd 3 ,c e r ta in ly u nde r t h e i n f luence o f t he n ame i n i t s Heb rew f o rm ( s ee J amme 1 966 : 4 2 , a d l oc . ) . I ft he re h as b een a ny d oub t c once rn ing t he A rab t r ad i t ion s t h a t h e a s sumed t h i s n ame t o p roc la im h i s J uda i sm ( t hus I hn I s l q , i nT aba r i [ c d . D e G oe je ] 9 19 ; c f . N ö ldeke 1 979 : 1 76 , a nd H iim , i n Tahari [ c d . D e Goe je ] 9 19 -20 ; c f . N ö ldeke 1 979 : 1 77 -8 ) , i to ugh t t oh ave b een d i spe l led b y t he se i n sc r ip t ions , a l though t h e s t a tmen t t h a t i tw as o n t he o ccas ion o ft h e H imyar i te s ' c onve r s ion t o J uda i sm o ugh t t ob e mod if ied ( s ee a bove , p age 3 87 ) . T hus a l ready S chrö te r ( 1877 : 3 61 n . 1 , 4 03 n . 1 0 ) . An a l te rna t ive e xp lana t ion o f t he n ame D ü N uws h as b een p ropo sed b y J . R y ckmans ( 1956 : 5n .2 3 ) , a nd t h i s h as b een a ccep ted b y S hah id ( 1 971 : 2 64 ) , a l though R yckmans h imse lf w i thd rew f r om t h is e xp lana t ion a nd r e ve r ted t ot he o ne s ugge s ted b yS chrö te r( s ee J .R yckmans 1 964 : 4 30 , a nd n .8 6 ; c f . a l so b e low , n .5 7 ) . T hus S hah id ( 197 1 : 2 63 ) , w ho a s sume s t h a t t h e l a nguage o f t he N a jran i te s w as A rab ic ( 1 97 1 : 2 42 -50 ) . F o r s uch a n i d en t if ica t ion , a nd t h e c onsequen t e r roneous c onf l a t ion o f t he f i r s t e xped i t ion i nt h e h i s to r iog raph ica l v e r s ion w i th t h e s econd e xped i t ion i n t he h ag iog raph ica l v e r s ion , s ee F e l l ( 188 1 : 1 6 , i g no r ing t he a dv ice o f D i l lmann 1 880 : 2 8 -32 ) . On H a lévy ( 1 889 : 1 7 1 ) , s ee f u r the r b e low . F or a mo re r e cen t a ccep tance o ft h i s i d en t if ica t ion ,s ee S hah id ( 1971 : 2 64 -5 ) . C f . Mar ty r iumAr e thae 1 . 1 ; A .SS , O c tobe r2 4 :722 : RO LL

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T he Ge 'ez v e r s ion e n large s u pon t h i s t op ic ; e ven b e fore C a leb 's f i r s t e xped i t ion t o t he l a nd o fS aba " t he re h as b een ag rea t s t r ife b e tween t hem a nd t he l a nd o f E th iop ia b ecau se , a l though t h ey c on t inued t o o f f e r g i f ts t o t he k i ng o f E th iop ia a nd p ay h im t r ibu te , i na s much a s h e o rde red t hem , a nd a t temp ted t op l ease h im w i th t he i rg i f ts and w i th t he i rt r ibu te s , t he k ing o fE th iop ia d e s ired n e i the r t he i r g i f t s n or t h e ir t r ibu te , b u t o n ly o ne t h ing d i d h e d e s i re , t h a t t h ey t u rn t oward s God and s t op t he i r b ondage t o t he i d o l s " ( a l la b aie t tu y ef aqed k ama y e tmaya tu j aba ' e g z i ab e r w ay e ( jadgu t a qanyo l a ' amä l ek r ) ; s ee P e re i ra 1 899 : 8 0 , G e 'ez ; 1 25 , P or tugue se . I n t he B ook o f t h e H imyar i t e s t he f i r s t e xped i t ion o f t h e E th iop ians i sl e d b y a c e r ta in IY WNA , w ho se i d en t i ty r ema ins a m y s te ry ( Mobe rg 1 924 : 3 , S y r iac ; c i , E ng l ish ) . A l l t h a t s u rv ive s o f t h i s s e c t ion o f t he h ook a re t he c hap te r h ead ing s , a nd t h e c on tex t d oe s n o t i n d ica te w he the r t he p e rson i n

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q ue s t ion i st h e k i ng h im se l fo r o ne o fh i sg ene ra l s . T he a t temp t o fA l the im ( A l the im a nd S t ieh l 1 968 : 3 55 ) t o i d en t i f y h im w i th E zänä o ugh t t o b e v i ewed i nc on tex t o fh i st heo ry w h ich t r an spo se s t he r e ign o ft h i s k i ng t ot he s econd h a l fo ft h e f i f th c en tury . I tc anno tb e a ccep ted , b ecau se n o E z ni i s a t te s ted f o r t h i s p e r iod i nt he more r e l iab le k i ng l i s t s Ba nd C ( D i l lmann 1 853 : 3 48 -9 ) . T he k i ng s p reced ing C a leb a re S a l 'adoba ,A l -Amëd, T az n a nd C a leb . A I -Amëdã ( ' E la 'Am ida ) i sk nown f r om t he t r ad i t ion s a bou t t he n i ne s a in t s , w he reas T azën l i i sk nown a s C a leb ' s f a the r f r om t he l a t te r ' s c o in s ( s ee a bove , n .3 2 ; a nd a l so n n . 4a nd 1 4 ) . T he re i s ,a ta ny r a te , e nough ma te r ia l i n t h e c hap te r h ead ing s o f t he B ook o ft h e H i inyar i t e s t o i n d ica te t ha t t he f i r s t e xped i t ion i td e sc r ibed w as o ne u nde r taken b y C hr i s t ian s . F o r f u r the r s pecu la t ions a bou t HY WNA , s ee S hah id ( 1971 : 1 46 , 2 55 -6 , 2 59 -60 ) , w i thou t ac l ea rd ec i s ion i nf a vour o fo ne h ypo the s i so ra no the r . Ma r ty r iu inAr e thae 1 . 2 ; ASS , O c tobe r2 4 : 7 22 , a nd s ee Mobe rg ( 1924 : 8 a -b , S y r iac ; c v i , E ng l i sh ) . T he t wo e p i s t le s o f S imeon o f B e th A rim a re o n ly o s tens ib ly o u t i nl i ne w i th t h i s v e r s ion . T hey c oncen t ra te e n t i re ly o n Q I I N uwi s 'p e r secu t ion a f te r h i s r e tu rn t op owe r , b u t t he re i se nough i nb o th o f t hem t o r e c t i f y t he d i s to r ted v i ew t h a t m ay b e g a ined f r om a s upe r f ic ia l r e ad ing , a s i ft he p e r secu t ing k i ng i sa n e n t i re ly n ew u p s tar t . T hu s , f o r e xamp le , t he p as sage t h a t r ead s i n t he t r ans la t ion o f S hah id ( 1971 : 4 4 ) : " when t h is w icked J ew f i r s t b ecame k i ng , h e s en t , e t c . " , o ugh t t o more p rope r ly t r ans la ted : " f i r s t , i ndeed , w hen t h i sw icked J ew c ame t op owe r , h e s en t , e t c . " T he w o rd s " q admä i t l am " a t t h e b eg inn ing o f t he s en tence ( Shah id 1 971 : i d ) r e f e r t o t he t ime o f t he e n t i re s en tence a nd q ua l i f y t he v e rb i n t he m a in s en tence " s hadda r " , r a the r t h an " amb l e l i " i n t he s ubo rd ina te c l ause , s t a r t ing w i th " k ad " . H is l e t te r t o a l - Mund i r o f H i ra , c i ted b y S imeon o fB e th -A r m i nh i s f i r s t E p i s t l e , c an h ard ly b e av e rba t im q uo ta t ion , a nd e ven i fs o , t he p as sage w he re h e d e sc r ibe s t he c i rcum s tance s t h a t e nab led h im t o t a ke c on t ro l o ve r H imyar ( t he d ea th o ft he E th iop ian v i ce regen t a nd t he i n ab i l i ty o f t he E th iop ians t o i n te rvene o n a ccoun t o f t he w in te r ; s e e Gu id i 1 881 : 5 02 ) c an h ardy h e t a ken t o mean t ha t t h i s w as h i s f i r s t p hase i np owe r . On t he o the r h and , t he p as sage s i nb o th l e t te r s w he re h e r e f e r s t o Hr i t b ar K a 'ah , t he l e ade r o f t he C h r i s t ians o fN a jran , a s ar ebe l a l ready i n t he f i r s t e ncoun te r b e tween t hem ( Gu id i 1 881 : 5 09 , S y r iac ; 4 88 -9 , I t a l ian ; s ee S hah id 1 971 : x i -x i i , S y r iac ; 5 0 , E ng l ish ) s t rong ly i mp ly t ha t h e c ons ide red h im se lf t he m as te r o f N a jran a l ready b e fo re t h is e ncoun te r . T he q ue s t ion o f t he a u tho r sh ip o f t he B ook o ft h e H imyar i te s ( s ee S hah id 1 9 63 a nd 1 97 1 : 1 32 -5 ) c anno t b ed i scus sed h e re i nd e ta i l . S ee R y 5 08 , l i ne 2 ; a nd s ee t he c ommen tary o f G . R yckmans ( 1953 : 2 99 ) , c a s t ing d oub t o n t h i s r ead ing , a l though n o u nc lar i ty i si n d ica ted i n t he S abaean t e x t ( G . R yckmans 1 953 : 2 96 ) o r i n i t s t r ans l i te ra t ion ( G . R yckmans 1 9 53 : 2 97 ) : t he w ords d .m iv/b sb ' t m/ ' wdh/khn/ r g 'm/m r 'hmw/ n i lkn/y sf / ' s ' r/ ' l y/ ' i ib ., i/bzf r m ay b e r ende red a s f o l low s : " wh ich t hey a ccomp l ished i ne xped i t ions b o th w hen t he i r l o rd , t he k i ng Y usuf A s 'ar ,w as f a r a way a nd w hen h e r e tu rned t o a t tack t he E th iop ians i n L a f ar " . T h i s t r ans la t ion f o l low s i ne s sence t he s ugge s t ions o f G . R y ckmans ( 1953 : 2 99 ) c once rn ing t h e mean ing o f ' wdh a nd r g 'm . S i nce a l t he c ampa ign s r e corded i n t h i s i n sc r ip t ion a re l a te r t h an t he c onque s t o f Z af ar , a nd t he p e r sona l p ar t ic ipa t ion o f $ arah 'i l Y akbu l i n t h e c ampa ign a ga in s t Muba , c ommemo ra ted i nl i ne 3 ,s eems t o b e long t o a n e p isode i nw h ich t he k i ng h imse l fw as p re sen t o n t he s c ene ( c f . J a . 1 028 , l i ne 4 ) , i ti s mo s t c onven ien t t o i n te rp re t t h e w o rd s ' wdh m lkn , e t c . a s ag ene ra l r e fe rence t o a c t s o f g ue r i l la w ar f a re u nde r taken w hen t he k i ng a nd h i s s uppo r te r s w e re s t i l l i n t he i r moun ta in r e fuge a nd n o t a s a c t s o f w a r f are c a r r ied o u t b y S arah 'i l Y akbu l d ur ing t he k i ng ' s a b sence t o b e s iege Z af ar . T he w ords ...

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w dk yhw/b , n /whrb/mUwn c anno t mean t h a t h e w as t h e k ing ' s d epu ty d ur ing t he c ampa ign a ga ins t Muba i nt he k i ng ' s a b sence ; s ee J .R y ckmans ( 1956 : 1 6 ) , w ho b e l ieve s t ha t h e t ook p ar t i nt he f i r s t o pe ra t ion s a ga ins t Muha , b e fore b e ing d e tached t o o ccupy N a j ran . And t h i s w as n o l o nge r w hen t he k i ng w as a way t oa t tack a f ar . A s s ugge s ted a bove , n o te 3 0 . F o r ar e jec t ion , s ee L i t tmann ( 1913a : 5 1 -52 ) . F o r ar e t ro jec t ion t ot he b eg inn ing o ft he f our th c en tury , w h ich w ou ld m ake i tt o taly i r re levan tf o ro u rp urpo se s , s ee G lase r ( 1 895 : 1 74 -81) . S ee a bove ( no te 3 7 ) , b o th f o r t he r e fe rence a nd f o r t he t r ans la t ion o f t he p arale l p a s sage i n t he G e 'ez v e r s ion , w h ich s i gn i f ican t ly e n large s a t t h i s p o in tu pon t he G reek o ne . DU N uwis i si n deed d e sc r ibed a tt he v e ry o u t se t a s : ' E patov 8-VT O L xcd . T I O L PO N 0 1 C O TO LT O V RO LL a4 io36pox u c .p u 6 . ' icç io t p er touç TO )

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B u t e ver y th ing i n t h i s d e sc r ip t ion b eyond t h e r e fe rence t o h i s J uda ism o ugh t t ob e u nde r s tood a s ag ene ra l i sed c har ac te r isa t ion i na n t ic ipa t ion o f f u tu re e ven t s . S ee a l so a bove , p age s 1 12 . F o r t he d e f ic i t a nd i t s c au se s , s ee R uh m ( 1 986h : 4 3 -6 ) ; f o r t he e conom ic r e covery u nde rA na s ta s ius , s ee R uh m ( 1 986h : 4 6 -9 ; a nd 1 9 86a : 6 88 -9 ,w he re t he p re sen t d i s cu s s ion i sf o re shadowed ) . F o r as ucc inc t s t a temen t o ft h i s c ommun i s o p in io , s ee G . R yckman s ( 1943 : 2 38 ) a nd J .R y ckman s ( 1 951 : 2 82 ) . Ad i sco rdan t n o te w as s t ruck b y G lase r , w ho w ave red b e tween 14 BC ( s ee G lase r 1 8 95 : 1 32 ) a nd 18 BC ( G lase r 1 897 : 1 23 -126 ) a st he b eg inn ing o ft h eS abaean e r a . A r e fu ta t ion p ub l i shed b y A .G . L ound in i n R us s ian i n 1 961 r ema ins i n acce s s ib le t o me , b u t much o f h i s a rgumen t c an h e r e cap tu red f r om L ound in ( 1 974 ) . F o r mo re s uppo r te r s o f t h e " o r thodox " v iew , s ee f o r e xamp le P igu lew ska ja ( 1 969 : 1 78 ) , P i renne ( 1 956 ) a nd H i r schbe rg ( 1 967 1 1 : 1 42 -3 ) . S hah id 1 971 : wi , S y r iac ; 6 3 , E ng l i sh . On t h e a u tho r sh ip o f t h is l e t te r a nd i t s r e la t ion t o t h e f i r s t l e t te r o f S imeon o f B e th A t- I m , s ee S hah id ( 1971 : 3 2 -40 , 1 26 -8 ) . O n i t sc hrono logy i nr e la t ion t oo the r d ocumen ts , s ee S hahi d ( 1 971 : 1 09 ( no te o n l i ne 4 5 ) , 2 35 -42 ) . T he d i f f icu l ty a r i se s n o t o n ly f r om a c on t rad ic t ion b e tween t h e s e cond l e t te r a nd t h e f i r s t , w h ich c ar r ie st h e d a te o f8 35 o ft he S e leuc id e r a , i . e . 8 35 ( Gu id i 1 881 : 5 01 , S y r iac ;4 80 , I t a l ian ) , b u t a l so f r om a n i n te rna l c on t rad ic t ion w i th in t h e s e cond l e t te r i t se l f ; f o r i n a no the r p l ace i tg i ve s N ovembe r a s t he mon th o f t he p e r secu t ion a nd 8 35 S e l . a s t he y ear , h ence 5 23 , i n c on sonance w i th t he t e s t imony o f t h e f i r s t l e t te r ( s ee S hah Td 1 97 1 : x v i i i x i x , S y r iac ; 5 4 -5 , E ng l ish ; c f . a l so , S y r iac x i ; E ng l i sh 4 9 ) . T he e xp lana t ion s ugge s ted b y S hah Td ( 1971 : 3 0 ; s ee 2 36 ) i sa n i n te rpo la t ion b u t , w he reas t h i s i sf i rm ly ( a nd e ven p e r suas ive ly ) s t a ted c once rn ing t h e s e cond l e t te r , n o a na logou s a rgumen t i s a dvanced c once rn ing t h e f i r s t . S ee , h oweve r , D evo s ( 1 974 : 11 -116 ) f o r ac omp le te a nd l u c id e nume ra t ion o f a l t he a rgumen t s f a vou r ing 5 18 , e spec ia l ly t he i mmed ia te a nd i n te rna l ly c ons i s ten t t e s t imony o ft h eB ook o ft h eH in z ya r i t e s , p o in t ing t o N ovembe r 5 18 a s t he d a te o f t h e p e r secu t ion . I to ugh t t o b e n o ted t h a t t he s c ho lar w ho s t ar ted t h e d i scus s ion h as r e cen t ly p ar t ly r e v i sed h i s f o rme r v i ew : " The re a re a rgumen t s b o th f o r a nd a ga ins t ad a t ing o f t he se t o 5 23 , a nd a rgumen t s b o th f o r a nd a g a ins t ad a t ing t o 5 18 ; f o r t he p re sen t , e i the r d a te mus t h e r egarded a s ap o s s ib i l i ty " ( Bee s ton 1 9 85 : 5 0 ) ; s ee a l so Abde l Monem ( 1 988 : 1 3 3 , a nd n n . 1 3 a nd 1 7 ) c once rn ing t he p o s s ib i l i ty o f u s ing R y 5 06 a s ay ard s t ick f o r f i x ing t he b eg inn ing o f t he S abaean e r a .

4 10

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T he e vas ive c harac te r o f t h i s t y pe o f e v idence may b e e xamp l i f ied b y t he a ppa ren t ly i n so lub le p rob lem o ft he i d en t i ty o fS umyaf 'a 'Mw 'a i nC IH 6 21 , l i ne Ia nd i s t . 7 608 b i sl i ne 1 . A re t hey t he s ame p e r son ( t hu s J .R yckman s 1 951 : 2 40 -5 ; s e e 1 951 : 2 46 -5 1a nd e sp . t he g enea logy o n2 49 ; B ee s ton 1 954 : 3 7 -40 ) o r t wo d i s t inc t p e r sona l i t ie s ( t hus J . R yckman s 1 956 : 7 12 , i n a r e v i s ion o f h i s p rev iou s o p in ion )? T he r e la t ion o f C IH 6 21 t o P rocop ius ( P e r s . 1 . 20 .3 -8 ) i s ,l i kew i se , ad i f f icu l ty h ard t os u rmoun t , f o ri ft he S umya f 'a ' Aw 'a o ft h i s i n sc r ip t ion i sn o t i d en t ica l w i th t he o ne o fI s t . 7 608 b i s , h e i s n o t i d en t ica l w i th P rocop iu s ' E s im iphaeus e i the r , w hence t he d i ve rgen t i n te rp re ta t ion o ft he f o rme r i n sc r ip t ion b y B ee s ton ( 1954 ) a nd J .R yckman s ( 1 956 ) i ns p i te o ft he a g reemen t b e tween t hem c once rn ing t he b eg inn ing o f t he S abaean e r a . H a lévy ( 1989 : 1 69 ) r e jec t s a no the r s ugge s t ion , t o r e so lve t h i s n ame t o t he G reek p hra se t o n e xw i ndon , o n t he b as i s o f t he f a c t t ha t " A idug " i s d e sc r ibed a sn i a lka a I ir inä d ehend i ig av T ta , i . e . " a no the r k i ng o fi n ne r I nd ia " , w hence t he i n ev i tab le c onc lus ion t h a t " Axundon " i st o b e c ons ide red a s a k i ng o f " i nne r I nd ia " a s w e l l . T he t endency o f L a t in , G reek a nd S y r iac a u thor s o f t h e p e r iod t o r e f e r t o a ny s ou the rn p a r t o f t he w o r ld b e tween E th iop ia a nd I nd ia p rope r a s" I nd ia " c ause s much c on fus ion . H a lévy ' sv i ew m ay , h oweve r ,b ec o r robo ra ted b yt he f a c t t h a t " A idug " i sd e sc r ibed j u s t o ne p as sage l a te r a sn za lkO d eki ä yë , i . e . " k ing o f t he E th iop ian s " , a s h e s hou ld b e ( CSCO S c r ip tor e s S y r i 5 3 : 5 5 ) , w he reas t he k i ngdom o f t he k ã ye i s d e sc r ibed a sn l egaw yä s ag Tm en h a id ahmT räyë ( "much mo re i n te r ior t han t he o ne o f t h e H imyar i te s " ) a nd f r om t he p hrase ma l i j 'wä tã g awäyä tã d ' hendT h 4ye w ad 'ku ä yë ( " the i n ne r k i ngdoms o f t he I nd ian s a nd t he E th iop ian s " ) i tm ay b e i n fe r red t h a t a l t he f our E th iop ian k i ngdom s i nJ ohn o f E phe sus ' n ebu lou s g eog raph ica l s urvey i n c lud ing t h a t o f " Axondon " a re c ons ide red a s" i n te r io r " . F o r as urvey o ft he n um i sma t ic e v idence f o r C h r i s t ian k i ng so fE th iop ia , s ee L i t tmann ( 1 913a : 5 4 -7 ) , w ho r egard s t hem a s l a te r t han t ho se o fC a leb ( s ee a bove , n .3 2 ) , a l though h e a dd s t he r e se rva t ion " ob n i ch t e twa d e re i ne o der d e ra nde re v o rK a leb a nzuse tzen i s t " ; s ee , f o r e xamp le , S e rgew ( 1972 : 1 09 ) , w ho p l ace s O uazebas i mmed ia te ly a f te r E zini . T o t h i sr e se rva t ion a no the r o ne m ay b e c au t ious ly a dded . A s t ray c o in among t he f ew t ha t L i t tmann ( 1 913a : 4 6 -7 ) c l as s i f ie s a s p agan b y means o f t he c re scen t a nd r i ng s ymbo l w h ich t hey b ear a nd t he re fo re d a te s t hem b e fo re E zin may b e long t o a p agan k i ng o r p re tende r o f al a te r p e r iod . T he re i so ne i r re fu tab le f a c t r e levan t t o t h e p re sen t d i scu s s ion , n ame ly t h a t b o th C a leb a nd T azen l i o f t he k i ng l i s t s , a r e a t te s ted o n c o in s , t he f o rme ra s XAAHB , a nd t he l a t te ra s G3z NA o r 0 I3Z NA ( L i t tmann 1 913a 5 3 ; a nd s ee a bove , n o te 3 7 ) . T he re s hou ld h ave b een n o d i f f icu l ty i na ccep t ing t h i s i n te rp re ta t ion s ol o ng a si tw as h ab i tua l t o i d en t if y t he a u tho r o f DAE ( 4 : n o s . 4 ,6 , 7a nd 1 ) a s T az n f o r t h i s i d en t i f ica t ion , s ee D i l lmann ( 1878 : 2 17 f f ; 1 880 : 3 3 ) a nd F e l l ( 1881 : 2 0 ) a nd t he o n ly r e ason f o r i t s r epea ted r e jec t ion w as t he d i s s im i lar i ty b e tween t he n ame s A idug ( Anda s , e t c . ) a nd T az nã ( s ee a l so B ury 1 958 .2 : 3 22 -3 a nd e sp . n o . 6 ) . F o r ap ar t ia l r e s tora t ion o ft he v i ew t ha t t he E zini o ft h e i n sc r ip t ion sw a s af i f th c en tu ry r u le r , s ee A l the im ( a sc i ted i nn . 4a bove ) . T he s pecu la t ion s u pon w h ich t h is t heory i sb a sed i g no re o ne o bv ious d i f f icu l ty : t he f i f th c en tury k i ng a t te s ted b o th b y t he k i ng l i s t s a nd b yt he c o in s i sa f te r a l T azën, a nd n o t E zãni . A l the im n owhe re ma in ta ins t h a t t he r e ad ing o ft he k i ng ' s n ame o n t he i n sc r ip t ions s hou ld b eT azën, a s w as o nce b e l ieved ,b e fo re " Ez nä "w as e s tab l i shed b yL i t tmann . S ee P e re ira ( 1 899 :x l v i i i l i i i ) ; S e rgew ( 1972 : 15 , n . 2 ) q uo te sa n u npub l i shed G e 'ez c hron ic le w h ich s t a te s e xp l ic i t ly t h a t u pon t he a r r iva l o f t he n i ne s a in ts i n E th iop ia t he c oun try w as o n ly v ery p ar t ly C hr i s t ian i sed . T he -

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5 7 .

5 8 .

s i tua t ion c ou ld n o t h ave c hanged t oo d ras t ica l ly d ur ing t he r e ign o f o ne k i ng . A s w i th t he o the r E th iop ian m anusc r ip t s r e fe r red t o a nd q uo ted b y S e rgew , n on o t ice o fi t sp ub l ica t ion h a sc ome t o me . S e rgew ( 1972 : 1 23 ) q uo ted f r om t he s ame u npub l i shed c hron ic le . T he p as sage r ead s a s f o l low s : ë zänä w a sen ia 1 n ang etu t ã z ënä : w awe ' tü h o r e h ag ra meräq w a ta c jh 'a m e s la h end mo 'or nu w aga ta lomu w amähraka s ab 'a ,nu w anewä yomu ' e saka r a say5n zu z aye sabhu l o tu s abäh tä , i . e . " Ezana a nd t he n ame o f h i s r oya l ty ( wa s ) T azënT h A nd h e w en t t owa rd s t h e e as t a nd f ough t a ga ins t I nd ia , h e k i l led t hem , a nd c onque red t hem , a nd t ook a way t he i r c ap t ive s a nd t he i r p rope r ty , a nd f i naly made t hem p ay h im a t r ibu te " . T he s ource b e t ray s a n a wa rene s s o ft h e f a c t t h a t c onque s t s i nt he E as t h ad b een a t t r ibu ted t o ak i ng n amed E zana ; l i kew i se , t h a t E zana a nd T azënä a re t wo d i f fe ren t n ame s . T he w r i te r ' s a s sump t ion t h a t b o th n ame s b e longed t ot he s ame k i ng m ay s p r ing f r om t h e f a c t t h a t s im i lar c onque s t s w e re a s c r ibed t ob o th . S e rgew , h oweve r , q uo te s t h is p as sage i n al a te f i f th c en tu ry c on tex t , a nd t he o f f ic ia l n ame o ft he k i ng i sg i ven a sT azën, w h ich m ake s i tl i ke ly t ha t t h i s w a s t he n ame i n t h e u nde r ly ing s ource , a nd t h a t E zana i sa n a dded c ommen tary . T hus a l ready Momm sen i n a n o ra l c ommun ica t ion t o D i l lmann , s ee D ilmann ( 1880 : 3 2 n . 1 ) . L ic in iu s , a t te s ted a s mag i s t e r of i c io run z i nt he C od ex J u s t in ianu s ( 12 .33 .5a ) , c an b e e a s i ly f i t ted i na sp raef ec tu s Augu s ta l i s b e tween 4 87 a nd 5 16 ( s ee Mar t inda le 1 980 : 1 282 ) . F o r s ome r e a son Ma la las ' t e s t imony c once rn ing ap raef ec tu s Augu s ta l i s n amed L ic in ius i sn o t c i ted b y Mar t inda le ( s ee 1 980 : 6 83 , " L ic in iu s 2 " , t he mag i s t e r of i c ior um o f 5 24 ) . T he re i sn o th ing u n trus two r thy i nt h i s s t o ry . Mar ty r iu s w a s t he a u tho r o fa b as ica l ly Monoph i s i t ic f o rmu la , e ndo r sed b yt h e monas t ic c ommun i ty o ft he d e se r t o f J udaea o n ly b ecau se i tr ema ined f a i thfu l t o t he s p i r i t o f i t s f ounde r , E u thym io s , i ns o f a r a s i ta vo ided a n e xp l ic i t e xcommun ica t ion o f t he C ounci l o f C ha lcedon . T h i s f o rmu la a n t ic ipa ted t he H eno t ikon , p romu lga ted b y Z eno , t o w h ich P e te r Mongo , t he A lexand r ian P a t r iarch s ub sc r ibed a nd w h ich h el a te r s uppo r ted , e ven a ga ins t t he o ppo s i t ion o ft he E gyp t ian monk s ; s ee S chwa r tz ( 1 939 : 3 69 -72 ) f o r a mo re d e ta i led d i scus s ion . T homas h imse l f m ay h ave b ecome mo re d ec ided ly Monophy s i t ic i nh i sl a te ry ea r s . Once a ga in t wo E th iop ian s ource p as sage s c i ted b y S e rgew ( 1 972 : 1 2 3 ) , s t i l l u npub l ished w hen h i s b ook s aw t he l i gh t . O ne i s ak i ng l i s t i n aT ig re v e r s ion o fG ed l e Ab r eha a nd A sbeha ( s ee S e rgew 1 972 : 9 2 ) , g i v ing t he d a te s o f T az n' s r e ign a s 4 86 -493 , w he reas a s y naxary o f D eb re Ma rqo s i n Go j jam h as t he y ear s 4 90 -497 . J udgemen t c once rn ing t he r e l iab i l i ty o f t he se d a t ing s mus t b e s u spended u n t i l t he p a s sage s i n q ue s t ion c an b e a na ly sed i nt he i r c on tex t . I fp roved a ccep tab le , af u r the rl i nk m ay b e a dded t ot he c ha in o fo u re v idence . A u se fu l d i scus s ion w i l l b e f ound i n Sm i th ( 1 954 : 4 57 -9 ) . A . J amme ' s R e sear ch o n S ahaean R ock I n sc r ip t ion s f r on t S ou th -we s t e rn S aud i A rab ia , w he re ad e tai led d i scus s ion o ft he f o r tune s o ft h e Y az 'an i te s i st ob e f o und ( a cco rd ing t o S hah id 1 971 : 2 66 , n . 3 ) , h as b een i n acce s s ib le t o me w hen w r i t ing t h i sp ape r . Howeve r , t he t heory t h a t r eg ard s " DU N uwis " a s ac o r rup t ion o ft he G reek D ounaa s , i t se lf i nt u rn ac o r rup t ion o f D U Y azin ( Shah id 1 971 : 2 65 ) , i sn o t a ccep tab le . S ee t he d i ve rgen t t r ad i t ion , r e la ted b y Tahari, [ e d . D c Goe je ] 9 29 -930 ; N ö ldeke ( 1879 : 1 94 -5 ) ; a nd s ee F e l l ( 1 88 1 : 1 3 ) f o r r e fe rence s t o o the r s ou rce sw h ich r e co rd o ne e xped i t ion o n ly , a sw e l l a sf o r ad i scus s ion o ft h i s p ar t icu lar p as sage . A cco rd ing t o t h i s v e r s ion ( t he a u tho r i ty i sH ii im i h n

4 12

5 9 .

6 0 .

Muhammad ) , t h e re w e re t wo E th iop ian i n vas ions o f H imyar , b u t t he d e sc r ip t ion o f e ach , e spec ia l ly t he d e ta i led d e sc r ip t ion o f t he f i r s t , i si li n k eep ing w i th t h e Mar ty r ium A r e thae : DG Nuwis d id n o tf l ee i no rde rt ot ake r e fuge i n t he moun ta in s . Unab le t o mus te r t he s uppo r t o f h i s Q ai l s , Do Nuwis c ap i tu la ted , b u t b y ac l eve r r u se h e d e l ive red t he k ey st oa l l h i st r ea s ure st ot he E th iop ian g ene ra l ( he m ay b e i d en t ica lw i th Hywna o ft he B ook o f t h e H imya r i t e s ; s ee a bove , n o te 3 6 ) a nd a dv i sed h im t o s end o f f h i s t r oop st oc ap tu re t hem . When t he i n vad ing a rmy w as t hus s c a t te red a lo ve r t he c oun try , t h e c r af ty k i ng c a l led u pon t he f o rce s s t i l l l o ya l t o h im t o s l augh te rt hem s epara te ly ; s ee a l so H i r schbe rg ( 1946 : 6 8 , 1 01 -102 ) . T he f undamen ta l w eakne s s o f h i s p o s i t ion h a s l e f t i t s t r ace s i n t he A rab ic t r ad i t ions a sw el . A cco rd ing t o H i gãm i b n Muhammad , a s c i ted i nT aba r i , t he n ob le s o fD i i N uws d en ied h im t he i r s uppo r t a t av ery c ruc ia l momen t w hen a n E th iop ian i n vas ion w as a bou t t o t ake p l ace . T he i r r ep ly t o t he k ing ,y uqa t i lu k u l lu r au lun ' a n maqwa la t ih iw anä /na t ih i ( " le t e ach m an f i gh t f o rh i s p r inc ipa l i ty a nd f o r h i s r eg ion ' ) , d oe s n o t b e token t he k i nd o fl o ya l ty t ha tw ou ld h ec ommanded b ya n u nque s t ionab ly l e g i t ima te k i ng . An a t temp t h a s b een m ade t o i d en t if y Labi'ata Y anif w i th M 'ad ikar ib Y 'afur o ft he W a d i Mis i l i n sc r ip t ion ( Ry 5 10 ) ; s ee P igu lew ska ja ( 1969 : 1 80 , 2 26 , 2 28 -231 , 2 78 -279 , 2 91) . B u t t h i s c anno t b e a ccep ted . Two d i s t inc t p e r sona l i t ie s a r e c once rned , a sw i l l b e s hown f u r the r b e low , a l though much o fw ha t P igu lew ska ja s a y s a bou t M 'ad ikar ib Y 'afu r c an c e r ta in ly b e a pp l ied t o L ab i 'a ta Y anf l f , e spec ia l ly h i s d e sc r ip t ion a s " de r S chü tz l ing d e r ä th iop i schen K ön ige . " T he A rab ic t r ad i t ions a lmo s t c e r ta in ly c onfused t he t wo , f o r , a s w i l l b e s hown b e low , t he k nown f a c t s a bou t M 'ad ika r ih a re l i kew i se b e s t i n te l l ig ib le o n t he b as i s o ft he a s sump t ion t ha t h es e rved a s a n E th iop ian p uppe t k i ng b u t t h i s w a s a f te r t he s e cond E th iop ian i n vas ion , d ur ing t he e x i le o fD 5 N uwis . F o r t he a l iance w i th t he Ghas sn , s ee N ö ldeke ( 1887 : 9 ) a nd , mo re p rec ise ly , S hah Td ( 1958a , 1 958h ) . F or t he a l iance w i th t he K inda , s ee O l inde r ( 1927 : 5 1 -3 ; s ee S hah id 1 960a : 5 8 ) . F o r ac omp rehens ive s urvey , s ee S ar tre ( 1 982 : 1 54 -66 ) . F o r t h is a s sump t ion , s ee P h i lby ( 1 950 : 2 74 ) . Ab raha ' s l o ng t iu la ture a ppear s b o th o n t he Mir ib d am i n sc r ip t ion ( C IH 5 41 , l i ne s 1 3 ) a nd o n t he Mure ighan i n s c r ip t ion ( Ry 5 06 , l i ne s 1 2 ) . P rocop ius ( P e r s . 1 . 20 .8 ) m ake s i t q u i te p l a in t h a t a f te r t he d ea th o fE la Aheha Ab raha r e cogn i sed E th iop ian s up remacy a nd a g reed t o p ay t r ibu te . An a r rangemen t w he reby a H imyar i te r u le r a c t ing u nde rE th iop ian p a tronage w ou ld s t i l l p lume h imse l f w i th e very p o s s ib le t i le i si nt he v e ry n a ture o ft he h i gh ly l oo se c on t ro lt ha t c ou ld b e r egu lar ly e xe rc i sed f r om E th iop ia . T he s i tua t ion t h a t p reva i led w hen I s t . 7 608 b i sw as s e t u p mus t b ec ons ide red a s e xcep t iona l . A f te r t he i r h i t te r e xpe r ience s o f t he p a s t , t he E th iop ians mu s t h ave l e f t a n e xcep t iona l ly s t rong g ar r i son , o nw h ich t he u npopu lar S umyaf 'a A gw 'a mus t h ave b een t o ta l ly d ependen t . T he e ven ts t h a t b rough t a bou t t he r i se o f Ab raha a re t h e b e s t p roo f t h a t i tw as v e ry d i f f icu l t t o c on tro l e ven s uch a g ar r i son f r om a b road . Y e t , a s l o ng a s S umyaf 'a A w 'a w a s u nde r t he p ro tec t ion o f t h e E th iop ian s , h e c ou ld n o t h e lp m ak ing a n a ccura te s t a temen t o fh i sp o s i t ion a sE la Aheba ' sv as sa l ( i s t . 7 608 b i s , l i ne s 6a nd 8 ) . T he w o rd ing o ft he i n sc r ip t ion c r ea te s m any d i f f icu l t ie s o f i n te rp re ta t ion . T he i n te rp re ta t ion h e re in s ugge s ted f o l low s t he mean ing a s s igned b y G . R y ckmans ( 1 953 : 3 08 ) t o t he w o rd q sd ,n i n R y 5 10 , l i ne 5 , i . e . " c o lons m i l i ta i re s " ; s e e a l so C on t i R o s s in i ( 1931 : 2 33 , g l os sary , s v . QSD ) . Y e t G . R yckmans h im se lf v asc i l la te s b e tween t h i s t r ans la t ion a nd t ha t o f " nom p rop re d u t r ibu d e q sd " ( 1 953 : 3 10 ) . T he s ame e xp re s s ion i sr ende red b y B ie l la ( 1982 : s v . QSD I T ) a s" c las s o fc i v i l ian s " e t c . , f o l low ing B ee s ton ( 1937 : -

6 1 .

6 2 .

6 3 .

4 13

6 4 .

6 5 .

5 1) , whereas t he i n terpre ta t ion o f P igu lew ska ja i mp l ies t he mean ing o f " r äuber ische B edu inen " , who s uppor ted a l - Mund ir , a nd n o t t he o ther w ay a round . One o f t he c harac ter is t ic r epresen ta t ives o ft h is a pproach i sA l the im ( 1968 : 3 17 ) : " Er ( s c . Dü Nuw s ) s e lbs t u nd d am i t a les , w as e r u n ternahm , wurde g es tü tz t v on d en Labmiden, d en a rab ischen Vasa l lenkön igen d er S asa n iden . " T h is i n terpre ta t ion i sa dm i t ted ly b ased ma in ly o n t ha t o f Nybe rg ( 1964a) . However , t he d i f f icu l t ies t ha t b ese t a ny a t temp t t o d raw c onc lus ions f rom a P ah lav i t ex t mus t b e h one s t ly p o in ted o u t . I n o ur c ase i t i s e nough t o c ompare N yberg 's r ender ing o ft he p assage t ha t c oncerns u s h ere w i th t hose o f Wes t ( 1896 : 9 3 -4) a nd Mo le ( 1967 : 1 05 -106 ) i n o rder t o a pprec ia te t he magn i tude o ft hese d i f f icu l t ies .

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R e i seber ich td er E xped i t ion ü ber T opog raph ie u nd G e sc i x ic te Ak sums . B er l in ( Deu tsche Aksum -Exped i t ion 1 ) .

1 913b

S aha i sche , G r iech i sche u nd A I t ahe ss in i sche I nschr if ten . B er l in ( Deu tsche Aksum E xped i t ion 4 ) .

1 974

S ur l e s r appor ts e n tre l ' E th iop ie e t I c H imyar d u V ie s i èc le . I n I V C ong re s so I n ternaz iona le d i S tud i E t iop ic i 1( s ez ione

L ITT M ANN , E .

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4 17

i n

A rab ien

u nd

Af r ica .

v on

T arb i t z

s t or ica ) : 3 13 -320 . N az iona le d c L ince i) .

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( Accader n ia

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1 980

T he p rosopog raphy o f t he l a te r R oman Emp i re . V o l . 2 , AD 3 95 -527 . Camb r idge .

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T he Ammon ius n arra t ive : B edou in a nd B lemmye a t tacks i nS ina i . I n G . R endsburg e t a l . ( eds .) T he B ib le w or ld : e s say si nh onour of C yrus H . Gordon : 1 33 -48 . New Y ork .

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l e s

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Mosé , v e scovo d i Adu l is . C hr i s t iana P e r iod ica 1 3 : 6 13 -23 .

O r ien ta l ia

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D ie G / ias sân id i schen F ür s ten a s d c i i i Haase Gaf i zac . B er l in . ( Abhand lungen d er k ön ig l ichen Akadem ie d er Wissenschaf ten) .

1 964a

T he o pen ing s ec t ion o f Denkar t B ook V . I n K a ikhusroo M . J a masp A sa ( cd . ) D r . J .M . U nva la Memor ia l V o lume : 9 9 -112 . B ombay .

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A manua l o f P ah lav i . W iesbaden .

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1 927

T he k ing s of K inda o ft he f am i ly o f Ai l a l Murôr . L und ( Lunds Un ivers i te ts A r sskr if t , N .F . Avd . 1 ,v o l . 6n o . 1 ) .

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1 899

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1 950

No te o n t he l a s t k ing s o f S aba . 6 3 : 2 69 -75 .

P I GULE WSKA JA , N .

1 969

B y zanz

P I RENNE , J .

1 956

L ' inscr ip t ion " Ryckmans 5 35 " e t l a c hron o log ie s ud -arabe . L e Muséon 6 9 : 1 6 5 181 .

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4 18

o f

auf d en

P ah lav i .

P ar t

P ar t

1 :

t ex ts .

2 : g l ossary .

N agran ,

V er s io

L e Muséon

W egen n ach I nd ien . B er l in .

RUB IN , Z .

1 986a

1 986 1 )

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D ip lomacy a nd w ar i nt he r e la t ions b e tween B yzan t ium a nd S assan ids i n t he 5 th c en tury AD . I n P . F reeman a nd D . Kennedy ( eds .) T he d ef ence o f t he R o m an a nd B y zan t ine E as t : 6 77 -695 . Oxford ( BAR I n terna t iona l S e r ie s2 97 ) . T he Med i terranean a nd t he d i lemma o f t he Roman Emp ire i n l a te a n t iqu i ty . Med i ter ranean H i s tor ica lR ev iew 1 :1 3 -62 . A l Mav ia Ma lka t Ha -Saraken im . C a thed ra 4 7 : 2 5 -49 . ( I n Hebrew ) .

1 943

C hrono log ie s abéenne . CR41 : 2 36 -46 .

1 946

Une i n scr ip t ion c hré t ienne s abéenne a ux musées d ' an t iqu i te d ' ls tanhu l . L e Muséon 5 9 : 1 65 -72 .

1 951

I nscr ip t ions s ud -arahes , n euv ième s er ie . L e Muséon 6 4 : 9 3 -126 .

1 953

I n scr ip t ions s ud -arahes , d i x ième s er ie . Muséon 6 6 : 2 67 -317 .

1 951

L' I ns t i tu t ion monarc iuque mér id iona le a van t /I s lam . ( B ih l io theque d u Muséon 2 8 ) .

1 953

I n sc r ip t ions h i s tor iques s ahéennes d c l ' Arab ie c en tra le . L e Muséon 6 6 : 3 20 -69 .

1 956

L a p er secu t ion d es C l iré t iens h imya r i te s a u s i x ième s i èc le . I s tanbu l ( Neder lands H is tor isch -Archeo log ish T ns t i tuu t i n h e t N ah i je Oos ten) .

1 964

L e C hr is t ian isme e n A rab ic d u S ud p ré i s lam ique . A t t i d e l c onvegno i n ternaz iona le s u l t e ina : L' O r ien te G ir i s t iano n e / la s t or ia d e l la c i v i l ta : 4 13 -454 . R ome ( Accadem i a N az iona le d e l L ince i 3 41) .

S ARTRE , M .

1 982

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1 974

T ro is n ouve l les i n scr ip t ions r oya les d 'Axoum . I n I V C ong r e s so I n terna t iona le d i S tud i E t iop ic i 1( Sez ione s t or ica) : 7 67 -786 . R ome ( Accadem ia N az iona le d c i L ince i) .

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1 887

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4 19

e n

L e

A rab ic L ouva in

r o ma ine

e t

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1 939

K y r i l lo s v on S ky thopo l i s . I n U n ter suchung en 4 9 .2 . L e ipz ig .

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1 972

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SE WELL , R .

1 904

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1 958a

Ghassãn a nd B yzan t ium : A n ew t e rm inus a q uo . D er I s lam 3 3 : 2 32 -55 .

I 958 1 )

T he l a s t d ay o fS a iT h . A rah ica 5 : 1 45 -58 .

1 960a

B yzan t ium a nd K inda . BZ 5 3 : 5 7 -73 .

1 960 1 )

P rocop ius a nd K inda . BZ 5 3 : 7 4 -78 .

1 963

T he h ook o ft he 1 l imyar i tes : a u thorsh ip a nd a u then t ic i ty . L e Muséon 7 6 : 3 49 -62 .

1 964

B yzan t ino -arah ica : t he c onfe rence R am la , AD 5 24 . JNES 2 3 : 15 -31 .

1 97 1

T he

mar ty r s

o f Na j ran ,

n ew

B ruxe l les ( Soc ié té d es S ubs id ia H ag iog raph ica 9 ) .

T ex te

t i iu l

J RAS ( New

o f

d ocu men t s . B o l land is tes ,

1 979

B yzan t ium i ns ou th A rab ia . DOP 3 : 2 3 -94 .

1 984

B yzan t ium a nd t he A rabs c en tur y . Wash ing ton DC .

S I DEBOTHA M , S .E .

1 986

R oman e conom ic T ha las sa . L e iden .

TÖROK , L .

1 986

WEST , E .W .

1 896

D er Mero i t i sche S taa t 1 . B er l in ( Mero i t ica 9 ) . P ah lav i l i tera ture . I n W . Ge ige r a nd E . K uhn ( eds .) Gund r i s s d er i r an i schen P h i lo log ie 2 . 1 : 7 5 -129 . S t rassburg .

WI LCKEN , U .

1 9 12

G rund züge u nd C hre s to ina t ie P apy ruskunde . Vo l . 1 /2 . L e ipz ig -Be r l in .

WILK INSON , J .

1 98 1

E ger iac t r ave l st ot he Ho ly L and . J erusa lem .

WINCKLER , H .

1 893

Z ur G e sch ic te d e s J uden tums i n f e inen . I n H . W inck ler ( cd .) A l tor ien ta l i sche F or schungen 1 :3 29 -36 .

WINTER , E .

1 987

H ande l u nd W ir tschaf t i n S is n id isch ( Os t ) R öm ischen Ver trägen u nd Abkommen . Mün . r ter i sche B e i t räge z ur a n t iken Hande l sge sch ich te 6 /2 : 4 6 -74 .

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2 9 . FOUR S EASONS OF EXCAVAT IONS AT AN HELLENISTIC S ITE I N THE AREA OF K IBBUTZ SHA 'AR HA -A MAK IM A r thur S ega l a nd Y ehuda Naor Ha i fa K ibbu tz S ah 'ar h a -Amak im i ss i tua ted o n t he e as tern s l opes o ft he S hfar 'am h i l ls i n l ower Ga l i lee , 1 5 k in f rom Ha ifa . A s e ar ly a s t he m id -1930s P rof . B . Mazar s ugges ted t he i den t i f ica t ion o f t h is s i te w i th Gaba H ippeon , a n a dm in is tra t ive c en tre , where K ing Herod s e t t led v e terans f rom h is c ava lry f orces . S ince t he s ummer o f 1 984 e xcava t ions o n amodes t s ca le h ave b een c onduc ted o n b eha lf o ft he Dep t . o fA rchaeo logy , Ha ifa Un ivers i ty ,i n c o -opera t ion w i th k ibbu tz S ha 'ar h a -Amak im , a nd a f ter f our s easons o f work a n i mpress ive , monumen ta l ly -bu i l t He l len is t ic t ower ( 13 b y 1 2 me tres ) , s urrounded b y a n a dd i t iona l wa l l , h as b een e xposed . Th is sma l l f or tress o ccup ies a n e x treme ly i mpor tan t a nd s tra teg ic s i te g uard ing t he e n trance t o t he J eznee l v a l ley . B o th t he t ower i t se lf a nd t he w a l l w ere made o f f i ne ly c u t a nd d ressed s tone , c harac ter is t ic o f t he He l len is t ic p er iod . O ther f i nds , s uch a s c o ins a nd p o t tery , a l so i nd ica te t ha t t he s i te d a tes f rom t he He l len is t ic p er iod ( end o f t he t h ird b eg inn ing o f t he s econd c en tury BC ) . Dur ing t he l a s t t wo s easons w e h ave c oncen tra ted o n c l ear ing a n u nderground w a ter -supp ly s ys tem . I ti se n tered t hrough a s haf t , 4 i n d eep , e nd ing w i th 9 s t eps l e ad ing t o a1 6 i n l ong t unne l . Th is t unne l , 2i n h igh a nd c overed b y wa terproof p las ter , l e ads t o ah uge u nderground c i s tern a t t he b o t tom o f wh ich w as p robab ly a s pr ing . Th is u nderground w a ter -supp ly s ys tem i s a n e x treme ly r are a nd i n teres t ing s t ruc ture . -

I n t roduc t ion K ibbu tz S ha 'ar h a -Amak im i sl o ca ted a tt he f oo t o fK i rya t T ivon o n g reen h i l l s c ove red b y f o re s t s o f a nc ien t o ak s , s epara ted b y o n ly a n ar row p as s f r om t he s t eep s l ope s o f M t . C arme l . I ndeed , i ti s as i te o f g rea t s t ra teg ic v a lue w i th c omp le te c ommand o f t he r ou te b e tween t he Z ehu lun a nd J ez ree l v a l ley s ( F ig . 2 9 . 1) . I n 1 966 as e c t ion o f af i ne m asonry w a l l w as a cc iden ta l ly u ncove red a tt he n o r th -we s t e dge o f t h e k i bbu tz . S y s tema t ic e xcava t ion o n t he s i te , h oweve r , w as b egun o n ly i nt he s p r ing o f 1 984 ( 1 ) . We w i sh h e re t op re sen t a n i n te r im r epo r t o f w ha t h as b een f ound d ur ing t he f i r s tf ou rs e ason so fe xcava t ion .

T he c en t ra l s t ruc ture A r ough ly s qua re s t ruc tu re o ff i ne m a sonry h as b een c omp le te ly e xcava ted , m easur ing 1 2 .30 m f r om n o r th t os ou th a nd 1 2 .20 m f r om e as t t ow e s t ( F ig s .2 9 .2 -4 a nd P l . 2 9 . 1) . T he s t ruc ture h as b een p re served t o ah e igh t o f2 3 c ou r se s ( abou t 1 . 6 m ) . T he r ema in s a r e a re t ho se o f al a rge , t owe r l ike s t ruc tu re w hose f ounda t i ons a l one h ave s u rv i ved ( F ig .2 9 .4 ) . T he e xcava t ion h a s p roduced n o e v idence o f d e l ibe ra te d e s t ruc t ion a s ar e su l t o f w ar o r e ar thquake . T he f our e ncompa s s ing w a l ls a re b u i l t o n b ed rock , w i th t he l owe r c our se s s e t i n h ewn -ou t f ounda t ion t r enche s .

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T he s e condary w al st h a t s ubd iv ide t h e s t ruc tu re ' s i n te r io r , measu r ing 9 . 30 x 1 0 .20 m , a re a l so o fc u t s t one b u t b u i l t o n l e ve l led b ed rock o r o n ab a se o f f i ne g r ave l , n o t i nf ounda t ion t r enche sl i ke t h ee ncompas s ing w a l l s . T he f our e ncompas s ing w al s h ave n o t b een u n i fo rm ly p reserved . B e s t p re served i st h e e a s t w a l l ( W 1 0 2 ) , b u i l t o fl a rge m a sonry b l ock s o fd i f f e r ing s i ze s a nd s u rv iv ing t o ah e igh t o f t h ree c ou r se s a l ong i t s e n t i re l e ng th ( F igs . 2 9 .2 a nd 2 9 .4 ) . A t f i r s t g l ance t h e w a l l s eems s t rong ly b u i l t a nd h a s a n i mp re ss ive a ppearance b ecause o ft h e w ay t h e s t one s a r e d re s sed w i th s moo th m arg in s a nd a c en t ra lb o s s . Howeve r , u pon c l o se r s c ru t iny , o ne i ss t ruck b yt h el a ck o fu n i fo rm i ty , e ach c our se l a id d i f fe ren t ly a nd w i th d i f fe ren t ly s i zed b l ock s . T he u ppe r c ou rse i s b u i l t w i th t h e h eade r s o n t h e o u t s ide ( i . e . , f a c ing e a s t ) a nd t h e s t re tche r s o n t he i n s ide ( f ac ing w e s t ) , w i th mo s t o f t h e s t one s d re s sed w i th s moo th marg in s a nd a c en t ra lb o s s . T he e as t w a l l , l i ke t h e o t he r s , i sb u i l t i ns u ch aw ay t h a t t h e b o t tom c our se , s i t t ing i nt h e f o unda t ion t r ench ( a ve rage w id th 1 . 80 m e t re s ) i ss l i gh t ly w ide r t h an t h e m idd le c our se , w i th t h e t o p o ne n a r rowe r t h an t h e m idd le o ne . T h i s g r aded s y s tem o fb u i ld ing i st oe nsure t h es t ruc ture g rea te r s t ab i l i ty . G rave l m ixed w i th

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F ig .2 9 .2 T he c en t ra l s t ruc tu re , a se xpo sed a f te rf our s ea sons o fe xcava t ions ; n o te t he t owe r , t he w a l l t h a ts u r rounded t he t owe ro nt he s ou th s i de a nd t he r ound o pen ing i nt he r oo fo ft he c i s te rn

4 23

F ig . 2 9 .3 T he He l len i s t ic t owe r , s c hema t ic p l an

mor tar w as u sed t of i l lt he s pace b e tween t he l a rge b l ock sm ak ing u p t he w a l l . T he w e s t w a l l (W 1 04 ) i sn o t a sw e l l p re se rved a s t he e as t . On ly t wo o f i t s c ou r se s h ave s urv ived a nd , u n l ike t he e a s t w a l l , t hey a re b o th c ons truc ted i n t he s ame w ay , i . e . , w i th t he h eade r s o u t s ide a nd t he s t re t che r s i n s ide . A l l t he s t one s o f t he b o t tom c ou r se , s e t i n t he f ounda t ion t r ench , a r e s moo th , w i thou t d re s sed m arg in s , w he reas t he u ppe r c ou r se i sn o t u n ifo rm , s ome o f t he b lock s h av ing s moo th marg ins a nd t he b o s si nt he c en t re ( P l .2 9 . 1) . Two c ou r se s o f t he n o r th w a l l a re a l so p re ser ved (W e a s te rn e nd w he re a s ma l l 2m s e c t ion o f t h ree c ou r se s h as c our se s t he c ons t ruc t ion p a t te rn i sm i xed . Un l ike t h e e as t a nd t he b l ock s d o n o t h ave s moo th m a rg in s , a nd t he b o s s , w he re c omp le te ly s moo thed d own .

1 0 1) , e xcep t a t t he s u rv ived . I n b o th w e s t w a l l s , m o s t o f i te x is t s , i sa lmos t

T he s ou th w a l l (W 1 03 ) i sl e s sw e l l p re se rved t h an t he o the r s , w i th a4 . 80 m s ec t ion c omp le te ly m i s s ing i nt he c en tre w he re i t s b l ock s h ave a l b een r obbed o u t s o a s t ol e ave t he f ounda t ion t r ench c l ea r ly v i s ib le . T ho se s ec t ions o ft he w a l l t ha t h ave r ema ined , e spec ia l ly a t t he w e s te rn e nd , a re n o t u n i fo rm a nd h ave b een c are le s s ly b u i l t . T he i n te r io r o ft he t owe r , w i th in t he f our e ncompa s s ing w a l ls , i ss ubd iv ided b yo the r f our w a l l s i n to s ma l le r , a lmo s t r e c tangu lar s p ace s . An a na ly s is o ft h e p l an i n d ica te s t h a t t he se w a l l s a re o n ly t he s t y loba te ( t he b a semen t ) w h ich c a r r ied t he

4 24

P l . 2 9 .1 T he He l len i s t ic t owe r , g ene ra lv i ew , l ook ing e as t

P l . 2 9 .2 T he He l len i s t ic t owe r , t he w e s tw a l l , l o ok ing s ou th

4 25

F ig .2 9 .4 T he Helen i s t ic t owe r , i s ome t r ic v i ew

u ppe rw al s . We h ave a l ready p o in ted o u t t h a t t he e ncompas s ing w al s t h a t c a r r ied mo s t o ft he w e igh t o ft he u ppe rs t o r ie sw e re s e t i nt r enche s c u t o u t o ft h eb edrock ; t he i n te r io rw al s , mean t t oc ar ry al e s se rw e igh t ,w e re n o tb u i l ts os o l id ly . T he t owe r i t se l f w as s u r rounded o n a l f ou r s i de s b y al ow w a l l ( on ly 1 . 5 me t re sh i gh ) t ok eep a t ad i s tance t ho se i n ten to n u nde rm in ing t he t owe r . T he w al w as b ui l t p arale l t ot he f ou r t owe rw a l l s a t ad i s tance o f4 . 60 me tre s . T he s e c t ion t o t he s ou th o f t he t owe r h as b een e xcava ted a lmo s t c omp le te ly , t he o t he r s i de s o n ly p ar t ia l ly . T h i s t y pe o fs y s tem i sw e l l -known f r om m any o the r f o r t i f ica t ions o f t he He l len i s t ic p e r iod a nd h as b een f ound a t an umbe r o fs i te s i nP a les t ine ( 2 ) . T he f o r t i f ica t ion s y s tem i se s sen t ia l ly t h a t o f t he a nc ien t r ampar t , o r d i f fe ren t ly , t he moa t o ft he R oman a nd l a te rf o r t i f ica t ion s . T he c en t ra l c oncep t o fs uch af o r t i f ica t i on s y s tem i st op reven t t he e nemy ' sa pp roach t ot he w a l l s o ft he f o r tre s s i t se lf a nd t oc rea te ak i l l ing f i e ld f a vourab le t o t he d e fende r s ( Ga r lan 1 974 : 2 44 -269 ) . T he w a l lt h a t h as b een u ncove red w as b u i l t i n c ha rac te r i s t ica l ly He l len is t ic f a sh ion w i th t he c ou r se s a l te rna t ing b e tween h eade r s a nd s t re t che r s a nd a r ranged w i th r e m arkab le p rec is ion . A l ! o f t he b l ock s h ave e x ce l len t ly d raf ted m arg in s ( F ig . 2 9 .5 a nd P l .2 93 ) .

4 26

L 1 L I L:

( IJ Lj L

S HAAR H AAM*K IM

1 9 8 1

s c a l e 1 : 50

F ig . 2 9 .5 T he l ow w a l ls u r round ing t h et owe ro n t h es ou th s i de ; n o te t h e a l te rna t ing c ou r se so fh eade r sa nd s t re tche r s

P l . 2 9 .3 D e ta i l o f af r agmen t o ft h el ow w a l ls u r round ing t h et owe r o n t h es ou th s i de ; n o te t h ec ou r se s o fh eadre sa nd s t re tche r s a r ranged w i th r emarkab le p rec is ion

4 27

T he n a ture o ft h ec ons t ruc t ion T he t owe r s t ruc ture t ha t w a s u ncove red i st h e p roduc t o f ac on s t ruc t ion t e chn ique w h ich h as f ew p ara l le l s i na nc ien t P a le s t ine . T he s y s tem i sc ha rac te r ised b y u n i fo rm c our se s o f h eade r s ( w i th o r w i thou t d r af ted marg ins a nd t h e c en t ra l b o s s ) . I ts hou ld b e n o ted f u r the r t h a t t h i s s y s tem i sn o t u n i fo rm t h roughou t t he s t ruc tu re . T hus , f o r e xamp le , t he e as t w a l l (W 1 02 ) i si nf a c tb u i l tw i th t h e h eade r s ' s y s tem ,b u t t he n o r th w a l l (W 1 01 ) i sb ui l tw i th am i xed s y s tem , i . e . w i th a l te rna t ing h eade r s a nd s t re tche r s . T h i s l a ck o f u n i fo rm i ty i sc harac te r i s t ic o f t h e e n t i re s t ruc tu re . E ven t he f o rm o ft he b o s se s i sn o t u n i fo rm . I n o ne c our se t he re i s ab lock w i th av e ry c rude ly w o rked ma jo r b o s s s i de b y s i de w i th am in ima l b o s sv e ry c are f u l ly e xecu ted . T he b u i lde r s o f t he t owe r , a pparen t ly , p a id l i t t le h eed t o s uch d e tai l s . T he i r p r imary c once rn w as t he s t reng th o f t he e n t i re s t ruc tu re , n o t t he m ino rd e ta i l ss uch a st he d re s s ing o ft he b l ock s . T he r e a son , o fc ourse , m ay b et ha t t he se f i r s t t h ree c ou r se s w e re a t t he b ase o f t he b u i ld ing a nd n o t m ean t t o b e v i s ib le . I ti sr easonab le t oa s sume t h a t t he w a l ls o ft h eu ppe rs t o r ie sw e re b u i l tw i th g rea te r u n i fo rm i ty a nd a t ten t ion t od e ta i l . F ur the rmo re , i n af ew s ec t ion s , ma in ly i nt he n o r th w a l l (W 1 01 ) , an umbe ro fb l ock sw e re f o und t ha tw e re c l ea r ly r e -u sed . We h ave i n d ica ted a bove t ha t t he me thod o fc ons t ruc t ion c harac te r i sed b y c our se s o fh eade r s i sv e ry r a re i nP a le s t ine . I th as b een f ound s o f a r a to n ly af ew s i te s s uch a s Do r ( S te rn 1 982 : 1 7 -26 ) , Akko ( Do than 1 976 : 1 48 ) , S amar ia ( C row foo t 1 942 : 2 4 -27 ) a nd S t ra ton ' s T owe r ( Raban 1 987 : 7 1 -88 ) . T he re , t he se s egmen t s a ppear i n ac l ear ly H e l len i s t ic c h rono log ica l c on tex t ( f our th se cond c en t u r ie s BC ) a nd i ti sn o t s u rp r i s ing t ha t ah e l len i s ing S y r io -Phoen ic ian p opu la t ion , o pen t o He l len i s t ic i nf luence , l i ved t he re d ur ing t h a tp e r iod . -

D eco ra ted a r ch i tec tura l i t ems Du r ing t he t owe r ' s e xcava t ion a n umbe r o f d eco ra ted a r ch i tec tura l f r agmen t s w e re f ound , n one o fw h ich w e re i ns i tu . T hey w e re m ade o ft he s ame l ime s tone a st he b ui ld ing i t se lf . O u t s tand ing a mong t h e se i s ac ap i ta lw h ich , d e sp i te i t s p oor s t a te o f p re se rva t ion , i sc l ear ly C o r in th ian , c on f iden t ly d a tab le t o t he He l len i s t ic p e r iod . Aga in , w e mu s t e mphas i se t h a t C o r in th ian c ap i ta l s a re v e ry r a re b e fo re t he He rod ian p e r iod a nd a to n ly af ew s i te sl i ke A raq e l -Am i r( Den tze r 1 983 : 4 7 -48 ) a nd T e lA naf a (We inbe rg 1 974 : 1 4 -28 ) h ave C o r in th ian c ap i ta l so ft he s e cond f i r s t c en tur ie s BC b een f ound . T hus , t h i s c ap i ta l f r agmen t i so f s pec ia l i n te re s t s i nce mo s t o f t he p o t tery d i scove red w i th i tb e long s t o t he s e cond f ir s t c en tury BC . Ano the r a r ch i tec tura l i t em o f s pec ia l i n te re s t i s af r agmen t o f w ha t s eems t o b e Do r ic c ap i ta l . I ti st he c ap i ta l o f a n e ngaged c o lumn . I t s s t a te o f p re ser va t ion i sp oo r , b u t t he e ch inu s a nd a bacus c an b e c l ea r ly made o u t . T he u ppe rs ec t ion , n ear t he e ch inus , i n d ica te s t h a t t he e ngaged c o lumn w as u ng rooved . T h i si sa l so v e ry s u rp r i s ing s i nce i t sd a te ( s econd f i r s tc en tury BC ) i nd ica te st ha tw e h ave h e re a p seudo -Do r ic c ap i ta l o fw h ich v e ry f ew h ave b een f ound i nP a le s t ine ( 3 ) .

T he u nde rg round w a te r supp ly s y s tem T he u nde rg round w a te r supp ly s y s tem ( F ig s . 2 9 .3 a nd 2 9 .6 ) w as e x cava ted mo s t ly d u r ing t he t h i rd a nd f our th s ea son s . I th as t h ree d i s t inc ts e c t ion s :

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( a ) t he v e r t ica l e n trance s haf t ( b ) t he h ewed t u nne l ( c ) t he c i s te rn a tt he b o t tom o fw h ich w as as p r ing .

F ig . 2 9 .6 T he u nde rg round w a te r supp ly s y s tem , s ec t ion d raw ing

( a )

T he v e r t ica le n t rance s haf t

T he e n t rance t o t he u nde rg round w a te r supp ly s y s tem i sl o ca ted i n t he e a s te rn s e c t ion o fw a l l (W 1 05 ) . T he u ppe r p ar t o f t he e n t rance s haf t i sb u i l t o f l a rge d re s sed s t one s ,w he reas t he l owe rp o r t ion , e xcep tf o ri t se as t s i de , i sc u t o u t o f t h e b edrock . T he s haf t i sr e c tangu lar i n p l an , measu r ing 0 . 70 b y 0 . 80 m , a nd i s a lmo s t 4me t re sd eep . D e scen t t ot he b o t tom o ft he s haf t i so n ly p os s ib le b yl a dde r . A t t he b o t tom o ft he s haf t t he re a re n i ne t h ick ly p l as te red s t a ir s l e ad ing t o ar ock c u t t unne l . A s j u s t i n d ica ted , t he f u l l h e igh t o f t he e as t s i de o f t he s haf t i s c on s t ruc ted ,w he reas t h e o the r t h ree s i de s a re c u t o u to ft he b edrock . T h i sf a c t h a s f a r reach ing i mp l ica t ions f o r u nde r s tand ing t he n a tu re o f t h i s u nde rg round w a te r s upp ly s y s tem ( d i scus sed b e low ) . ( h )

T he h ewn t unne l

T he t unne l , w ho se e n t ire l e ng th i sc u t o u t o ft he b ed rock , s l ope s g radua l ly d ownward sf r om t h e b o t tom o ft he s haf t a nd t u rns s l igh t ly i n as ou thwe s t d i rec t ion . I ti sa bou t 1 5ml o ng a nd i t s h e igh t , w h ich i sn o t u n i fo rm , a ve rage s a bou t 2me t re s . I t s w a l ls , p ara l le l a t t h e b o t tom , n ar row t oward s t he t op . T he e n t i re t unne l i s p l as tered . I n af ew p l ace s t h ree l a ye r s o f p l a s te r o f e xcelen t q ua l i ty h ave b een d i sce rned , o ne o n t op o fa no the r . Dur ing t he e xcava t ion o ft he s haf t a nd t he t unne l o n ly af ew s he rds w e re f ound , mo s t o ft hem c l ear ly o ft he s e cond a nd f i r s t c en tur ie s BC . A t t he s ou th -we s te nd o ft he t unne l a2 . 5 ml o ng n o r the r ly e x tens ion w as f ound l e ad ing t o t he c i s te rn . T he f l oo r o f t he e x tens ion c ons i s ts o fs t ep s c arved i n to t he b ed rock . T h i s s egmen t h as b een p ar t ia l ly e xcava ted a nd o n ly w hen t he c i s te rn h as b een c l eared w i l l t h e c onnec t ion b e tween t he e x tens ion a nd t he c i s te rn i t se l f b ecome c l ear .

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( c )

T he c i s te rn a tt h eb o t tom o fw h ich t h e re w a so nce , a pparen t ly , as p r ing

T he c l ear ing o ft h e c i s te rn w as b egun a f te r t h e s haf t a nd t unne l h ad b een e x cava ted . T h i s w as n o t d one v i a t h e e x ten s ion b u t f r om t h e o u t s ide a nd i t w as p os s ib le b ecause t h e re w as ar ound o pen ing o ne m e t re i nd i ame te r i nt h e c i s te rn ' s r oo f . T h i so pen ing c ame a bou tw hen t h eu nde rg round w a te r supp ly s y s tem s t opped f unc t ion ing a so r ig ina l ly i n tended a nd t he c i s te rn b e came a n o rd inary w a te rc i s te rn ( s ee t h e c hrono log ica l d i scus s ion b e low ) . A t t h e p re sen t s t age o fe xcava t ion , m any s t one s w h ich h ad c o l lap sed i n to t h e c i s te rn h ave b een r emoved a l ong w i th o the r a c cumu la ted d eb r i s . T he u ppe r s e c t ion o ft h e c i s te rn h a s t hus b een u ncove red . I t s eem s t ob e al a rge c i s te rn , a bou t 6m i nd i ame te r , a nd o fb el shape d e s ign . T he w al s o ft h e c i s te rn w e re c ove red i nl a ye r s o fp l as te r l i ke t hose o ft he t u nne l . T he d ep th o ft h e c i s te rn i ss t i l l u nknown , b u t f r om t h e s h ape o fi t sw a l l s a nd t h ed e s ign o ft h eu ppe rs e c t ion a l ready u ncove red i tm us t b eq u i te d eep . P re sumab ly t h e s haf t a nd t h e t unne l w e re m ean t t o p rov ide a c ce s s f r om t h e t owe r t o t he u nde rg round w a te r s ou rce . H ence , w ha t w e h ave i sn o t ac i s te rn f o r w a te r s t orage b u t ac i s te rn a tt he b o t tom o fw h ich t h e re w as o nce as ource o ff r e sh w a te r as pr ing o rw a te r b ear ing l a ye ro fb edrock . -

L og ic d i c ta te s t h a t t h e s haf t a nd t unne l w e re b u i l t t o e nsu re t h a t t he r e s iden t s o ft h e t owe r h ad d i rec t a c ce s s t ot h e s p r ing . T he re fo re , i tw a s o n ly a f te r t h es haf t a nd t unne l f e l l i n to d i suse t h a t t h ec i rcu lar o pen ing i nt h ec i s te rn r oof w as m ade i no rde r t op rov ide a c ce s s f r om o u t s ide . T h i s c onc lu s ion i ss uppo r ted b y t he f a c t t h a t n ear t h e c i s te rn ' s c i rcu lar e x te r io r o pen ing t wo w a te r c hanne l s w e re u ncove red , b u i l t o fw e l l -p las te red s t one s l ab s , r unn ing t oward t h e c i s te rn f r om t h e n o r th -eas t a nd s ou th -eas t a nd i n to w h ich t h ey c l ear ly d r a ined . I fw e c omb ine a l t h e se f a c t s , w e c an r e con s t ruc t t h ree s t age s i n t h e e x i s tence o ft h eu nde rg round w a te r supp ly s y s tem . T he f i r s t s t age , b e fo re t h e e rec t ion o f t h e t owe r , i st i ed t o t h e f a c t m en t ioned a bove t h a t t h e e a s t w a l l o ft h e s haf t , u n l ike t h e o t he r t h ree , w a s b ui l t a nd n o t c u t o u t o f t h e b edrock . H ence , t h e t unne l h ad a n e x tens ion e a s tward , b eyond t h e t owe r ' s e a s tw a l l ( W 1 02 ) , i n to w ha t a ppear s t oh ave b een t h e c en t re o f t h e s e t t lemen t . T ha t i st os a y , i nt h e f i r s t s t age , t h e t u nne l r an f r om t h e c en t re o f t h e s e t t lemen t t ot h ec i s te rn a tt h eb o t tom o fw h ich as p r ing f l owed . -

T he s e cond s t age s t ar t sw hen t h e t owe rw as b ui l t a nd t h et unne lw as c u t o f f . I n o rde r t o a s sure a c ce s s t o t h e t u nne l f r om t h e t owe r , av e r t ica l s ha f t w a s d ug . W i th t h e s haf t a nd t u nne l w i th in t h e t owe r , i t s i n hab i tan t s e n sured t h em se lve s o f u nh inde red a c ce s s t o as ource o f f r e sh w a te r w i thou t h av ing t o r e ly u pon a n e x te rna ls upp ly . T he t h ird s t age o ccured w hen t h e t owe r , a l ong w i th t h e s haf t a nd t u nne l , f e l i n to d i suse . A t t h i s s t age i tw ou ld s eem t h a tt h ec i s te rn , i nw h ich t he s p r ing h ad i nt h e m ean t ime a pparen t ly r un d ry , b ecame ar e se rvo i r f o r r a inwa te r . T he reaf te r , t h e c i rcu lar o pen ing w as c u t t h rough t h e r oo f o f t h e c i s te rn a nd t h e t wo a f o remen t ion -ed c hanne ls d r a ined r a inwa te r f r om t h e a r ea a round t he t owe r i n to t h ec i s te rn .

T he n um isma t ic f i nd s

( 4 ) .

T he f i r s t f o ur s e asons o fe x cava t ion h ave p roduced o n ly 6 0 c o in s i nt h e a rea O f t h e se 4 0 a r e H e l len i s t ic a nd t h e r e s t R oman . T he l a t ter w e re f ound

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p r ima ri ly o n t he s u r f ace ,w he re a st he Helen i s t ic c o ins w e re f ound w h i le e xcava t ing t h e c en t ra l s t ruc tu re . T he p auc i ty o ft he n um i sma t ic f i nd s i se xp la ined b y t he f a c t t h a tt hus f a ro ur e xcava t ion h as c oncen t ra ted o n t he He l len i s t ic t owe rs t ruc ture , n o t o nt h er e s iden t ia l a rea w he re o ne w ou ld e xpec tt of i nd ag rea te rq uan t i ty o fc o ins . I ts hou ld h e n o ted t h a t d ur ing t he l a s t f ew y ear s a bou t 1 00 c o ins h ave b een f o und r andom ly i nv i c in i ty o ft he H e l len i s t ic t owe r h il , w h ich a dds t ot he s amp le o f t y pe s a nd p e r iods o f c o ins f ound d ur ing t he e xcava t ion i t se l f . Mo s t o f t he c o in s c l ea r ly b e long t o t he H e l len is t ic p e r iod , i . e . t he S e leuc id p e r iod f r om t he t ime o f A n t iochus I I t ot h a t o fA n t iochu sV I I I . T he s ma l l n umbe r o f c o ins o f t he f i r s t c en tury BC i ss t r ik ing . Aga in , o ne s hou ld r emembe r t h a t a lmo s t a l o f t he R oman c o ins a re l a te r , o f t he s econd a nd t h i rd c en tur ie s , a nd w e re f ound o n t he s u r f ace . Wi th r egard t o t he s ource o f t he c o ins , i . e . t he c i t ie s i n w h ich t hey w e re m in ted , t he o u t s tand ing f a c t i st h a t t hey o r ig ina te i n t he n o r the rn c i t ie s Akko , S i don a nd An t ioch . -

A t t h i s s t age o fo u r e xcava t ions , d e sp i te t he r e la t ive p auc i ty o fn um i sma t ic f i nd s , o ne c an s ay t h a t t h is v e r i f ie s t he c hrono log ica l f r amework e xp re s sed b y t he p o t tery f i nd s ( s ee b e low ) .

T he p o t tery T he p o t te ry f i nd s g ene ra l ly f a l l i n to t wo ma in c a tego r ie s l o ca l a nd i mpo r ted . T he e ar l ie s t m a te r ia l i so f t he f i r s t c a tegory , f r om t he P e r s ian p e r iod ( f i f th -four th c en tu r ie s BC ) , b u t mo s t o f t he m a te r ia l c ons is ts o f p o t ter y c ha rac te r i s t ic o ft he t h i rd second c en tu r ie s BC . R e la t ive ly , f ew o ft he p o t tery f i nds a r e d a tab le t o t he b eg inn ing o f t he f i r s t c en tury BC . On t he o the r h and , a n o t iceab le q uan t i ty o f l o ca l p o t te ry h as b een f ound w h ich c an b e a t tr ibu ted t o t he f i r s tc en tury AD . A s f o r t he i mpo r ted p o t te ry , A t t ic s he rd s ( no t many , t ob e s ure ) h ave b een f ound a nd c l ear ly b e long t o t he f ou r th c en tury BC ; R hod ian amphora h and le s a re a l so r ep re sen ted a nd , a g a in , ar e la t ive a bundance o f He l len i s t ic p o t te ry c harac te r i s t ic o ft he t h i rd second c en tur ie s BC . Hence , t he p e r iod o f ma jo r a c t iv i ty a tt h e s i te i si n deed t h e H e l len i s t ic p e r iod , i ns p i te o ft he f a c t t ha t t he n o t iceab le q uan t i t ie so fP e r s ian a nd A t t ic p o t te ry s ugge s t t h a t t he s i te w as a l so i nhab i ted a ta n e a r l ie rp e r iod . -

" The p l ough t r easure " I n A ugus t 1 985 d u r ing a n e xam ina t ion o f t he a rea a round t he He l len i s t ic s t ruc ture d e sc r ibed a bove , a n u nu sua la nd u n ique f i nd w as u nexpec ted ly u ncove red . A t t he c en t re o f t he a r ea , l i gh t ly c ove red b y g rave l , as mal p i t w as d i scove red c on ta in ing t he i r on p a r t s o ff our a nc ien t p lough s t h a t h ad b een c olec ted t oge the r a nd c l ear ly d epos i ted t h e re t ot a ke u p t he l e as t s pace . T h i sw a s o bv iou s ly t he s po t w he re t hey h ad b een s t o red o r ig ina l ly a nd , a pparen t ly , h idden f o r t empo rary s a f e k eep ing . A l though t h e se i t ems h ad l a in t he re f o r m any c en tur ie s , t hey w e re i na n e x ce l len t s t a te o f p re se rva t ion , w i th o n ly a s upe r f ic ia l l a ye r o f r u s t . T he p i t c on ta ined f our w edge s ( p lough -share s ) a nd f ou r a t tachmen t r i ng s ( t o h o ld t he w edge t i gh t ly a ga in s tt h ew ooden p a r t so ft he p l ough ) .

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T he p l ough ' s w edge h as t wo d i s t inc t p ar t s : ( a ) t h e f l a t s hare w i th t h e s harpened e dge , l i ke as pearhead , w h ich i st h e a c t ive p ar t t h a t f u r row s t h e e ar th ; a nd ( b ) t he c o l lar shaped s h af t -socke t , l i ke a p i pe o pen a l ong i t s e n t i re l e ng th , w h ich f i t s o n to t h e l owe r e nd o ft h e p l ough ( c a l led t h e" t ai l -p iece " ) a nd i sa t tached t oi tb yt he r i ng . A l l f our w edge s f o und i no u r c ache a re i d en t ica l i ns hape b u t o fd i f fe r ing s i ze s . T he f our w edge sw e igh a n a ve rage o fa bou t 4k ge ach ,w i th a n a ve r age l e ng th o fa bou t4 8c m . I ts hou ld b e men t ioned t h a t e x cava t ions i nP a le s t ine h ave t hus f a rp roduced v ery f ew e xamp le s o f p l oughs t h a t c an b e d a ted w i th c e r ta in ty t o t he H e l len i s t ic p e r iod . On ly a tt wo o the r s i te s , S h iqmona a nd G ama la , h ave a nc ien t p l ough s b een d i scove red ; t h ey a re a lmo s t i d en t ica l i nf o rm a nd d imen s ions t ot ho se d i scovered a to ur s i te . T he p l oughs c anno th ed a ted w i th p rec i s ion b u tc ompara t ive t y po log ica l a na ly s i s , a l ong w i th t he p o t te ry d i scove red w i th t h e p l oughs , e nab le s u s t o a s se r t w i th af a i rd eg ree o fc on f idence t h a t t h ey b e long t ot h el a t te rp ar t o ft he H e l len is t ic p e r iod t he e nd o ft he s e cond o rt h eb eg inn ing o ft h ef i r s tc en tury BC . -

C h rono log ica l t r ea tmen t T he c hrono log ica l c onc lus ion s p re sen ted i nt h i s r epo r t a re b a sed u pon a t y po log ica l a na ly s i s o f t h e a r ch i tec tu re o f t h e t owe r s t ruc ture , t he s t udy o f t h e a r ch i tec tura l e l emen ts i tc on ta in s , a nd t h e s t udy o f t h e p o t tery a nd c o in f i nds . F rom t h e t y po log ica l a na ly s i s o f t h e c on s t ruc t ion t e chn ique , t h e d re s s ing o f t he s t one , t he w ay t h ec our se sw e re s e t , a nd t h en a ture o ft h es t ruc ture , w eb e l ieve t h a t t he t owe rw as e rec ted a tt h e e nd o ft h et h i rd c en tury o rt h eb eg inn ing o ft h es e cond c en tury BC . T he h eade rs y s tem o fb u i ld ing i sv e ry r a re ly f ound i nP a le s t ine a nd h as s o f a r b een l o ca ted o n ly a ts i te s t h a t c l ea r ly b e long t ot h e H elen is t ic p e r iod ( s ee a bove ) . T he a r ch i tec tura l e l emen ts u ncove red b y t h e e x cava t ions v e r i f y t h i s s ugge s ted d a t ing . T he n um i sma t ic a nd p o t tery f i nd s c i ted a bove a l so c on f i rm t h a t t h ec en t ra l a c t iv i ty a tt h i ss i te w as i nt h eH e l len i s t ic p e r iod . E ven a t t h i s e ar ly s t age i n t h e e x cava t ion s w e f e e l t h a t t h e f o l low ing h i s to r ica la nd a r chaeo log ica l d eve lop -men t sc an b ep o s tu la ted : ( a )

T he P e r s ian p e r iod

A l though n o c ons truc t ion r ema in s h ave s o f a r b een u near thed t h a t c an b e c l ea r ly a t t r ibu ted t o t h e P e r s ian p e r iod , t h e c on s ide rab le q uan t i ty o f P e r s ian p o t te ry a tt h e s i te i n d ica te s t h a t t h e b eg inn ing o f t h e s e t t lemen t i sa t t r ibu tab le t o t h i sp e r iod ,i . e . t ot he l a t te rp ar to ft h ef i f th a nd t h ef o u r th c en tury BC . ( b )

T he e nd o ft h e P to lema ic a nd b eg inn ing o ft h eS e leuc id p e r iod

A t t h eb eg inn ing o ft h es e cond c en tury BC at owe r , p e rhaps u nf in i shed , w as e rec ted o n t h e s i te . T h i s c u t o f f t h e t u nne l t h a t l e d t o t h e u nde rg round w a te r s upp ly s y s tem , a nd a n e n t rance t oi tw as o pened f r om t h e t owe r . T he t owe r w as b ui l t a t as t ra teg ic p o in t w i th a n e x celen t v i ew o ve r t h e s u r round ing a r ea . We e mphas i se t h a t t h e c ons truc t ion o f t h e t owe r s hou ld p e rhap s b e r e la ted t o t he s t rugg le b e tween t h eP to lem ie sa nd t h eS e leuc id sf o rc on t ro lo fP a le s t ine d ur ing t he S y r ian w ar s .

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( c )

T he l a te S e leuc id p e r iod

I ts eem s t h a t t h e t owe r f e l l i n to d i su se t oward t he e nd o f t he 2 nd c en tury BC . A r amp w as b u i l t o n t op o f t he t owe r ' s t h ree l owe r c ou r se s . I tw as made b y t h row ing t he o r ig ina l b u i ld ing s t one s i n to t he s pace s b e tween t he e x te r io r a nd i n te r ior w a l l s . T he g ap s b e tween t he b l ock s w e re f i l led w i th g rave l a nd p re s sed e a r th . T he p o s s ibi l i ty , s ugge s ted e ar l ie r , t h a t t he c on s t ruc t ion o f t he t owe r w as n eve r c omp le ted , w a s b ased u pon t he u n i fo rm p re se rva t ion o f t he t owe r ' s t h ree l owe r c our se s a nd t he a b sence o f a ny s i gn s o f d e s t ruc t ion o r e a r thquake . T hu s , t h o se w ho b u i l t t he r amp t ook a dvan tage o f t he u nu sed b u i ld ing s t one s t h a t h ad b een l e f t a tt he s i te . A t t he s ame t ime , o ne c anno t d eny t h a t t he t owe r m ay i n deed h ave b een c omp le ted a nd t h a t , w hen t he r amp ' s b ui lde r s f ound i td e s troyed , t hey d i sman t led t he r ema in s o f t he u ppe r s t o r ie s a nd u sed t hem f o r t he r amp . I tc ou ld b e t h a t t h i s s e rved a s t he b ase u pon w h ich a w ooden s t ruc tu re ( t owe r? ) w as e r e c ted . Du r ing t h i s p e r iod t he u nde rg round w a te r supp ly s y s tem f e l l i n to t o ta l d i su se . T he e n t rance s haf t a nd t unne l b ecame f i l led w i th d eb r i s , w h i le t he c i s te rn w he re t he s p r ing h ad o nce b een b ecame ar egu lar w a te r s to rage c i s te rn . T he e nd o ft h i s s t age c an h e s e t a t t he e nd o f t he f i r s t c en tury BC o r t he b eg inn ing o f t he f i r s tc en tury AD . ( d )

T he R oman p e r iod

A t t he e nd o ft h e f our th s e ason t he r ema ins o f aw a l l w e re f ound s ou th o f t h et owe r , r unn ing p ara l le l t ot he t owe r ' s s ou th w a l l . T he p o t tery m a te r ia l a nd t he n a tu re o f t he w a l l ' s c on s truc t ion s ugge s t t h a t t h i s i s al a te r s t age , d a t ing f r om t he f i r s t second c en tu r ie s . T he re s eems t o b e n o c onnec t ion b e tween t he se r ema ins a nd t he t owe r . T he c on t inua t ion o ft he e xcava t ion h e re w i l lc l ar i f yw ha t t h is w a l l i s a nd p erm i t mo re a ccura te d a t ing . T he se c hrono log ica l c onc lu s ion sa re n o tf i na l . S ou th o ft he e xcava t ion a rea , o n t he l owe r l e ve l s o f t h e s ou th -we s t e x ten s ion , r ock -cu t t omb s w e re d i scove red o ve rt en y ear sa go c on ta in ing f i nds p ar t o fw h ich w e re o ft he Helen i s t ic p e r iod a nd p a r t l a te r , o f t he f i r s t second c en tur ie s . A t t h is s t age i nt he e xcava t ion s i ti st oo e a r ly t o d e te rm ine t h e e x ten t o ft h ec onnec t ion b e tween t he se b ur ia lc hambe r s a nd t h es i te i t se l f .

S ummary One o ft he mo s t l o ve ly l a ndscape s i nn o r the rn I s rae l g ree t s t he e ye a s o ne l o ok s s ou th f r om t h e e x cava t ion s i te . S t re tch ing t o t he w e s t i st he f l a t , g reen Z ebu lun V a l ley w i th t h e Med i te r ranean s ho re o n t he h o r i zon . E a s t i st he J ez ree l V a l ley , w i th o n ly an ar row p as s r unn ing b e tween t he mode ra te s l ope s o ft he T ivon H i l l s u pon w h ich w e a re s t and ing a nd t he i mp re s s ive e s carpmen t o f M t . C arme l , c ove red w i th d ense g reen v ege ta t ion . Our s i te h as c omp le te c ommand o ft h i s e s s e n t ia l p as s . F ur the rmo re , t he f a s t -f low ing K i shon R ive r t w i s t st h rough t h i s n ar row p a s sa nd c on s t i tu te s ac ons ide rab le n a tura lb ar r ie r . T he s i te i su ndoub ted ly ap r ime s t ra teg ic p o s i t ion a nd g ave w hoeve rh e ld i tc omp le te c on t ro lo ve ra nyone s eek ing t o u se t h is v i ta lp as s . Wha t w as t h e n ame o f o u r s i te? I st h is r ea l ly G aba? And i fs o , w h ich o f t h em? T he p rob lem o ft h e s i te ' si d en t if ica t ion h as o ccup ied many s c ho lar so ve rt he p a s ts i x ty y ear s .

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T he a va i lab le g eog raph ic a nd h i s to r ica l s ou r ce s men t ion t h ree s i te s c a l led G aba . T he e ar l ie s t o f t he se i s t he He l len i s t ic G aba , c ap tu red b y A lexande r J annaeu s o n h i s b o ld d r ive t oA kko ( Av i Y onah 1 976 : 5 7 ) . T h i s i sn o t n e ce s sar i ly t he G aba H ippeon o f He rod a nd t he R evo l t p e r iod t h a t i sd e sc r ibed b y J o sephus ( J oseph . V i t . 2 4 , 15 & 17 ; A J 1 5 .8 .5 , 2 94 ) . T he re i sy e t at h i rd G aba , t h e R oman a nd B yzan t ine s i te t h a t m in ted c o ins i n t he e ar ly c en tu r ie s AD a nd i sf r equen t ly men t ioned i nB yzan t ine s ou rce s ( Av i Y onah 1 966 : 1 40 -141) . Wh ich G aba , t hen , i s t he o ne u ncove red i no ur e xcava t ions a tS ha 'ar h a -Amak im? I ne ve ry r e spec t i ti sa f a sc ina t ing q ue s t ion . C ou ld i tb e t h a t e ach o ft he t h ree s im i lar ly n amed s e t t lemen t s w a s a t ad i f fe ren t p l ace? We re t he G aba o fJ annaeus , t ha t o f He rod , a nd , f i na l ly , t he R omano -Byzan t ine G aba a td i f fe ren t p l ace s? O r c ou ld i tb e t ha t t h e t wo f i r s t w e re a tt he s ame s i te ,w h i le t he l a s t h ad moved e l sewhe re? A l lo ft he se p o s s ib i l i t ie s s t i l ls eem o pen . S o f a r o ur e xcava t ion s h ave u ncove red a s t ruc ture c l ear ly He l len i s t ic i n d a te ; t he p o t te ry a nd c o ins v e r i f yb eyond a l d oub t t h a tt he t h i rd f i r s t c en tu r ie s BC a re i mp re s s ive ly r ep re sen ted . T hu s i ts t ands t o r e a son t h a t i t i s i n deed t he He l len i s t ic G aba t a ken b y J annaeus t ha t w e a re e xcava t ing . B u t w he re i s He rod ' s G aba H ippeon? P e rhap s i nt he s eason s t oc ome t he He rod ian s e t t lemen t w i l l b e d i scove red i n t he a rea e as t o f t he He l len i s t ic t owe r ; o r i tm ay b e t h a t H erod ' s G aba w as a to ne o ft he a sy e t u n loca ted n earby s i te s . N or h as t he l o ca t ion o f t he R oman -By zan t ine G aba y e t b een e s tab l i shed w i th c e r ta in ty . P e rhap s , a s h as a l ready b een s ugge s ted , i ts hou ld b e i d en t i f ied w i th T e l Abu -Shusha i nt h ev i c in i ty o fk i bbu tz M i shmar h a -Emek . F rom t he a bove , i ts eem s t h a t w e m ay b e e x cava t ing t he He l len i s t ic G aba , t he e ar l ie s t o ft he t h ree s i te s o ft h a t n ame . Ou r e xcava t ion i so n ly a ti t sb eg inn ing , b u t w e f e e l t ha t , i nl i gh t o f t he d eba te s a nd h i s to r iog raph ic d i scus s ion s t h a t h ave b een g o ing o n f o r d ecade s a bou t t he i d en t if ica t ion o fG aba , i tw ou ld h ew e l l f o r u s t o p ub l ish w ha t h as e me rged s o f a r : t he He l len i s t ic t owe r , t he f a sc ina t ing w a te r s upp ly s y s tem , a nd f i na l ly , t he p l aus ib le h ypo the s i s t h a t w e a re e xcava t ing G aba , e ven i fo n ly o ne o ft h em . A l l t h is j u s t i f ie s o ur h a s te i np ub l ish ing o ur p re l im inary c onc lus ion sf r om t he e xcava t ion s .

N o tes

1 .

2 . 3 . 4 .

T h i sr epo r t i sg r a te fu l ly d ed ica ted t oP ro f . B en jam in Mazar ,w ho h a s s hown as pec ia l i n te re s t i n o u r e xcava t ion a nd h a s , f r om i t s i n cep t ion , o f fe red much a dv ice a nd e ncouragemen t . T he e xcava t ions a t S ha 'ar h a -Amak im a re b e ing c onduc ted u nde r t he a u sp ice s o f t he C las s ica l D iv i s ion o f t he A r chaeo logy D epar tmen t o f t he Un ive r s i ty o fH a i f a , i nc o -ope ra t ion w i th k i bbu tz S ha 'a r h a -Amak im w h ich i sl o ca ted a tt he s i te i t se lf . Head ing t he t e am a re D r . A r thur S eg a l o f t he Un ive r s i ty o f H a i f a a nd Mr . Y ehuda N ao r , C ura to r o fS ha 'ar h a -Amak im ' s A rchaeo log ica l Museum . T he t e am ' s a r ch i tec t f o r t he f i r s t t h ree s e ason s w as Y . G reenbaum , a nd A . B a r -O r f o r t h e f our th . S tuden t s o f t he Un ive r s i ty ' sA rchaeo log ica l Depa r tmen t , t oge the rw i th I s rae l i a nd o ve r seas v o lun tee r sa sw e l l a s membe r so ft he k i bbu tz , a re p ar t ic ipa t ing i nt h ed i g . F o r e xamp le , t he H asmonean f r agmen t o fJ e ru sa lem ' s " f i r s t w a l l " , s ou th o f t he " J af f a G a te " . E xamp le s a t N aha l K idron ( Av igad 1 954 : 4 2 -46 ) a nd J ason ' s T omb ( Rahman i 1 964 : 3 4 ) , b o th i nJ e ru sa lem . T he c o ins w e re i d en t i f ied a nd c l as s if ied b y M r . Y i sha i N ao r , am embe r o f k i bbu tz S ha 'ar h a -Amak im , t o w hom w e a re mo s t g ra te fu l . O u r s i nce re

4 34

t hank s a re a l so e x tended t o D r . A r ie K ind le r , C u ra to r o f t he K adman P av i l ion o fC o in sa tt he H aa re tz Mu seum i nT e l -Av iv ,w ho w a sk i nd e nough t oc heck t he i d en t i f ica t ion o ft he c o in sa nd m ade i mpo r tan to b se rva t ion s .

B ib l iog raphy AV IGAD , N .

1 954

Anc ien t monumen t s i n t h e K id ron V a l l e y . J e rusa lem ( B ia l ik I n s t i tu te ) . ( I n Heb rew ) .

AV I -YONAH , M .

1 966

T he Ho l yL and f r om t h eP e r s ian p e r iod t ot h e A rab c onque s t a h i s to r i ca l g eog raphy . M ich ig an . -

1 976

G az e t t ee r o f R oman P a l e s t ine . ( Qedem 5 ).

J e ru sa lem

CRO WFOOT ,J .W .

1 942

T he b u i ld ing s a t S amar ia . ( Pa le s t ine E xp lo ra t ion S oc ie ty ) .

L ondon

DENTZER ,J .M .

1 983

T he monumen ta l g a teway a nd t he p r ince ly e s ta te o fA raq e i Am i r . AASOR 4 7 -48 : 1 33 1 48 .

DOTHAN , M .

1 976

Akko : i n te r im e xcava t ion r epo r t s eason , 1 973/4 . B ASOR 2 24 : 1 48 .

f i r s t

GARLAN , Y .

1 974

R eche r che s d e p o l io r ce t ique g r ecque . ( Eco le F ranca ise d 'A thène s ) .

P ar i s

RABAN ,A .

1 987

T he c i ty w a i l s o f S t ra ton ' s T owe r : s ome n ew a r chaeo log ica l d a ta . BASOR 2 69 : 7 1 8 .

RAH MAN I , L .Y .

1 974

T he t omb o fJ ason . ' A t iqo t4 :3 4 .

S TERN , E .

1 982

He l len i s t ic Do r . B u l l e t in o ft h e Ang lo -I s rae l A r chaeo log i ca lS oc i e t y 1 :1 7 -26 .

1 985

F ive s eason s o fe xcava t ions a tT e l Do r . I n E . L ip in sk i ( ed . ) T he l a nd o f I s rae l c r o s s road o fc i v i l i za t ion s : 1 69 -192 . L euven . -

WE INBERG , S . S .

1 974

E xcava t ion sa tT e l Anaf a , 1 973 . Mu se 8 :1 4 2 9 .

W ILL , E .

1 983

T he r ecen t F rench w o rk a t A raq e l -Am i r : t he Q as r e l -Abd r ed i scove red . AASOR 4 7 4 8 : 1 49 -158 .

W INTER , F .E .

1 971

G r eek f o r t if i ca t ion s . L ondon .

4 35

3 0 . A FORT IF IED S ITE TO THE EAST OF MALATYA

V ei lS ev in a nd Z af er D en n I s tanbu l

I zm ir

I t i s k nown t ha t l eg io X I I F u lm ina ta e s tab l ished i t s p ermanen t h eadquar ters a t Me l i tene i n t he f i r s t c en tury a nd r e ma ined t here u n t i l t he e nd o f t he f our th c en tury . The p os i t ion o ft he l eg ionary f or tress i st hough t t o b e a t E sk i Ma la tya , a l though n o s tudy o ft he s i te h as y e t p roved t h is c onc lus ive ly . E igh t k i lome tres t o t he e ast o f modern Ma la tya t here i s a no ther i mpor tan t s i te o n a h igh l imes tone o u tcrop k nown b y t he n ame o f Karam i ldan . Th is r ec tangu lar a rea , measur ing s ome 3 20 b y3 00 me tres , i ss urrounded b y ad efens ive w a l l . The f or t if ica t ions a re f aced w i th f i ne ly c u t r ec tangu lar masonry b locks a nd a long t he w a l ls t here a re p ro jec t ing i n terva l t owers , measur ing 4 .00 m b y 3 .60 m . I ns ide t he f or tress t here a re c i s terns c arved i n to t he b edrock a nd t races o f s tone f ounda t ions f or i n terna l b u i ld ings . Mos t o f t he s urface s herds a re l a te He l len is t ic r ed w ares , t he s o -ca l led T erra S ig i l la ta o r E as tern S ig i l la ta t ha t w as f ormer ly c a l led P ergamene Ware . Th is ma ter ia l i nd ica tes a n He l len is t ic a nd , p erhaps , e ar ly Roman s e t t lemen t . T h is n eg lec ted s i te c arr ies i mpor tan t i mp l ica t ions f or t he e s tab l ishment o ft he Roman l e g ionary f or tress a t Me l i tene .

Leg io X II F u l in ina ta e s tab l i shed i t s p e rmanen t h eadquar te r s a t Me l i tene i n t h e f i r s t c en tury ; i tr ema ined t he re u n t i l t he e nd o f t he f ou r th c en tury . T he l e g ionary f o r t re s s i st h ough t t ob e s i tua ted a tE sk i Ma la tya ( Ba t ta lgaz i ) , b u t s t ud ie s o ft h e s i te h ave s of a rf a i led t op rove t h is c onc lus ive ly ( M i t fo rd 1 980 : 186 ) . T o t he s ou th -eas t o f E sk i Ma la tya , s ome 7 8 km a s t he c row f l i e s , t he re i s a no the r i mpor tan t b u t n eg le c ted s i te . I tw a s p rev ious ly men t ioned o n ly b y M i tfo rd ( 1972 : 3 29 -331) , w ho c a l led t h e s i te K i rman Höyük . T he r u in s a re t ho se o f al a rge , f o r t i f ied s e t t lemen t , l o ca ted o n as t eep , l i me s tone o u tc rop r i s ing s ome 1 00 me t re s a bove t he s u r round ing f i e ld s . I th a st he p re sen t -day n ame o fK a ram i ldan a nd l i e s 8 k m e as t o f mode rn Ma la tya , j u s t t o t he n o r th o f t he Ma la tya -E laz ig h i ghway ( F ig . 3 0 . 1 ) .

Ac ce s st ot he s umm i t o ft he o u tc rop i sp rov ided b y ar amp o n t he w e s t s i de . T he f l a t t op , w h ich o ve r look s t he R oman r oad r unn ing f r om Me l i tene t owards S amosa ta , i sc ove red w i th a nc ien t r u in s ( F ig . 3 0 .2 a nd P l . 3 0 .1 ) . T he s i te c ove r s a r ough ly r ec tangu lar a r ea , measur ing 3 20 b y 3 00 m , a nd i ss u r rounded b y a2 -me t re t h ick c ur ta in w a l l . T he w a l l i sf a ced o n t he o u t s ide w i th f i ne ly -cu t r ec tangu lar l i me s tone b l ock s ( P l . 3 0 .2 ) b u t c on ta in s ar ubb le c o re m ixed w i th l ime mo r tar . A t i n te rva ls a l ong t he c ur ta in a re p ro je c t ing t owe r sa nd b u t t re s se s . T he s ou th a nd e a s t s e c t ions o f t he w a l l a r e c l ea r ly t r aceab le , b u t t o t he n o r th , w he re t he s i te s l ope s g en t ly a way t o t he e dge o f t he o u tc rop , i ti sa pparen t ly b ur ied u nde r al e ve l o f e r oded s o i l . T he m a in e n t rance , o r g a teway , t o t he s e t t lemen t h a s n o t y e t b een d e te rm ined , b u t t he re i sas ma l lp a s sageway c ar ved o u to ft he r ock o n t he e as ts i de . I n a dd i t ion t o t h e c i rcu i t w a l l , c i s te rn s c arved i n to t he b ed rock , b u i ld ing f o unda t ions a nd s t one w a l l s c an b e t r aced o n t he g round . A l though t he re i sl i t t le e v idence t oh e lp d a te t h es e t t lemen t , i ti sn eve r the le s sp o s s ib le t og a in s ome i d ea o f i t s h i s tory f r om t he a bundan t q uan t i t ie s o f s u r f ace p o t tery . A r ep re sen ta t ive c o l lec t ion o f s he rd s h a s b een s t ud ied a nd e va lua ted . T h i s s how s t h a t i n g ene ra l m o s t o f t he v e s se l s w e re b ow l s s how ing t he s ame c harac te r i s t ic s o ff ab r ic a nd s l ip .

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T he f ab r ic i su sua l ly d a rk o r l i gh t b rown , b uf fo r c r eam , w he rea s t he c o lou r o f t he s l ip v ar ie s f r om s hade s o f b rown t o b u f f a nd c r eam . Mo s t o f t he b ow ls a re d eco ra ted w i th r edd i sh b rown b and s o n t he r im . T hey a re u sua l ly made o f ag r i t ty c l ay , b u t s ome p i ece sc omp r i se af i ne , p ure c l ay . T hey a re a l w e l l f i red . T he re a re n o e xamp le s o fg l azed o rb u rn i shed p o t te ry . O n t he o the rh and , t he r edd i sh b rown s l ip o n s ome o ft he s he rd sd i sp lay s ag l o s sy s u r f ace . T he p o t te ry c o l lec ted d u r ing s u r f ace s urvey i n c lude s d eep b ow l s w i th i n ve r ted r im s ( F ig . 3 0 .3/1 -2 ) , s ha l low f l a t -r immed b ow l s ( F ig . 3 0 .3/3 -4 ) a nd d eep , c oar se w are v e s se l s he rd s ( F ig . 3 0 .3/5 -8 ) . T he s he rds w i th i n ve r ted r im s f i nd p ara l le l s a t S ama r ia ( Kenyon 1 957 : f i g s . 3 8/5 -6 ) , a tT ar sus ( Go ldmann 1 9 50 : f i g . 1 80 ) a nd i n t he He l len i s t ic l e ve l s a tT u l le ( F rench , Moo re a nd R us se l l 1 9 82 : f i g s . 1 2/1 , 1 3/3 ) . A s ar e su l t o ft he se p a ra l le l sf r om d a ted s i te s , t he f i r s t g roup o fb ow l s c an b ep l aced i nt he s e cond c en tury BC . T he f l a t r immed b ow l s , o nt he o t he rh and , a re d a ted e a r l ie r , a round t he t h i rd c en tury BC , a c co rd ing t o t he f i nd s f r om T i l le ( F rench 1 984 : f i g . 2 /30 ) a nd T ar su s ( Go ldmann 1 950 : f i g . 1 84/8 ) . T he s he rd s b e long ing t o b ow l s w i th p l a in r im s ( F ig . 3 0 .4/9 -10 ) a r e c oar se r w are s t h an t he p o t te ry k nown a s E as te rn S i g i l la ta . One f r agmen t h as a r edd ish b rown s l ip ( F ig .3 0 .4/11 ) ,w h i le a no the rh as ab rown s l ip w i th ar edd i sh b rown h and d eco ra t ing t he r im ( F ig . 3 0 .4/12 ) . T he se f e a ture s r ef lec t t ho se o f p o t te r y o f t he A chaemen id o r p o s t -Achaemen id p e r iod s . P ara l le l s t o t h i s k i nd o f p o t te r y h ave b een f ound a t P a sargadae a nd o the r s i te s i n s ou th -we s t I r an ( S tronach 1 9 78 : f i g . 10 ) . O the r e xamp le s h ave a l so b een u ncove red d u r ing e xcava t ions a t1 m iku ai ( Ozdogan 1 977 : 6 5 ) a nd S u l tan tepe ( L loyd 1 954 : f i g . 1 ) . S ince t he l owe rp a r to ft he b ow l sw i th i n ve r ted a nd f o lded r im s ( F ig .3 0 .4/13 -17 )a re m i s s ing , i ti si mpo s s ib le t o r e cons t ruc t t he i r c omp le te s hape s . Howeve r , t he s ame t y pe s o f v e sse l s , f o und a t S amar ia a nd b e long ing t o t he He l len i s t ic p e r iod , a r e c a l led d eep p la te s o r b ow ls ( Kenyon 1 957 : f i g . 3 7/13 ) . T he s im i lar i ty b e tween t he se s hape s a nd E as te rn S i g ila ta i sa l so n o tewo r thy ( Technau 1 929 : f i g . 3 /12 ) . T ak ing i n to c on s ide ra t ion t he l a te He l len i s t ic m a te r ia l f ound a t Avan ( M i tche l l 1 980 : f i g s . 2 9/242 , 3 0/243 , 2 47 , 2 86 , 3 4/380 ) ,w es ugge s t t h a t t h i sp o t tery b e long st ot he f i r s tc en tury BC . T he p a in ted ( F ig . 3 0 .5/ 18 , 2 1 ) a nd u ndeco ra ted ( F ig . 3 0 .5/19 , 2 0 ) s he rd s w i th i n ve r ted r ims h ave f e a ture st h a t a re n o tc ommon ly e ncoun te red i nt h e Ma la tya r eg ion . T he se k i nd s o f b ow l s w e re f ound a t N ineveh ( Thomp son 1 929 : 1 3 8 ) a nd T e l l Ha la f( Oppenhe im 1 943 : 3 13 , 3 15 ) . T he p a in ted p o t te ry c on s t i tu te st h e t y p ica l w a re f r om t he He l len i s t ic l e ve l s a t N im rud ( Oa te s 1 975 : 1 26 ) a nd T ar sus ( Go ldmann 1 950 : 1 59 f f ) . O the r e xamp le s w i th t he s ame s hape s a nd d eco ra t ion h ave a l so b een f ound a tS u l tan tepe ( L lyod 1 954 : f i g . 1 /25 -37 ) a nd I m ikuag i( De nn 1 985 : p i s . 6 8 ) . T he s he rd s w i th ap ink i sh o r b u f fs l ip a nd f ab r ic ( F ig . 3 0 .5/ 18 , 2 1 ) a re c harac te r i s t ic o fp o s t -Achaemen id p o t te ry . T h i s t y pe o fp o t tery i sk nown f r om I r an f o r t he p e r iod b e tween t he A chaemen id a nd P a r th ian p e r iod s ( S tronach 1 978 : 1 83 ; L ambe rg K ar lov sky 1 970 : 2 2 ; I ng raham a nd S umme r s 1 979 : 2 82 -5 , f i g . 9 10 ) . T he g roup o f m a te r ia l ( F ig s . 3 0 .6 -11 ) f r om t h e s ur vey a t K aram i ldan t ha t a t trac t s mo s t a t ten t ion b e long s t o t he r ed s l ip w a re o f l a te He l len is t ic a nd e ar ly R oman t ime s k nown a s T e r ra S i g i l la ta . S ome o f t h e f r agmen ts h ave a g l os sy s u r f ace ( F ig s .3 0 .6/24 -33 a nd 3 0 .11/65 ) ,w h i le o the r st h a t d o n o t a re c ove red w i th a d u l ls l ip i nv ary ing s hade so fr edd i sh b rown ( F ig s .3 0 .6/22 -3 ,3 0 .7/34 -43 ,3 0 .8/44 -50 , 3 0 .9/51 -8 ,3 0 .10/59 .64 ,3 0 .11/66 .9 ) . -

O f t he s he rds b e long ing t o s ha l low b ow l s o r p l a te l ike v e s se l s , s o me e xamp le s h ave i n ve r ted r ims , o the r sp l a in r im s . I ti sd i f f icu l tt or e cons t ruc t t he f u l l s hape o ft he se v e s se l s s i nce t he p i ece s a re t oo s ma l l a nd f r agmen tary . H oweve r , i t

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w ou ld a ppear t ha t s ome o f t hem mu s t h ave h ad n a r row r i ng b ase s ( F ig . 3 0 .11/89 9 2 ) . T he b ow ls w i th i n ve r ted r im s ( F ig .3 0 .6/24 -33 ) a re s im i lar t ot ho se f ound a t S amar ia g roup 1 ,a cco rd ing t oK enyon 's c l as s i f ica t ion ( 1 957 : f i g s . 6 -73 ) . I ti se a sy t or e cogn i se t he s im i la r i ty b e tween t he K a ram i ldan s he rds ( F ig s . 3 0 .6 -7 ) a nd t he m a te r ia l f r om t he 2 nd a nd , p a r t icu lar ly , t he 3 rd l e ve l s a tT i t le ( F rench , Moo re a nd R u s se l l 1 982 : f i g . 2 /1 ) a sw e l l a st he E as te rn S ig ila ta A w are s f r om t he Helen i s t ic l e ve l s a tS amo sa ta ( Zo rog lu 1 986 ) . A t Avan (M i tchel 1 980 : f i g s .2 7 , 3 2 -3 ) , T ar sus ( Go ldmann 1 950 : n o . 2 54 , f i g . 1 88/a ) a nd An t ioch (Waage 1 948 : f i g . 3 ) E a s te rn S i g i l la ta A i sd a ted t ob e tween t he e nd o f t he s econd c en tu ry BC a nd t he s e cond c en tury AD . T he s ame w are s a tS amo sa ta , S amar ia ( Kenyon 1 957 : 2 92 f f , 3 12 ) a nd T ule ( F rench , Moo re a nd R u s se l l 1 982 : 1 77 ) a re r ega rded a s s t ar t ing a t t he b eg inn ing o f t he f i r s t c en tury BC a nd g o ing d own t o t he f i r s t c en tury AD . C onsequen t ly ,w ed a te t he E a s te rn S i g ila ta A t y pe p o t te ry , t he b ow lf r agmen t sw i th i n ve r ted o r p l a in , v e r t ica l r im s , a tK aram i ldan t o b e tween t he s e cond c en tu ry BC a nd t he f i r s tc en tury AD . -

Ano the r g roup t y p ica l o f E as te rn S ig i l la ta A c omp r i se s s he rd s o f h em isphe r ica l b ow l s w i th p l a in r ims ( F ig . 3 0 .8/44 -50 ) . A cco rd ing t o K enyon ' s c l a s s i f ica t ion , t hey b e long t o F o rm 1 6 ( 1957 : 2 59 -332 ) . N ume rous p arale l s a re k nown i nt he We s t ( Te chnau 1 929 : 4 0 ) ; t hey a re a l so f ound i nt he E as t a ts i te ss uch a s An t ioch (Waage 1 9 48 : 4 7 n o . 1 64 , f i g s . 6 /1 -5 , 7 ,9 ) , T ar sus ( Go ldmann 1 950 : f i g . 1 8 8/275 , 1 75 ) , Avan (M i tche l l 1 980 : f i g 2 7/129 ) a nd T ule ( F rench , Moo re a nd R u s se l l 1 982 : f i g . 1 3/2 ; F rench 1 984 : 2 54 f i g .2 /32 , 3 3 ) . I n a dd i t ion , t hey a re f ound i nP a le s t ine ( Gunneweg , P e r lman a nd Y e l l in 1 983 : 1 04 , f i g . 2 1/4 ) a nd a tS amar ia ( Kenyon 1 957 : f i g s . 5 3/2 , 3a nd 8 0/1 -8 ) . P robab ly t he se Helen i s t ic f o rm s w e re u sed o ve r al ong p e r iod o f t ime ; t he e a r l ie s t d a te g i ven i sc . 1 80 BC a t T ar sus ( Go ldmann 1 950 : f i g . 1 37/27 1) , b u t a tS amar ia , J e rusa lem a nd Masada t h i s d a te i s b rough t d own a s f a r a s 7 0 a nd 7 3 ( Kenyon 1 957 : 3 11 ; Gunneweg , P e r lman a nd Y e l l in 9 83 : 9 6 ) . O the r b ow l f r agmen t s ( F ig . 3 0 .9/51 -3 ) a re s im i lar t o f i nd s f r om Avan t ha t a re d a ted t ot he f i r s t c en tury BC a nd f i r s t c en tury AD ( M i tche l l 1 980 : f i g .3 3/341 , 3 48 , 3 50 , 3 54 ; 2 9/210 , 2 14 , 3 5/394 ) . P ara l le l s f r om K u lu lu ( J one s 1 969 : f i g s . 2 2 , 2 3 ) a nd T a r su s ( Go ldmann 1 950 : f i g . 1 92/378 ) , h oweve r , a re d a ted a tt he l a te s t t o t he s econd c en tury b ecause o f t he i r s im i lar i ty t o " Roman P e rgamene ' w a re s . A l so f ound a tK a ram i ldan w e re f r agmen ts o fc a r ina ted b ow l s ( F ig .3 0 .9/54 8 )s im i lar t ot ho se t h a tw e re i nc ommon u se f r om t he f ou r th r i gh t d own t ot he f i r s t c en tury BC a nd t h a t a r e e spec ia l ly p reva len t i nw e s te rn Ana to l ia . B ow l s w i th e ve r ted r ims f o rm a c harac te r i s t ic g roup , d a ted t o t he f ou r th c en tury BC a t C o r in th ( Edward s 1 957 : f i g . 3 /74 ) a nd i n t he A then ian a gora ( Thompson 1 934 : 4 35 , f i g . 17/E33 ) . I n Ana to l ia t he s ame g roup i se v idenced a t A n t ioch (Waage 1 948 : f i g . 4 /407 ,410 ) , Y as s idag ( Emre 1 973 : 6 4 , f i g . 3 7 ) a nd Avan ( M i tchel 1 980 : f i g s . 3 2/414 , 3/337 , 3 5/404 ) , w he re t hey a re p l aced b e tween t he t h i rd a nd f i r s tc en tu r ie s BC . Two g roup s a mong t he t a b leware s a tK aram i ldan a re o fp ar t icu lar i n te re s t . T he d eep b ow l sw i th t h ickened , i n ve r ted a nd o u t sp layed r im ( F ig .3 0 .10/59 -60 ) a re d a ted t o a bou t t he s e cond c en tury BC ( Go ldmann 1 950 : f i g . 1 78/F , 1 79/ 1) , G , 1 8 3/137 ) . Howeve r , m o re i mpo r tan t a nd i n te re s t ing a re t he p l a te s t ha t h ave r ims w i th a w ide o f f se t r im ( F ig . 3 0 .11/68 -9 ) . P o t te ry w i th E a s te rn S i g i l la ta A c harac te r i s t ic sb e long st oF o rm 3a mong t he t y pe s d i s t ingu i shed a tS amar ia b y M i s s K enyon ( 1 957 : 3 09 , 3 25 ) . T h i s g roup , w h ich w as f i r s t d a ted b y Go ldmann t o t he

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s e cond h a l f o f t he i s t c en tury BC ( Go ldmann 1 950 : 1 74 , 2 31 , f i g . 1 88/252 -3 ) , h a s b een d a ted a tS amar ia t ot he f i r s t c en tury BC f i r s tc en tury AD ( Kenyon 1 9 57 : f i g . 7 7/1 ; L app 1 96 1 : 7 3 ) . E xamp le sa t Hama a nd S amo sa ta a re a l so t hough tt ob e long t ot h i s p e r iod ( J ohan sen 1 971 : f i g . 3 3 ) . T he s ame t y pe o f p l a te h as b een f o und i n t he He l len i s t ic a nd R oman l e ve l s a tP i ro t a nd o n t h e Meydanc ik k a le s u r vey ( F ig . 3 0 .1) . -

A l so i n c luded a mong s t t he s u r f ace f i nds f r om K aram i ldan a re s ome v ase a nd j a r f r agmen t s ( F ig s . 3 0 .12/70 -9 a nd 3 0 .13/80 -3 ) . T he se d i sp lay t h e s ame q ua l i ty o f w o rkman sh ip a nd h ave t he s ame f e a ture s a s t he o the r b ow l a nd d i sh s he rd s . A l though v ase a nd j a r f o rm s w e re v e ry p opu lar s hape s a nd w e re u sed b y mo s t c u l tu re s a td i f fe ren t p e r iod s , f r om t he n a ture o ft he c l ay u sed a nd t h e c a re fu l me thod o fm anu f ac tu re i ti sp o s s ib le t oe qua te t hem w i th E as te rn S ig i l la ta A w are s . L ike o the r e xamp le s f r om S u l tan tepe ( L loyd 1 954 : 1 01 ) , N im rud ( Oa te s 1 985 : 1 26 , 1 27 ) , T a r su s ( Gó ldmann 1 950 : 2 16 ) , K ü l tepe ( Zo rog lu 1 981 : 2 15 ) a nd B ogazköy ( B i t te l 1 938 : 1 2 , f i g . 8 ) , t he s he rd s f r om K a ram i ldan h ave a c r eam s l ip d ecora ted w i th r edd i sh b rown , af e a tu re t h a t i sn o t v e ry c are fuly e xecu ted ( F ig . 3 0 .13/84 -6 ) . T he se p a in ted b ody s he rds s hou ld b e long t o t he s e cond c en tu ry BC . Ano the r c ha rac te r i s t ic t y pe o f Helen i s t ic p o t te ry i sr ep re sen ted b y t he r e l ie f -ware b ow l s ( F ig . 3 0 .13/87 -8 ) , w h ich a re a c on t inua t ion o f Megar ian b ow ls . T he se a re c l as s i f ied a s F o rm 2 0 b y M i s s K enyon ( 1957 : 3 11 ) . T he mo t i f f ound o n t he K aram i ldan p iece s i s ar e l ie fp l an t mo t i f . T h i s t y pe o fb ow l , k nown f r om s i te s s uch a s H ama ( J ohan sen 1 971 : 1 24ff ) , S ama r ia ( Kenyon 1 957 : 2 72f f , f i g s . 6 2 , 6 3 ) , An t ioch (Waage 1 948 : 3 0 ) a nd T ar su s ( Go ldmann 1 950 : 1 77 f f ) , a s w e l l a s f r om A shdod i n P a le s t ine ( Gunneweg , P e r lman a nd Y e l l in 1 983 : 9 1) , a r e u sua l ly a t t r ibu ted t ot he p e r iod b e tween t he m idd le o ft he s e cond c en tury BC a nd t h e e nd o ft he s e cond c en tury AD . S ome s ma l l c l o sed v e s se l s w i th a b ase d i ame te r o f 6 9 cm w e re a l so r e co rded a tK aram i ldan ( F ig .3 0 .13/89 -92 ) . T he i n s ide s u r f ace o ft hese v e s se l s h as n o s l ip ; t he c l ay i sg r i t ty a nd g r ay o r l i gh t b rown i nc o lour , a nd t he e x te r io r i s c ove red w i th af i ne r edd ish b rown o r b rown s l ip . T hey a re w ei l f i red a nd g l os sy , h av ing t he t r ad i t iona l c harac te r i s t ic s o f E as te rn S i g i l la ta A w are . L ike o the r e xamp le s o ft he s ame t y pe , t hey a re t ob e d a ted t o t he p e r iod b e tween t h e s e cond c en tury BC a nd t he f i r s tc en tury AD . F rom t he e va lua t ion o f t he s ur f ace f i nd s t he s e t t lemen t a tK aram i ldan c an b ep l aced i nt he He l len i s t ic p e r iod . T he o b ser va t ion t h a t ac yc lop ian t echn ique w as u sed i n t he w a l l s t h a t s urv ive a t t he n o r th -we s t f oo t o f t he h i l l a l so i n d ica te s a n e ar ly d a te f o r t he s i te . Hence w e c an s ay t h a t t he e v idence s ugge s t s t ha t t h e ma in p e r iod o f o ccupa t ion l a s ted f r om t he s econd c en tury BC u n t i l t he s econd c en tur y AD . T he s i te c anno tb e i d en t i f ied w i th t he R oman l e g ionary f o r t re ss o f Me l i tene b u t mu s tb er egarded a sb e ing i ns ome w ay i t sp redece s so r .

C a ta logue 1 . 2 .

L igh tb rown c l ay , b uf fs l ip , s and a nd g r i t t empe red , w e l l f i red , g lo s sy ,w hee l m ade . D iame te r2 8c m . F ig . 3 0 .3/1 . B rown c l ay a nd s l ip ; s and , g r i t a nd s he l l t empe red , w e l l f i red , g l o s sy , w hee l m ade . D iame te r3 2 c m . F ig . 3 0 .3/2 .

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3 . 4 . 5 . 6 . 7 . 8 . 9 . 1 0 . 1 . 1 2 .

1 3 . 1 4 . 1 5 . 1 6 . 1 7 . 1 8 .

1 9 . 2 0 . 2 1 . 2 . 2 3 . 2 4 . 2 5 . 2 6 . 2 7 . 2 8 .

L igh t b rown c l ay , b rown s l ip , s and a nd g r i t t empe red , w e l l f i red , w hee l made . D iame te r2 3 c m . F ig . 3 0 .3/3 . C ream c l ay a nd s l ip , s and t empe red , g l os sy , w hee l -made . D iame te r 3 2 c m . F ig . 3 0 .3/4 . B rown c l ay a nd s l ip , s and t empe red , w e l l f i red , w hee l -made . D iame te r 3 0 cm . F ig . 3 0 .3/5 . B uf fc l ay , l i gh t b rown s l ip , s and , g r i t a nd s he l l t empe red , w el f i red , w hee l made . D iame te r3 0c m . F ig . 3 0 .3/6 . B rown c l ay a nd s l ip , g r i t , m ica a nd s eashe l l t empe red , w e l l f i red , g l o s sy , whee l -made . D iame te r2 6c m . F ig . 3 0 .3/7 . L igh t b rown c l ay , b rown s l ip , s and a nd g r i t t empe red , w e l l f i red , g l o s sy , w hee l -made . D iame te r 2 2c m . F ig . 3 0 .3/8 . B rown c l ay , c r eam s l ip , s and , g r i t a nd s eashe l l t empe red , w e l l f i red , g l o s sy , whee l -made . D iame te r2 8c m . F ig . 3 0 .4/9 . B rown c l ay , c r e am s l ip , s and a nd g r i t t empe red , w e l l f i red , g l o s sy , w hee l made . D iame te r2 8c m . F ig . 3 0 .4/10 . L igh t b rown c l ay , r edd i sh b rown s l ip ( i n s ide ) , s and a nd g r i t t empe red , g l o s sy ,w hee l -made . D iame te r3 6c m . F ig . 3 0 .4/11 . L igh t b rown c l ay , b rown s l ip ( i n s ide ) , r edd i sh b rown b and o n r im , s and t empe red , v e ry w e l l f i red , g l o s sy , w hee l -made . D iame te r 3 6 c m . F ig . 3 0 .4/12 . L igh t b rown c l ay , h uf f s l ip , s and , g r i t a nd s ea she l l t empe red , w e l l f i red , g lo s s ,w hee l -made . D iame te r3 0c m . F ig . 3 0 .4/13 . L igh t b rown c l ay , b rown s l ip , s and a d s eashe l l t empe red , w e l l f i red , g l o s s a nd w hee l -made . D iame te r2 8c m . F ig . 3 0 .4/14 . Da rk b rown c l ay a nd s l ip , s and a nd g r i t t empe red , w e l l f i red , w hee l -made . D iame te r3 4c m . F ig . 3 0 .4/15 . L igh t b rown c l ay , r edd ish b rown s l ip , s and t empe red , v ery w e l l f i red , g l o s s , w hee l -made . F ig . 3 0 .4/16 . C ream c l ay a nd s l ip , g r i t t empe red , v ery w e l l f i red , w hee l -made . D iame te r 2 0c m . F ig . 3 0 .4/17 . R edd i sh b rown c l ay a nd s l ip , s and a nd p l an t t empe red , v e ry w e l l f i red , a r edd i sh b rown b and o n o u t s ide , g l os sy , w hee l -made . D iame te r 2 4 c m . F ig . 3 0 .5/18 . B u f f c l ay a nd s l ip , s and , g r i t a nd m ica t empe red , w e l l f i red , g l o s s , w hee l made . D iame te r2 2c m . F ig . 3 0 .5/19 . B u f f c l ay , l i gh t b rown s l ip , s and a nd g r i t t empe red , w e l l f i red , g l o s sy a nd whee l -made . D iame te r2 4c m . F ig . 3 0 .5/20 . L igh t b rown c l ay , d ark c ream s l ip , s and a nd g r i t t empe red , w el f i red , r edd i sh b rown p a in ted , g l o s sy ,w hee l -made . D iame te r3 0c m . F ig . 3 0 .5/2 1 . C ream c l ay , b u f f s l ip , s and a nd s ma l l r a in t empe red , w e l l f i red , g l os sy , w hee l -made . D iame te r2 2c m . F ig . 3 0 .6/22 . B u f f c l ay , b rown s l ip , s and a nd g ra in t empe red , w e l l f i red , g l o s sy , w hee l made . F ig . 3 0 .6/23 . L igh t b rown c l ay , d ark b rown s l ip , n o t t empe red , v ery w e l l f i red , g l o s sy , w hee l -made . D iame te r 1 4c m . F ig . 3 0 .6/24 . C ream c l ay , r edd ish b rown s l ip , n o t t empe red ,v e ry w e l l f i red , g l o s sy , w hee l made . D iame te r 1 6c m . F ig . 3 0 .6/25 . B rown c l ay , d a rk b rown s l ip , n o t t empe red , w e l l f i red , g l o s sy , w hee l -made . D iame te r 1 8c m . F ig . 3 0 .6/26 . C ream c l ay , b rown s l ip , n o t t empe red , w e l l f i red , g l o s sy , w hee l -made . D iame te r2 2c m . F ig . 3 0 .6/27 . L igh t b rown c l ay a nd s l ip , d ark b rown p a in ted b and , s and t empe red , v e ry w e l l f i red , g l os sy ,w hee l -made . D iame te r2 6c m . F ig . 3 0 .6/28 .

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2 9 . 3 0 . 3 0 . 3 2 . 3 3 . 3 4 . 3 5 . 3 6 . 3 7 . 3 8 . 3 9 . 4 0 . 4 1 . 4 2 . 4 3 . 4 4 . 4 5 . 4 6 . 4 7 . 4 8 . 4 9 . 5 0 . 5 1 . 5 2 . 5 3 . 5 4 . 5 .

L igh t b rown c l ay a nd s l ip , r edd i sh b rown p a in ted b and , s and t empered , g l o s sy ,w hee l -made . D iame te r2 0c m . F ig . 3 0 .6/29 . L igh t b rown c l ay a nd s l ip , r edd i sh b rown p a in ted b and , n o t t empe red , v e ry w el f i red , g l o s sy a nd w hee l -made . D iame te r2 4c m . F ig . 3 0 .6/30 . L igh t b rown c l ay , r edd i sh b rown p a in ted b and , v e ry w e l l f i red , g l o s sy a nd w hee l -made . D iame te r 1 6c m . F ig . 3 0 .6/30 . C ream b uf f , d a rk b rown p a in t s l ip , n o t t empe red , v e ry w e l l f i red , g lo s sy , w hee l -made . D iame te r 1 0c m . F ig . 3 0 .6/32 . L igh t b rown c l ay , r edd i sh b rown s l ip , n o t t empe red , v e ry w e l l f i red , g los sy , w hee l -made . F ig . 3 0 .6/33 . L igh t b rown c l ay , d ark b rown s l ip , s and t empe red , g l o s sy , w hee l -made . F ig . 3 0 .7/34 . L igh t b rown c l ay , d ark b rown s l ip , s and t empe red , v e ry w e l l f i red , g los sy , w hee l -made . D iame te r2 8c m . F ig . 3 0 .7/35 . L igh t b rown c l ay a nd s l ip , n o t t empe red , g l o s sy , w hee l -made . D iame ter 2 4 c m . F ig . 3 0 .7/36 . B rown c l ay , l i gh t b rown s l ip , s and t empe red , v ery w e l l f i red , g l o s sy , whee l made . D iame te r 2 8c m . F ig . 3 0 .7/37 . B uf f c l ay , l i gh t b rown s l ip , s and t empe red , v e ry w e l l f i red , g l o s sy , w hee l made . D iame te r2 6c m . F ig . 3 0 .7/38 . L igh t b rown c l ay , d ark b rown s l ip , v e ry w e l l f i red , n o t t empered , g l o s sy a nd w hee l -made . D iame te r2 6c m . F ig . 3 0 .7/39 . B rown c l ay , l i gh t b rown s l ip , n o t t empe red , v e ry w e l l f i red , g l o s sy , w hee l m ade . D iame te r 1 8c m . F ig . 3 0 .7/40 . B uf f c l ay , b rown s l ip , n o t t empe red , v ery w e l l f i red , g l os sy , w hee l -made . D iame te r3 0c m . F ig . 3 0 .7/41 . L igh t b rown c l ay , r edd i sh b rown s l ip , n o t t empe red , v e ry w e l l f i red , g l os sy , w hee l -made . D iame te r2 4c m . F ig . 3 0 .7/42 . B rown c l ay , r edd i sh b rown s l ip , n o t t empe red , v ery w e l l f i red , g l o s sy ,w hee l made . D iame te r 1 6c m . F ig . 3 0 .7/43 . B rown c l ay , d ark b rown s l ip , n o t t empe red , w e l l f i red , g l o ssy , w hee l -made . D iame te r 1 4c m . F ig . 3 0 .8/44 . C ream c l ay a nd s l ip , n o t t empe red , w e l l f i red , g l o s sy , w hee l -made . D iame te r 1 8c m . F ig . 3 0 .8/45 . L igh t b rown c l ay , r edd i sh b rown s l ip , n o t t empe red , v e ry w e l l f i red , g los sy , w hee l -made . D iame te r 1 4c m . F ig . 3 0 .8/46 . L igh t b rown c l ay , r edd i sh b rown s l ip , n o t t empe red , v e ry w e l l f i red , g los sy , w hee l -made . F ig . 3 0 .8/47 . B uf fc l ay , d ark b uf f s l ip , n o t t empe red , v e ry w e l l f i red , g l os sy , w hee l -made . D iame te r2 4c m . F ig . 3 0 .8/48 . L igh t b rown c l ay , d ark b rown s l ip , n o t t empe red , v e ry w e l l f i red , g los sy , w hee l -made . D iame te r2 0c m . F ig . 3 0 .8/49 . B rown c l ay , r edd i sh b rown s l ip , s and t empe red , v e ry w el f i red , g los sy , w hee l -made . D iame te r 1 2c m . F ig . 3 0 .8/50 . L igh t b rown c l ay , b rown s l ip , n o t t empe red , v e ry w e l l f i red , g l o s sy , w hee l made . D iame te r2 6c m . F ig .3 0 .9/51 . B rown c l ay , r edd i sh b rown s l ip , s and t empe red , v e ry w e l l f i red , g l os sy , w hee l -made . F ig . 3 0 .9/52 . B rown c l ay , r edd i sh b rown s l ip , n o t t empe red , v ery w e l lf i red , g l o s sy ,w hee l m ade . F ig . 3 0 .9/53 . C ream c l ay , r edd i sh b rown s l ip , n o t t empe red , w e l l f i red , w hee l -made . D iame te r2 8c m . F ig . 3 0 .9/54 . D a rk b rown c l ay , l i gh t b rown s l ip , s and t empe red , v e ry w e l l f i red , w hee l m ade . D iame te r2 6c m . F ig . 3 0 .9/55 .

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5 6 . 5 7 . 5 8 . 5 9 . 6 0 . 6 1 . 6 2 . 6 3 . 6 4 . 6 5 .

6 . 6 7 . 6 8 . 6 9 . 7 0 . 7 1 . 7 2 . 7 3 . 7 4 . 7 5 . 7 6 . 7 . 7 8 . 7 9 . 8 0 . 8 1 . 8 2 .

R edd i sh b rown c l ay , d a rk b rown s l ip , b ig g ra in a nd s ea she l l t empe red , w e l l f i red ,g l os sy ,w hee l -made . F ig . 3 0 .9/56 . L igh t b rown c l ay , d ark b rown s l ip , n o t t empe red , v e ry w e l l f i red , g l o s sy , whee l -made . F ig . 3 0 .9/57 . L igh t b rown c l ay , r edd i sh b rown s l ip , n o t t empe red , v e ry w e l l f i red , g l o s sy , whee l -made . D iame te r2 0c m . F ig . 3 0 .9/58 . L igh t b rown c l ay , d ark b rown s l ip , s and t empe red , v e ry w e l l f i red , g l os sy , w hee l -made . D iame te r2 8c m . F ig . 3 0 .10/59 . C ream c l ay , r edd i sh b rown s l ip , s and t empe red , w e l l f i red , g l o s sy , w hee l made . D iame te r2 0c m . F ig . 3 0 .10/60 . G rey c l ay , l i gh t b rown s l ip , n o t t empe red , v e ry w e l l f i red , g l o s sy , w hee l made . D iame te r 1 0c m . F ig . 3 0 .10/61 . R edd i sh b rown c l ay a nd s l ip , n o t t empe red , v e ry w e l l f i red , g l o s sy , w hee l made . D iame te r? F ig . 3 0 .10/62 . L igh tb rown c l ay , r edd ish b rown s l ip , s and t empe red , v e ry w e l l f i red , g l os sy , w hee l -made . F ig . 3 0 .10/63 . G rey c l ay a nd s l ip , n o t t empe red , v e ry w e l l f i red , g l o s sy , w hee l -made . D iame te r 1 2c m . F ig . 3 0 .10/64 . L igh t b rown c l ay , d ark c ream s l ip , s and , g r i t a nd s eashe l l t empe red , w e l l f i red , r edd i sh b rown p a in ted b and o n r im , g l o s sy ,w hee l -made . D iame te r3 6 c m . F ig . 3 0 .11/65 . C ream c l ay , b rown s l ip , n o t t empe red , v ery w e l l f i red , g l o s sy , w hee l -made . D iame te r3 0c m . F ig . 3 0 .11/66 . B rown c l ay , b u f f s l ip , n o t t empe red , v ery w e l l f i red , g l o s sy , w hee l -made . D iame ter 2 6c m . F ig . 3 0 .11/67 . L igh t b rown c l ay , r edd i sh b rown s l ip , s and t empe red , v e ry w e l l f i red , g l os sy , w hee l -made . D iame te r3 0c m . F ig . 3 0 .11/68 . L igh t b rown c l ay , b uf f s l ip , n o t t empe red , v ery w e l l f i red , w hee l -made . D iame te r3 0c m . F ig . 3 0 .11/69 . C ream c l ay , l i gh t b rown s l ip s and t empe red , w e l l f i red , g l o s sy , w hee l -made . D iame te r2 4c m . F ig . 3 0 .12/70 . L igh t b rown c l ay , d ark b rown s l ip , s and , g r i t t empe red , w e l l f i red , g l o s sy , w hee l -made . D iame te r2 0c m . F ig . 3 0 .12/71 . C ream c l ay , r edd i sh b rown s l ip , s and a nd l a rge g ra in t empe red , w el f i red , g l o s sy ,w hee l -made . D iame te r 1 2c m . F ig . 3 0 .12/72 . L igh t b rown c l ay , b uf f s l ip , s and , g r i t a nd s eashe l l t empe red , w e l l f i red , w hee l -made . D iame te r 9c m . F ig . 3 0 .12/73 . B u f fc l ay a nd s l ip , r edd i sh b rown p a in ted h and , s and t empe red , w e l l f i red , g l o s sy ,w hee l -made . D iame te r 1 0c m . F ig . 3 0 .12/74 . G rey c l ay , l i gh t b rown s l ip , g r i t , s and a nd s e ashe l l t empe red , w e l l f i red , g l o s sy ,w hee l -made . D iame te r 1 0c m . F ig . 3 0 .12/75 . L igh t b rown c l ay , c r eam s l ip , s and t empe red , w e l l f i red ,g l o s sy , w hee l -made . D iame te r 1 0c m . F ig . 3 0 .12/76 . L igh t b rown c l ay , c r eam s l ip , s and a nd l a rge g ra in t empe red , w e l l f i red , w hee l -made . D iame te r 1 0c m . F ig . 3 0 .12/77 . L igh t b rown c l ay , c r eam s l ip , s and t empe red , v e ry w e l l f i red , g l o s sy , w hee l made . D iame te r 8c m . F ig . 3 0 .12/78 . G rey c l ay , d ark c r eam s l ip , n o t t empe red , w e l l f i red , g l o s sy , w hee l -made . D iame te r 1 2c m . F ig . 3 0 .12/79 . B rown c l ay a nd s l ip , s and , l a rge a nd s ma l l g r a in a nd s ea she l l t empe red , med ium f i red ,g l os sy ,w hee l -made . D iame te r 8c m . F ig . 3 0 .13/80 . B u f fc l ay , b rown s l ip , s and , l a rge a nd s ma l l g ra in t empe red , med ium f i red , g l o s sy ,w hee l -made . D iame te r 1 8c m . F ig . 3 0 .13/8 1 . G rey c l ay , l i gh t b rown s l ip , s and , l a rge a nd s ma l l g ra in , a nd s eashe l l t empe red , med ium f i red ,w hee l -made . D iame te r 1 4c m . F ig . 3 0 .13/82 .

4 43

8 3 . 8 4 . 8 5 . 8 6 . 8 7 . 8 . 8 9 . 9 0 . 9 1 . 9 2 .

L igh t b rown c l ay , d ark c r eam s l ip , s and t empe red , w e l l f i red , g l o s sy , w hee l made . D iame te r 1 6c m . F ig . 3 0 .13/83 . C ream c l ay a nd s l ip , r edd i sh b rown p a in ted , s and a nd g r i t t empe red , w e l l f i red a nd w hee l -made . F ig 3 0 .13/84 . C ream c l ay a nd s l ip , b rown p a in ted , s and t empe red , w e l l f i red , g l o s sy . F ig . 3 0 .13/85 . B rown c l ay a nd s l ip , r edd ish b rown p a in ted , s and t empe red , w e l l f i red , g l o s sy . F ig . 3 0 .13/86 . L igh tb rown c l ay , r edd i sh b rown s l ip , s and t empe red , v e ry w el f i red , g l os sy , w hee l -made . F ig . 3 0 .13/87 . B rown c l ay , r edd i sh b rown s l ip , s and t empe red , v e ry w e l l f i red , g l os sy , w hee l -made . F ig . 3 0 .13/88 . L igh t b rown c l ay , r edd i sh b rown s l ip , s and t empe red , v e ry w e l l f i red , g l os sy , w hee l -made . D iame te r 6c m . F ig . 3 0 .13/89 . G rey c l ay , l i gh t b rown s l ip , s and t empe red , w e l l f i red , g l o s sy , w hee l -made . D iame te r 8c m . F ig . 3 0 .13/90 . G rey c l ay , b rown s l ip , s and , g r i t a nd s eashe l l t empe red , w e l l f i red , g l os sy , w hee l -made . D iame te r 9c m . F ig . 3 0 .13/9 1 . L igh t b rown c l ay , r edd i sh b rown s l ip , s and t empe red , w e l l f i red , g los sy , w hee l -made . D iame te r 7c m . F ig . 3 0 .13/92 .

B ib l iography B ITT 'EL , K .

1 9 38

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3 2 . ART ILLERY I N JUDAEA FRO M HAS MONAEAN TO RO MAN T I MES I srae l S ha tzman J erusa lem S evera l p ieces o f e v idence t e s t if y t o t he u se o f a r t i l lery b y v ar ious a rm ies i n J udaea f rom t he s econd c en tury BC t o t he f i rs t c en tury AD . S ome a r chaeo log ica l f i nds a dd t o wha t i s k nown f rom t he l i terary s ources a nd s how t ha t a r t i l lery was emp loyed i n s i ege o pera t ions b y d ef enders a nd a t tackers a l ike . T wo p o ints d eserve emphas is . F ir s t , t he Hasmonaeans s tar ted u s ing a r t i l lery a s e ar ly a s t he d ays o f J udah Maccabee ; t h is means t ha t t he J ew ish i nsurgen ts a cqu ired t he a b i l i ty t o e xp lo i t t h is f orm o f He l len is t ic t echno logy i n t he f i rs t t hree y ears o f t he Hasmonaean r evo l t . S econd , a ux i l iary u n i ts o f t he R oman g arr ison o f J udaea p robab ly h ad among t he a r t i l lery a t t he ir d isposa l mach ines wh ich t hey h ad t aken o ver f rom t he Herod ian a rmy . Thus a l l t he e v idence t e s t if ies t o c on t inu i ty i n t h is b ranch o f t he a rmy i n J udaea . I t may b e s a id t ha t t he J ew ish a rmy w as t he a gen t wh ich t rans m i t ted t he u se o f a r t i l lery f rom t he He l len is t ic t o t he Roman a rm ies o fJ udaea . I t i s q u i te p oss ib le t ha t t here w as as im i lar p rocess i n o ther p rov inces o f t he R oman E as t . A ccord ing ly , i tm igh t b e i ns truc t ive t o c ons ider t he c i rcu ms tances i n wh ich t he d u ty o f o pera t ing a r t i l lery was a ss igned t o u n i ts o ft he a ux i l ia .

I . T he Hasmonaean P er iod

T he H asmonaean r e vo l t b eg an a s ar e ac t ion t o t he r e l ig ious p e r secu t ion l a unched b y An t iochu s I V E p iphane s i n 1 67 BC . T he f i r s t v i c tor ie s o f J udah Maccabee e nab led h im t ol i be ra te J e rusa lem a nd r eded ica te t he T emp le i n1 64 BC ( 1 Macc . 4 . 52 ; s ee S chü re r 1 973 -87 : 1 . 137 -63 ) . Howeve r , t he S e leuc id g ar r i son o f J e ru sa lem , s uppo r ted b y He l len i sed J ew s , s t i l l o c cup ied t he A c ra , t he s t rong c i tade l w h ich h ad a c ommand ing p o s i t ion v i s -à -v i s t he T emp le Moun t . S cho lar s d o n o t a g ree o n t he l o ca t ion o f t h is s t rongho ld ; t he i r o p in ions a re d i v ided i n t he m a in b e tween s i te s s ou th ( o r s ou th -eas t ) , a nd n o r th ( o r n o r th -we s t ) , o ft he T emp le a rea ( 1 ) . I n a ny c ase , t h e A c ra menaced f r ee w o r sh ip a t t he T emp le , a nd J udah Maccabee s ough tt os o lve t he p rob lem : Now t he g a r r i son i nt he c i tade l k ep t h emm ing I s rae l i na round t he s anc tuary , s eek ing t o d o d amage c on t inua l ly a nd l e nd ing s uppo r t t o t he h ea then . J udah m ade u p h i s m ind t o d e s t roy t hem , a nd h e c a l led a l t he p eop le t oge the r t ob e s iege t hem . T hey a s semb led a nd l a id s i ege t o i ti n t he o ne h undred a nd f i f t ie th y ear , a nd h e b u i l t b a t te r ie so fw a r l ike e ng ine sa nd m is s i le t h rowe r s . ( 1 Macc . 6 . 18 -20 ) T he G reek w o rd s r e levan t t o t h e p re sen t d i scu s s ion r ead a s f o l low s : k a i e po i e sen b e lo s ta se i s k a i m echana s . I n a l l i ke l ihood , J o sephus u sed t h i s s ource f o r h i s d esc r ip t ion o f t he s i ege o f t he A c ra , a l though h i s a ccoun t i ss l igh t ly d i f f e ren t : " He ( Judah ) p repared m ach ine s ( mechaner na ta) a nd c on s t ruc ted e a r thwo rk s ( c hor na ta e ge i ras ) a nd d i l igen t ly w o rked f o r t he c ap ture o f t he A c ra " ( AJ 1 2 .363 ) . T he re i s n o e s sen t ia l d i f f e rence b e tween t he t wo a ccoun ts : b e los tase i s w e re a r t i l lery p l a t fo rms ; J o sephu s p re f e r red t o c onvey t h i s mean ing b y c homa ta ( 2 ) . T he t e rm i nechaner na m igh t mean v a r ious k i nd s o f mach ine s , i n c lud ing a r t i l le ry -

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e ng ine s ; t h i s mu s t b e t he s en se mean t i nt h i s c a se , a s t he c on tex t a nd J o sephu s ' s ou rce i nd ica te ( 3 ) . I te me rge s t ha t , a bou t f our y ear s a f te r t he b eg inn ing o f t he Hasmonaean r evo l t , J udah Mac cahee w a s a b le t ou se a r t i l le ry i n as i ege o pe ra t ion . Whe re d id h e g e t t he t e chn ica l k now ledge a nd p e r sonne l c apab le o fh and l ing t he se mach ine s? I n d e f au l t o f e v idence , t h i s q ue s t ion c an b e a n swe red o n ly b y c on jec tu re . One m ay a ccep t t he v i ew t ha t J udah w a s a b le t o u t i l i se t he He l len i s t ic m i l i ta ry e xpe r ience o f e i the r f o rme r J ew i sh me rcenar ie s l i v ing i n J udaea , w ho se v e ry e x i s tence i sp ure ly c on jec tura l ( Henge l 1 974 : 1 . 17 -8 ) , o r o fJ ew i sh s o ld ie r s s erv ing i n He l len is t ic a rm ie s , w ho s uppo sed ly c ame a s v o lun tee r s ( Bar -Kochva 1 975 : 8 ; s ee B ar -Kochva 1 977 : 1 77 ) . I fs o , t h i s m ay e xp la in h ow t he n eces sary t e chn ica l k onw ledge w as a cqu i red b y t he a rmy o fJ udah . Ia m i n c l ined t ot he v i ew o f t ho se s cho lar sw ho s ugge s t t ha t J udah w on h i s f i r s t v i c to r ie s b y g ue r r i l la t a c t ic s ( s ee A v i Y onah 1 972 : 1 49 f ) . A s Iw i l l s how b e low , t he J ew i sh i n surgen ts o ft he F i r s t J ew i sh R evo l t w e re a b le t o o pe ra te a r t i l le ry c ap tu red f r om t he R omans a nd , p os s ib ly , l o ca l ly m anu f ac tu red a r t i l le ry i nt he d e fence o fJ e ru sa lem i n7 0 , t ha t i s ,f our y ea r s a f te r t he b eg inn ing o f t he r evo l t . T ho se i n surgen t s c l ea r ly h ad n o t e xpe r ienced m i l i tary s e rv ice b e fo re t he r evo l t . Adm i t ted ly , t he re i sn o e v idence t h a t t he J ew s h ad c ap tu red a r t i l le ry f r om t he v anqu i shed S e leuc id f o rce s i nt h e y ear s 1 67 t o 1 64 BC . Howeve r , i ti sp os s ib le t h a t , i fGo rg ias t ook a r t i l ler y a l ong o n h i s e xped i t ion t o J udaea , i tmu s t h ave b een c ap tu red b yt he J ew sw hen J udah t ook t he S e leuc id c amp a t Ammaus ( 1 Macc . 4 . 7 -23 ; J o seph . A J 1 2 .305 12 ) . O fc our se , t h is i sc on jec tu re , a nd i t , t oo , i nd ica te s aHe l len i s t ic a rmy a s t he s our ce o f t he J ew s ' a r t i l le ry . One w ay o r a no the r , t he Ha smonaean a r t i l le ry mus t h ave o r ig ina ted i n aH e l len is t ic a rmy . I tm ay b e a sked w he the r t he S e leuc id a rmy e mp loyed a r t i l ler y i nJ udaea . T he f i r s t e v idence o f t h i s c once rn s t h e e xped i t ion o f L y s ias a nd t he y oung k ing , An t iochus V E upa to r , i n 1 63 BC . T hey e mp loyed w ar e ng ine s ( Gk . m echana i , m echanema ta ) , mo s t p robab ly i n c lud ing a r t i l le ry , i nt h e s i ege o fB e th Zu r ( 1 Macc . 6 . 31 ; J o seph . A J 1 2 .367 -8 ) . Mo re s pec i f ic i n fo rma t ion i sg i ven i nc onnec t ion w i th t he s i ege o fJ e rusa lem : And ( An t iochus ) e ncamped a ga ins t t he s anc tuary f o r m any d ay s , a nd s e t t he re a r t i l le ry -p la t fo rm s ( b e lo s ta se i s ) a nd e ng ine s o f w a r ( mechana i ) a nd i n s t rumen t s f o r c a s t ing f i re ( p y robo la ) a nd s t one s ( l i thobo la ) , a nd e ng ine s t oc a s t d a r t s a nd s l ing s ( s cor p id ia ) a nd t h ey w ho w e re b e s ieged a l so m ade e ng ine s ( i ne c l zana i ) a g a ins t t h e i r e ng ine s . ( 1 Mac c . 6 . 51 -2 ; c f .J o seph . A J 1 2 .377 -8 ) I t i s c l ear t ha t , o n t h i s o cca s ion , t he S e leuc id a rmy w as p rov ided w i th c a tapu l t s a nd b a l l i s tae a s p a r t o f i t s s i ege -equ ipmen t . T h i s t e x t a l so r e vea ls t he emp loymen t o f a r t i l lery b y t he J ew i sh d e fende r s o ft h e T emp le e nc lo su re . I ta l so s eems t ha t t he S e leuc id g ene ra l , B ac ch ide s , u sed a r t i l lery i n h i s s i ege o f t he H asmonaean f o r t re s s , B e thhas s i , i n 1 58 BC ( 1 Macc . 9 . 64 -7 ; J o seph . A J 1 2 .27 -9 ; t he t e rm u sed i s mechaner na ta ) . A d i f fe ren t k i nd o f e v idence i sp rov ided b y t h e a r chaeo log ica l f i nd s f r om T e l Dor a nd J e ru sa lem . E x ten s ive e xcava t ions a tT e lD o rw e re b egun i n1 9 80 ; t hey a re s t i l l i np rog re s s . I th a s b een e s tab l i shed t h a t an ew w a l l w as b u i l t i nt h e t h i rd c en tury BC , l a te i n t he r e ign o f P to lemy I o r d u r ing t h a t o f h i s s on , P to lemy I I ( S te rn 1 985 ; 1 987 ) . F ind s r e la t ing t o as i ege o pe ra t ion h ave b een u near thed , among t hem s l ing b u l le t s , a r row -head s , a nd b a l l i s ta b a l ls . One l e aden b u l le t h as a n i n sc r ip t ion i n c lud ing t he n ame o f T ryphon ( Ge ra 1 985 ) . T he re i sn o d oub t

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w ha t soeve r t h a t t he se a r e t r ace s o f t he s i ege c onduc ted b y An t iochu s V I I S i de te s a g a ins t t he p re tende r , T ryphon , w ho s ough t r e f uge i nt he w e l l fo r t i f ied c oas ta l c i ty o f Dora i n1 39 BC ( 4 ) . T ha t An t iochus S ide te su sed a r t i l le ry i nt h i s s i ege i sr e la ted b y al i te ra ry s ou rce ( 1 Macc . 1 5 .25 ) . Among t he i n te re s t ing f i nd s a tT e l Do r a re " r o l l ing s t one s " ; t ha t i s ,l a rge s t one s e l abo ra te ly d re s sed a nd p repared i no rde r f o r t h em t o h e r o l led d own a ta n e nemy a s h e a pp roached t he w a l ls . S uch s t one s h ave b een f ound a t Masada ( Yad in 1 965 : 8 0 ) a nd a t He rod ium ( Co rbo 1 963 : 2 26 ) . O bv ious ly , t he se b e longed t ot he d e fende r so ft he c i ty . T he s ame i st r ue o ft he s l ing b u l le ts , i n c lud ing o ne w i th t he i n sc r ip t ion " f o r t he v i c to ry o fT ryphon " , w h ich w e re f o und a t ad i s tance o f1 00 me t re sf r om t he r ampar t s ( Ge ra 1 985 ) . T he b a l l i s ta b a l l s w e re d i scove red i n ar oom a d jacen t t o t he c i ty w a l l ; i t h as b een s ugge s ted t h a t t h i s r oom s e rved a s a n a r sena l ( S te rn 1 985 : 1 82 ; 1 988 : 7 6 ) . S o f a r n o d e ta i l s h ave b een g i ven o f t he n umbe r a nd p rec i se w e igh t s o f t he b a l l is ta h a l l s , t wo o f w h ich b ea r s hor t i n sc r ip t ions ( IH , KB ) t h a t may h ave i n d ica ted t he w e igh t o ft he s t one s , a sS tern s ugge s ted . T he b a l l is ta h a l l sw e re e v iden t ly p ar t o ft he d e fen s ive a ppa ra tus o f Dora . T h i s mean s t h a t b o th s i de s i nt h i s i n te rna l S e leuc id w ar u sed a r t i l le ry i n t h es i ege o f 1 38/7 BC ( 5 ) . S l ing b u l le t s , a bou t o ne h und red a r row -heads a nd an umbe r o fb a l l i s ta b al s h ave b een e xcava ted i n t he a rea o f t he C i tade l o f J e rusa lem ( J ohns 1 950 : 1 30 ; S i van a nd S o lar 1 984 ) . Mo s t o ft he a r row -heads , a l l m ade o fb ronze , w e re f ound a t t h eM idd le T owe r a nd h ave b een d e sc r ibed a s" t yp ica l ly H e l len i s t ic " . T he t wo s l ing b u l le ts , made o fl e ad , w e igh 3 6 a nd 5 9 .5 g ramme s r e spec t ive ly ; o ne b ear s aG reek i n sc r ip t ion a nd a r ep re sen ta t ion o fa n a r row -head o f t he t y pe e xcava ted i si n c i sed o n i t s u ppe r p ar t . I n a dd i t ion , al a rge q uan t i ty o fc on ica l , h o l low o b jec t s made o f i r on w as u near thed . A sr ema in so fw ood h ave b een p re ser ved i ns ome o ft hem , i ti s l i ke ly t ha t t he se w e re t h eb o t tom p ar ts o fs pear s d e s igned t om ake i tp os s ib le t of i x t h ew eapon s i nt he g round . A l toge the r s ome 2 00 b a l l i s ta h a l l s h ave b een f ound , a l v ery w e l lc ra f ted , o f v a r ious s i ze s r ang ing f r om t en t o t h ir ty c en t ime tre s i n d i ame te r . T hey may b e d i v ided i n to t he f o l low ing c a tego r ie s ( i n k iog ramme s , w i th s l igh t d ev ia t ions ) : 2 9 , 2 6 , 1 7 , 9 ,5 ,3 ,2 ,0 . 5 . T he b a l ls w e re f ound p r inc ipa l ly a tt wo s i te s : c l o se t o t he M idd le T owe r , a nd n ear w ha t i sk nown a s t he T owe r o f D av id , a nd n ear w ha t i s k nown a st he T owe ro fD av id ,w h ich w as o r ig ina l ly o ne o ft he t owe r sb u i l t b y He rod a tt he n o r th -we s t a ng le o f t he F i r s t Wa l l . Two b a l l is ta b a l ls w e re f ound b enea th o ne o ft he s t one s o ft h e f ounda t ion c our se o ft he T owe ro fD av id . Many b a l l sw e re f o und b enea th aw a l l w h ich s t ar t sa tt he M idd le T owe ra nd r uns p ara l le lt ot he F i r s t Wa l l f o r t h i r teen m e t re s b e fo re t u rn ing n o r thward . S ome b a l l is ta b a l ls w e re e ven u sed a s b u i ld ing m a te r ia l i nt he c on s truc t ion o f t h i s w a l l . B o th t h i s w a l l a nd t he M idd le T owe r a re c ommon ly c ons ide red t o b e p re -He rod ian , more p rec i se ly , H asmonaean . T he b a l ls f ound b enea th t he T owe r o fD av id d e f in i te ly a n teda te t he H e rod ian p e r iod . T he re fo re , i th as b een p l aus ib ly s ugge s ted t h a t t he a r row -heads , s l ing b u l le t s a nd b a l l i s ta b a l l s a re e v idence o ft he s i ege o fJ e rusa lem b y An t iochus V I I S ide te si na bou t 1 3 4 -132 BC , h av ing b een f i red b y t he S e leuc id a rmy . I tm ay b e a dded t ha t t he se w eapon s c l o se ly r e semb le t he o ne s f ound a tT e l Do r , w h ich d a te a lmos t f r om t he s ame t ime ( S te rn 1 988 : 8 1 n . 6 ) . Adm i t ted ly , n o a r t i l le ry i s m en t ioned i n t he a ccoun t s o f t h i s s i ege o f J e rusa lem g i ven b y J o sephu s ( BJ 1 . 61 ; A J 1 3 .236 -47 ) , b u t o ne s hou ld n o t e xpec t h i s a ccoun t t o c on ta in a d e ta i led d e sc r ip t ion o f t he w eapons e mp loyed . T hu s , t h i s m ay b e s een a s af our th e xamp le t e s t ify ing t ot he u se o fa r t i l le ry b y S e leuc id a rm ie s i ns i ege o pe ra t ions i nJ udaea i n t h es econd c en tu ry BC ( 6 ) . S ome i n s t ruc t ive e v idence i sp rov ided b y t he L e t t e r o fA r i s t ea s , i n w h ich t h e re i sa n a ccoun to f av i s i tt oJ e rusa lem . I tr e ads a sf o l low s :

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T o o b ta in a t horough k now ledge o f e ve ry th ing w e a s cended t h e c i tade l o f t he c i ty ( ak ra t e s p o l eo s ) w h ich l i e s h ard b y a nd l ooked a bou t . I t i ss i tua ted o n av e ry l o f ty s po t a nd i sf o r t i f ied w i th a n umbe ro ft owe r sw h ich a re b u i l t o fl a rge b l o ck so fs t one r i gh t u p t o t he v e ry t op , a s ap ro tec t ion , s ow ew e re i n fo rmed , f o r t he p rec inc t s o ft he T emp le , s o t ha t i nc a se o fa ny a t tack o r r e vo lu t ion o r e nemy i n va s ion n o o ne c ou ld m ake h i s w ay i n to t he w a l l w h ich e ncompas se s t he T emp le . On t he t owe r s o f t he c i tade l a re s e t a r ti l le ry a nd v ar ious o the r e ng ine so fw a r ( k a io x ybe lon . . . k a io rganon p o ik i lon ) , a nd t he ir l o f ty e m inence c ommand st he a fo re sa id w a l l s . ( 100 -1 ) T h i s s ource , t hen , r eg ard s t he a r t i l le ry i n s ta l led i nt he c i tade l a s a n i n teg ra l p ar t o f t he d e fen s ive e qu ipmen t o f t he f o r t , w h i ch h ad a d oub le f unc t ion : t o s uppre s s a n i n te rna l r evo lu t ion a nd t o d e f end t he T emp le a ga ins t a n a t tack b y a f o re ign e nemy . Op in ions v ary a bou t t he d a te o f t h e c ompo s i t ion o f t he L e t t e r o f A r i s t ea s , t he m a jor i ty o fs cho lar sa s c r ib ing i tt oc .2 00 BC . N o t af ew s cho la r sp re fe r t od a te i ti nt he s e cond h a l fo ft he s e cond c en tury , o re ven l a te r ( 7 ) . I n a ny c a se , i t s hou ld b e emphas i sed t ha t t he c i tade l o fJ e rusa lem w a s e nv i saged a s b e ing i n t he p o s se s s ion o ft he J ew s ( Le t t e ro fA r i s t ea s 1 00 -4 ) . S ince ag ar r i son w as p l aced i nt he c i tade l b y S copas , t he P to lema ic g ene ra l , d u r ing t he F i f th S y r ian War ( J o seph . AJ 1 2 .133 , 1 38 ) , J ew s c ou ld h ave m anned i tb e fo re t h a t o ccas ion , o r u nde rA n t iochus I I , w ho w as f a vourab le t o t he J ew s ( J o seph . A J 1 2 . 1 38 -55 ) , o r u nde r t he Hasmonaeans . Howeve r , i ft he L e t t e r r e fe r s t o p re -Hasmonaean t ime s , t h e J ew s w ho g ar r i soned t he c i tade l a nd w e re r e spon s ib le f o r t he o pe ra t ion o f i t s a r t i l lery c ou ld h ave a c ted i n t h i s w ay o n ly w i th t he p e rm i s s ion , a nd p robab ly u nde r t he s upe rv i s ion , o ft he p o l i t ica l p owe r i nc on t ro l o f t he c oun try , w he the r P to lema ic o r S e leuc id . S ome c a re i n t he u se o f t h i s s ou rce i sp e rhap s n ece s sary . I ti sw or th r eca l l ing t h a t t he u se a nd i n s ta l la t ion o f a r t ile ry i n G reek u rban d e f ence s h ad b egun i n t he s econd h a lf o f t h e f our th c en tury BC , a nd t h a t , a pparen t ly , i th ad b ecome a n o rma l d e fen s ive t e chn ique b y t he t h i rd c en tury ( D iod . S i c . 1 6 .74 .4 ; 2 0 .85 .4 ; 2 0 .96 .2 -6 ; 2 2 .5 -7 ; L ivy 2 4 .34 ; P lu t . Ma r c . 1 4 .7 -15 .5 ; L ivy 3 1 .17 . 1 ; s ee S chambach 1 883 : 7 f f ; W in te r 1 964 : 3 77 f f ; Mar sden 1 9 69 : 16 -63 ) . A s t he L e t t e ro f A r i s t ea s c on ta ins s ome i mpo s s ib le g eog raph ica l f e a tu re s , i t s a u thor m ay h ave d e sc r ibed J e rusa lem a cco rd ing t o a n a ccep ted c on tempo rary mode l o f af o r t i f ied c i ty . On t he o the rh and , a st he re i sn o d oub t a bou t t h ec ommand ing p os i t ion o ft he c i tade l o ve r t he T emp le a rea , t he a u tho r m ay w e l l h ave r e l ied i nh i s d e sc r ip t ion o f i t sd e fence so n aw e l l in fo rmed s ou rce . L e t u s r e tu rn t o t he H asmonaean s . Dur ing t h e s i ege o fB e th Zu r , am a jor S e leuc id s t rongho ld i nJ udaea , S imon i ss a id t oh ave r a i sed c ho ina ta a nd t oh ave s e t u p mechanema ta ( J o seph .A J 1 3 .156 ; n o t m en t ioned i n 1Macc . 1 , 6 5 ) . I ti sv ery l i ke ly t h a t t he se " mach ine s " i n c luded a r t i l le ry e ng ine s ( s ee a bove o n J udah Maccabee ) . I mp re s sed b y t he H asmonaean s how o f f o rce , t h e S e leuc id t r oops a sked t oe vacua te t he c i ty u nde rt r uce ; t hu s , B e th Zu rw as t a ken b yS imon . T he emp loymen t o f a no the r f o rm o f He l len i s t ic m i l i tary t e chno logy b y S imon i sa l so s i gn i f ican t f o r t h e p re sen t d i scu s s ion . S imon u sed a h e l epo l i s , a mob i le s i ege towe r ( D roy sen 1 889 : 2 19 f f ; Mar sden 1 971 : 8 4f ; L aw rence 1 9 79 : 4 9 f ; L end le 1 981 : 3 49 -56 ) , i nt he s i ege o fG eze r , t he l a s t r ema in ing s t rongho ld o u t s ide J e rusa lem i n1 42 BC : A tt ha t t ime S imon b e s ieged G azara , a nd s u r rounded i tw i th t r oop s . He b u i l t a" c i ty t a ke r ' s " s i ege e ng ine , a nd b rough t i tc l o se t ot he c i ty ,

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a nd b a t te red o ne t owe r a nd t ook i t . T ho se w ho m anned t he s i ege e ng ine l e aped o u t i n to t he c i ty a nd t he re w as ag rea tc ommo t ion . ( 1 Macc . 1 3 ,43 -4 ) I tf o l low s t ha t ab a t te r ing ram w as o pe ra ted f r om t he mobi le t owe r , a nd i tm ay b e i n f e r red t ha t t he t r oop s u sed ab r idg ing d ev ice a t tached t ot he h e l epo l i s i no rde r t o l e ap o ver t he w a l l i n to t h ec i ty . L igh t a r t i l le ry m ay a l so h ave b een moun ted o n t he h e l epo l i s ; s uch t owe r sw e re o f ten e mp loyed a sa r t ile ry p l a tfo rm s . Un fo r tuna te ly , n o a dd i t iona l a nd d e ta i led i n fo rma t ion o n t he u se o f a r t i l le ry o r s im i lar e qu ipmen t i n s i ege s b y t he H a smonaean a rmy h a s b een p re se rved . S t i l l , t he e x tan t e v idence , mo s t o fw h ich i sf r om J osephu s , o n t he s c ope o f t he s ucce s s fu l s i ege s c onduc ted b y t he H a smonaeans i s i mp re s s ive i n deed . J ona than c onque red J oppa , A zo tus , a nd G aza ( J oppa : 1Macc . 1 0 .75 -6 , 1 2 .34 ; B J 1 5 0 ; A zo tu s : 1Macc . 1 0 .84 , 1 .4 ; G aza : 1Macc . 1 .6 1 -2 ; A J 1 2 .153 ) . I n a dd i t ion t o B e th Zur a nd Geze r , S imon c ap tured t he A c ra i n J e rusa lem ( 1 Macc . 1 3 .50 ; B J 1 . 50 ; AJ 1 3 .2 1 5 ) . J ohn H y rcanus Ic onque red Madaba , S amaga , Ma r i sa , Ado ra a nd S amar ia ( BJ 1 . 63 -5 ; A J 1 3 .275 -83 ) . T he g rea te s t o f t he se c onque ro r s w as A le xander J annaeu s . H e c ap tured m any c i t ie s t h roughou t t he c oun t ry , i n c lud ing R aph ia , An thedon , G aza , S t ra to ' s T owe r , Dora , G ada ra , Ama thu s , P e l la , D ium , G e ra sa , Gama la , G au lane , S e leuc ia i nG au lan i t i s , a nd v a r ious Moab i te t own s ; h e d i ed w h i le b e s ieg ing t h ef o r t re s s o fR agaba ( BJ 1 . 86 -7 , 1 03 -6 ; A J 1 3 .356 -64 , 3 93 -8 ) . T ha t f o r tre s sw as c ap tu red s ho r t ly a f te r h i s d ea th b y h i sw idow , q ueen S a lome ( AJ 1 3 .398 , 4 05 ) . I ts t ands t o r ea son t h a t t he H asmonaeans c on t inued t o emp loy t he s ame t e chn ique u sed b y t h e f i r s t H asmonaean g ene ra t ion . I n o the rw o rd s , t he re i s e nough e v idence t oc onc lude t h a t t hey c onque red t he H e l len i s t ic c i t ie s o fP a le s t ine t h rough t he e mp loymen t o f H e l len i s t ic s i ege t e chno logy , i n c lud ing a r t i l le ry , w h ich t h ey h ad ma s te red i nt h e 1 40 s .

I . T he R oman

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He rod ian P e r iod

T he R oman p e r iod i nJ udaea b egan w i th t he i n ter ven t ion o fP ompey i nt he s i b l ing w ar b e tween H y rcanus I a nd A r i s tohu lus I . A s i sw e l l k nown , P ompey g ave u p h i s p l anned e xped i t ion a ga ins t t he N aha taean s a nd p u t t he T emp le Moun t i nJ e rusa lem u nde rs i ege i nt he s umme ro f6 3 BC . I tw a st he re t h a t t he f o l lowe r so f A r i s tobu lus I s ough ts he l te r ( J o seph .B J 1 . 128 -49 ; A J 1 4 .34 -69 ) . P ompey moun ted h i s a t tack f r om t he n o r th s i de o f t he T emp le e nc lo sure , i t s t opog raph icaly w eake r p a r t , a l though h e re h e h ad t o f a ce t he H a smonaean B ans a s w e l l a s d ea l w i th a n a r t i f ic ia l t r ench . A f te rf i l ing u p t h is t r ench , P ompey i ss a id t oh ave ' moved u p a nd s e t i n p lace t he s i ege e ng ine s a nd i n s t rumen t s o f w ar ( Gk . mechana s k a i o r gana ) t h a th ad b een b rough t f r om T y re , a nd b egan t ob a t te r t he t emp le w i th h i sc a tapu l t s " ( p e t robo lo i s ; J o seph .A J 1 4 .62 ; c f .B J 1 . 147 ) . I ti sc l ea r t h a tP ompey h ad n o t t a ken as i ege tra in a l ong o n h i s N aba taean e xped i t ion w hen h e s e t o u t f r om Dama scu s . T h i s i s r ea sonab le e nough : t he N aba taeans h ad n o f o r t if ica t ions o f a ny c on sequence , a nd t he re w a s n o p o in t i n e ncumbe r ing t he a rmy w i th u nnece s sary e qu ipmen t . I ti su nc lear , h oweve r , t o w hom t he s i ege t ra in , i n c lud ing a r t i l le ry , w h i ch w as b rough t f r om T y re , b e longed . P ompey m ay h ave b or rowed i tf r om T y re ( Ma r sden 1 969 : 1 77 ) . A l te rna t ive ly , i tm ay h ave b een R oman e qu ipmen t t h a t h ad b een s t ored i nt ha t c i ty . One m igh t a rgue t h a t t he J ew i sh d e fende r s p o s se s sed n o a r t i l le ry , f o r i ti s n o t m en t ioned b y J o sephu s . S uch a n a rgumen t w ou ld b e e r roneous . J o sephu s ' n a r ra t ive c oncen t ra te s o n t he R oman s i ege o pe ra t ion , a nd d oe sn o t d e sc r ibe h ow t h eJ ew s f ough t . H ence , h i s r e t icence d oe s n o ts how t h a t t he B a ns , t he H asmonaean c i tade l n o r th o f t h e T emp le a rea , l a cked a r t i l le ry a t t ha t t ime .

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N ex t , t he s i ege o fJ e ru sa lem i n3 7 BC , w h ich w a s c onduc ted b y H e rod a nd C . S o s ius , t he R oman g ove rnor o f S y r ia . He rod b eg an t he s i ege o pe ra t ion e ven b e fo re S o s ius a r r ived . He c on s t ruc ted t h ree l i ne s o f e ar thwo rk s , w i th t owe r s i n s u i tab le p o s i t ions , c oncen t ra t ing h i s m a in e f fo r t i nt h e a rea n o r th o f t h e T emp le Moun t ( BJ 1 . 343 -4 ; A J 1 4 .465 -6 ) . J o sephus r e po r ts t ha t t he b e s iege r s u sed mechanema ta , mechana i , a nd o r gana a ga in s tt he w a l l s ( B . ! 1 . 348 ; AJ 1 4 .473 , 4 75 ) . F rom t he c on tex t , i ti sc l ea r t h a t b a t te r ing rams w e re e mp loyed t ob reach t he w a l l . T he a bove -men t ioned t e rm s p robab ly a l so r e f e r t ob al i s tae a nd c a tapu l t s ; i ndeed , t he u se o f a r t i l le ry i n s uch c i rcum s tance s w ou ld b e h i gh ly l i ke ly . Un fo r tuna te ly , J o sephu sd oe sn o ts pec i f yw he the r R omans , J ew s , o rb o th , e mp loyed t he se e ng ine s . R ema ins o f as i ege sy s tem h ave b een d i scove red a nd s u rveyed a tH y rcan ia , o ne o f t he m a jo r H a smonaean -He rod ian f o r t s . T he se r ema in s , n o tab ly t h e t r ace s a nd r emnan t s o f ac i rcumva l la t ion l i ne , at owe r , a nd a c amp , a re p robab ly t o b e a s soc ia ted w i th t he w ar f ough t b y He rod a ga ins t t h e s i s te r o f An t igonu s , t he l a s t Hasmonaean k ing , w ho o ccüp ied t he f o r tc .3 2 BC ( BJ 13 64 ) . Herod c ap tu red t he f o r t s ho r t ly b e fore t he b a t t le o fA c t ium . T h i s i st he o n ly s i ege o f Hy rcan ia w h ich i s r epo r ted b yJ osephus , w ho d oe s n o t r e co rd a ny f i gh t ing o ve r t h i sf o r t i nc onnec t ion w i th t he w a r s o fG ab in ius a nd t he o the r R oman g ene ra ls w ho h ad f ough t i nJ udaea i n t he 5 0 s BC ( R I 1 . 160 -80 ; A J 1 4 .82 -109 , 19 -20 ) . A b a 1 1 i s ta b a l l , t wen ty c en t ime t re s i nd i ame te r , w as f ound a tt he c i rcumca l la t ion l i ne ; t h is m ay , p e rhap s , p o in t t o t he emp loymen t o f a r t i l le ry b y t he He rod ian t r oop s d ur ing t h i s s i ege (Me she l 1 984 ) . He rod c on s t ruc ted a n e x tens ive n e two rk o f f o r t i f ica t ions t h roughou t h i s r ea lm ; m any o f t he se w e re l o ca ted o n s i te s o f H a smonaean f o r ts . Machae rus i n T ran s jo rdan w as o ne o ft he m a jo r H asmonaean -He rod ian s t rongho lds . I tw as b u i l t o r ig ina l ly b y A lexande r J annaeus , d e s troyed s ub sequen t ly b y G ab in ius , a nd f i na l ly r econ s truc ted m agn i f icen t ly b y He rod . J oe sphus d oe s n o t m en t ion Machae ru s w h i le d i scu s s ing t he H e rod ian p e r iod , b u t h e p au se s t o r e coun t i t s h i s to ry w hen d e sc r ib ing t he R oman s i ege o f t h e f o r t i n t he c l o s ing s t age o f t he F i r s t J ew i sh R evo l t : B u t He rod , o n b ecom ing k i ng , r egarded t h e p l ace a s s upreme ly d e ser v ing o f a t ten t ion a nd o f t he s t ronge s t f o r t i f ica t ion . . . H e a cco rd ing ly e nc losed a n e x ten s ive a rea w i th r ampar t s a nd t owe r s a nd f ounded a c i ty t he re . . . F ur the rmo re , o n t h e t op , s u r round ing t he a c tua l c re s t , h e b u i l t aw a l l , e rec t ing t owe r s a tt he c o rne r s , e ach s i x ty c ub i ts h i gh . . . F o r , mo reove r , h e s t ocked i tw i th a bundance o f w eapon sa nd e ng ine s ( k a ib e /on p / e tho sk a im echanema ton ) . ( BJ 7 . 171 -7 ) T h i s i st he o n ly p as sage i nw h ich J o sephus e xp l ic i t ly a s c r ibes i n echanema ta t o af o r t o f He rod . Ih ave a l ready p o in ted o u t t h a t , o n o ccas ion , t h i s t e rm i su sed t o mean a r t i l le ry i nJ o sephus 'w r i t ing s ( s ee n .3 ) . He re , i to bv iou s ly h as t h i s m ean ing , f o rt he mach ine sw e re i n tended t oo pe ra te f r om i n s ide t h e f o r t a ga ins t a t tack sf r om t he o u t ide , h ence , s ome s o r t o f a r t i l le ry w a s mean t . I ndeed , t he j ux tapo s i t ion o f mechanema ta w i th b e l e h as p ar t icu lar s i gn i f icance , a l though t he l a te r t e rm a l so h as t he mean ing o fw eapons i na dd i t ion t ot h a t o fd ar t s o rp ro jec t i le s . I ti sh i gh ly l i ke ly t ha t t he He rod ian a r sena l w as m a in ta ined b y t he R omans a f te r t he e s tab l i shmen t o ft he R oman p rov ince o fJ udaea . T ha t t h i so ccur red i nt he c a se o f Masada ,w ho se R oman g ar r i son w as m a s sac red b y t he J ew i sh r ebe l s i n6 6 ( R I2 . 408 ) , i se xp l ic i t ly r e la ted b yJ o sephus (R I7 . 295 -300 ) . Machae ru s , t oo , h ad aR oman g ar r i son , w h ich e vacua ted t he f o r t i n6 a f te r c om ing t o a n a g reemen t w i th t he J ew s o f t h e l owe r t own ( BJ 2 . 485 -6 ) . T he w ho le o fJ o sephus ' a c coun t o f Machae rus i sd i rec ted t ot e l l

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t h e r e ade r t h a t t h e R oman s h ad t o o ve rcome d e fence s c on s t ruc ted t he re l o ng b e fo re b y He rod : w a l l s ,t owe r s , a r t i l le ry , e t c . T he r e cen t e x cava t ion a nd s u rvey o f Machae ru s ( l oca ted a t Q a l 'a t e i M i shnaqa i nT ran s jo rdan ) a nd i t s s u r round ing a rea h ave u nea r thed t he r ema ins o f t h ef o r tre s s a nd o ft h e R oman s i ege w o rk s o f7 2 ( S t robe ! 1 974a ; 1 974b ; L o f f reda 1 979 ; C orbo a nd L o f f reda 1 981) . I no ne o ft h eh a l l so ft h ef o r t re s sw e re f ound 1 40 b a l l i s ta b a l l s ( Co rbo a nd L o f f reda 1 981 : 2 83 ,p 1 . 4 3 , f i g .2 2 ) . Al a rge b a l l i s ta b a l l , 4 0 c mi nd i ame te r ,w a sf o und n ear c amp K , a t ad i s tance o fa bou t 6 50 m e t re sf r om t h e f o r t re s s ( S t robe ! 1 974a : 1 6 1 -2 ; 1 974b : 1 0 9 ) . A no the r r epo r t ( S t robe ! 1 974b : 1 24 ) m en t ions t he d i scove ry o f2 0b a l l i s ta b a l l s ,w h ich m ay h ave b e longed t ot he J ew s o r t o t h e R oman s i n t h e s i ege o f 7 2 ( 8 ) . T he J ew s o bv ious ly c ou ld h ave g o t t h e i r a r t i l le ry o n ly f r om t h e R oman g a r r i son o f Machae ru s . A t a ny r a te , t h e 1 40 b a l l is ta b a l l sw ere f ound c oncen t ra ted i no ne p l ace ; i na l l i ke l ihood t h ey b e longed t ot he a r sena l o f t h e f o r t re s s a nd a r e n o t t o b e a s c r ibed t o a s uppo sed R oman b ombardmen to ft h e s i te i nt h e s i ege o f7 2 . I ts eem st h a t t he se f i nd ing sg i ve s t rong s uppo r t t o b e i n terp re ta t ion p re sen ted a bove o fJ o sephu s ' a ccoun t ; n ame ly , t h a t t h em a in tenance o fa r t i l le ry w a sc on t inued a t Machae ru s f r om t h e H e rod ian t ot h e R oman a rmy . I ts hou ld c au se n o s u rp r i se t h a t H e rod ian e ng ine s c ou ld b e k ep t i n o pe ra t iona l c ond i t ion t ot h e t i me o ft h e F i r s t J ew i sh R evo l t , f o r t h e re i se v idence f o rt h el o ng d u rab i l i ty o fa r t i l le ry m ach ine s ( Baa tz 1 982 : 2 32 ) . J e ru sa lem t ook p r ide o f p l ace i n H e rod ' s b u i ld ing p ro jec t s . T he f o r t i f i ca t ion s y s tem o ft h e c i ty i n c luded t h e s o -ca l led F i r s t a nd S econd Wa l l s ( BJ 5 . 142 6 ) , t h e T emp le e nc lo su re o n t h e e a s te rn h i l l o ft he c i ty ( BJ 5 . 184 -9 ) , t he A n ton ia c i tade l i n t h e n o r th -we s t c o rne r o ft h e T emp le e nc lo su re ( BJ 5 . 238 -45 ) , a nd t h ree h uge t owe r s ( Phasae l , H ipp icu sa nd Mar iamme ) i nt h en o r th -we s t a ng le o ft h eF i r s t Wa l l ( BJ 5 . 161 -75 ) . T he se t h ree t owe r s , p l aced o n h i gh g round o n t he w e s te rn h i l l a nd r i s ing t o h e igh t s o f 9 0 , 8 0 , a nd 5 c ub i t s r e spec t ive ly , h ad a s upe rb , c ommand ing p o s i t ion o ve r t h e c i ty a nd a d jacen t a rea s b eyond t h e w a l l s . T he t owe r s 'l a te ra ld imen s ion sw e re 4 0 ,2 5 , a nd 2 0c ub i t sr e spec t ive ly , a nd t he h e igh t so f t h e i r s o l id b ase s w e re 4 0 , 3 0 , a nd 2 0 c ub i t s r e spec t ive ly . One o f t h em , p robab ly H ipp icus ( Geva 1 981) , i se x tan t t o ah e igh t o f 1 9 .85 m e t re s ( J ohn s 1 950 : 1 40f ) . A no the r w a l l , k nown a s t h e T h i rd Wa l l , w as c ons t ruc ted b y A g r ippa Ia nd w a s s t reng thened d u r ing t h e F i r s t J ew i sh R evo l t ( BJ 5 . 147 -55 ) . J o sephus g i ve s a d e ta i led a ccoun t o ft h e se d e f ence s ; h e s pec i f ie s t h e f e a ture s o ft h e T h i rd Wa l l b u t i g no re s t ho se o ft h e F i r s t a nd S econd Wa l l . A c co rd ing t o h i s a c coun t , t he T h i rd Wa l lw as 1 0c ub i t sw ide , a nd 2 5 c ub i t s h i gh , i n c lud ing i t sb a t t lemen t s a nd b u lwark s . S qua re t owe r s , 2 0 c ub i t sw ide a nd h i gh , w e re s e t a ti n te rva l s a l ong t h ew a l l s ; t h e i r i n d ica ted n umbe r , n i ne ty , h oweve r , i si mpo s s ib le ( Av i -Yonah 1 9 68 ) . A t t he n o r th w e s t a ng le , at owe r 7 0 c ub i t s h i gh w as b u i l t ( P seph inu s ) . T he b a se o ft he A n ton ia w a s ar ock 5 0c ub i t sh i gh . I tw a sp rec ip i tous o n t h ree o fi t ss i de s a nd w a sp ro tec ted b y a n a r t i f ic ia l f o s se t o t h e n o r th . A n e x te rna l w a l l 3c ub i t s h i gh , a ppa ren t ly a p ro t e i ch i sma , e nc i rc led t h e c i tade l i t se l f . T he w a l l s o f t h e c i tade l p rope r w e re 4 0 c ub i t sh igh , a nd t he re w as at owe ra te ach o fi t sf ou rc o rne r s . T hree o ft he se t owe r s w e re 5 0 c ub i t s h i gh , w h i le t h a t a t t h e s ou th -ea s t c o rne r w as 7 0 c ub i t s h i gh . J o sephu s d oe s n o t p rov ide t h e m easu remen t s o ft h e c i tade l i t se l f . I nv i ew o ft he n ow c ommon ly a c cep ted s i te o ft h e A n ton ia , t h ey s eem t o h ave b een 1 20 x4 5 m ( 9 ) . Nowhe re i nh i s a c coun t d oe s J o sephu s s a y t h a t H e rod i n s ta l led a r t i l le ry i n t h ed efence so fJ e ru sa lem . H oweve r , s e ve ra lc ons ide ra t ions a nd p i ece s o fe v idence s ugge s t t h a t h e d i d s o . T o t a ke f i r s t t h e f unc t ion o f t h e A n ton ia , w h ich i s s ummar ised b y J o sephus a s f o l low s : " Fo r i ft h e T emp le l a y a s af o r t re s s o ve r t h e c i ty , An ton ia d om ina ted t h e t emp le , a nd t h e o c cupan t s o ft h a t p o s tw e re g ua rds o f

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a l t h ree " ( BJ 5 . 245 ) . I th as b een a p t ly o b served t h a t J o sephus ' d esc r ip t ion o f t h e r o le o f t he An ton ia b ear s ac l o se r e semb lance t o t h a t a sc r ibed t o t h e c i tade l o f J e rusa lem i nt he L e t t e ro fA r i s t ea s ( Hada s 1 951 : 1 400 . T ha t c i tade l , b e i tP to lema ic o r H asmonaean , w as l o ca ted o n t he s ame s i te a s t h e An ton ia ; i ft h i s s ource i s r e l iab le , i tw as e qu ipped w i th a r t i l le ry i n s ta l led o n i t s t owe r s a nd w a s i n tended t o s upp re s s p o s s ib le i n te rna l r i s ing s a s w e l l a s t o d e f end t he T emp le a ga in s t e nemy a t tack s . S econd ly , g ene ra l ly s peak ing , He rod ian d e f ence s r evea l t r ace so ft he i nf lu e nce o f t he G reek a r t o f f o r t if ica t ion . A s i sw e l l k nown , G reek f o r t i f ica t ion s , n o tab ly t he mu l t i s to reyed t owe r s w i th s t rong , s o l id b a se s , s e rved a s p l a t forms f o r a r t i l le ry (Ma r sden 1 969 : 1 26 -39 ; W in te r 1 971 : 3 23 -4 , 3 27 -30 ; L aw rence 1 979 : 4 24 6 ) . T he t owe r s o f t he An ton ia a sw e l l a s P hasae l , H ipp icus a nd Ma r iamme w e re p rec i se ly o ft h is t y pe . S uch He rod ian t owe r sh ave b een u near thed i na r chaeo log ica l e xcava t ion s o n o the r s i te s a sw e l l , n o tab ly a tS ebas te ( Re i sne re ta l . 1 9 24 : 2 30f a nd p lA5 ; C row foo t e ta l . 1 942 : 3 9 f f ) a nd a t He rod ium ( He tze r 1 981 : 7 9 -83 ) . S ince G reek f o r t i f ica t ion s h ad b een a dap ted t o t he u se o f d e fens ive a r t i l le ry f r om t h e s econd h a l f o f t he f our th d en tury o nward s ( Law rence 1 948 : 1 05f ; W in te r 1 963 : 3 77 ff ) , i ti sh igh ly l i ke ly t h a t G reek e xpe r ience a nd t h eo ry i nt h is s phe re h ad b een t aken i n to a ccoun t i nt he c on s t ruc t ion o f t h e d e fence s o fJ e rusa lem . T h i rd ly , t h e J ew i sh r ebe l s d id i n deed u se t he e x i s t ing d e f ence s t o e mp loy a r t i l le ry f r om t h e An ton ia a nd f r om t he c i ty w a l ls a g a ins t t he R omans i n t he s i ege o f 7 0 . F ur the rmo re , t he R oman g ar r i son o ft he A n ton ia h ad a r t i l le ry a ti t s d i spo sa l i n6 . T he b e s te xp lana t ion f o r t he e x i s tence o ft h i sa r t i l le ry , a sw e l l a so fp ar t o ft he h uge n umbe ro fc a tapu l t s a nd b a l l i s tae u sed b y t he J ew s i n7 0 , i st op o s i t t h e i rs ource a s t he He rod ian a r sena l ( s ee b e low ) . I ti si mpo r tan t t oe xam ine t he a dvan tage s g a ined b y t he p l ac ing o fa r t i l le ry i nt he An ton ia , a nd i nt he P hasae l , H ipp icu s a nd Mar iamme t owe r s . T he w eake s t p o in t i n t he n a tura l d e fence s o f J e rusa lem w as t he n o r the rn s e c t ion , a sJ o sephu s o b ser ved ( 10 ) . T he c i ty w a s a t tacked f r om t h i s d i re c t ion b y P ompey i n6 3 BC ( B J 1 . 145 ; A J 1 4 .60 -1 ) , b y He rod a nd S o s iu s i n3 7 BC ( B . ! 1 . 343 , 3 46 ; AJ 1 4 .466 , 4 69 ) , b y C e s t iu s G a l lus i n 6 6 ( BJ 2 . 535 -7 ) , a nd b y T i tu s i n 7 0 ( BJ 5 . 159 , 2 58 -60 ) . T o s t reng then t he d e fence s o f t h i s s e c t ion , He rod b u i l t t he An ton ia a nd t he t h ree t owe r s . I n a dd i t ion , at r ench w as d ug o n t he n o r the rn s i de o ft he An ton ia ; s uch a t r ench h ad a l so b een af e a ture o ft he H asmonaean d e f ence s ( BJ 1 . 145 ; 5 . 149 , 2 46 ; A J 1 4 .61 ) . A s t he d i s tance b e tween t he se t wo m a in f o r t i f ica t ion s w as b e tween 6 00 a nd 7 00 me t re s , a r t i l le ry p o s ted o n t h e i r l o f ty t owe r s c ou ld h ave g i ven c ove r t o t he w ho le n o r the rn s ec t ion . I n v i ew o f t he c a re fu l a t ten t ion a nd e normous e f fo r t s He rod d evo ted t op rov id ing J e rusa lem w i th m ax imum s e cur i ty i n s ta l la t ion s , a nd i n v i ew o f h i s m i l i tary e xpe r ience , h e a nd h i s m i l i tary a dv i se r s c ou ld h ave h ard ly m i s sed t he i mpo r tance o fp l ac ing a r t i l le ry a tt he se p o in t s ( 1 1) .

I I . T he R oman P rov ince o fJ udaea When Augus tu s e s tab l i shed t h e p rov ince o f J udaea i n 6 , t h e R oman a dm in i s t ra t ion t ook o ve r s ome e l emen t s o f t he H e rod ian m i l i tary s y s tem . T h i s c on t inu i ty mus t b e c l ar i f ied a nd b o rne i n m ind i n o rde r t o o b ta in a b e t te r u nde r s tand ing o ft he p o s se s s ion o fa r t i l ler y b y t he R oman g ar r i son o ft h ep rov ince . Ie s t ima te t he s t and ing a rmy o fH e rod a tb e tween 1 6 ,000 a nd 2 0 ,000 m en , mos t o f w hom w e re J ew s . G e rmans , T hrac ians , G a la t ians , a nd o the r f o re igne r s f o rmed t he u n i t s o f t h e k i ng ' s b odyguard , e ach o fw h ich c omp r i sed s ome 5 00 men ( 1 2 ) . T he c r ack r eg imen t o f t he a rmy w a s t h a t o f t h e S ebas ten ian t r oop s , w ho n umbe red 3 , 000 ( R I 2 . 52 , 5 8 , 6 3 ; A J 1 7 .275 -6 , 2 83 , 2 94 ) . T oj udge b y t he i r a ppe l la t ion , t he se t r oop s w e re i n s ome w ay c onnec ted w i th S eba s te . O f c our se , t hey w e re n o t t he d i scharged s o ld ie r sw ho h ad b een s en tw i th o the rc o lon i s t st os e t t le t ha tc i ty w hen i t

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w a s f ounded b y He rod i n2 5 BC ( Schüre r 1 973 -87 : 2 . 162f ) , f o r t he se S eba s ten ian s a r ea t te s ted i n 4BC . T hey p robab ly g o t t he i rn ame b ecau se t he i r ma in b a se w as i n S ebas te , o rb ecause t he c o re o ft he r eg imen tw a sc omposed o fS eba s ten ian c i t izen s . I nt he r ebe l l ion t ha t b roke o u t a f te r t he d ea th o f He rod , mo s t o f t he r oya l t r oop s j o ined t he r ebe l s , b u t t he S ebas ten ians k ep t t he i r a leg iance t o t he l e g i t ima te g ove rnmen t , t ha t o f A r che lau s a nd t he R oman s . I ts t and s t o r eason t ha t t he se r o ya l t r oop s f o rmed , o r w e re i n corpo ra ted i n , t he a ux i l ia ry g a r r i son o fJ udaea o n J udaea 's e s tab l i shmen t a s ap rov ince . I t i s c e r ta in t h a t t he J ew i sh s o ld ie r s , e s pec ia l ly t ho se w ho t ook p ar t i nt he r ebe l l ion ,w e re d i scharged i n6 ,i ft hey h ad n o t a l ready b een d i scha rged i n 4BC . Ag r ippa Is ub sequen t ly h ad a n a l a c ompo sed o f C ae sarean sa nd S eba s ten ian s , a nd f i ve c oho r t e s ,w h ich r ema ined p a r to ft he R oman g a r r i son a f te r h i s d ea th i n 4 ( AJ 1 9 .356 , 3 64 -6 ) . T he se s i x , p re sumab ly q u ingenar iae , u n i t sm ay w e l l h ave h ad t he i ro r ig in i nt he 3 , 000 S eba s ten ian t r oop so f H e rod . One a l a o ft h e S ebas ten ians , a nd f ou rc ohor t e s , a re men t ioned b yJ o sephus o na no the ro ccas ion ( R I2 . 236 ; A J2 0 .122 ) . T he S ebas ten ian a uxi l iary u n i t sa re a l so r e corded i ni n sc r ip t ion s( 1 3 ) . T he a ux i l iary g ar r i son a l so i n c luded s ome u n i t s h av ing n o a ppa ren t c onnec t ion w i th t he a rmy o f He rod . T he re i s ar e co rd o f as pe i r e I t a l ik e , c ommanded b y ac en tu r ion n amed C o rne l iu s , i nc .4 0 ( Ac t s 1 0 .1) . T h i s a nd a no the r u n i t , as pe i r e S eba s t e ( =c oho r s Augu s ta , n o t c oho r s S eba s t ena : A c t s 2 7 .2 ) 'w e re p robab ly n o t i d en t ica lw i th t he S ebas ten ian u n i t s men t ioned a bove ( 14 ) . T he t o ta l s t reng th o ft he g ar r i son m ay b e i n f e r red f r om t he d a ta r e la t ing t o t he o u tb reak o f t h e F ir s t J ew i sh R evo l t . One c oho r t w as m as sac red i n J e rusa lem i n6 6 ( R I 2 . 430 , 4 52 -4 ) . I n t he s ame y ear A sca lon w as d e f ended b y o ne a l a a nd o ne c oho r s (R I 3 . 12 ) ; i n t he n ex t V e spas ian t ook u nde r h i s c ommand o ne a l a a nd f i ve c oho r t e s t h en s t a t ioned i n C ae sa rea ( BJ 3 . 66 ) . I tf o l low s t ha t t he a ux i l iary g ar r i son o f J udaea amoun ted t oa tl e as ts e ven u n i t s , a nd p o s s ib ly n ine , i ft he t wo u n i t s t ha t h ad d e fended A sca lon h ad r ema ined t he re a nd w e re n o t among t he u n i t s V e spa s ian f o und i n C ae sarea . A ux i l iary u n i t s a re men t ioned o n s eve ra l mo re o ccas ion s ( f or e x amp le , R I 2 . 169 -74 ; A J 1 8 .55 -9 ; B J 2 . 224 , 2 96 , 3 26 ) , b u t s uch r e fe rence s d o n o t h e lp u s i ne s tab l i sh ing t h e s i ze o ft he t o ta l R oman f o rce s o ft he p rov ince . On t he o t he r h and , w e s hou ld p e rhap s a low f o r o ne o r t wo mo re u n i t s , f o r t r oop s w e re a l so d e ta i led t o g ar r i son s eve ra l f o r t s t h roughou t t he c oun try ( s ee b e low ) . A s sum ing a g ar r i son o f t e n u n i t s , o ne o f t hem o f am i l l iar ia ( Kennedy 1 983 ) , t he t o ta l s t reng th o f t he R oman a rmy o f J udaea w i l l h ave b een a bou t 5 , 500 , t ha t i s , a bou t aq ua r te r o ft he s i ze o f He rod ' s a rmy . T he re i sn o d i f f icu l ty i nr egard ing t he c o re o ft h i s a rmy a sf o rmed f r om t he He rod ian , p agan t r oop s w ho h ad s hown t he ir l o ya l ty t ot he R oman g ove rnmen t a f te rt he d ea th o f He rod . He rod c on s t ruc ted al a rge n umbe r o ff o r t s o fv ar ious k i nd s t h roughou t h i s r e a lm . S ome t wen ty s i te s a re k nown a s h av ing h ad f o r t s , a nd a no the r t wen ty m ay b ev i ewed a sp robab ly , o r p o s s ib ly , He rod ian f o r t s . E v iden t ly , as ub s tan t ia l p ar t o f h i sa rmy g ar r i soned t h e se f o r t s . T he R oman p rov ince e s tab l i shed i n 6w as s ami le r t h an t he k i ngdom o fH e rod . I tc omp r i sed I dumaea ,J udaea p rope r , S amar ia , a nd a l a rge p ar to ft he c oa s ta lp l a in ( i nc lud ing C ae sa rea a nd J oppa , b u t n o tG aza ) . I td id n o t i n c lude G a li lee , P e raea , G au lan i t i s , B a tanaea , T rachon i t is o r Auran i t i s . T he s ma l le r t e r r i tory m ay i np ar t e xp la in t he r e la t ive ly s male r s i ze o ft he R oman a rmy a s s igned t o t he p rov ince . Mo re s t r ik ing i st he d i f f e rence b e tween t he n umbe r o f s i te s k nown t o h ave b een o ccup ied b y t he R oman a rmy a nd t he n umbe r o f t he H e rod ian f o r t s . One c oho r tw a sp e rmanen t ly s t a t ioned i nJ e rusa lem . I t s ma in b a se w as t he A n ton ia ( R I 2 . 224 ; 5 . 244 ; A J 1 5 .408 ; 2 0 .106 -7 ) , w hi le s ome t r oop w e re a s s igned t og uard t he f o r t i f ied p a lace o f He rod , t ow h ich t he i r c amp w as a t tached (R I2 . 328 -9 ; c f .A J2 0 .110 ) . T he c amp a tt he p a lace g ave t he t r oop s e asy a cce s s t o a nd c ommand o ft h e P hasae l , H ipp icus a nd Mar iamme t owe r s ( R I2 . 439 ) . T he u n i t

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a s s igned t ot he t a sk o fg ar r i son ing J e rusa lem w as a ppa ren t ly r ep laced f r om t ime t o t ime , a sc an b e l e arn t f r om t he a t temp t o fP on t ius P i la te t oi n t roduce mi l i ta ry s t an d a rds i n to t he c i ty ( BJ 2 . 169 -74 ; A J 1 8 .55 -9 ; s ee K r ae l ing 1 942 ) . T he c ommande r o ft he u n i t i sr e fe r red t o s eve ra l t ime s i nt he N ew T e s tamen t a s c h i l iar cho s ( J ohn 1 8 .22 ; A c t s 2 1 .31 , 3 7 ; 2 2 .24 , 2 9 ; 2 3 .10 , 1 5 , 2 2 ; 2 4 .7 , 2) . I ft h i s w as r ea l ly h i s r ank ( = t r ibunu s c ohor t i s ) , t he u n i t mu s t h ave b een e i the r ac oho r s q u ing ena r ia c i v iur n R omanorum o r ac oho r s m i l l iar ia ( C icho r iu s 1 900 : 2 35 f , 3 04 ; Domaszew sk i 1 907 : 4 0 ; C hee sman 1 914 : 3 6 ) . Ou ts ide J e ru sa lem , ad e tachmen t w as s t a t ioned i n C yp ru s , t he H e rod ian f o r t c ommand ing J e r icho ( BJ 2 . 484 ) . Two m a jo r f o r t s , Masada a nd Machae ru s , w e re a l so g ar r i soned ( BJ 2 . 408 , 4 85 -6 ) . A d e tachmen t u nde r t he c ommand o f a d ecu r ion w as s t a t ioned i n t he E sd rae lon v aley ( J o seph . V i ta 15 ) . A s In o ted a bove , A sca lon , w h ich h ad n eve r b een p ar t o f He rod ' s k i ngdom , w as d e f ended b y a n a l a a nd a c oho r s i n 6 ( BJ 3 . 12 ) , a nd i n 6 7 S amar ia h ad R oman g a r r i sons i n s eve ra l p l ace s ( BJ 3 . 309 ) . T he p re sence o ft he u n i t s i nA sca lon a nd S ama r ia , a nd p o s s ib ly i n t he E sdrae lon v a l ley a s w e l l , w as p robab ly d ue , h oweve r , t o a r edep loymen t o f t he R oman f o rce s f o l low ing t he o u tb reak o f t he J ew i sh r e vo l t . Hence , i td oe s n o t n ece s sar i ly r ef lec t t he n o rma l d i s t r ibu t ion o f t he a rmy i n t he p rov ince . I t i s e asy t o u nde r s tand t he r e asons b eh ind t he d ec i s ion t o m a in ta in g ar r i son si nJ e rusa lem , t he r e l ig iou sc en t re a nd mo s tp opu lou sa nd t r oub led c i ty ; a t J e r icho , w i th i t s r oya l p a lace s , f e r ti le l a nd a nd f amou s b a l sam p l an ta t ion s ; a nd i n t he t wo ma jo r f o r t s o f Ma sada a nd Machae ru s . T he q ue s t ion a r i se sw he the rt he se f ew s i te sw e re t he o n ly o ne s t oh ave b een o ccup ied b yt he R oman a rmy i nt h ey ear s b e tween 6a nd 6 6 . S ince as ub s tan t ia l p ar t o ft he p rov inc ia l f o rce sw as s t a t ioned i n C ae sarea ( BJ 2 . 169 -74 , 3 18 , 4 30 , 4 52 -4 ; 3 . 66 ; A J 1 8 .55 -9 ; 2 0 .122 ) , i tm igh t b e i n fe r red t h a t t he R oman a u tho r i t ie s h ad d ec ided t oc oncen tra te t he ir f o r ce s o n a f ew s i te s a nd t o r e f ra in f r om g ar r i son ing a lmo s t a l o ft he He rod ian f o r t s . S t il , i t w ou ld b e s t range i ft he R omans a bandoned s uch m a jo r f o r t s a s He rod ium a nd A lexand r ium . A rchaeo log ica l f i nds i n d ica te t h a t s e ve ra l o the r f o r tre s se s w e re i n deed o ccup ied b y t he R oman s i n t h i s p e r iod , s uch a s t ho se a tG iv 'a t S hau l a nd K h i rbe t Me sad o n t he J e rusa lem J oppa r oad ( T zaf e r i s 1 974 ; F i scher 1 985 ; 1 987 : 1 27 ) o r t ha t a tT e l F a r 'ah i nt he N egev ( Pe t r ie 1 930 : 2 0f ; S ha tzman 1 983b : 1 4 1f , 1 55 n . 7 0 ) . T he re fo re , i ti s mo re l i ke ly t h a t R oman t r oop s o ccup ied s e vera l a dd i t iona ls i te sb eyond t ho se r e fe r red t ob yJ o sephu sa f te r t he e s tab l ishmen to ft he p rov ince o fJ udaea . T he R omans m a in ta ined av e ry l a rge f o rce i nC aesarea , r a the r t han i nJ e rusa lem a s He rod d one , a nd g ar r i soned o n ly t ho se p l ace s t hey c on s ide red t ob ee s sen t ia l f o r t he c on tro l o ft he c oun t ry . I no the rw o rd s , t he He rod ian m i l i tary s y s tem w as r e ta ined w i th s ome n ece s sary mod i f ica t ion s . T h i s b ackg round h a st ob e k ep t i n m ind w hen o ne e xam ine s s undry e ven t s a nd e v idence o f t he F i r s t J ew i sh R evo l t . -

T he b aggage t r a in o f t he e xped i t ion o f C e s t ius G a l lus a n e xped i t ion t ha t w a s af ai lu re a nd e nded i n a lmo s t c omp le te d i sas te r f e l l i n to t he h and s o f t he J ew i sh r ebe l s i n 6 6 . F o l low ing h i s d ec i s ion t o g i ve u p h i s a t temp t t o c onque r J e ru sa lem , C e s t ius o rde red t h a t t he b ea s t s o fb urden b ek i l led i no rde r t of a c i l i ta te t he r e t rea t , " e xcep t ing t ho se t h a t c a r r ied m i s s i le s a nd e ng ine s o f w ar ( b e l e k a i mechana s ) ; t he se t hey c l ung t of o r t he i r o wn u se a nd , s t i l l mo re , f r om f e a r o ft he i r f a l l ing i n to J ew i sh h and sa nd b e ing e mp loyed a ga ins tt h em se lve s " ( BJ 2 . 546 ) . -

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J o sephu s d oe s n o t r e co rd t h e e mp loymen t o f a r t ile ry b y t he a rmy o f C e s t ius i n t he a bo r t ive a t tack o n J e rusa lem o r d u r ing t he r e t rea t . E ven tua l ly , h oweve r , i no rde r t o s ave t hem se lve s f r om t he i r J ew i sh p ur sue r s , t he R oman s h ad

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t oa bandon t he " c i ty take r s " ( h e l epo l e i s ) , t he c a tapu l t s ( o x ybe l e i s ) a nd mos t o ft he i r o t he rw ar e ng ine s ( o r gana ) ; a l o ft he se w e re c ap tured b y t he J ew s , w ho l a te r u sed t h em a ga in s t t he R omans ( BJ 2 . 553 ) . I t eme rge s t h a t t he R oman g ene ra l r ega rded t h e emp loymen t o f a r t i l le ry b y t he J ew s a s ar ea l p o s s ib i l i ty ; i n t he e ven t , h i s a pp rehens ion w as j u s t i f ied . T he i n fo rma t ion o f J o sephu s o n t h i s p o in t w i l l b e d i scus sed b e low , b u t i ti sw o r th r emembe r ing t ha t J o sephus m ay s imp ly h ave p re sen ted ac on jec tu ra lv e r s ion o fC e s t iu s 'p onde r ing s . I ti sd i f f icu l t t oe s t ima te t he n umbe ro ft he a r t i l le ry e ng ine s c ap tured b yt he J ew so n t h i so ccas ion . T he a rmy o fC e s t ius G a l lus i n c luded t he l e g io X I IF u lm ina ta , v e x i l la t ione s ( i nc lud ing 2 , 000 men e ach f r om t he r ema in ing l e g ion s o ft he p rov ince o f S y r ia ) , s i x a ux i l iar y c ohor t e s , a nd f our a l ae ( BJ 2 . 500 ) . V ar iou s , mu tua l ly c on t rad ic to ry , e s t ima te s h ave b een s ugge s ted f o r t he n umbe r o f v e x i l la t ione s o n C e s t ius ' e xped i t ion ( 1 5 ) . A s o n ly t he l e g io V I F e r ra ta i s c l ear ly a t te s ted a s p a r t ic ip t ing i nt he c ampa ign ( BJ 2 . 531 , 5 44 ) , t he t o ta lf i gu re d epend so nt he n umbe r o fS y r ian l e g ion s i n6 . T he R oman a rmy o fS y r ia n o rma l ly c omp r i sed f our l e g ions b u t , b ecause o f t he A rmen ian -Par th ian w ar , t he n umbe r o f l e g ion s i n t he E as t ( e x c lud ing t ho se o f E gyp t ) h ad b een i n c rea sed g radua l ly t o s even ( Parke r 1 928 : 1 3 4 -7 ; R i t te r l ing 1 924 -25 : 1 363 ) . I n6 3 C orbu lo h ad f our l e g ion sa th i sd i spo sa l ( I I I G a l l ica , V Macedon i ca , V I F e r ra ta , XV Apo l l inar i s ) f o r t he A rmen ian -Par th ian w a r ; t h ree l e g ions ( IV S c y th i ca , XF r e t en s i s , X I I F u lm ina ta ) r ema ined i n S y r ia u nde r t he c ommand o f t he g ove rno r o f t h a t p rov ince , w ho w as p robab ly C e s t ius G a l lus ( 16 ) . A f te r t h e c onc lus ion o f t he d i spu te o ve r A rmen ia , t he t e rm s a g reed u pon b y C o rbu lo , T i r ida te s a nd V o logae su s ( Tac . Ann . 1 5 .27 -31 ) m ade i tp o s s ib le t o r educe t he a rmy s t a t ioned i n C appadoc ia t o s ome e x ten t , a l though T i r ida te s a r r ived i n R ome t o r e ce ive h i s c rown f r om N e ro o n ly i n6 6 ( Sue t . N e ro 1 3 ; D io 6 3 .1 -6 ) . S ince N e ro w a s p l ann ing a n e xped i t ion t o t he C aucasu s i n6 6 ( Sue t . N e ro 1 9 ) , t he re w as s t i l l an eed t om a in ta in as t rong a rmy i nC appadoc ia , mo s t p robab ly u nde r t he c ommand o fC o rbu lo . I ndeed , i tc an h e l e arn tf r om D io ( 6 2 .17 ,5 -6 ) t ha t C o rbu lo w as i n c ommand o f a n a rmy w hen h e w a s o rde red t o r epo r t t o N e ro i n G reece i n6 7 ( 17 ) . T h i s w as p robab ly t he a rmy d e s t ined f o r t he e xped i t ion t o t he C aucasus . G iven t h i s e v idence , i ti sb e s t t oa s sume t ha t t he a rmy a tt he d i spo sa l o f t h e g ove rno r o fS y r ia i n6 , a f te r t he r e s to ra t ion o f p eace w i th P ar th ia , w as o ft he s ame s i ze a sh ad b een n o rma l b e fo re t he o u tb reak o ft he h o s t i l i t ie s o ve r A rmen ia , n ame ly t ha t i tw as c ompo sed o ff ou r l e g ions I VS c y th i ca , V IF e r ra ta , XF r e t en s i s , X I IF u lm ina ta ( 18 ) . I fs o , C e s t ius h ad t h ree l e g ionary v e x i l la t ione s o nh i se xped i t ion t oJ udaea . -

T he re i so n ly s c an ty i n fo rma t ion a va i lab le o n t he s t andard n umbe r o f t he a r t i l lery e ng ine s n o rma l ly a loca ted t o t he l e g ions . A cco rd ing t o V ege t iu s ( De r e m i l i tar e 2 . 25 ) , t he a n t iqua l e g io h ad t e n o nag r i , o ne f o r e ach c oho r s , a sw e l l a s f i f ty f i ve c ar roba l i s tae , o ne f o r e ach c en tury . A s t he o nag e rw as at y pe o fa r t i l le ry u sed i n t h e p e r iod o ft he l a te e mp i re ( Mar sden 1 969 : 1 88 ; 1 971 : 2 49 -65 ; s ee B aa tz 1 966 : 1 9 4f ) , t he t e rm su sed b yV ege t iu sw ou ld b e a nachron i s t ic i fo ne w e re t ou nde r s tand t h e a n t iqua l e g io a s r e fe r r ing t o t he f i r s t c en tury . Y e t t he d i s t inc t ion h e d raw s b e tween as ma l l n umbe ro fs t one throw ing e ng ine s , b a l l i s tae , a nd al a rge n umbe ro f a r row -f ir ing e ng ine s , c a tapu l tae , s eem s e xac t a nd a pp l icab le t o a n e ar l ie r p e r iod a s w e l l . T he o n ly f u r the r e v idence w h ich h as b een c i t ied a s s uppo r t ing V ege t iu s i s p rov ided b y J o sephus . T he J ew i sh h i s to r ian r epo r t s t h a t V e spa s ian e mp loyed o ne h undred a nd s i x ty a r t i l le ry e ng ine s ( mechana i ) i nt he s i ege o fJ o tapa ta ( BJ 3 . 166 ) . A t t ha t t ime , V e spas ian h ad t h ree l e g ions u nde r h i s c ommand ( R I 3 . 65 ) , w ho se o rdnance s hou ld h ave i n c luded 1 9 5 e ng ine s o n t he b a s i s o f V ege t ius ' d a ta . T he d i f ference m ay b e e xp la ined a s an o rma l a nd r e asonab le g ap b e tween t he s t andard a loca t ion a nd a c tua l f o rce s o n t he b a t t le f ie ld . A s sum ing , t hen , s ome f i f ty f ive t o s i x ty -f ive e ng ine s p e r l e g ion , t he l e g ionary f o rce s o fC e s t iu s G a l lu s c ou ld h ave h ad

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f r om 10 t o 1 30 e ng ine s , i ft he t h ree v e x i l la t ione s w e re c ons ide red a s e qu iva len t t o o ne l e g ion , o r p e rhap s a s m any a s 1 40 i fe ach v e x i l la t io w as c ompo sed o f f our c oho r t e s ( 19 ) . T he J ew s i n deed m ade u se o fa r t i l le ry f r om t h ev e ry b eg inn ing i nt h e s i ege o fJ e ru sa lem i n7 0 : S imon [ s on o f G io ra ] , b e ing n ea re r t he b e s iege r s , w as n o t i nac t ive , b u t p o s ted h i s a r t i l lery ( t a a phe t e r ia ) u pon t h e r ampar t s , b o th t h e e ng ine s w h ich t hey h ad f o rme r ly t a ken f r om C e s t ius , a nd t ho se c ap tured w hen t hey o verpowe red t he g ar r i son o f An ton ia . T he p o s se s s ion o ft he se , h owever ,w a sf o r mo s t o ft h em u se le s s o w ing t o i n expe r ience ; b u t s ome f ew , i n s t ruc ted b y d e se r te r s , made a b l unde r ing u se o ft hem . ( BJ 5 . 267 -8 ) A s t he R oman s w e re t hen a t tack ing t he T h i rd Wa l l , w h ich i sr epo r ted b y J osephu s t o h ave b een u nde r t he c on tro l o fS imon s on o fG io ra ( BJ 5 . 252 -3 ) , i ti s c l ear t ha t t h i sw a l l c ou ld i n deed h ave b een e mp loyed a s a n a r t i l lery p l a t fo rm ( 20 ) . Mo re i mpo r tan t i st he i n fo rma t ion t h a t p ar t o ft he a r t i l le ry a tS imon ' s d i sposa l i n 7 0 h ad b een c ap tu red i n t he An ton ia . S ince t h e A n ton ia w as p e rmanen t ly g ar r i soned b y a n a ux i l iary c oho r t ( s ee a bove ) , i tf o l low s t h a t a ux i l iary t r oop s w e re e qu ipped w i th a r t i l le ry , a t l e as t i n J e rusa lem ( 2 1) . S eve ra l mo re p o in t s i n t h i s a ccoun t d e ser ve a t ten t ion . F i r s t , t he e mp loymen t o f a r t i l lery b y t he J ew s w a s i n e f f ic ien t i n t he b eg inn ing o f t he s i ege b ecau se o f t he i r i n exper ience . Nex t , d e se r te r s f r om t he R oman a rmy i n s truc ted t he J ew s h ow t o u se t h i s a r t i l lery . Unfo r tuna te ly J o sephus d oe s n o t i d en t i f y t he se d e se r te r s p rec ise ly . I f t hey d e se r ted f r om a ux i l iary u n i t s , t h i s m igh t h e e v idence o fa n e x ten s ive u se o fa r t i l lery b y t he a u x i l ia ( 22 ) . F ina l ly , i ti su nc lear h ow S imon c ame i n to p o sse s s ion o f t he a r t i l le ry c ap tu red i n t he An ton ia . H e h ad p ar t ic ipa ted i n t he a t tack o n C es t ius ' f o rce d u r ing i t s m arch t o J e rusa lem ( BJ 2 . 521 ) a nd m ay h ave s e ized p a r t o f t he R oman a r t i l le ry a t B e th -Ho ron ( BJ 2 . 553 -4 ) . Howeve r , h e i sn o t men t ioned i n c onnec t ion w i th t h e c ap ture o f t he An ton ia , o r i n c onnec t ion w i th t he r i s ing i n J e rusa lem t h a t p receded t he e xped i t ion o fC e s t iu s G a l lus . Mo reover , t h e q uar te r s o f t he c i ty c ommanded b y S imon d ur ing t he R oman s i ege d i d n o t i n c lude t he An ton ia ( BJ 4 . 11 ; 5 . 252 -3 ) , w h ich w as i nt he h ands o fJ ohn o f G i scha la ( B . !5 . 254 , 3 04 , 3 58 ) . T he re fo re , J osephus ' r epo r t o ft he e mp loymen t o f a r t i l le ry b y S imon i s n o t t ob eu nde r s tood a s mean ing t h a t h e a l one o ft he J ew i sh l e ade r s h ad a r t i l lery a t h i sd i spo sa l . I n f a c t , t he re a re s eve ra l p iece s o f e v idence o n t he u se o f a r t i l le r y b y t he o pponen t so fS imon . A t tacked b y S imon , J ohn a nd t h e Z ea lo t s , w ho c on t ro l led t he T emp le Moun t , c on s truc ted f our h uge t owe r s t o d i rec t t he i r m is s i le s more e f f ic ien t ly ( R I 4 . 577 -82 ) : a l ong t he se t owe r s t h ey p o s ted c a tapu l ts a nd b a l l i s tae ( o x ybe l e i s t ek a i l i t hoho lou s mechana s ) , t oge the r w i th a r che r s a nd s l inge r s t he m is s i le s f r om t he e ng ine s ( t on o r ganon b e l e ) w i th t h e i r l o ng r ange k i l led m any o f t he c omba tan t s " ( R I4 . 584 ) . T he l a rge n umbe r o fa r t i l le ry e ng ine sa tt he d i spo sa l o f J ohn i s men t ioned a ga in b y J osephus i na no the r i n s tance o f f i gh t ing b e tween t h is l e ade r a nd h i s f oe s ( BJ 5 . 12 -4 ) . J o sephus r epo r t s t h a tJ ohn u sed t he s ac red t imbe r s t o red i n t he T emp le " f o r t he c ons t ruc t ion o f e ng ine s o f w ar " ( e i s p o l em i s te r ion k a ta sk euen o r ganon : R I5 . 36 ) . H e h ad t owe r s b u i l ta g a ins t h i s e nem ie s ,w hom h e h oped t oo ve rcome w i th e ng ine s ( BJ 5 . 37 -9 ) . T he t owe r s w e re o bv ious ly m ean t t o h e u sed a s a r t i l le ry p l a tfo rm s ; i ti sa l so p o s s ib le t h a t t he o r gana c ons t ruc ted b y J ohn i n c luded a r t i l le ry e ng ine s . A t a ny r a te , J ohn ' s m en h ad e v iden t ly a cqu ired s ome e xpe r ience i n u s ing a r t i l le ry b e fo re t he b eg inn ing o f t h e Roman s i ege . Dur ing t he s i ege , t he J ew s l e arned t oo pe ra te t he i r a r t i l le ry mo re e f f ic ien t ly . A f te r "...

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t h ec ap ture o ft he S econd Wa l l , T i tus d i rec ted o pe ra t ion s a ga ins t b o th t he An ton ia a nd t he Uppe rC i ty : t he i r a dve r sa r ie s , mo reove r , w e re s ucce s s fu l , n o t o n ly w i th h and m i s s i le s , o w ing t os upe r io r i ty o fp o s i t ion , b u t a l so w i th t he ir e ng ine s ( o r gana ) , w h ich t hey n ow l e a rn t t o u se , d a i ly p rac t ice h av ing g radua l ly f o s te red t he i r s k il ; a nd t hey p o s se s sed t h ree h undred b o l t f i re r s ( o x ybe l e i s ) , a nd f o r ty s t one -hur le r s ( l i thobo lo i ) , b y means o f w h ich t hey s e r iou s ly r e tarded t he e rec t ion o f t he R oman e ar thwork s . ( BJ 5 . 539 ) T he " dai ly p rac t ice " r e fe r red t oi nt h i sp as sage o bv ious ly r e fe r st ot he b a t t le s f o r t he T h i rd a nd S econd Wa l l s . I tm ay t hen b e i n fe r red t ha t a r t i l le ry h ad b een e mp loyed b y b o th S imon 's a nd J ohn ' s f o l lowe r s , w i th t he f o rme r f i gh t ing f r om t he w a l l s a nd t he t owe r s ( Phasae l , H ipp icus a nd Ma r iamme ) , a nd t he l a t te r f r om t he A n ton ia . O fs pec ia l s i gn i f icance i st he n umbe r o f a r t i l le ry e ng ine s a tt he d i spo sa l o f t h eJ ew s i nt h is s t age o ft he w ar . T he f i gure o f3 40 c anno t b e a ccoun ted f o r b yt he a s sump t ion t h a t a l l t h e se e ng ine s w e re c ap tured f r om C e s t ius ' a rmy a nd f r om t he R oman a ux i l iary c oho r t o f t he J e rusa lem g ar r i son . T he c ap tured R oman a r t ile ry c ou ld h ave a moun ted t ob e tween 1 20 a nd 1 50 e ng ine s ( a cco rd ing t ot he c a lcu la t ion a bove ) o r t oa bou t 2 30 ( a cco rd ing t oa no the r me thod o fr e ckon ing , s ee n .1 9 ) . One w ay t o e xp la in t he d i f f e rence i st o a s sume t h a t J osephus p re sen t s ah igh ly i nf la ted f i gure . Ano the rw ay i st oi n fe r t h a t t he o rdnance o ft he f o r t i f ica t ion s o fJ e rusa lem , n o tab ly o ft he An ton ia , i n c luded al a rge n umbe r o f c a tapu l tae a nd b a l l is tae ,w h ich t h e R oman a rmy h ad i n he r i ted f r om He rod ( s ee C ampbe l l 1 986 : 1 24 n . 54 ) . I nv i ew o ft he i n fo rma t ion a va i lab le a bou t He rod ' s m i l i tary e xpe r ience , o f t he a r t i l le ry h e i n s ta l led i n Machae ru s , o f t he h uge s ums h e s pen t t o f o r t i fy J e rusa lem , a nd o ft he n a ture o f t he d e fence s o f t he c ap i ta l , t he s e cond e xp lana t ion s eems much more p l aus ib le . T he re i s n o n eed t o e xam ine h e re i n d e ta i l t he u se o f a r t i l lery b y t he R omans i nt he F i r s t J ew i sh R evo l t . S uf f ice i tt o s ay t h a t a r t i l le ry p l ayed a ma jor r o le i nt he s i ege o pe ra t ions . I n t he s i ege o fJ o tapa ta , f o r i n s tance , i tg ave c ove r t o t r oops e ngaged i n t h e c ons t ruc t ion o f e ar thwo rk s ( B . ! 3 . 161 -7 ) , a nd t o t ho se a s s igned t ot he t a sk o fb a t te r ing t he w a l l ( B. !3 . 214 -9 ) . I tw as e f fec t ive a ga in s t men a nd f o r t i f ica t ion s a l ike ( BJ 3 . 243 -7 ) . I tw a s d ep loyed t o g i ve c ove r t o t he a s sau l t t h rough ab reach m ade i nt he c i ty w a l l ( B . !3 . 254 -6 ) . L igh te r a r t i l lery w as o pe ra ted f r om t owe r s ( B . ! 3 . 285 ) . I n a l l t he se o pe ra t ion s , t he a r t i l le ry w as u sed i n c on junc t ion w i th t he a r che r s , s l inge r sa nd j a ve l in throwe r s . B a l l i s ta b a l l s e x cava ted a l ong t he w e s te rn s ec t ion o ft he F i r s t Wa l l p robab ly t e s t if y t o t he u se o fa r t i l lery i nt h is s e c to r i n7 0 ( BJ 6 . 374 -6 , 3 92 -400 ) . A l toge the r , s ome t h i r ty f i ve b a l l s h ave b een u near thed ; o n ly f i ve o ft he se a re c omp le te . T hree b a l l s ,w e igh ing l e s s t h an 2 50 g r amme s e ach , a re c e r ta in ly s l ing b u l le ts . I ti sp o s s ib le t h a t s ome s even b a l ls t h a tw e igh l e s s t h an 5 00 g ramme s , e ven i fa lowance i s made f o r t he m i s s ing p ar t s , a re a l so s l ing b u l le t s , f o r t he s ma l le s t b a l l i s ta b a l l men t ioned b y V i truv ius i so f t wo l i b rae w e igh t ( De A r ch . 1 0 .11 .3 ; c f . P hion B e lopoe ica 5 1) . T he w e igh t o f t he o t he r s w as b e tween 0 . 6 a nd 4 . 5 k g a nd t hey w e re e v iden t ly h al i s ta b a l l s . I ft h e a t t r ibu t ion o f t he se b a l l s t o t he s i ege o f 7 0 i sc o r rec t , t h i s e v idence s upp lemen t s t he i n forma t ion p rov ided b y J o sephus , s i nce h e d oe s n o t r e f e rt ot he u se o fa r t i l le ry i nt h i s s e c to r ( 2 3 ) .

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I ti si n te re s t ing t o n o te t ha t a r chaeo log ica l f i nd ing s f r om He rod ium h ave b een t aken a sp rov id ing e v idence f o r t he emp loymen t o fa r t i l le ry i nt he s i ege o ft h i s f o r t . J o sephus d oe s n o t r epo r t t he u se o fa r t i l le ry , b u t h i s om i s s ion s hou ld c ause n o s urp r i se , f o r h e d evo te s o n ly o ne s en tence t o t he c ap tu re o f t he f o r t i nt h e F i r s t J ew i sh R evo l t . S ome f i f teen l a rge b al s , 4 0 t o 5 8 c m i n d i ame te r , w e re f ound a t s eve ra l l o ca t ions i n He rod ium : t h ree a t t he e as te rn , r ound t owe r , o the r s o n t he w e s t s i de o f t he f o r t a nd s eve ra l o the r s i na n i n te rna l c o r r ido r . T he i r w e igh t w as b e tween 2 . 5 a nd 6 t a len t s ( Co rbo 1 963 : 2 26 , 2 28f f , 2 35 ) . Sma l le r b a l l s , a sw e l l a s s l ing b ule t s a nd a r rowheads , w e re a l so f ound , b u t t h e i r s i ze a nd n umbe r h ave n o t b een s pec i f ied . T he f i nds h ave b een i n te rp re ted a ss how ing t h a t t he f o r tw a st aken f r om t he w e s t . Howeve r , s ome r e se rva t ion s a bou t t he l a rge s t b a l ls n eed t o b e e xp re s sed . A l though P hion men t ions b al i s ta b a l l s w e igh ing u p t o 2 . 5 t a len t s ( Be lopoe i ca 5 1 ; s ee Mar sden 1 971 : 1 570 a nd V i t ruv iu s o ne s w e igh ing u p t o 3 60 p ound s ( De A r ch . 1 0 .11 ,3 ; s ee Mar sden 1 971 : 1 98 ff ) , t he e x i s tence o f t h e se l a rge c a l ib re e ng ine s h as b een q ue s t ioned ( Schramm 1 928 : 2 45 ) . I ts eems t h a t s t one s w e igh ing mo re t han 3t a len t sw e re n o t mean t f o ra r t i l le ry , a nd o p in ion sv a ry a bou t t he i n c lus ion o f t he 3 ta len t s ho t i n t he a r t i l lery c a tegory ( Mar sden 1 9 69 : 7 8 f f , e sp .83 n . 2 ) . A cco rd ing t o J o sephu s , t he b e s t R oman a r t i l le ry i n t h e s i ege o f J e rusa lem w a s t ha t o f t he t en th l e g ion , w h ich s ho t o ne ta len t s t one s ( BJ 5 . 269 -70 ) . T he h eav ie s t b a l l i s ta b a l l f ound a t Masada w e igh s t wen ty two k i log ramme s ; i th as b een s ugge s ted t h a t i t may f a l l i n to t he o ne ta len t c a tegory ( Ho l ley f o r thcom ing ) . I ti s , t hen , mo re p robab le t ha t t he h eav ie r b al s f ound i n He rod ium w e re i n tended t ob e r oled d own r a the r t h an s ho t b y t he d e fende r s a tt he i r e nem ie s . I ndeed , C orbo , w ho e xcava ted t he s i te , s ugge s ted t h a t t he e l even b ou lde r s w i th d i ame te r s b e tween 1 20 a nd 1 90 c m t h a t w e re f ound i n ah eap a t t he e as te rn , r ound t owe r w e re p l aced t he re f o r r ol ing . S uch r o l l ing s t one sw e re a l so f ound a t Ma sada ( s ee b e low ) . N eve r the le s s , a s s ma l le r b a l l s h ave a l so b een r epo r ted , t he u se o fa r t i l le ry i nt he s i ege o f He rod ium n eed n o tb e i nd oub t . -

-

T he emp loymen t o f a r t i l lery b y t he R oman s i n t he s i ege o f Ma sada i s r epo r ted b y J o sephus ( BJ 7 . 304 -9 ) . Hund red s o f b a l l s w e re f ound d u r ing t he e xcava t ion o ft he p l ace ( Yad in 1 965 : 7 6 , 8 0 ) , t he v as t m a jo r i ty o fw h ich w e ighed t en r n inae ( 4 .366 k g ) o r l e s s ( 24 ) . N o d oub t t he se t e s t i f y t ot he R oman b omba rdmen t o f Masada ; w he the ra l t he se b a l l sw e re f i red b yt he R omans o rw he the r s ome may b et aken a se v idence o fa r ti l le ry h av ing b een s t o red a t Masada i sa n o pen q ues t ion . T hree a rgumen t s h ave b een p re sen ted f o rt he f i r s t p o s s ibi l i ty : m any o ft he b a l ls a re i n comp le te ; t he R oman c ommande rw ou ld n o t h ave c ons t ruc ted t he t wo c amp s , E a nd F , n o r th -we s t o f Masada a t t he i r s i te s h ad t he d e fende r s h ad a r ti l lery ; J o sephu s men t ions t he u se o fa r t i l le ry b y t he J ew s i nJ e rusa lem b u t n o t a t Ma sada ( Holey f o r thcom ing ) . T he t h i rd p o in t , a na r gumen tum es i l en t io , i sn o t p e r sua s ive , g i ven t he a l too -f requen t om i s s ions f r om w h ich J o sephus ' n ar ra t ive s u f f e r s . T he s econd a rgumen t i sn o t c ons lus ive . A r t i l le ry e ng ine sh ad d i f fe ren t r ange sa c co rd ing t ot he i r t y pe s ( Sch ramm 1 918 : 2 7 -30 , n o t d i sp roved b y Mar sden 1 969 : 8 6 -98 ) , a nd t he re i sn o w ay o f k now ing w ha t t y pe o r s i ze o f e ng ine s m igh t h ave e x i s ted i n Masada b e fo re i t sc ap tu re b y t he J ew s . A sc amp F w a ss i tua ted a tl e as t 3 60 me tre s f r om t he e nc i rc l ing w a l l o f Masada ( Av i -Yonah e ta l . 1 957 : f i g .2 ) , i t may h ave b een o u t o f e f fec t ive r ange . C amp E , l o ca ted a tl e a s t 2 20 m e t re s a way f r om t h e w a l l , m ay h ave b een b u i l t c l ose r i n o rde r t o p rov ide c ove r f o r t ho se e ngaged i n t he c ons truc t ion o f t he r amp a nd t he s i ege towe r . T he f i r s t a rgumen t , t oo , i s i n conc lu s ive , f o r t he n umbe r o f c omp le te b a l l s m ay b e l a rge r t han t h a t o f t he i n comp le te o ne s . C onve r se ly , t wo c on s ide ra t ions p o s s ib ly s uppo r t t he s ugges t ion t h a t s ome o f t he b a l l i s ta b a l ls f o rmed p ar t o f t he a mmun i t ion o f t he g a r r i son o f Masada . T h i r teen r o l l ing s t one s , e ach a bou t h a l f am e t re i nd i ame ter , w e re f ound i n ac asema te ( Locu s 1 039 ) , i nw h ich a n e no rmou sq uan t i ty o fb a l l is ta b al sw as a l so d i scove red ( Yad in 1 965 : 8 0 ) . T he se r ough ly d re s sed b i g s t one s h ad o bv iou s ly b een

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p repa red t ob e r o l led d own o n a s sa i lan t s ( 2 5 ) . T h i s b e ing t he c ase , i ti sq u i te l i ke ly t h a tt he b al i s ta b al s , t oo , b e longed t ot he d e fende r s . L ocu s 1 038 ,w h ich b o rde r s o n L o cus 1 039 , w as a t owe r mea sur ing s even b y t we lve me t re s . I f e qu ipped w i th a r t i l le ry e ng ine s , i tc ou ld h ave b een u se fu l f o r f i r ing o n b e s iege r s f r om t he w e s t . T he f a c t t ha t b a l l i s ta b a l ls w e re f ound i ns uch q uan t i ty n ear i tm igh t b e s i gn i f ican t . I tm us t b e a dm i t ted , h oweve r , t h a t t h is i sn o mo re t han a p o s s ibi l i ty w h ich g a ins s ome p l au s ib i l i ty f r om t h e a na logy o f Machae ru s , af o r t e qu ipped w i th a r t i l le ry b y H e rod .

I V . C onc lu s ion I ti s ac ommon ly h e ld v i ew t h a t a r t i l lery w as u sed b yt he l e g ion s r a the r t han b y t h e a ux i l ia ( Baa tz 1 9 66 : 1 9 5f f ; Mar sden 1 969 : 1 84 ) . I n ar e cen t r eapp ra i sa l o f t h e e v idence , o n ly f ou r i n s tance s o f t he u se o f a r t i l le ry b y a ux i l iary t r oop s w e re p re sen ted : Ha tra , H igh R oche s te r , P ha s i s a nd J e ru sa lem ( Campbe l l 1 986 ) . T he f o l low ing r e asons h ave b een s ugge s ted f o r t he s upposed p o l icy o f t he a rmy a u thor i t ie s i nt h i s r e spec t . Un l ike t he a ux i l iar ie s , t he l e g iona r ie s , w ho w e re R oman c i t izens , h ad t he a b i l i ty t om anuf ac ture a nd o pe ra te mach inery . T he p o s se s s ion o f a r t i l lery c ou ld i n c rea se t he p re s t ige o ft he l e g ions (Mar sden 1 968 : 1 84 ) . T he t a c t i c a l r o le p l ayed b y t h e a ux i l iar ie s w as i n cong ruous w i th t he i r b e ing e qu ipped w i th a r t i l lery . F ina l ly , t h e l o g i s t ic s n eeded f o r t he m a in tenance o f a r t i l le ry w as b eyond t h e c apac i ty o f t he s ma l l a ux i l iary u n i t s ( Campbe l l 1 986 : 18 ) . N one o f t he se e xp lana t ion s i se n t i re ly c onv inc ing , a nd a tl e a s t t he f i r s t i sp a ten t ly w rong . He re , h oweve r , Is ha l l o n ly s i ng le o u t f r om t he a bove s urvey a f ew p o in t s a nd l e s son s w h ich a re r e levan t t ot h ep re sen t p rob lem . ( a )

( h ) ( c )

( d )

( e )

On t wo d i f f e ren t o ccas ions J ew ish r ebe l s a cqu i red t he a b i l i ty t o o pe ra te a r t i l lery i n av e ry s ho r t t ime . T he Hasmonaeans mu s t h ave a l so s t ar ted manuf ac tur ing a r t i l le ry e ng ine s . A r t i l lery w as i ng ene ra l u se i nt he He l len i s t ic w o r ld , a nd m any ac i ty s aw t o i tt h a t i t sd e fence sw e re s t reng thened b yt h i s means . T he He rod ian a rmy h ad s ome s o r t o fa r t i l lery c o rps . I tm ay h ave t aken p a r t i nt he b ombardmen t o fJ e ru sa lem i n3 7 BC , a nd i nt he s i ege o fH y rcan ia i n c . 3 2 BC . S ome H e rod ian f o r t i f ica t ion s w e re p rov ided w i th a r t i l lery t o s t reng then t h e i r d e fence s . T h is w a s t r ue o f Machae ru s , a lmo s t c e r ta in ly t r ue o fJ e ru sa lem , a nd p o s s ib ly t r ue o f Masada . T he a ux i l iar y u n i t p e rmanen t ly s t a t ioned i n J e rusa lem h ad a r t i l le ry a t i t s d i sposa l . T he s ame w as t r ue f o r t he a ux i l iary g ar r i son s o f Machae rus , a nd , p e rhap s , o f Masada . I n t he se c ase s , t he p e rpe tua t ion o f t he He rod ian s y s tem m ay b er e asonab ly i n f e r red . T he R oman a u tho r i t ie s i n t h e p rov ince o f J udaea e v iden t ly s o lved t he l o g i s t ic sa s soc ia ted w i th t he m a in tenance o fa r ti l le ry b ya ux i l iary u n i t s .

T he g ene ra l s i gn i f icance o ft he c a se o fJ udaea i sq u i te o bv iou s . Whe re t he t a sk a s s igned t oa ux i l iary u n i t s r equ i red i t ,t he re w as n o th ing t op reven t t hem f r om b e ing e qu ipped w i th a r t i l le ry . A n a ux i l iary u n i t s t a t ioned t o g uard a f o r t w a s c apab le o f o pe ra t ing a r t i l le ry , w h ich h ad b ecome a n a ccep ted means o f d e fence . T h i sw as e spec ia l ly e xped ien t i nt ho se p rov ince sw he re t he u se o fa r t i l le ry h ad l ong b een k nown a nd p rac t i sed , n ame ly , i nt he e as te rn p rov ince s o ft he R oman Emp i re ( 2 6 ) .

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N o tes

1 .

T he t r an s la t ions o fp as sage s q uo ted f r om t he L e t t e ro fAr i s t eas , 1 . Macc . a nd J o sephu s a re t aken f r om H adas ( 1950 ) , T ede sche ( 1 951) a nd t h e LCL r e spec t ive ly . F or a d e ta i led s urvey a nd d i scu s s ion o f p ropo sed s i te s , s ee T sa f r i r ( 1975 ) . He o p t s f o r t he h i l l s ou th -eas t o f t he T emp le Moun t . Al o ca t ion n o r th o f t he T emp le a rea w as a rgued a new i n m y v i ew u nconv inc ing ly b y L ur ia ( 1985 : 5 5 -65 ) . A l o ca t ion o n t he s ou th -eas t h i l l , C i ty o f Dav id , t h a t i s , o n t he h i l l e xcava ted b y t he l a te Y . S h i loh , s eem s t o me t he mo s t l i ke ly o ne ( s ee Dequeke r 1 985 ) . F or t he mean ing o f b e lo s ta se i s , c f . P o lyb . 9 . 4 1 .8 ; s ee Mar sden 1 969 : 6 3 , 10 ) . E ven i ft he Heb rew w o rd w e re d ay ek , t he re i sl i t t le d oub t t ha t i t mean t t he s ame t h ing a s t he G reek b e lo sa ta s i s ; h ence i ti su nrea sonab le t o l e ave t he mean ing o ft he t e rm a sv ague a s G o ld s te in d oe s ( 1976 : 3 19 ; s ee , i nc on t ras t , Abe l 1 949 : 19 ) . An i n s truc t ive p a s sage i s p rov ided b y J o sephus ( BJ 3 . 166 -9 ) . He re mechana i , o r gana , a nd m echanema ta a l h ea r t h e s ense o fa r t i l le ry . L a te r i nt he s ame a ccoun t , J o sephu s u se s k a tape l ta i a nd p e t robo lo i t o d eno te t he s pec i f ic t y pe s o fa r t i l le ry e mp loyed ( c f . B J3 . 121 , 2 43 -5 ; 5 . 279 ; 7 . 307 -9 , 3 14 ; s ee R eng s to r f 1 973 -83 : 3 . 111) . T ryphon e s caped f r om Do ra a nd m e t h i s d ea th i n Apamea i n 1 3 8/7 ( 1 Macc . 1 5 .10 -4 , 2 5 , 3 7 ; J o seph .A J 1 3 .223 -4 ; C ha rax i nS teph . B yz . ,s . v . Doro s = FG rH 1 03 F 2 9 ; App . S y r . 6 8 ; S t raho 1 4 .5 .2 ; s ee S chüre r 1 973 -87 : 1 . 130f ) . I tc an b e i n fe r red t ha t t he s i ege l a s ted f o r mo re t h an a y ea r a nd t ha t T ryphon r e igned f o r af i f th y ear ( Ge ra 1 985 : 1 57 f f ) . S ee S i van a nd S o lar ( 1984 : 15 ) . F o r t he d i f f icu l ty i nd a t ing t he s i ege , s ee S chü re r ( 1973 -87 : 1 . 202 n .5 ) . T he f i nd s c anno t b e a s c r ibed t o t h e s i ege o f P ompey , f o r t he Uppe r C i ty w a s b e t rayed t o h im ( Jo seph . B J 1 . 142 -3 ; AJ 1 4 .59 ) . Iam g ra te fu l t o Mr s . S i van f o rd i scus s ing t he f i nds w i th m e . F o r as ucc inc t a ccoun t o f o p in ion s a nd a rgumen ts , s ee S chüre r ( 1 973 -87 : 3 /1 .679 -84 ) . T he se t wen ty b a l l is ta b a l l s w e re f ound b yJ .V ardaman , w hose p ub l ica t ion " P re l im inary r epo r t o n t he 1 968 e xcava t ions a t Machae ru s " ( Lou i sv i l le K y . , 1 969 ) Ih ave n o ts een . T he p rec i se s i te o f t he An ton ia w as i n d i spu te f o r al o ng t ime . T ru ly monumen ta l d imens ion s w ou ld f o l low i ft he e x tan t b u i ld ing r ema in s u nde r t he C onven t o f t he S i s te r s o f Z ion a nd t h e F ranc iscan C onven t o f t he F lage l la t ion h ad b e longed t o t he A n ton ia ( V incen t S teve 1 954 -56 : 1 ,1 93 2 21 ; Mar ie -A l ine 1 955 : 4 7 -142 ) . Howeve r , i th as b een s hown t h a t t he se r ema ins b e longed t o t he H ad r ian ic c i ty , A e l ia C ap i to l ina , a nd t h a t t he He rod ian f o r t s hou ld b e l o ca ted s ou th o f t hem ; h ence t he mea su remen t s g i ven i nt he t e x t ( Beno i t 1 971 ) . J o sephu s s t a te s : " J e ru sa lem w as s t rong ly f o r t i f ied o n a l s i de s e xcep t o n t he n o r th ,w he re i tw as w eak . F o r i ti ss u r rounded b y ab road a nd d eep r av ine w h ich t ake si nt he t emp le " ( AJ 1 4 .57 ) . T he p o ten t ia l a dvan tage s t o b e d e r ived f r om t h e e mp loymen t o f a r t i l lery f r om t he An ton ia a nd t he t h ree t owe r s a re d i scu s sed b y N orr i s ( 1 946 : 2 5 3 1) . He a s sume s a n a r t i l lery r ange o f2 30 m e t re s , b u t l o nge r r ange s , e ven 4 00 -500 m , w e re a t ta inab le ( S ch ramm 1 928 : 2 7 f f ; Mar sden 1 969 : 8 6 -98 ) . T he u se fu lne s so ft he a r t i l le ry d epended t os ome e x ten t o n t he c ou r se o ft he S econd Wa l l , w h ich c onnec ted t he A n ton ia w i th t he F i r s t Wa l l a t s ome d i s tance e as t o f t he t h ree t owe r s . Unfo r tuna te ly , J o sephus f a i l s t oc l ar if y t he c our se o f t h i s w a l l . I fi te x tended a s f a r a s t he D amascus G a te ( Av i -

2 .

3 .

4 .

5 . 6 .

7 . 8 .

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-

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9 .

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1 0 .

1 .

4 76

1 2 .

1 3 .

1 4 .

1 5 .

Y onah 1 968 : 1 2 2 f f ) , a ny a r t i l lery p o s ted o n t he An ton ia w ou ld h ave b een u se le s s a ga in s t a n e nemy a t tack ing t he S econd Wa l l f r om t he n or th . B u t t he re i sn oc ompel ing r eason t oa s c r ibe t he r ema in sd i scove red b enea th t he D ama scus G a te t ot h i sw a l l , a nd t he re a re g ood a rgumen t s a ga ins t s uch a n a s c r ip t ion . Hence , i ti sp os s ib le , e ven p robab le , t ha t t he S econd Wal w as e xpo sed t oc ove r ing f i re f r om t he An ton ia ( Tush ingham 1 978 : 1 86 f ; Ma 'oz 1 985 : 5 2 f , 6 7* ) . B J 1 . 672 ; A J 1 7 .198 . 1i n te rp re t t h i s p as sage a s r e f e r r ing t o f our u n i t s o f b ody -guard s , t h ree o ft hem e thn ic a nd o ne o fm ixed c harac te r . F o r t h i s , a s w el a s f o r t h e s t reng th o f t he He rod ian a rmy , s ee S ha tzman ( 1983a ) ; a dd i t iona l d e tai l w i l l b e p re sen ted i n m y f o r thcom ing h ook , T he a rm ie s o f t h eH a smonaean sa nd H e rod . I n s c r ip t ions d a t ing f r om a f te r t he J u l io -C laud ian p e r iod a t te s t t he e x i s tence o ft he f olow ing : a l a G em ina S eba s t eno ru ,n , a la IF lav ia S eba s t enorum , a la S eba s t enorum , c oho r s IS eba s t enorum a nd c ohor s S eba s t ena m i l l ia r ia ( C IL 3 . 2916 ; 6 . 1633 ; 8 . 9358 ; 1 6 .35 , 8 7 ; AE 1 948 : 1 50 ; R oxan 1 978 : n os . 3 ,4 ,6 0 ) . I ti sp o s s ib le t h a t t he u n i ts r e co rded b yJ o sephu s ( BJ 2 . 336 ; A J2 0 .122 )w e re n amed c oho r t e s S eba s t eno rum ( s ee S chüre r 1 973 -87 : 1 . 364 n . 5 2 ; c on t ra S pe ide l 1 982 -83 : 2 43f ) . T he p re sence o f ac oho r s I t a l i ca , t h a t i s , o f au n i t c ons i s t ing o f R oman c i t izen sf r om I t a ly , i nJ udaea i nc .4 0 h as b een q ue s t ioned ( Schüre r 1 973 -87 : 1 . 365 ; c on t r a S pe ide l 1 982 -83 ; C ampbe l l 1 986 : 1 23 ) . S ince e ven a R oman l e g ion w as s t a t ioned i nJ udaea f o r s ome t ime ( J o seph .A J 1 5 .72 ) , t h i s p iece o fe v idence n eed n o tb ef a l se . Two v e x i l la t ion e s I VS c y th i ca , V IF e r ra ta ( Parke r 1 928 : 1 38 ) , t wo o rt h ree ( G ichon 1 981 : 4 30 , f our I IG a l l i ca , I VS c y th ica , V IF e r ra ta , XF r e t en s i s (Wagne r 1 977 : 5 18 w i th n .1 6 ) , s i x t he l a s t f our , p l us V Macedon i ca a nd XV Apo l l inar i s ( Saxe r 1 967 : 1 ; C ampbe l l 1 986 : 1 24 ) . T h i s d i s t r ibu t ion o f t he l e g ions b e tween C o rbu lo a nd t he g ove rnor o fS y r ia i sd e ta i led i nT ac i tus ( Ann . 1 5 .25 -6 ) . T he o n ly l e g ion t ha t i sn o t men t ioned t he re i sX F r e t en s i s , w h ich h ad b een a s s igned t o C o rbu lo a s g ove rno r o f S y r ia i n 6 2 ( T ac . Ann . 1 5 .6 ) . Whe the r i tr ema ined t he re i n 6 3 u nde r t he c ommand o ft h e n ew g ove rno r o f t h a t p rov ince o r w as a s s igned t o C o rbu lo ( t hus R i t te r l ing 1 924 -25 : 1 672 , i n con s is ten t w i th 1 257 ; s ee P arke r 1 928 : 1 37 ) i sa n o pen q ue s t ion . Ad i s t r ibu t ion o ft he l e g ions i nt he p ropo r t ion o f 4 : 3 i s mo re l i ke ly t h an o ne o f5 : 2 . A t a ny r a te , t he re i sn o r eason t o t h ink t h a t XF r e t en s i s w as t r ans fe r red t o a no the r p rov ince ( s ee Ande r son 1 934 : 7 7 1) . T he re i sn o b a s i s f o r t he a s se r t ion o f R i t te r l ing ( 1924 -25 : 1 257 , 1 590 ) t ha t t he d ea th o fC o rbu lo p receded t he e xped i t ion o fC e s t ius G a l lu s i n6 6 . N o te t h a tl e g io V IF e r ra ta h ad b een t a ken t oC appadoc ia i n6 3 b u tw as a ga in i nS y r ia i n 6 . L eg io I VS c y th i ca p robab ly r ep laced l e g io I I Ga l l ica o n a p e rmanen t b a s i s ( Tac . Ann . 1 5 .26 ; D io 6 2 .22 ,4 ; C IL 3 . 674 1 ,6 742 , 6 742a ; R i t te r l ing 1 924 -25 : 1 520 , 1 590 ) . O fc our se , o ne d oe s n o t k now w he the r e ach v e x i l la t io h ad a r t i l le ry e ng ine s i np ropo r t ion t oi t s s i ze . C e s t ius m igh t h ave d ec ide t o t a ke a l ong al a rge r p ropo r t ion i n v i ew o f h i s i n tended s i ege o f J e rusa lem w hose f o rm idab le f o r t i f ica t ion s w e re k nown t o h im b o th f r om h i s r e cen t v i s i t t o t he c i ty ( BJ 2 . 280 ; A J 2 0 .257 ) a nd f r om t he r epo r t o f t he t r ibune N eapo l i tanus ( BJ 2 . 335 -41) . B a s ing h i s c a lcu la t ion o n t he d a ta o f V ege t ius a nd a s sum ing t he re w e re s i xv e x i l la t ione s , C ampbel ( 1 986 : 1 24 ) e s t ima ted t h a t t he re w e re t h i r ty four b al i s tae a nd a round t wo h undred c a tapu l tae . H i s me thod o f c a lcu la t ion a pp l ied t o t h ree v ex ila t ione s , w h ich s eems a more r easonab le f i gure , w ou ld y i e ld a t o ta l o f t wen ty two b a l l i s tae a nd a bou t o ne h und red a nd t wen ty c a tapu l tae . -

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1 6 .

1 7 . 1 8 .

1 9 .

4 77

2 0 .

2 1 .

2 2 .

2 3 .

2 4 .

2 5 .

2 6 .

B J5 . 258 -60 . He re t he w a l li sc a l led " The F i r s t "b ecau se J o sephus ' a ccoun ti s g i ven f r om t he p o in t o fv i ew o f t he b e s iege r s . T he p rec i se l o ca t ion o f t he t omb o f J ohn Hy rcanus , o ppo s i te w h ich t he a s sau l t w a s d i rec ted b y T i tu s , c anno tb e a s ce r ta ined , b u t i t mus t h ave b een i nt he n ew q uar te r o ft he c i ty e ncompas sed b yt he T h i rd Wa l l . T he v i ew o fB rough ton ( 1933 : 4 40 ) , t ha t l e g iona ry t r oop sw e re p e rmanen t ly s t a t ioned i nJ udaea , h as n o s uppo r t i nt he s ou rce sa nd i sc on t rad ic ted b yt he e xp l ic i t e v idence o fJ o sephu s o n t he g ar r i son o ft he An ton ia ( s ee C ampbe l l 1 986 : 1 240 . One d e se r te r w ho c ou ld h ave i n s t ruc ted t h e J ew s w as Me ti iu s , t he c ommande ro ft he R oman g ar r i son o fJ e rusa lem w ho s aved h i s l i f ei n6 6 b y b ecom ing aJ ew ( BJ 2 . 454 -6 ) . Iam g ra te fu lt o D r . M . B ro sh i ,w ho w as r e spon s ib le f o rt he e xcava t ions , f o r g i v ing me t he o ppo r tun i ty t oe xam ine t he b a l l s , w h ich a re n ow a tt he I s rae l Museum . He a l so k i nd ly d i scu s sed t he f i nds w i th me . R ema ins t ha tm ay b e p ar t o f as i ege -embankmen t h ave a l so b een u near thed i nt he se e xcava t ion s ( B ro sh i 1 977 ) . T he f i nd s f r om Masada a re a na ly sed a nd p re sen ted b y Ho l ley ( f o r thcom ing ) . Is hou ld l i ke t o t hank D r . E . N e tze r f o r l e t t ing me u se t h i s a r t ic le b e fore i t s p ub l ica t ion . Iw ou ld a l so l i ke t o e xp re s s m y g ra t i tude t o Mr s . J ody Magne s s , w ho l e t me e xam ine t he i n ven tory l i s t s o ft he b al i s ta b a l l sa nd o the rw eapon s f r om Masada . S he w o rked w i th Mr . Ho l ley o n t h i s ma te r ia l a nd k ind ly d i scus sed t he f i nd s w i th m e . F rom o ur d i scu s s ion s i t a ppear st h a tv e ry many o ft he b a l l sh ave b een l o s t . L arge r r o l l ing s t one s , 1 23 a nd 1 66 c m i n d i ame te r , h ave a l so b een f ound ( no t men t ioned i n Y ad in 1 965 ) , b u t t he i r e xac t f i nd spo t i n Ma sada i s u nknown . Io we t h i s i n fo rma t ion t o Mr s . Magne s s , w ho h a s r e cen t ly c hecked t he se s t one s . Iam g ra te fu lt o D r . Z . R obeah f o r h e lp ing m e w i th t he E ng l i sh t e x t o ft h i s a r t ic le .

B ib l iography ABEL , M .

1 949

L e sl i v r e s Mac cabé e s . P ar i s .

ANDERSON ,J .G .C .

1 934

T he e as te rn f r on t ie r f r om T ibe r ius t oN e ro . I n S .A . C ook , F .E . A dcock a nd M .P . C ha r le swo r th ( ed s . ) C AH 9 : 7 43 -80 . C amb r idge .

AV I -YONAH , M .

1 968

T he t h i rd a nd s e cond w a l l s o f J e ru sa lem . I EJ 1 8 : 9 8 -128 .

1 972

T he H asmonaean r e vo l t a nd J udah Maccahee ' s w ar a ga ins t t h e S y r ian s . I n A . S cha l i t ( ed . ) T he w o r ld h i s to r y o ft h eJ ew i sh p eop l e . V o l . 6 :1 47 -82 . N ew B run sw ick .

AV I -YONAH , M .e ta l .

1 957

T he a r chaeo log ica l s urvey o f Masada , 1 955 5 6 . I EJ7 : 1 60 .

BAATZ , D .

1 966

Z u r G e shü tzbewaf fnung r öm is che r A ux i l iar t ruppen i nd e rf r ühen u nd m i t t le ren K a i se rze i t . B onn . Jbb 1 66 : 1 9 4 -207 .

4 78

1 982

He l len i s t i sche K a tapu l te ( Ep i rus ) . AM 9 7 : 2 11 -33 .

1 975

He l len i s t ic w a r f a re i nJ ona than 's c ampa ign n ea rA zo tus . S c r ip ta C la s s ica I s rae l i ca 2 :8 3 9 6 .

1 977

Manpowe r , e conom ic s , a nd i n te rna ls t r i fe i n t he Ha smonaean s t a te . I n C . N ico le t ( ed . ) A rmi e s e tf i sca l i te d an s l e mond e a n t ique : 1 67 -96 . P a r i s .

BENO IT , P .

1 971

L 'An ton ia d 'Hé rod l e g rand e t l e f o rum o r ien ta l d 'Ae l ia C ap i to l ina . HThR 6 4 : 1 35 6 7 .

BROSH I , M .

1 977

A long J e rusa lem ' sw a l ls . B ibL4r ch 4 0 : 1 -7 .

BROUGHTON ,T .R .S .

1 933

T he R oman a rmy . I n F . J .F . J ack son a nd K . L ake ( ed s . ) T he b eg inn ing s o f C hr i s t ian i ty . V o l . 1 . 5 :427 -445 . L ondon .

CA MPBELL , B .

1 986

Aux i l iary a r t i l le ry r ev i s i ted . 17 -32 .

CHEES MAN , G .L .

1 9 14

T he a ux i l ia o f t h e R oman i mpe r ia l a rmy . O x fo rd .

C ICHOR IUS , K .

1 900

C oho r s . I n RE 4 :2 31 356 .

CORBO , V .C .

1 963

L 'He rod ion d i G iabe l F ure id i s . L ibe r Annuu sS tud i iB ib l i c iF ranc i scan i 1 3 : 2 19 -77 .

CORBO , V . a nd LOFFREDA , S .

1 981

N uove s cope r te a la f o r tezza d i Mache ron te . L ibe r Annuu s S tud i i B ib l ic i F ranc i scan i3 1 : 2 57 -86 .

CRO WFOOT ,J .W .e ta t .

1 942

S amar ia S eba s t e . Vo l 1 ,T he b u i ld ing s a t S amar ia . L ondon .

DEQUEKER , L .

1 985

T he C i ty o fD av id a nd t he S e leuc id A c ra i n J e ru sa lem . I n E .L . L ip in sk i ( ed . ) T he l and o f I s rae l : c r o s s -road s o f c i v i l i za t ion s : 1 93 2 10 . L ouva in .

DO MASZE WSK J ,A .V .

1 907

D ie R ango rdnung d e s r öm i schen B onn .

DROYSEN , H .

1 889

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F ISCHER , M .

1 985

K h . Masad ( 1980 e t1 984 ) . RB ib l9 2 : 4 26 -9 .

BAR -KOCH VA , B .

a us

E phy ra

B onnJbb 1 86 :

-

4 79

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1 987

D ie S t ras sen s ta t ion v on Horva t Mead ( H i rbe t e l -Qa s r ) . ZDPV 1 03 : 14 -36 .

GERA , D .

1 985

T ryphon ' ss l ing f r om Do r . 1 Ff 3 5 : 1 5 3 -63 .

GEVA , H .

1 981

T he " Towe r o f D av id " H ipp icu s? I E J31 : 5 7 -65 .

G ICHON , M .

1 981

C e s t iu s G a l lu s ' c ampa ign i n J udaea . PEQ 13 : 3 9 -62 .

GOLDSTE IN ,J .A .

1 976

1 Maccabee s . A n ew t r ans la t ion w i th i n t roduc t ion a nd c ommen ta r y . New Y o rk .

HADAS , M .

1 951

A r i s t ea s t o P h i loc ra t e s ( Le t t e r o fA r i s t eas ) . N ew Y o rk .

HENGEL , M .

1 974

J ud a i sm a nd H e l l en i sm . 2v o l s . L ondon ( Eng l i sh t r an s la t ion o f J ud en tum u nd H e l l en i smu s . 2 nd e d . ) .

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f o r th

T he b a l l is ta h a l l s f r om Ma sada . I n Ma sada : F ina lR epor t .

J OHNS , C .A .

1 950

T he C i tade l , J e rusa lem . A s umma ry o f w o rk s i nce 1 9 34 . QDAP 1 5 : 1 21 -90 .

KENNEDY ,D .L .

1 983

M il i iary c oho r t s : t he e v idence o f J o sephus , B J 3 . 4 .2 ( 67 ) a nd o f e p ig raphy . ZPE 5 0 : 2 53 -63 .

KRAEL ING , C .H .

1 942

T he e p isode o f t he R oman s t anda rds a t J e rusa lem . HT / JR 3 5 : 2 63 -89 .

LA WRENCE ,A .C .

1 948

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1 979

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1 981

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LOFFREDA , S .

1 979

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LUR IA , B . -Z .

1 985

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MA 'OZ , Z .

1 985

On t he H asmonaean a nd Herod ian t own p l an o f J e ru sa lem . E r e t z -I s rae l 1 8 : 4 6 -57 . ( I n H eb rew , w i th E ng l i sh s u mmary : 6 6* 6 7* ).

MAR IE -AL INE

1 955

L a f o r t r e s se A n ton ia a J e rusa l em e t l a q ue s t ion d uP r é to i r e . P ar i s .

4 80

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P ha sae l

T e l A v iv .

o r

8 8 :

( I n

MARS DEN , E .

1 969

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1 971

G r eek a nd R oman t r ea t i ses . Oxford .

MESHEL , Z .

1 984

T he l a te Hasmonaean s y s tem a t Hy rcan ia . E r e tz -I srae l 1 7 : 2 51 -6 . ( I n Hebrew , w i th E ng l ish s u mmary : 1*) .

NETZER , E .

1 981

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1 946

New r eason ing c oncern ing t he f or t if ica t ions o fJ erusa lem i n t he f i rs t c en tury AD . PEQ 7 6 : 1 9 -37 .

PARKER , H .M .D .

1 928

T he R oman l e g ions . Oxford .

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1 930

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RE ISNER , G .A . e ta l .

1 924

Har vard e xcava t ions a t S amar ia 1 910 . 2v o ls . B os ton .

RENGSTORF , K .H .

1 973 -83

Ac omp le te c oncordance t o F lav ius J osephus . 4v o ls . L e iden .

R ITT 'ERL ING , E .

1 924 -5

L eg io . I n RE 1 2 : 1 211 -1829 .

ROXAN , M .M .

1 978

R oman L ondon .

SAXER , R .

1 967

U n ter suchungen z u d en V ex i l la t ionen d e s K a i serheer e s v on Augus tus b i s D iok ie t ian . Kö ln Gra tz .

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E in ige B emerkungen ü ber d ie G e schü tzverwendung b e i d en R öme rn b e sonder sz ur Z e i t C ae sar s . P rog ramme v on d em F r iedr ichs -Gymnas ium z u A l tenburg 6 18 .

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1 928

P o l iorke t ik . I n J . K romayer a nd G . Ve i th Heerwesen u nd K r iegf ührung d er G r iechen u nd R öme r : 2 09 -47 . Mun ich .

1 973 -87

A h i s tor y o ft he J ew i sh p eop le i n t he a ge o f J e sus C h r i s t ( 175 BC AD 1 35 ) . 3 v o ls . E d inburgh ( A n ew E ng l ish v ers ion , r ev ised b yG . Vermes , F . M i l lar e ta l .) .

S CH URER , E .

m i l i tar y

a r t i l le ry .

H i s tor ica l

a r t i l ler y .

d ip lomas

T echn ica l

1 908 t o

1 954 -1977 .

-

SHATZ MAN , I .

1 983a

Herod 's k ingdom p rob lems . M i le t

4 81

a rmy a nd s ecur i ty 1 : 7 5 -98 . T e l Av iv

-

( Everyman 's Un ivers i ty , S tud ies i n J ew ish H is tory a nd L i te ra ture . I n Hebrew ) . 1 983h

T he b eg inn ing o f t he Ro man d efens ive s y s tem i n J udaea . Amer ican J ourna l o f Anc ien tH i s to r y 8 :1 30 -60 .

S I VAN , R . a nd SOLAR , G .

1 984

D iscover ies i n t he J erusa lem c i tade l , 1 980 1 984 . Qadmon io t6 8 : 11 -6 . ( In Hebrew ) .

S PE IDEL , M .P .

1 982 -83

T he Roman a rmy i n J udaea u nder t he p rocura tors : t he I t a l ian a nd Augus tan c ohor t i nt he A c ts o f t he Apos t le s . Anc ien t S oc ie ty 1 3 -4 : 2 23 -40 .

STERN , E .

1 985

T he e xcava t ions a t T e l Dor . I n E .L . L ip insk i ( ed . ) T he l and o fI s rae l : c r os s -road s o fc i v i l iza t ions : 1 69 -92 . L ouva in .

1 987

T he w a l ls o f Dor . E r e tz -I srae l 1 9 : 1 53 -9 . ( In Hebrew , w i th E ng l ish s u mmary : 7 7*) .

1 988

T he e xcava t ions a t T e l Dor aC anaan i te P hoen ic ian p or t -c i ty o n t he C arme l c oas t . Qad inon io t7 9 -80 : 6 6 -8 1 . ( In Hebrew ) .

1 EDESCHE , S .S .

1 950

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1 978

Yerusha la im . I n R . Moorey a nd P . P arr ( eds .) A r chaeo log y i n t he L evan t . E s say sf or Ka th leen K enyon : 1 83 -93 . Warm ins ter .

T SAFR JR , Y .

1 975

T he l o ca t ion o f t he S e leuc id J erusa lem . RB ib l8 2 : 5 01 -21 .

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1 974

A t ower a nd f o r tress n ear J erusa lem . 2 4 : 8 4 -94 .

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1 954 -6

J erusa lem d e l ' anc ien t e s tamen t . P ar is .

W AGNER , D .

1 977

L eg io 1 1 1 S c y th ica i n Z eugma am E uphra t . I n S tud ien z u d en M i l i tärg renzen R o ms 2 : 5 17 -39 . Ko ln -Gra tz .

WINTER , F .W .

1 963

T he c hrono logy o f t he E urya los f o r tress a t S yracuse . AJP 6 7 : 3 63 -87 .

1 971

G r eek f or t if i ca t ions . L ondon .

1 965

T he e xcava t ions o f Masada , P re l im inary r epor t . I EJ 1 5 : 1 120 .

YADIN , Y .

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3 2 . PORTS OF THE RED SEA AND THE ARABIA -INDIA TRADE S teven E . S idebo tham De laware * Commerc ia l c on tac ts b e tween t he Med i terranean b as in a nd S ou th Arab ia -Ind ia e x is ted b efore t he a dven t o f t he P to lem ies , Naba taeans a nd R omans , b u t t hese l a t ter g overnmen ts , e spec ia l ly t he R oman , p romo ted mar i t ime c ommerce w i th t hese e as tern l ands . The c ons truc t ion a nd/or e n largemen to fR ed S ea p or ts a s f ar s ou th a s t he B ab e l - Mandeb a nd , p erhaps , b eyond g rea t ly f ac i l i ta ted t rade . Th is p aper w i l l c oncen tra te o n s even p or ts a t t he n or thern e nd o f t he R ed S ea i n E gyp t a nd S aud i A rab ia . The s i x ma jor P to lema ic -Roman R ed S ea p or ts i n E gypt w ere , f rom n or th t o s ou th : 1 ) C lysma -C leopa tr is -Ars inoe , 2 ) Myos Hormos , 3 ) Ph i lo teras , 4 ) L eukos L imen , 5 ) Neches ia a nd 6 ) B eren ice . The s even th , o n t he S aud i A rab ian c oas t , was L euke Kome . Archaeo log ica l a nd a nc ien t l i terary e v idence ( f or e xamp le , Aga tharch ides [ i n I ) iodorus S icu lus ] , A r tem idorus [ i n S trabo ], S trabo , P l iny t he E lder , t he P er ip lus Mans E ry thrae i a nd P to lemy ) r evea ls much a bou t t h is c om merce , i nc lud ing t he t ypes o f g oods t raded , t he " na t iona l i ty " a nd s oc ia l s ta tus o ft he e n trepreneurs a nd t he v ar ious me thods b y wh ich t he g overnments f ac i l i ta ted a nd p rof i ted f rom t he t rade . T he e v idence s tud ied i n t o to r evea ls t he p o l i t ica l -econom ic -m i l i tary p o l ic ies o f t hese s ta tes v i s -à -v is t h is c ommerce . A rchaeo log ica l e v idence a lso s heds l i gh t o n t he l oca l/reg iona l e conom ic n etwork t ha t e x is ted b etween t he E gyp t ian Red S ea p or ts a nd t he d eser t h in ter land . I ti se v ident t ha t as tudy o ft h is t rade a nd t he g overnmen t p o l ic ies wh ich p romo ted i tl eaves many i n tr igu ing , u nanswered q ues t ions wh ich o n ly a dd i t iona l a rchaeo log ica l i nves t iga t ions c an h ope t oa nswer .

C omme rc ia l c on tac t s b e tween t he Med i te r ranean b as in a nd l a nd s t o t he e a s t e x i s ted a se ar ly a st he O ld K ingdom ( t h i rd m i l lenn ium BC ) e poch o fE gyp t , i f n o t e ar l ie r ( T r igge r 1 983 : 1 36 ) . T he se r e la t ion s c on t inued i nt he E gyp t ian M idd le K ingdom ( s econd m i l lenn ium BC ) ( T regenza 1 958 : 1 81 ; T r igge r 1 983 : 1 37 ; S ayed 1 978 : 6 9 -71 ; N ibb i 1 976 : 4 55 6 ; 1 979 : 2 01 -208 ; 1 980 : 6 9 -74 ) , t he Emp i re ( New K ingdom , m id to la te s e cond m i l lenn ium BC ) ( T r igge r 1 983 : 2 70 -1 ) a nd l a te p ha raon ic p e r iods ( T r igge r 1 983 : 2 54 ; S chwe infur th 1 885 ) . K ing S o lomon o f J udaea 's c on tac t sw i th t h e Queen o fS heba ( Saba i ns ou th -we s tA rab ia ) i nt he t e n th c en tury BC a re w e l l k nown ( 1K ing s 1 0 .10 ; I sa iah 6 0 .6 ) . Anc ien tc omme rc ia l c on tac t b e tween t he Med i te r ranean b a s in a nd t he R ed S ea Ind ian O cean r e g ion s i s b e s t d ocumen ted i n t he P to lema ic -Roman e ra . A l though a g rea t n umbe r o fv i ta l i s sue s a bou t t h i s t r ade r ema in u nanswe red , w e a r e , n eve r the le s s , r e la t ive ly w e l l in fo rmed a bou t t he p e r iod f r om t he t h i rd c en tu ry BC u n t i l t he l a te s e cond -ea r ly t h i rd c en tu ry AD . I n He l len is t ic Roman t imes t here were s evera l t r ade r ou te s c onnec t ing t he Med i te r ranean w o r ld w i th l a nd s t ot he e a s t . T he n o r the rn s i lk r ou te l e d t o C h ina ( Tho r ley 1 971 : 7 1 -80 ; C har le swo r th 1 974 : 9 7 -111 ; C u r t in 1 984 : 9 0 -6 ) a nd t he re w e re r ou te sw h ich c omb ined m ar i t ime w i th o ve r land c aravan t r ack s ; f o r e xamp le , v i a P e t ra , c ap i ta l o ft h e A rab k i ngdom o fN aba taea ( S idebo tham 1 986b : 7 1 -6 , 1 37 -

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4 1 , 1 48 -55 ; H ammond 1 973 ) a nd v i a P a lmy ra , t h e A rab t r ad ing s t a te i n S y r ia ( S idebo tham 1 986b : 1 08 -110 , 1 7 1 -2 ) . T he re w e re a l so r ou te s w h ich c onnec ted P to lema ic , N aba taean a nd R oman p o r t s a t t he n o r the rn e nd o f t he R ed S ea w i th m ar i t ime empo r ia e l sewhe re i nt he R ed S ea a nd I nd ian O cean . T h i s p ape r w i l l f o cus u pon t he m ar i t ime t r ade r ou te s w h ich l i nked t h e Med i te r ranean b a s in w i th l a nd s i nS ou th A rab ia a nd I nd ia v i a p o r t sa tt he n o r the rn e nd o ft he R ed S ea . P o l i t ica l a nd e conom ic c ons ide ra t ion s f a voured t he se s ea r ou te s i n t he P to lema ic a nd , e spec ia l ly , i nt he R oman p e r iod . P a r th ia , a nd l a te rS asan ian P e r s ia , w e re l a rge , p owe r fu l a nd o f ten h o s t i le s t a te s t ha t s t radd led t he o ve r land c aravan r ou te s b e tween t he R oman w o r ld i nt he w e s t a nd C h ina , I nd ia a nd o the r a reas t o t he e a s t . P hy s ica l d om ina t ion o ft he se l a nd r ou te sp l aced t he i rc on tro la tt h e me rcy o f t he P ar th ian s t a te , i t s v as sa l s ( Cu r t in 1 984 : 9 6 ; S he rw in - Wh i te 1 984 : 2 98 -321 ; C oledge 1 967 : 3 6 -56 ; D ebevo i se 1 938 ) a nd i t s s ucce s so r , S asan ian P e r s ia . P o l i t ica l ly , t hen , R ome u ndoub ted ly s ough t t o a vo id t h i s o ve r land r ou te i fa t a l p o s s ib le . E conom ic c on s ide ra t ions a l so p l ayed a r o le i n p romo t ing m ar i t ime c omme rce . G iven t ha t i tw as much c heape r i na n t iqu i ty t o s h ip g ood s i nh u lk b y s ea t h an i tw as t ot r anspo r t t hem o ve r land ( Ro s tov tze f f 1 957 : 1 46 ; J one s 1 964 : 8 41 2 ;G reene 1 986 : 3 9 -43 ) , i ti sn o ts u rp r i s ing t h a tt he R ed S ea Ind ian O cean m ar i t ime r ou te g rew i n p opu lar i ty . Howeve r , t h i s s ea r ou te , f o r av ar ie ty o f r e asons ( S idebo tham 1 986b : 7 1 -7 , 1 07 108 ) n eve r c omp le te ly s upp lan ted t he o ve r land c aravan t r ack s . P to lemy I P h i lade lphus ( 283/282 -246 BC ) w as t he f i r s t He l len i s t ic r u le r o f E gyp t t o p romo te t r ade w i th S ou th A rab ia a nd s ub -Saharan A f r ica o n ar egu la r b as i s . He a l so s eems t oh ave e ncouraged t r ade w i th I nd ia ( S idebo tham 1 9 86b : 2 ff ) . T op romo te t h i s c omme rce f u r the r P to lemy I a nd h i s s uc ce s so r sc ons t ruc ted p o r t s o n t he R ed S ea c oa s t s o f E gyp t , S udan a nd E th iop ia a s f a r s ou th a s t h e B ab e iMandeb ( en t rance t ot he I nd ian O cean ) a nd , p e rhap s , b eyond o n t he I nd ian O cean c oas t o f n o r the rn S oma l i land ( S t rabo 1 6 .4 .7 f f ; P l iny NH 6 . 34 .170 -5 ; s ee S idebo tham 1 986b : 3 ; S cu l la rd 1 974 : 1 26 -45 ) . P r imary mo t iva t ion f o r t he P to lema ic f ounda t ion o f t he se p o r t s w as m i l i tary , n o t c omme rc ia l ; t he a cqu is i t ion o f e l ephan ts u sed b y t he E g yp t ian m i l i tary a nd o f g o ld t o f a c i l i ta te P to lema ic p aymen t o f me rcenary t r oop s a nd o the r r e la ted mi l i ta ry e xpend i ture s ( S idebo tham 1 986b : 4 ,1 ; Mur ray 1 967 : 2 4 -33 ; L ew i s 1 986 : 2 1 , 2 4 , 2 9 -30 ) . O the r c ommod i t ie s a l so p as sed t h rough t he se p o r t s , b u t t hey s eem t o h ave b een , a tl e as t i nt h e e ar ly P to lema ic p e r iod , o fs e condary i mpo r tance t ot he i mpo r ta t ion o fw ar e l ephan ts a nd g o ld . E ven i ft he P to lem ie s h ad d e s i red t o b e am a jo r c omme rc ia l p owe r i n t he Med i te r ranean w o r ld i nt he l a s tc en tur ie s BC , t hey c ou ld n eve r h ope t om onopo l ise a l t he t r ade r ou te s c onnec t ing t he Med i te r ranean b a s in w i th l a nds t o t h e e as t . T hey w e re n eve r mo re t h an a r eg iona l p owe r i nt h e e as te rn Med i te r ranean a nd w e re c ons tan t ly i n c ompe t i t ion w i th o the r r eg iona l a nd l o ca l p owe r s l i ke t he S e leuc ids a nd t he N aba taeans . T he n a ture , v o lume , i n tens i ty a nd b read th o f t he se e as t -we s t c on tac t s c hanged a nd g rew d rama t ica l ly w i th t he a r r iva l o f R ome i n t he e as te rn Med i te r ranean . Un l ike t he P to lem ie s , t he R oman s w e re n o t ar eg iona l p owe r c on t ro l l ing o n ly ap o r t ion o f t h e e as te rn Med i te r ranean , b u t aw or ld p owe r w h ich c ame t o monopo l i se t he w e s te rn e nd o ft he e as t -we s t t r ade r ou te s . B yt he t ime o ft he R oman a nnexa t ion o fE gyp t i n3 0 BC e l ephan t sw e re n o l o nge rc on s ide red a n i n d i spensab le a s se t t oa ny m a jo r a nc ien t a rmy n o r d i d R ome h ave t og o b eyond i t so wn p o l i t ica l f r on t ie r s t os e cure s u f f ic ien t a moun ts o fg o ld f o r g ove rnmen t o r p r iva te e xpend i ture s ; t he re w e re a dequa te s upp l ie s w i th in t he Emp ire i t se lf . T hus , u n l ike t he P to lem ie s , t he R oman s w e re n o t i n te re s ted i n a

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R ed S ea Ind ian O cean t r ade p u re ly o r p r imar i ly f o r m i l i tary r easons . T he i r i n te re s t w as mo re c omme rc ia l a nd p o l i t ica l , a l though t hey o ccas iona l ly m ade r a re d emons t ra t ion so fm i l i tary p owe r i nt he r eg ion w i th c omme rc ia lo r p o l i t ica lg oa l si n m ind . We w i l ld i scu s so ne s uch m i l i tary e xped i t ion l a te r i nt h is p ape r . L e t u sn ow e xam ine s ome o ft he se p o r t sw h ich w e re a c t ive i nt he P to lema ic R oman p e r iod a tt h e n o r the rn e nd o f t he R ed S ea . A t t he h e igh t o f t he R oman p e r iod ( l a te f i r s t c en tu ry BC f i r s t a nd s econd c en tur ie s AD ) t he re w e re s i x p o r t s o n t h e E gyp t ian R ed S ea c oas t a nd o ne o n t he S aud i A rab ian R ed S ea c oas t t h a t w e re e spec ia l ly a c t ive i nt h i s m a r i t ime c omme rce . Mo s t o f t he se p o r t s h ad b een f ounded i n t he p re -Roman p e r iod ; m any w e re P to lema ic f ounda t ion s , b u t t he se e mpo r ia c on t inued t of u nc t ion i n ag rea te rc apac i ty i nR oman t ime s . -

Wr i te r s o f t h e s e cond c en tury BC s econd c en tu ry AD i n c lud ing A g a tharch ide s ( i n D iodo ru s S i cu lu s a nd P ho t iu s ) , A r tem ido ru s ( i n S t rabo ) , S t rabo , P l iny t he E lde r , t he P e r ip lu s Ma ns E ry th rae i a nd P to lemy r e fe r t o t he se p o r t s ( S idebo tham 1 986b : 4 8 -71 ; C a s son f o r thcom ing ) . I n E gyp t P to lemy ( Geog . 4 . 5 .8 ) l o ca ted s i x p o r t s n o r th t o s ou th : A r s inoe -C ly sma -Qo lzoum ( Suez ) , Myo s Ho rmo s , P hio teras , L euko sL imen , N eche s ia a nd B e ren ice . -

F rench e xcava t ions a t A r s inoe -C ly sma -Qo lzoum i n t he 1 930 s ( B ruye re 1 966 ) d emon s t ra ted t h a t t he p o r t w as a P to lema ic f ounda t ion . L uc ian ( A l ex . 4 4 ) , w r i t ing i n c . 1 70 , i n d ica ted t he e a se w i th w h ich a t r ave l le r c ou ld b oard a s h ip a t C ly sma b ound f o r I nd ia a nd a r chaeo log ica l e v idence f r om t he F rench e xcava t ion s c on f irmed a c t iv i ty a t t h e p o r t i n t h e f our th c en tury a nd l a te r . T ha t C ly sma c on t inued t o f unc t ion a s aR ed S ea p o r t i n t h i s " i n te rna t iona l " c omme rce i n l a te a n t iqu i ty r equ i re s s ome c ommen t . Y ear round p reva i l ing n o r the r ly w ind s i nt h i s r eg ion o f t he R ed S ea ( Cas son 1 980 : 2 2 , n . 2 = C a s son 1 984c : 1 93 , n . 2 ; S i deho tham 1 986b : 5 1 -2 a nd n . 12 ; Ho l s t 1 985 : 8 17 ,A .1 -A .25 ; E l l io t 1 985 : 1 9 , 2 4 -6 , 2 9 -30 , 3 1 -3 ) g rea t ly h i nde red a nc ien t s a i l ing s h ips f r om t a ck ing t o t h i s n o r the rn mo s t R ed S ea p o r t , a nd o ne p o s s ib le e xp lana t ion f o r i t s c on t inued u se a s a n e mpor ium w as t he e x i s tence o f aN i le -Red S ea c ana l w h ich t e rm ina ted n ea rby ( S idebo tham 1 986b : 6 7 -8 ) . T he re h as b een s ome r e search o n t h i s c ana l w h ich v a r ious r u le r s , i n c lud ing a M idd le K ingdom p haraoh , N echo I ( l a te s even th -ear ly s i x th c en tury BC ) , D a r iu s I( l a te s i x th -ear ly f i f th c en tury BC ) , P to lemy I ( t h i rd c en tury BC ) a nd T ra jan ( l a te f i r s t c en tury -ear ly s econd c en tury AD ) e xcava ted o r r epa i red ( Po sene r 1 9 38 : 2 58 -73 ; O e r te l 1 964 : 1 8 -52 ; N avi le 1 902/1903 : 6 6 -75 ; B ou rdon 1 925 ; S i jpe s te i jn 1 963 : 7 0 -83 ; 1 965 : 1 06 -113 ) . T he A rab w r i te r A l Maq r i z i a t te s ted i t s c on t inued u se i nt he n i n th c en tury ( S i jpe s te i jn 1 963 : 7 3 ) , a nd s ome o fi t s r ema in sc an s t i l l b e s een ( Redmoun t 1 986 : 2 0 ) , b u t i t s e xac t c ou r se a nd t h ed a te i tc eased t of u nc t ion a re u nce r ta in . T he c ana lf a c i l i ta ted t he movemen t o f f r e igh t b e tween t he N i le a nd t he R ed S ea , t he reby a vo id ing t he c o s t ly s t ep o fo f f l o ad ing c argoe sf o rt r an s sh ipmen tb yp ack a n ima l . N eve r the le s s , t h a t may n o t h ave b een s uf f ic ien t r eason f o r n o r thbound s h ip s t op roceed t o C ly sma r a the r t h an p u t i na to ne o f t he mo re s ou the r ly E g yp t ian R ed S ea p o r t s . I n f a c t , S t rabo ( 17 .1 .45 ) t e l l s u s t ha t b y h i s d ay ( l a te f i r s t c en tury BC ) t he s ou the rn mo s t o f t he se p o r ts , B e ren ice , w as t he o n ly o ne t h rough w h ich i t em s i mpo r ted f r om I nd ia , A rab ia a nd " E th iop ia " p a s sed . A rchaeo log ica l e v idence f r om t he r e cen t ly e xcava ted p o r t o f L eukos L imen ( d i scus sed b e low ) i n d ica te st h a t B e ren ice d i d n o tc on t inue i fi te ve r h ad t o monopo l i se t h i s i mpo r t t r ade (Wh i tcomb a nd J ohn son 1 979a ; 1 982a ; 1 9 82c ) . T he p u ta t ive c ou r se o f t h i s c ana l i nt he T ra jan ic p e r iod ( 9 8 -117 ) w as n o t c onven ien t f o r s h ip s s a i l ing b e tween C ly sma a nd A lexand r ia a l though , o f c our se , A le xandr ia -C ly sma w a te rbo rne c omme rce c ou ld h ave u sed i t . T he c ana l t e rm in a t ed , o r s o w e s uppo se f r om o ne o f i t s n ame s , n ear t he R oman m i l i tary c amp a t B aby lon , n ow i n as ou the rn s ubu rb o f mode rn C a iro ( Po sene r 1 938 : 2 58 -73 ; Oe r te l -

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1 964 : 1 8 -52 ; N av i l le 1 902/1903 : 6 -75 ; B ourdon 1 9 25 ; S i jpe s te i jn 1 963 : 7 0 -83 ; 1 965 : 1 06 113 ) r a the r t han f u r the r n o r th , n eare r A le xand r ia . T he f unc t ion o ft h i s c ana l may h ave b een , i np ar t , t o f a c i l i ta te s h ipmen t o f r e la t ive ly i nexpen s ive b u lk c argoe s o f g ra in s , w ine s a nd t e x t i le s f r om t he n ea rby A r s ino i te Nome , a nd o the r a d jacen t r eg ion s , t o C ly sma b y b arge o r s h ip . T he A r s ino i te Nome w a s o ne o f E gyp t 's m a jor g ra in , t e x t i le a nd v i t icu l tu re c en t re s i nt h e P to lema ic -Roman p e r iod ( Thomp son 1 983 : 6 4 -75 ; R aschke 1 978 : 9 04 , n .1 000 ; J ohnson 1 936 : 32 ) a nd a l t h ree c ommod i t ie sw e re , a cco rd ing t ot he P e r ip lu s Ma ns E ,y th rae i( 6 , 7 ,8 ,2 4 ,2 8 , 3 2 , 3 9 ) , i t em s i mpo r ted b y S ou th A rab ia a nd I nd ia , u ndoub ted ly f r om E gyp t . T ran spo r t o f s uch b u lky c argoe s b y b arge/ sh ip t h rough t he c ana l t o C ly sma a nd t hence b y s h ip t o f o re ign l a nds w ou ld h ave b een m uch e a s ie r a nd c heape r t han s h ipp ing s uch w are s u p t he N i le a nd a c ro s s t he E as te rn De se r t t o o ne o ft h e mo re s ou the r ly E gyp t ian R ed S ea p o r t s f o r e xpo r t . I ti sl i ke ly t ha t t he R oman m i l i tary p o s t a t B aby lon a l so c onven ien t ly s e rved a s ac us tom s p o s t f o r w are s p as s ing b y c ana l b e tween C ly sma a nd t he N i le ( s ee H anson 1 980 : 2 49 -54 ) . I si tp o s s ib le t ha t C ly sma w a s m a in ly a n e mpo r ium e xpo r t ing b u lky a g r icu l tura l a nd " i ndus tr ia l " c a rgoe s ( t ak ing a dvan tage o ft he i n expens ive t r anspo r t b y c ana l f r om t he N i le ) a nd t ha tf ew s h ips a c tua l ly s a i led i n to t he p o r t , t he reby a vo id ing t he p reva i l ing n o r the r ly w ind s? I si tp o s s ib le t ha t t he mo re s ou the r ly E gyp t ian R ed S ea p o r t s s e rved a s b o th i mpo r t ing a nd e xpor t ing p or t s f o r m a in ly b u t n o t e xc lus ive ly l e s s b u lky , mo re " l uxury " t y pe c ommod i t ie s w h ich c ou ld mo re e as i ly a b sorb t r an s -de se r t t r anspo r ta t ion c o s t s? T he se h ypo the se s w ou ld b e p o s s ib le e xp lana t ion s f o r t he c on t inued u se o f C ly sma a s ap o r t i n l a te a n t iqu i ty d e sp i te i t s d i sadvan tageou s l o ca t ion v i s -à -v i st he p reva i l ing w ind p a t te rn sa tt he n o r the rn e nd o ft he R ed S ea . -

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S ou th o f C ly sma a re Myo s Ho rmo s , P h i lo te ras , L euko s L i men , N eche s ia a nd B e ren ice . P to lemy ' s l o ca t ions ( Geog . 4 . 5 .8 ) w e re o n ly a pp rox ima te a nd w e w onde rw he the ra l lw e re a c t ive i nh i sd ay , t he s e cond c en tury . I n t he f i r s t h a l f o f t he n i ne teen th c en tury J .R . We l l s ted s a i led a round t he R ed S ea a nd , a t o ne p o in t , v i s i ted t he s i te o f ' Abu S ha 'ar w h ich h e e qua ted w i th Myo s Ho rmo s (We l ls ted 1 838 : 1 24 -5 ; W i lk inson 1 8 35 : 4 11 -12 ) . He c ommen ted u pon t he t w i s t ing e n t rance t o t he h a rbour , a s h ad t h e f i r s t c en tury BC w r i te r s D iodoru s S i cu lu s ( 3 .39 .1 -2 ) a nd S t rabo ( 16 .4 .5 ) b e fo re h im . Dur ing t h e v i s i t We l ls ted n o ted t h a t t he l a rge f o r t d om ina t ing t he s i te h ad t wo a rched e n trance g a te s (We l l s ted 1 8 38 : 1 25 ) o ne a t t he c en tre o f t h e n o r th w a l l a nd o ne a t t he c en t re o ft he w e s tw a l l . T he g a te sc an s t i l lb e s een . Wh i le t he a r ch a tt he w e s t g a te h as , s eem ing ly , d i sappeared , t he f a l len a r ch a t t he n o r th g a te h as b een r e cen t ly d i scove red b y a n a r chaeo log ica l e xped i t ion f r om t h e Un ive r s i ty o f D e laware ( S idebo tham e ta l . 1 989 ) . We l l s ted t hough t t h a t t he f o r t d a ted t o " t he t ime o f t he c a l iphs " ,w he reas aG e rman s urvey o f' Abu S ah 'ar i nt h e 1 960 s b e l ieved i tt ob e o f t he T e tra rch ic p e r iod ( l a te t h ird -ear ly f ou r th c en tu ry ) (We l ls ted 1 838 : 1 2 5 ; K raus 1 967 : 2 03 -205 ) . Howeve r , t he Un ive r s i ty o f D e laware ' s r e cen t s u rvey a nd e xcava t ion o ft he f o r t a nd i t s s u r round ing s h ave d emon s tra ted t h a t i tw a s f o unded , u sed a nd , a pparen t ly , p eace fu l ly a bandoned b e tween t he f i f th a nd s even th c en tur ie s . T he re i s n o e v idence w ha t soeve r o f l a te r I s lam ic o ccupa t ion ( 1 ) . A l though f u ture s ea sons o f i n ve s t iga t ion a re p l anned , t he p re sen t i n te rp re ta t ion i s t h a t t he f o r t m ay h ave b een , a to ne p o in t i ni t s e x i s tence , p ar t o ft he r e fo r t i f ica t ion o f t he Emp ire c ar r ied o u t b y t he Empe ro r J u s t in ian I( 527 -565 ) . We k now t ha t t he re w a s ar ev iva l o ft he R ed S ea Ind ian O cean t r ade i nh i s d ay a nd t h e f o r t a t ' Abu S ha 'ar m ay b ei n d irec t e v idence f o rt h i sr ena i s sance . -

T he f o r t , measur ing c .6 2 -64 m b y c .7 7 .5 m , h a s w a l ls ( c . 1 . 5 m e t re s t h ick a nd i n c lud ing c a twa lk a nd w a l l p rope r c .3 . 5 -4 m e t re s h i gh ) b u i l t o ff i e ld s t one s a nd b r i l l ian t w h i te l i me s tone o r g yp sum r e c tangu lar b l ock s p robab ly q ua r r ied n ear -

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B i r ' Abu S ha 'ar e l -Q ib l i a bou t 5 7 km t o t he w e s t ( K rau s 1 967 : 2 03 ; S ca i fe 1 936 : 5 ; S idebo tham e ta l . 1 989 ) . Twe lve th i r teen s quare/rec tangu lar t owe r s , b u i l t o f w h i te l ime s tone o r g yp sum b l ock s a nd s un -dr ied mud b r ick , p ro tec ted t he c ur ta in w a l l o f t he f o r t ( S idebo tham e t a l . 1 989 ) ( 2 ) . T he c l ear ly v i s ib le o u t l ine s o f s t ruc ture s i n s ide t he f o r t i n c lude b ar rack s , s t o rage m agaz ine s , a n a dm in i s tra t ive b ui ld ing a nd a c en t ra l b u i ld ing c on ta in ing a n a p se w h ich m ay h ave s e rved a s t he h eadquar te r sb u i ld ing o r ac hurch . R oom sa bu t t he i n te r io rf a ce o ft he f o r t i f ica t ion w a l l so n a l f ou r s i de s ( S idebo tham e ta l . 1 989 ) . Ou t s ide t he f o r tt he re a re f e a ture s ( t o t he n o r th a nd s ou th ) w h ich p rev ious v i s i to r s h ave v ar iou s ly c a l led a b a th c omp lex , f u rnace s o r " k i ln s " . C ompar i son o f t he b r ick b u i l t s em ic i rcu lar s t ruc tu re s upp l ied w i th s t ep s a nd ad ra in n o r th o f t he f o r t w i th as im i lar f e a ture i nt he b a th b ui ld ing a tt he E a s te rn D e se r t R oman q uar ry s i te o f Mon sC laud ianus s ugge s t st ha t t h e ' Abu S ha 'ar s t ruc tu re w as a l so a b a th . T he f unc t ion o f t he f e a ture s t o t he s ou th -we s t o f t he f o r t r ema in s t o b e d e te rm ined ( s ee K rau s 1 967 : 1 29 , 2 03 -205 ; S c a i fe 1 936 : 5 5 ) . D iodoru s S i cu lus ( 3 .39 .1 -2 ) , S t rabo ( 2 .5 .12 ; 1 6 .4 .24 ; 1 7 .1 .45 ) , a nd t h e P er ip lu s Mans E ,y thrae i ( 1 .19 ) , t oge the r w i th a c o l lec t ion o f o s t raca f ound a t C op tos at r ade e mpo r ium o n t he N i le c onnec ted t ot he v a r ious E gyp t ian R ed S ea p o r t s b y c a ravan t r ack s b e long ing t o t he t r ad ing f i rm o f t he N icano r f am i ly a nd t h e i r a s soc ia te s ( Ta i t 1 9 30 : 1 06 125 ; F uk s 1 951 : 2 07 -216 ; R o s tov tze f f 1 931 : 2 1 -6 ; Me red i th 1 956 ; 3 56 -62 ; S idebo tham 1 986b : 5 0 -1 , 8 3 -6 , 9 1 -2 ; K ee s 1 935a : 1 081 1 0 83 ; P o r te r 1 937 : 1 2 3 -4 ; B e rnand 1 984 : 1 51 -263 ) , s ugge s t t he l a te f i r s t c en tury BC f i r s t c en tury AD a s t he p eak p e r iod o fa c t iv i ty a t t he p o r t o f Myos Ho rmo s . N ume rous mode rn s c ho lar s s i nce t he n i ne teen th c en tury h ave e qua ted ' Abu S ha 'ar w i th Myo s Ho rmo s ( 3 ) . Y e t , s t range ly e nough , as urvey o f t he a rea r evea led n o m a jo r c oncen t ra t ion o f h uman h ab i ta t ion o the r t h an t he a bandoned f o r t a t ' Abu S ha 'ar a nd as ma l le r o ne n ear B i r ' Abu S ha 'ar e l -Q ib l i ; n o c omme rc ia l p o r t s i te h a s , t o d a te , b een d i scove red . T he se f a c t s t he l a te d a te a nd l a ck o f ac omme rc ia l p o r t c as t s ome d oub t o n t he a s soc ia t ion o f t h i s f o r t s i te w i th t he a nc ien t p o r t o f Myo s Ho rmo s . -

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T he P to lema ic R ed S ea t own o fP h i lo te ras h as n eve rb een l o ca ted p rec i se ly . B a l l a nd Me red i th ( Ba l l 1 942 : 1 83 -5 ; Me red i th 1 958 : 4 5 ; s ee K ee s 1 941 : 1 30 -1 ) b e l ieved t h e p or t t o b e s ou th o f S af aga a nd i d en t if ied r ema in s i n t he Me r sa G a sus/ Wad i G awas i s a rea w i th P hio te ras . Howeve r , t he se t wo s cho lar s may h ave c on fused t he r ema ins o f t he M idd le K ingdom p o r t l a te r e xcava ted t he re , a t Wad i G awas i s ( Sayed 1 978 : 6 9 -71 ) , w i th w ha t t hey b e l ieved t ob eP h i lo te ras . T he a nc ien t l i t e ra ture o n P h i lo te ra s d oe s n o t r evea l d a te s o ff ounda t ion o r p eak p e r iods o fu se . We d o n o t k now w hen i tc eased t of unc t ion a s ap o r to rw hen i tw as a bandoned . T he b e s t k nown p o r t i sL euko s L imen ( Qu se i r a l -Qad im ) . T he O r ien ta l I n s t i tu te o ft he Un ive r s i ty o fC h icago e xcava ted p o r t ion s o ft h i s R ed S ea empo r ium i n1 978 , 1 980 a nd 1 982 a nd r evea led much a bou t t he s i te (Wh i tcomb a nd J ohn son 1 9 79a ; 1 982a ; 1 982c ) . L euko sL imen w as , o fa l t he R oman R ed S ea p o r t si nE gyp t , t h e c l o se s t t o t he N i le ( S idebo tham 1 986b : 5 7 ; Wh i tcomb a nd J ohnson 1 979b : 4 ) w h ich made i ti mpo r tan t t o me rchan t s o f t he p e r iod . R e la t ive p rox im i ty r educed t h e d i s tance , t ime , a nd , t he reby , t he c o s t , r equ ired t o t r anspo r t c ommod i t ie s b e tween t he p o r ta nd t h eN i le . De sp i te o ne mode rn t r ave l le r ' sc l a im (We iga l l 1 909 : 6 0 -61) t ha t h e s aw a P to lema ic i n sc r ip t ion i n mode rn Quse i r , t he re i sn o f i rm e v idence t h a t t he p o r t a t Quse i r a l -Qad im , a bou t e i gh t km n o r th o f t he mode rn Q u se ir , e x i s ted o r f unc t ioned i n t he P to lema ic p e r iod . A rchaeo log ica l e v idence , b o th c e ram ic a nd n um isma t ic , s eems t o i n d ica te t h a t L euko s L imen w as f ounded s ome t ime i nt he f i r s t c en tury . I tc on t inued i nu se t h roughou t t he s econd c en tury a nd , a cco rd ing t o t he e xcava to r s , s eems t o h ave b een a bandoned s ome t ime i nt he l a te s econd o rt h i rd c en tury ( 4 ) .

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S eve ra l o ft he e xcava ted a reas o f Qu se i r a l -Qad im a t te s ted t he i mpo r tance o f i t s t r ade w i th I nd ia a nd S ou th A rab ia . T he s o -ca l led " i ndu s tr ia l q uar te r " a s t ruc ture o r s t ruc ture s p oo r ly c ons t ruc ted o f f i e ld s t one s , s un d r ied m ud b r ick , c hunk so fc o ra lq uar r ied f r om n earby o f f sho re r ee f sa nd s ome t imbe r c on ta ined a n umbe ro ft e r raco t ta s t o rage/sh ipmen tj a r s ( ampho r ae ) , ag r ind ing s t one ,g l ass s l ag ( d i scus sed b e low ) ( Ro th 1 979 : 1 44 ) a nd aT am i l ( Sou th I nd ian ) g raf f i to ( Wh i tcomb 1 982b : 2 1 -37 ) . E xcava t ion s a l so r e cove red a s he rd w i th a H imya r i t ic ( Sou th A rab ian ) g ra f f i to , men t ion ing ap e r sona l n ame ( Gragg 1 979 : 2 44 -245 ) , a nd as he rd w i th aS abaean ( Sou th A rab ian ) g raf f i to ( S ideho tham 1 986h : 5 6 a nd n .2 5 ) . N eare r t he h arbou r w a s al a rge , w e l l -made b r ick s t ruc ture w h ich m ay h ave s e rved a s a w arehouse o r g ove rnmen t b u i ld ing . N ex t t o i ta r chaeo log i s t s d i scove red ac o i l o f t h ick r ope o ft he t y pe w h ich m igh t h ave b een u sed t os e cure o cean -go ing m e rchan t s h ip s (Wh i tcomb 1 982b : 3 7 -42 ) . A l so u near thed w e re w ooden r i ng s p erhap s b rai ing r i ng s u sed t o h o i s t s a i l s u p m as t s (Wh i t comb 1 979a : 2 03 -205 ) a nd e v idence t ha t t he h arbour h ad b een d redged/c lea red a tl e as t o nce i n R oman t ime s (Wh i tcomb 1 979b : 4 3 ) . -

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T he s i te r ev ived i n t he med ieva l I s lam ic p e r iod . A t t h a t t ime i te n joyed c on tac t s w i th S ou th A rab ia , c oas ta l s ub -Saharan A f r ica , I nd ia a nd C h ina (Wh i tcomb a nd J ohnson 1 979a : 3 9 -44 , 5 7 -63 , 1 04 -43 , 1 8 3 -95 , 2 11 -19 ; 1 982a : 17 -99 , 2 33 -41 , 2 67 -83 ; s ee We t te r s trom 1 982 : 3 60 ) . O n ly af r ac t ion o f t he s i te h as b een e xcava ted a nd mo re p ro f i tab le w o rk c ou ld b ec onduc ted t he re . De sp i te P to lemy ' s n o ta t ion ( Geog . 4 . 5 .8 ) , t h e e mpo r ium o f N e che s ia h as n eve r b een l o ca ted . Me red i th ( 1958 : m ap s hee t ; s e e K ee s 1 935b : 2 167 ) p os i ted t wo p o s s ib le l o ca t ion s : n ear Me r sa Mubarak o r Me r sa T undaha /Me r sa N akar i . O the r s cho lar s a re a l so u nce r ta in a s t o i t s l o ca t ion , i t s p e r iod o f f ounda t ion a nd w hen i to pe ra ted . B e ren ice , t he s ou the rn mo s t o ft he E gyp t ian R ed S ea p o r ts , w a s p robab ly t he l a rge s t a nd mo s t i mpo r tan t ( c f . S t rabo 1 7 .1 .45 ) , a tl e as t i nt h e f i r s t c en tury BC a nd f i r s t second c en tu r ie s AD . P to lemy I f ounded t h e p o r t i n t he e a r ly t h ird c en tury BC a nd n amed i ta f te r h i s mo the r ( Se the 1 899 : 2 80 -1 ; S t i l lwel 1 9 76 : 1 49 5 0 ) . S t rabo ( 17 .1 .45 ) , P l iny t he E lde r ( NH 6 . 26 .103 ) a nd t h e N icano r o s traca a rch ive ( Ta i t 1 930 : 1 06 -125 ) s ugge s tp eak a c t iv i ty i nt h e l a te f i r s tc en tury BC t of i r s t c en tury AD . T he l a te s t d a tab le c a r touche s i n t he t emp le t he re men t ion Marcu s Au re l iu sa nd L uc iu s V e ru s ( j o in t r e ign 1 6 1 -169 ) ( S ideho tham 1 986b : 5 2 ; Me red i th 1 957 : 5 6 -70 ) . T h i s i mp l ie s t h a t t he p o r t w as i n hab i ted t hen a nd t h e p or t ' s a ppearance o n t he T abu la P eu t ing e r iana a nd o n t h e I t ine rar ium A n ton in iana s ugge s t si t sc on t inued e x i s tence a t ad a te i nt he t h i rd c en tu ry . However , s i nce d a te s f o r t he se t wo R oman i tne rar ie s a re u nce r ta in a nd o n ly t he b r ie f e s t o fr epo r t s a nd s ke tch ie s t o fp l an s h ave b een m ade o f t he s i te (We l l s ted 1 838 : 32 -45 ; W i lk inson 1 835 : 4 16 -18 ; Mu r ray 1 968 : 4 9 -53 ; Me red i th 1 957 : 5 6 -70 ; D are s sey 1 922 : 1 69 -84 ; L e squ ie r 1 918 : 4 35 ; R a imond i 1 923 : 5 3 -76 ) , w e d o n o t k now w hen t he e mpor ium f i na l ly d ec l ined a nd c eased t of unc t ion a s ap o r t ( 5 ) . N o r d o w e k now , u l t ima te ly , w hen i tw as a bandoned . Howeve r , ar e cen t v i s i t t o t h e s i te r e vea led t he e x i s tence o f s ur f ace p o t te ry f r agmen ts d a t ing t o t he f i f th seven th c en tu r ie s , s ugge s t ing t ha t t he p o r tc on t inued t oh e i n hab i ted , i fn o t u sed a s ac omme rc ia le mpo r ium ,w e l l i n to t he B yzan t ine p e r iod ( 6 ) . On t he e as t c oa s t o ft he R ed S ea , i nt he n o r th -we s tc o rne r o fS aud iA rab ia , as even th p o r t , t he e mpo r ium o f L euke K ome , p l ayed a n i mpo r tan t r o le i n t h i s c omme rce . P e rhap s f ounded o n t he s i te o f t he e ar l ie r M i le s ian c o lony o f Ampe lone ( c f . P l iny , NH 6 . 32 .158 -159 ; s ee T arn 1 929 : 2 1 -22 ) , L euke K ome ' sz en i th s eem s t o h ave b een t he f i r s t c en tury BC f i r s t c en tury AD . T he P e r ip lu s Mans -

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E ,y th rae i men t ion s t h e p o r t w i th t he c ommen t t h a t i t w as g uarded b y a h eka ton ta r che s ( c en tu r ion ) a nd ag ar r i son t h a t c o l lec ted a2 5% a d v a lor em c u s tom s t a x ( P er ip . 1 9 ) . T h i s a u tho r h a s p rev iou s ly s ugge s ted t ha t w e c anno t d e te rm ine w he ther t h i s p a s sage i n t he P e r ip lu s Mans E ,y th rae i i n d ica te s c on t ro l o f L euke K ome a t t h a t t ime ( t he f i r s t c en tu ry? ) b y t he R oman s o r t he N aba taeans f o r b o th u sed t he m i l i tary t e rm h eka ton ta r che s ( S idebo tham 1 986b : 1 06 -107 ) . T he v e ry l o ca t ion o f L euke K ome h as b een much d eba ted , a l though t he p re sen t w r i te r h as a rgued e l sewhe re f o r as i te n ear K huraybah 'Aynunah i n t he v i c in i ty o ft he S t ra i t o fT i ran ( S idebo tham 1 986b : 1 24 -6 = S idebo tham 1 986a : 5 96 7 ; s ee I ng raham 1 98 1 : 7 6 -8 ) . T h i s a rea h a s b een s ugge s ted b y a rchaeo log ica l r e conna i s sance a nd a r gued f o r o n g eog raph ica l a nd c l imac t ic g rounds . Howeve r , f u r the r e xp lo ra t ion o ft h e r eg ion i sp aramoun t . B o th c on tempo rary w e s te rn a nd I nd ian l i te rary s ource s t e l l u s s ome th ing a bou t t h is c omme rce . S t rabo , P l iny t he E lde r , t he P e r ip lu s Mans E ,y thrae i , I nd ian p oems a nd t he K au t i l i ya A r thasa s t ra , a n i mpor tan t s ou rce o f i n fo rma t ion o n I nd ian v i ew s o n t he c on t ro l o f g ove rnmen t a nd t he O rgan i sa t ion o f t he e conomy , a re i mpor tan t ( S idebo tham 1 986b : 1 3 -47 ) . T he re a re o the r e p ig raph ic d ocumen t s s uch a s S ou th A rab ian m a rke t c ode s ( Bee s ton 1 959 ; 1 971 ; 1 978 : 1 42 -45 ) . Howeve r , t h e se r evea l , p r imar i ly , l o ca l c omme rc ia l c once rns a nd l i t t le o r n o th ing a bou t t r ade w i th t he We s t . A rchaeo log ica l e v idence , i n c lud ing c o ins , o s t raca , i n sc r ibed p l as te r p l ug su sed t os ea lj a r s , i n sc r ip t ions , p apy r i , p o t tery , g l as s a nd a r ch i tec tu ra l r ema ins , s upp lemen t t he l i t e r ary a ccoun t s a nd r e vea l a n e l abo ra te a ppara tus f o r t he a cqu i s i t ion a nd t r an spo r ta t ion o fp roduc t st oa nd f r om t he Med i te r ranean w o r ld . Many o ft he p roduc ts w h ich t he P to lm ie sa nd R oman ss ough t f r om t he E as t c ame f r om t he k i ngdoms o fS ou th A rab ia , I nd ia ( S idebo tham 1 986b : 1 3 -36 ; C as son 1 9 84b : 3 9 -47 ) a nd , t o amo re l i m i ted e x ten t , f r om C h ina ( S idebo tham 1 986b : 1 43 ; H i r th 1 966 ; F e rgu son 1 978 : 5 81 -603 ; Hudson 1 931 : 3 9 , 5 2 , 6 8 f f ; C as son 1 984a : 2 47 -72 ; C har le swo r th 1 974 : 9 7 111) , S r i L anka ( Cey lon ) ( S idebo tham 1 986b : 3 2 -3 ) a nd s ub -Saharan A f r ica ( Cas son 1 980 : 2 1 -36 = C as son 1 984c : 1 82 -98 ; 1 986 : 1 79 -82 ; s e e R aschke 1 978 : 6 04 -1378 ) . Med i te r ranean p eop le s d e s i red n o t o n ly l u xury g oods l i ke s i lk , p ear l s , t e akwood , e bony , i v ory , t o r to i se s he l l , c i nnamon , n a rd , c a s s ia , e xo t ic a n ima l s l i ke t i ge r s a nd l e opard s , p rec iou s s t one s a nd s l ave s , b u t a l so p roduc t s f o r e ve r yday c on sump t ion : a mong t he se c o t ton , ah i gh y i e ld m i l le t , f r ank incense a nd m y r rh . F ranc incen se a nd m y r rh w e re g um r e s in s h arve s ted f r om t r ee s t ha t g rew m a in ly i n S ou th A rab ia a nd t he Ho rn o f A f r ica r eg ion . T he se a r oma ta h ave l o ng b een c on s ide red l u xury g ood s b y mode rn s cho lar s . Howeve r , b y a nc ien t s t andard s , t h ey w e re n o t ( S idebo tham 1 986b : 1 3 -47 ) . T hey w e re u sed m a in ly f o r med ic ina l , r e l ig ious a nd f une rary p rac t ice s h ard ly l u xury c on s ide ra t ion s t ot he a nc ien t m ind . -

I n r e turn t he R oman s t r aded g o ld a nd s i lve r b u l l ion , p l a te a nd c o inage , g l a s s , b ar ley ,w hea t , s e same o i l ,w ine b rand sf r om I t a ly a nd L aod icea i nS y r ia w e re p opu lar a nd c l o th ( S idebo tham 1 986b : 1 3 -47 ; S te rn 1 986 : 2 0 -3 ; S cob ie 1 969 : 1 05 1 0 7 ) . P l iny ( NH 3 2 .11 .23 ) i nd ica ted t h a tt he I nd ian se spec ia l ly l o ved r ed c o ra lf r om t h e Med i te r ranean w o r ld w h ich t hey u sed f o r a po t ropa ic p urpo se s . Many o the r i t ems a ppear i nl i s t sf r om t he a nc ien t s ource s a si t em s e xpor ted f r om a nd i mpo r ted t ot he Med i te r ranean w o r ld . -

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D eba te h a sc on t inued a mong s c ho lar so ve r t he n a ture o ft h i s" i n te rna t iona l " e a s te rn c omme rce . Was i tb a s ica l ly o ne i n l u xury g ood s o r at r ade m a in ly i n p roduc ts f o r d a i ly u se? We d o n o t k now . We c anno t a sce r ta in t he o ve ra l l v o lume o f t h is t r ade f o r t h e a nc ien t w r i te r s w e re n o t me t icu lous r e co rd -keepe r s w hen i t

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c ame t op rec i se t r ade v o lume s . N o r d o w e k now w ho b ene f i ted mos t f i nanc ia l ly t he p eop le s o f t he Med i te r ranean o r t he " f ore igne r s " . P l iny ( NH 6 . 26 .101 ; 1 2 .4 1 . 84 ) c omp la ined o f t he a moun t o fw ea l th e xpended b y t he R oman w or ld o n i t em s i mpo r ted f r om I nd ia , A rab ia a nd C h ina , a nd m any s cho lar s h ave p o in ted t o h i s s t a temen t s a s e v idence o f a n a dve r se b a lance -o f t rade f o r t he R oman w or ld ( S idebo tham 1 986b : 3 6 -9 ) . However , P l iny ' sc ommen t sm ay b eh ype rbo le . T he re i s l i t t le e v idence t ha t t he R oman s a c tua l ly " bough t " m any o f t he i t ems t h ey d e s i red f r om t he E a s t . I ts eem s , r a the r , t h a t t hey u sed b ar te r e xchang ing g ood s t h ey h ad f o r me rchand ise t hey w an ted . T h i sb e ing t he c a se , t h e re n a tura l ly w ou ld h el i t t le o r n o i nd ica t ion t ha t t he R omans w e re p reoc cup ied w i th t h e c oncep t o f ab a lance -o f t r ade d e f ic i t o rs urp lus a sw ea re t oday . -

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A rchaeo log ica l e v idence o f R oman c on tac t w i th I nd ia , S r i L anka , S ou th A rab ia a nd s ub -Saharan A f r ica t a ke s t he f o rm o f R oman c o ins , p o t te ry , l amp s , a s s a nd o the r o b jec t s f ound i n t ho se l a nd s . A R oman t r ade " s ta t ion " h a s b een p ar t ia l ly e xcava ted i nI nd ia a tA r ikamedu ( S idebo tham 1 986b : 2 2 -5 ; Whee le r 1 946 : 1 7 -124 ; 1 954 : 1 72 -9 ; C asa l 1 949 : 3 8 -54 ; Oh len ro th 1 9 52 : 3 89 -92 ; B eg ley 1 9 86 : 3 05 3 17 ) , a nd o the r s uch s i te s h ave b een l o ca ted o r e xc ava ted a l ong t he C o romande l a nd Ma laba r c oa s t s ( S idebo tham 1 986b : 2 2 ; Whee le r 1 951 : 3 45 -81 ; N ag aswamy 1 978 ; R amachand ran 1 980 : 9 0 -140 ) . T he re i s e v idence o f I nd ian a nd S ou th A rab ian me rcan t i le p re sence a t t he E gyp t ian R ed S ea p o r t o f L euko s L imen (Wh i tcomb 1 979b : 1 8 ; J ohn son 1 982 : 2 63 -4 ; S i debo tham 1 986b : 1 0 0 ) a nd e l sewhe re i nt he Med i te r ranean w o r ld ( S idebo tham 1 986b : 9 8 102 ) . Whe the r I nd ian , S ou th A rab ian a nd o the r t r ade r s c ame t o t he Med i te r ranean w o r ld o r P to lema ic E gyp t ian , R oman a nd o the r "We s te rne r s " v i s i ted t he se e as te rn l a nd s , t he j ourney c ou ld b el o ng a nd d ange rous . S to rm sa ts ea a nd p i ra te s ( OGIS 1 32 ; D iod . S i c . 3 . 43 .4 -5 ; S t rabo 1 6 .4 .18 ; P l iny NH 6 . 26 .101 ; 6 . 34 .176 ; P to l . G eog . 7 . 1 .84 ; s ee O rme rod 1 967 : 2 58 a nd n . 4 ; T h ie l 1 967 ; S idebo tham 1 986b : 6 , 6 8 -71) c ou ld d ep r ive me rchan t s a nd t r ave l le r s o f t he i r v a luab le c a rgoe sa nd t he i rl i ve s . O ve r land c aravan sw e re s l ow , e xpens ive a nd c ou ld b ea t tacked b y maraud ing b and so fn omad s . T he re w e re a t temp t s t od im in i sh s uch t h rea t s . A rche r s s a i led a boa rd s ome o f t he me rchan t s h ip s a s p ro tec t ion a ga in s t p i ra te s i n b o th t he P to lema ic a nd R oman p e r iods ( Bourdon 1 925 : 1 29 ; N av i l le 1 902/ 1903 : 6 6 -75 ; c f . P h i lo s t r . V A 3 . 35 ) . P rope r k now ledge a nd u se o f t he w ind p a t te rn s i nt he R ed S ea a nd o f t he mon soon s i n t he I nd ian O cean c ou ld r educe s a i l ing t ime s d rama t ica l ly . M i l i tary u n i t sw e re s t a t ioned a ts ome , i fn o t a l , o ft he n o r the rn R ed S ea p o r ts e ng aged i n t h i s c omme rce i n t he R oman p e r iod ( 7 ) . T he re m ay e ven h ave b een a R oman c oas t -gua rd t h a t p a t ro l led t he R ed S ea c oas t p ro tec t ing a tl e as t t he E gyp t ian a nd , p e rhap s , o the rp o r ts e ngaged i nt h i sc omme rce ( S idebo tham 1 986b : 6 8 -7 1 ) . T he R oman a rmy a nd a ux i l iary u n i t s p rov ided p ro tec t ion f o r s ome o f t he o ve r land c aravans i n t he E as te rn D e se r t o f E gyp t . H yd r euma ta ( f or t i f ied w a te r s t a t ions w i th w e l l s o r c i s te rn s ) p rov id ing o cca s iona l a c commoda t ion f o r t r ave l ler s a nd t he i r p ack a n ima l s , d o t ted c aravan t r ack s l e ad ing f r om B e ren ice , L euko s L imen , Myo s Hormo s a nd , p e rhap s , o the r E gyp t ian R ed S ea p o r t s t oN i le e mpo r ia l i ke C op to s , Dende rah a nd An t inoë ( S idebo tham 1 986b : 4 8 -71 ; R oque 1 9 22 : 13 1 40 ; Go lv in 1 986 : 1 72 -196 ; R eddé 1 986 -87 : 5 64 ; Z i t te rkop f a nd S i debo tham 1 989 ) . Wa tch towe r s w e re p l aced o n t he h i l l s t h a t f l anked t he r oads . F rom t he se g roup s o f t wo t o f ou r s o ld ie r s s e rv ing i n r o ta t ion c ou ld s i gna l t r oop s i n t he h yd r euma ta b e low o f a pp roach ing c a ravan s o r m araude r s s o t h a t t he a pp rop r ia te measu re s c ou ld b e t a ken . O cca s iona l ly c a i rns o f p i led s t one s a ppear a l ong t he r ou te b e tween L euko s L imen a nd C op to s . T he se a ppea r i n te rm i t ten t ly a nd s u re ly

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m a rked t he r ou te s o t h a t t r ave l le r sw ou ld n o t b ecome l o s t ( S idebo tham 1 986b : 5 8 6 6 ; Z i t te rkop fa nd S idebo tham 1 989 ) . C a i rn sa nd t owe r s a l so a ppea rb o th i np a i r s a nd s i ng ly mark ing s t re tche s o f t h er oad b e tween ' Abu S ha 'ar a nd t he N i le . We d o n o t k now w ho e rec ted t he se o r w hen . T hey o ccur a ti n te rva l s o fa pp rox ima te ly 1 . 0 -1 .2 km a nd mo s t h ave R oman a mphorae a nd c oar se w a re s he rd s a s soc ia ted w i th t hem ( 8 ) . N e i the r o f t he se d i s tance s f i t s w i th t he l e ng th o f aR oman m i le , b u t p e rhaps t hey r ep re sen t s ome o t he ru n i ts o f measu remen t u sed i na n t iqu i ty . Maybe t he c a i rns w e re n o t mean t t o b e d i s tance m arke r s , b u t , r a the r , d i rec t ion i n d ica to r s t o k eep t r ave l le r s f r om s t ray ing o f ft he r oad . Many o ft he r oad s i nt he E as te rn De se r t , i n c lud ing s e c t ions o ft h e ' Abu S ha 'ar N i le r oad , w e re n o t p aved , b u t o n ly c l eared d e se r t t r ack s . On " r oad s " l i ke t he se i tw ou ld h ave b een e a sy t os t ray a nd b ecome l o s t i nt he d e se r t , i f s u ch marke r s h ad n o t b een e rec ted . I n t h i sc a se t he c a i rn s s e rved a s s a fe ty d ev ice s a sw e l l a s d i rec t ion m a rke r s . T he t owe r s s eem t o h ave b een w i th in s i gh t o f e ach o t he ra nd , u ndoub ted ly , h ad m a in ly as i gna lf unc t ion . -

A b edou in t o ld t he a u tho r t h a t c a i rns s im i lar t ot ho se o n t he ' Abu S ha 'a r N i le r oad a l so e x is ted a l ong t he r oad b e tween A n t inoë a R oman c i ty o n t he N i le b u i l t b y Had r ian i n h onour o f h i s d eceased f r iend An t inoo s ( Be l l 1 940 : 1 33 -47 ; L amber t 1 984 : 1 98 -208 ; s ee B e rnand 1 984 : 2 87 -8 ) a nd t he R ed S ea c oas t . An i n s c r ip t ion o f 1 37 ( OG IS 7 0 1 = I GRR 1 . 1142 ) d e sc r ibed t he r oad a s s a fe , l e ve l a nd s upp l ied w i th n ume rou sh yd r euma ta a nd g ar r i sons . T he i n sc r ip t ion d id n o t men t ion t h e e x is tence o f c a i rn s a l ong t h i s r oad . T he a u tho r h as n eve r v i s i ted t h i s l a t te r t ho roughf a re a nd , t he re fo re , c anno t v e r i f y t he b edou in ' s c l a im . I n a ny c a se , t h i s h i ghway h a s n eve r b een c a re fu l ly i n ve s t iga ted b y s cho lar s . E ven i t s e xac t c ou r se a c ro s st he E as te rn De se r t a nd a l ong t he R ed S ea c oas t i su nce r ta in . -

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Ano the r e xamp le o f t he R oman g ove rnmen t ' s i n te re s t i n p romo t ing a nd p ro f i t ing f r om t he t r ade t h rough E gyp t c an b e s een f r om a n i n sc r ip t ion r e co rd ing a t a r i f fd a ted 9 0 ( OG IS 6 74 = I GRR 1 . 1183 ; s ee B e rnand 1 984 : 1 99 -208 ) f ound a t t h e N i le e mpo r ium o f C op to s . T he t a r i f f s eem s t o r evea l t ha t t he R oman g ove rnmen t , t h rough t h e m i l i tary , s o ld p a s se s t o i n d iv idua l s a nd g roup s u s ing t he E a s te rn D e se r t r oads . P as se s h ad t o b e p u rchased b y t r ave l le r s f o r t hem se lve s , t h e i r p ack a n ima l s a nd v eh ic le s . R a te s v a r ied . P ro s t i tu te s u s ing t he r oads t o p l y t h e i r t r ade a t t he p o r t s o r i n t he h yd r euma ta , m ine s a nd q uar r ie s i n t he E as te rn D e se r t p a id e xcep t iona l ly h i gh r a te s . T he m i l i tary , o f c ou r se , p a id n o f e e s . T he c o s t s men t ioned i nt h e C op to s T ar if fp robab ly h e lped d e f ray m a in tenance e xpense s o ft h e E a s te rn De se r t i n s ta l la t ions a nd g ar r i son sw h ich p a tro l led t he r eg ion . S im i l a rf e e s may h ave b een p a id a tt he R ed S ea p o r t sb y t ho se t r ave l l ing t o e mpo r ia o n t h e N i le , b u t w e a re n o t c e r ta in a bou t t h i s ( S idebo tham 1 986b : 8 0 -1) . T he p as se s m ay a l so h ave a lowed g ove rnmen t o f f ic ia l s t o mon i to r t r af f ic p as s ing b e tween t he R ed S ea p o r t sa nd t he N i le . De sp i te t he p rob lems , d ange r s , c o s t s a nd e f fo r t e xpended , t h i s t r ade p e r s i s ted a nd g rew . O bv iou s ly s ub s tan t ia l p ro f i t s c ou ld b e m ade . Why e l se w ou ld m e rchan t s r i sk p e r sona l s a fe ty a nd f o r tune o n s uch d ange rous j ourney s? Why e l se w ou ld t he P to lema ic a nd R oman g ove rnmen t sp romo te t h i sc omme rce? T he R oman g ove rnmen t ' s i n te re s t i nt h i s " e a s te rn " c omme rce w a s s o g rea t t h a t Augus tus s en t am i l i tary e xped i t ion t oS ou th A rab ia i n2 6 -25 BC ( S idebo tham 1 9 86b : 1 20 -30 = S i debo tham 1 986a : 5 90 -602 ) . A e l ius G a l lus , g ove rno r o f E gyp t , w a s i nc ommand o n t h is c ampa ign . He o rde red t he c on s t ruc t ion o f as pec ia l f l ee t o fw arsh ip s a nd t r anspo r t s t oc a rry h i s a rmy o f 1 0 ,000 men . H i s f o rce c on s i s ted o f R oman u n i t s s t a t ioned i nE gyp t a nd c on t ingen t s s en t b y t wo R oman c l ien t r u le r s :

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K ing He rod o fJ udaea a nd K ing Ohodas I I o fN aba taea . S t raho ( 16 .4 .22 f f ) , ac l o se f r iend o fG a l lus , r e co rded t h a t Augu s tu s s en t G a l lu s t o i mpo se c on tro l o ve r S ou th A rab ia e i the r a s as ub serv ien t c l ien t o r a s av anqu i shed f oe i no rde r t os e cure t he w ea l th o ft he r eg ion . T he c ampa ign w as ami l i tary f a i lure f o r R ome n eve r a s se r ted i t s r u le o ve r t he r eg ion . Howeve r , t he p o l i t ica l a nd d i p loma t ic c onsequence s w e re s uch t ha t f o r t he f i r s t t ime e mbas s ie s f r om v a r ious S ou th A rab ian s t a te s a nd f r om I nd ia a r r ived i nt he R oman w o r ld ( s idebo tham 1 986b : 1 20 -30 = S idebo tham 1 986a : 5 90 -602 ) . T he s ource s d o n o t r e co rd t he p urpo se o f t he i r v i s i ts , b u t w e c an p robab ly s a fe ly i n fe rt h a t o ne o ft he t op ic so nt he ir a genda sw as c omme rce . T he R ed S ea p o r t sw e re s urp r i s ing ly s qua l id p l ace s . B u i ld ing sw e re , f o r t h e mo s t p ar t , p oo r ly c on s truc ted o f s un d r ied b r ick , f i e ld s t one s a nd c hunk s o f c o ra l q uar r ied f r om n ea rby o f f sho re r ee f s . S ome o f t h e se p o r t b u i ld ing s , a t L euko s L imen a t l e a s t , p robab ly l a cked r oo f ing ( S idebo tham 1 986b : 5 6 ) . I ts e ems t ha t me rchan t s b ui l t i n expens ive s t ruc ture s t o k eep ' o ve rhead " c o s t s d own a nd t o i n c rease t he i r p ro f i t s . Y e t t he d i sce rnab le t own p l an a t L euko s L imen i s " H ippodam ian " v i z . , t he s t ree t s i n te r sec ted a t a pp rox ima te r i gh t a ng le s i n d ica t ing t ha t t he s i te w as w e l l p l anned f r om t he b eg inn ing a nd n o t l a id o u t i n a h e l te r ske l te rf a sh ion ( S idebo tham 1 986b : 5 6 ) . T h i sc a re fu l t own p l ann ing s ugge s t s g ove rnmen ta l r a the r t han p r iva te e n trep reneur ia l i n i t ia t ive i n f ound ing L euko s L imen . S uch a l so may h ave b een t he c a se a t t he o the r E gyp t ian R ed S ea p or t s . T h i s w ou ld i nd ica te t h a t b o th t he P to lema ic a nd R oman v i ewed t h e p o ten t ia l p ro f i t s f r om t h i s c omme rce a s s ub s tan t ia l e nough t o w ar ran t t he e xpense o f f ound ing p o r t s a l ong t he d e so la te E gyp t ian R ed S ea c oa s t . -

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T he R ed S ea p o r t s m ay h ave b een d en se ly p opu la ted o n ly w hen m e rchan t s h ip sl e f t o r r e turned f r om t h e i rv oyage sa ts pec i f ic t ime s o ft he y ear . S a i l ing t ime s d epended u pon p revai l ing w ind p a t te rns i nt he R ed S ea a nd t h e mon soon s i nt he I nd ian O cean . I n t he i n ter ven ing p e r iod s m any o ft h e p o r t s ' i n hab i tan t s m ay h ave r e turned t o t he N i le v a l ley w he re l i fe w as l e s s a us te re t h an i nt he r emo te E as te rn De se r t -Red S ea p o r t s . T he se p or t s e x i s ted p r imar i ly , b u t n o t e xc lus ive ly , b ecause o f t h i s " i n te rna t iona l " t r ade . D ue t o t he e x treme ly a r id c l ima te l i t t le o r n o th ing c ou ld b e c u l t iva ted a tt he p o r t s ( 9 ) . E ven t he d r ink ing w a te r o fs o me o ft h e p o r t s h ad t o b e h au led i n b y p ack a n ima l w i th g rea t e f fo r t f r om d i s tan t w e l l s . F o r e xamp le , s ome o f t he w e l l s s upp ly ing L euko s L imen w e re a t B i r K are im 2 5 km a way (Wh i tcomb 1 982a : 3 91) ; t ho se p rov id ing ' Abu S ha 'ar w e re p robab ly a t B i r ' Abu S ha 'ar e l -Q ib l i ( Tadno s F on s/A ino s ? ) a bou t 5 . 5 -6 km WN W o f t h e p o r t . T hu s ,p rac t ica l ly e very th ing u sed b y t he p o r ts t hemse lve s mo s t f ood , f u e l , p o t tery , e t c . o r e xpo r ted f r om t hem h ad t o b e o b ta ined w i th g rea t d i f f icu l ty f r om l ong d i s tance s , i n mo s tc ase sf r om t he N i le v a l ley a nd b eyond . -

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T he re i ss ome e v idence t os ugge s t t h a t a tl e a s to ne o ft he E gyp t ian R ed S ea p o r t s L euko s L imen w a s n o t o n ly ac ondu i t f o r t h i s " i n te rna t iona l " c omme rce , b u ta l so l i gh t i ndu s try c en t re s a nd e xpo r te r s i nt he i r o wn r i gh t t oa reas o ve r seas , a s w e l l a st or eg ion so ft he E as te rn D e se r t h i n te r land . -

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Dur ing v i s i t s t o ' Abu S ha 'ar i n J anuary 1 9 86 a nd a r chaeo log ica l w ork c ar r ied o u t t he re i nJ une Ju ly 1 987 t he a u tho r n o t iced a nd c o l lec ted n umbe r s o f c onch ( S t rombu s b u l la a nd L amb i s t r unca ta s ebae ) , m urex ( Mu r ex T r ibu lu s a nd U i ico r eu s v i r g ineu s ) a nd g i an t c l am ( t r idacna s qua ino sa ) s he l l s ( Sharaba t i 1 984 : p l a te s8 ,9 ,1 7 , 1 8 , 4 6 ) . I th as l o ng b een k nown t h a t o ne o ft he i t ems e xpo r ted f r om t he R ed S ea p o r t s o f E gyp t t oS ou th A rab ia a nd I nd ia w as d yed t e x t i le s ( P e r ip . M E ,y thrae i 2 4 ; s ee S i debo tham 1 986h : 1 8 ) a nd t h a t t h e N i le v a l ley h ad l o ng b een a c en t re o f af l our i sh ing t e x t i le i n du s try (W ipszycka 1 965 : 1 167 ; R aschke 1 9 78 : 9 04 , n .1 000 ; J ohnson 1 936 : 32 ) . Y e t w e d o n o t k now i ft he se e xpo r ted t e x t i le s w e re

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d yed b y t he i r make r s i nt he N i le v aley a nd e l sewhe re a nd t hen s h ipped t o t he E gyp t ian R ed S ea p or t s f o r e xpo r t o r r a the r w oven , s h ipped t o t he p o r t s a nd , i n s ome i n s tance s , d yed t h e re p r io r t o e xpo r t . T he p re sen t w r i te r s ubm i t s w i th t he g r ea t a va i labi l i ty o f m u rex i n t he v i c in i ty o f ' Abu S ha 'ar i ti sp o s s ib le t ha t t he se d ye ing f unc t ions , i ns ome c ase s , t ook p l ace n ea r ' Abu S ha 'ar o re l sewhe re a l ong t he E gyp t ion R ed S ea c oas t p r io r t oe xpor t . T he re i sl i t te o r n o th ing k nown a bou t t he p u rp le d ye i n dus t ry i nt he R ed S ea r eg ion i n a n t iqu i ty ( Ree se f o r thcom ing ) , b u t a dd i t iona l a r chaeo log ica l e xp lo ra t ions a t ' Abu S ha 'ar o r a t s ome o f t he o the r E g yp t ian R ed S ea p o r t sm igh t s hed l i gh to n t h i s i s sue . T he a ppearance o fc onch s he l ls a t ap o r t s i te i sn o t , i ni t se l f , u nu sua l . T he re i se v idence t h a t t he I nd ians p roduced b race le t s a nd o the r t r inke t s f r om t he c onch s hel a nd m ay w el h ave , a s t he i r c on tempo rary c oun te rpar ts a l ong t he R ed S ea c oa s t o f E gyp t , c on sumed t he a n ima l w h ich l i ved i nt he s hel a s at r ea t , n o t a s a m a in c our se . I n t he l a te s econd c en tury BC Aga tharch ide s d i scus sed t he c olec t ion a nd c onsump t ion o f s hel f i sh Gk . k onke = c onGa , a mus se l o r c ock le , p e rhaps c onch b y i n hab i tan t s a l ong t he R ed S ea c oas t ( i n Henry 1 974 : 1 58 -9 , c od . 2 50 , s e c .35 -36 ) . I nf a c t , t h ev e ry n ame o ft he p o r t Myo s Ho rmo s = Mus se l H arbour s ugges ts t h a t t he r eg ion w as n o ted f o r i t s mus se l s i n a n t iqu i ty . C onch i ss t i l l r e garded a s ad e l icacy t oday b y i n hab i tan t s a l ong t he R ed S ea l i t to ra l . Howeve r , w h i le v i s i t ing v ar iou s q uar ry s i te s i n t he r eg ion o f Mons P orphy r i te s i n J anuary 1 986 , J une 1 987 a nd J anuary 1 989 , a nd R oman s t a t ion s a l ong t he r ou te b e tween ' Abu S ha 'ar a nd t he N i le i n J u ly 1 987 a nd J anuary 1 989 t he a u tho r d i scove red c onch a nd murex s he l l s t he re , t oo . T h i s m ay s ugge s t t h a t ar e cen t t r avele r t o t he a r ea d ropped t he s he l l s t he re . Howeve r , g i ven t he r emo tene s s a nd d i f f icu l ty o f a c ce ss t o t he Mons P o rphy r i te s a nd ' Abu S ha 'ar -N i le r eg ions , t h i s s eems u n l ike ly . T he o the r e xp lana t ion i st ha t i n a n t iqu i ty ' Abu S ha 'ar , t he p o in t o n t he c oas t n eare s t t o Mons P o rphy r i te s a nd t e rm inu s o f t he r oad l e ad ing f r om t he N i le , e xpor ted c onch a nd m u rex t ot he m i l i tary g a r r i son ss t a t ioned i nt he se r emo te a reas . -

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Wha t f unc t ion d i d t he se s he l l s s e rve? Many h ave b een f ound a s soc ia ted w i th b urned a reas o u t s ide s ome o f t he s t a t ions b e tween t he N i le a nd ' Abu S ha 'ar . S i nce s he l l s w e re ag ood s ource o fl ime w h ich w as u sed t ol i ne a nd w a te rproo ft he c a refu l ly b ui l t w e l ls a nd c i s te rn s i nt he E a s te rn D e se r t , w e s hou ld a s sume t h a t t he s he l ls s erved a s au se fu lc ons t ruc t ion ma te r ia l . Howeve r , t he mea t i n s ide t he s he l ls , a tl e as t t he c onch , m igh t a l so h ave b een t r anspo r ted a s ac u l inary d e l icacy f o r t he g a r r isons . T he q ue s t ion o f h ow t he se q u ick to -spo i l d e lec tab le s w e re t r an spo r ted a c ross w ide e xpanse s o f d e se r t i n e d ib le c ond i t ion i n a n t iqu i ty h as y e t t o b e a n swered . T ha t t he a n ima ls c ou ld s e r ve ad ua l p urpo se a s ac on s t ruc t ion m a te r ia l a nd a s f ood m ay e xp la in t he ir p re sence i n t he se o therw i se r emo te , d e so la te r e g ions . I fa l so u sed a sf ood , w e a re f o rced t oc onc lude t h a t t he c onch w as s h ipped l i ve ( pe rhap s p acked i nd amp s e aweed ) t ot he se E a s te rn De se r t s i te s . We d o n o t k now h ow p aymen t w a s m ade o r w ha t m igh t h ave b een t r aded i nr e turn . P e rhap s t h e re w as s ome a r rangemen t b e tween t he i mpe r ia l g ove rnmen t w h ich o wned a nd o pe ra ted t he q uar r ie s a nd r oad s t a t ion s o n t he o ne h and a nd t he ' Abu S ha 'ar , o r s ome o f t he r e s iden t s t he re o n t he o the r h and f o r t he s h ipmen t o f t he se s hels/de l icac ie s a nd o t he r c ommod i t ie s t o t he d e se r t o u tpo s t s . P o s s ib ly , t oo , i n s ome c ase s , i n d iv idua l s o ld ie r ss t a t ioned a tt he q uar r ie s a nd f o r t s s pec ia l ly o rde red t h ec onch w h ich w a s t r anspo r ted b y me rchan t sd o ing b u s ine s sb e tween t he p o r t , t he q uar r ie s , t he r oad s t a t ions a nd t he N i le v a l ley . Wha teve r t he e xp lana t ion , f u r the r a r chaeo log ica l e xp lo ra t ion o f t h e ' Abu S ha 'a r - Mons P orphy r i te s -Eas te rn De se r t r e g ion s hou ld h e lp a n swe r q ue s t ions a bou t t he r o le o f ' Abu S ha 'ar i n ar eg iona l e conom ic n e twork t h a t i n c luded t he e xpo r t o fc onch a nd murex t od e se r t h i n te r land s i te s . -

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L euko sL imen , t oo , s eems t oh ave b een mo re t h an me re ly ac ondu i t f o rt he " i n te rna t iona l " c omme rce w h ich p as sed t h rough t h e p o r t . E xcava t ion s t he re r evea led t he e x i s tence o f g l as s s l ag ( Ro th 1 979 : 1 4 4 -81 ; Meye r 1 982 : 2 15 -32 ) s ugge s t ing t he p re sence o f as ma l l g l a s s m anuf ac tu r ing i n du s t ry a t t h e p o r t . E xcava to r s a l so u nea r thed l a rge q uan t i t ie s o f f i n i shed g l as s , s ome o f h i gh q ua l i ty . A rchaeo log ica l e v idence f r om I nd ia a nd S ou th A rab ia i n d ica te s t h a t t he se r eg ions i mpo r ted g l as s f r om t he Med i te r ranean b as in ( Ras chke 1 978 : 6 71 a nd n n . 1 543 1 552 ; S idebo tham 1 986b : 1 5 -16 , 2 0 , 2 5 -6 ) , u ndoub ted ly v i a s ome o f t he E gyp t ian R ed S ea p o r t s . S ome o ft h i s v e ry f i ne g l as sw as m ade a to ne o r more o ft h e l a rge m anu f ac tu r ing c en t re s i n t he Med i te r ranean w or ld . Howeve r , i tr ema in s t o b e e s tab l i shed w he the r t he g l as s m anuf ac tu red a t L euko s L imen i ni ngo t o r f i n i shed f o rm w as p roduced f o rl o ca lc onsump t ion o rf o re xpo r t . Once i mpo r ted i t ems r eached P to lema ic a nd R oman E gyp t t he se g ove rnmen t s made ag rea t d ea l o f money 2 5 -50 % o ft he v a lue o ft he me rchand ise i ns ome i n s tance s t a x ing t hem ( S idebo tham 1 986b : 5 6 , 1 , 1 02 -110 ) . Ar e cen t ly p ub l i shed p apy ru s , p u rchased i nE gyp t i n 1 980 , s hed s l i gh t o n t he i mpo r ta t ion i n to R oman E gyp t o fI nd ian p roduc t s ( Har raue r 1 985 : 1 2 4 -55 ; C as son 1 988 : 1 5 2 ) . T he i n comp le te p apy ru s , d a ted o np a leog raph ic g round s t ot he m id second c en tu ry ,w as w r i t ten o n b o th s i de s . One s i de ( r ec to ) r e co rds a b u s ine s s l o an d rawn u p i n Muz i r is , I nd ia . T he o the r s i de ( v e r so ) , w r i t ten i n A lexand r ia , men t ions t he s h ipmen t o f c r a te s o f G ang i t ic n ard , i v ory a nd b a le s o f c l o th f r om Muz i r is ( c f . P e r ip i . M E iy thrae i 5 6 ) . T he t e x t r e coun t s t he a r r iva l o ft he me rchand ise a to ne o f t he E gyp t ian R ed S ea p o r t sw ho se n ame i sl o s t , i t sc onveyance b yc a me l a c ro s s t he E as te rn De se r t t o C op tos a nd i t s l o ad ing o n to a N i le s h ip f o r t r an spor t t o A lexand r ia . T he b u s ine s sc on t rac t r eco rded o n t he p apy rus c ove r s t he p e r iod f r om s h ipmen tf r om Muz i r i su n t i lt he a r r iva lo ft he c a rgo a tA lexand r ia a nd men t ions t he s pec i f ic t y pe o f me rchand i se , t he q uan t i ty a nd v a lue , a s w el a s t he 2 5% t a x r a te l e v ied b y R oman c u s toms o f f ic ia l s . We a re n o tc e r ta in i nt he c ase o fE gyp tw he the r t he se t a xe sw e re l e v ied a tt he R ed S ea p o r t st hemse lve so ra tN i le p or ts w he re mo s t g oods i n va r iab ly p as sed i n t r an s i t . F rom C op tos a nd o the r N i le empo r ia g ood s c ou ld b e s h ipped d own r i ve r t o A lexand r ia a nd t h ence t o o the r r eg ion s o f t he Med i te r ranean . Good s e xpo r ted f r om P to lema ic E gyp t a nd t he R oman w o r ld v i a E gyp t t ook t he r eve r se r ou te t o C op to s , o r o the r N i le empo r ia , t hen a c ro s s t he E a s te rn De se r t t ot he R ed S ea p o r t sf o rs h ipmen t a b road . -

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O s traca , i n sc r ip t ion s , g r af f i t i a nd i mp re s s ion sm ade i np l as te r p lug s u sed t o s ea l j a r s t e l l u s a bou t s ome o f t he me rchan t s i n vo lved i n t h i s c omme r ce . B o th m a le s a nd f ema le s , P to lema ic s ub jec t s , R omans a nd " f o re igne r s " o fd i f fe ren t s oc ia l s t a tu se ngaged i nt h i sp o ten t ia l ly l u c ra t ive t r ade . One g roup o f o s t raca t e l l s u s t h a t t he N icano r f am i ly a nd t he ir a s soc ia te s o pe ra ted a t r anspo r t b u s ine s s b e tween C op to s a nd t h eh yd r euma ra o f t h e E as te rn D e se r t a nd t he p o r ts o fB e ren ice a nd Myo s Ho rmo sf o r o ve r s i x ty y ear s i nt h e l a te f i r s t c en tury BC a nd f i r s t c en tu ry AD . O s t raca , p l a s te rj a r p l ug s , i n sc r ip t ions a nd g ra f f i t i r evea l t h a t E gyp t ian s , G reek s , He l len i sed E g yp t ians , E gyp t ian ised G reek s a nd R oman c i t izen s f r om b o th t he e as te rn a nd w e s te rn h a lve s o f t he Emp ire p a r t ic ipa ted i nt h i s c omme rce . I nd ians , S ou th A rab ian s a nd o the r f o re igne r s a l so e ngaged i nt h i s t r ade . E ven t he R oman e mpe ro r s t h em se lve sw e re i nvo lved i nt h i s c omme rce t h rough t he i ra gen t s ( S idebo tham 1 986h : 8 3 f f ) . S l ave s a nd f r eedmen o fv a r ious R oman e mpe ro r s t r aded f o r t he i r m as te r s a nd p a t ron sa tL euko s L imen a nd B e ren ice , a nd p rob ab ly a to the r R ed S ea p o r t s a s w e l l . One o f t he N icano r o s t raca ( 0 . P e t r i e 2 58 ) s eems t o i nd ica te t h a t a n u nde te rm ined n umbe r o f i mpe r ia l s l ave s o r f r eedmen c onduc ted b us ine s s f o r t he

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Empe ror C a l igu la a tB e ren ice ( 10 ) . Two i mp re s sed p l as te r p lug s u sed t o s e a lj a r s f r om e xcava t ions a t L euko s L imen ( Qu se i r a l -Qad im ) r e co rd t he b u s ine s s o f i mpe r ia l f r eedmen . O ne i n d ica te s a n u nnamed i nd iv idua l i nt he w ine b u s ine s s , t he o t he r men t ion s af r eedman o fo ne o ft he F lav ian e mpe ror s ( Bagna l l 1 979 : 2 43 -4 ) . Two n ame so fs pec ia l i n te re s ta ppear i nc onnec t ion w i th t h i st r ade . F our o f t h e o s traca r e la t ing t o t he N icano r b us ine s s d a te t o t he r e ign o f T ibe r ius . T hey m en t ion a n i mpe r ia l s l ave n amed An ice tus ( 0 . P e t r ie 2 37 , 2 38 , 2 39 , 2 47 ) w ho o pe ra ted ab u s ine s s a tB e ren ice f o r at wo a nd h a lf y ear p e r iod . T h i s may b e t he s ame An ice tus men t ioned l a te r b y T ac i tus ( Ann . 1 4 .3 ) a s af r eedman o f t he Empe ror N e ro i nh i sb oyhood . A n ice tu sb ecame c ommande ro ft he R oman f l ee t a t M i senum i n5 9 , a nd i tw as h ew ho s ugge s ted t h a t N e ro k i l l h i s o ve rhear ing mo the r A g r ipp ina t he Y ounge rb y d rown ing h e ra ts ea i n ac o l lap s ib le s h ip , t he reby m ak ing i ta ppear t o b e a n a c c iden t . When t h i s f a i led s he m anaged t o s w im a sho re A n ice tus v o lun tee red t o mu rde rt he e mpe ro r ' s mo the r . -

-

T he T ibe r iu s C laud ius E paph rod i tu s men t ioned i n r e la t ion t o t he N icano r b us ine s s i n a n o s tracon o f J u ly 2 2 , 6 2 ( 0 . P e t r i e 2 90 ) m ay p o s s ib ly h ave b een a n i mpe r ia l f r eedman . T he n omenc la ture a nd d a te a re i d en t ica l w i th t he n ame a nd p e r iod o f a c t iv i ty o f N e ro ' s f r eedman E paphrod i tu s w ho w as l a te r o ne o f N e ro ' s s e c re tar ie s o f s t a te ( C IL 6 . 8759 ) . I tw as E paph rod i tu s w ho a s s i s ted N e ro t o c omm i t s u ic ide i nJ une o f6 8 ( Sue t .N e ro 4 9 .3 ) . R ich J ew s f r om A lexand r ia ( Fuk s 1 951 : 2 07 -216 ; S idebo tham 1 986h : 8 4 8 5 ) , N aba taean a nd P a lmy rene A rab s a l so p ar t ic ipa ted i nt h i s c omme rce i nE gyp t . I n t he i r h ome land s i n mode rn J o rdan , n o r th -we s te rn S aud i A rab ia a nd S y r ia , t he N aba taean s a nd P a lmy rene s w e re a c t ive i n t he o ve r land c aravan t r ade . G raf f i t i f r om t he E a s te rn D e se r t o fE gyp t a t te s t t oN aba taean a c t iv i ty i nt he c aravan t r ade b e tween t h e R ed S ea p o r t s a nd t he N i le a sw e l l ( Hammond 1 979 : 2 45 -7 ; L i t tman 1 9 53 : 1 28 ; 1 954b : 2 11 -46 ; T regenza 1 949 : 1 5 1 -9 ; S ideho tham 1 986b : 9 4 -5 ) . C on trary t o R e inach ' s i n te rp re ta t ion , t he re i s n o a b so lu te p roo f t h a t t he P a lmy rene sh ad at r ade h eadquar te r sa tC op to s . Howeve r , b ased u pon i n sc r ip t ions a nd t omb s tone s f r om t h a t N i le e mpo r ium , t hey d o s eem t o h ave b een mo re o rgan ised a nd b e t te r f i nanced t h an t he N aba taean t r ade r s i nE gyp t ( Re inach 1 9 11 : 6 1 -5 ; C le rmon t -Ganneau 1 9 19 : 1 29 ; R ey -Coqua i s 1 978 : 5 5 ; S idebo tham 1 986b : 9 5 -6 ; B ingen 1 984 : 3 55 -8 = B e rnand 1 984 : 2 62 -3 ; s ee S ey r ig 1 972 : 1 20 -5 ; D rexhage 1 982 : 1 7 -34 ) . T he e x tan t e v idence s ugge s t s t ha t t he N aba taean s o n ly t r anspo r ted g ood s b e tween t he N i le , t he E a s te rn D e se r t o u tpo s ts a nd t he R ed S ea p o r t s , w h i le t he P a lmy rene s w e re mo re c once rned w i th t he h i ghe r f i nanc ia l a nd o rgan isa t iona l a spe c ts o ft h i sc omme rce . We k now l e s s a bou t t he a c t iv i te s o ft he S ou th A rab ian s , I nd ian s a nd o the r f o re igne r s i nt h is t r ade . Howeve r , d i s t inc t ive ly S ou th A rab ian g ra f f i t i f ound a l ong c a ravan r ou te s i nt he E as te rn D e se r t o fE gyp t , a tL euko s L imen i t se l f ( RES 3 571 ; R yckman s 1 949 : 5 6 -7 ; G ragg 1 979 : 2 44 -5 ) , i n s c r ip t ions f r om t he Aegean i s land o f D e los ( RES 3 570 ; C le rmon t -Ganneau 1 908 : 5 48 -9 , 5 56 ) a nd f r om Egypt i n t he P to lema ic p e r iod ( RES 3 427 ; C le rmon t -Ganneau 1 908 : 57 -558 ; B ee s ton 1 937 : 6 0 2 ) a t te s t t o t he i r p a r t ic ipa t ion i n t he c omme rce . I nd ian g raf f i t i i n t he T am i l B rahm is c r ip t o ft h ef i r s t o r s e cond c en tury f r om L euko s L imen (Wh i tcomb 1 979b : 1 8 ; J ohn son 1 982 : 2 63 -4 ) t e l l u s o f I nd ian c on tac t s w i th t h a t p or t . One r e co rd s a m a le p e r sona l n ame C a tan o r C a t tan w e l l a t te s ted i n t he T ami l me rcan ti le c ommun i ty i nI nd ia ( J ohn son 1 982 : 2 63 -4 ) . An o l d E th iop ic i n sc r ip t ion p o s s ib ly o f t h e f our th c en tury f o und o n t he B e ren ice -N i le r oad i n d ica te s c on tac t s , w e l l k nown f r om o the r s ource s , b e tween t he R oman w o r ld a nd t he K ingdom o fA xum a tt h a t d a te . N o th ing i n t h e i n sc r ip t ion , h oweve r , r evea l s t he o ccupa t ion o f i t s a u tho r -

-

4 97

( L i t tman a nd Me red i th 1 954a : 19 -123 ) . D io C h ry so s tom ( 3 2 .40 ) r e vea l s t he p re sence o fI nd ian s a tA lexandr ia . We c ou ld u ndoub ted ly l e arn more a bou t t h e ir r o le i n t h i s t r ade a nd mo re a bou t t he t r ade i n g ene ra l t h rough a dd i t iona l a r chaeo log ica lw o rk a l ong t he R ed S ea c oas ts o fE gyp ta nd S aud iA rab ia . T he z en i th o ft h i sc omme rce t h rough E gyp tw as f r om t he r e ign o fA ugu s tus u n t i l t he m id to la te s e cond c en tury . T he reaf te r t h e t r ade d ec l ined d rama t icaly . T he t h i rd c en tury w as a p e r iod o f p o l i t ica l i n s tab i l i ty , m i l i tary t u rmo i l a nd e conom ic c hao s i n m any a reas o f t he R oman w o r ld . T h i s a tmo sphe re w as n o t c onduc ive t ol o ng d i s tance m a r i t ime o r o ve r land c aravan t r ade . Howeve r ,j u dg ing f r om t he a r chaeo log ica l e v idence f r om A r s inoe -C ly sma -Qo lzoum , f r om t h e f o r t a t ' Abu S ha 'ar a nd f r om B e ren ice a nd f r om s c rap s o f i n fo rma t ion f r om l i t e rary s ource s i n l a te a n t iqu i ty ( 1 1) , t he re w a s ar ev iva l o f t h i s c omme rce i nt h e f o u r th s even th c en tur ie s , b u t i tn eve r r i va l led , s o f a r a sw e c an d e te rm ine , t he v o lume a nd i n tens i ty o ft he c omme rce i nt he f i r s t a nd s econd c en tu r ie s . I nt h i s l a te r p e r iod t he t r ade s eem s t o h ave f a l len l e s s i n to t he h and s o f R oman s ub jec t s a nd mo re u nde r t he c on t ro l o f L evan t ine , S ou th A rab ian a nd A xum i te ( E th iop ian ) m idd lemen ( S idebo tham 1 986h : 4 6 -7 ; C ur t in 1 984 : 1 00 ; K ob i shchanov 1 979 : 1 71 -89 ) . R oman/ B yzan t ine c omme rce t h rough t he R ed S ea p o r t s o f E gyp t c ame t o at empo rary , i f n o t c omp le te , h a l t d ur ing t he S a san ian i n vas ions o f E gyp t i n t h e e ar ly s e ven th c en tury ( Bu t le r 1 978 : 6 9 -92 ) a nd w a s p e rmanen t ly t e rm ina ted b y t he Mus l im A rab o ccupa t ion o ft he e ar ly 6 40 s ( Bu t le r 1 978 : 1 94ff ) .

N o tes *

1 .

2 . 3 .

T h i s p ape r h as a l ready a ppeared a s S i debo tham ( 1989 ) ; a no the r v e r s ion w i l l a l so a ppear i nd eP uma a nd B eg ley ( f o r thcom ing ) . T he se d a te s w e re a r r ived a t f r om t he a na ly s is o f t he p o t te ry b y D r . J .A . R i ley a nd o ft he c o ins b y t he p re sen t a u thor . T he f o r t i sn o t men t ioned i n t he N o t i t ia D ign i ta tur n n o r i nP rocop ius D eAed i f l c i i s o r Wa r s . Wel s ted ( 1838 : 1 25 ) n o te s s quare t owe r s a t t h e f o r t , w h i le W i lk in son ( i n S ca i fe 1 935 : p l an 7 )d rew ap l an s how ing r ound/ sem i -c ircu la ro ne s . T he se i n c lude W i lk in son ( 1832 : 5 0 -1 ; 1 835 : 4 10 -22 ) , We l l s ted ( 1838 : 1 2 4 -5 ) , S ca i fe ( 1935 : p l an 7 ; 1 9 36 : 5-65 ) , B a l l ( 1 942 : 5 0 , 5 3 , 6 5 , 6 8 , 7 9 , 8 2 , 8 3 , 1 0 6 , 1 83 -5 ) , K raus ( 1967 : 2 03 -305 ) , Mur ray ( 1968 : 16 ) , T regenza ( 1955 : 8 9 108 ; 1 958 : 5 8 , 1 22 ) a nd Me red i th ( 1 958 : m ap s hee t ) . O the r modern t r ave l le r s r ema in u npub l i shed o r s i len t o n t he s ub jec t : J o seph Hékékyan al i s t o fh i s a nd W i lk inson ' s u npub l ished m anusc r ip t s m ay h e f ound i n Wa inw r igh t ( 1980 : 5 1 -2 , 3 2 1) . W i lk inson ' sm anusc r ip t s a re n ow i nt he B od le ian L ib rary , O x fo rd . A cco rd ing t o Mur ray ( 1968 : 1 06 ) , J ame s B ur ton , ac ompan ion o f W i lk inson ' so n m any o fh i sj ourney s , l e f t a n u npub l ished d i ary o fh i st r ave l s , n ow i n t he B r i t i sh L ib rary . We iga l l d oe s n o t s eem t o h ave s pen t m uch , i f a ny , t ime i nt he r eg ion o f ' Abu S ha 'ar , a l though h e d id v i s i t t he p o rphy ry q uar r ie sa tG ebe l Dukhan (We igal 1 909 : 9 0 -114 ) . S ee a l so C ouya t ( 1 9 10a : 5 25 -42 ; 1 9 10h : 1 5 -33 ) . A rchaeo log i s t s e xcava t ing a t Quse ir a l -Qad im d i d r e cove r as i ng le w orn b ronze c o in o f P to lemy 1 1 , b u t t h i s w as , u ndoub ted ly , l o s t b y s omeone i n t he e ar ly R oman p e r iod . A r epo r t o n t he c o in s f r om t he e xcava t ion s i st o b e p ub l i shed b y S i debo tham ( f o r thcom ing ) . Mur ray ( 1 968 : 9 0 ) b r ief ly d e sc r ibe s av i s i t t o Quse i r a l -Qad im . F o r ad e sc r ip t ion o f Quse i r i nt he e i gh teen th c en tury , s ee B ruce ( 1812 : 9 1 ) a nd C rece l ius ( 1 987 : 5 3 -60 ) ; f o r a d e sc r ip t ion o f Qu se i r i n t he n i ne teen th c en tu ry , s ee K luz inge r ( 1 878 : 2 71 9 2 ) . T he l a te s e cond -ear ly t h i rd c en tury d a te f o ra bandonmen t o fQ u se i ra l Q ad im h as b een q ue s t ioned b y B a i ley ( 1 985 : 5 4 ) , a nd a l a te t h i rd c en tury -

4 .

4 98

5 . 6 . 7 .

8 .

9 . 1 0 . 1 .

b ronze c o in w a s r e co rded f r om t he e xcava t ion s ; s ee Z i t te rkop f a nd S idebo tham 1 989 . E xcava t ions h ave n eve rb een c a r r ied o u t a tB e ren ice . Da t ing b ased o nt he a na ly s i so fs ome s u r f ace p o t te ry a tt he s i te m ade b yD r . J .A . R i ley d ur ing av i s i t i nJ u ly 1 987 . C ly sma -Suez ( Maspe ro 1 9 12 : 1 2 ,20 ) ; ' Abu S ha 'a r ( K rau s 1 967 : 2 03 -205 ; S idebo tham 1 986h : 5 1) , L euko s L imen ( Bagna l l 1 979 : 2 43 ; S idebo tham 1 986b : 5 5 ) , L euke K ome ( P e r ip i . M . E iy thrae i 1 9 ) a nd t he v i c in i ty o f B e ren ice ( S idebo tham 1 986b : 6 5 ) . F o r t he se , s ee S ca i fe ( 1935 : 6 7 , 7 2 , 7 3 , 7 7 ; 1 936 : 5-64 ) a nd S i debo tham ( 1986b : 5 8 -9 ) . T he d i s tance s a re a l so b a sed o n o b se rva t ion s m ade b y t he a u tho r d ur ing v i s i t s t o t he r eg ion i nJ anuary 1 986 , J u ly 1 987 a nd J anuary 1 989 . Mean a nnua l p rec ip i ta t ion i s o n ly 4 mm , s ee Wh i tcomb a nd J ohnson ( 1982b : 1 ) . T he se n ame s m ay b e e p i the t s o f C a l igu la r a the r t h an n ame s o f h i s s l ave s/ f reedmen . One s c rap o fl i t e rary e v idence , t he H i s tor ia Augu s ta ( F i r inu s 3 . 3 -6 ) , a t te s t s l a te t h i rd c en tury t r ade i nt h i sr eg ion , b u tt he H i s to r ia Augu s ta i sn o to r iou s ly u n re l iab le f o r t h i s p e r iod . T he C od ex T heodo s ianu s ( 12 .12 .2 ) r e co rds a R oman e mbas sy s en t b y C ons tan t iu s I i n 3 56/357 t o t he A xum i te s a nd H imyar i te s . C o smas I nd icop leu s te s , C h r i s t ian T opog raphy ( e spec ia l ly B ook s 2a nd 1 ) p rov ide s d e ta i l s o f t he t r ave l s o fC o smas a nd o the r s t ot he E a s t , a sw e l l a ss pec i f ic s o n t r ade i nt he s i x th c en tury . J ohn Ma la las m en t ion s a n embas sy s en tb yJ u s t in ian I( 527 -565 ) t ot he k i ng o ft he A xum i te s . T h i s may h e t he s ame e mbas sy r e coun ted b y P rocop ius ( P e r s . 1 . 19 .1 ; 1 . 20 .9 ; 2 . 3 .40 ) . T heophane s( Chronog raph ia AM 6 123 ) r epo r t s t h a t i nt he y ear 6 31/632 t he k i ng o f t he I nd ian s s en t t he Empe ro r He rac l iu s c ong ra tu la to ry g i f t s o f p ear l sa nd p rec ious s t one s f o r h i sv i c tory o ve r t he P e r s ians ; P rocop ius h in t s a tt he e x ten to ft he c omme rce b e tween t he R oman w o r ld a nd o the ra reas o f t he R ed S ea Ind ian O cean w he re h e men t ions ( P e r s . 1 . 19 .24 -26 ) t h a t R oman l aw f o rb id s t h e s a le o f i r on t o I nd ian s a nd E th iop ian s ; w he re h e men t ions ( P e r s . 1 . 20 .4 ) aC h r i s t ian s l ave o f aR oman c i t izen w ho i se ngaged i n t he s h ipp ing b u s ine s s a t t he " E th iop ian " c i ty o f Adu l is a nd w he re h e d e sc r ibe s ( P e r s . 1 . 20 . 12 ) P e r s ian -E th iop ian c ompe t i t ion i n o b ta in ing s i lk f r om I nd ia . S ee a l so K ahr s ted t ( 1 921 : 7 10 ) a nd P r iau lx ( 1863 : 2 69 -312 ) .

B ib l iography BAGNALL , R .S .

1 979

G reek a nd L a t in e p ig raphy . I n D .S . Wh i tcomb a nd J. H . J ohnson ( ed s . ) Q u se i r a l -Qad im 1 978 p r e l im ina r y r e po r t : 2 43 -244 . P r ince ton , N J ( Ame r ican R e sea rch C en te r i nE gyp t ) .

BA ILEY , D .M .

1 985

R ev iew o fD .S . Wh i tcomb a nd J .H . J ohn son ( ed s . ) Q ue se i r a l -Qad im 1 980 p r e l im ina r y r e por t . J EA R ev i ew sS upp l e m en t7 1 : 5 4 -55 .

BALL , J .

1 942

Egy p ti nt h ec l a s s i ca lg eog raphe r s . C a i ro .

B EESTON ,A .F .L .

1 937

Two S ou th A rab ian i n sc r ip t ion s : s ugge s t ion s . J RAS : 5 9 -78 .

4 99

S ome

1 9 59

T he Me rcan t i le C ode o f Q a taban . L ondon ( Qah tan . S tud ies e p ig raphy 1 ) .

1 971

o ld

S ou th A rab ian

T he L abakh t e x t s ( w i th a ddenda t o ' The Me rcan t i le C ode o f Q a taban " ) . L ondon ( Qah tan . S tud ie s e p ig raphy 2 ) .

1 978

i n

i n

o ld

S ou th A rab ian

A M inaean m a rke t c ode .

Bu l l e t in o f t he S choo l s o f O r ien ta l a nd Af r ican S tud ies 4 1 :

1 42 -5 .

BEGLEY , V .

1 986

F rom I r on A ge t oE ar ly H i s tor ica l i nS ou th I nd ian a r chaeo logy . I n J .J acob son ( ed . ) E s say s

i n t he

a r chaeo lo g y o f I nd ia

P ak i s tan : 2 97 -319 . D e lh i I n s t i tu te f o r I nd ian S tud ie s ) .

a nd

( Ame r ican

BELL , H . I .

1 940

A n t inoopo l i s : a Hadr ian ic f ounda t ion i n E gyp t . J RS 3 0 : 1 33 -47 .

BERNAND ,A .

1 984

L e s p or te s d u d e ser t .

C en t re N a t iona l S c ien t i f ique ) .

P ar i s ( Ed i t ions d u d e l a R eche rche

a

B INGEN ,J .

1 984

Une d éd icace d em archand sp a lmy rén iens C op to s . C hrEg 5 9/118 : 3 55 8 .

BOURDON , C .

1 925

Anc iens c anaux , a nc iens s i tes e t p or t s d e

S ue z . C a i ro ( I ns t i tu t f r ança is d 'Arché o l og ie o r ien ta le p our I a S oc ié té r o ya le d e g eog raph ie d 'Egyp te ) . BRUCE , J .

1 812

T rave l s b e tween t he y ear s 1 765 a nd 1 773 , t h rough p an ' o f Af r ica , S yr ia , E g yp t , a nd A rab ia i n to Aby s s in ia , t o d i scover t h e s ource o ft he N i le . L ondon .

BRUYERE , B .

1 966

F ou i l le s d e C l y sma -Qo l zoum ( Sue z ) , 1 930 -

1 932 . C a i ro ( I ns t i tu t f r anca i s d 'A r chéo log ie o r ien ta le ) . BUTLER ,A .J . ( P .M . FRASER , e d .)

1 978

T he A rab c onque s to f Eg yp ta nd t he l a s tt h ir ty y ear s o f t he R oman d om in ion . 2 nd e d .

O x fo rd . CASAL ,J .M .

1 949

F ou i l le sd e V i ra inpa tna ,n Ar ika medu . P ar is .

CASSON , L .

1 980

R ome ' s t r ade w i th t he E as t : T he s ea v oyage t oA f r ica a nd I nd ia . TAPA 10 : 2 1 -36 .

1 984a

C h ina a nd t he We s t .

I n Anc ient T rad e a nd

S oc ie ty : 2 47 -72 . D e t ro i t .

5 00

1 984b

E gyp t ,A f r ica , A rab ia a nd I nd ia : P a t te rn so f s eabo rne t r ade i n t he f i r s t c en tury AD . B u l le t in o f t he Amer ican P apyro log i s t s 2 1/1 4 :3 94 7 .

1 984c

1 986

S oc ie ty

o f

R ome ' s t r ade w i th t he E a s t : t he s ea v oyage t o A f r ica a nd I nd ia . I n Anc ien t T rade a nd S oc i e t y : 1 82 -198 . D e t ro i t . T he

l o ca t ion

o f

T aba i

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I n D .S . Wh i tcomb a nd J .H .

J ohnson ( eds .) Quse ir a l - Qad i in 1 980 p r e l im inar y r e por t : 3 91 9 6 . Ma l ibu , CA .

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B ackg round . I n D .S . Wh i tcomb a nd J .H . J ohn son ( ed s . ) Quse i r a lQad im 1 978 p r e l im inar y r epor t : 1 -1 0 . P r ince ton , N J . ( Ame r ican R e search C en te r i nE gyp t ) .

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Quse i r a lQad im 1 980 P re l im inar y R epor t .

Ma l ibu , CA . ( Ame r ican R e search C en te r i n E gyp t R epo r t s7 ) . 1 982b

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I n D .S . Wh i tcomb a nd J .H .

J ohnson ( eds .) Quse i r a l -Qad im 1 980 p r e l im inar y r epor t : 1 2 0 . Ma l ibu , CA .

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Av i s i to r t ot he a n t iqu i t ie s c o l lec t ion o f Mo scow ' s P u shk in Mu seum c anno t f a i l t oh e i mp re s sed b y al i ve ly R oman g rave s tone f r om t he C r imea w i th ama rb le r e l ie f o f ah o r seman a nd h i s d og r u sh ing a w i ld b oar ( P 1 . 3 3 .1) ( 1 ) . T he s c ene s how st he d ead a s ah e ro i nt he w e l l -known g u i se o ft he " Thrac ian r i de r " , b u t a st he s t one i sb roken o n t he r i gh t , t he u sua l t r ee a nd t he b oa r ' sc ave a re n ow m i s s ing . B e low t he re i s aL a t in i n sc r ip t ion , w r i t ten i n s e cond -cen tury l e t te r s a nd b roken o n t h ree s i de s . I tw as p ub l i shed b y R o s tov tze f f( 1 911 : 3 8 a nd P l . 3 /3 ) t hu s : D ( i s ) M (an ibu s ) . L . [ F ]ur io S eu [ tho ] o p ( t ion i ) [ p rae ]f (ec t i ) c oh (o r t is ) IT [h r (acum ) T he f our th l i ne o ft he i n sc r ip t ion a s R o s tov tze f fs aw i ti sn ow l o s t ( 2 ) . T he t h i rd l i ne , h oweve r , c a l l sf o r an ew r e ad ing . I t s f i r s tp re se rved l e t te r i sn o t a n 0b u t aQ ,c l ear ly t o b e s een o n t he s t one . T he w id th o f t he monumen t c an s t i l l b e e s tab l ished w i th s ome c onf idence f r om t he f i r s t l i ne o f t e x t , w he re t he d i s tance b e tween t he f i r s t l e t te r a nd t he l e f t e dge n o d oub t e qua l led t he d i s tance b e tween t h es e cond l e t te r a nd t h e r i gh t e dge . T he re i ss pace f o r o ne o r t wo mo re l e t te r s o n t h e l e f t a s w e l l a s o n t h e r i gh t o ft he t h i rd l i ne . R o s tov tze f fw as r i gh t t o s upp ly a s o ld ie r 's r ank h e re . O ne m ay t h ink o f e q (ue s ) p o l ( l io ) ( 3 ) , b u t ar ank b e t te r b e f i t t ing t he d e tachmen t s t ha t h e ld t he R oman f o r t s o n t he C r imea m ay b e s e q (u tor ) p r (aepo s i t i ) , f o r s uch c ommande r s a i de s a re k nown i n o the r o u tpo s t d e tachmen ts ( Cagna t , Me r l in a nd C ha te l in 1 923 : n o . 2 7 ) a nd t hey m ay b e long t o a ux i l iary u n i t s ( 4 ) . T he i n sc r ip t ion , t he re fo re , m igh t r e ad a sf o l low s : D ( i s ) M(an ihu s ) . L .[ F ]ur io S ev (e ro ) , [ s e ]q (u to r i )p [ r (aepo s i t i ) ] [ v ]ex (i l a t ion i s )c oh (o r t i s ) IT [h r (acum ) ] I n s tead o f t h e n ame S eu the s , t he mo re o f ten f ound S eve rus i sr e s to red h e re , b u t e i the r n ame i s p o s s ib le . T he f our th l i ne , n ow l o s t , i s g i ven a f te r R o s tov tze f f , e xcep t a tt h eb eg inn ing w he re h i sp l a te s eem st os how t he t op so ft h eE a nd t he Xo f[ v ]ex ( i l la t io ) . l ti s ap i ty t h a t t he f i nd s po t o f t he g rave s tone i su nknown , f o r c oho r s I T hracum h ad a d e tachmen t a t K e rch ( Pan t ikapa ion ) i n t he k i ngdom o f t he B o spo rus a nd t hu s s e em s t o h ave b e longed t o t he B i thyn ian r a the r t h an t he Moe s ian a rmy c ommand ( C IRB 66 = J OSPE 2 . 290 = I GRR 1 . 894 ; S pe ide l a nd

5 15

F rench 1 985 ) . T he s ame m ay b e t r ue a l so f o r t he f i nd s po t o fo ur s t one . P e rhap s t h a t p l ace w as n o t t he f o r t o fC ha rax ( 5 ) w i th i t s Moe s ian g ar r ison , b u t as t a t ion w i th in t he B o spo ran k i ngdom s omewhe re n ear m ode rn A lupka w he re o ur s t one w as o nce p ar t o f ap r iva te c o l lec t ion o fa n t iqu i t ie s . T he n ew r e ad ing o f F ur iu s ' g rave s tone t hu s o pens t he q ue s t ion w he re t he B i thyn ian a rmy d i s t r ic t o ft he C r imea e nded a nd t h e Moe s ian a rmy d i s t r ic t b egan , i ts how s u p t he s e cu to r p raepo s i t i a s al i ke ly n ew r ank i n t he o u tpo s t s o n t he n or the rn B lack S ea s ho re , a nd i tl e t s u s s t r ike t he o p t io p raef ec t i f r om t h e r anks o f t he R oman a rmy ( 6 ) .

A cknow ledg emen ts Iw i sh t o t h ank D r O tar L o rdk ipan idze o f t he Geo rg ian A cademy o f S c ience s f o r i n v i t ing me t oT he S ov ie t Un ion ; D r E lena S avo s t ina , c u ra to r a t t he Museum , f o r h e r g race f u l h o sp i ta l i ty ; a nd Ms J ane t C ooke , Hono lu lu , f o r h e r k ind h e lp w i th t h i sp ape r .

N o te s 1 . 2 . 3 . 4 . 5 . 6 .

T he p iece h a s t he i n ven to ry n umbe rIl a6 90 a nd measu re s8 7 x6 1 x2 0 cm . R o s tov tze f f ' s r e ad ing i ss t i l l u sed i nt he c a ta logue An t ique s cu lp tu r ef r om t h e c o l l ec t ion o ft h eP u shk in F ine A r t s Mu seum i n Mo scow . Moscow 1 987 . C IL 3 . 14507 ( V im inac ium ) . F o rt h i s r ank ( D ie tz 1 985 ) . F o rs e cu tor e sp raepo s i t i g ene ra l ly , s ee S pe ide l ( 1 984 :161 -166 ) ; f o rs e cu tor e s i nt he a ux i l ia s ee t he a ddenda ( Spe ide l 1 984 : i b id e ,n 4 08 ) . T h i s i s t he s ugge s t ion o f R os tov tze f f ( 1911) . F o r C harax ( Ro s tov tzef f 1 902 ) . R os tov tze f f ( 19 11 :39 n . I ) w as q u i te a wa re o f t he u n iquene s s o f t h i s s uppo sed r ank . T he o n ly p ara l le l t oi ti n Domas zew sk iw as t he o p t io t r ibun i ( 1908 :47 ; C IL 2 . 5682 ) , n ow a l so r evea led a s a p han tom ( Le R oux 1 982 :217 ) .

B ib l iography CAGNAT , R . , MERL IN , A . a nd CHATELA IN , L . 1 9 23

I n s c r ip t ion sl a t ine s d' Af r ique . P ar i s .

D IETZ , K .

1 9 85

D e rp o l l io i nd e r r öm ischen L eg ion . Ch i ron 1 5 : 2 35 -252 .

DO MASZE WSK I ,A .V .

1 9 08

D i e R ango rdnung d e s r öm i schen K ö ln .

LE ROUX , P .

1 9 82

L' a rme e r oma ine e t 1 ' o rgan i sa t ion d e s p rov ince s i h e r ique s d' Au gu s t e aI ' i n va s ion d e 4 09 . P ar i s .

ROSTOVTZEFF , M .

1 902

R öm i sche B e s a tzungen i nd e r K r im u nd d as K as te l lC harax . K l io 2 :8 0 -95 .

5 16

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S vya t i l i shche T h rak i isk ikh B ogov . I z y e s t ia I i npe ra to r sko i A r cheo log iche sko i K omm i s s i i 4 0 : 3 8 -40 .

S PE IDEL , M . P .

1 984

E ine We ih insch r i f t a u s O s te r -hu ik en . R oman A rmy S tud i e s V o l . 1 : 1 61 166 . Am s te rdam ( MAVORS 1 ) .

S PE IDEL , M . P .a nd FRENCH , D .H .

1 985

B i thyn ian t r oop s i n t he k i ngdom o f t he B o spo ru s . E p igAna t6 :9 7 -102 .

5 17

P l . 3 3 .1 F ur ius ' g raves tone

5 18

3 4 . RO MAN MASONRY T ECHN IQUES AT THE CAP ITAL OF THE COM MAGEN IAN K INGDO M A hme tA .T irpan K onya

S amo sa ta i so ne o ft he mo s t i mpo r tan t f r on t ie r c i t ie s i nt he e a s te rn h a l fo f t h e R oman Emp i re . Mode rn S am sa t , 3 7 km s ou th -eas t o f Ad iyaman , i sb u i l t o ve r t h e a nc ien t s i te o fS amo sa ta ( 1 ) . T he E uph ra te sw hen i nf l ood d oe s n o t r each t he s e t t lemen t a rea , w h ich i sl o ca ted o n ah i gh c ong lome ra te t e r race o n t he w e s t b ank o ft he r i ve r . Un t i l r e cen t ly t he f l ood w a te r so ft he E uph ra te s f l owed j u s t b e low t he c i ty w a l ls , b u t a f te r t he c ons t ruc t ion o ft he K eban D am f a r the r u p s t ream t he r i ve r h a s b een k ep t t o i t s o r ig ina l b ed s ome 1 00 me t re s t o t he e as t ( Humann a nd P uchs te in 1 890 : 1 82 , f i g . 2 8 ) . Anc ien t S amo sa ta i sd om ina ted b y amound , 5 0 mh igh a nd measu r ing 5 00 b y 2 50 r n ( Anon . 1 976 : 3 8 , f i g . 5 3 ) . Du r ing t he e xcava t ions c a r r ied o u t b y P ro f . N ime t O zgüc f i nds d a t ing b ack t o3 500 BC w e re u ncove red ( Ozgüc 1 988 : 2 91 ) . T he s e t t lemen t t h a t i sc a l led t he " l owe r c i ty " o ccup ie s al a rge a rea a t t he f oo t o f t he m ound ( F ig . 3 4 .1 ) . I ti ss u r rounded b y w a l l s t h a t e x tend i n ac i rcu i t 5k m l o ng ( Se rdarog lu 1 977 : p 1 . 7 ,f i g . 1 8 ;T irpan 1 987 ) . S amo sa ta , t he c ap i ta l o ft he K ingdom o fK ummuh i nt he e i gh th c en tu ry BC ( Hawk in s 1 975 : 5 ,f i g . 5 ) , r e ached t he h e igh t o fi t s p ro spe r i ty d ur ing t he He l len i s t ic p e r iod a nd f o rmed t he c ap i ta lo ft h eC ommagen ian k i ngdom t h a tc on t inued t oe x i s t u n t i l 7 2 . T he c i ty w as c ap tured b y L . C ae senn ius P ae tu s , t he g ove rno r o fS y r ia , i n 7 2 a nd w a s r e -e s tab l i shed a s t he p rov inc ia l c ap i ta l , p o s s ib ly w i th a l e g ionary g ar r ison ( pe rhap sl e g io V IF e r ra ta ) . S ome y ear sl a te rl e g io XV IF lav ia w as p o s ted t o S amosa ta a nd t he c i ty u nde rwen t ac on s ide rab le t r an s fo rma t ion ( Hon igmann 1 924 : 9 87 ; Aki t 1 960 : 1 46 ) . S amo sa ta w a ss e ized b yt he P e r s ian k i ng , S apo r I ,i n2 57 b u t w as r ecap tured b y t h e R omans i n2 71 . L eg io XV IF lav ia moved f r om S amo sa ta t o S u ra d ur ing t he r eo rgan i sa t ion o f t he e a s te rn f r on t ie r i n t he r e ign o f D ioc le t ian ( 2 85 -305 ) . A f te rt h i st h ec i ty d ec l ined i ni mpo r tance ( Se rdarog lu 1 977 : 1 8 -22 ) . I n t he e ar ly B yzan t ine p e r iod t he d e fens ive w a l l s w e re r e s to red b y t he Empe ro r J us t in ian i n o rde r t o p ro tec t t he c i ty a ga in s t A rab r a id s . B u t i n t he s e ven th c en tury S amo sa ta w as c ap tu red b y t he Abba s id s a nd i t s n ame w as t r ans formed i n to S umey sa t ( Hon igmann 1 924 : 9 90 ) . I t t hen c ame u nde r t he c on tro l , i ns ucce s s ion , o ft h eA taheg s , t he A r tukogula r ia nd t he D ü lkad irogula r i . I n t h i s p ape r a n a t temp t i sm ade t o e va lua te t he a r ch i tec tura l r ema in s u near thed f r om t he R oman l e ve l sa tS amo sa ta d ur ing t he e xcava t ions o f 1 978 1987 . Two a spec t s a re e xam ined i n d e ta i l : t he c on s t ruc t ion me thod s a nd t he u se o f d i f fe ren t f a c ing t e chn ique s . l th as b een a s ce r ta ined t h a t t he t e chn ique k nown a s o pu sc aemen t i c ium w a se mp loyed i nt he c on s t ruc t ion o fa l t he w a l l s o f R oman d a te t h a t h ave b een e xcava ted . I th a s a l so b een e s tab l i shed t h a t t he i n ne r a nd o u te r f a c ing s o f t h ese w a l l s w e re t r ea ted d i f f e ren t ly . T he me thod s u sed a re p ecu l iar t o t h e R oman p e r iod a nd a re k nown a s o pu s r e t icu la tum , q ua s i r e t i cu la tum , o pu s q uad ra tum a nd o pu sm i x tum ( T i rpan 1 987 : 1 84 ) . O pu sc aemen t i c iur n , c omp r i s ing am ix tu re o fc ong lome ra te a nd mo r ta r , w as u sed t o m ake t he c o re o f t he w a l l s . I tc ou ld a l so b e u sed i nt he c ons t ruc t ion o f a r che s a nd v au l t s . T he w a l l s u r f ace s w e re t h en f i n i shed w i th o ne o f t he f a c ing s l i s ted a bove ( Ru iz 1 9 72 : 1 7 ) . T h i s m e thod o fc ons t ruc t ion , w h ich w as f i r s t u sed b y

5 19

t he R oman si nL a t ium a nd C ampan ia d u r ing t he l a te R epub l ic , w as i n troduced i n to t he N ear E as t a s t he i r i nf luence s p read t h roughou t t h e r eg ion ( De ichemann 1 979 : 4 74 ) . T he t e chn ique , w h ich c an b e r egarded a s ar e vo lu t ionary b reak th rough i n a nc ien t c ons t ruc t ion , w as e x ten s ive ly u sed a t R oman S amo sa ta . T he w a l l s o f t he l owe rc i ty , c on s t ruc ted i no pu sc aer n en t i c iu e 'n , h ave s u rv ived u n t i l t he p re sen td ay t o ah e igh t o f 9 me t re s i n p l ace s ( P l . 3 4 .1) . T h i s i si t se l f t he b e s t w i tne s s t o t he t e chn ique ' s s t reng th a nd d urab i l i ty . T he w a l l s o f t h e l owe r c i ty , t he w a l l s a round t he t op o ft he mound a nd t he r ema ins o fw a l l s f ound i nt he R oman l e ve l ( Leve l 4 ) o n t he mound i t se l fa l m ade u se o fo pu s c aemen t i c ium . T hey c ons i s t o fl i me s tone r ubb le ( s tone s mea sur ing b e tween 1 0 c m a nd 2 0 c m i n d i ame te r ) a nd l a rge r i ve r p ebb le s , m ixed w i th amo r tar m ade o fs and a nd l ime . E xcava t ion h as r evea led t ha t t he c i ty w a l l sw e re 1 . 90 2 . 10 m t h ick a nd w e re b u i l t o n c ong lome ra te f o unda t ions 0 . 85 1 . 00 m d eep . T he f ounda t ions p ro jec t o u twards b y af u r ther 1 0 1 5 cm b eyond t he w al s . L ime s tone b l ock sw e re u sed a tt he b o t tom . I na dd i t ion , t h ew a l ls w e re s uppo r ted b y s em i -c i rcu lar b u t t re s se s , 0 . 80 m i n d i ame te r . T he se w ere b onded w i th t he w a l ls a nd h ave t h e s ame f a c ing o f o pu s r e t i cu la tur n ( P l . 3 4 .1) . E xamp le s o f t he se r ounded b u t tre s se s w e re e xcava ted i n an umbe r o f s ound ing s ( A reas D l , D 2 a nd K I) , a nd i tw as d i scove red t h a t t h ey r e s ted o n r e c tangu lar b a se s , measu r ing 0 . 95 b y 1 . 10 m . T he a ve rage t h ickne s s o ft he w a l l s e xcava ted b o th o n t he mound ( A rea s L ,M , N1 3 -14 ) a nd a tt h es ou the rn f oo t o ft he mound i s0 . 70 m . T he w a l l s w e re p l aced c en tra l ly o n t he 1 . 00 w ide f ounda t ion s w h ich g o d own t o ad ep th o f0 . 80 m . -

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O pu s r e t i cu la tum i s at e chn ique o f f a c ing t ha t i sm ade u p o fs quare shaped s t one sp l aced i nd i agona l r ow ss ot h a t an e t l ike p a t te rn i sp roduced . A s ar e su l t o f t he s ound ing s t a ken a tt we lve d i f fe ren t p o in ts a long t he c i ty w a l ls a nd f r om t he s t udy o ft he r ema in sa bove g round ( F ig .3 4 .1 ) , i tw as d e te rm ined t ha t t he f o r t i f ica t ions o f t h e l owe r c i ty w e re o r ig ina l ly f a ced w i th o pu s r e t i cu la tur n ( 2 ) . B yt he s ame means i tw as o b ser ved t h a t t he w a l l ss u r round ing t he mound w ere a l so c on s t ruc ted u s ing o pu s r e t i cu la tum . I n a dd i t ion , an umbe r o fw a l ls t h a t w ere u ncove red i n at r ench o n t he s ou the rn s k i r t o f t h e mound a nd t he w a l l s o f a b u i ld ing i n t he a rea o ft he L , M , N 1 3 -14 t r enche s o n t he mound w ere a l so f a ced w i th o pu s r e t i cu la tur n . A l l o f t he se a r ch i tec tu ra l r ema in s b e long t o t h e f our th b u i ld ing l e ve l d a t ing t ot he R oman p e r iod ( Ozgüc 1 985 ) . T he s t one s t ha t m ake u p t he o pu s r e t i cu la tu ,n a re l i me s tone a nd m ea su re 9 c m s quare , g i v ing a v e r t ica l h e igh t o f 1 3c m ( 3 ) . Q ua s i r e t i cu la tur n i st he e a r l ie s t t y pe o f f a c ing s een o n t he w a l ls t h a t a re c on s t ruc ted i n t he o pu s c ae inen t i c iur n t e chn ique ( Se ide r 1 968 : 4 ) . T he i n d iv idua l s t one s a re p o lygona l ly s haped o n t h e i r o u te r s u r f ace a nd a re p o in ted b eh ind , i n o rde rt h a t t hey s hou ld b ond i n to t he c o re o ft he w a l l . T he s t one sa re n o t u sua l ly s e t i n ar egu lar p a t te rn . T he i n te r io rw a l l s o f at owe r a nd t he i n ne r f a c ing o ft h ew a l l s a d jo in ing i ta re f a ced i nq ua s ir e t i cu la tur n ( P i s .3 4 .2 , 3 4 .3 a nd 3 4 .4 ) . T he t owe r a nd w al s w e re u ncove red d ur ing e xcava t ion s a t p o in t D l , w he re t he s o -ca l led U rfa ( Ede s sa ) G a te i sl o ca ted i n t he w a l l s o f t he l owe r c i ty . T he s t ones a r e a ga in l i me s tone b l ock s , m easu r ing b e tween 8a nd 1 0c m ,w i th a n a ve rage h e igh t o f1 3c m . O pu sq uad ra tu in i s am e thod w he reby c ube shaped s t one sw e re u sed t of a ce aw a l l . A t S amo sa ta t h i s t e chn ique w as u sed o n i t s o wn o r t oge the r w i th t i le c our se s ( opu s nzixtu m). A t p o in t s D l , D 2 , D 3 a nd B 2 a l ong t he w a l l s , o pus q uad ra tum i se ncoun te red a s ac omp le te ly n ew f a c ing . A t p o in t D l t he r e c tangu lar b u t tre s se s s uppo r t ing t he e as t -we s t o r ien ta ted c i ty w a l l c on s t ruc ted i n o pu s r e t i cu la tum e mp loyed t he t e chn ique o f o pu s q uad ra tu in . T he c ore o f t hese b u t t re s se s , m easur ing 0 . 95 b y 1 . 20 m i ns i ze , w as m ade i no pu s c aemen t i c ium a nd w as f a ced w i th r e c tangu lar l i me s tone b l ock s o fv ary ing s i ze s ( f o r e xamp le , 3 9 b y 1 ,

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2 8 b y i , 2 8 b y 1 , 5 0 b y 1 , 2 9 b y 1 c m ) . p a t te rn .

T he se w e re p l aced i n a n i s odom ic

F rom t he e xcav a t ions c ar r ied o u t 2 5 me t re s t o t he n or th o f t he a p s ida l b u i ld ing a tp o in t D 2 , t h ree r ow s o ff o r t i f ica t ion sw e re r evea led , b ui l t o ne i nf r on t o f a no the r ( P l . 3 4 .5 ) . T he o u te rmo s t w al w a s m ade o f o pu s q uad ra tum , u s ing r e c tangu lar l ime s tone b l ock s mea sur ing 3 0 b y 2 2 , 3 0 b y 2 2 , 2 5 b y 1 8 , 3 0 b y 2 0 , a nd 2 7b y 1 9 c m . A t p o in t B 2 as e c t ion o fc i ty w al , 1 . 20 m t h ick , w a s u ncove red . T he l owe r p a r t o f t h i sw a l l w as m ade i n o pu s q uad ra tum a nd t he u ppe r p ar t o fr i ve r p ebb le s , m ea sur ing b e tween 9a nd 1 2c m i ns i ze ( T irpan 1 987 : 1 98 f i g . 7 ) . Ano the rf r agmen t o fw a l l d i sp lay ing t he s ame f e a ture s w a s e xcava ted a t p o in t D 3 ( T i rpan 1 987 : 1 97 f i g .4 ) . F rom t he s ondage c a r r ied o u t a t p o in t K I i th as b een d e te rm ined t h a t r epa ir s w e re m ade t o t h e c i ty w a l l m ade u se o fo pu s q uad r a tu in ( T irpan 1 987 : 1 99 f i g . 8 ) . T he r e t icu la ted s u r f ace s o f t he w als a nd t he s em ic i rcu lar b u t t re s se s a re c ove red w i th o pu sq uad ra tum . F o r o pu s n i i x tu in t wo d i f f e ren t t e chn ique s w e re e mp loyed i n t he w a l l f a c ing s . A t S amo sa ta i th as b een o b served t h a t t he se a re ( a ) o pu s q uad ra tun i w i th o pu s l a t er i c iu ,n a nd ( h ) o pu s r e t i cu la tum , o pu s q uad ra tum a nd o pu s l a t e r i c iu ,n a l l u sed t oge the r . O pu s q uad ra tu in a nd o pu s l a t e r i c iu ,n w e re u sed t o c ove r t he w a l ls b u i l t i n o pu s c aer nen t ic ium . T he se c omp r i se r ec tangu lar s t one s i n te r spe r sed w i th t i l e c our se s . T he l a t te r w e re u sed s ome t ime s f o r d eco ra t ive p urpose s , s ome t ime s a s r e a lb ind ing c our se s r unn ing t h rough t he t h ickne s s o ft he w a l l . I no the rw o rd s , t i l e c our ses w e re s ome t ime sd eco ra t ive a nd s ome t ime sf unc t iona l . A t p o in t D 2 , r e c tangu lar m asonry , measu r ing 2 5 b y 1 5 , 2 3 b y 1 5 , 2 0 b y 1 3 , 2 0 b y 1 3 , 2 0 b y 1 2 c m , a nd t i l e s w i th d imens ions o f2 8 b y 2 8 , 2 8 b y 3 0 , 2 8 b y 2 9 , 2 8 b y3 0 cm c ou ld h e o b se r ved i nt he s ame w a l l . T he re w e re f our r ow s o fr ec tangu lar m asonry o n t op o ft h ew a l l f ounda t ions a nd , a bove t he se , t wo r ow s o ft i l e s a nd f i ve m o re r ow s o fm asonry i n ar epea ted p a t te rn . T h i s d e s ign w as a pp l ied o n t he o u te r f a c ing a long t he f u l ll e ng th o ft he w a l l a nd t he b u t t re s se s ( P l .3 4 .6 ) . I n t he f ounda t ion s o ft he a p s ida l b ui ld ing a tp o in t D 2 , t he re a re t wen ty t i l e c ou r ses , e ach t i l em ea su r ing 3 0 b y3 6 , 4 3 b y 3c m , i no pu sl a t e r ic ium . T he re f olow 3 r ow s o fr ec tangu lar s t one s i no pu sq uad ra tu in ( 2 5 b y 1 3 , 1 8b y 1 3 , 2 0 b y 1 4c m , e t c . ) , w i th 2 c ou r se s o f t i l e s a bove . T hen t he re a re 3 mo re r ow s o f s t one s i n o pu s q uad ra tum . T h is d e s ign w as a pp l ied i n ad i f f e ren t p a t te rn o n e ach w a l l . T he t i l e c our ses e x tend t h rough t he 1 -me t re t h ick w al s , w he reas t he r e c tangu lar s t one s o n ly c ove r t he s u r f ace s o ft h e w a l l ,w h ich w as m ade i no pu sc aemen t i c iu in ( T irpan 1 987 : 1 96 f i g . 3 ) . S ome 2 5 m e t re s n o r th o f t he a p s ida l b ui ld ing w e u near thed a f r agmen t o f w a l l t ha t h as b o th i t s i n te r io r a nd e x te r io r f a ce s i n o pu s q uad ra tum . T h i s w a l l , w h ich i s1 . 70 m t h ick , w as s uppo r ted b y b u t t re s se s measu r ing 0 . 50 b y 1 . 70 m . T he c ons truc t ion p a t te rn c omp r i se s 2r ow s o f r e c tangu la r m asonry ( opu s q uad ra tu in ) w i th as i ng le t i l ec ou r se . On t he w a l ls o f t he s ou th t owe r a t p o in t D l , a1 -me t re t h ick w a l l w as u near thed , r unn ing i n an o r th sou th d i rec t ion . I tw as f a ced i no pu sm i x tun i . F o ra s

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f a r a s i tw as p o s s ib le t o f o l low t he w a l l , i tw a s m ade w i th 2 r ow s o f r e c tangu lar l ime s tone b lock s ( he igh t 0 . 40 m ) , 3c ou r se s o f t i l e s ( he igh t 0 . 22 m ) , 2r ows o f r ec tangu lar l ime s tone b l ock s ( he igh t 0 . 40 m ) , 2t i l e c ou r se s ( he igh t 0 . 16 m ) , 5r ow s o fr ec tangu lar l ime s tone b l ock s ( he igh t 0 . 93 m ) a nd f i na l ly , 2 more c our se s o ft i le s ( he igh t0 . 16 m ) . T he r e c tangu lar b l ock s mea sure 3 0b y2 0 , 2 8b y2 0 , 3 0b y 1 5a nd 2 8 b y 1 8c m ,w h i le t he l e ng th so ft he t i l e sv ary b e tween 2 8a nd 3 2c m . I n t he w a l l t h a t e x tend s o u t s ide t he c i rcu i t w a l l a t p o in t D3 , r e c tangu lar ma sonry a nd t i l e c ou r se s w e re u sed t oge the r . We c ou ld n o t d e term ine t h ep rec i se d imens ion sb ecau se t he w a l lw as c ove red w i th at h ick l a ye r o fp l as te r ( T i rpan 1 987 : 1 97 f i g . 4 ) . T he i nne rw a l l a tp o in t G w as m ade i n o pu sm i x tum ( T irpan 1 987 : 1 97 f i g . 5 ) . Above t he f ounda t ions t he re a re 7r ow so fr e c tangu lar l ime s tone b lock s ( he igh t 1 . 35 m ) , 4t i l e c ou r se s ( he igh t 0 . 35 m ) , af u r the r 6r ow s o f r e c tangu lar l i me s tone b lock s ( he igh t 1 . 20 m ) a nd 4 mo re t i l e c our se s ( he igh t 0 . 35 m ) . T he w a l l t hus c on t inue su pward s i n ar egu lar p a t te rn . T he l ime s tone b l ock s measure 2 5b y 1 7 , 2 0 b y2 4 , 2 3 b y 1 2 , 2 4 b y 1 5 a nd 2 2 b y 1 4 c m , t he t i l e s 1 8b y 3 8 , 3 0 b y 4 0 , 2 8 b y4 0 a nd 3 0 b y 4 0 c m ( e ach t i l e h as at h ickne s s o f3 . 5 c m ) . T he t i l e c ou r se s e x tend t h rough t he w a l l a nd o n s ome o f t hem t he re c an b e s een f i nge r -made g roove s , i ne i the r d i agona lp a t te rn so rs p i ra l se x tend ing a c ro s st he w ho le l e ng th o ft he t i le . Du r ing t he e xcava t ions c ar r ied o u t o n t he m ound , w e u near thed ab u i ld ing o f L eve l 4i n t he L , M , N 1 3 -14 t r enche s a nd d e te rm ined t h a t t i le s w e re u sed , i n p ar t , f o r t he c on s t ruc t ion o f t he w a l l s m ade i n t h e o pu s r e t i cu la tum t e chn ique . T he re w e re 4 r ow s o f t i l e s b e tween t he masonry b l ock s o n t he s ou th w a l l o f t he s t ruc ture . T he t i l e s v ary b e tween 2 5 a nd 4 1 c m i nl e ng th a nd a re 4 c m i nh e igh t . T he p o in t ing i sa l so 4 c m h i gh . We d i scove red t h a t o n ly t he t i le s o n t h e o u te r s u r f ace o f t he w a l l w e re s moo th a nd r egu lar ; t ho se i nt he b ody o f t he w a l l w e re b roken a nd j umb led . A t t he c o rne r s o f t he s ame b u i ld ing r e c tangu lar l i me s tone b l ock s , mea sur ing 9b y 1 8c m ,w e re u sed . C onc lus ion T he o pu s c aemen t i c ium t e chn ique w as u sed t o c ons t ruc t t he w a l l s i n t he R oman l e ve l s a t S amo sa ta . I t h as b een d e te rm ined t ha t t he i nne r a nd o u te r s u r f ace s o f t he w al s w e re f a ced w i th m a te r ia l s o fd i f fe ren t t y pe s a nd i nd i f fe ren t f o rms . T he se w e re o pu s r e t icu la tu in , q ua s i r e t i cu la tum , o pu s q uad ra tur n , o pu s l a t er i c ium a nd o pu s‚ n i x tum . T he o pu sc aemen t i c ium t e chn ique ,w h ich c an b e r egarded a s ar evo lu t iona ry a dvance i n c ons t ruc t ion t e chn ique s , f i r s t a ppea red d ur ing t he l a te R epub l ic i n L a t ium a nd C ampan ia ( De ichemann 1 979 : 4 74 ) . We a l so k now t h a t q ua s i r e t i cu la tum a nd o pu s r e t i cu la tum w e re f i r s t u sed i nt h i s p e r iod t oc ove r w a l l s made i no pu s c aemen t i c ium . A t P ompe i i t he se t e chn ique s f i r s t s t ar ted t o b e c ommon ly u sed o n ly a f te r i tb ecame a R oman c o lony i n8 0 BC ( De ichemann 1 979 : 4 75 ) . We c an c i te t he m au so leum o fA ugus tu s a nd t he Augu s tan p e r iod b u i ld ing s a tO s t ia a s o the r e ar ly e xamp le s o f t h e u se o f t he se t e chn ique s ( T i rpan 1 987 : 1 92 ) . I tc an b e s een t h a t t he se t e chn ique s w e re i n t roduced t o t he E a s t i n c on junc t ion w i th t he s p read o f R oman p owe r a nd i nf luence i n t he r eg ion . I n t he E as t t h e e ar l ie s t e xamp le o fo pu sr e t i cu la tum i st he W in te r P a lace o fH e rod t he G rea t ( 37 1 4 BC ) o n t he r oad f r om J e rusa lem t o J e r icho ( T irpan 1 987 : 1 9 1) . An e ar ly e xamp le i n T urkey i sp rov ided b y t he w a te r c hanne l s a nd a queduc t s t h a t r un f r om D aphne t o An t ioch ( P l s . 3 4 .7 a nd 3 4 .8 ) . Mo s t o ft hem w e re b u i l t u s ing t h i s t e chn ique ( Aki t 1 960 : 1 46 ) . T he s ame t e chn ique c an a l so o b served i nC i l ic ia i n ab a th -bu i ld ing a t -

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E leus ia ( P l . 3 4 .9 ) , i n t h e a rea o f T roy i n t he r ema in s o f t he R oman b a th a t A lexand r ia T roas a nd a t Ar nas ra o n af r agmen t o fw a l l ( T i rpan 1 987 : 1 92 ) F rom t he i n ve s t iga t ions c ar r ied o u t o n t he l owe r c i ty w al s a tS amo sa ta , w e h ave d e te rm ined t h a t t h e se w a l l s w e re c omp le te ly r ebu i l t b y t he R omans . T he c i rcu i t w a l l , w h ich i s 5k m l o ng , w as c ons t ruc ted i no pu sc aemen t ic ium a nd c ove red w i th o pu sr e c t i cu la tum ( T i rpan 1 987 : 1 9 1 ) . S amo sa ta w a s c ap tured b y t he g ove rno r o f S y r ia , L . C ae senn iu s P ae tu s , d u r ing t he r e ign o f V e spas ian ( Aki t 1 960 : 1 46 ) . F i r s t l e g io V I I a nd t hen l e g io F l av ia XV Iw e re s t a t ioned t he re , m ak ing t he c i ty a n i mpo r tan tg ar r i son t own o nt he e a s te rn f r on t ie r ( Hon igmann 1 924 : 9 87 ) . T he w a l l s o f t he l owe r c i ty a t S amo sa ta m u s t h ave b e c on s t ruc ted a s af i r s t t a sk a f te r t he c ap tu re o f t he c i ty . B ecau se S amosa ta w a s a n i mpo r tan t s t ra teg ic p o s t o n t he f r on t ie r a ga ins t t he P ar th ian s , i t n eeded t o b e s u r rounded b y s t rong d e fen s ive w a l l s i n o rde r t o s he l te r i t s m i l i ta ry f o r ce . S o , t ak ing i n to c on s ide ra t ion t he h i s to r ica l b ackg round a nd t he u se o f t he o pu s c aemen t ic ium a nd o pu s r e t i cu la tum t e chn ique s i n t he i r c on s t ruc t ion , w e c an d a te t he c i ty w a l l st ot h ef i r s tc en tury . Dur ing t he e xc ava t ion s c ar r ied o u t o n t he mound , t he r ema in s o f b u i ld ing c on s truc ted i no pu sr e t i cu la tu in w e re u near thed i nL eve l 4 . T h i ss t ruc ture w as b u i l t r i gh t o n t op o f t he H e l len i s t ic P a lace ( Leve l 5 ) , w h ich w a s u sed u n t i l t he t ime o f A n t iocho s I \ ' ( Ozgüc 1 986 : 2 23 ) . T h i s Helen i s t ic P a lace f u rn i she s a n e xce l len t t e rm inu sp o s t q uem f o r d a t ing t he o pu s c aemen t i c ium a nd o pu s r e t i cu la tum u sed a t S amosa ta . F rom t he w o rk c ar r ied o u t o n t he T e r ra S ig i l la ta u near thed o n t he mound a nd a round t he w a l l s o ft he l owe rc i ty , w e h ave i d en t i f ied m any f o rm s d a t ing t ot he f i r s t c en tury ( Zo rog lu 1 986 : 7 3 -4 ) . T he se w are s s uppo r t o ur v i ew s r ega rd ing t he e a r ly d a te b o th o f t he R oman l e ve l s o n w h ich w e w o rked a nd o f t he c ons t ruc t ion t e chn ique s t h a tw e re e mp loyed i nt hem . Q ua s i r e t icu la tum , w h ich c an b e s een o n t he i n ne r s u r f ace s o f t he t owe r a d jo in ing t he E de s sa G a te a t p o in t D l , s t ar ted t o b e u sed i n I t a ly , e spec ia l ly a t P ompe i i t oge the r w i th o pu s c aemen t i c ium a ta n e ar l ie r d a te t han o pu s r e t i cu la tum ( Se ide r 1 968 : 4 ; R u iz 1 972 : 1 7 ) . T he se t wo t e chn ique s w e re u sed o n t he i n ne r ( q uas ir e t i cu la tum ) a nd o u te r ( r e t i cu la tum ) s u r f ace s o f t he s ame w a l l a tS amo sa ta . T h i sw as s u f f ic ien t e v idence f o r u s t od a te t he se t wo t e chn ique st ot he s ame p e r iod ( i . e . t oward s t he e nd o ft he f i r s t c en tury ) . We c an e ven p u t f o rward t he s ugge s t ion t h a tb lock sd amaged d ur ing c u t t ing w e re u sed t oc ove rt he i n s ide w a l l so ft he t owe r . A s t he i n s ide s o ft he t owe r s w e re e nc lo sed , t he u se o fb roken b l ock s i nt he se w a l l s d i d n o t e f fec t t he e x te rna la ppearance . O pu s q uad ra tun m ake s i t s a ppearance a t t he s ame t ime a s o pu s c aemen t i c ium . A t f i r s t i tw a s u sed o n ly f o r d oo r a nd w indow f r ame s a nd a t t he c o rne r s o f w a l ls , b u t l a te r i tw as a l so e mp loyed f o r w a l l f a c ing s . T he e ar l ie s t e xamp le o f o pu s q uad ra tum i si n t he c i ty w a l l s b u i l t i n t he Augu s tan p e r iod i n n o r the rn I t a ly . H e re t he s ma l l r e c tangu la r s t one s w h ich c ove red t he w al f a c ing s r e semb le mud -b r ick s ( Sc ran ton 1 941 :19 ) . A s men t ioned b e fo re , t he r e c tangu la r b u t tre s se sa tp o in t D l w e re a l so m ade i n o pu sq uad ra tum ( T i rpan 1 987 : 1 96 f i g . 2 ) . T he se r ep re sen t a dd i t ions t ot he w a l l s , a nd s o i tf o l low st h a t t he w a l l sf a ced i no pu s q uad ra tu in a re l a te r i n d a te t h an t ho se f a ced i no pu s r e c t i cu la tu in . B y t he s ame t o ken , a tp o in t K I t h e r e c tangu lar l i me s tone b l ock s ( opu sq uad ra tum ) c ove r ing t he r e t icu la ted w a l ls a nd s em i -c i rcu lar p i l as te r s a re s een a s as e cond f a c ing a nd p rov ide v a luab le e v idence f o r c ompara t ive d a t ing . On t he b as i s o f t he se d i scove r ie s , w e

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m ay s ay t h a t o pu sq uad ra tum w as u sed a tS amo sa ta f o r t he f i r s t t ime i nt h e s econd c en tu ry . T he l a rge r d imen s ion s o f t he r e c tangu lar b l ock s i n t he w a l l made o f o pu s q uad ra tum , d i scove red o n t he n o r th o ft he a p s ida l s t ruc ture a tp o in t D2 , d i s t ingu i sh t he w o rkmansh ip o ft h i sw a l l f r om t he o the r s . T he re mu s t h ave b een ar e s tora t ion a t al a te r d a te , b ecau se t h i sw a l lw as b u i l t i nf r on t o fa no the r c on s truc ted w i th r ec t a ngu lar s t one sa nd t i l e s . E l sewhe re i n t he r eg ion , t i l e s a re f i r s t s een o n t he p i l la r s o f t h e An t ioch a queduc ts ( m idd le o ft he f i r s tc en tury ) , b u tt hey w e re n o t v e ry c ommon ly u sed . We k now t h i sf r om al e t te r o fP l iny t he Y ounge rw r i t ten t o Empe ro rT ra jan c once rn ing t he g ymnas ium a tN icomed ia . I n t h i sl e t te r P l iny p ra i se s t he u se o ft i le sd u r ing t he r e s to ra t ion o f t he g ymna s ium ( De ichemann 1 979 : 4 83 ) . T i le s s t a r ted t o b e p roduced b y t he a rmy i n n o r the rn S y r ia o n ly i n t he s econd h a lf o f t h e s econd c en tury AD . S o t h i s d a te s hou ld b e a t e rm inu s p o s t q uem f o r t he m asonry t e chn ique t ha t e mp loyed t i l e s ( opu sl a t er i c ium ) . T hu sw ec an s ay t h a t t he w a l l made w i th r e c tangu la r s t one s a nd t i l e s a t p o in t D 2 w a s m ade i n t he s e cond h a l f o f t he s e cond c en tury . T h is d a te i sa l so s uppo r ted b y t he f a c t t h a t t he t h ickne s s o f t he t i l e s a nd t he mor tar b e tween t h em w e re e qua l ( 3 c m ) ( De ichemann 1 979 : 4 74 ) . T he t h ickne s s o f R oman t i l e s d i d n o t c hange ; i tv a r ied b e tween 3 . 0 a nd 3 . 5 c m f r om t he f i r s t t ot he f our th c en tury ( 4 ) . We c an d a te t he w a l l s a tp o in t sD 3 a nd G I , w h ich w e re m ade o fr e c tangu lar s t one s a nd w h ich h ad t i l e c our se s , t o t h e p e r iod o f t he Empe ro r J us t in ian ( 527 5 65 ) , b y t a k ing t he f o l low ing c harac te r i s t ic s i n to c on s ide ra t ion : t he t i le s e x tended t h rough t he w a l l ; t he t h ickne s s o ft he t i l e s v ar ied b e tween 4 a nd 5cms , a nd s o me h ad d i agona l m a rk s l e f t b y f i nge r s ( 5 ) . I ti sk nown t h a t t he c i ty w a l ls o fS amo sa ta w e re r e s to red i nt he s i x th c en tury i nt he p e r iod o fA rab r a ids . T he b u i ld ing w i th r e t icu la ted w a l l s , u nea r thed i nt r enche s L , M , N1 3 -14 , i s d i s t ingu i shed f r om o the r s t ruc ture s b y t he r e c tangu lar s t one s emp loyed a t t he c o rne r s ( opu s q uad ra tum ) a nd b y t he o c cas iona l u se o ft i l e s w i th a t h ickne s s o f 3 c m . T he u se o ft h i s d i f f e ren t m a te r ia l w as n o t a cco rd ing t o af i xed r u le ; h ence w e s hou ld a ccep t t h i s d i f fe ren t m a te r ia l a s p ar t ia l r epa i r s . T h is s t ruc ture m u s t h ave b een c on s t ruc ted i n t he s e cond c en tury a nd c on t inued i n u se f o r al o ng t ime . S im i la r w o rkmansh ip e mp loy ing m ixed m a te r ia l s i s a l so s een i n t he w a l l s o f Had r ian ' sv i l la a tT ivo l i ( P ica rd 1 9 65 : 1 24 -9 ) .

N o te s 1 .

2 .

E xcava t ion s a nd s u rvey w o rk w e re c a r r ied o u t a t S amo sa ta b e tween 1 978 a nd 1 987 u nde r t he d i rec t ion o f P ro f . N ime t O zgüc a s p ar t o f t h e L owe r E uph ra te s P ro jec t , c o -o rd ina ted b y t he M idd le E as t T echn ica l U n iver s i ty A nkara , i no rde r t or e co rd a nd r e s cue t h e h i s to r ica l monumen ts t h a tw i l lb e f l ooded o n c omp le t ion o f t h e A ta türk D am . Iw ou ld l i ke t o e x tend my w arme s t t h ank s t o P ro f . N ime t O zgüc f o r i n v i t ing me t o t a ke p a r t i n t he p ro jec t . I n d raw ing t h is p l an o f t h e a nc ien t c i ty , w e m ade u se o f T here sa Goe l l 's w o rk ( 1 974 : f i g .2 ) a nd t he m ap p roduced i n 1 967 b y t he P l an lama ' mar Müdür lügü ( Cons t ruc t ion P l ann ing O f f ice ) . T he d a ta p rov ided b y t he e xcava t ion s c a r r ied o u t a t t h e t we lve p o in ts a l ong t he c i rcu i t w e re a l so a dded t ot h i sp l an .

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3 .

4 .

5 .

T he l ime s tone , k nown l o ca l ly a s " hevar " , i sf ound u nde r t he c ong lome ra te l a ye r s i nt he r eg ion . I ti si d ea l f o r s uch c ons t ruc t ion p urpo se s s i nce i tc an b e c u t a nd s haped v e ry e as i ly w hen i ti s mo i s t . S ee D e ichemann ( 1 979 : 4 74 ) . T i le s o f t h i s t h ickne s s a re c harac te r i s t ica l ly R oman . T ho se m ade b yt he P ar th ian sa nd B aby lon ians w e re 8c m t h ick a nd r ep re sen t ac on t inua t ion o ft he mud -b r ick t r ad i t ion . S ee D e ichemann ( 1 979 : 4 03 , 5 01) . On t he s i x th c en tu ry t i l e s a t Q as r i b n Wa rdan t he re a r e s im i la r f i nge r m ark s . T he Z enob ia ( Ha leb iye ) c i ty w a l ls w e re a l so b u i l tb yJ us t in ian . I nt he se w a l l s r e c tangu la r l i me s tone b l ock s a nd t i le sw i th d i agona l f i nge rm a rk s .

B ib l iography AKS IT , 0 .

1 960

R oma i npara to r luk t a r ih i . I s tanbu l .

ANON .

1 976

ODTÜ K eban p ro j e s i . Aai F i ra t h avza s i b a ra j g ö l a l an lan y e c ev r e s i y üz ey a rat i rma lar , . A nkara .

DE ICHE MANN , F .W .

1 979

We s t l iche B au techn ik i m r öm i schen u nd r hömä i schen O s ten . RM 8 6 : 4 73 -527 .

GOELL , T .

1 974

S amo sa ta a r chaeo log ica l e xcava t ions , T u rkey 1 967 . N a t iona l G eog raph i c S oc i e ty R epo r t s , 1 967 P ro j ec t s : 8 3 104 . Wash ing ton , D .C .

HA WK INS ,J .D .

1 975

V on K ummuh n ach K ommagene . W e l t 6( Sonde rnumme r ) : 5 10 .

HON IG MANN , H .

1 925

K ommagene . I n RE S upp l . 4 :9 78 -90 .

HU MANN , C . a nd PUCHSTE IN , H .K .

1 8 90

R e i s en i nK l e ina s i en u nd N o rd sy r i en . B e r l in .

ÖZGÜc , N .

1 986

S am sa t 1 984 y d k az i lar i . V I I . k az i s onuc lar i t o p lan t i s i . Anka ra 2 0 -24 May i s 1 985 : 2 21 -7 . Anka ra .

1 9 88

S amsa t k az i lar i 1 987 . B e l l e t en 5 2/202 : 2 91 2 94 .

P IcARD , G .

1 965

I mp e r ium R omanu in . F r ibourg .

RU TZ , V .A .

1 9 72

R om u nd s e ine G ro s se z e i t . F i renze .

S CRANTON , R .L .

1 9 41

G r eek w a l l s . C amb r idge .

S E IDER , R .

1 9 68

R öm i sche Ma l e r e i . München .

S ERDAROÖLU ,

U .

1 977

An t ik e

Aaz F i ra t/ z av za s inda a rat ir ina la r . Ankara .

5 25

T IRPAN ,A .A .

1 987

S amosa ta aag i § eh ir s ur d uvar lar i . IV A rat irma s onuc lar i t op lan t is i . Ankara 2 6 3 0 May is 1 986 : 1 83 -201 . Ankara .

W ARD -PERK INS , J .B .

1 977

R oman a rch i t ec ture . New York .

ZOROÖLU , L .

1 986

S amosa t 'da h u lunan d ogu s i g i l la ta lar i i l k r aporu . S e i cuk U n iver s i tes i F en Edeb iya t F akü l tes i Der g i s i 3 : 6 1-100 . (W i th Eng l ish s u mmary ) .

5 26

F ig . 3 4 .1 S amo sa ta

-

p l an o ft he w a l led c i ty

5 27

P l . 3 4 . 1L ower c i ty w a l ls n ex t t o t he U rfa Ga te

5 28

P l . 3 4 .2 T he i n te r io rw a l l so f at owe ra nd a d jo in ing w a l l s p o in t D l -

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P l . 3 4 .3 Quas ir e t icu la tur n o n t he i n ter ior w a l ls o ft ower p o in t Dl -

5 30

P l . 3 4 .4 Genera lv iew o ft ower

5 31

-

p o in t Dl

P 1 . 3 4 .5 Wa l l i no pus q uad ra tum b u i l t i nf r on t o f t he w a l l i n o pus r e t icu la tun i p o in t D2 -

5 32

P 1 . 3 4 .6 Wa l l i no pus q uad ra tum w i th t i l e c our se s a tp o in t D2 -

5 33

P 1 . 3 4 .7 T he a queduc t b r ing ing w a te r f r om D aphne t o An t ioch

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P 1 . 3 4 .8 D e ta i l o f af r agmen t o ft he a queduc t b r ing ing w a te rf r om D aphne t o An t ioch

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P l . 3 4 .9 T he b a th -bu i ld ing a tE leus ia , w i th w a l ls i no pus r e t icu la tun z

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3 5 . PROCOP IUS AND ANTIOCH L .M . Wh i tby S t . Andrews P rocop ius ' d escr ip t ion o f An t ioch , o ne o f t he i mpor tant s e t -p iece d escr ip t ions i n t he Dc A ed i f ic i i s ( 2 .10 ) , i s i n teres t ing b ecause h is t rea tmen t c an b e c ompared w i th h is a ccoun t i n Dc B e l l is b ook 2 o f t he P ers ian c ap ture o ft he c i ty i n 5 40 a nd w i th a l im i ted amount o f a rchaeo log ica l i n forma t ion . G lanv i l le Downey s tud ied t he a ccoun ts a nd i den t i f ied s evera l w eaknesses i n Aed . 2 . 10 : h e r egarded t h is a s ac omb ina t ion o f e xaggera t ion , c ommonp lace , a nd o bscur i ty t hat e nab led t he a u thor t o o vers ta te t he r ea l n a ture o f J us t in ian 's measures a t A n t ioch . Downey 's c onc lus ions , a ccep ted a s a ccura te , h ave p rov ided t he s tar t ing p o in t f or s ubsequen t c r i t ica l e xam ina t ion o f P rocop ius ' Dc Aed if ic i is a nd J us t in ian 's c ons truc t ions . T he e v idence d eserves r econs idera t ion . I n p ar t icu lar t he " I ron Ga te " , where t he a nc ien t w a l ls c ross o ne o ft he r av ines d ra in ing t he moun ta ins a bove t he c i ty , s urv ives t o r evea l d if eren t c ons truc t ion s t ages ( a t l e as t o ne e ar ly i mper ia l a nd t wo f rom t he l a ter Emp ire ) : t he l a s tp hase i sp robab ly t he " Jus t in ian ic " work d escr ibed b y P rocop ius . P rocop ius ' a ccoun t i s i naccura te , b e ing i nf luenced b y h is p ersona l k now ledge o f f l ood c ontro l measures a t D ara a nd E dessa , b u t t here w as s ubstan t ia l r econs truc t ion a t t he " I ron Ga te " a nd Downey 's d iscuss ion d oes s can tj us t ice t oP rocop ius a nd t he r e ma ins .

P rocop ius ' d e s c r ip t ion o f A n t ioch i n Aed . 2 . 10 i s i mpor tan t i n s eve ra l r e spec ts . An t ioch w a so ne o ft he m a jo rc i t ie so ft he e as te rn R oman Emp ire b u t , a s ar e su l t o f a n u nu sua l c on junc t ion o f n a tura l a nd h uman d i sas te r s , i ts u f fe red a lmos t c omp le te r u in mo re t h an o nce i n t he s i x th c en tury s o t ha t s ub s tan t ia l r e cons truc t ions w e re n eeded ; i nt he se t he Empe ro r J us t in ian p l ayed ap ar t . S ome o ft h is J u s t in ian ic w o rk i sd e sc r ibed b y P rocop ius i n ac hap te r t ha t r ank s a l ong s ide t h e a ccoun t s o fD a ra a nd E de s sa ( Aed . 2 . 1 -3 , 7 ) a s o ne o ft he s e t -p iece s i nb ook 2 , i n deed i n t he w ho le w o rk : t he re w as t he r e cons t ruc t ion o f aw ho le c i ty t o b e n ar ra ted , a nd s o i t i s i n te re s t ing t o o b se rve w ha t P rocop ius h as s e lec ted t o h i gh l igh t , a nd h ow h eh a sp re sen ted h i sm a te r ia l . T h i sc hap te r i sa l so s i gn i f ican tf o r s c ho lar ly a s se s smen t s o fP rocop ius , i nt h a t i tw as a c corded t he f i r s t d e ta i led c r i t ica l s t udy o f a ny n ar ra t ive i n De Aed if i c i i s ; t h i s i n ve s t iga t ion b y G lanv i l le Downey ( 1 939 ) h as b een e xp lo i ted a nd e xpanded b y s ub sequen t c r i t ic s o f P rocop iu s ' m e thods a nd a ccuracy ( C roke a nd C row 1 983 ; C ame ron 1 985 : 1 06 , 1 45 , 2 32 ) . P rocop ius ' t r e a tmen t o fA n t ioch d e ser ve s r econ s ide ra t ion , p ar t ly b ecause D owney ' s o r ig ina l i n ve s t iga t ion w as n o t c l ea r ly p re sen ted i n a l l r e spec t s a nd h i s s ub sequen t r ev i s ion o f s ome a rgumen ts ( Downey 1 961) i n t roduced f u r the r c omp lex i t ie s , p ar t ly b ecause l a te r s c ho lar s d raw ing o n Downey ' s w o rk h ave t e nded t o emphas i se n ega t ive a spec ts o f h i s a s se s smen t s o f P rocop ius a nd J u s t in ian : D owney h imse l fh ad b een p repa red t oc red i t J u s t in ian w i th s ome r e spons ib i l i ty f o r t h er e s to ra t ion o f An t ioch , a nd t oa dm i t t ha t a spec t so fP rocop ius ' d e sc r ip t ion w e re c o r rec t . F ina l ly , t h is r e con s ide ra t ion p rov ide s a n o ppo r tun i ty f o r ab r ie fa ccoun t o f t h e mos t s ub s tan t ia l l a te a n t ique s t ruc ture t h a t i ss t i l l s t and ing a t A n t ioch , n ame ly t h e s o -ca l led " I ron G a te " , w h ich i sl o ca ted a t t he p o in t w he re a moun ta in t o r ren t e n ter s t he c i rcu i t o f t h e c i ty w a l l s . A l though t h i s c on s t ruc t ion h as b een d rawn a nd p ho tog raphed o n v a r ious o ccas ion s d ur ing t he p as t t wo h undred y ear s , t he re h as

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n eve r b een a n a dequa te d i scus s ion o f i to r a pp rec ia t ion o f t he c o mp lex i t ie s o f i t s h i s to ry . I ti st o b e h oped t h a t ag ene ra l p re sen ta t ion o f t h i s s t ruc ture , b a sed o n a b r ie fv i s i t i n Ap r i l 1 986 , m ay e ncourage a n a rchaeo log i s t t om ake ap rope r s urvey ; t h i s m igh t i l um ina te many a spec ts t h a t a re a tp re sen tp uzz l ing . I n t he s i x th c en tury An t ioch h ad mo re t h an i t s f a i r s hare o f m i s fo r tune , t o s uch a n e x ten t t h a t a f te r 5 28 i t s n ame w a s c hanged t oT heopo l i s i n a n a t temp t t o g a in d i v ine p ro tec t ion f r om t he n a tu ra l d i sa s te r s w h ich w e re t aken a s p roof o f God ' sw ra th . Aw r i t ten p rophecy o ft h ec hange w a s d i scove red , " And y ou u nhappy c i ty s ha l l n o t b e c a l led t he c i ty o f An t iochus " (Ma la las 4 43 .19 ) , a nd t he p rophecy b ecame a s soc ia ted w i th S ymeon t he w onde r -wo rke r , p re sumab ly S ymeon S t y l i te s t he E lde rw ho se b ody h ad b een b rough t t ot he c i ty i n4 59 a s at a l i sman t oi mp rove i t ss a fe ty a f te re a r l ie re ar thquake s . T he s i x th c en tury g o t o f f t o a n u np rom i s ing s t ar t w i th f r equen t r i o t s i n w h ich t he c i rcus f a c t ion s t ook a l e ad ing r o le . P a r t o ft he mo t iva t ion w as s por t ing , a sw hen t he c har io tee r P o rphy r ius C a l l iopa s ,v i c to r ious a f te r ar e cen t t r an s f e rf r om C on s tan t inop le t o t he G reen s t ab le a tA n t ioch , l e d h i s s uppo r te r s o n ar ampage t ha t i n c luded t he d e s t ruc t ion o f as y nagogue a t D aphnae , b u t t he v io lence s eem s a l so t o h ave e xpanded i n to a mo re g ene ra l r e ac t ion a g a in s t t he d eeds o f r ep re sen ta t ive s o f i mpe r ia l g ove rnmen t , w i th t he B lue s s uppo r t ing t he a u tho r i t ie s a nd t he G reen s i n o ppo s i t ion ( Ma la la s 3 95 .20 -398 .4 ) . T he re m ay a l so h ave b een r e l ig ious o ve r tone s , a nd i tw ou ld n o t b e s u rp r i s ing i fA n t ioch h ad b een a f fec ted b y t he w ave o f a poca lyp t ic e xpec ta t ion t ha t s wep t t he e a s te rn p rov ince s i n a n t ic ipa t ion o ft he a r r iva l o ft he 6 000 th y ea r a f te r G od ' s c r ea t ion o ft he w o r ld ( s ee A lexande r 1 967 ; T he C hr i s t ian r omance o fA l exand e r ) . T h i sc ou ld a ccoun tf o rs ome o f t he a n t i -Jew i sh s en t imen t , a nd f o r t h e i n sp ira t ion p rov ided t o t he r i o te r s b y a h o ly m an w ho l i ved i no ne o ft he t owe r s o ft he c i ty w al i n sp ira t ion wh ich r e su l ted i n t he G reen s e xhum ing a nd b urn ing J ew i sh c o rp se s ( Ma la la s 3 89 .15 -390 .3 , w i th e x t ra ma te r ia l f r om t he S l avon ic Ma la las ) . P agan s h r ine s a l so s uf fe red : i n t he s uburb o fD aphnae s ome l o f ty c yp re s se s ,p robab ly r emnan t so f as a c red g rove ,w ere u p roo ted b y af i e rce w ind d u r ing Anas ta s iu s 'r e ign ( P rocop .P e r s .2 . 14 .5 ) . -

T he f i r s t m a jo r d i sas te r s t ruck i nO c tobe r 5 25 ,w hen al a rge p ar t o ft h e c i ty c en tre i n t he v i c in i ty o f t he F orum o f V a lens w as b u rn t , af o re tas te o f t h e d i v ine d i sp leasu re t ha t w as t o f o l low ( Ma la la s 4 17 .9 -19 ; T heophane s 1 72 .1 -11 ) ; t he Empe ro r J us t in p rov ided 2 00 p ounds o f g o ld t o h e lp w i th r e con s t ruc t ion . Wor se w a st oh appen o n 2 9 th May 5 26 , w hen as e r iou s e ar thquake s t ruck w i th a f te r shock s c on t inu ing o ve rt he n ex t 1 8 mon ths ; t h ec i ty h ad b een c rowded w i th v i s i to r sf o rt he f e s t iva l o f t he A scens ion , a nd Ma la la s r e cord s t he e no rmou s c a sua l ty f i gu re o f 2 50 ,000 ; d e s t ruc t ion f r om t he t r emo r s a nd a s soc ia ted f i re sw as i mmense , a l c hurch b u i ld ing s w e re t h rown d own , a nd D aphnae a nd t he p o r t o f S e leuc ia w e re a l so a f fec ted . J us t in q u ick ly p rov ided 5 00 p ounds o fg o ld , a nd J u s t in ian , a ppo in ted c o empe ror i n Ap r i l 5 27 , j o ined i n t he b ene f ac t ion s t oge the r w i th h i s w i fe T heodo ra : J us t in ian c ons t ruc ted a c hurch t o t he V i rg in o ppo s i te t he B as i l ica o f R u f inus , a c hurch t o C o smas a nd D am ian n earby , ah o sp ice , b a th s , a nd c i s te rns ; T heodora b ui l t ac hurch t o t he a r change l M ichae l , a nd t he B a s i l ica o f Ana to l ius f o r w h ich c o lumns w e re s en t f r om C on s tan t inop le . R econs t ruc t ion w as s upe rv ised b y ad e le g a t ion o fh i gh -rank ing o f f ic ia l s , o r f o rme r o f f ic ia l s , a nd g i f t s t o ta l l ing 4 , 500 p ounds o fg o ld f r om t he c o -empe ro r s a re r e co rded ( Ma la la s4 19 .5 -424 .13 ) . T h is g ene ro s i ty w as p a r t ly , o r l a rge ly , n ega ted b y af u r the r e a r thquake o n 2 9 th Novembe r 5 28 : r e cons truc ted b u i ld ing s c o l lap sed , a nd t h e re w as a l so d amage t o t he w a l l s a nd g a te s ; J u s t in ian g r an ted t a x r e l ie ff o r t h ree y ear s a sw e l l a s 2 00 p ounds o fg o ld , t o b e s ha red w i th S e leuc ia a nd L aod icea ( Ma la las 42 .18 -444 .4 ; T heophane s 1 7 7 .22 1 78 .7 ) .

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T hu sa tt he s t a r t o fJ us t in ian ' s r e ign t he g rea t c i ty o f An t ioch r equ i red v e ry s ub s tan t ia l r e con s t ruc t ion , i n w h ich t he i mpe r ia l g ove rnmen t w as e x tens ive ly i n vo lved . B u t t he l i t any o f m i s fo r tune sw a s n o t y e t c omp le te . Du r ing t he 5 30s t he c i ty w as g radualy r e s to red ( t he G rea t C hu rch w as r eded ica ted i n5 37/8 ) , a nd t h i s w o rk wou ld h ave b een s ub s tan t ia l ly c omp le te j u s t i nt ime f o r t he n ex t d i sas te r , t he c ap ture o f t he c i ty b y t h e P e r s ian s i n J une 5 40 . T he P e r s ian k i ng K hus ro g ave o rde r s t ha t t he w ho le c i ty s hou ld b e b urn t w i th t he e xcep t ion o f o ne c hu rch , a nd t h i sw as l a rge ly c ar r ied o u t , s o t h a t o n ly t he K e ra te ion q uar te r a tt he s ou th e nd o f t h e c i ty a nd a s ma l l r e g ion i n t he v i c in i ty o f t he C hu rch o f S t J u l ianus , t h ree f u r long s o u t s ide t he w al s , s u rv ived ; t he w al s , w h ich h ad p roved a n i ne f fec tua l d e f ence a nd w ou ld h ave r equ i red c on s ide rab le l a bour t o d emo l i sh , w e re s pared ( P rocop . P e r s . 2 . 9 .17 -10 .9 ) . T he reaf te r t he c i ty ' s l u ck b egan t o c hange : i tw ou ld h ave b een s t ruck b y t h e p l ague o f 5 42 , b u t i t s d epopu la ted s t a te may h ave mean t t h a t t he d i sease d i d n o t a f fec t i ts o s eve re ly a s mo re d en se ly -packed c i t ie s ; t he g r ea t e ar thquake o f 51 s t ruck A n t ioch a c co rd ing t o Ma la la s ( 485 .10 ) b u t Aga th ia s , w ho d evo ted g rea te r a t ten t ion t o t he d i sas te r ( H i s to r y 2 . 15 -17 ) , d oe s n o t men t ion A n t ioch , a nd d amage m ay h ave b een s l igh t ; t he re w as a no the r m a jo re a r thquake i n 57 , a nd l e s se r s hock s i n 54 a nd 5 60/1 , w h ich a f fec ted An t ioch a cco rd ing t o l a te r c h ron ic le r s ( t hough n o t Ma la la s ) b u t t he re a re n o r epo r t s o f s pec i f ic d amage . F rom t he l a t te rp ar t o ft he s i x th c en tury , a f te rJ u s t in ian ' sd ea th i n5 65 , t here i sl i t t le e v idence f o r t he c ond i t ion o fA n t ioch . E vag r ius ( HE 5 . 9 ) a lege st ha t i n5 73 , w hen af o rce o f P e r s ians a pproached , t he c i ty w a l l s w e re i n as t a te o f c olapse , b u t h i s c r i t ic ism f o rms p a r t o f h i s h i gh ly b i a sed p re sen ta t ion o f J u s t in I ' s mi l i tary p repara t ion s : i ti sp robab ly mo re s i gn if ican t t h a t t he c i ty w as n o t c ap tured b y t he P e r s ians , a nd i t i s u n safe t o t a ke E vag r iu s ' t e s t imony a s p roo f o f e x ten s ive d i lap ida t ion . I n 5 88 t he P a t r iarch G rego ry w as p rov ided w i th f unds b y t he Emperor Mau r ice , w h ich w e re d evo ted t ot he r e con s t ruc t ion o ft he h ippodrome , a p ro jec tw h ich J ohn o fE phe sus s t rong ly c ondemned ( HE 5 . 18 ) . F rom t he c a ta logue o f m i s fo r tune s , t he re c an b e n o d eny ing t h a t b e tween 5 26 a nd t he 5 40 sA n t ioch h ad t oh ec omp le te ly r ebui l t ,w i th t he p ar t ia le xcep t ion o f t h ew a l ls , o n mo re t h an o ne o c cas ion , a nd t h a t J u s t in ian w as i n vo lved i nt h is w o rk . T hu s , w hen P rocop iu s c ame t o c ompo se h i s a ccoun t o f J u s t in ian ' s c ons t ruc t ion s , A n t ioch w a s a n o bv iou s s ub jec t f o r e x tended t r ea tmen t a nd i ti sn o t s urp r i s ing t h a t h ed evo ted aw ho le c hap te r t oi t . P rocop iu sc ho se t oc oncen tra te o n r e cons truc t ion a f te r t he s a ck o f 5 40 f o r i n te l l ig ib le r eason s : t he P e r s ian d e s truc t ion h ad n ega ted t h ep os t -528 r econ s t ruc t ion i nt h e s ame w ay a s t he 5 28 e a r thquake h ad o ve r th rown e a r l ier r epa i r s , w he reas a f te r 5 40 t he re i sn o e v idence f o r s ub s tan t ia l d amage a t A n t ioch ; h ence t he p o s t -540 w o rk s e s tab l i shed t he p hy s ica l a ppearance o f An t ioch a tt he t ime w hen P ro cop ius was w r i t ing . I tm igh t s eem s t range t ha t P rocop iu s d id n o t s t re s s t he d ura t ion o f J us t in ian ' s c omm i tmen t t o t he c i ty , h ow h e h ad c on tr ibu ted t ob o th t h e5 26 a nd 5 28 r e s to ra t ion sa nd t hen h ad t os t ar ta l lo ve ra ga in a f te r 5 40 , s i nce t h i s m igh t h ave e nhanced t he p anegy r ic o ft he empe ro r ; h owever , i n t he D e A ed i j i c i i s P rocop ius a ppear s p ar t icu lar ly r e luc tan t t o men t ion e a r thquake s , more s o t h an o the r f o rms o f n a tu ra l o r h uman c a lam i ty . Ap o s s ib le e xp lana t ion f o r t h i s t e ndency w as t h a t e a r thquake s , a s man ife s ta t ion s o f d i v ine w ra th , m igh t h ave c oun te rac ted t h e i mp re s s ion t ha t P rocop iu s c on s tan t ly w i shed t o c onvey o f J u s t in ian ' s c l o se c o -ope ra t ion w i th God ( f o r e xamp le , 5 . 3 .10 ; s ee C ame ron 1 985 : 8 7 -8 ) : t hu s , a l though h e men t ions a n e ar thquake a t C o r in th ( 4 .2 .24 ) , h e d oe s n o t m en t ion J us t in ian ' s b ene f ac t ion s t o L aod icea a nd S e leuc ia i n S y r ia a f te r t he 5 28 e a r thquake , n o r t he d amage c aused b y e ar thquake s t ot he L ong Wa l ls o fC on s tan t inop le o r t h ed ome o fS tS oph ia ( 1 ) . P rocop ius ' d ec i s ion t o d e sc r ibe t he p o s t -540 r e cons t ruc t ion mean t t h a t h e h ad t o o f fe r a n e xp lana t ion a st oh ow t h i sc a tas t rophe h ad o ccur red : o the rw i se t he

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s ack o f a ma jo r e as te rn c i ty m igh t h ave s eemed a n e mbaras s ing r eve r se f or a n empe ro r w ho w as , e l sewhe re i nt he p anegy r ic , b e ing p ra i sed f o r t he s uc ce s s o f h i s f r on t ie rd e fence s . P rocop iu s h and led t h i s p o ten t ia lp rob lem q u i te e as i ly . J us t in ian w as , i nt r u th , n o t r e spons ib le f o r t he c a tas t rophe ( 2 ) ; a l though P rocop iu s ' a ccoun t i nD eB e l l i s 2i so ur m a in s ou rce o fi n fo rma t ion f o rt h e e ven ts o f5 40 ( 3 ) , t h ere c an b el i t t le d oub t t h a t t he P e r s ian k i ng K hu s ro h ad d e l ibe ra te ly e xp lo i ted af ew m ino r g r ievance st ob reak t he " End le s s P eace " o f5 32/3 . K hu s ro k new t ha t R oman a rm ie s w e re h eav i ly c omm i t ted i n t h e w e s te rn r e conque s t s o t h a t e as te rn d e f ence s we re u nde rmanned ; t he p os s ib i l i ty o f a n i mm inen t R oman v i c to ry i n I t a ly t h a t wou ld r e lease t r oop s t o r e turn t o t h e E as t l e n t u rgency t o K hu s ro ' s move . J us t in ian a ppear s t o h ave r e ac ted f a i r ly p romp t ly t o t he P e r s ian t r eache ry , b u t i nt h e s ho r t t e rm t he re w e re j u s t n o t e nough t r oop s i n t he e as te rn p rov ince s t o d e f end e ve ry c i ty o r t o c on s t i tu te a mob i le a rmy t h a t m igh t h ave h aras sed t he P e r s ian s i n t he f i e ld . I n t he D e A ed if i c i i s P rocop ius r e co rd s t he e s sen t ia l c i rcums tance s o f t he s ack w he re n ece s sary ; h e f i r s t e xp la ins t he b ackg round t o t he s a ck , n ame ly K hus ro ' s t r eache ry ( 2 .10 .1) a nd t hen men t ions t he s a ck a ga in a tp rec i se ly t he t wo p l ace sw he re i tw as r e levan t t oJ us t in ian ' s r e con s t ruc t ion s , t he r ock c l o se t ot he c i ty w a l l a nd a lmo s t a s h i gh w h ich h ad f a c i l i ta ted t he P e r s ian c ap tu re ( 2 .10 .9 10 ) , a nd t he c onf lag ra t ion i n s ide t he c i ty ( 2 .10 .19 -20 ) . T hu s t h e u n fo r tuna te b ackg round t o t he m a jo rb u i ld ing w o rk s u nde r taken b yJ u s t in ian i sp re sen ted c l ear ly : i ti sd i f f icu l t t os ub s tan t ia te c r i t ic i sms t h a t t h i sa r rangemen t i s" un suc ce s s fu l " . P rocop ius ' a ccoun t o f An t ioch f a l l s i n to t wo m a in s e c t ion s , t h e f i r s t c onnec ted w i th t he d e fence s ( 1 0 .2 -18 ) a nd t he s e cond w i th b u i ld ing s i n s ide t he c i ty ( 10 .21 -5 ) ; t he se s e c t ion s i nt u rn c an b e d i v ided i n to v a r iou ss ub sec t ion s , t h e l owe r c i ty ( 10 .2 -8 ) , t he w a l l o n O rocas s ias ( 10 .9 -14 ) , mea su re s t o c on tro l t h e t o r ren t ( 10 .15 -18 ) , g ene ra l c i v i l ian b u i ld ing s ( 1 0 .2 1 -3 ) , a nd c hu rche s a nd c ha r i tab le i n s t i tu t ion s ( 10 .24 -5 ) . T he re i sa n o bv iou s c on t ra s t b e tween t he s ec t ion s , w i th a t ten t ion p a id t os pec i f ic d e ta i l s o ft he w al s w he rea s t h e r e con s t ruc t ion o ft he c i ty i sh and led i n much mo re g ene ra l t e rms , b u t , a s Downey r ecogn i sed ( 1939 : 3 76 -8 ) , P rocop ius c ou ld n o t t r ea t a l a spec ts o fa l s i te s a ta n e qua l ly d e ta i led l e ve lw i thou t h i sp anegy r ic b ecom ing u nba lanced a nd t e d iou s . S ince An t ioch r equ i red c omp le te r ebu i ld ing , i ti sn o s u rp r i se t ha t t h el i s t o f c i v ic f ounda t ion s ( 1 0 .22 ) i sn o t d i s s im i lar t ot h a t c onnec ted w i th an ew c i ty s uch a s J us t in iana P r ima ( 4 .1 .23 : " c hu rche s , o f f ic ia l r e s idence s , g rea t s t oas , f i ne marke t p l ace s , f oun ta in s , s t ree t s , b a th s , s hop s " ) . S uch a l i s t m igh t s eem a c l iché , b u t t h i s d oe s n o t p rove t h a t t he r e co rd o fb u i ld ing s i si n ac cu ra te s i nce A n t ioch h ad t o b e p rov ided w i th a n a pp ropr ia te r ange o f u rban a men i t ie s ( 4 ) . P rocop ius c on t r ibu ted v ar ie ty t o h i s a ccoun t b y d evo t ing mo s t a t ten t ion t o t he u nu sua l : i n t h e n on m i l i tary w o rk s a t An t ioch , t h i s c ou ld b e f ound i nJ u s t in ian ' s l e ve l l ing o f t h e b urn t r ema ins o ft he c i ty ( 10 .21 -2 ) , t h e o n ly d e sc r ip t ion i nt h eD eAed if i c i i s o fs uch a c t ion . T he s ub sequen t b r ie fc a ta logue o f n ew b u i ld ing s s hou ld p e rhap s b e r ega rded a s a c r ed i t t o P rocop iu s ' l i te rary s k i l l i n d ec id ing w ha t w a s e nough r a the r t h an a s a h and le f o rc r i t ic i sm . T u rn ing t o t he d e fence s , P rocop iu s f i r s t c oncen tra ted o n t he s i gn i f ican t c hange s t h a t w e re d eemed n ece s sary i nh i sv i ew a f te r t h e P e r s ian s ack , n ame ly t he r ea l ignmen t o ft he w e s t w a l l n ea r t he r i ve r O ron te s a nd o fp ar t o ft he e a s t w a l l o n t he s umm i t o fO roca s s ias . G ran ted h i s a t ten t ion t op o s t -540 r e cons truc t ion , t here w as n o c a l l t o men t ion o the r p ar t s o ft h ew a l l ( f o r e xamp le , a tt he s ou th e nd o f t he c i ty o r o n Moun t S t aur in ) s i nce t h e se h ad b een l e f t s t and ing b y t he P e r s ian s ( 5 ) : r ebui ld ing o fw a l l s , t owe r s , a nd g a te s n ece s s i ta ted b yt h e5 28 e ar thquake c ou ld h ave

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b een r eco rded t o J us t in ian ' s c r ed i t , b u t P rocop iu s w a s n o t s ho r t o f p anegy r ica l m a te r ia l . T he re i s , h oweve r , ad i sc repancy a bou t t he o ccas ion f o r t he r ea l ignmen t o ft h e r i ve r w a l l i nt h a t J ohn o f E phe sus , i nc on t ra s t t o P rocop ius , s t a te s t h a t t he n ew w a l l w as b u i l t a nd t h e O ron te s r ed i rec ted a f te r t he 5 28 e ar thquake w h ich h ad d e s t royed t he b u i ld ing so u t s ide t he n ew l i ne o ft he w a l l s ( J ohn o fE phe su s HE p a r t 2 ,i nN au 1 897 : 4 77 -8 ) . I ti sd i f f icu l t t o d e te rm ine w h ich a ccoun t i sc o r rec t : J ohn m igh t h ave c on f la ted d i f fe ren t p hase s o f r ebu i ld ing w o rk d ur ing J u s t in ian ' s r e ign , b u t e qua l ly P rocop iu s , g r an ted h i s a ve r s ion t oe ar thquake s i nt h is p anegy r ic , m igh t h ave d ec ided t os w i tch t h er e a l ignmen tf r om an a tura lt o ah uman c a tas trophe . R ea l ignmen t o f t he c i ty w a l ls e n ta i led t he r e con s t ruc t ion o f a t l e a s t t wo m i le s o f d e f ence s a nd t h e p ar t ia l d i ve r s ion o ft he O ron te s t o f l ow c l o se t o t he n ew l i ne , as ub s tan t ia l c omm i tmen t o f i mpe r ia l r e sou rce s t o t he c i ty . T h i s i sc l ea r ly s t a ted b y J ohn o fE phe sus ( 1-J E p ar t 2 ,i nN au 1 897 : 4 77 -8 ) : " A l l t h i sw as d one w i th g r ea t d i f f icu l ty a nd a t g rea t e xpense b y t he c are a nd d i l igence o f t he Empe ror J u s t in ian . " I tw ou ld c l ear ly h ave b een much c heape r , t hough l e s s s a t is f ac to ry , t o h ave r eused t he p rev iou s d e fence s . T he c hange se n ta i led ar educ t ion i n t he o ve ra l l s u r f ace a rea o f t he c i ty b y a bou t 2 0% , b u t t he e f fec t o n u sab le l i v ing s pace w a s c on s iderab ly l e s s t h an t h i s : t he s umm i t o f O rocas s ia s i su n l ike ly t o h ave b een d ense ly i nhab i ted ; t he O ron te s i s l and ,w h ich w a s n ow e xc luded , m ay h ave b een t he o f f ic ia l c en t re o f t he c i ty i n t he t h i rd a nd f ou r th c en tu r ie s , a nd t he s i te o f t he T e t rarch ic p a lace , b u t t h i s q uar ter h ad b een s e ve re ly d amaged i nt he e ar thquake o f 4 58 ( Evag r ius HE , 2 . 12 ) a nd t he re i sn o e v idence t ha t i tw as e ve r r e s tored . I n t he M idd le Age s , t he " i s land "w as am ar shy e x t ra -mu ra l r eg ion , a nd i tm ay a l ready h ave s t a r ted t od ec l ine t ow ards t h is c ond i t ion b yt he s i x th c en tury . An t ioch ' sp opu la t ion , u ndoub ted ly r educed b y t he e ar thquake s o f t he 5 20 s , d i d n o t n eed m arg ina l l i v ing s pace , a nd t he r e loca t ion o f t h e w a l l s o n s a f e r l i ne s , t hough e xpens ive , w ou ld h ave b een w e lcome . T he c hange o ft he w a l l o n O rocas s ias h a s p rov ided c r i t ic s o fP rocop ius w i th o ne o f t he i r m a jo r a c cusa t ions : i th as s eemed i n c red ib le t o mode rn o b serve r s t h a t a n i mpo r tan t c i ty l i ke A n t ioch s hou ld h ave b een a lowed t o e x i s t w i th a s e t o f d e fence s t h a t c on ta ined a s i gn i f ican t d e f ec t s uch a s t he d om ina t ing r ock o n O rocas s ias w h ich P rocop ius d e sc r ibe s ( Aed . 2 . 10 .9 -10 ) . B u t t h i s r a t iona l i sm m ay b e m i sp laced . A t b o th E de s sa a nd Z enoh ia , P rocop iu s r e co rd s t h a t J us t in ian t ook s t ep st o c oun te rac t r o ck sw h ich o f f e red e asy a cce s s t ot he w a l l s , c omparab le t ot ha t a t An t ioch ( Aed . 2 . 7 . 13 -16 ; 8 . 22 -4 ) . B o th o f t he se w e re f r on t l ine c i t ie s w he reas A n t ioch w a s n o t ; a l though An t ioch h ad b een s a cked b y t he P e r s ians i n t he t h i rd c en tury , w hen t he e nemy h ad e n te red t h rough t he w a l l s o n t he moun ta in s umm i t , t h e d efence s m igh t h ave b een r egarded a s a dequa te . E ven n ear t he f r on t ie r , c i ty d e fence s i np eace t ime w e re a lowed t or e lap se i n to d ange rous c ond i t ion , r e su l t ing i n eme rgency a c t ion o r d i sas te r w hen w ar b roke o u t (Wh i tby 1 986 : 7 25 -6 ) . F ur the rmo re , i ti sn o ti mpo s s ib le t h a t d e f ence sw h ich h ad a ppea red a dequa te i nt he t h i rd o r f our th c en tu ry m igh t b e r egarded a ss ub s tanda rd b y t he s i x th c en tury ( 6 ) . T he S asan ian P e r s ian s w e re r e source fu l b e s iege r s , a nd t he re may h ave b een i mp rovemen t s i ns i ege t e chno logy w h ich l e d t o d e fence s b e ing o u tmoded : t hu s a t t h e s i ege o f Am ida i n5 03 , J o shua t he S t y l i te ( 5 3 ) r e co rd s amon s t rous e ng ine t ha t w as c apab le o f t h row ing s t one s w e igh ing 3 00 p ounds s uch a p owe r fu l m ach ine c ou ld p re sumab ly p ro jec t o rd inary w e igh t s o ve r l o nge r d i s tance s t han n o rma l m ach ine sa nd s o a f fec t t h e b a lance b e tween a t tack a nd d e fence . -

T he t h rea ten ing r ock a l so a ppear s i nP rocop iu s ' a ccoun t i nt he D e B e l l i s o f t h e c ap ture o f t he c i ty . F i r s t G e r rnanu s , s en t b y J u s t in ian t o o rgan i se r e s i s tance , n o t iced t he r ock a s as ource o fd ange r a nd p ropo sed r emed ia l a c t ion w h ich t he c i ty a r ch i tec t s r e jec ted a s as u re w ay o f a t t rac t ing P e r s ian a t ten t ion ( P e r s . 2 . 6 .10 -13 ) .

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A l l t he s ame t he P e r s ians d i rec ted t he i r a t tack a g a in s t t h i sp o in t w he re , t oc oun te r t he t h rea t , t he R omans h ad i n c reased t he n umbe r o f d e fende r s b y s u spend ing a m ake sh i f t w ooden c on s t ruc t ion f r om n e ighbour ing t owe r s ; w hen t h i s c on s t ruc t ion u nfo r tuna te ly c o l lap sed , t he d e fende r s f l ed a nd t he P e r s ians w e re a b le t oe n te r t he w a l ls ( P e r s . 2 . 8 .8 -15 ) . I ti su nconv inc ing t o r e jec t a l t h i s a ccoun t a s a n i n ven t ion d e s igned t o e xcuse o r e xp la in t he P e r s ian s ucce s s : t he R oman d e fende r s w e re a ware t he re w as a d ange r , a nd J us t in ian a t c on s ide rab le e xpen se l a te r r econ s t ruc ted a s t re tch o fw al i no rde r t o a vo id i t . A no the r c hange t ot h e w als t ha tJ us t in ian made w a s t he c on s t ruc t ion o f ar amp ( s upposed ly s u i tab le f o r h o r se s a nd e ven c ar t s ) u p t he moun ta in s i de i n o rde r t o i mp rove c ommun ica t ion s w i th r emo te s ec t ions o ft he c i rcu i t w a l l ( Aed . 2 . 10 .13 ) . T h i s c ons t ruc t ion w as a pparen t ly s een b y e a r ly t r ave l le r s , a l though t he re a re s u f f ic ien t d i sc repanc ie s b e tween t he i r a ccoun t st o make i td i f f icu l t t oe s tab l i sh t he n a tu re o ft h ew o rk ; a l so s ome o ft he se a ccoun ts a re c l ea r ly i nf luenced b y P rocop ius ' d e sc r ip t ion , s o t he i r e v idence c anno t b et aken a sc onf i rma t ion o fh i sa c cu racy ( 7 ) . One s ec t ion o fP rocop ius ' a ccoun t r ema in s t ob e c ons ide red , t he m easure s t o c on t ro l t he t o r ren t k nown a s Onopn ik te s , t he D onkey -d rowne r ( t he c l as s ica l n ame w as P armen iu s ) . P rocop iu s f i r s t s e t s t he s c ene b y d e sc r ib ing t h e r a v ine b e tween t he t wo moun ta in s , O rocas s ias a nd S t au r in t h rough w h ich a t o r ren t o ccas iona l ly f l owed , s ome t ime s o ve r topp ing t he c i rcu i t w a l l t o c ause h avoc w i th in t he c i ty ( 8 ) . J us t in ian , h oweve r , d ev i sed ar emedy a nd b u i l t aw al a c ro s st he r a v ine i nf r on t o f t he c i rcu i t w a l l ( Aed . 2 . 10 .17 : p ro t o u p e r ibo lou ) ; t h is w al , f i t ted w i th s l u ice s , d im in i shed t he f o rce o f t he t o r ren t s o t h a t i tn o l onge r s t ruck t h e c i rcu i t w a l l i n f u l l f l ood . Two p o in t s a bou t t h i s a c coun t mu s t b e c l ar if ied b e fo re t he p hy s ica l r ema ins a re d e sc r ibed . F i r s t , P rocop ius d oe s n o t s t a te t ha t t he re w a s n o d ev ice w ha tsoeve r f o r c on t ro l l ing t he t o r ren t b e fo re J u s t in ian ' s i n terven t ion : h i s c on ten t ion i st ha t i nn o rma lc i rcum s tance s t he o l d c i r cu i tw al r egu la ted t h e s t ream , b u t t ha t t h i s c on t ro l w as i n adequa te s i nce af l ash f l ood w as c apab le o fo ve r f low ing t he w a l l a nd d e s troy ing t he c i ty ( Aed . 2 . 10 , 1 6 , 1 8 ) . S econd , P rocop iu s c l ear ly e nv isaged t h a t J u s t in ian ' s n ew w a l l w as b u i l t o u t s ide t he c i rcu i t w a l l , s i nce t he t o r ren tw ou ld b u i ld u p b eh ind t h i s a nd t hen , r e lea sed t h rough s l u ice g a te s , f l ow o n t ot he c i rcu i tw a l l a nd i n to t he c i ty ( 9 ) . T h i s d e sc r ip t ion c an h e c ompared w i th t h e r ema in s o f t he w a te rga te s pann ing t he t o r ren t , t he s o -ca l led " I ron G a te " : t he se a re i n ar emarkab le s t a te o f p re se rva t ion , a nd d e se rve t ob e b e t te r k nown a nd mo re c a re fuly s t ud ied ( 1 0 ) . T he f o l low ing a ccoun t d oe s n o t c l a im t o b e p rec ise , b u t m ay h i gh l igh t c e r ta in a spec t s t h a t me r i t mo re d e ta i led a t ten t ion f r om p ro fe s s iona l a r chaeo log i s t s . A cce s s t ot he w a te rga te i sp o s s ib le b y mean s o f a mu le t r ack t h a t w ind s a l ong t he s ou th s i de o f t he v a l ley , s t a r t ing r ough ly o ppo s i te t he c ave c hurch o f S t P e te r a nd r each ing t he W a te rga te a f te r a bou t 6 00 y ard s ; t h e rea f te r t he p a th c on t inue s e as tward s u p t he v a l ley . T h i s p a th p rov ide s ag ood v i ew o ft he e x te r io rf a ce o ft he w a te rga te , w h ich c an b e a pp roached q u i te e as i ly f r om u p s t ream . A c ce s s t o t he i n ne r f a ce i s much h a rde rs i nce , a l though i ti sp o s s ib le t ow a lk s ome d i s tance b ack f r om t he w a te rga te a l ong t he n or th s i de o f t he v a l ley t o o b ta in a v i ew , t he s t eepne s s o f t h e r a v ine m ake s i ti mpo s s ib le t o a pp roach c l o se ly : t h i s i sr eg re t tab le s i nce t he i n ne r f a ce p re se rve se v idence f o rt he e ar l ie s tc ons t ruc t ion p hase s . T he W a te rg a te i sd i v ided i n to t wo m a in s e c t ion s ( s ee P i s . 3 5 .1 -2 a nd F ig . 3 5 .2 ) . T he u ppe r s e c t ion , a lmo s t h a l f t he t o ta l h e igh t , c omp r i se s ar ubb le c ore f a ced o nb o th i n ne r a nd o u te r s i de sw i th a sh lar m a son ry ; t h is a sh lar c ons t ruc t ion i s p i e rced b y t wo a r ched c ondu i t s , r ough ly i nt he m idd le o ft he r a v ine , a nd t h e re a re r e c tangu lar b u t t re s se s o n t he i n ne r f a ce n ear e ach e nd o ft he s t ruc ture a nd o ne o n

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t h eo u te r f a ce a tt h es o u th e nd . T h i s a sh la r u ppe rs t o rey c l ear ly r ep re sen ts t h e l a s t m a jor c on s t ruc t ion p ha se a tt h eW a te rga te . T he l owe r p o r t ion i sm uch m o re c omp lex . O n t h e i n ne r f a ce t h e re a re s e ve ra l d i f fe ren t e l emen t st ob e n o ted ( s ee F ig .3 5 .2 ) . A t t h ev e ry l owe s tl e ve l t h e re a r e t he r ema ins o f a n a r ched c ondu i t t h a t s e r ve s a s t he p r imary c hanne l f o r t h e s t ream ; t h e s ou the rn s i de o f t h e c ondu i t , t o ge the r w i th m uch o ft he s u r round ing m a sonry f a c ing , h as d i s appeared . T o t h e s i de a nd a bove t h i s , t h e re i s as t one -f aced r ubb le c o re s e c t ion w i th t wo b ond ing c ou r se s o fv e ry l a rge a sh lar b l ock s : a bove t h e t o p o f t he c ondu i t t h e re a r e 6o r 7c ou r se s o ff a c ing s t one s , t h en t he f i r s t a sh lar c ou r se , t hen 2 2 c ou r se s o fs t one s u n t i l t h e s e cond a sh lar c ou r se . A t t h i s l e ve l a n a r ch o f v e ry l a rge a s h lar b l ock s s p r ing s f r om t h e s ou th s i de o f t he v a l ley ; t h e c en t ra l s e c t ion a nd t h ew ho le o ft h e n o r the rn h a l fo ft h i s h as d i sappeared . A bove t h e s econd a sh lar b ond ing c our se t h e re i s as e c t ion f a ced b y a bou t 1 6 c our se s o f s t one w h ich m ay n o t b e h omogeneous ( t he f a c ing s t one s o n t h e s ou the rn h a l f a ppear l a rge r t h an t h o se o n t h e n o r the rn p ar t ) ; a bove t h i s i s ab ond ing c our se o f3 c ou r se s o f b r ick s t h a t i sh eav i ly p a tched w i th s t one , t h en 8o r 9c our se s o f f a c ing s t ones t opped b y a no the r 3 cour se b r ick b and , t h en 6 c our se s o f f a c ing s t one s t o pped b y at h i rd 3 cou r se b r ick b and , t h en 6 c our se s o f s t one s c u lm ina t ing ( p robab ly ) i n ar ow o fa sh lar b l ock s . Two f u r the r p o in t ss hou ld b e n o ted a bou t t h i s b r ick -banded s e c t ion : f i r s t , t h a t t h e j unc t ion o ft h e w a l l w i th t h e n o r the rn s i de o f t h e r av ine h a s b een v e ry e x ten s ive ly r epa i red w i th s t one s ( mo s t ly a sh lar b l ock s c omparab le t o t ho se u sed i n t h e u ppe r s t o rey ) , a nd s e cond t h a t t h e re a re f our n ar row v e r t ica l s l u ice s , e x tend ing d own t o t h e l owe s t o f t h e t h ree h and s o f b r ick c ou r se s ,w h ich h ave b een f i l led w i th l a rge s t one b l ock s . T he l owe r s e c t ion o ft h e o u te r f a ce i sr a the r d i f fe ren t . I nt h e s ou the rn h a l f o ft he w a l l t h e re i s al a rge b r ick a r ch w h ich i ss u rmoun ted b y ab r ick -banded s t one f a ced c on s t ruc t ion : s t ar t ing f r om t h e s ou th s p r ing ing o ft h ea r ch t h e re i sa n a rea o f b r ickwo rk f i l l ing t h e a ng le b e tween t h e a r ch a nd t h e r a v ine s i de ; t hen 5c ou r se s o f f a c ing s t one t opped b y a5 cour se b r ick b and ; t h en 7c our se s o ff a c ing s t one t oped b y a no the r 5 cour se b r ick b and , af u r the r 7c our se s o fs t one t opped b y a no the r 5 c our se b r ick b and ; t h en 4c our se s o fs t one t opped b y a tl e a s t o ne c our se o fl a rge a s h lar b l ock s . T he n o r the rn h a l f o f t h e w a l l i sd om ina ted b y al a rge b u t t re s s , t r i angu lar a tl e as t i ni t s u ppe r p ar t , w h ich p ro jec t s f r om t h e w a l l , o fs im i lar b r ick b anded c ons t ruc t ion w i th b r ick b and s w h ich a ppea r t o b e i n a l ignmen t w i th t h e b ands i nt h e m a in w a l l ( t hough t oward s t h e b o t tom o ft he b u t tre s s t h e re i sa tl e as t o ne b ond ing c our se o f l a rge a s h lar b l ock s ) . T o t h e n o r th o f t h e b u t t re s s t h e 5 c our se b r ick -banded w a l l c on t inue s t o t h e s i de o f t h e r a v ine . I tw a s d i f f icu l t t o m ake o u t t h e c ons t ruc t ion t e chn ique o ft h e a rea b e low t h e b r ick a r ch ( s ou th o ft h e b u t tre s s ) s i nce i tw as c ove red b yv ege ta t ion , b u t a tl e a s t o ne b r ick h and w as v i s ib le ; t h i s a rea d i d n o t s e em t ob e f a ced w i th t h e r e gu lar s t one s e v iden t a bove t h e a r ch : t h i s p ar t m ay h ave b een e spec ia l ly p rone t od amage b y m a te r ia l b rough t d own b y t h e t o r ren t , t hough i ti sp o s s ib le t h a t t h e t r iangu lar b u t t re s s o r ig ina l ly e x tended r i gh t a c ro s st h e r a v ine a tt h is l owe rl e ve lb u t h a sf a l len a way ( t h i sw ou ld e xp la in t h e a b sence o ff a c ing s t one s ) . T he w a te rga te h a s c l ear ly u nde rgone s e ve ra l s t age s o f r e cons t ruc t ion a nd r e pa ir w h ich c anno t b e f u l ly e l uc ida ted w i thou t ad e ta i led s u rvey , b u t ag ene ra l b u i ld ing h i s tory c an , p e rhap s , h e s k e tched . T he w a te rga te h ad t wo s epa ra te f u nc t ion s , t oc a r ry t h e c i rcu i t w a l l a c ro s s t h e r a v ine i ns u ch aw ay a st oe n sure t h e c i ty 's s a f e ty , a nd t oc on t ro l t h e e n tr y i n to t h e c i ty o f w ha teve r w a te r w as f l ow ing d own t h ev a l ley ,w he the rt h is w as ar e la t ive ly s ma l l t r i ck le o r af l ash f l ood .

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( i ) T he r av ine w a s i n co rpo ra ted w i th in t h e c i ty f o r t he f i rs t t i me w hen t he a rea o f An t ioch w as e xpanded d ur ing t he r e ign o fT ibe r ius . T he c i ty w al mu s t s omehow h ave b een c a r r ied a c ros s t he r av ine , a nd i ti st emp t ing t os ugge s t t h a t t he l a rge a sh lar a r ch , o f w h ich t he r ema in s a re v i s ib le o n t he i n ne r f ace , s e rved t h i s p urpose ; t he a rea b enea th t h i s a r ch i sf a r t oo l a rge , b o th f o r t he c i ty ' s s a f e ty a nd f o r t he c on tro l o f t he t o r ren t , t o h ave b een l e f t c omp le te ly o pen , a nd o ne c ou ld p l au s ib ly a s soc ia te w i th t he a r ch t h e s t one f aced c on s t ruc t ion w i th a sh la r b ond ing c our se sv i s ib le i nt he l owe r part of t he i n ne rf a ce . A tt h i ss t age t he w a te rga te w ou ld h ave h ad a s ma l l c ondu i t i n t he b ed o f t he s t ream , w i th a c ro s s w a l l a bove t ha t s e rved t o h o ld h ack s udden f l ood s ; t h i s w a s s u rmoun ted b y a no the r l a rge r a rched o pen ing , w i th aw a l l o r p a rape t w a lk c a r r ied a c ro s s t h e r a v ine o n t h is u ppe r s t one a rch . ( i ) A f te r at ime , t he n o r the rn h a l fo ft he a r ch c o l lap sed , t oge the rw i th i t s s upe r s t ruc tu re , a nd a s ar e su l t i tw as d ec ided t ob u i ld u p t he c ro s sw a l l t op rov ide a t a l le rd am t oh o ld b ack f l ood w a te r s . T h i s e x tens ion c omp r i sed t he 3 -cou r se b r ick b anded s e c t ion v i s ib le o n t he i n ne r f a ce . T o r e l ieve t he p re s sure o n t he u ppe r p ar t o f t h i s r e ta in ing w a l l o r d am , f our s l u ice s w e re p rov ided t o c hanne l f l ood w a te r s i n to t he c i ty . Above t he b r ick -handed s e c t ion t he re w as p robab ly a p a rape t w a lk a c ro s st he r av ine . T he d a te o ft h i sc ons t ruc t ion i sn o tk nown . ( i i ) Aga in t he re a ppear s t oh ave b een t r oub le a tt he n o r thern s i de o ft he r av ine , w he the r b ecause i tw as h arde r t o k ey t he c r o s s w a l l i n to t he s i de s o f t he r av ine o r b ecause t he c on f igura t ion o f t he v a l ley d i rec ted f l ood w a te r s a ga ins t t h i s s i de ; i tw as p e rhap s a l so d ec ided t h a t t he f ou r s l u ice s d e t rac ted f r om t he s t reng th o f t he r e ta in ing w a l l w i thou t b e ing w ide e nough t o c ope w i th t he f l ow o f f l ood w a te r . T he r e su l t w as t he a dd i t ion t ot he o u te r f a ce o f t he 5 cour se b r ick -b anded w o rk , t oge the r w i th t he b u t t re s s t h a t c ove red ( a t l e as t ) t he n o r the rn s i de o f t he r av ine . T he re w as s t i l l as ma l l c ondu i t a t t he b ase o f t he w a l l t o a l low a s ma l l r egu lar f l ow o fw a te r i n to t h e c i ty , b u t t he e x te rna l a dd i t ion t o t he c ro s s w a l l h ad b l ocked t he f ou r n ar row s l u ice s i n t h e s e cond p hase w a l l . T he n ew c on s t ruc t ion n ow c on s t i tu ted a s ub s tan t ia l ly t h ickened d am , b u t t h e re mu s t a l so h ave b een a r rangemen t s ( wh ich h ave no w d i sappea red ) t o c on t ro l t he p as sage o fw a te r o ve r t he n ew w a l l . Aga in t h e re i sn o f i rm e v idence f o r t h e d a te o f t h is w o rk , b u t i t s c ons t ruc t ion t e chn ique c l o se ly r e semb le s t h a t o ft he r ema ins o ft he c i ty w a l l w h ich s t i l l a s cend Moun tS t aur in o n t h e n o r th s i de o ft he r a v ine , a nd o ft he s ec t ion o fw al w h ich u sed t ob ea t tached t ot he w a te r g a te a ti t sn o r the rn e nd b u tw h ich c o l lapsed e ar l ie r t h i s c en tury ( pho tog raphs i nF ö r s te r 1 897 : 1 36 -7 f i g s . 9 10 ; Downey 1 961 : p l a te 1 7 ) . I ti sk nown t h a t s ub s tan t ia l r epa i r sw e re c a r r ied o u t t o t he w a l l s i n3 97 ( Downey 1 961 : 4 37 -9 ) ,w h ich p rov ide s ap l au s ib le d a te f o r t h i s t h i rd ma jo rp hase o f t he W a te rga te ( 1 1) . ( i v ) T he se a r rangemen t s , h oweve r , d i d n o t s ur v ive i n tac t . O n t he p ho tog raph s men t ioned a bove t he s ou th e nd o f t h e b r ick -handed c u r ta in w al , w he re i ta bu t s t he n o r th e nd o f t h e l a te r s t one c on s t ruc t ion , i sv e ry r agged , i n d ica t ing t h a t ac on t inua t ion o f t h e w a l l h ad c o l lap sed a ts ome s t age . T h i s c ou ld h ave o c cur red i no ne o ft he m any e ar thquake st h a t s t ruck An t ioch i nl a te a n t iqu i ty o r p o s s ib ly t h rough t h e p re s su re o f t h e t o r ren t i t se l f : i ta ppea r s t ha t o ve r t he c en tur ie s t he w a te rga te h ad b een t r an s fo rmed f r om a d ev ice t o a l low a s i zab le r egu lar f l ow o fw a te r i n to t he c i ty t h rough c ondu i t s a nd s l u ice s i n to a d am t oh o ld b ack a s much a s p o s s ib le o f t h e o c ca s iona l f l ash f l ood s . T h i s c hange m igh t h ave p l aced e x t ra s t ra in o n t h e s t ruc tu re o ft h ew a te rga te a nd a d jo in ing w a l ls . Wha teve r t he e xp lana t ion , m a jo r r edeve lopmen t w as n ow r equ i red a tt he W a te rga te , a nd t h i s t ook t he f o rm o ft he a dd i t ion ( o rr e con s t ruc t ion ) o fa n u ppe r s t o rey b ui l t o fa sh lar f a ced mo r tared r ubb le , b r aced b y t wo b u t t re s s t owe r s o n i t s i n ne r f a ce a nd o ne o n

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t h eo u ter , a nd p i e rced a ti t s b ase b y t wo l a rge s l u ice s : t he i n ten t ion w a s c l ea r ly t o i n c rease s ub s tan t ia l ly t h e " ho ld ing c apac i ty " o f t he W a te rga te a s ad am b u t a t t he s ame t ime t op rov ide ar e asonab le c on t ro l led f l ow o fw a te ri n to t he c i ty e ven d u r ing af l ood ( ve ry much t he o b jec t ive sw h ich P rocop iu sa t t r ibu ted t oJ us t in ian ) . T he q ue s t ion a r i se s a s t ow he the r t h i s a sh la r p hase c an h e i d en t i f ied w i th t h e J us t in ian ic w o rk d e sc r ibed b y P rocop ius . A sh lar ma sonry i sv e ry d i f f icu l t t o d a te p rec i se ly , b u t t h i s w o rk a t An t ioch i sc e r ta in ly c ompa rab le w i th s i x th -cen tury w o rk a t e a s te rn s i te s s uch a s D a ra a nd Mar ty ropo l i s . F ur the rmore t he a r chaeo log ica l i n ve s t iga t ions i n t he 1 930 s i d en t i f ied s ome l a te a n t ique , p o s s ib ly J u s t in ian ic , w o rk d own s t ream o n t he O nopn ik te s /P a rmen ius a t t he p o in t w he re t h et o r ren t h ad t ob ec onduc ted u nde rA n t ioch ' s m a in s t ree t ( S t i l lwe l l 1 941 : 6 ,w i th a n i n te re s t ing d e sc r ip t ion a nd p ho tog raph o f t he e f fec t o f a n u ncon tro l led f l ash f l ood ) . l ta ppear s t h a t t he m a in c ondu i t u nde r t he s t ree t h ad b een d amaged , p robab ly b y a n e ar thquake , a nd t h a t a n a l te rna t ive c ondu i t h ad t o b e p rov ided s l i gh t ly t o t he n o r th t o d i ve r t s ome o f t he w a te r f l ow . l ti sq u i te p o s s ib le t h a t s e r ious d amage h ad t o h e r epa ired a t s eve ra l p o in t s o n t he t o r ren t ' s c our se . H oweve r , i t mus t h e c onceded t h a t l a te r o ccupan t s o f An t ioch , s uch a s t he c r u sade r s ,w e re a l so a dep t a ta sh lar c on s t ruc t ion . l ti sp o s s ib le t h a t mo re d e ta i led a r chaeo log ica l i n ve s t ig a t ion , o r a na ly s i s o f t he r ubb le c o re , m igh t a low g rea te r c h rono log ica l p rec i s ion b u t , f o r t he p re sen t , o ne c an d o n o mo re t h an c ompare P rocop iu s ' d e sc r ip t ion w i th t he e x tan t r ema in s a nd d ec ide o n n on -archaeo log ica l g r ounds w he the r i d en t i f ica t ion i sp l au s ib le . P rocop ius ' g ene ra l a ccoun t o ft he p rob lems c au sed b y t he t o r ren t i sb road ly a c cura te : t he moun ta in s o fA n t ioch a re d i v ided b y an ar row r av ine , t h rough w h ich at o rren t o ccas iona l ly f l ow s , a nd i t a ppea r s f r om t he d i f fe ren t p hase s o f r e cons truc t ion a t t he W a te rga te t h a t i tw a s d i f f icu l t t o c on tro l t he t o r ren t ' s e n t ry i n to t he c i ty . F u r the r , p r io r t o t h e a dd i t ion o f t he a sh lar u ppe r s t o rey t he w a te rga te , b e ing i n as omewha t d amaged c ond i t ion ,w as n o t c apab le o ff unc t ion ing e f f ic ien t ly a s ar egu la to ry d ev ice . Howeve r , P rocop iu s ' s pec i f ic d e sc r ip t ion o f t he J u s t in ian ic c ons truc t ion i sm i sgu ided , s i nce h e b e l ieved t h a t J us t in ian b ui l t an ew d am o u t s ide t he c i rcu i tw a l l , w he reas t he re i sa b so lu te ly n o s i gn o fa ny e x t ra -mu ra l c ons truc t ion a c ro s s t h e r a v ine a bove t he w a te rga te : If o l lowed t he b ed o f t he r a v ine f o ra bou t8 00 m e tre s u p s t ream ,w i thou t s ee ing a ny t r ace so fa n o u te rd am . T he e conom ica l s o lu t ion t ot h ed i sc repancy b e tween P rocop ius ' a ccoun ta nd t h ea c tua l r ema ins w a s a dvanced b y F ö r s te r ( 1 897 : 1 37 ) , w ho se v i ew sw e re u n f a i r ly c r i t ic ised b y Downey ( 1 96 1 : 51) , n ame ly t h a t P rocop iu s m ade am is take a bou t t he p rec ise l o ca t ion o f J u s t in ian ' s w o rk . F ö r s te r , h oweve r , d i d n o t e xp la in P rocop ius ' e r ror ,w h ich h e r egarded me re ly a s p roo fo f al a ck o fc a re fu l i n ve s t iga t ion , b u t t he e r ror i sr a the r l e s s s u rp r i s ing t h an F ö r s te r a leged . T he I r on G a te a t An t ioch i si na r emo te p ar t o ft he c i ty , a nd P rocop iu s w ou ld n o t b e t he o n ly v i s i tor t o An t ioch n o t t o h ave t r oub led t o g o o u t t o i n spec t i t . P rocop iu s h ad s e rved i n t he e a s te rn p rov ince s i nB e l i sa r iu s ' r e t inue i n5 28 -31 , b u t i ti sd i f f icu l t t o f i nd f i rm i n d ica t ions t h a t h e e ve r r e turned t o S y r ia i n t h e 5 40 s a f te r h i s p a r t ic ipa t ion i n t he w e s te rn r e conque s t s : t hu s , u n le s s t he a dd i t ions t o t he W a te rga te w e re c on s t ruc ted v e ry e a r ly i nJ u s t in ian ' s r e ign , t he re m ay h ave b een n o th ing s pec ia l t oa t t rac t P rocop ius ' a t ten t ion t o t he I r on G a te . A s ar e su l t , w hen P rocop iu s c ame t o c ompi le i n forma t ion f o r t he D eA ed if i c i i s i nt h e 50 s , h e w ou ld p robab ly h ave b een r e ly ing o n ar epo r t o fJ u s t in ian ' s w o rk , aw r i t ten r epo r t s ubm i t ted b yt he c ome s O r i en t i s o r w ha teve ro f f ic ia l w as s upe rv i s ing t h e c on s t ruc t ion a nd e xpend i ture . P rocop ius t hen i n terpre ted t h i s r epo r t i nt he l i gh t o fh i sp e r sona l e xpe r ience . Dur ing h i s s e r v ice i n t h e E as t i n 5 28 -31 h e w ou ld h ave s een t he f l ood c on t ro l a nd r i ve r d i ve r s ion m easure s a tD ara a nd E de s sa : b o th a re e x t ra -mu ra l s t ruc ture s e asi ly v i s ib le f r om

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t he i r r e spec t ive c i t ie s , a nd P rocop iu s n o t s urp r is ing ly a s s im i la ted t he r e po r t o f a n u n seen f l ood c on t ro l m easu re a tA n t ioch t ot h i s mode l . T he r e su l t i sa n e r roneous d e sc r ip t ion , b u t o ne i n w h ich t he e r ro r w as a cc iden ta l , n o t ac ase o f d e l ibera te d i s to r t ion o f m a te r ia l t o i n c rease t h e p anegy r ic o fJ u s t in ian : a ss uch i tr e semb le s P rocop ius ' a ccoun t o f t he s t reng then ing o f Mar ty ropo l i s , ap l aus ib le b u t i n exac t d e sc r ip t ion o f b u i ld ing w o rk s w ho se a s c r ip t ion t o J us t in ian i s i n dependen t ly c on f irmed ( s ee Wh i tby 1 984 ) . T he r e cen t e xpan s ion o fA n takya h as m ade i td i f f icu l t , i fn o t i mpo s s ib le , t o c onduc t a rchaeo log ica l i n ve s t iga t ion s o n a ny th ing a pp roach ing t he s c a le o f t he 1 930s P r ince ton e xped i t ion , b u t t he re m ay s t i l lh eo ppo r tun i t ie st of i nd e v idence f o r t he c i ty ' s h i s tory i n l a te a n t iqu i ty . A t p re sen t i ts eems f a i r t o g i ve J u s t in ian s ub s tan t ia l c red i t f o r t he r e cove ry ( i f o n ly p ar t ia l ) o f An t ioch f r om t h e r ap id s equence o f d i sas te r s i n t h e e a r ly s i x th c en tury . P rocop ius ' a ccoun t i sn o t p e r fec t a nd h as u nde rp layed J us t in ian ' s c on tr ibu t ion s t o t he c i ty b y i g no r ing t he r econ s t ruc t ions a f te r t he e ar thquake s o f t he 5 20 s b u t , w he re a n e r ro r c an b e d e tec ted i n t he a ccoun t o f t h e w a te rg a te , i ti sa n a c c iden ta l m i s repre sen ta t ion o f s ome th ing t ha t J u s t in ian a c tua l ly d i d , n o t a c a se o f d e l ibe ra te p anegy r ica l d i s to r t ion . N o tes 1 .

2 .

3 .

4 .

5 .

6 . 7 .

S t S oph ia w ou ld p rov ide a g ood p arale l t o A n t ioch a s a n e x amp le o f J u s t in ian ic p e r seve rance t h a t P rocop ius d i d n o t h i gh l igh t : t h is a s sumes a " l a te " d a te f o r t he c ompo s i t ion o f t he D eA ed if i c i i s , f o r w h ich s e e Wh i tby ( 1985 , w i th f u r the r a rgumen t s i nS co t t 1 987 ) . T he a rgumen ts f o r a n e ar ly d a te a re r e s ta ted mo s t r e cen t ly b yC ame ron ( 1 985 : 8 6 ) . I f a ny b l ame , h oweve r u n rea sonab le , c ou ld h ave b een a t t r ibu ted t o J us t in ian ,w e m igh t e xpec t P rocop ius t oh ave e xp lo i ted t h i s i nt he A necdo ra , b u t t he o n ly m i s fo r tune s u f f e red b y t he c i ty t o b e men t ioned i s t he e ar thquake ( 1 8 . 4 1 ) . T hus i t i s m i s lead ing t o s peak o f J u s t in ian 's " c u lpab i l i ty "f o rt he s a ck . Downey ( 1953 ) a leged t h a t t h i s n ar ra t ive w as d e l ibe ra te ly d i s to r ted t o c oncea l t he i n e f f ic iency o f G e rmanu s , ar e la t ive o f J us t in ian a nd h i s r epre sen ta t ive a tA n t ioch ; t he re m ay b e s ome t r u th i n t h is t heo r y , b u t i t d oe sn o t a l te r t he f a c t t h a t t he P e r s ians w e re a gg re s so r s , r e spons ib le f o r t he r enewa l o fw ar . T he q ua l i ty a nd s c a le o ft h e J u s t in ian ic r e con s t ruc t ion h as s o me t ime s b een d i sparaged ; f o r e xamp le , D owney ( 1 961 : 5 48 ) c l a imed t h a t t he m a in s t ree t w as r ebu i l t a t ' j us t a bou t o ne h a l f o f i t s o r ig ina l w id th " . B u t t he a r chaeo log ica le v idence c i ted d oe s n o t s uppo r t t h i s c l a im : t he r oad a ppear s t oh ave b een a bou t 8 0% o f i t s f o rme r w id th , w i th t he p avemen t s a bou t t he s ame w id th , s o t h a t t h e r educ t ion i nt he s i ze o ft h e t ho roughf are o ve r a l lw as l e s s t h an 1 0% . T he a va i lab le e v idence i sq u i te i n adequa te t o s e rve a s t he b as i sf o rg ene ra l isa t ion s a bou t t h es t a te o ft h ec i ty a s aw ho le . T he re i s n o c on trad ic t ion i n t h is : t he w a l ls w e re n o t d e s t royed , r econs truc t ion o f t h e s ou th w a l l o r t he w a l l o n Moun t S taur in w as n o t n ece s sary , a nd s o t h e re i sn o d e sc r ip t ion o f t he se i n t he D e A ed if i c i i s . P rocop ius d oe s n o t s ugge s t s t h a t J us t in ian r ebu i l t t he w ho le c i r cu i t , a nd e ven a r e ade r u nf am i l iar w i th p anegy r ica l c onven t ion s w ou ld h ave b een mo s t u n l ike ly t oh ave d rawn t h i sc onc lus ion . C ompare J us t in ian ' s d ec is ion t o i n c rease t h e h e igh t o f t he A na s tas ian d e fence s a tD ara a nd T heodo s iopo l i s . F ör s te r ( 1897 : 1 3 4 n . 1 4 1) c i te s d c l a R oque ( 1 688 : 2 04 ) a nd P ou jou la t ( 1835 : 2 50 ) ; b u t d c l a R oque h ad p l a in ly r e ad P rocop iu s , a nd w a s a l so

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8 .

i ndeb ted t o t h e a c coun t o f t he 1 6 th c en tury t r avele r B e lon ( 1 588 : 3 58 ) . D rummond ( 1 754 : 2 22 ) c ommen t s t h a t d e l aR oque g ave a d e sc r ip t ion o f An t ioch ' v e ry d i f f e ren tf r om w ha t Is aw . . . " T he re i ss ome u nce r ta in ty a bou t t he n ame s o ft he moun ta in s o f An t ioch i n t he s i x th c en tur y . Downey ( 1 961 : 5 23 -4 n .8 8 ) i d en t i f ied S t aur in w i th t he n or the rn p o r t ion o ft h e moun ta in , o n t he g round s t h a t Ma la las ' a ccoun t o f t he a ppar i t ion o f ac ro s s i n t he s ky o ve r t he n o r the rn p ar t o f t he c i ty p rov ide s ap l au s ib le e xp lana t ion f o r t he a t t r ibu t ion o ft h i s n ame t oo ne p ar t o ft he moun ta in ( S tau r in = c ro s s ) . On t he o the r h and , Downey ( 1961 : p1. 1) a l so l o ca te s J us t in ian ' s r e a l ignmen t o f t he c i ty w a l l , w h ich P rocop iu s s t a te s t ook p l ace o n O rocas s ia s , o n Moun t S tau r in . P rocop iu s , h oweve r , p re sen ts O rocas s ia s a nd S t au r in a st wo s epara te moun ta ins ( Aed . 2 . 10 .16 ) . O roca s s ias s hou ld h e t he n ame f o r t he m a in moun ta in o f An t ioch , t he t e rm inus o f t h e C as s ius r ange t h a t f l ank s t he s ou th b ank o f t he O ron te s f r om t he s ea i n land a s f a r a s An t ioch : P rocop ius ( P e r s . 2 . 6 .10 ) e xp l ic i t ly i d en t i f ie s O roc as s ias a s t he h i gh p o in t o f An t ioch , w h ich s uppo r t s i d en t i f ica t ion w i th t he s ou the rn o rm a in p a r t o ft he moun ta in ; f u r the rmore , Downey ' s e xp lana t ion f o r t he n ame S t aur in b e ing a pp l ied t o t he n o r the rn moun ta in i sa t t r ac t ive . I nt h is c a se t he a ccep ted p l an o f An t ioch i sp robab ly w rong , a nd t h eJ us t in ian ic r e a l ignmen t o ft he c i ty w a l l s hou ld b e s ough t o n t he s ou the rn m oun ta in . T he s t andard p l an o fA n t ioch i sb ased i n p ar t o n l i te rary e v idence ; n o a r chaeo log ica l s uppo r t i sc i ted f o r t he p o s tu la ted r ea l ignmen to n t h en o r then p ar t o ft he moun ta in . T he re a re , h oweve r , a l te rna t ive s o lu t ions t o t h is p rob lem . ( i ) T he re i sn o p roo ft h a t S t au r in w as a pp l ied t ot he n o r thern moun ta in , a nd i nv i ew o ft he c onfu s ion o ve r p o in t s o f t h e c ompa s s a t An t ioch ( Downey 1 961 : 6 08 -11) t he re c an h e n oc e r ta in ty t h a t t he h eaven ly c ros s a c tua l ly a ppeared o ve rt he t r ue n o r th o f t h e c i ty i tm igh t h ave a ppeared o ve r t he w e s t , b eyond t he r i ve r ( s ince L iban iu s a nd Ma la las , b o th n a t ive s o f An t ioch , a pp ly " e as t " t o w ha tw e r ega rd a st h e n o r th e nd o ft he c i ty ) ; t he re i sa l so n o p roo ft h a tt he n ame S t au r in w as c onnec ted w i th t he v i s ion . I n t h i s c ase O rocas s ia s m igh t h ave b een u sed b y P rocop iu s f o r t he l owe r n o r the rn moun ta in , a nd t he J u s t in ian ic r e a l ignmen t o ft h e w a l l c ou ld t hen h ave b een l o ca ted t he re . ( i ) I fO rocas s ia s w as ag ene r ic n ame f o r t h ew ho le o ft he moun ta in , P rocop ius m igh t h ave a pp l ied t he n ame l o o se ly u s ing O rocas s ias t o i n c lude t he s epara te n o r the rn s pu rw hen t a lk ing o ft he r ea l ignmen t o ft he w al , b u tt hen s p l i t t ing i ti n to t wo p ar t sw hen d e s c r ib ing t he r a v ine . T he se a l te rna t ive ss eem l e s sl i ke ly , a nd i nt h i sa r t ic le Ih ave u sed O rocas s ias f o r t he s ou the rn p o r t ion o f t he moun ta in a nd S t aur in f o r t he n o r the rn . C a re fu ls t udy o ft h es umm i t o fO rocas s ia s m igh tp rov ide c on f irma t ion . B o th p o in t s a r e m is rep re sen ted b y Downey w ho se d i scu s s ion s a re s omewha t u nc lear ( 1 939 : 3 7 1 -3 ; 1 961 : 50 -1 n .2 00 ) : i ti si n conce ivab le t h a t " i n f r on t o f ' o r" b e fo re " t he c i rcu i tw a l l s hou ld b e i n te rpre ted t o mean i n s ide t he c i rcu i t w a l l ( a s sum ing t h a t P rocop iu s w as s t and ing o n t he c i rcu i t w al a nd l o ok ing i n to t he c i ty ) . F ö r s te r ( 1 897 : 1 35 f f ) r e cogn i sed t he t r u th , a nd D owney ' sc r i t i c i sm o fh i sa na ly s is i su n jus t i f ied . T ravele r s i n t h e 1 8 th a nd 1 9 th c en tur ie s w e re t a ken t o a dm i re t he I r on G a te , a nd p ub l i shed d e sc r ip t ion s a nd d raw ing s , b u t t he se w e re i n tended a s much t o c onvey t he r oman t ic g randeu r o f t he s c ene a s t o p rov ide a n a c cu ra te a c coun t . F o r e xamp le , J .C am e ( i n B ar t le t t a nd C am e 1 836 -8 : 1 . 63 ) : " I n t h i s moun ta in p as s w e k now n o t w he the r mo s t t o a dm i re t he g randeur o f n a ture o r t h e g r andeu r o f m an . D ar ing w as t he g en iu s , a nd s k i l fu l t he h and , t h a t c ou ld w a rw i th t he se m igh ty s o l i tude s , a nd p l an t t he re e ve r las t ing b u lwark s , c r own ing t he i n acce s s ib le r i dge s , a nd c l o s ing ar av ine t wen ty f ive f e e t w ide w i th aw a l l t h a t w as s even ty f ee t h i gh . B ea t , d u r ing -

-

9 .

1 0 .

-

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t wo t housand y ea r s , b y t h e t o r ren t , t he t empe s t ' s w ing , a nd b y m any a f r agmen t f a l l ing f r om a bove t he i r a spec t i sa w fu l , a nd t h e f r ame s hudde r s a s w e c on temp la te t h em ; t h e p rec ip ice a bove , t he p rec ip ice b e low ; s t i l l t hey e ndu re o f af e ar fu l i mmo r ta l i ty , t h e i r l i chens a nd w i ld a nemone s w av ing w an ton ly o n t he b r ink o fd ea th . D ea th i s ap owe r t ow h ich t h ey a re as t range r ; t he s hephe rd b enea th t he i ra r che ss ha l l e re l o ng b el a id w i th t he c l od s o f t he v a l ley , t he t r ave l le r , p as s ing i nt h e i r s hadow , s ha l l t e l l h i s t a le , a nd l i ve h i s b r ie f d ay ; a l t he me rchan t s o f S y r ia , w ho j ourney t h is o n ly c a ravan r oad , s ha l l p as s a way a nd t h en s ha l l c ome t he p eop le o f s ucceed ing a ge s , a nd f i nd t he se w a l ls e ven a st h ey a re n ow . " T h i sc on t inue s w i th s eve ra l mo re p arag raph s r ef lec t ing o n t h e p as sage o f h i s to ry a nd t he u nhappy f a te o f aF rench t r ave l le rw ho l i nge red t oo l o ng i nt h s r emo te s po t . T he p ronounced b r ick h ands a l so p a ra l le l t h ec ons t ruc t ion t e chn ique o ft he w a l ls a t t he s ou the rn e xpans ion o f t he c i ty u nde r taken b y T heodo s ius 1 c . 4 30/1 . S ee Downey ( 1 96 1 : P l . 1 9 ) f o r ar ep roduc t ion o f t he 1 8 th c en tury e ng rav ing b yL .F . C c s sas . -

-

-

1 .

B ib l iography Anc ien tS ource s Aga th ias

1 9 67

R .K eyde l l ( e d . )H i s to ry . B e r l in .

Anon .

1 8 89

T he C h r i s t ian r omance o fA l exand e r . E .A .W . B udge ( ed . a nd t r an s . ) T he h i s to r y o f A l exand e rt h eG r ea t . C amb r idge .

E vag r ius

1 8 98

J . B idez a nd L . P armen t ie r E cc l e s ia s t ica lh i s to r y . L ondon .

J ohn o fE phe sus

1 9 52

E .W . B rook s ( e d . a nd t r ans . ) E c c l e s ias t ica l h i s to r y . L ouva in ( CSCO 1 06 , S c r ip to re s S y r i 5) .

J oshua t he S ty l i te

1 8 82

W . Wr igh t C amb r idge .

Ma la las

1 8 3 1

L .D indo r f( ed . ) C hron i c l e . B onn ( CHSB ) .

P rocop ius

1 9 62

J .H aury ( ed . ) ,G . W i r th ( r ev . ) O p e r a omn ia . L e ipz ig .

T heophane s

1 8 83 -5

C . d cB oo r ( e d . ) C hronog raph ia .

ALEXANDER , P .

1 9 67

T he O rac l eo fB aa lbek . Wa sh ing ton .

BARTLE TF , W .H . a nd CARNE ,J .

1 8 36 -8

S y r ia , t h e L ondon .

BELON , P .

1 5 88

L e s o b se r va t ion s d e p lu s i eur s s i ngu la r i te s e t c ho se sm emo r ab l e st r ouvé e se n G r è c e . P ar is .

( e d .

a nd

t r ans . )

( eds . )

c h r on i c le s .

L e ipz ig .

Mode rn Wr i te r s

5 48

H o l y L and ,

A s ia

M ino r

e t c .

CAMERON ,A .M .

1 9 85

P rocop ius . L ondon ( Duckwo r th ) .

CROKE , B .a nd CRO W , J .

1 9 83

P rocop iu sa nd D a ra . J RS 7 3 : 1 43 -59 .

DO WNEY , G .

1 9 39

P rocop ius o nA n t ioch : as t udy o f me thod i n t he " de Aed i f ic i i s " . B yzan t ion 1 4 : 3 61 -78 .

1 9 53

T he P e r s ian c ampa ign i nS y r ia i n AD 5 40 . S p ecu lum 2 8 : 3 40 -8 .

1 9 6 1

Ah i s tor yo f An t ioch i nS yr ia f rom S e leucus t o t he A rab c onques t . P r ince ton .

DRU M MOND ,A .

1 754

T rave l s t h rough d if f er en t c i t ie s o f Germany , I t a ly . G r eece , a nd s evera lp ar t s o fA s ia a sf ar a s t he b ank s o ft he Euphra te s i n as er ie s o f l e t ter s . L ondon .

FÖRSTER , R .

1 897

A n t ioch ia a m O ron te s . J d J 1 2 : 1 03 -49 .

NAU , F .

1 8 97

A na ly se d e l a s e conde p ar t ie i n éd i te d c l ' H i s to i re E cc le s ias t ique d e J ean d 'A s ie . ROrChr 2 :4 55 -93 .

POUJOULAT ,J . J .

1 8 35

c or r e spondence

d 'Or ien t

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M ichaud e tM . P ou jou la t . V o l . 7 .

d el a ROQUE

1 6 88

V oyage sd eS yr ie . V o l . 1 .

S COTT , R .

1 987

J us t in ian 's c o inage a nd E as ter r eforms a nd t he d a te o ft he S ec re tH i s tor y . B yzan t ine a nd Modem G reek S tud ies 1 : 2 15 2 1 .

S T ILL WELL , R .

1 9 4 1

WH ITBY , L .M .

1 984

An t ioch -on the -O ron te s 3 , T he e xcava t ions 1 937 -1939 . P r ince ton .

P rocop ius ' d e sc r ip t ion o f Mar ty ropo l i s ( de Aed if i c i i s 3 . 2 .10 -1 4 ) .

B y zan t inos lav ica 4 5 :

1 77 -82 . 1 9 85

J us t in ian ' s b r idge o ve r t he S angar ius a nd t h e d a te o f P rocop ius ' d e Aed if ic i i s . JHS 1 05 : 1 29 -48 .

1 986

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3 6 . ON THE REGULAT ION OF THE EASTERN FRONTIER OF THE RO MAN EMPIRE I N2 98 E . Win ter Müns ter A s ac onsequence o ft he f oedus made i n 2 98 b e tween Rome a nd t he S asan ian Emp ire , a ccord ing t o P e tros P a tr ik ios ( f r . 1 4 , FHG 4 . 189 ) Rome g a ined p ossess ion o ff i ve d is tr ic ts o fe as tern Ana to l ia b eyond t he T igr is : I ng i lene , S ophene , A rzanene , Karduene a nd Z abd ikene . A d e ta i led a na lys is s hows t ha t R ome d id n o t g e t f i ve , b u t n ine t err i tor ies , wh ich a l toge ther l ay b eyond t he T igr is . Th is f ac t i s i ncons is ten t w i th a t l e as t a ccord ing t o a n e xac t b oundary l ine i n t he a rea o ft he u pper T igr is t he i nforma t ion a lso g iven b y P e tros P a tr ik ios t ha t i n 2 98 t he T igr is b ecame t he n ew f ront ier b etween t he Roman a nd S asan ian emp ires . On ly t he d is t inc t ion b e tween a c on trac tua l ly f i xed d e i u re s ta te a nd a d e f ac to s ta te l eads t o a s o lu t ion . On t he o ne s ide , t he e xac t l ega l s ta tus ,a ccord ing t o wh ich Rome was e n t i t led t o t he r eg iones T rans t ig r i tanae , i sg iven ; o n t he o ther , ap o l i t ica l f ron t ier s i tua t ion i se xpressed a s i tw as c rea ted b y t he a dm in is tra t ive p rac t ice i n t hese p rov inces s hor t ly a f ter 2 98 . The r eg ione s T rans t ig r i tanae w ere n o t i ncorpora ted a s n ew p rov inces i n to t he Roman Emp ire . The l oca l n ob i l i ty was a l lowed t o a dm in is ter t hese d is tr ic ts t hereaf ter . I n 2 98 R ome r e l inqu ished t he i dea o f d eve lop ing a r egu lar l imes b eyond t he T igr is b u t , i ns tead , was s a t isf ied w i th s ecur ing s tra teg ic p o ints i n t he a rea . A l though t hese e as tern d i s tr ic ts l ega l ly b e longed t o Rome , D ioc le t ian d id n o t c hange t he t r ad i t iona l i n terna l s e t -up . The ma in a im o f D ioc le t ian 's ' po l icy o f i n tegra t ion ' w as t o a f f irm t he l oya l ty o f t he l oca l r u lers . T h is r egu la t ion c o inc ides w i th D ioc le t ian 's c onserva t ive c oncep t ion o f f ore ign afa irs . I n o rder n o t t o o ver tax t he c apac i ty o ft he R oman Emp ire , D ioc le t ian was s a t isf ied w i th t he c onso l ida t ion o f t he m i l i tary g a ins i n 2 98 . I n c on tras t t o t he i n tent ions o f h is C aesar , Ga ler ius , D ioc le t ian c onsequen t ly a ban d oned a ny i dea o fe xpans ion a ga ins t t he I ran ian r u lers t o t he E as t , e spec ia l ly t he S asan ians . -

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A s ac on sequence o f t he c hange o f p owe r i n I r an i n 2 24 , t ha t i s t he o ve r throw o f t he A r sac id r u le r s b y t he r i s ing S a san ian d ynas ty , R ome w as c on f ron ted w i th ad ange rous n e ighbou r o n h e r e as te rn f r on t ie r ( 1 ) . Dur ing m any c onf l ic ts i n t he t h ird c en tury R ome h ad t o s uf f e r d i sas t rous d e fea t s a nd w as g ene ra l ly o n t he d e f en s ive a ga ins t t he a gg re s s ive b ehav iour o f t he S asan ians . T he s i tua t ion c hanged w hen t he c r i s i s o f t he R oman Emp ire w as o ve rcome d u r ing t he r e ign o f D ioc le t ian . I n 2 98 R ome w a s a b le c e leb ra te a g rea t m i l i tary a nd d i p loma t ic s ucce s s o ve r t he S asan ian s , w h ich n eu t ra l ised t he f o rme r d e fea t s ( 2 ) . T he B yzan t ine h i s to r ian P e t ro s P a t r ik io s ( f r . 1 4 , FHG 4 . 189 ) h ands d own t he t e rms o ft he f oedus m ade i n N i s ib i s a f te r G a le r ius ' s ucce s s o ve r t he S asan ian e mpe ro r N a r se . A cco rd ing t oP e t ro s P a t r ik io s t he f i r s t a nd s e cond c l ause o ft he t r ea ty r e fe r t ot e r r i to r ia l a spec ts a nd t he r egu la t ion o ft he f r on t ie rb e tween t he R oman sa nd t he S a san ians a nd t he R omans a nd t he A rmen ians r e spec t ive ly . F o r t he f i r s t t ime i n t h e t h ird c en tury a c on trac tua l ly f i xed c hange o f t he e x i s t ing f r on t ie r s i tua t ion , w h ich l e t t o a n e n largemen t o f t he t e r r i tory o f t he R oman Emp i re , w as t he c onsequence o f ap eace t r ea ty b e tween t he t wo e mp ire s . I n t h i s c onnec t ion many q ue s t ion s a r ise , w h ich h ave o f c our se b een d i scus sed b y n ume rou s s c ho lar s

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( Raw l inson 1 875 : 3 07 f f ; Momm sen 1 885 : 4 44 f ; S e s ton 1 946 : 1 73f ; E n s s l in 1 942 : 4 6f f ; C haumon t 1 960 : 1 21f f ; D i l lemann 1 962 : 2 16 f f ; A don tz 1 970 : 2 5ff ) . R ecen t ly , h oweve r , B lock ley ( 1984 : 2 8 f f ) h a ss hown t h a tf u r the rc l ar i f ica t ion i ss t i l l n ece s sary . A c co rd ing t o P e tro s P a t r ik io s , R ome c ame i n to p os se s s ion o f f i ve A rmen ian p rov ince s ( 3 ) . P e tro s P a tr ik io s men t ion s t h e f o l low ing r eg ion s b eyond t he u ppe r T ig r i s : f i r s t I ngi lene ( 4 ) , t hen t he mo s t n o r the rn r eg ion among t he f i ve p rov ince s , S ophene , t h rough w h ich t he r i ve r A r san ias f l owed ( 5 ) . Geog raph ica l ly t he se t wo t e r r i to r ie s c an b e i d en t i f ied w i th t he a rea f r om t he E uph ra te s t o t he N ymph io s . A rzanene , t he t h i rd r eg ion men t ioned b y P e tros P a tr ik io s , f o l low s t o t he s ou th -ea s t , b eg inn ing o n t he e as t h ank o f t he N ymph io s ( 6 ) . T he l a s t q uo ted r eg ion s ,w h ich f o l low t ot he s ou th , a re K a rduene a nd Z abd ikene ( 7 ) . T he p as sage i nP e t ro sP a tr ik ios I \ . 'Tf l Xf l\ )1 \ )

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r e fe r s t o t he p o l i t ica l d ependence o fS ophene o n I ng i lene a nd t ot ha t o fK arduene a nd Z abd ikene o n A rzanene ( s ee Marquar t 1 901 : 1 7 1 , 1 78 ; C haumon t 1 9 60 : 1 24f f ; T oumano f f1 963 : 1 75f ; F e l ix 1 985 : 1 25 ) . Wh i le s peak ing a bou t t he t r ea ty o f 3 63 b e tween J ov ian a nd S apur 1 , Amm ianu s Marce l l inus ( 25 .7 .9 ) s t a te st ha t R ome h ad t oc ede f i ve r eg ion s q u inque r e g ione s T ran s t ig r i tanae t o t he S a san ian s : A rzanene , Moxoene , Z abd ikene , R eh imene a nd K a rduene ( 8 ) . C ompar i son o ft he p a s sage i nP e t ros P a t r ik io s a nd t ha t i n Amm ianu s Marce l l inus s how s o n ly a n ume r ica l c on fo rm i ty o f t h e q u inque r e g ione s T r an s t ig r i tanae . Ad e ta i led a na ly s i s , h oweve r , m ake s c l ear t ha t t h e r eg ion s men t ioned b y Amm ianus Marce l l inus a l l a y t ot he s ou th -eas t ,w he reas t h o se w h ich w e re men t ioned b y P e tros P a t r ik io s l a y t o t h e n o r th -we s t a s w el a s t o t h e s ou th e as t . T he r eg ions o fI ng i lene a nd S ophene , w h ich P e t ro s P a t r ik ios men t ion s , a re m i s s ing i n Amm ianus Marce l l inu s , w h i le o n t he o the r h and h e l i s t s Moxoene a nd R eh imene ,w h ich a re m i s s ing i nP e t ro s P a t r ik io s . I n2 98 Moxoene c ou ld p o l i t ica l ly h ave b e longed t o K arduene o r A r zanene ( 9 ) . R eh imene , w h ich e x tended u p t he w e s tb ank o ft he T ig r i s ,w as p o l i t ica l ly p ar to fK a rduene o rZ abd ikene ( 1 0 ) . -

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A cco rd ing t o t h i s p as sage , Anz i tene a nd S ophanene , w h ich n e i the r Amm ianu s Ma rce l l inu sn o r P e tro s P a tr ik io s m en t ion , w e re i nt he p o s se s s ion o f t he R omans i n 5 36 . T he re fo re , t hey h ave t o b e i n c luded i n t he d i scu s s ion . Anz i tene , w h ich e x tended f r om t he E uph ra te s a s f a r a s t he h eadwa te r s o f t he T ig r i s , l a y b e tween I ng i lene a nd S ophene . Anz i tene p robab ly b e longed p o l i t ica l ly t o I ng i lene ( s ee B aumgar tne r 1 894 : 2 656 ; C haumon t 1 960 : 1 2 4 a nd H oward -Johns ton 1 9 83 : 2 39 ) . C ons ide r ing t he s im i lar i ty o f t h e t wo n ame s S ophanene w h ich d oe s n o t o ccur b e fore t he f ou r th c e n tu r y a nd S ophene , men t ioned b y P e tro s P a t r ik io s , a c onfus ion i sp o s s ib le ( 12 ) . B u t t he t wo r eg ion s h ave t ob ed i s t ingu i shed . T he n ame S ophanene r e fe r s t o at e r r i to ry t h a t l a y b e tween I ng i lene a nd A rzanene a nd w as b ounded b yt he r i ve rN ymph ios t ot he e a s t . -

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I f R ome c ame i n p o s se s s ion o f t he a rea f r om t he E uphra te s t o t he N ymph ios a nd b eyond a sf a r a s K arduene i n2 98 , s he d id n o t r e ce ive f i ve b u t n i ne t e r r i tor ie s . I n 3 63 R ome o n ly c eded t he r eg ion s e a s t o ft he N ymph io s ( A rzanene , Moxoene , K arduene , Z abd ikene , R eh imene ) . T he r eg ions w e s t o f t he N ymph io s , w h i ch b ecame t he n ew f r on t ie r , r ema ined w i th R ome . T he n umbe r f i ve , g i ven b y Amm ianus Ma rce l l inus , c o r re sponds w i th t he r e a l i ty ( s ee Hüb schmann 1 904 : 2 20 ; L ehmann -Haup t 1 921 : 1 8 1 ; D i l lemann 1 960 : 8 7 f f a nd Adon tz 1 970 : 3 6 ) , w hi le P e t ro s P a t r ik io s , a s f a r a s t h i s q ue s t ion i sc once rned , g i ve s a n i n cor rec t r e c i ta l o f t h ef a c ts . B u t i nd e fence o ft he B yzan t ine h i s to r ian o ne h as t oc ons ide r t ha t i n2 98 n ame s may h ave b een a pp l ied t o t he r e g ione s T ran s t ig r i tanae , w h ich w e re t he u sua l o ne s a t t he e nd o f t he t h i rd c en tury . T he d i f f e ren t i mpo r tance o f t he t e r r i tor ie s m ay h ave r e su l ted i nt h e q uo ta t ion o f f i ve i n s tead o f n ine r eg ion s . I ti sp o s s ib le t h a tP e tro sP a t r ik io si n c lude s Anz i tene a nd S ophanene ,w hen h e men t ions I ngi lene , b ecause t he l a t te r h ad t h e s t a tus o f ap rov ince w i th p o l i t ica l i mpo r tance . T he s ame c an b e s t a ted f o r A r zanene , K arduene a nd Z abd ikene . A l l o ft hem a re men t ioned b yP e tros P a t r ik io s a sw e l l a sb y Amm ianus Marce l l inu s ( s ee C haumon t 1 960 : 1 26 a nd T oumano f f 1 963 : 1 76 ) . I n t h i s w ay P e t ro s P a tr ik io s may h ave i n c luded R eh imene i nK arduene o r r a the r i nZ abd ikene a nd i n t he s ame w ay Moxoene i n K a rduene o rA rzanene . B lock ley ( 1984 : 3 2 ) a rgue sd i f fe ren t ly w hen h es ay s : ' I n t he l i gh t o ft he g eog raph ica l ly o r ien ted n a tu re o ft h e l i s t , s pecu la t ion a st ow he the r t he u se o f ( Gk . ) m e ta r ef lec t s t he h i ghe r r ank ing o f t he p r ince s o f I ng i lene a nd A r zanene a t t he A rmen ian c our t o r t he g rea te r i mpo r tance o f t he se a reas i n t he e ye s o f t he R omans i sb e s ide t he p o in t . ' T he r e ason w h ich mo t iva ted P e t ro s P a t r ik ios o n ly t o men t ion T

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c ou ld n o t b e e xp la ined a ny mo re t h an t he q ue s t ion w he the r t he q uo ted p as sage i s a n i n co r rec t t r ad i t ion ( s ee a l so E n s s l in 1 942 : 4 7 ) . T he re i s ,h oweve r , n o d oub t t ha t i n2 98 t he a bove -men t ioned n ine t e r r i tor ie s f e l l t o R ome . O the rw i se , t he re w ou ld h ave e x i s ted ad i s t r ic t b e tween I ng i lene a nd A r zanene , d i v id ing t he t e r r i tory , w h ich R ome h ad a nnexed a s ac onsequence o ft he f oedu s o fN i s ib i s ( s ee We is sbach 1 927 : 1 0 17 ) . D ioc le t ian w ou ld n eve r h ave a pp roved o fs uch as t ra teg ic s i tua t ion . I nw h ich w ay d oe s t h i s r egu la t ion o ft he t e r r i to r ia la spec t c or re la te w i th t he s e cond t e rm o f t he p eace t r ea ty? P e t ro s P a t r ik io s ( f r . 1 4 , FHG 4 . 198 ) men t ion s t h el a t te ri nt he f o l low ing w ay : K a . ' i . ( 5p O

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I ti sa n e v iden t f a c t t h a t t he r eg ion s c eded t o R ome p redom ina te ly l a y b eyond t he T ig r is . F e s tu s ( B r ev . 2 5 ) , w ho w ro te n ear ly t wo h und red y ear s b e fo re P e t ro s P a t r ik io s , c onf i rms t h i s k now ledge , w hen h e s ay s : Me sopo rar n iam c um T rans t ig r i tan i s r e g ion ibu s r e d idd e run t . Amm ianus Marce l l inus ( 25 .7 .9 ) , t oo , s peak s o f t he r e g ione s T ran s t ig r i tanae ( 1 3 ) . T h i s c on t rad ic t ion h as l e ad t o al i ve ly d i scus s ion a mong mode rn s cho lar s( 14 ) . B lock ley ( 1 984 : 3 2 f ) h as r e cen t ly s t a ted t h a t t he p a s sage i nP e tro s P a tr ik io s h as t o h e t r ea ted i n dependen t ly f r om t he f i r s t c l ause o f t he t r ea ty . A cco rd ing t o B lock ley , P e tro s P a t r ik io s ' s t a temen t t h a t t h e T ig r i s w as t o b e t he n ew f r on t ie r b e tween t he t wo e mp i re s r e fe r s o n ly t o t he R oman P e r s ian f r on t ie r s ou th o ft he r e g ione s T ran s t ig r i tanae . C on sequen t ly , E ns s l in ' s c ommen t ( 1942 : 4 8 ) w as c o r rec t , w hen h e c onc luded f r om P e tro s P a t r ik io s 'w o rd s ag eog raph ica l e n largemen to ft he -

5 57

R oman p rov ince Me sopo tan i ia t o t he e a s t u p t o t he T ig r i s , ' n am l ich u n te rha lb v on B ezabde i nd e r Z abd ikene b i s d o r t , w o d e r ü be r S i ngara o s twä r t s l a uf ende L i me s d en S t rom e r re ich te , e twa o be rha lb d e s h eu t igen Mo su l ' . E n s s l in 's s t a temen t i s c or rec t a s f a r a s t he f r on t ie r l ine s ou th o fB ezabde i sc once rned . B u t , l i ke mo s t o f t he mode rn s cho lar s , h e d oe s n o t p ay a t ten t ion t ot h e c on t rad ic t ion a bou t a n e xac t b oundary l ine i nt he a rea o ft he u ppe rT ig r i s . I fo ne c on s ide r s t h e p as sage i nP e tro s P a tr ik io s a s as epara te c l au se o f t he f oedu s a nd t ake i tl i te ra l ly , t he w ho le r i ve rf r om i t s s ou rce a sf a r a si t s mou th w ou ld h ave f o rmed t he n ew f r on t ie r . S uch a n i d ea i se n t i re ly u nfounded . On ly i fP e tro s P a tr ik io s ' i n fo rma t ion a bou t t e r r i to r ia l g a in s i n t he a rea b eyond t he u ppe r T ig r i s a nd a bou t t he q ue s t ion o f t he n ew f r on t ie r a re c ons ide red t oge the r , ap l aus ib le e xp lana t ion s eems t o b e p o s s ib le . T he u se o f t he G reek c on junc t ion k a i , w h ich l i nk st he t wo t e rm s o ft he p eace t r ea ty ,w h i le t he o the rc l ause sa re o n ly e nume ra ted w i thou tc onnec t ion ,p o in t st ot he p robab i l i ty t ha tb o th a spec t sf o rm au n i ty . A s Di lemann ( 1962 : 2 17 ) h as i n d ica ted , o n ly t he d i s t inc t ion b e tween a c on t rac tua l ly f i xed d e i u r e s t a te a nd ad ef ac to s t a te l e ad s t o as o lu t ion ( s ee a l so F e l ix 1 985 : 1 25f ) . On t he o ne s i de , t he e xac t l e ga ls t a tu s , a cco rd ing t ow h ich R ome w as e n t i t led t ot he r e g ione s T ran s t ig r i tanae , i sg i ven b y P e t ro s P a t r ik ios a nd F e s tu s ; o n t he o the r s i de , ap o l i t ica l f r on t ie r s i tua t ion i se xp re s sed a si tw as c rea ted b y t he a dm in i s t ra t ive p rac t ice i nt he se r eg ion s s ho r t ly a f te r 2 98 . S uch a d i s t inc t ion d oe s n o t c onfuse ac ommen ta ry o ft he t e x tw i th t he t e x t o ft h e p eace t r ea ty , a sB lock ley s uppo se s ( 1984 : 3 2 f ) , b u t m ake s i tp o s s ib le t o d i s t ingu i sh b e tween a s i tua t ion t ha t w as l e ga l ly f i xed i n2 98 a nd t h ep o l i t ica l r ea l i ty o ft h ef our th c en tury ,w h ich w a s a l so r ef lec ted b y P e t ro s P a t r ik io s n ear ly 2 50 y ear s l a te r . T he B y zan t ine h i s to r ian w as f amous b ecause o fh i s k now ledge o ft he l aw . H i s h i gh r ank s u re ly e nab led h im t o h ave a cce s st od ocumen t s i nt he B yzan t ine a r ch ive s . A s ad i p loma t , h ew a st w ice a t t he c our t o ft he S asan ian k i ng a nd h ew ro te a t at ime i nw h ich t h ec onsc iou sne s sf o r s t a te a nd s ense o fj u s t ice w e re h i gh ly d eve loped . S o P e t ro s P a t r ik io s w a s a ware o f t he i mpo r tance o f a n e xac t t e rm ino logy . B u t P e t ro s P a t r ik io s ' r epo r t a bou t t he R omano -Pe r s ian p eace t r ea ty o f 2 98 i s s u re ly n o t t he c opy o f a n a u then t ic d ocumen tw r i t ten i n2 98 , b u t o n ly ac ommen tary t os u ch ad ocumen t , w h ich f o rce s mode rn h i s to r ians t o m ake t he j u s t men t ioned d i s t inc t ion ( s ee a l so We i s sbach 1 927 : 1 018 ; S e s ton 1 946 : 1 7 3 ; D i l lemann 1 962 : 2 17 ; And reo t t i 1 969 : 2 15 a nd S ynel i 1 986 : 8 7 ) . I n h i s p aneg y r iko s t o C ons tan t ius I J u l ian ( O r . 1 . 22h -c ) g i ve s e v idence a bou tt he f r on t ie r s i tua t ion i nt he f i r s t h a l fo ft he f ou r th c en tury . A cco rd ing t ot h i s p as sage , t he R oman e mpe ro r o f ten c ro s sed t he T ig r i s t o i n vade h o s t i le t e r r i tory . T a lk ing o f t he s ame t ime Amm ianu s Marce l i inu s ( 1 8 .5 .1 -3 a nd 1 8 .8 .5 f ) s peak s a bou t t he f l igh t o f ac e r ta in An ton inu s , w ho w a s ar i ch m e r ca to r a nd r a t ionar iu s a ppar i tor Me sopo ta in iae d uc i s , l a te rp ro t ec tor . A n ton inu s , w ho h ad r un i n to d eb ts , b ough t ac oun t ry sea t a t H ia sp i s , w h ich l a y i n av i l lage d i rec t ly o n t he T ig r is i n e a s te rn Me sopo tam ia o r i nA s sy r ia . W i th t he h e lp o fh i s s e rvan t s , w ho w e re g ood s w imme r s , h e c a r r ied o n c on tac t s w i th t he S a san ian s a t rap T amsapu r , who a dm in i s te red t he t e r r i tory o ppo s i te ( 1 5 ) . I n t h i s w ay t he R oman s uc ceeded i n f l ee ing t o t he S asan ian Emp i re . E lsewhe re Amm ianu s Marce l l inus ( 18 .6 .9 ) s peak s a bou t m i l i tary t r oub le si nt h e f r on t ie rr eg ions o ft he T ig r i s a nd r emarks t h a th os t i le t r oop s h ad c ro s sed t he T ig r i s a nd p l unde red R oman t e r r i to ry . B o th a u thor s i nd ica te t ha t t he T ig r is w as s een a s t he r ea l f r on t ie r . R ome h ad r e t rea ted t ot h i s s i de o ft he T ig r i s ( 1 6 ) . F u r the rs t a temen t s o fa nc ien t a u thor s g i ve e v idence t h a t t he r eg ion s R ome o b ta ined i n2 98 w e re n o t i n co rpo ra ted a s n ew p rov ince s i n to t h e Emp ire b u t k ep t

58

t h er i gh t o fs e l f -gove rnmen t t o ah i gh d eg ree . I nt h i sc onnec t ion o ne h as , o fc ou r se , t o r egard t h a t s i nce t h e 30s t he i mpo r tan t p o l i t ica l g roup s o f A rmen ia c ame l a rge ly u nde r S asan ian i n f luence a s ac onsequence o f S apur I ' s mi l i tary s ucce s se s i nA rmen ia . T h is c i rcum s tance s ub s tan t ia l ly c on tr ibu te s t o t he f u r the r d i v i s ion o f t h eA rmen ian n obi l i ty i n to ap ro -Pe r s ian a nd ap ro -Roman g roup ( 17 ) . Amm ianus Ma rce l l inu s , w ho r e co rd s t he m i l i tary t r oub le s b e tween C ons tan t iu s Ia nd S apu r I , men t ion s t h a t t he R oman e mpe ro r , w ho w as a f ra id o f S apur 's a t tack s , s en t e nvoy s w i th r i ch p re sen t s t o t he k i ng s b eyond t he T ig r i s ( 2 1 .6 .7 ) . T he d ip loma t sw e re t or em ind t he A rmen ians t ok eep t oR ome a nd n o tt o t r yt oc hea t o r t o m i s le ad t he e mpe ro r . Mo s t e spec ia l ly , t he k ing s o fA rmen ia a nd I b e r ia ( 18 ) , A r sake s a nd Me r ibane s , w e re b r ibed b y s p lend id r obe s a nd man i fo ld p re sen ts , b ecause t hey c ou ld h ave c aused t he R oman s g rea t h arm , i ft hey h ad j o ined t he S asan ians i n t h a t i n secure s i tua t ion ( s ee a l so E n s s l in 1 942 : 8 0 ) . Amm ianu s Marce l l inu s , w ho u se s t he w o rd s f a l lax a nd f r audu l en tu s , mus t b e r e f e r r ing t o a n e x i s t ing a g reemen t , a nd t h a t c an o n ly b e t he f oedus o f N i s ib i s a c co rd ing t ow h ich t h e am ic i t ia w i th t he A rmen ian k i ng w a sc on f irmed ( s ee B a rce ló 1 9 8 1 : 7 3ff ) a nd t he s a t rap s o f t he A rmen ian p rov ince s b eyond t he u ppe r T ig r i s w e re p laced u nde rt he c on t ro l o fR ome . T he A rmen ian h i s to r ian F au s tus o f B y zanz r epea ted ly r epo r t s ( 4 .23f , 5 . 8 f f , FHG 5 . 2 .260 f f , 2 87 f f ) o n A rmen ian s a t rap s i n t he r e g ione s T ran s t ig r i tanae w ho b roke a way f r om t h e A rmen ian k i ng d ur ing t he f our th c en tury , a nd a bou t t he p un ishmen t s e xac ted b y t he c en t ra l g ove rnmen t t o r e s to re A r sac id r u le . On ly I ng i lene w a s n o t p un i shed l i ke t he o the r s a t rap ie s b ecause , a cco rd ing t oF aus tus o f B y zanz ( 5 . 18 , FHG 5 . 2 .289 ) , ' t he l a nd f o rme r ly w as a f r ee r oya l d oma in a nd a l so n ow i nt he s i tua t ion o fg ene ra l t r oub le t he i n hab i tan t so fI ng i lene k ep t r ema in ing i n t r ibu ta ry s ubm is s ivene s s ' . F aus tus o f B yzanz m ake s i tc l ear t ha t A rmen ia w as e f f ec t ive ly d i v ided i n to s epara te d i s t r ic t s i n w h ich p owe r fu l c h ie f ta ins e xe r ted a lmos t a u tonomou s c on t ro l o ve r t he i r s ub jec t s . T he p owe r o f t he se p r ince s , w ho w e re a lway sc a l led s a t rap sb yG reek a nd R oman a u tho r s ( f o re xamp le , Amm . Ma rc . 2 1 .6 .7 ; 2 3 .6 .14 ; P rocop .A ed . 3 . 1 .17 , 2 4 ) , w as f ounded o n ah e red i tary b as i s ( s ee G ü terbock 1 900 : 8 0 . T hey a l so w e re a tt he h ead o ft he r e g ione s T ran s t ig r i tanae t h a t R ome g a ined p o s se s s ion o f i n2 98 . P l iny ( NH 6 . 10 .27 ) h ad a l ready s t a ted a bou t G rea te r A rmen ia ' t ha t i t i s aw e l l k nown f a c t t h a t i t i s d i v ided i n to 1 20 a dm in is t ra t ive d i s t r ic t s w i th n a t ive n ame s , c a l led i n G reek m i l i tary c ommands , s ome o fw h ich w e re f o rme r ly a c tua ls epara te k i ngdoms ' ( d i v i tur i np raef ec tura s , q ua s s t r a teg ia s v ocan t , q ua sd am e x h i s v e l s i ngu la r e gna q uondam ) . Aga thange lo s ( 12 , FHG 5 . 2 .170f ) d e sc r ibe s a s w e l l t he mo re f o rma l ly b u t n o t p o l i t ica l ly e f fec t ive d ependence o f t he s a t rap s r u l ing i n t he se p rov ince s o n R ome , w hen h e g i ve s e v idence a bou t t h e c onsen t o f t he A rmen ian s a t rap s t o T ir ida te s I I ' s c h r i s t ian i sa t ion o f A rmen ia . B ecau se o f t he r e l ig iou s s i tua t ion i n t he R oman Emp ire a t t he b eg inn ing o f t he f ou r th c en tury t he b ehav iour o f t he se l o ca l r u le r s s u re ly d id n o t mee tt h et e t rarchs ' u nan imous a pp rova l ( 19 ) . Ap as sage i nP rocop ius ( Aed . 3 . 1 .16 ff ) s eems i mpo r tan t i nt h is c onnec t ion . H et e l l s a bou tJ us t in ian ' sa c t iv i t ie st or eo rgan i se A rmen ia . F i r s t h ew r i te sa bou th i s a c t iv i t ie s i nA rmen ia i n t e r ior , a nd t hen o ne c an r ead : ' S uch w as t he d i spo s i t ion h e m ade f o r G rea te r A rmen ia , a s i ti sc a l led , b u t i nt he o the rA rmen ia , w h ich e x tend s i n s ide o f t he E uph ra te s R ive r a s f a r a s t he c i ty o f Am ida , f i ve A rmen ian s a t rap s h e ld p owe r a nd t h e se o f f ice r s w e re a lway s h e red i tary a nd h e ld o f f ice f o r l i f e . Howeve r , t hey r e ce i ved t he s ymbo ls o f o f f ice o n ly f r om t he R oman empe ro r . ' S ub sequen t ly P rocop iu s d e sc r ibe s t he se s ymbo ls ( Gk . t as umbo la ) o f t he i r r e ign ( s ee L ehman -Haup t 1 92 1 : 1 82 ) . I n t h is c onnec t ion i ti sr emarkab le t ha t p urp le b oo ts r each ing u p t o t he k nee s w e re p ar t o f t he se s ymbo ls , w h ich a cco rd ing t o -

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B ecause o f t he i r p o s i t ion u nde r c on s t i tu t iona l l aw t h e se r eg ion s w e re p a r t o f t he i mpe r ia lc en t ra l a dm in i s t ra t ion , a s i ss hown b y T heodo s iu s 1 ' s d ec ree t o t h e s a t rap o f S ophanene d a ted 1 4 J une , 3 87 ( Cod T heod . 1 2 .13 .6 ; s ee E n s s l in 1 9 42 : 7 9f f ) . T he l a t e r cu lu s o f P o lem ius S i lv iu s ( MGH 9 AA C / i ron . M in . 1 . 541) , w h ich g oe s b ack f o r t he p ar t e s O r i en t i s t o al i s t o ft he s econd h a l fo ft he f ou r th c en tur y , s how s t ha t t he s o -caled r e g ione s T ran s t ig r i tanae w e re s een a s a n i n teg ra l p a r t o f t he R oman Emp i re . T he p rov ince s Me sopo tm ia i n t e r T i g r em v e l E uf ra ten , E uf r a t e s ia , Ho sd roene e tS ophanene b e longed t o t he d ioce se O r i en s . T he g eog raph i ca l t e rm S ophanene s eem s t o i n d ica te t he r e g ione s T ran s t i g r i tanae t o t he w e s t o f t he N ymph ios t ha t r ema ined i nR oman p o s se s s ion a f te rt h ef oedu s o f3 63 . T he f a c t t h a t t he i n hab i tan t s o ft he t e r r i to r ie sb eyond t he u pper T ig r i sw ere o f ten r e c ru i ted f o r R oman a rmy d i v i s ion s a l so s how s t h e i r s ubo rd ina t ion t oR ome ' s a u tho r i ty ( s ee E n s s l in 1 942 : 8 2 f ; L u t twak 1 976 : 1 8 61 ) . Amm ianus Ma r ce l l inus ( 20 .7 .1) men t ion s t h e s ag i t ta r i i Z abd i cen i , w ho f ough t f o r t he R omans a tB e zabde a ga ins t S apur I i n 3 60 . F rom t he N o t i t ia D ign i ta tum ( O r . 3 6 .36 ) t h e c ohor s q uar tad ec ima V a l e r ia Z abd enorum i sk nown , a sw el a st he e qu i t e ss ag i t tar i iC o rduen i ( 0 cc . 6 . 40 .83 = 7 . 209 ) a nd t he a l a q u in tad ec ima F lav ia C arduenorum u nde r t he d ux Me sopo tam iae ( O r . 3 6 .34 ) . T he se f a c t s a re c on s i s ten t w i th t he k now ledge t ha t o n t he R oman s i de n a t ive p eop le w e re u sed f o r t h e r e c ru i tmen t o f f o rma t ions i n t he E as t , o f ten e ven p r isone r s o f w ar o r f ug i t ive s , f o r e xamp le t he e qu i t e s P e r sae c l ibanar i i( No t . D ign . O r . 6 . 36 ; s ee C ou l s ton 1 986 : 6 3 ) . I n 2 98 R ome r enounced t he o ppo r tun i ty t o b u i ld a ' r egu la r l i me s ' ( Hon igmann 1 935 : 6 ) b eyond t he T ig r i s . I ts eem s t h a t f o r t he f u ture R ome w as s a t i s f ied w i th s ecur ing t he mo s t i mpo r tan t s t ra teg ic p l ace s . I ti sw or th men t ion ing i nt h i s c onnec t ion t he l a te R oman e qu i t e s f o r t T i l l i /T e l l F af an ( ca t tepe ) a tt he c onf luence o f t he T ig r i s a nd t he B oh tan S u , w h ich m a rked t he f r on t ie r b e tween A rzanene a nd K arduene . T he s t ra teg ic i mpo r tance o f t h i s p l ace e spec ia l ly i nt he r e ign o f C ons tan t ius 1(337 -361) h as r e cen t ly b een p o in ted o u t ( L igh tfoo t 1 986 : 5 09ff ) . T he e x i s tence o f t h i s f o r t a l so p rov ide s e v idence " t ha t R oman c on t ro l s t re tche s e as tward s f r om Am ida a c ro s s S ophanene a nd A rzanene ' u p t o t he b o rde r so fC o rduene" ( L igh t foo t 1 986 : 5 19 ) . Amm ianus Marce l l inus ( 25 .19 .9 ) a l so p o in t s t ot h i s f a c t , w hen h e r emark s i nc onnec t ion w i th t h e R omano -Pe r s ian p eace t r ea ty o f 3 63 t h a t R ome h ad t o g i ve b ack t he p o s se s s ion s b eyond t h e T ig r is

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( 12 .308 , 1 7 f f ) Z o s imus ( 2 .34 .1) i n d ic a te s t he s ame ; h e s t a te s t h a t D ioc le t ian h i nde red t he e nemy f r om i n vad ing R oman t e r r i to ry b y b u i ld ing f o r tre s se s a t a l f r on t ie r s a nd b y i n s ta l l ing a rm ie s i nt h em ( 2 3 ) . T he f o l low ing c an h e s t a ted a s ar é sumé . I n s tead o fb e ing as a te l l i te s t a te o f t h e S asan ian Emp i re , A rmen ia n ow b ecame a d ependency o f R ome , a l though i t r ema ined d i s sa t is f ied w i th t h i s s i tua t ion . T he c h r i s t ian i sa t ion o f t he l a nd w a s a n a t temp t t o a c ce le ra te t h e p roce s s o f " n a t iona l " c en tra l i sa t ion ( 2 4 ) . B ecau se t h i s d eve lopmen t f i na l ly c aused a r e l ig iou s a nd a p o l i t ica l u n ion o f i n te re s t s b e tween R ome a nd A rmen ia ( s ee G rous se t 1 946 : 1 27 ; K le in 1 977 : 1 84 ) , A rmen ia r ema ined t h e s t umb l ing -b lock f o r c onf l ic t b e tween t he t wo g rea t e mp i re s . On ly t he d i v i s ion o fA rmen ia i n3 87 b e tween T heodo s iu s Ia nd S apur I I p u t a n e nd t ot h i s s i tua t ion t o ac e r ta in e x ten t ( 2 5 ) . A s ac onsequence o ft he f oedu s m ade i n2 98 R ome c ame i n to p o s se s s ion o f n i ne A rmen ian t e r r i to r ie sb eyond t he u ppe rT ig r i s . A rmen ian s a t rap s i ndeed r u led o ve rt he r e g ione s T r an s t ig r i tanae d u r ing l i fe b yt he h e lp o fh e red i tary r i gh t . B u t t hey w e re R oman o f f ice h o lde r s w ho w e re a ccoun tab le t o t h e w e s te rn p owe r ( 26 ) . I n t h i sw ay R ome c rea ted a n a dvanced d e fence l i ne f o r t h e p rov ince o f Me sopo tam ia . D ioc le t ian d i d n o t t h ink o f t he p e rmanen t a cqu i s i t ion o f t he se r eg ions f o r t he R oman Emp i re ( s ee G ü te rbock 1 900 : 7 f ; F e l ix 1 985 : 1 251 ) . Many s t a temen ts i n a nc ien t a u tho r s r e f e r r ing t o t he p o l i t ica l c i rcums tance s o f t he f ou r th c en tu ry c onf irm t h i s b y p o in t ing o u t t h a t t h e T ig r i s w as s een i nt h e We s t a sw e l l a s i nE as t a st he r ea l f r on t ie r . A l though t he A rmen ian t e r r i to r ie s l e ga l ly b e longed t o R ome , D ioc le t ian d i d n o t c hange t r ad i t iona l s t ruc tu re s w i th in t h em . I tw as c ha rac te r i s t ic f o r t he se s a trap ie s t h a t , i n c on t ras t t o t he R oman p rov ince s , t hey w e re c a l led " n a t ions " ,g en t e s o r ( Gk . ) e t hne ( f o r e xamp le , Amm . Marc . 1 8 .9 .2 ; P rocop .A ed . 3 . 2 .1) . E ven t hough n ame s e nd ing w i th e ne u sua l ly c ha rac te r i se t e r r i to r ie s ( s ee Me tz le r 1 977 : 6 2 f ) , t h e t e r r i to r ia l p r inc ip le s eem s t o s t ep b ack i nc ompar i son w i th t h e" na t iona l " p r inc ip le i nt h i sc ase ( s ee Gü te rbock 1 900 : 9 ; Adon tz 1 970 : 2 6 ) . T he m a in a im o fD ioc le t ian ' s" po l icy o fi n teg ra t ion "w as t oa f f i rm t he l o ya l ty o f t he A rmen ians . H e a l so h oped t h a t b y t h i s r egu la t ion t hey w ou ld n o t n o t ice

5 61

t he i r r ea l l o s s o f p owe r b e tween t he R oman a nd S asan ian emp i re s ( 27 ) . C on s ide r ing t he i mpo r tance o fA rmen ia a s at r an s i t l a nd f o r t r ade i nt he E a s t ( 28 ) , e conom ic a nd t r ade a spec ts s u re ly i nf luenced t he R oman p o l icy t oward s A rmen ia i n2 98 b e s ide sm i l i tary a nd s t ra teg ic o ne s ( 29 ) . T he r egu la t ion o f t h e A rmen ian q ue s t ion i n 2 98 c orre spond s w i th D ioc le t ian ' s c onserva t ive c oncep t ion o f f o re ign a f f a i r s ( 30 ). I n o rde r n o t t o o ve r tax t he c apac i ty o f t he R oman Emp i re h e p roh ib i ted f u r the r e xpan s ion a nd o n ly r e -e s tab l i shed t he f r on t ie r s a s t hey w e re f i xed b y t he S eve ran e as te rn p o l icy , ' d .h d i e F e s t legung d e rG renze d e r P rov inz Me sopo tam ia a uf d e r L in ie C habo ras J ebe l S in jar T ig r i s ' (Wagne r 1 985 : 6 8 ) . T he a r rangemen t o f t he n ew f r on t ie r s i tua t ion b y i n s ta l l ing t he A rmen ian s a t rap s s how s t h a t t he t h rea t f r om t h e E as t made t he R oman p o l i t ica l l e ade r sh ip p l an t he f r on t ie r s i tua t ion e spec ia l ly c a re fu l ly ( s ee S ta l lknech t 1 969 : 4 0 ) . I n s p i te o f t he mode ra te p eace t e rms , w h ich N ar se p robab ly f e l t t he s ame w ay a bou t i nv i ew o f h i s m i l i tary d e f ea t , D ioc le t ian c ou ld a ch ieve af a r reach ing s t ra teg ic a nd e conom ic a dvan tage o ve rt he S a san ian Emp ire . -

-

D ioc le t ian ' s i n ten t ion t o s ecure t he m i l i tary a ch ievemen t s d i f fe r s f r om t he o f fens ive s t ra tegy o f h i s C ae sa r G a le r iu s w ho w an ted t o i n co rpora te t h e c en tra l S asan ian t e r r i to r ie s a s an ew p rov ince i n to t he R oman Emp i re ( 3 1) . A cco rd ing t o Aure l ius V ic to r ( Cae s . 3 9 .36f ) , D ioc le t ian c onsequen t ly a bandoned a ny i d ea o f f u r the r e xpans ion a ga ins t t he S asan ian s a f te r G a le r ius ' v i c to ry o ve r N a r se i n A rmen ia . O the rw i se , t he R oman f a sce sw ou ld h ave b een t aken i n to an ew p rov ince ( Roman i f a sce s i n p rov inc iar n n ovar n f e r r en tur ) . D ioc le t ian w as s a t i s f ied w i th s ecur ing t he m i l i tary a ims , t h a t mean s t he r e cove ry o f Me sopo tam ia a nd t he e n largemen t o f R oman i nf luence i nA rmen ia . H e w a s n o t w i l l ing t o r i sk R ome 's s ucce s s b y n ew u nce r ta in m i l i tary a c t iv i t ie s . Au re l iu s V ic to r , w ho se f u r the r w ord s e voke c r i t ic i sm b ecause D ioc le t ian r e fu sed i n c er tur n q ua c au sa h i s a g reemen t t o a n o f fen s ive a ga in s t ag roggy e nemy , c on t rad ic t s h im se l fw hen h e a l so s a y s t h a t i n 2 98 R ome h ad n eve r the le s s w on i mpo r tan t r eg ion s ( v e rum p a r s t e r ra rum t ar nen n ob i s u t i l io rq uae s i ta ) . S o , A ure l ius V ic tor a ccep t s D ioc le t ian ' s p o l icy o fc oe r cend i i n t ra t e rr n ino s i r npe r i i ( Tac . Ann . 1 . 11 .4 ) , ap o l icy t h a t g oe s b ack t o t he t ime o f Augus tus ( s ee Wagne r 1 985 : 2 3 ) , a nd h e c onf i rm s t h a t a n e n largemen t o f R oman t e r r i tory b yn ew p rov ince sw a sn o t i nR ome ' si n te re s ti n2 98 . I nh i s r e cen t ly p ub l i shed c ommen ta ry t oD ioc le t ian ' s t e t ra rch ic s y s tem K o lb ( 1987 : 1 78 ) c onc lude s t h a t t he r e fo rm s o ft he R oman e mpe ro r w e re t he r e su l t o f' a m i x ture o f p o l i t ica l e xpe r ience a nd l o ng s igh tedne s s ' . T he i n co rpora t ion o f t he men t ioned r e g ione s T ran s t ig r i tanae i n to t he R oman Emp ire i n 2 98 i n t h e w ay s hown i n t h i s a r t ic le c onf irm s K o lb ' s w o rd s a t t he l e ve l o f f o re ign a f f a i r s . B y ' c hoo s ing u se fu l t r ad i t ion s a nd f o rm ing t hem i n to s ome th ing n ew ' ( Ko lb 1 987 : 1 78 ) , D ioc le t ian c r ea ted i n2 98 i nt he a rea o ft he Uppe r T ig r i s af r on t ie r s i tua t ion t ha tw as a c cep tab le f o r t he R omans a sw e l l a sf o r t he A rmen ians a nd t he S asan ian s a nd w h ich h e c ou ld h ope a tl e a s t i n2 98 w ou ld t u rn o u t t ob e ad urab le s o lu t ion f o r t he n eare rf u ture . -

-

A cknow ledgemen ts Ia m g ra te f u l t o P ro f . D . Me tz le r , w ho h e lped m e i nv ar iou s w ay s a nd w i th much i n fo rma t ion b yc ommen t ing o n a n e a r l ie rd raf t o ft h is p ape r . Ia l so t h ank D r . C . L igh t foo t f o r h i s c r i t ica l a nd h e lp fu l h i n ts . Ia m i n deb ted t o t he D eu t sche F o r schung s -Geme in schaf t , w ho se s uppo r t m ade m y p ar t ic ipa t ion a t t he A nkara C o l loqu ium p o s s ib le .

5 62

N o te s 1 . 2 . 3 . 4 . 5 . 6 . 7 .

8 .

9 . 1 0 . 1 .

1 2 .

1 3 .

1 4 . 1 5 . 1 6 .

T h i s a r t ic le i sa n a dvanced s t udy f r om p a r t o f my c ommen ta ry t o t he R omano -Pe r s ian p eace t r ea t ie si nt he t h i rd c en tu ry ( 1988 : 1 7 1f f ) . S ee W in te r ( 1 988 : 1 52 f f ) ; f o r t he c hrono logy o ft he e ven t s , s ee a l so B arne s ( 1976 : 1 82 f fa nd 1 982 : 6 3 ) . F o r ag eog raph ic o r ien ta t ion , s ee K e t tenho fen ' s m ap ( 1984 ) ; f o r t he A rmen ian d i s t r i c t s i np a r t icu la r , s ee Adon tz ( 1970 : 2 5f f ) . F o r I ng i lene , s e e Marqua r t ( 1901 : 1 71 ) , T re id le r ( 1965 : 3 28 ) a nd D i l lemann ( 1 962 : 1 20 f ) . F o r S ophene , s e eK iepe r t ( 1 878 : 7 9 ) , Hüb schmann ( 1904 : 2 19 ) , We i s sbach ( 1927 : 1 0 15f f ) a nd D i l lemann ( 1962 : 1 200 . F o r A rzanene , s ee K iepe r t ( 1978 : 7 9 f ) , B aumga r tne r ( 1896 : 1 498 ) , D i l lemann ( 1 962 : 1 2 1f f ) , F iey ( 1977 : 1 86 f f ) a nd Wh i tby ( 1983 : 2 05f f ) . F o r K arduene a nd Z abd ikene , s ee F raenke l ( 1897 : 3 78f ) , We i s sbach ( 1919 : 1 937 f ) , D i l lemann ( 1962 : 10 f f ) , T re id le r ( 1972 : 2 201) a nd F iey ( 1977 : 1 61f f ) . T he f i ve r eg ions , w h ich Amm ianu s Marce l l inus men t ions , a re f ound a s d ioce se s i n t h e s ame c on s te l la t ion i n t he s i gna tu re s o f t he s ynod o f t he p a t r iarch T s aak i n4 10 ( s ee Gu id i 1 889 : 3 94 ) . K iepe r t ( 1878 : 8 0 ) , S chache rmeye r ( 1933 : 4 09 ) a nd F iey ( 1977 : 1 85 ) p re fe r t he f i r s tp o s s ib i l i ty , B ury ( 1 958 : 9 3 n .3 )a nd Adon tz ( 1970 : 3 6 ) t he l a t te r . F o r t h i s d ependence , s ee We i s sbach ( 1914 : 5 13 ) a nd D i l lemann ( 1 962 : 2 10 f ) ; c on t ra B ury ( 1958 :93 n .3 )a nd Adon tz ( 1970 : 3 6 ) . S ee a l so C od . l u s t . 1 . 29 .5 : e t g en t e s ( Anze t enam v i d e l i ce t ; I ng i l enam , A s th ianena ,n , S ophenam , S ophanenam , i n q ua e s t Mar ty ropo l i s , B a lab i t enam ) . S ee L ehmann -Haup t ( 1921 : 1 84 ) a nd E n s s l in ( 1942 : 4 60 , f o r A s th ianene a nd B a lah i tene , ' t he p rov ince s a d jo in ing t he i mpe r ia l s a t rap ie s ' ( Adon tz 1 970 : 3 7 ) . T he se w e re a dded t o t he g roup o f t he i ndependen t s a t rap ie s n o tb e fo re 3 77 , s ee Adon tz ( 1970 : 3 60 . I n A rmen ian : C opk ( Sophene ) a nd C opk mec ( Sophanene ) . S ee a l so K iepe r t ( 1 878 : 7 9 ) ; Gü te rbock ( 1900 : 3 0 f f ) ; We i s sbach ( 1927 : 1 0 18 f ) ; E n s s l in ( 1942 : 4 7 ) a nd Adon tz ( 1970 : 3 2 f f ) . T he n ame S ophanene b ecame , f r om t he 4 t hc en tury , ag ene r ic t e rm f o rt he p rov ince Me sopo tam ia . B lock ley ( 1 984 : 3 2 ) : ' Th i s t e rm , u sed , a ga in n o t s t r ic t ly a ccu ra te ly , b y Amm ianus o f t he f i ve p r inc ipa l i t ie s c eded b y t he R oman s i n 3 63 f i r s t a ppear s i nF e s tus ( B r ev . 1 4 a nd 2 5 ) u sed o ft he p r inc ipa l i t ie s c eded i n2 99 . F e s tu s , w ho c ompo sed h i s e p i tome d ur ing t he r e ign o f V a len s ( 365 -78 ) , e nded i tw i th t h e p eace o f 3 63 , a nd h i s t e rm ino logy w as c l ear ly i nf luenced b yt he a g reemen t . ' S ee a bove ( n . 3 ) ; f o r f u r the r d i scu s s ion s , s ee Gü te rbock ( 1900 : 6 ) , Hüh schmann ( 1 904 : 2 22 n .1 ) , S yke s( 1921 : 4 10 ) a nd G ray ( 1930 : 1 44 ) . S ee f o r T am sapur , w ho a ppea red i nt he t ime o fS apu r Ia s ap e r secu to r o f t he C hr i s t ian s ,P ee te r s( 1925 : 2 76 fa nd 2 81f ) . S ee a l so O a te s ( 1 959 : 2 18 ) , w ho p o in t s t o ' D ioc le t ian ' s a ccep tance o f t he S i ngara N is ih i s l i ne i n h i s f r on t ie r s e t t lemen t ' b ecau se o f a rchaeo log ica l r ea sons . F o r t he q uar re l s b e tween R oman s a nd S a san ian s i n A rmen ia d u r ing t he t ime o f C on s tan t ine t he G rea t a nd C on s tan t iu s I , s ee K le in ( 1977 : 1 84 f f ) a nd B arce ló ( 1 981 : 7 3ff ) . A s ac onsequence o ft he f oedu s o f2 98 , i tw a s a l so l e galy f i xed t h a t t he k i ng o fI be r ia s hou ld g e t t he s ymbo l so fh i s r e ign o n ly b yt he R oman s ; c f . P e t ro s P a t r ik io s . f r . 1 4 , FHG 4 . 189 : -

1 7 .

1 8 .

5 63

S o Narse h ad t o r ecogn ise t he R oman p ro tec tora te o ver I ber ia ( s ee W in ter 1 988 : 1 86f f ) . 1 9 .

2 0 .

2 1 . 2 2 .

2 3 2 4 . 2 5

2 6 .

F or t he p o l i t ica l c onsequences o f t he c hr is t ian isa t ion o f A rmen ia , s ee a l so E nss l in ( 1942 : 8 0 1 ) ; f or t he c onf l ic t b e tween t he emp ires , s ee C haumon t ( 1960 : 1 31f f ) , K le in ( 1977 : 1 69f f ) a nd W in ter ( 1988 : 1 84f ) . F or t he Romano -Armen ian s a trap ies , t he ir a dm in is tra t ive s t ruc tures a nd t he ir l ega l s t a tus , s ee e spec ia l ly Gü terbock ( 1900 : 2 9f f ) , A sdour ian ( 1911 : 1 37 ) , L ehmann -Haup t ( 1921 : 1 91f f ) a nd C haumon t ( 1960 : 1 26) . F or t hese 1 5 f o r ts , s ee a l so Hon igmann ( 1935 : 4 ) a nd D i l lemann ( 1962 : 2 18f f ) . F or t he h i s tor ica l d eve lopmen t o f t he e as te rn l ime s , s ee R i t ter l ing ( 1925 : 1 365f f ) ; F abr ic ius ( 1926 : 5 72f f ) ; E nss l in ( 1942 : 5 4f f ) a nd v an B erchem ( 1952 : 3 f f ) . A lso Wagner ( 1985) , f or a n a l te rna t ive s t ra teg ic c oncep t ion o f Rome i nt he t h ird c en tury a ga ins t f ormer t imes ( s ee L u t twak 1 976 : 1 27f f ) . S ee S chenk G raf v on S tauf fenberg ( 1931 : 4 01f ) a nd ( Enss l in 1 942 : 5 4 a nd 6 6 ) ; f or t he i mpor tance o ft he l im i tane i , s ee v an B erchem ( 1952 : 1 9 f) . F or t he c hr is t ian isa t ion o f A rmen ia , s ee C haumon t ( 1960 : 1 31ff ) , A t iya ( 1968 : 3 15f f ) a nd Gu lbek ian ( 1977 : 4 9f f ) . F or t he d iv is ion o fA rmen ia , s ee Do ise ( 1945 : 2 74f f ) , Veros ta ( 1966 : 4 84f f ) , Adon tz ( 1970 : 7 f f ) , K erouz ian ( 1977 : 1 02 ff ) , S tock ( 1978 : 1 65f f ) a nd B lock ley ( 1987 : 2 22f f ) .

2 8 .

F or t he e xcep t iona l p os i t ion o f t hese A rmen ian s a traps , s ee e spec ia l ly Enss l in ( 1942 : 8 0f f ) . Accord ing t o S ta l lknech t ( 1969 : 3 1) , t here w as n o p lace f or more p rov inces i nt he p rov inc ia l u n ion o ft he R oman Emp ire . He s t resses t he c omp le te ly d i f feren t p os i t ion o f t he s a traps a cco rd ing t o c ons t i tu t iona l l aw i nc ompar ison w i th t he A rab ic s a te l l i te p r inces . F or r e la t ions b e tween Rome a nd A rmen ia d ur i n g t he f our th c en tury , s ee B aynes ( 1910 : 6 25f f ) , P ee ters ( 1931 : 1 0f f ) a nd G arso Ian ( 1971 : 3 41f f ) . F or t h is i mpor tance , s ee Manand ian ( 1965) ; f o r t he t r ade b e tween E as t a nd

2 9 .

Wes t , t he ma jor t r ade -cen tres a nd t he t r ade -rou tes i nA rsac id a nd S asan ian t imes , s ee e spec ia l ly Manand ian ( 1965 : 6 7f f ) . B ear i n m ind t ha t i n 2 98 D ioc le t ian w as a b le t o o b ta in i mpor tan t e conom ic

2 7

a dvan tages f or Rome w i th in t he s cope o f t he t r ade w i th t he S asan ian Emp ire . N arse h ad t o a g ree t o t he t e rm t ha t f o r t he f u ture N is ib is s hou ld b e t he o n ly p lace f or b ar ter b e tween t he Romans a nd t he S asan ians ( Pe tros P a tr ik ios , f r . 1 4 ,F I IG 4 . 189 : c t\ )c z .L T 1 \ )

5

f t ó AL\ )

Tó n o\

T (7 )v

ou

r t a p ax E L L \ )f l\ )

X Aaypc -r ( r C p T y pt 5

NI GL

L

).

3 0 .

S ee Andreo t t i ( 1969 : 2 15f f ) ; Win ter ( 1987 : 4 7f f ) a nd W in ter ( 1988 : 1 92f f ) . F or D ioc le t ian 's c onserva t ism , s ee v an S ick le ( 1932 : 5 1f f ) a nd C hadw ick ( 1979 : 1 52) .

3 1 .

S ee

T homas ( 1969 :

6 59f )

a nd

Meyer

( 1980 : 3 74ff ) , whose

h i s tor ica l

i n terpre ta t ion o f t he f r ieze c yc le o f t he a rch o f Ga ler ius a t T hes sa lon ik i d ocumen ts t he r i va lry b e tween D ioc le t ian a nd Ga ler ius . S ee a l so Ko lb ( 1988 : 1 59f f ) , w hose s t a temen ts a re d i f feren t f r om t hose o f Meyer .

B ib l iography ADONTZ , N .

1 970

Annen ia in t he p er iod o f Justinian . T ue p o l i t ica l c ond i t ions b ased o n t he N a . wr ar s y s te m. T rans la ted w i th p ar t ia l r ev is ions b y N .G . Garso Ian . L isbon .

5 64

ANDREOYT I , R .

1 969

S u a l cun i p rob lem i d e l r appo r to f r a p o l i t ica d i s i curezza e c on t ro l lo d e l c omme rc io n ei l ' impero r omano . R evue i n terna t iona le d es d ro i t sd el ' an t iqu i té . 3 es e r ie 1 6 : 2 15f f .

A SDOUR TAN , P .P .

1 9 11

D ie p o l i t i schen B ez iehungen z w i schen A rmen ien u nd Rom v on 1 90 v .C hr . b i s 4 28 n . C hr . E in Abr i s s d er a rmen i schen Ge sch ich te i nd i e ser P er iod e . V ened ig .

AT IYA ,A .S .

1 968

Ah i s to ry o fe as tern C h r i s t ian i ty . L ondon .

BARCELO , P .A .

1 981

R oms a uswär t ige C ons tan t in i schen

B ez iehungen Dynas t ie

u n ter d er ( 306 -363 ) .

R egensburg . BARNES ,T .D .

1 976

I mpe r ia l c ampa ign s , AD 2 85 -311 . 3 0 : 1 74f f .

1 982

T he

n ew

Emp i r e

o f

P hoen ix

D ioc le t ian

a nd

C on s tan t ine . C amb r idge (Ma s sachu se t t s ) L ondon . BAU MGARTNER ,A .

BAYNES , N .H .

1 894

Anze ta . I n RE 1 . 2 : 2 556 .

1 896

A rzanene . I n RE 2 . 2 : 1 498 .

1 9 10

-

R ome a nd A rmen ia i n t he f our th c en tury . EHR 2 5 : 6 25f f .

B ERCHE M , D . VAN

1 952

L' a rmee d e D ioc lé t ian c ons tan t in ienne . P a r i s .

B LOCKLEY , R .C .

1 984

T he R omano -Pe r s ian p eace t r ea t ie s o f AD 2 99 a nd 3 63 . F lor i leg ium 6 :2 8f f .

1 987

T he d i v i s ion o f A rmen ia b e tween t he R omans a nd t he P e r s ian s a tt he e nd o f t he f ou r th c en tury . H i s tor ia 3 6 : 2 22 f f .

1 9 58

H i s tor y o ft he l a ter R oman Emp i r e f rom t he d ea th o f T heodos ius I t o t he d ea th o f

BURY ,J .B .

e t

l a

r e f orme

J u s t in ian . V o l . 1 .N ew Y o rk . CHAD W ICK , H .

1 979

T he r e la t iv i ty o f mo ra l c ode s : R ome a nd P e r s ia i n t he l a te a n t iqu i ty . I n W .R . S choede l a nd R .L . Wi lken ( ed s . ) Ear ly C hr i s t ian l i t era tur e i n te l lec tua l t r ad i t ion . G ran t : 1 35f f . P ar is .

CHAU MONT , M . -L .

1 960

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al a

COULSTON ,J .C .

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3 41f f

( =

Armen ia b e tween B yzan t ium a nd

S a san ian s N r . R ep r in t s 1 9 85 ) . GRAY , L .H .

1 930

3 .

L ondon

( Va r iorum

F o rma l p eace -nego t ia t ions a nd p eace t r ea t ie s b e tween p re - Muhammadan P e r s ia a nd o the r s t a te s . I n D r . Mod i memor ia l v o lume . P ape r s o n I ndo -I ran ian a nd o ther s ub jec t s w r i t ten b ys evera ls cho lar s i nh onour o fS hamsu l -U la ina J .J amshed j i Mod i : 1 36f f .

B ombay .

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P ar i s .

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Q ue l l en . B ruxe l le s . HO WARD -JOHNSTON ,J .D . 1 983

B yzan t ine Anz i tene .

I n S . M i tche l l ( ed . )

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t i ne A na to l ia : 2 39 f f . O x fo rd . I n te rna t iona lS e r ie s 1 56) .

( BAR

HÜBSCH MANN , H .

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KEROUZ IAN , Y .O .

1 977

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KE1 ITENHOFEN , E .

1 982

D ie r öm i sch -pe rs i schen K r i eg e d e s 3 . J ahrhunder t s n ach C hr . Nach d er I nschr if t S ahpuhr s I .a n d er Ka lbe y e Zar tos t ( SKZ ) .

W ie sbaden . 1 9 84

Ö s t l iche r M i t te lmee r raum u nd Me sopo tam ien . D ie N euo rdnung d e s O r ien t s i n d i ok le t ian isch -kons tan t in i sche r Z e i t ( 2 84 -337 n .C h r . ) . W ie sbaden ( TAVO B6 . 1) .

K IEPERT , H .

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1 977

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1 987

D ioc le t ian u nd d i e e r s te T e t rar ch ie .

B e r l in N ew Y o rk ( Un te r suchungen z u r a n t iken L i te ra tur u nd G e sch ich te 2 7 ) .

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1 921

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M ANAND IAN , H .

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1 977

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MEYER , H .

1 980

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1 885

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OATES , D . a nd J .

1 959

A in

S inu :

a Roman

f r on t ier

p os t

i n

Nor thern I r aq . I r aq 2 1 : 2 07f f . PEETERS , P .

1 925

L e " Pass iona ire d 'Ad iahène " . 2 61f f .

1 931

L ' in terven t ion p o l i t ique d e Cons tance I d ans l a G rand A rmén ie , e n 3 38 . A cadém ie r oya le d e B e lg igue . B u l le t ins d e l a c l a s se d es l e t t r es e t d e s s c ience s mora le s e t p o l i t ique s 5 /17 : 1 0f f .

RA WL INSON , G .

1 875

T he s even monar ch ie s o ft he a nc ien t e as tern w or ld o rt he h i s tor y , g eog raphy a nd a n t iqu i t ies o fC ' ha ldaea ,A ssy r ia , B aby lon , Med ia , P er s ia , P ar th ia a nd S assan ian o r New P er s ian Emp i r e . Vo l . 3 . New York .

R ITTERL ING , E .

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L eg io .

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I n RE

1 2 .2 : 1 329f f .

I n RE 1 6 .1 : 4 09 .

Ana lBo l l 4 3 :

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D ie R öm i sche Ka i serge sch ic te b e i Ma la las . T ex t d er B ücher I X -X I I u nd n ter suchungen . S tu t tgar t .

S ESTON , W .

1 946

D ioc lé t ien e t l a t é t rar ch ie . r e f orme s ( 284 -300 ). P ar is .

S TALLKNECHT , B .

1 969

U n ter suchungen z ur r öm i schen Aus senpo l i t ik i nd er S pä tan t ike ( 306 -395 n .C hr .). B onn .

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1 978

Yazdan -Fr iy -Sapur . E in G ross -gesand ter S apurs I I . E in B e i trag z ur p ers isch r öm ischen D ip loma t ie u nd D ip loma t ik . S tud ia I r an ica 7 : 1 65f f .

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1 921

A h i s to ry o fP er s ia . L ondon .

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1 986

O L t c Lt

ÔLT EXW

TL3

l cpo icç

I . Guer r es

e t

Vo l . 1 .s econd e d i t ion .

w ç

o x o ic

Bu

T Ô\ )

c t

GT'

a\rrI o u \ )cX.

TH O MAS , G .S .R .

1 969

L a s o lu t ion p ersane e t l a l u t tre e n tre Ga lère e tD ioc lé t ien . L a tomus 2 8 : 6 58f f .

TO U MANOFF , C .

1 963

S tud ies i n C hr i s t ian George town .

TRE I DLER , H .

1 965

I ng i lene . I n RE S . 10 : 3 28 .

1 972

Z abd icene . I n RE 1 0 .A : 2 201f f .

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1 932

Conserva t ive a nd p h i losoph ica l i nf luence i n t he r e ign o fD ioc le t ian . CP 2 7 : 5 1f f .

VESROSTA , S t .

1 964

I n terna t iona l l aw i n E urope a nd w es tern A s ia b e tween 1 00 a nd 6 50 A .D . R ecue i ld e s c our s . Académ ie d e d ro i t i n terna t iona l 13 : 4 84f f .

W AGNER , J .

1 985

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A rzanene i n t he l a te s i x th c en tury . I n S . M i tche l l ( ed .) , Arm ie s a nd f ron t ier s i n R oman a nd B y zan t ine Ana to l ia : 2 05f f . Oxford . ( BAR I n terna t iona l S er ies 1 56 ) .

W HITBY , M .

5 69

C aucas ian

h i s tory .

T igr i s .

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1 987

Hande l u nd W i r t schaf t i ns a san id i s ch (os t ) r öm i schen V e r t rägen u nd Abkommen . Müns ter i sche B e i t räge Hande l sge sch i c te 6 . 2 : 4 6 f f .

1 988

z ur

Ant iken

D ie s asan id i sch -röm i schen F r ied ensver t räge d e s 3 .J ahrhunde r t s n . c hr . e in B e i t rag z um V er s tändn i s d er a uBenpo l i t i schen B ez iehungen z w i schen d en b e iden -

G roBmäch t en. F rank fu r t a .M . N ew Y o rk P a r i s . -

5 70

-

B e rn

-

K a iI i ni kos

E I

o ne s T ranst ig r i tan c ie /Ethn

F ig . 3 6 .1 Map o f Roman Mesopo tam ia a f ter 2 98

5 71

3 7 .S O ME RO MAN NAMES ON E ASTERN S IG ILLATA A FRO M S A MOSATA L even t Z orog lu K onya T h i s p aper c oncen tra te s o n t he p o t ter s ' s t amps w i th L a t in n ames w r i t ten i nC re ek c harac ter sw h ich a re f ound o n r ed -g lo ss v e sse ls o f t he " Pergamene " ," Ea s tern S ig i l la ta A " o r" Eas tern T erra S ig i l la ta I " t y pe c ommon ly s e en d ur ing t he l a te H e l len i s t ic a nd e ar ly I mper ia l p er iod i nA na to l ia , S yr ia a nd P a le s t ine . T ak ing a s as t ar t ing p o in t t he n ames I OYA IOY ( l u l ius ) ,w h ich a ppear so n ab ow lo ff o rm 1 8B a nd MAPKOY ( Mar cu s ) ,w h ich i so n af o rm 2 3 b ow l , t he f o l low ing a ssump t ions a r e made : t he n ame s b e long e i ther t o p o t ter s w ho c ame f r om I t a ly a nd s e t t led i n s ou th -eas t A na to l ia a nd S yr ia o r t o n a t ive p o t ter s w ho t ook w e l l -known R oman n ames s uch a s l u l ius , Marcus a nd T i tus .

R ecen t r e sea r ch o n l a te He l len is t ic r ed -g lo s s p o t te ry f r om t he E as t i n d ica te st h a t i tw as p roduced a t af ew c en t ra l i sed w o rk shops ( 1 ) . A s P l iny p o in ted o u t ( NH 3 5 .160 -1) , t h e se f a c to r ie s w e re a t p l ace s s uch a s S amo s a nd P e rgamon , w he re t he e ar l ie s t e x amp le s o f t he ir p roduc t s g o b ack t o t he b eg inn ing o f t he s e cond c en tury BC ( Conze 1 903 : 2 3 ) . I n c e ram ic t e rm ino logy t he e a r l ie s t t y pe s o f t h i s p o t tery a re u sua l ly c a l led " Pe rgamene " (Waage 1 948 : 1 8 f , 3 20 , " Red Ware s " ( S chife r 1 962 ) , " Eas te rn S i g i l la ta A " ( C row foo t a nd K enyon 1 957 : 2 820 o r" Ea s te rn T e r ra S ig i l la ta 1 "( Gunneweg 1 984 : 12 ) . A l a rge a moun t o f t h i s ma te r ia l w a s f o und i nt he e xcava t ions a tS amo sa ta ( Zo rog lu 1 986 : 7 0 ff ) . S ome o f t he s t amp s o n t h i s p o t te ry h ave w ord s e xp re s s ing w ishe s ( f o r e x amp le , XAP JC ) o r t h e n ame s o fc e r ta in g ods o r g odde s se s ( I l i f f e 1 9 38 : 2 3f f ) , b u t o t hers b ear t he n ame o ft he p roduce r ( o rp o t te r ) i nt he s ame w ay t h a t t he A r re t ine a nd Ga l l ic w are sd o . T he se w e s te rn p roduc t ss t ar t a tt he b eg inn ing o ft he A ugu s tan a ge a nd c on t inue t h roughou t t he f i r s t c en tury ( Goud ineau 1 968 : 1 3 ff ) . My t heme i nt h is p ape r i sf i r s t t o s how a f ew s t amp s w he re t he n ame s , a l though w r i t ten i n G reek l e t te r s , w e re f o t i s e to r igo L a t in a nd t hen t o p re sen t t he p rob lems a nd t o o f fe r ah ypo the s i s o n t he se f i ne w are s b y means o f t he s t amped f i nds f r om S amosa ta . T h i sw i l l s e rve u sb e t te r t oa n swe r t he q ue s t ions o fw hen a nd w he re t h i s p roduc t ion f i r s t b egan . T he f i r s t n ame f ound a tS amo sa ta i sJ OYA J OY ( t he g en i t ive f o rm o fJ u l ius ) , w h ich i ss t amped o n t he i n ne r s u r f ace o f t he b ase o f ab ow l F o rm 1 8 B( 2 ) . I t s r e dd i sh b rown g l o s sa nd c ream y e l low c l ay i st y p ica l o ft h is g roup ( F ig . 3 7 .1 a nd P l . 3 7 .1) . T he f r agmen t c ome s f r om t he mound a nd w as f ound i n t he b ui ld ing i d en t if ied a s t he C ommagen ian P a lace , t h e c on s t ruc t ion o f w h ich w as p robab ly b egun i n t he s econd q uar te r o f t he f i r s t c en tury BC a nd w h ich c on t inued t o f u nc t ion , a tl e as t i np a r t , u p t ot he m idd le o ft he f i r s t c en tury AD . B yc ompar ing i t t of i nds f r om o the rc en tre s i nt he E as t w e m ay c onc lude t ha t t h i s f o rm w as p opu la r d ur ing t he s e cond h a l fo ft he f i r s tc en tury BC ( Chr is tensen a nd J ohansen 1 971 : 18 ; Z o rog lu 1 9 86 : 8 3 ) . T he s t amp , p l aced n ea r ly a t t he c en te r o f t he b ow l , i s al o ng , r ec tangu la r s h ape ; i t s s ho r t s i de s a re s l igh t ly c oncave , af e a ture t ha t i st y p ica l o f e a s te rn f a b r ic s . T he f r ame m easure sc .1 . 3 b y 0 . 3 c m . I tc on ta ins , a s men t ioned a bove , t he w o rd I u l i i i nG reek l e t te r s . T h i s i s an ame t h a t i sr a re ly s een o n E a s te rn S ig i l la ta A .

5 73

F ig . 3 7 .1 F ragmen t o f ah ow l f r om S a mosa ta , F orm 1 8 B , b ase i n ter ior w i th p rof i le

5 74

P l . 3 7 .1 F ragmen to f ah ow lf r om S amosa ta , F o rm 1 8B ,b a se i n te r io r

A s f a r a s Ia m a ware , t h e o n ly o the r e xamp le f ound u p to n ow i so n af r agmen ta ry p l a te o f F o rm 1 4 f r om H ama ( Ch r i s ten sen a nd J ohansen 1 97 1 : n o . 4 5 , f i g . 4 2 ) . I n t h e We s t t he s t amp b ear ing J u l iu s i nL a t in l e t te r s a ppear s a tv ar ious l o ca t ions i n I t a ly ( Oxé a nd C omfo r t 1 968 : 2 30 -1 n o s . 8 38 -839 ) . T he l i s t , h oweve r , a l so i n c lude s t wo e xamp le sf r om B e i san i nP a le s t ine . P l ace

S amo sa ta H ama O xé -Com fo r t ( 838 , 8 39 )

F orm o fv e s se l 1 8B 1 4

F orm o fs t amp

L a t in

r e c t . r e c t .

G reek

I OYA IOY I OYA I (OY ) I VL I (VS )

T he n ame o n t he se s t amp s i s t he p o t te r ' s g en t i l i s n ame ; t h a t i s , t he p raeno inen a nd c ognomen w e re om i t ted . T he re w e re v ar ious p o t te r s n amed J u l ius w ho worked a td i f f e ren t t ime sb o th i nA rezzo a nd i nG au l . I ti su nce r ta in w he the r i tw as o ne o f t he se I u l i i w ho , a s a n o r ien ta l s l ave , a dop ted t he R oman n ame a nd m oved f r om t he E a s t t ow o rk i nt he We s t . B e fo re p re sen t ing m yh ypo the s i s o n t h i s q ue s t ion Iw i sh t od e s c r ibe as e cond s t amp f r om S amo sa ta . T he s e cond n ame o f ab a se f r agmen t b e long ing t o F o rm 2 3 i s MAPKOY ( t he g en i t ive f o rm o f Marcus ) ( F ig . 3 7 .2 a nd P l .3 7 .2 ) . A l though t h i s f r agmen t w as f o und i nt he l owe r c i ty w he re t he s t ra t ig raphy i sn o t c l ear ly d e f ined , s imi lar b ow l s h ave c ome f r om t he l e ve l s o f t he l a te f i r s t c en tury BC a nd f i r s t c en tu ry AD i nt he

5 75

u ppe rc i ty . T h is d a te i si d en t ica l t ot h a t o ff i nd s f r om S amar ia , H ama a nd An t ioch ( Zo rog lu 1 986 : 8 8 a nd n n . 7 8 , 7 9 , 8 1 ) . T he s t amp i sa ga in p l aced i nt he c en t re o ft he b a se , b u t i sb igge r , m easur ing c .2 . 0 b y 0 . 5 c m . T he l e t te r s i n t he s t amp a re b ig ge r b u t c a re le s s ly m ade . T he r edd i sh ma t g l o s s a nd t he l i gh t r edd i sh c l ay o f t h i s b ow l i sd i f feren t f r om t he p rev ious b ow l . T he n ame o f Marcus i nG reek i sa ga in r a re ; Ik now o fo n ly o ne e x amp le o n ab ow l f r agmen t o f F o rm 2 3 f r om An t ioch (Waage 1 9 48 : 3 4 n o . P 332 , p l . 5 / 4 6 0 p ) . Ano the r e xamp le n ow i n L ondon h a s t he s ame s t amp o n ad i sh ( T uf fe 1 9 38 : 3 6 ) . B u t l i ke J u l ius , Marcu s i s an ame k nown f r om s t amp s o n A r re t ine p o t te ry ; af ew p iece s o ft h i sw are h ave b een a l so f ound a tA thens a nd Smy rna ( Oxé a nd C omfor t 1 968 : 2 53 n o . 9 66 ) . C lear ly , t he n ame o n t he se s t amp s i st he p o t te r ' s p raenomen . A s Ih ave a l ready men t ioned , w e a re n o t a b le t o g i ve a n e xac t d a te t o o ur f r agmen t f r om S amo sa ta . A cco rd ing t o Waage ( 1948 : 3 6 f f ) , w ho b ased h i s d a t ing o n t he s t ra t ig raphy o f t he f i nd s i n c lud ing t he p iece s t amped w i th t he n ame o f Marcus , F o rm 2 3 b e long s t o t he f i r s t a nd s e cond q uar te r s o f t he f i r s t c en tury . T h i s d a te a g ree sw i th t h a tf o rt he f i nd sf r om S amar ia a nd H ama ( Zo rog lu 1 986 : 9 1 ) . P lace

F o rm o fv e s se l

F o rm o fs t amp

S amo sa ta An t ioch L ondon A then s Smy rna O xé -Com fo r t ( 966 )

2 3 2 3 ? (d i sh ) 1 8 ? (base )

r e c t . r e c t . ?r e c t . P . P . P . P .

L a t in

-

-

G reek

MAPKOY MAPKOY MAP/KOY

C I MARC I MA RCVS

I ti sw o r th n o t ing at h i rd L a t in n ame , T ITOY ( t he g en i t ive f o rm o fT i tus ) . T h i s s t amp h as b een f ound o n s he rd s a t An t ioch (Waage 1 948 : 3 4 n os . P 1001 a nd P 1386 ) a nd D ib s i F ara j ( Harpe r 1 980 : 31 n o . 1 6 ) . Un fo r tuna te ly , w e h ave n o t f ound ap ara l le l a tS amo sa ta . We m ay n ow r e tu rn t o t he q ue s t ion o f h ow t he se L a t in n ame s i nG reek l e t te r s c ame t o b e s t amped o n E a s te rn S i g i l la ta A i nG reek l e t te r s . I n o rde r t o s o lve t h i sp rob lem o ne mu s t e xam ine t he w ide rp o l i t ica l , e conom ic a nd c omme r ica l r e la t ion sb e tween E as t a nd We s t d ur ing t he f i r s t c en tur ie s BC a nd AD . S i nce s uch as t udy i sb eyond t he s c ope o f t h i s a r t ic le , Iw i l l n o t v en ture t o c on s ide r t he se r e la t ion s i na ny d e ta i l . Iw i l l o n ly s ay t h a t d u r ing t h a t t ime r ed g l os s p o t te r y w as p opu la r ly u sed i n t he e as te rn a nd w e s te rn h a lve s o f t he R oman Emp i re a s f i ne t ab leware . I th as l o ng b een a c cep ted t ha t t he o r ig ina l p roduc t ion c en t re o f t h i s k i nd o fp o t te ry m igh tb el o ca ted s omewhe re i nt he E a s t . When R ome ' s f r on t ie r s r e ached t he E uphra te s , a f te r P ompey 's s e t t lemen t o f t he E as t i n 6 3 BC a nd e spec ia l ly d ur ing t he 3 0 s a nd 2 0 s BC , s ome f i ne w are s s oon t ob e f o l lowed b y t he i r m ake r s c ame t oI t a ly f r om t he He l len i s t ic E a s t ( Pucc i 1 977 : 1 9 ) . F o r e xamp le , i ti sg ene ra l ly a ccep ted t h a t M . P e renn ius T ig ranus a nd P e renn ius B arga the sw e re o r ig ina l ly o r ien ta ls w ho m ig ra ted t oI t a ly a nd s e tu p f a c to r ie st he re , a dop t ing R oman n ame si nt he p roce s s( s ee I l i f fe 1 938 : 3 ;

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F ig . 3 7 .2 F ragmen t o f ac up ( ca la thus) f rom S amosa ta , b ase i n ter ior w i th p rofi le

P l . 3 7 .2 F ragmen t o f ac up ( ca la thus ) f r om S amosa ta , b ase i n ter ior

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Goud ineau 1 968 : 3 39 f ) . I ts eem s p o s s ib le t o me t h a t , w hen r ed g l o s s p o t te ry b ecame p opu lar i nI t a ly , an umbe r o f n a t ive I t a l ian p o t te r s p robab ly c ame t o t he E as t i n o rde r t o g a in e xpe r ience o f t y pe s p roduced i n t he f a c to r ies t he re . T hen t hey e s tab l i shed t he i r w ork shop s a nd s t amped t he i r n ame s o n t he v a se s i nG reek l e t te r s . T he s e cond p o s s ibi l i ty i s t h a t s ome o f t h e p o t te r s a cqu i red R oman c i t izen sh ip a dop ted w e l l -known R oman n ame s s uch a s J u l iu s , Marcus a nd T i tus . T hey c on t inued t o m ark t he i r p roduc t s w i th s t amp s w r i t ten i nG reek l e t te r s . We u nde r s tand f r om t he p rovenance s o ft he se s t amp s t h a t t he se p o t te r s n amed J u l ius , Ma rcus a nd T i tus w o rked i ns ou th -eas t Ana to l ia , S y r ia a nd P a le s t ine .

N o te s 1 .

2 .

F o r ag ene ra ld e sc r ip t ion o ft he e a s te rn f a c to r ie s , s ee C row foo ta nd K enyon ( 1957 : 2 81f f ) ; s ee a l so C h r i s ten sen a nd J ohansen ( 1971 : 5 5 ff ) , Z o rog lu ( 1986 : 6 1 -70 ) . A cco rd ing t o J ohan sen ' s c l a s s i f ica t ion ( Ch r i s ten sen a nd J ohan sen 1 971 : 18 , 1 20 a nd f i g . 4 6 ) .

B ib l iography CRO WFOOT ,J .F . a nd G .M . , a nd KENYON , R .M . 1 957

T he o b j ec t sf r om S amar ia , S amar ia -S ebas t e . R epo r t o f t h e w ork o f t h e j o in t e x p ed i t ion , 1 931 -1933 , a nd o f t h e B r i t i sh e xp ed i t ion i n 1 935 . V o l . 3 . L ondon .

CHR ISTENSEN ,A .P . a nd J OHANSEN , C .F .

1 971

Hama . F ou i l l e s e tr e che r che s d e l af onda t ion C a r l sbe r g 1 931 -1938 . 3 /2 . L e s p o t er ie s h e l len i s t ique c t/ e s t e r r e s s i g i l le e s o r i en ta le s . C openhague ( Na t iona lmusee ts S k r i f te r 8 ) .

CONZE ,A .

1 903

D i eK l e inf und ea u sP e r gamon . B e r l in .

GOUD INEAU , C .

1 968

F ou i / / e s d c 1 ' é co l e f r anca i se d c R ome a B o l sena ( Pog g io Mo sc in i ) 1 962 -1967 . V o l . 4 . L ac e ram ique a r e t ine l i s se . P ar is .

GUNNE WEG ,J .

1 984

T he o r ig in o f e a s te rn t e r ra s i g i l la ta -A a nd H aye s ' " Cyp r io t s i g i l la ta " ( on t he b a s i s o f n eu t ron a c t iva t ion a na ly s i s ) . I n H . D annke ime r ( e d . ) S tud i en z ur r öm i schen K e ram ik . V o r t räg e d e s 1 3 . i n t e rna t iona len K ong r e s se s d e r R e i C r e tar iae R o inanae F au to r e s : 11f f .

HARPER , R .P .

1 980

A th i s -Neocae s are ia -Qas r in -D ib s i F a ra j . I n J .C I . Ma rgue ron ( ed . ) L e Moyen E uphra te . Z one d c c on tac t s e t d ' é c / zange s . A c te s d u c o l loque d e S t ra sbourg , 1 0 -12 m a r s 1 977 : 3 27 -48 . L e iden .

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I L IFFE ,J .H .

1 938

S igi la ta w are s i nt he N ear E a s t . 15 0 .

1 968

C orpus V asoru in A ,r e t inoru in .A c a ta logue o f t he s i gna tur es , s hape s a nd c hrono logy o fI t a l -

QDAP 6 :

OXE ,A . a nd CO MFORT , H .

i a ns i g i l la ta . B onn ( An t iqu i ta s3 /4 ) . PUCC I , G .

1 977

L e

t e r re

s i g i l la te

I t a l iche ,

G a l l iche

e

O r ien ta l i . I n : L' i n s t ru inen tum d ome s t icur n d iE r co lano eP ompe i : 921 .R oma .

S CFLkFER ,J .

1 962

T e r ra s i gi la ta a us P e rgamon . AA : 7 77 -802 .

WAAGE , F .O .

1 948

He l len i s t ic a nd R oman t ab lewa re o f N or th S y r ia . I n F .O . Waage ( ed . ) Ant ioch o nt he O ron te s V o l . 4 . 1 C eram ic sa nd I s lam ic c o in s : 1 60 . P r ince ton -London -The H ague .

ZOROOLU , L .

1 986

S amo sa t 'da

b u lunan

d ogu

s i g i l la ta la r i

i l k

r aporu . S e icuk U n iver s i te s i F en Ed eb iya t F akü l te s i Derg i s i 3 : 6 1 -1 00 . (W i th E ng l i sh s ummary ) .

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ÖZETLER

1 . I r ak ' ta D ic le N ehr ik i y i s inda S eh Qubba 'da g örev l ib i rR oma s i n ir b i r l ig in in y er Ie me a l an inda y ap i lan a cma lar Warw ick B a l l Musu l 'un 9 0 k m k uzeyha t i s indak i y ük sek b i r k aya l ig in t epe s inden D ic !e 'y i g ö ren 5 eh Qubba y e r 1eim in in s t ra te j ik b i r k onumu v ard i r . B u y e r g eç I s lam d önem in in t ahyay la c ev r i l i b i r k asahas i g ö rünümünded i r . B u d önemden b i r r e sm i y ap in in a l t inda s ü rdü rü len d e nn b i r a cmay la , S a san i/B izan s c anak -cöm leg iy le b ag lan ti l i b i r y ap i o r taya ç i kar i !m it i r . B u y ap in in a l t inda d a , p i§ m i § t op rak tan y ap i lm i§ b i r b o ru h a t t in i O r ten t ahan moza ik k a l in t i lar in in p a rca lar i b u 1unmutur . B u k a l in t i la r , I r ak ' tak i P a r t/Roma y e r 1e me Ie r inde k a ri lai 1an y e I . S . 3 .y üzyda O zgü " g ev r ek c anak c öm l ek " !e r iy le i l g i l i g O rü lmütür . D aha s onra , t a byan in y an indak i b i r d i z i a cma , e n a z 2 me t re k a l in l ig indak i b i r mo loz b i r ik in t i s in in e n a l t inda S a san i/B izan s y e P ar t/Roma m a izeme s in i o r taya c i ka rm it i r . Dog rudan t a bya lardan a l inan k e s i t te i s e , g e rcek te b u d uvar in t op rak y e s i k i§ t i r i lm i § c ak i l t alar indan o l uan b i r s e t o l dugu g ö rü 1mütür . Ancak , t a r ih ieme k onu sunda y a rd imc i o l ah i lecek b i r m a izeme b u lunamam it ir . B u y e r 1e men in s t ra te j ik k onumu , 3 . y üzy i l " g e v r ek ç anak c ör n 1 ei "n in b u lunmas i y e e sk i k aynak iardan e d ind ig im iz k an i t la r e h Q uhha 'n in C as t ra Mauro rum 'un R oma s i n i r b ö lge s inde g ö rev l i b i rb i r l ig in in y e r !eim a l an i o l ab i leceg i g ö rü ünü a k ia g e t i rmek ted i r .

3 . R oma ' l i lar in K afkasya 'y la u gra ma lar i : K ho lk i sy e I b erya 'n in k ou l 1ar ina R oma ' l i lar in t e pk is i D av id C . B raund B u b i ld i r ide K af kasya t op rak iar i ü ze r inde b u lunan K ho lk i s y e I be r ia b ö lge le r in in f i z ik i c og raf yas i i n ce lenmek ted ir . B undan a mac , R oma ' l i lar in b u b ö lgey le o l an a ske r i , s i yas i y e i k t i sad i i l g i le n in in d aha i y i a n lamak t i r . A yn i a mac la , y ak in y i l larda h u b ö lgede g e rcek le� t i r i lm i § o l an e n O nem i i k im i a rkeo lo j i ç a l i ma !ar i d a e l ea l inacak t i r .

4 . l uvena l is y eD ogu : H icv in t a r ihse l k aynak o l arak k u l lan i lmas i S .H .B raund H icv i , t a r ih i çn k aynak o l arak k u l lanmadan O nce , 1 ) a yn i o l ay lar i d og ru lay ic i n i te l ik tek ih i c iv d ii k an i t lar ; 2 ) i r in h ang ib ag lamda i lend ig i ; 3 )h i c iv t ü rünün k u ra l lar i ; 4 ) h i c iv d ii e deb i g e lenek g i b i b a ka e t ken le r ü ze r inde d e O nem le d urmak g e rek i r . A ncak o z aman h i c iv , t op lum sa l t a r ih i çn g üven i l i r b i r k aynak o l ur . I uvena l i s ' in H ic iv le r ' inde d og ru lar la y e Doguy la i l g i l i k im i y olama la r v a rd ir . Dogunun i n san lar i R oma 'da u ö ze l l ik le r iy le g özükü r le r : 1 )k ö led i r le r ; 2 ) d ü ük y a am lar i v a rd i r ; 3 ) e rkek l ik g üc le r in i y i t i rm ile rd i r , O ze l l ik ie d e h ad imd i n lar ; 4 ) h a t i l i n anc lar la , h a lk in h o r g ö rdügü b i r t a k im d i n se l i le r 1e u g nai n Iar . B e lge le r in ig inda I uvena 1 is ' in H ic iv le r ' i e l e a l ind ig inda g ö rü lmek ted i r k i , ob i r c ok g e rçek m a lzemey i g öz a rd i e d ip ine g e len i s e çm i; a n la t t ik ia r i k i smen g e ncek k i smen t i p !e m i; y i p lq r n i § o l an lar d a s a l t h i cve e l ve n i1i ig inden O t ürü s eç i Im it i r . I u vena l i s ' in H ic iv le r ' inde Dogu , 1 .H ic iv 'dek i k im i y o l lama lar d iinda , h al ica i k i h ag lamda g ö nü lü n ( 1 . H ic iv 'dek i ü n lü b i r m i to lo j ik o l ay in

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s ahne lenme s i v a rd i r ) , 1 ) Dogu , z eng in l ik y e p ahal i m af la r in k aynag id i r , ö rneg in k ö le le rK ücük A sya l i 'd ir ; g e rc ib undan k uku d uyma rn iz i ç in b i r n eden y ok tur ama Wk s m adde le r in t ek k aynag i d a Dogu d eg i ld i r ; 2 ) Dogu d end i m i , Roma I mpara to r lugunun s inir ü l ke s i a n 1ai 1 ir y a d a d og rudan ö y le g ö s te ri i r . B u b a! ik a l t inda ü ç p a sa j i n ce lenmek ted i r : 8 . 167 -170 , 6 . 407 -12 , 2 . 159 -70 . B u p asa j la r in t a r ih se l k aynak o l arak k uf lani lma s inda k a ri 1ai 1an ö nem l i g üc lük le r b ub i ld i r ide e l ea l inm it i r .

6 . K afka sya b ö lge s inde R oma p o l i t ika lar i 1 .b ö lüm : G n .P ompe iu s 'dan D om i t ion 'a k adar

E dward D abrowa R oma ' l i lar in K afkasya 'da i l k o l arak g ö rü lme le r i , Dogu Akden iz b ö lge s inde c ok g en i § t op rak iar f e theden v eya k on t ro lü a l t ina a lmaya h ak k azanan Gn . P ompe ius z aman inda g e rçek le m it i r . F aka t R oma ' l i lar in K afka sya b ö lge s iy le i l g i l i p o l i t ika lar g e I it irme 1e r i , A ugu s tus d önem ine r a s t la r . Ancak , b u d önemden s onra I mpara to r lar i , A r sac id ' le r in e l inde b u lunan g ücü o l arak , A rmen ia ü zer inde k on tro lü e l e a lma y e g en ileme p o l i t ika lar in i b en imsem ile rd i r . B u p o l i t ikan in b en im senme s in i i z leyen i l k mücade lede , R oma ' l i lar I be r ia y e A lban ia h anedan la r in in mü te f f ik le r i o l arak h areke t e tme le r i h a l inde , s öz k onusu h anedan la r in k end i le r ine c ok y a rar l i o l acag in i a n lam ilard i r . B öy lece , P ar t K ra l lar ina y e A rmen ia 'ya k ari , b u k üçük k ral ig i k end i c i kar lar i d og ru l tusunda k ulanman in k end i le r i i çn c ok a van ta j l i o l duguna k a rar v e re rek , o r tak h areke t e tmeye b alad i lar . B u o r takhk , ö ze l l ik ie k end i le r in in müdahe lede b u lunamad ik iar i d urum la rda c ok ö nem k azanacak t i . He r z aman i çn A rmen ia 'y la i l g i l i o l an I ber ia y öne t ic i le r i , g aye t b aar i 1 i b i r § ek i lde P ar t ' la r in ü l ke ü ze r inde e tki i b i r k on tro l s ag lama lar in i ö n lem iIe rd i r . D aha s on ra , R oma l mpara to r lar iy la P a r t K ra l lar i a ras inda s i k s i k meydana g e lm i § a n la maz l ik 1ar s i ra sr nda R oma ' li lar , mü t te f ik ler i A !ban ia 'h lar in ç ok f a ydas in i g ö rmüIe rd i r . C og raf i k onumu n eden iy le A lban ia 'n in s t ra te j ik ö nem i v ard i . B u k onumu n eden iy le A lban ia , A rmen ia t oprak Jar i ü ze r inde e t k i s ah ib i o l ah i leceg i g i b i , Anado lu 'da b u lunan R oma E ya le t le r in in d e g üven l ig in i a r t i r iyo rdu . Hem I be r ia , h em d e A lban ia K rai l a r i , K a fkasya d agl ik a raz i s i ü ze r indek i a ske r i y e t i car i t r af ig i k on tro l e deb i lecek i d ea l p oz isyondaydi l ar . B u n eden le , b u k ra l l ik lar la s ü rdü rü lecek y ak in iki le r , ü l ken in h e rhang ib i r t a r af indan g e lecek s a ld ir i lar in , b u k ra l l ik t a raf indan k on t ro l a l t ina a l inma s in i s ag layacak t i . K uzeyde b u lunan g öcebe g rup lar i i cnde , e n t e h l ike l i g rup A lan i ' le rd i . B u n eden le , a r t in k o ruma s i s tem le r i od e rece ö nem k azanm it i k i , F l av ian ' lar a sker i g üc lerden y arar lanmaya k arar v e rm iIe rd i .

7 . D ogu 'da g örev l iS üvar i S ubay lar i H .D ev i jver 1 9 86 y i l i N i san a y inda S he f f ie ld Ün ive r s i te s i 'nde d üzen lenen k o lokyumda s unmu§ o l dugum " Dogu ' lu S üvar i S ubay lar i " b al ikh b i ld i r imde , R oma l mpara to r lugu 'nun d ogu e ya le t le r inden ç i kan s üva r i s ubay lar in i e l e a lm it im . " Dogu 'da g ö rev l i S uvar i S ubay lar i " b aI ik l i h u h i ld i r iy le d e , k onuy la i l g i l i o l arak s öy leneb i !ecek le r i t amam lamay i s öz le r im i g üc lend irmey i a maç l iyorum . M i l i t iae e que s t r e s s i s tem iy le i l g i l i b i r g i r iten s onra , Dogu e ya le t le r inde b u lunan o rdu larda g ö rev l is ubay lar in b u g ö rev iy apma lar in in n eden le r in i b u lup c i karmaya c a l iac ag im . D ogu e ya le t le r i a r as indak i a t ama larda i zenen b e l ir l i b i r c og raf i s i ra v a r m iyd i?

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V a r sa , b u o l gu n as i l a c ik lan i r? D ue v e/ya d a i k l ime b ag l i e tken le r , d ogu 'dak i a s ke r l ik d eney im i , p a t rona b ag lanma , g i de rek a de g e lenek ie r i b u s eç im i e tk i l iyo r m uydu . B u s o ru lara , y an i t b u lmak i çn , Dogu e ya le t le r inde g ö rev a lm i § s ubay la r la i l g i l i b i r a rat i rma y ap i lma l id ir . Ancak , b u c a l i mada y a ln izca b i r g ö rev a 1m i s ubay lar la , b i rden c ok " mi i t ia "y i y e r ine g e t i rm i § s ubay la r a ra s inda b i r a y i r im y apmak z o run ludur . B u n eden le , K apadokya S u r iye Y ahud iye/Sur iye F i i s t in M i s i r A rab i s tan e ya le t le r i i çn ç i f t a rat i rma ö ngö rü lmütür . B u a rat i rman in s onuc lar i ö ze l l ik le c a rp i c i o 1mutu r . Dogu lu e qu i t e s ' in d eg iik g ö rev ie rde b u lunmu o lmas i d ikka t c ek ic id i r . B un lar in %57 ' s iy a ln izca b i rm i l i t ia 'y iy e r ine g e t i rmek ted i r ; %60 ' 1 d oguya ö zgü g ö rev le r i y ü rü tmek ted i r ; %8 .5 ' i Dogu e ya le t le r i 'nde s ü rdürmek te o l duk ia r i g ö rev ie r in y an i s i ra b a ka b ö lge le rde d e g ö rev y apmak tad ir lar k ib uh ö lge le rB r i tanya R en T una y eA f r ika 'd i r . -

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8 . R oma i mpara tor lugu 'nun d ogu sunda e konom ik g e l i me s t ra te j i ler i J .W .E ad ie B ugün h i l imadam lar in in b i rçogu S i r L aw rence K i rwan ' i nL euke K ome 'n in A rab is tan k i y i s inda Y arbu b ö lge s ine d eg i l d e , A yunah b ö lge s ine y e r let i r i 1me s i g e rek t ig i y o lundak i ö ne r i s in i k abu l e tm i, a ncak , b u v ar say im in d ogu rdugu e konor n ik s onuç lar ü ze r inde c ok a z d u rmutu r . 1 979 y i hnda R iyad k onfe ran s inda a q ik lanm i § c l an b u g ö rü e s i k s i k y o l lama y ap i lmak tad i r ama b i ld i r in in k end i s i d aha y ay im 1anmam it i r . A caha A yunah y ak in lar indak i l iman i naa t i b unu i s te r N eba t i ' le r i s te r R oma ' W ar y apm i § o l sun Güney A rab i s tan ' la P e t ra a ra s inda k u ru lmu§ t ü tsü b i tk i le r i t e c im y o luy la r ekabe t in b i r p a rcas i o l arak m i , y ok sa M i s i r l i man lar i Myo s Ho rmo s y e B e ren ike H e r ekabe t e tmek i ç in m i y ap i lm it i . L euke K ome , A yunah y e A kabe k ö r fez in in k uzey u cundak i A i lana ( Ai la ) y e r leim b i r im i a r as inda i l ik i v arm iyd i , v ar i d iy se , b u n e t ü r ik iyd i? n eyd i? B u y e r le r , a n t ik c agda d oguy la h a t i a r as indak i t e c im in c ok k ücük moza ik g i b id i r ama b un lar R oma 'n in d ogusundak i e konom i s t ra te ji le r in in g e l i me s i ik in b üyük a t i l im lar in g e rçek le me s inde y a rar i o l an , ö g re t ic i n i te l ik tek i k ademe b ö lge le r id i r . B u b i ld i r ide d ca l inacag ig i h i , R oma 'n in A rab i s tan ' id a I mpa ra to r luga k a t t ik tan s onra K i z i lden iz b ö lge s inde g e l it ird ig i e konom ik f a a l iye t le r i s ap tamada ö ze l l ik le b üyük ö nem i v ard ir . -

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9 . R oma k a le ler in in b i c im y eb üyük lügü H e g arn izonunun a sker s ay is ia ras indak io ran Morde cha iG ichon G üc lü , g üc süz h i rçok t op lu luk s ü rek l i o l arak k u l lan i lan i s t ihkam la r i na e tm i1e rd ir . l s t ihkam lar in b i r i y i y ar n a z s ay ida i n san la b üyük t eh l ike le rden k o runmak sa , ö tek s is ib ek lenmeyen s a ld i r i lara b aa r iy 1a k a ri k oyabi lmek t ir . Y e te r l i s a y ida a ske r y okken b i le , R oma ' l i y e tk i li le r e l dek i s i n i r l i k aynak iar i e n e konom ik b i c imde k u l lanma s o runuy la k ari k ariya k a lm i1a rd i r . Ancak , k im i i s t ihkam la r i y e ter ince d ona tah i lmek i çn , ö nem l i s ay ida a ske r i g üce g e rek s inme v ard i r . Y e te r l i s a y ida a ske r le y ap i lmayan h e rhang i b i r s avunma , H ac l i s e fe r le r i s i ras inda F i l is t in 'de h u lunan h i rcok k a lede o l dugu g i b i , ö l üm t u zag ina d önüebi i r . c ok s ay ida a ske r le d ona t i lm i§ o l an k a le le rde i s e , b enze r t e h l ike s öz k onu sudu r : e snek l ik ö nem l i ö l cüde y i te r , s avunmaci lar in h areke t y e teneg i k i s t i lan i r . B lenhe im 'da F rans iz ' lar in , L euven 'de H asbu rg ' l u lar in f e lake t in in n eden i b u o 1mutur . S onuc o l a rak , s avunma g e rek s in im le r ig özönünde t u tu la rak i s t ihkam la r in u ygun b i c imde d onan im i , g arn izon lar in g ün lü t a l im le r i , k a le d iindak i e tk in l ik le r i

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y e b unun d aha g en i § p l andak i s t ra te j iy le i l g i l i o l a rak o ynad ig i r o l i s te r s a ld ir ida i s te rs avunmada o l sun h e rz aman u l u sa lg uven h ig in t emele r inden b i r io 1mutur . -

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1 0 . Z enob ia y eA rap lar D av id G raf 3 .y üzy i lda P a lmy ra k ra l içe s i Z enoh ia g üdümünde g e rcek 1et i ri len i s yan , d oguda b ag ims iz b i r d ev ie t in k u ru lmas iy la s on b u 1mutur . Z enob ia 'n in , F i is t in ü ze r inden A rab i s tan 'a y e s on ra M i s i r 'a y ap t ig i s e f e r , c ei t 1 i y azi l i k aynak iar y e d eg iik b ö lge le rde b u lunmu § e p ig raf ik k a l in t i lan la y e te r ince b e 1ge 1enm it i r . Yen i k aynak iar Z enoh ia 'n in h ü tün A rab i s tan 'da g e rqek le§ t i rm i § o l dugu f a a l iye t le r i o r taya ç i karmak tad i r . B u h e lge le r in d i i y e c og raf ya a ç i s indan ç ei t 1 i 1 ik , a yak lanman in b ö lgede y a ayan y e r l i h a lk ü ze r indek i e t k i le r in in d ü ünü Ienden b üyük y e s ü rek l i o l dugunu a k la g e t i rmek ted i r . K i sa s ü ren b u a yak lanma ( I .S . 2 70 2 72 ) , c ok I mpara tor A ure l ianu s k omu tas indak i R oma g üç ler ince c ahucak b a s t i ri lm isa d a , R oma 'h lar in z af e r inden s onra h ö lgede o r taya q i km i§ o l an s l yasa l y e k ü l türe i g e 1 i me Ie r in y o rum lanma s inda b u o l ay a nah tar o l ay o imutu r . I s lam i ö nce s i y en i A rapça me t in le r b u o l ay lar in a ç ik lanmas ina y ard imc i o lmak tad ir lar . S afev iy az i t lar in in B o s t ra 'da ( C IS 5 ,4 448 y eS IG 7 8 ) Med le r ' le R oma 'h la ra r as inda g eqm i § o l an b i r mücade leden s öz e tme s i , P a lmy ra g üc le r in in i ç inde I r an g üc le r i d e o l dugundan ,y az i t larda s öz e d i len b u mücade len in Z enob ia 'n in A rab is tan e y a le t in in h a ken t ine s a ld i r ip e l e g eç i rme s i o l arak y o rum lanah i l i r . B a ka e p ig raf ik b e ige le r i s e , Z enoh ia 'n in b u s a ld i n i lar i G üney y e K uzey A rab i s tan 'dak i A rap ' la r i k end i amac id og ru l tusunda h areke te g eç i rmek ü ze re k aynat i rmak i ç in d uzen led ig in i a k ia g e t irmek ted ir . O y le g o rünüyo rk i , h u I s iam i ö nce s i A rap y az i t lar iy ia a yn i b ö lgede b u lunmu§ k im i A ram i y e Y unan y az i t la r i a r as inda a r as inda t a r ih h i r h ig i v a rd ir y e b un lar , a yak lanman in K uzey A rab i s tan ' in k ara b aza l t ' tan o 1 u an ç öler in in d e r in l ik ie r ine k adar y ay i lm j§ o l dugunu g ö s te rmek ted ir . B u a yak lanmay i b as t iran R oma b i r l ik ie r in in i cnde o l as i l ik ia P a lmy ra 'dak i b i r l ik ie rden a ske n ier v a rd i , A rap k ah i le le n i d c P a lymra 'n in K ra l içe s in i d e s tek i iyo rdu ; b un ian in h eps i y ap t ik iar i i Ie n in h e lge le n in i b ü tün c ö ie y az i t lan y azanak h i nakm ilard i r . -

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1 2 . R or na i mpara tor lugu 'nun d aha g en i§ ç ap l is i n ir p o i i t ika s in in b i r p ar ças io l arak D ogu e ya le t ler i N icho las H odg son Dogu e ya !e t he r inde , B n i tanya 'dak i" Had n ianus S u n iar i "y a d a A lman " L imes " i g i h i ö zen le y ap i Ir n i s ü rek l i b i r s e t le r b e l l i a r a l ik ia r la y e r le§ t i rdm i § a sker i k uru iuIardan o I uan y apay s i n i r s i s tem i n eden y ok tu? K onuy la i l g i l iy o rum lar , e n h ata d a L u t twak ' in y o rumu o lmak ü ze re , b u o i guyu ç ö l k ou 1 ian inda s i n i n lara y öne len d eg iik b i n a ske r i t e h l ikey ie a c ik lamaya ç a i i m it i r . B u b i ld in ide I . S . 2 .y e 3 .y üzy i l iarda S un iye , F i l i s t in y e A rah i s tan 'dak i a ske r i y e n Ieim d üzen inde , a sker i s avunma a maç lan in in h ata g e lmed ig i , e konom ik c og ra f yan in y e e i e g ec i r i r lecek d üzen i s ag lanacak t op rak iardak i k en t 1e me d e rece s in in g özönünde t u tu ldugu o r taya k onacak t ir . B u i ke , h a t i e ya le t le n in in d aha ö zen ie g e rqek le§ t i rf lm i § s i n ir s i s tem le n ine u ygu lanacak , g ene h o l arak R oma s i n i r lan in in d üzen lenme s inde n e ö i çüde y a in izca a ske r i a maç lar in g özönünde t u tu idugu k onusu a r at in i 1acak t i r .

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1 3 . I t aa ty ed ene t im :T aI ik K i l ikya "dabar i §n as i ls ag lan iyordu? K e i th H opwood B u b i ld i r ide , T al ik K i l ikya 'da o rdunun y e y e re l k oluk g üc le r in in h uzu ru s a g lamak i ç in b avu rduk Ja r iy ola ry et op lum sa ly ap ida k a l i t sa lo l arak b u lunan y eb u i l em ler i k o lay la § t i rm t § v eya z o r la § t i rm i § o l ab i len e t ken le r ç özüm lenmeye c ahi 1acak t i r . K oluk g üc le r in in y e r le r i y e c ah ma a l an la r i ek iyan in ü s le r i o l arak h i l inen b u b o lge le r le k a ri !at i r i lacak y e k oluk g üc le n in in y asa la r i u ygu lamadak i h aa r i lar i b e l i r lenecek t i r . A y r ica k oluk g üc le r in in t op lum i c indek i y e n, e ya le t tek i s u c i !eme e g i l im i o l an g rup la r y e y asa lara u yan k ii le r ü ze r indek i e t k i le r i d e b u b i ld i r ide i n ce lenecek t i r . D ioc le t ianu s d önem inden s on ra k uru lmu§ o l an s ü rek l i g a rn izon lar in ç a l i ma 1ar i i l eI mpa ra to r luk o rdu lan in in s e fe r le r i , s i lah a l t ina a lma y e e mek l i a ske r le r in y aad ik 1a r i y e r leim 1e r a r ac i l ig iy la s ag lanan d aha b a r ic i l y a t it 1rma y ön tem le r iy le b i r l ik te e l e a hnacak t i r . B u e t k in l ik le r , e ya le t in t op lum sa l y e e konom ik y ap i s i i cnde d ege r lend i r i lecek y e b u y ap i lardak i g e l i me le n le h ag lan t is ik uru lacak t i r . Amac im , h e rhang i b i r k an iik 1 ik s i ras inda z a rara u g rayacak o l an y e re l y öne t ic i s i n i f in h ar iin k o runmas i i ç in k oi luk g üc le r iy le e t k in i b i r 1 ig in i o r taya k oymak t ir . B u y öne t ic i s i n i f in d eg ien v a r l ig i i n ce lenecek , e ya le t i c inde y e d iinda m eydana g e len e konom ik y e t o p lum sa l g e 1 i me le r le o l an i l ik i s i g ö s te r i lecek t ir . S onuc ta , k i saca , Z eno y öne t im in in k end i e ya le t indek i e t k i le r i ü ze r inde d u ru lacak t i r .

1 5 . L u t twak ' in " Büyük S t ra te j i " k uram iy eR oma i mpara tor lugu 'nun d ogu s i n ir i B en jam in I s aac R oma i mpara to r lugu 'nun d ogu e ya le t le n i b a t i y e k uzey e ya le t le r ine g o re d aha a z a r at ir i 1m i o lmas ina k a rin , b u k onuda b avu ru 1abi lecek t a r ih i k aynak o l dukca c ok tur . U s te l ik , P ar t/ I ran ü l ke s i , R oma ' l i lan in ö t ek i u l u s lar la o l an i 1k i 1e r inde e n ö nem ! i t e k e t kend i r . B u n eden le , L u t twak ' in R oma I mpara to n 1ugu 'nun " Büyük S t ra te j i s i " k u ram in in d enenme s ib ak im indan d ogu u ygun h i r y e r o l a rak k arim iza ç i kmak tad i n . R oma 'n in a maç i h ep s avunu lab i l i r s i n i r lar e l de e tmek m iyd i , y ok sa b unun y am s i ra a ske r i g ücünü e konom ik a mac la m i k u l lanmak c ahas indayd i , b u , D ogu 'da ö t ek i b ö lge le rden d aha i y i a n 1ai 1ab i l ir . B i ld ir ide aag ida b e l i r t i len §U n ok ta lar t a n t ii 1acak t i n : ( 1 ) s a va § y e b an iIa i l gi i k a rar lar n as i l a l in iyo rdu? ( 2 ) R oma s i ya se t in in u zun y e k i sa d önem l i h edef le n i n e le rd i? ( 3 ) S i n ir h a t t in in s e c im i n a si l k ara r 1at i r ihyo rdu? ( 4 ) B i n a ske r i b ö lgen in O nem i n a s i lt a n im lan tyo rdu? ( 5 ) C og ra f'an in y eh abe ra lman in n o lü n eyd i?

1 6 . S ur iye e y a le t in in R oma i mpara tor luk o rdusuna a sker i k a tk is i D av id K ennedy Dogu 'dak i R oma o rdu sunun , b u radan y o la ç i karak t Ur n d ogu lu a ske r le r in , b a t i 'dak i le r le k ari 1at i r i 1d ig inda , d üük n i te l ik l i y e a z y e n im l i o l dugu k an i s i g ünür nüz t a r ihc i le r i a r a s inda y ayg ind i n . B u k an in in b i n k aynag i b i n a vuç A n t ik y a zard ir . B i r k aynag i d a a yn i ö zel ik le n in § imd i d eg i l se b i le y ak in g ecm ite ç ag i rn iz in d ogu u l us la rm in o rdu lar inda g öz iem lenme s id i r . B u b i ld i n in in d O r t a mac i v a rd ir . B i r inc i s i , a s ke r i e ya le t le r in b al ica s i y e D ogu 'dak i a ske r i b i r l ik ie r in e n h üyük k aynag i o l an S u r iye 'y i ö rnek o l a rak a lmak y e R oma o rdusunun t ümüne D ogu e y a le t le r in in n e ö l cüde i n sangücü s ag lad ig in i s ap tamak t i r . I k inc i s i , s i s ter ndek i d eg iik ! ik le r i h u lup c i karmak ; U cüncü sü , b i r l ik ie r in y e a ske r le r in ö zel ik le r in i

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i n ce lemek ; s on o l arak d a Dogu ' lu b ag lam i ç inde e l ea lmak t i r .

a ske r le r in d üük n i te l ig ine i k in i n anc i b u

1 7 . D ogu e ya le t ler i 'y le i l g i l i b i rs orun : O r tadan y ok o l an I X . L e jyon L awrence K epp ie I X . L e jyon H i spana 'n in i . S . 1 08 y i l inda Y o rk ' ta ( B r i tanya ) s on k ez g ö rü lme s ine d eg in c ok d ü ünce 1e r i l e r i s ü rü lmütü r . B un la r in b i r k i sm i c i dd i g ö rüle rd i r . E sk i g ö rü, b u l e jyonun I . S . 10 -120 y la r inda B r i tanya 'da s avata t e le f o l dugu i d i . B u g 6 r i j§ a r t ik t u tu lmuyo r . O nun y e r ine , b u l e jyon 'nun y a aman in 1 30 , g i de rek 1 60 y i lar ina d eg in s ü rdügü y e b a ka e ya le t le rde g ö rev lend i r i ld ig i g ö rü ü t u tu lmak tad ir . B ugün I X . L e jyon 'nun Dogu 'da y a Y ahud iye 'de I . S . 1 32 -5 y a d a K apadokya 'da 1 61 'de y ok e d i ld ig i g örü ü e gemend i r . B u b i ld i r ide l e jyon 'nun k i sa ömür lü o l dugu g ö rüü s avunu lacak y e B r i tanya 'da o r tadan k a ik t ig ina d eg in e sk ig ö rü ün h a la b i l imse lg e ce r l ig i o ldugu k an i t lanacak t ir . -

1 8 . R oma 'n in s on d önem ler inde ! r an ' l i lar la y ap i lan s ava1arda s e f er h az ir l ik iar i A .D .L ee E ndüs t r i d ev r im inden ö nce y a§ a m i § t op lum la rda , b üyük a ske r i s e f er le re h az i r lanmak , ö rneg in a ske r ib i r l ik ie r i t op lamak y el e vaz im i s ag lay ip d epo lamak c ok z aman a l an i 1e rd i . B u n eden le , d aha s e fe rb alamadan s ava§ h az i r l ik iar in in h abe n d ü mana u l aahi iyo r , o n lar i t e h l ikeye k ari ö nceden u ya rab i l iyo rdu . B u b i ld ir ide R oma y e I r an I mpa ra to r luk iar i a ra sr ndak i s avalarda b u o l ay la i l gi i b e lge ler e l e a l inmak tad i r . A yn i z amanda t a r ih te I r an ' l i lar in R oma 'h lara k a ri y apm i§ o l dugu s e fe r le re c i kmak i çn t op lanma y e r le r is o runu d a ö zel ik le e l ea l inacak t i r .

1 9 . A n t ik c ag in s on lar inda D ogu 'dak iR oma k en t ler in in s avunu lmas i : N ece fs orunu A r ie lL ew in A n t ik c ag in s on lan inda muazzam k en t d uvan la r i i naa e d i l iyordu . B uy ayg in u ygu laman in k en t le r in y a amr nda y en i y e ö nem l i b i r y e r i v ard i r . B u d uvar lar in y ap i lmas in in n eden i 3 . y üzy i l in o r ta lar inda I mpa ra to r lugun g üven i ç inde o lmama s id i r . U ygu lama d aha s on rak i y üzy ilarda d a s ü rmütür . K e s in s onu acak o l ur sak , s a ld ir i o l as i l ig i p l an b i r d ü man g özönünde t u tu ldugunda , b u muazzam d uvan la r in i nas i y a ln iz I r an s i n i n inda k aç in i lmazd i . S asan i ' le r in y ük se l ii i l e R oma ' li la r i k ua tma k onu sundda b i lg i l i b i r d ü man 1a k ari k a riya k a Im ilard i r . B u b i ld i n ide , N ece f ' tek i k en t le r in k end ine ö zgü d u rumu e l e a l inm it i r . Y ayg in u ygu lamaya k ari t o l arak , b u k en t le r muazzam d uva r la r i naa e tm it i r . B unun a c ik lamas i c ö l k i y i s inda k üçük k en t le r o 1mas i n ede iy le I mpa ra tor luk s i n i r lar in in c i dd i b i r t e h l ikey le k a ri k ariya o lmamas id i r . B u k en t le r in B edev i k ab i le ler iy le g ene l o l a rak i y i i 1k i le n i v a rd i y e k o l luk g ö rev i y apan g üc le r y örede d üzen i s ag lamaya y e t iyo rdu .

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2 0 . 1 . S .3 99 y t l inda K ons tan t inapo l i s ' te m eydana g e len G a inas o l ay i J .H .W .G .L iebeschue tz B a t i R oma i mpara to r lugu 'nu y i k ima g ö türen g e l i me 1e r in b enze r i 1 2 T emmuz I . S . 4 00 'de D ogu 'da g e rçek le med i ; g e rcek le m i o l sayd i , Dogu R oma I mpara to r lugu o g un y i k i lacak t i . B u t a r ih ten O nce K on s tan t inapo l i s ' te b üyük b i r o rdu k arargah k urmutu . B u o rdunun e r le r i c ogun luk la Go t ' tu ; b a1a r inda d a G a inas , a d inda Go t k öken ! i R oma 'h b i r s ubay v ard i . B u a dam d aha b i rkac a y ö nce , I mpara to r A rkad ius 'u b a§ n az i r i , muhaf iz b i r l ig i k omu tan i Au re l ianu s 'u g ö revden a l ip emek l i g ene ra l S a turn inus y e e tki i b i r s a ray a dam i o l an I oanne s ' le b i r l ik te k end is ine t e s l ime z o r 1am it i . B un lar h arp d i van inda y a rg i lan ip s ü rgüne y oHanm it i . Y en i a t anan muhaf iz k omu tan i d a G a ina s ' la y ak in i b i r 1 ig ine h az i rd i . G ö rünüte G a inas , B a t i 'da S t i l icho 'nun e l de e tm i § o l dugu y e re g e 1m it i . G a ina s ' in d üü ü i l e i l g i l i f a rk l i b i rcok O ykü a n 1a t i lm it i r . B en im b i ld i r imde k onuy la i l g i l i o l arak A rcad ius s ü tununun ü ze r indek iy on tu lar k am to l a rak k u l lan i lacak t i r . B u a n i t G a inas ' in o r tadan k a 1d i r ihin in a n i s ina d iki lm it i r . G e rc i s ü tun b ugun t a hn ip o Imutur a ma ü ze n indek i y on tu lar b i r d i z i c i z imde o l dukça d og ru b i c imde b e t ir n 1enm it i r . B i ld i r imde s ü tun i k i a ç idan k am t o l a rak e l e a hnacak t i r : 1 )S ü tun G a inas ' in d üüü i l e i l g i l i k ou I 1ar ü ze n ine n e g i b i a ç ik lama la r g e t i rmek ted i r? 2 ) S ü tu n un g i z i h i ze a n la tmak i s ted ig i n ed i r? -

2 1 . K ra l

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a pur y eI . S .3 59 'da Am ida ( D iyarbak ir ) k en t in in k ua tmas i C hr is L igh tfoo t

B u b i ld ir i d e , I . S . 3 59 y i hnda Am ida k ua tma s i s i ras inda meydana g e 1m i k ücük ama ö nem l i b i r o l ay e l e a hnacak t i r . K ua t i lan k a leden c i kamayan R oma h i r l ik ie r in in i çnde Amm ianus 'da v ard i r . Amm ianus , k a ley i s avunan lar la g 6 rü me 1e ry apmak ü ze re s u n lara y ak 1aan s oy lu la n in b ainda P e r s ' le n in S eh inah i 1 . S apur 'u g ö rdügünü s öy lemek ted i r . K im i ç ev re le rde Amm ianus 'un b u i dd ia s i k u kuy la k ar i 1anm it i r . B i ld i r in in k onu su , k rahn b a hg in in b e t im i ü ze r inde y ogun la mak tad i r ; b unun la i l g i l i o l a rak s i ray la ü ça c ik lama e l ea l inmak tad i r .

2 2 . E p igraf iy eN o t i t ia D ign i ta tum ( Or iens 3 7 ) H enry I nnes MacAdam No t i t ia D ign i ta tum O r iens 3 7 'de g ecen k im i y e r a d lar i ( Roma d önem i A rah is tan ) u zun z amand i r Y ak in Dogu 'da b u lunan b az i y e r 1e me 1e n 1e ö zdelet i r i !mek teyd i . D iaf en i s Ma smayah ' la , S pe lunc i s D ay r a l -Kahf ' la v e Asaba ia Z ubera t y ada Q a 1 'a t D aba 'a 'y la . i md i b u 6 zde1et i rme le r , Dogu U rdün 'de y ap i lm i§ o l an y en i e p ig raf ik b u 1u1a rdan y a ran lan i la rak d eg it i ni lebi in i n . B u b i ld in ide u 6 zde1et i rme 1e n i ö ne receg iz . D iafen i s i l e Qu s r A z naqo S pe lunc i s H e Umm Qu t tay y eA saha ia B e D ay r K ahf . B u t a n t i man in m e rkez in i , Q as rA z naq 'da b u lunan b i n s i n ir t ai ü ze r indek i y az i t y e b u y az i t in , b u k a len in s t ra te j ik ö nem i y e ç ev re s inde b u lunan a s ke n i ü s le n le i l gi i o l a rak a n la t t ik iar i o l uturmak tad ir . B u a ske r i u s le r , S t ra ta D ioc l e t iana 'n in g üney u cundak i A z naq v aha s in in i c inde y e y ak in inda y e ra lmak tayd i !ar .

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2 3 . L S .2 78 'de K remna 'n in k ua t i lmas i S tephen M i tche l l K remna 'n in e n e sk i i s t ihkam d uvar lar i , ö ze l l ik le g üney k ap is i , o l as i l ik ia He len i s t ik d önem in s on lar indand i r . Augus tus 'un z aman inda b u y e r le me k u ru ldugunda , b a t i d uva r la r i b oyunca , 3 . y üzy i la d eg in a yak ta k a lm i § o l an 1 2 d i kdö r tgen k u le i naa e d i Im it i . Ancak , o l as i l ik ia I . S . 2 50 y i l lar inda k u le le r a r as inda k a lan d uvar lar k en t in me rkez inden a lmm i § m a izemey le Go t y e I r an s a ld i r i la r ina k ari y en iden i na e di lm it i r . ß öy lece K remna y en iden t ahk im e di lm i b i r k a le d u rur nuna g e 1m it i r . Z o s imu s 'a g o re , I mpa ra to r P rohu s z a man inda k en t , L yd iu s a dl i I s au r ia ' l i b i r h aydu tun e l ine d ü ünce , k u§ a t dm i § y e d i § d ünyay la b ag lan t i s i k e s i Im it i r . B u h aydu t a ncak u zun b i r k ua tmadan s on ra t e s l im o lmutu r . K en t i 2 78 y i l inda L ikya y e P amph i lya v a l i s i T e ren t ius Ma rc ianus 'un k omu ta s inda b i r R oma o rdu su k ua tm it i r . 1 986 y e 1 987 y i lar inda s ürdü rdügümüz y üzey a rat i rma lar i s i ras inda k ua tmadan k a lan 2 5 m e tre y ük sek l ig indek i k ua tma t e pe s iH e k aba t atan y ap i lm i § i k i d uvar s ap tanm it i r .

2 4 . T oro sy e I ) ogu T oro s lar iy ük sek ten y ea l çak tan g ecen y o l lar T im M i tf ord L imc s ' in d ag l ik k e s im le r i , a n t ik c ag in i çnde c özü lme s i g üç s o run lar o lmutur . D aha s onra y ap i lan a rat irma 1a r la h u k e s im le rde e sk ic ag lardan b e r iv a r o l dugunun a n 1ai 1mas i h i z i § ai r tmama 1 id i r . B u d urum H ad r ianu s Y o l R ehbe r i i l e P eu t ing e r T ab lo su a r as inda g ö rü len a y rt hk lar in a ç ik lanmas ina y ard imc i o l ab i l i r . ç ünku , L ime s e n a i cak y e r le rde b i le 2 . 150 me t reden y ük sek o l an g e c i t lerden g ecmek teyd i . S a ta la 'n in g uney y e b a t i s indak i s i ra d ag la r , K ema l iye 'n in b a t i s indak i An t i to ro s ia r , Ma la tya i l eK ah ta c ev re s i a r as indak iT o ro sd ag lar i ü ze r inden g eçen i k i y o l v ard ir . B un la rdan h i n, O smanh ' lar in k ui land ig in i k öprü le r y e h an ia n la d a b e l i n led ig im iz k ervan y o ludur . B u y o l , e l den g e ld ig ince e n d ü ük s e v iye l i h a t ü ze r inde v ad i le r h oyunca d äne d o la a z o r lu k i v r im lar y ap ip a ncak e n a l çak y e k e s t i rme g ec i t !e r i k u l lanah i lmek i ç in y ük sek l ik k azanmak tayd i . E sk i d önem lerden o l dugu b e she i l i d ag in s i r t in i i z leyen y o l i s e , y ük sek y e a c ik h a t lar ü ze r inden g ecmek ted i r . Y o l s e ç im i , y an i a i cak tan y e y ük sek d ag lar in v ad i le r in i k e se rek y a d a o n lar i i z leye rek g i tmey i , d eney im in y an i s i ra y ük sek l ik le b ag lan t i l i o l an h ava k ou 1 1ar i b e ! i r iemek teyd i . ç unku , y o l la r i y az in b ogucu s i cak l ik ta o l urdu , y ük sek ie rdek i y o l lar sa d ik a ma d aha k i sa o l u rdu . B una k ari 1 ik , Agus to s a y inda s e r in y e h o §g i d im l i o l an d ag s i r t lan ik iin b i rkaç a y k a rdan k apan i rd i .

2 5 . F i l is t in 'de ! . S .3 51 -352 o l ay lar i : b un lar R oma ' I i lara k ari g er çek lq t ir i lm i§ s on a yak lanma m iyd i? Menachem Mor S on y i l larda , a kadem ik ç ev re le rde i . s . 3 51 -352 'de Ga l lus C ae sar d önem inde F i l i s t in t op rak iar inda meydana g e lm i § o l an o l ay lara k ari i l g i y en iden c an Ianm it i r . G eçm ite b u o l ay lar k im i a rat i rmac i ia r R oma y önem t im ine k ari g e rqek le§ t i r i lm i§ o l an s on Y ahud ia yak ianmas i o l a rak d ege r lend i r i rken , k im i le r i d e h u o l ay lar la F i l is ti n 'de R oma ' I i ia r a k a ri g e rqek lq t i r i lm i§ d i renme le r a r a s inda h i cb ir i l ik i o lmad ig in i i l e r i s ü rmek teyd i . S on y i l larda ü ç a rat i rmac i a yak ianma g ö rü ünü y en iden s avunmutur . B un lar : B arbara G e i le r N a thanson , T he f our th c en tu ry J ew i sh " R evo l t " d ur ing t h e r e ign o f G a l lu s . D i s s . , Duke Un ive r s i ty 1 981 ;

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J o seph Ge ige r , T he r e vo l t d ur ing G a l lus ' r e ign a nd t he e p i sode o f t he r ebu i ld ing t h eT emp le b yJ u l ianu s . I n Z . B aras e ta l . ( ed s . ) ,E r e t zI s rae lf r om t h e d e s t ruc t ion o f t h eS econd T emp l et ot h e Mo s l em c onque s t : 2 02 -208 . J e rusa lem 1 982 ( I b ran ice ) ; y e P e te rS chäfe r , De rA u f s tand g egen G a l lu sC ae sar . I nJ .W . V an Hen ten e ta l . ( ed s . ) , T r ad i t ion a nd r e in t e rp r e ta t ion i nJ ew i sh a nd e a r l y C hr i s t ian l i t e ra tu r e , e s say s i nh onor o fJ ürg en C .H . L eb ra in : 1 83 -201 . L e iden 1 986 . B u h i ld i r ide ö nce y ukar ida b e l ir t i len k onuy la i l g i l i a rat i rma lar in s on d u rumu y en iden g özden g ec i ri lecek , i k inc i o l a rak I . S . 3 5t 352 y i J la r inda meydana g e lm i§ o l ay lar d ca l in ip y en iden d ege r lend i ri lecek y eb u o l ay lar in R oma 'h lara k ari g e r qek le § t i r i lm i § s on Y ahud i a yak lanma s i o l arak a ç ik lan ip a c ik lanamayacag i s o runu t a r t it lacak t i r .

2 6 . N o t i t ia I ) ign i ta tum 'a g öre 4 .y üzy i lda A rab is tan e ya le t indek i R oma g arn izonu S .T homas P arker A rab i s tan e ya le t in in t a r ih inde b u e ya le t tek i e k s ik s iz d ökümünü N o t i t ia D ign i ta twn 'da h u lah i l i r iz . G e rc i k im i b i r l ik ie r in y e r i u zun s ü reden b e n b i l inmek teyd i . A nc ak ,g e r i k a lan la n in y e r 1eim a l an in in n e re s i o l dugu c ogu k ez k e s in d eg i ld i . S on y t l iarda , h u e ya le t te y ap i lan a rkeo lo j i a r at irma lan y e b i rkac a rat i rma p ro je s in in s onucunda o r taya ç i kar i lan lar h i l inen y e r 1eim a l an lar inda h ang i b i r l ik le r in b u lundugunu d og ru o l arak s ap tamam iza o l anak v e rm it i r . B u k an i t la r o rdu b i n l ik ie r in in d ag i l im in i d aha i y i a n lamam iza y ard imc i o l dugu g i h i , b unun s onucunda b i z im R oma 'n in o d önemdek i a mac lar in in y e s t ra te j i s in in i p uc lar in i d a y aka lamam iz i s ag lar .

2 7 . R oma -Par tc a t i mas inda Y ahud i ' ler in y en U r ie lR appapor t K onumuz ia i l gU i o l arak , b i im a dam la r in in a n la § m i § g öründük le r i i k i n ok ta v a rd ir : ( a ) R oma ' l i lar la P ar t ' lar a ras indak i i ki le r Y ahud i p o l i t ika lar in i y e t u tum lar in i h üyük ö l cüde e t k i 1em it i r ; ( b ) b u d önem le i l gi i b al ica k aynag im i z o l an l o sephus F l av iu s , P ar t ' lar in Y ahud i t a r ih indek i e tk i s in i g ö rmezden g e lme e g i l im inded i r . B u b i ld ir i d e , Y ahud i t a r ih inde P ar t ' lar in g e rcek r o l le r i y e E sk içag t a r ihc i le r in i n i b u r o lü ö nem s i z g ö s te rme le r i k onusu a ra s inda b ag lan t i k u ru lacak t i r . B u n eden le , aag ida b e l i r t i len § u n ok ta lar y e o l ay lar ü ze r inde d uru lacak t ir : ( a ) I . l o anne s H y rcanus y e P ar t U lke s i , ( b ) A lexande r l amneu s y e P ar t U lke s i , ( c ) l amneus i l e 1 . A r i s tohu lo s y e P on tus , ( d ) S he lom -Z ion A lexandra y e T ig rane s , ( e ) A n t igonu s y e P ar t U lke s i , ( f ) n um isma t ik b e ige le r ( Ne s ib i s v b . ) , ( g ) He rod ' lar y e P ar t U lke s i , ( h ) B üyük I s yan ( 66 -70 ) y e P a r t U lke s i , ( i ) I uda ia y e P ar t D ia spo ras i ; A d iahene d ah i l ; g äc le r ( Zamar i s ) ; k a tk i lar ( y ar im e ke l ) ; b ag ilar ; k u t sa l z i ya re t le r ( b k . A c ta a po s to larum ) ; ( j ) T ra ianus z aman inda a yak lanma lar . S onuc : P ar t ' la r in , Y ahud i ' le r in R oma 'ya k ari t a k ind ik iar i t a v r i e t k i leme s i , R oma ' l i lara k ari d i renme le r in i g üç lend irme s ine k a tk ida b u 1unmutur . B u , a n t i R oma a k im i k ö rük Iem i a ncak P ar t ' lar h unun s onuc lar indan y arar 1anmam ilar y a d a y ara r l an am a mi I ard ir . B u , P ar t ' lar in g ücünün s o luk suz o l u undan i l e n i g e Im it ir . P ar t ' l a r k end i le r in i s avunahi lecek y e R oma ' li la r i t ehd i t e deh i lecek k ada r g üç lüdür le r , a ncak b u g ücün u zun s ü re l i y e g en i § k ap samh s a ld irgan b i r p o l i t ikay i i z l eyecek s o lugu y ok tur .

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2 8 . A nas tas ius d önem inden l us t in ianus d önem ine d eg in R oma I mpara tor lugu s t ra te j i ler iy eg üney A rab is tan Z .R ub in B u b i ld i r ide , Anas tas ius d önem inden l u s t in ianu s d önem ine d eg in A rab is tan y a r imadas indak i d eg iik o ge le r , ö zel ik le H imyar b ö lge s i y e A l -K inda k ab i le le r k on f ede rasyonuy la Dogu R oma I mpara tor lugu a ra s indak i k armaik i Ik i 1e r a g i s i s tem i ü ze r inde d uru lacak t i r . S avunu lan d üünce , b u b ö lgede R oma I mpara to r 1ugu 'nun h a1 ica a mac in in U zak Dogu 'ya u zanan b i r t e c im y o lu k urmak y e i 1e tmek o l dugudur . B u y o l , S asan i ' le r in Dogu R oma 'h la r in t e c im y o l lar i ü ze r inde k u rduk iar i monariy i s olayacak y e R oma t e c im i , ö ze l l ik le i p ek t e c im in i S a san i ' !e rce k onmu§ o l an a i r i y ük sek g üm rük le rden k u r taracak t i r . B unda Dogu R oma I mpara to r 1ugu 'y la A k sum 'un E t iopya 'h I mpara tor lar in in o r tak ç i kar lar i v ard i . N i tek im Ak sum T mpara to r lu 'gunun H i r i s t iy anhg i k abu l e tme s in in p erde a rka s indak i g e rcek n eden b udu r ; a yn i z amanda , H imyar t op rak iar inda H i r i s t iyan lar i Musev i K ra l D hu -Nuwas ' in k i y ima u g ra tmas in in n eden i d e b udur . G eç An t ik c ag in i k i h üyük g ücü a ra s inda , b u mona rin in b ag im s iz b i r g üç o larak o r taya c i kmak i ç in g ö s te rd ig i c aba lar h em C ons tan t inopo l ' in , h em d e S asan i I mpara to r lugu 'nun i l g i s in i c ekm it i r . B u s ay , § imd iye d eg in y e te r i d e recede ö nem v e rdmem i§ o l an P eh iev i k aynak iar in in y ard im iy la k an i t lanacak t i r .

2 9 . S ha 'ar h a Amak im 'dek ig eç H e len is t ik d önem k a les inde d ör tm ev s im s üren k az i lar A r thur S ega la nd Y ehuda N aor S ha 'ar h a Amak im K ibu tz 'u H ay f a 'dan 1 5 k m u zak l ik ta , Aag i G a l i le 'dek i S h f ar 'am t e pe le r in in d ogu y amaç lar indad ir . D aha 3 0 ' lu y dl a r i o r ta lar inda P rof . B . Mazar b u y e n le s im in K ra l H e rod 'un e mek l i s üvar i le r in i y e r 1et ird ig i y önem t im me rkez i G abba -H ippeon o l dugunu ö ne s ü rmütü . B u y e r Ie mede , 1 984 y az indan b e r iH ay f a Un ive r s i te s i , A rkeo lo j i B ö !ümü , S ha 'ar h a Amak im K ibu tz 'unun i b ir 1 ig i i l ek üçük c ap ta k az i lar y apmak tad i r . Dö r t mev s im s ü ren k az iç ah ma 1ar is onunda , b i r s i ra d uvar i l e ç ev n i l i g ö rkem l i a n i t sa l h i n He len i s t ik k u le ( 1 3 m x1 2 m ) o r taya ç i kar i Im it ir . B u y e r , E sd rae lon V ad i s in in g i r iin i k o ruyan o ldukça ö nem l i , s t ra te j ik k onumu o l an k ücük h i n k a led i r . Hem k u len in k end i s i h em d e d uvar lar He len i s t ik d onem in ö nem l i ö ze l l ik le r inden b i r i o l an ö zen le k e s i lm i § y e y on tu lmu t alardan y ap i lm it i r . S i kke y e c anak ç öm lek g i b i b a ka b u lun tu la r d a b u y e r !e men in g eç He len is t ik d öneme t a n ih iend i ri lme s i g e rek t ig in i ( 1 .0 . 3 . y üzy i l s on lar i , 2 .y üzy i l b alar i ) g ö s te rmek ted i r . S on i k i mev s imde c ah ma lar b i r y era l t i s u s i s tem in in t em iz ienme s i ü ze r inde y ogun la m it ir . B u raya 4 m e tre d e n in l ig inde , e n a l tr ndak i 9b asamak Ja 1 6 me tre l ik t üne le a c i lan b i r k uyu y a rd i rn iy la u I ai 1m it ir . 2m e tre y ük sek l ig inde y e s ug eç i rmez s i va H e k ap l io l an b u t üne lb üyük b i n y e ra l t i s a rn ic ina a ç i lmak tad ir . B u y e r a l t i s u s i s tem i c ok n ad i r k a ri lai lan , o l dukca i l g inç h i ny ap id ir .

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3 0 . Ma la tya 'n in d ogusundak . iK aram i ldan k a le s i V ei lS ev in a nd Z a f er D enn i . S . 1 . y üzy i lda l e g io X I I F u lm ina ta 'n in Me l i tene 'de (Ma la tya ) s ü rek l i o rdugah k urup 4 .y üzy ihn s on lar ina d eg in b urada k a ld ig ib i inmek ted ir . B u l e jyonun k a le s in in E sk i Ma la tya 'da o l dugu d ü ünü 1üyo rdu . Ancak b urada y api lan c a l i ma !ar in h i c b i r i k a ley i o r taya c i karamam it i . O y sa , y en i Ma la tya k en t in in 8 k m . d ogusunda , g ünümüzde K a rami ldan a d iy la b i inen s a rp , k a lke r b i r k aya l ik ü s tünde ö nem l i b i r y e r 1e me v ard i r . 3 20 x3 00 m b oyu t la r indak i , d ikdö r tgen im s i b i r p l an g ö s te ren b u y e r le me s u r lar la ç ev ri id i r . D i§ y üz le r i d üzgün d ikdö r tgen h i ok lar la k ap tanm i § o l an b u s u r ü ze r inde 4 . 00 x 3 . 60 m b oyu t lar inda b e l i r l i a r a l ik iar la d iar i t aan k u le le r v ard i r . S u r lar in i cnde a nakayaya o yu lmu s a rn ic lar y e y ap i lar in t eme l k a l in t i lar in in i z le r iv ard i r . B u rada y üzeyde e l e g ecen ç anak c öm leg in c ogu g eç H e len is t ik d önem k i rm iz i s e ram ig id i r . B un la ra e sk iden B e rgama S e ram ig i d en i rd i , § imd i " t e r ra s i g i l la ta " y a d a " dogu s i g ila ta ' sf ' d enmek ted i r . B un lar , y e r 1eim in He len i s t ik d öner ne , b e lk i d e R oma 'n in e rken d önem ine t a r ih ienme s i g e rek t ig in i g ö s te rmek ted ir . I hma l e d i lm i § b u y e r 1e me , h u y e r in Me l i tene 'dek i R oma l e jyonunun y e r let ig i a l an o l ab i leceg i k onusunda ö nem l i i p uc lar iv e rmek ted i r . -

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3 1 . I l asmon Iu lar d önemnden R oma d önem ine d eg in Y ahud iye 'de Manc in ik I s rae l S ha tzman K im i h e lge le r i . O . 2 . y üzy i ldan b alayarak , I S . 1 .y üzy i la d eg in c ei t 1 i o rdu lar in Y ahud iye 'de m anc in ik k u l land ig in i d og ru lamak tad i r . K im i a rkeo lo j ik b u lgu lar d a , k ua tma s i ras inda h em s a ld iran lar in h em d e s avunmac i lar in b u s i lah i k u l land ig in i s öy leyen y az i l i k aynak la ra e k o l arak y en i b i lgi le r v e rmek ted i r . B urada ü ze r inde d urmaya d ege r i k i n ok ta v ard i r : B un lardan i l k i , H asmon ' lu lar in d aha Makkah ' l i J udas d önem i g i h i e rken b i r t a r ih te m anc in ik k u l lanmaya h alam i o lmas id ir . B unun an i am i , Y ahud i a yak lanmac i lar in He len i s t ik d önem in a sker i t e kno lo j is in in b u s i l ah in i k u l lanacak b ece r iy i , H a smon ' lu la r in a yak ianmas in in h atamas indan ü ç y i l g i h i b i r s ü re s onra e d inm i § o lma lar id i r . I k inc i n ok ta i s e , Y ahud i y e 'dek i R oma g arn izonu y ard imc i b i r l ik ie r inde He rod 'un o rdusundan a l d ik iar i k u l lan ima h az ir h u s i lah lar in b u lunmas id i r . B öy lece , b i r ikm i § o l an c ei t 1 i h e lge le r , Y ahud iye 'de a r a l ik s iz o l arak b u s i lah i k ui lanan b i r l ik le r in v ar l ig in i o r taya k oymak tad ir . D eneb i l ir k i , Y ahud i o rdusu , H e len i s t ik o rdudan Y ahud iye 'dek i R oma o rdu lar ina b u s i l ah in k u l lan im inda a rac i l ik e tm it i r . B oy le b i r g e 1 i men in , R oma I mpara to r 1ugu 'nun h a ka d ogu e ya le t le r inde d e meydan g e lm i § o lmas i m ümkündür . A yn i z amanda , m anc in ik k u l lanma g ö rev in in a ux i l ia b i r l ik ie r ine v e r i lmes in ig e rek t iren k ou 1 1ar in o r taya k onmas inda y arar v ard ir . .

3 2 . K iz i lden iz l iman lar iy eF l ind is tan -Arab is tan t e c im i S teven E .S idebo tham Akden iz h avza s i i l e G üney A rab i s tan -H ind i s tan a r as indak i t e c im ik i le r i P to lema io s ' lar , N aha t i ' le r y e R oma 'h lardan O nce d e v ard i a ma , b u ü ç d ev ie t ten O ze l l ik ie R oma , d ogu ü l ke le r i i l e o l an d en izyo lu t e c im in i g e l it i rm it ir . K izi lden iz k i y i s inda , g üneyde t aB ah -e l - Mandeb 'de , b e lk i d aha ö tede y en i l iman la r y api lmas i y a d a o n lar in g en ile t i Ime s iy le t e c im c ok i l e r 1em it i r . B u b i ld i r ide , ö ze l l ik ie K iz i lden iz ' in k uzey inde h u lunan , M i s i r y e S uud i A rab i s tan t op rak lar i i c e r i s inde 7

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l i man ü ze r inde d uru lacak t i r . K i z i lden i z k i y i s inda , M i s i r t op rak iar indak i P to lema io s -Roma d önem in in b a hca l iman lar i k uzeyden g üneye d og ru § un lard i r : ( 1 ) K ly sma -K leopa t r i s -A r s inoe , ( 2 ) Myo s Ho rmo s , ( 3 ) P h i lo te ras , ( 4 ) L euko s L imen , ( 5 ) N ekhe s ia y e ( 6 ) B e ren ike . S uud iA rah i s tan t op rak iar i i ç e r i s inde o l an 7 . l i man i s e L euke K o rne 'd ir . A rkeo lo j ik y e a n t ik c ag in y azt h b e lge le r i , ö rneg in A ga tharkh ide s ( D iodo ru s S i ky lo s ' ta ) , A r tem ido ro s ( S t rahon 'da ) , S t rabon , B üyük P l in ius , P e r ip lu s Mans E r y thrae i 'de y e K laud io s P to !ema io s , b u t e c im i , t e c im i y ap i lan m a l lar i , t e c im i y ü rü ten g i r iimc i le r in " m i l l iye t le r i "n i t op lum i çndek i y e r le r in i , h üküme t le r in t e c im i k o 1ay lat i r ic i y e k a r la r i a r t ir ic i n i te l ik tek i y ön tem l e r in i a c ik layan c ok h i lg i le r v e rm it ir . B i r b ü tün o l a rak b u b e lge le re b ak i ld ig inda , h üküme t le r in p o l i t ik , e konom ik y e a ske r i t u tum lar in in b u t e c im le b i reh i r u ygun luk i c inde o l dugu g ö rü lür . A rkeo lo j ik b u lgu lar i s e , M i s i r ' in K iz i lden iz k i y i s indak i l i man lar iy la h i n te r land i a r as indak iy e re l/hö lge se l t e c im a g ina ik t u tar . B ut e c im le o nun i l e r leme s in i s ag layan h üküme t p o l i t ika lar i ü ze r ine y ap i lan a rat irma !ar in h i r c ok c e t re f i l s o ruyu y an i t s iz h i rak t ig i a c ik t i r . Uma r iz k i , i l e r ide y ap i lacak y en i a rkeo lo j ik a r at i rma h u s o ru lar in y an i t in ib u lacak t ir .

3 4 . S ar no sa ta 'da R oma l i d uvar ö rgü t ekn ik ler i A hme tA .T irpan R oma i mpara to r lugu 'nun d ogu s i n i r indak i e n ö nem l i y e r 1e me le rden b i n o l an S amo sa ta , A d iyaman I l i , S amsa t i l ce s in in y e r 1eim a l an i i cnded i r . B urada P ro f . D r . N ime t O zgüç h a kan 1 ig inda 1 979 -1987 y i l la r ia r as inda k az i lar y ap i 1m it ir . K az in in ü ye s i o l arak k a t i ld ig im c a 1 i ma Ia rda o r taya c i kar i lan R oma d ev n i m imar i s in in i na t e kn ik le r i ü ze r inde y ap t ig im s ap tama lara g O re , R oma k en t ler in in c ogunda k arim iza ç i kan y ap i t ekn ik le r i S amo sa ta ' d a d a k u I Jan i l rn it ir . S amo sa ta 'da I . S . 1 .y üzy i ldan h a1ayarak k uHan i lm i § o l an b ei l i h a1 i 4ö rgü t ekn ig i quas i r et iculatu m , opus r et iculatu m , opus m i x tur n ,o pu st e s taceur n' d ur .

3 5 . P rokop io sy eA n takya M ichae l Wh i tby P rokop io s "Yap ilar " 2 ' de ( 10 . b aI ik ) h aI ik A n takya 'y i b e t im le r . Onun k i tah ina y e n !et i rd ig i b unun g i h i h a ka b e t im leme le r i v a rd i r . An takya i l e i l g i l i o l an b u k i s im , e n ö nem l i le n inden b i r id i ry e§ uh ak imdan i l g inç t i r : b u k i sm i , " P e r sS avat " 2 ' de k en t in P e r s ie n t a raf indan 5 40 ' ta e l e g eç i n i lme s ik onu su s i ras inda a n la t t ik iar iy la y e s i n ir l i a rkeo lo ji kb i lg im iz ie k ari lat i rma o l anag im iz v ard i r . G lanv i l le Downey B y zan t ion 1 4 , 1 939 : 3 6 1 -798 'de P rokop io s 'un a n la t t ik ia r in i ( P e r s S ava c i ) i n ce 1em i y e " Y ap i la r " 2 , 1 0 'dak i k im i z ay i f n ok ta lar i t a n i t 1am it i r . Ona g Ore , P rokop io s , I u s t in ianus 'un A n ta k ya ' d a y ap ti karm i o l dugundan c ok g ö s te rm it i r . B unun n eden i y azar in a har tma i i , y ayg in i n anc lara d ayanan y e b eh r s iz l ik ten o I uan a n la t im id ir . B u h i ld i r ide , Downey ' in v ard ig i d og ru s onuc lardan y o la c i k i l ip P rokop ios 'un " Y ap z lar " i y e I u s t in ianus 'un h ay ind i n l ik i Ie r i e 1 et i re 1 b i r i n ce lemeden g eç i n i iecek t i r . E ldek i d ege n l ik an i t iar , k onunun y en iden e l ea l inmas in ig e rek t irmek ted ir . O ze l l ik ie " Dem i r K ap i "da , k i b urada a n t ik ç ag d uvar lan i k en t in ü s tündek i d ag la r in s uyunu a k i tan v ad i le rden b i r in i k e smek ted i r , d eg i i k d önem le rde i na e d i !m i b i n e n g eç I mpara to n luk , i k i s i d aha g eç I mpara to n luk d önem inden d uvar lar k a Im it ir . A ncak , s on d önemden k a lan lan i , P rokop io s 'un b e t im led ig i g i b i , l u s t in ianus y ap t irm i § o l ab i l ir . P rokop io s 'un a n la t t ik ian inda y anh1ar v ard ir , ç ünkü o nda , Dara y e E de s sa 'dak i ( U r f a ) t ak in Ian i d ene t im a l t inda t u tma d eney im le n inden e d ind ig i k ii se 1 h i lg i le r in e t k i s i v ard i r . Ancak , " Dem i r K ap i " e sash h i ç imde y en iden -

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y ap i lm it ir , Downey h ak s iz l ik e tmek ted ir .

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3 6 . L S .2 98 y ihnda R oma i mpara tor lugu 'nun D ogu s i n ir indak i d üzen lemc ler E .W in ter P e t ro s P a t r ik io s 'a g o re , ( f rg 1 4 . FHG 4 , 1 89 ) L S . 2 98 y i l inda R oma y e S a san i I mpara to r 1uk ' la r i a r as inda y ap i lan f oedu s ( an Ia ma ) s onunda , D ic le n eh r in in O te s inde 5 D ogu Anado lu B ö lge s i R oma 'ya k a 1m it i r . B e b ö lge u n lard ir : I ng i lene , S ophene , A rzanene , K a rduene y e Z abd ikene . A y r in t ih b i r a r at irmaya g o re , R oma g e rcek te h ep s i d e D ic le 'n in ö te s inde b u lunan 5 d eg i l 9 b ö lgey i a lm it i r . B u o l gu d og ru s i n i r ç i zg i s i e n a z indan y ukar i D ic le 'de o l duguna g o re P e t ro s P a t r ik io s 'un D ic le n eh r in in I S . 2 98 y t l inda R oma y e S a san i I mpara to r luk ' !ar i a r as indak i y en i s i n i r ç i zg i s in i o l utu rduguna d eg in v e rd ig i h i !g iy le u yu mamak tad ir . Y a ln iz d c i u r e y ed cf ac to d u rum la r a ra s indak i a y i r im b i r s onuca v a rmam iza y ard imc i o l ab i l ir . B i r y anda , g e rçek y asa l d u rum v ard i r : h una g o re , R oma r e g ione s T r an s t i g r i tanae ü ze r inde s öz s ah ib id i r ; ö te y anda i s e , I . S . 2 98 y t l indan ç ok k i sa b i r s o re s on ra y öne t imse l u yar !ama lar s onucunda o r taya c i km i p o l i t ik s i n i r d urur nu d ue g e t i r i lmek ted ir . R eg ione s T ran s t ig r i tanae , R oma I mpara to r lugu 'na y en i b i r e ya le t g i h i k a t i 1mam it ir . Y ö re se l s oy lu lan in f oedu s ' tan s on ra d a y öne t imde k a lma lar ina i zn v e n i !m it i r . R oma I . S . 2 98 y i ! inda D ic le 'n in ö t e s inde d üzen l i l i me s ( s in i r lar ) o ! uturma d ü ünce s inden v azgeçm i, o nun y e r ine , b u b ö lgedek i s t ra te j ik n ok ta lar i g üven l ik a l t inda t u tma p o l i t ika s iy la y e t inm it i r . H e r n e k adar h u d ogu h ö lge le r i y asa l o l arak R oma I mpa ra to r 1ugu 'na b ag lanm isa d a , D ioc le t ianus h u b ö lge le rdek i g e lenek se l i çle r inde b i r d eg iik 1 ik y apmam it i r . D ioc le t ianus 'un " Bü tün Ie me P o l i t ikas in in " b al ica a maç lar indan b i n, b u b a lge le rdek i y e re ! y öne t ic i le r in I mpara to r lu 'ga b ag l il ik iar in i , s ag lama a lmak t i . B u d üzen leme D ioc le t ianus 'un e sk i d urumu k o ruyucu d i § p o l i t ikas iy la t u tar l i l ik g ö s te rmek ted j r . D ioc le ti an us , R oma I mpara to n lugu 'na t aiyah i leceg inden d aha c ok y ük lenmemek i çn , I S . 2 98 y i l inda e l de e t t ig i a ske r i h aar i lar la p ek it irmek le y e t inm it ir . S onuç o l a rak , D ioc le t ianu s , C ' ae sa r ' i G a le r iu s 'un t e r s ine , d oguya d og ru l r an ' in y öne t ic i le r ine , O ze l l ik ie d e S a san i !e r 'e k ari g en ileme s i yase t in i t e rke tm it ir . -

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3 7 . S am sa t ' ta b u Iunmu o l an "Dogu S ig i l la ta A g rubu ç anak -çör n lek ü zer inde b u lunan b az iR oma a d lar i L even t Z orog lu B u m aka lede , G ec H e len i s t ik y e E rken I mpara to n !uk d önem inde ö ze l l ik le A nado lu , S ur iye y e F i l i s t in 'de y ayg in o l an y e a rkeo lo j i l i t e ra türünde " K i rm iz i A s tar l i K ap lar " , " Pe rg amen " , Dogu S i g i l la ta lar i Av eya Dogu T e r ra S igi la ta la r i I o l arak t a n inan k ap la r ü ze r indek i G rekce y az i lm i § L a t ince c öm lekc i d amga la r i u ze r inde d uru lmutur . B urada , S amo sa ta 'da b u lunan 1 8 -B f o rmundak i b i r k a se ü ze r indek i J OY T OY ( l u l iu s ) y e 2 3 . f o rmdak i b i r f i ncan ü ze r indek i MAPKOY ( Marcus ) a d lar indan y o la c i karak , b un lar in y a I t a Iya 'dan g e l ip , ö ze l l ik le G üney D ogu Anado lu y e S u r iye 'de c a l ian c öm lekc i !e r in a d lan i o l dugu , v eya a d i g ecen b ö lgen in y e r l i y ap ir nc i lar i o l up , l u l ius , Mar cus , T i tu s g i h i t amnrm § k ii y e a i le le r in a d lar in i a l an ç öm lekç i le n in d amga !ar i o l dugu v a r say im lar io r taya a t i lm it i r . -

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T he r o ck -scu lp ture a tB oa t A .D .H .B ivar L ondon Among t he monumen t so fT urkey , t he r ock s c u lp tu re s a re s o me o ft h e mo s t i mp re s s ive , a nd o ne o f t he mo s t p uz z l ing o f t he se i sa t B oa t i n t he r e g ion o f D iya rbak i r . T he f i r s t f o re ign v i s i to rt on o t ice t h i ss c u lp ture w a sJ .G . T ay lo r , C onsu l a tD iyarbak i r i n 1 865 : " The re i s af i ne a nd s p i r i ted r ep re sen ta t ion o f aP ar th ian w a r r io r o n h o r seback , a nd b eh ind h im a no the r f i gu re , w i th h and s b ound a nd h e ld u p i n as upp l ica t ing a t t i tude . " T he n ex t v i s i to r w a s t he Ge rman C .F . L ehmann Haup t , b u t h i s d raw ing w as u nrea l is t ic . T he h arne s s o f t he h o r se w as r ep re sen ted w i th d i sc s i nt he S asan ian m anne r , a nd t he s c ene i n te rp re ted a st he c onque s t o ft he r eg ion b y t he S a san ian S hapu r I T ( AD 3 09 -379 ) . T he f u l le s t r ecen t a c coun t , h oweve r , i sb y M . N ogare t , w ho r e turn s t o t he P ar th ian t heo ry . F or t he f i r s t t ime , p ho tog raph ic d ocumen ta t ion i s g i ven . T he h o r seman r i de s w i thou t s t i r rups , w ear ing t he t y p ica l I r an ian c l oak , t un ic , a nd t r ou se r s . Howeve r , t h e mo s t r emarkab le p o in t i sN ogare t ' sc l a im t h a t o nb o th s i de s i n sc r ip t ion sc an b es e en . H i s p ho tog raphs s how n o t r ace s , a nd a n u rgen t p r io r i ty i st o c onf i rm o r d eny t h i s . I f i n sc r ip t ions a re p re sen t , i ts hou ld h ep o s s ib le t oi d en t i f yt he s c r ip t , a nd c onc lus ive ly d a te t he s c u lp ture . B oa t ' tak i k aya k abar tma s i K aya k aba r tma la r i , T ürk iye 'n in a n i t sa l e se r le r in in e n e tk i ley i c i le r inden h i r id ir . B un lar in e n § a§i r t ic i ö rnek le r inden b i r i d eD iya rbak i rB oa t ' tad i r . B u k aya k abar tmas in i i l k g ö ren y abanc i , 1 8 65 y i l inda D iya rbak i r ' d a k onso lo s luk y apm i o l an J .G . T ay lo r 'd i r . T ay lo r b u k aba r tmadan ö y le s öze tmek ted ir : " Mükemme l b i c imde y ap i Im i, c an l i l ig i o l an , a t s i r t inda P ar t s a vaç i s i ; a rkas inda b a ka b i r f i gur v ar , e He r h i rh ir ine k ene t lenm i o l an , y a lvar iyo rmu § g i h i y ukar i k a lkm i. " B u k aya k ahar tmas in i , d aha s onra A lman C .F . L ehmann -Haup t g ö rmü. F aka t , o nun k ahar tma i l e i l g i l i c i z im i g e rcege u ymamak tad i r . ö y lek i : a t in k o um t a k im ina S asan i t a rz indak i d i sk ie r c i z i ld ig i g i b i , b e t im lenen s ahne d e b ö lgey i S asan i K ra l i I S hapur 'un ( I .S . 3 09 -379 ) z ap t e d i lme s iy le i l g i l i o l arak y o rum lanm it i r . B u k abar tmay i a n la tan e n s on a y r in t i l i c ah ma , y en iden P a r t d aya l i a ç ik lama la ry apan M . N ogare t 'n ink id ir . B u k ahar tman mn f o tog raf lar i i l k k ez h u rada v e r i 1m it i r . A ta ü zeng i s iz h i nmek te o l an s avaç i , I r an ö ze l l ik le r i t aiyan b i r p e ler in , u zun b i r g öm lek y e p an ta lon g l ymek ted i r . B u c a l i mada e n d i kka t ç ek ic i n ok ta i s e , N og are t ' in k abar tman mn i k i y an inda v a r o l dugunu s öy led ig i y az i t lard i r . Ancak , f o tog raf larda h u y az i t lar g özükmemek ted i r . B u n eden le , k ahar tmay la i l g i l i c a 1 i ma larda ö nce l ik , h u d urumun d og ru lugunu a r at i rmaya v e r i lme l id i r . c unku , y az i t lar v ar sa , n ey az i s io l dugu h e l i r lenecek , k ahar tman in t a r ih i d eh e l l io l acak t ir .

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P r inc ipa le sa tD ura E uropos D av id J .B reeze E d inburgh D ocumen t s f o und a tD ura E u ropo s s hed v a luab le l i gh t o n t h e O rgan i sa t ion a nd w o rk ing o ft h e R oman a rmy . T hey a l so r a i se m any p rob lem s . O ne c once rn s t h e p os i t ion o f t h e v e x i l lar iu s i n c oho r s P a lmy r enorum m i l l iar ia e qu i ta ta a nd , b y e x tens ion , i nt h er e s t o ft h e a rmy . T he e d i to r so ft h ed ocumen t s s ugge s ted t h a tt h i s m ay h ave b een a t empo rary p o s t . G raham Web s te r h as r e cen t ly p ropo sed t h a t t h e re w as a s ma l l b ody o fv e x i l lar i i t o p ro tec t t h e s t andard . T he q ue s t ion o f t h e n a ture o ft h i s p o s tw i l l b e e x am ined a ga in s t t h eb ackg round o ft h ev e x i l lar i i i no the r u n i ts o ft h e R oman a rmy . D ura -Europos 'da P r inc ipa le s D u ra E uropo s ' ta b u lunan b e lge le r , R oma o rdu sunun ö rgü t len ii y e i 1ey ii k onusunu ö nem l i ö l cüde a yd in la tmak a ncak , b i r c ok y en i s o runu d a b i r l ik te g e t irmek ted i r . B un lardan h i n, c oho r s P a lmy r enorum m i l l iar ia e qu i ta ta 'da y e g i de rek h ü tün R oma o rdu sunda v e x i l lar iu s 'un y e r iy le i l gi id i r . B e lge le n i y a y im layan lar , h unun s ü rek l i o lmayan b i r m akam o l ab i leceg in i i l e r i s ü rmek ted i r le r . G raham Web s te ry ak in larda s t andard ' in k o runmas i i ç in k ücük b i rv e x i l lar i ib i r l ig in in o l dugunu i l e r i s ü rmütür . B u m akam in n e o l dugu s o rusu , R oma o rdusunun ö t ek i b i r l ik le r indek i d urumu d a g özönünde t u tu la rak e l ea hnacak t i r .

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A r chaeo logy a nd t he l a te R oman f o r t i f ica t ions o fS yr ia a nd Me sopo tam ia J .G .C row H exham T h roughou t l a te A n t iqu i ty t h e R oman c i t ie s b e tween t he T ig r i s a nd t he E uph ra te s w e re t he m a jo r p r ize i n t he c onf l ic t b e tween t he R oman Emp i re a nd S as san ian P e r s ia . T he R omans a dop ted n ew me thod so ff o r t if ica t ion i nr e sponse t o t h e n ew , a gg re s s ive s i ege t a c t ic s o f t he P e r s ian s . I t i s p o s s ib le t o p e r ce ive a c ons i s ten t a r ch i tec tura l t r ad i t ion i n t he f o r t i f ica t ion s o f t he m a jo r Me sopo tam ian a nd S y r ian c i t ie s f r om t he T e t rar chy u n t i l t he s i x th c en tu ry . E a r l ie r s t ud ie s o f t he m i l i tary a r ch i tec ture b y G ab r ie l , v an B e rchem a nd O a te s a re r ev iewed a nd a n a t temp t m ade t o e s tab l ish s ome o f t he m a jor p rob lems o f c hrono logy a nd a r ch i tec tura l d eve lopmen t . T he t h ree s i te s o f P a lmy ra , R e saf a a nd D iyarbak i r a re t hen a s se s sed i n o rde r t & i l us t ra te t he f o l low ing p rob lem s : t he me thods o f f o r t i f ica t ions , t he t y pe o fs i te a nd t he p rob lems o fc hrono logy . F ina l ly , a n a t temp t w i l lb e m ade t oc omb ine t h e t e x tua l e v idence w i th as t udy o ft he s t ruc tura lr ema ins w i th a v i ew t o t he f o rma t ion o f a mo re c ohe ren t a nd b a lanced a ccoun t o f t he R oman r e sponse t ot h is , m a jo rc onf l ic t o fl a te An t iqu i ty . S ur iye y e Mezopo tamya 'da g eç R oma s ur lar i y ea rkeo lo j i A n t ik c ag in s on d önem inde D ic le -F i j-a tn eh i r le r i a r as indak i R oma k en t le r i , S asan i I r an K ra l l ig i i l e R oma I mpara to r lugu a r as indak i s avalar in s onunda k azanan t a raf in p ay ina d ü en h üyük ö dü l le r o lmutu r . I r an ' I t lar in y en i s a ld i rgan k ua tma t a k t ik le r ine k ari R oma ' l i lar d a y en i t a hk ima t y ön tem ler i g e l it irm iIe rd ir . Mezopo tamya i l e S u r iye 'n in b e l l i b al i k en t le r in in t ahk im inde , T e t ra r ch ia d öner n inden 6 . y üzy i la d eg in t u tar l i h i r m imar i s ü rdügü g ö rü leh i lmek ted ir . B u b i ld ir ide , a ske r i m imar i ü ze r ine d aha O nce Gab r ie l , v an B e rchem y e O a te s ' in y apm i§ o l dugu ç a I i ma lar g özden g eç i r i lmek te , k rono lo j i y e m imar i g e l i meye d eg in s o run lar in o r taya k onma s ina ç a l ii lmak tad ir . P a lmyra , R e saf a y e D iyarbak ir . . . b u ü ç y e r leim a l an i aag idak i s o run lar in b e t im lenme s inde O rnek a l inm tt ir : 1 ) t a hk ima t y ön tem le r i ; 2 ) y e r leim in t i p i y e 3 ) k rono lo j i s o run lar i . S onuç o l arak , m e t in le rden e l de e d i len k an i t la rda m imar i k a l in t i lar in i n ce lenme s inden ç i kan s onuc lar b i r l ik te , a n t ik c ag in s on lar indak i b u b üyük mücade le k ari s inda R oma 'n in t u tumunu d aha t u tar l i y e d enge l i b i ç imde b i ze a n la tacak t ir . -

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S econd c en tury f r on t ier s : a no pen o rs hu tc ase? C har le sD an ie ls N ew cas t le P ara l le l s a re f r equen t ly d rawn b e tween t he e as te rn " de se r t f r on t ie r " a nd N um id ia i n S eve ran t ime s , c i t ing t he i n ne r a nd o u te r l i ne s a nd f l ex ib le n a tu re o f e ach . D id a ny th ing s imi l ar e x i s t o n o the r f r on t ie r s a t t ha t t ime , a nd , mo re p a r t icu lar ly , h ad s im i lar s y s tems e x is ted a t a n e a r l ie r d a te? T h i s l e ads u s t o a sk h ow d id s e cond -cen tu ry f r on t ie r s r e spond t o t he p hy s ica l t e r ra in a nd , e spec ia l ly , t o t h e n a t ive p opu la t ion s w h ich t hey e ncoun te red? A t f i r s t s i gh t Hadr ian 's c r ea t ion s m ay s eem t o h ave b een a f a i r ly s t anda rd i sed s e r ie s o fp rec lus ive b a r r ie r s " i n e very w ay a l toge the ru nb reachab le a nd i nde s t ruc t ib le " ( Ae l iu sA r i s t ide s ) . C lo se rs c ru t iny s ugge s ts t ha t t hey w e re i nf a c t mo re i n d iv idua l i s t ic , e ven t a i lo r made t o t he v e ry d i f fe ren t l o ca l d emand s w h ich e ach e ncoun te red . A rgumen ts , h oweve r , s t i l l c on t inue a s t ow he the r t hey w e re i n tended t op reven t , r egu la te o r e ven e ncourage r e gu lar c ro s s ing b y t h e n a t ive p opu la t ion . Unde r P iu s t he re w e re a dvance s i n B r i ta in , Uppe r G e rmany a nd R ae t ia , e ach o f w h ich p roduced a n ew f r on t ie r , d i f fe ren t i ns ome i mpor tan t a spec t f r om t he o ne i tr ep laced . Do a l l t he se c hange s r e p resen t d i f fe rence s o f R oman p l ann ing o r d i f f e rence s o f l o ca l c ond i t ion s , o r i s e ach b e t te r i n te rp re ted a st he r e spon se t oa n i n d iv idua lp e rce ived t h rea t? 2 .y üzy i lda s i n ir lar : k apa l im iyd i ,a ç ik m iyd i? S eve rüs d önem inde i mpara to r lugu 'n d ogu s i n i r indak i ç öle r le c ogu z aman N um id ia a r as inda b i rk ou t luk o l dugu i l e r i s ü rü lü ry eh e r i k i s in in d c i çy ed i §o lmak ü ze re i k i h a t tan o l uan e snek k arak te r l i s i n i r la r o l dugu s öy len i r . A caha b enze r b i r d u rum o s i rada O t ek i s inir b ö lge le r inde d ev a r m iyd i ; d ahas i , O nce d e b una b enze r s i s tem le r v ar m iyd i? B u b i z i 2 . y üzy i l s m i r lar in in h ö lgen in c og ra f yas iy la n as i l u yutugu s o rusuy la k ari k ariya g e t i r i r . O ze l l ik ie , b ura larda y aayan i n san la r la s i n i r s orunu n a s i l c özü m ien i y o rdu? I l k b ak ita H adr ianu s 'un s i n i r k onu sundak i b u lular i o l dukca s t andard d ii k apa l i e nge l le r b i c im indeydi le r . Ae l ius A r i s t ide s 'e g O re b un lar " he r b ak imdan h i c g eci lmez , k i r i lmaz " e ngelerd i . Ama k onu d aha y ak indan i n ce len ince g ö rü lü r k i , h e r s i n i r g e rçek te k end ine ö zgüdür , g i de rek b i r y e r in s i n i r i ö tek ine b enzemez , y ö ren in g e rek s in im le r ine , ö ze l l ik le r ine g o re i smar Ianm it i r . A ncak , s i n i r lar in o y o re h a lk in in g i d i § g e l ile r in i e ngeled ig i , d üzen led ig i , g i de rek s ü rek l i g eç ile r i t ev ik m i e t t ig i k onusu h a la t a r t ii lmak tad i r . P i us z aman inda B r i tanya , Y ukar iA lmanya y e R ae t ia 'da i l e r leme le r o lmutur . He r i l e r leme b i r ö ncek inden O nem l i ö l cüde f a rk l i s i n i r d eg iik I ig i g e t i rm it ir . B ü tün b u d eg iik l ik le r f a rk l i b i r p l an lama s in i m i g ö s te r iyo r y ok sa y öre se l k ou l 1ar in f a rk l i o l u unu mu? Y a d a h e r s i n i r d eg iik J ig in i , g ö rü len k end i ö zgü b i r t eh l ikeye k ari R oma ' l i lar in b i rt e pk i s io l arak m iy o rum lamak d aha d og ru o l ur?

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P ompey a nd h i sa cqu is i t ions i nt he E a s t ; am a t ter o fp re sen ta t ion? P .W .M .F reeman L eeds " . .H i s t r iumph h ad s uch a m agn i tude t h a t a l though i t w a s d i s tr ibu ted o ve r t wo d ay s s t i l l t he t ime w ou ld n o t s u f f ice , b u t much o fw ha t h ad b een p repa red c ou ld n o t f i nd ap l ace i nt he s pec tac le I n sc r ip t ion s b o rne i n a dvance o f t he p roce s s ion i nd ica ted t h e n a t ion s o ve r w h ich h e h ad t r iumphed . T he se w e re P on tu s , A rmen ia , C appadoc ia , P apha lagon ia , Med ia , C o ich i s , I be r ia , A lban ia , S y r ia , C i ic ia , Me sopo tam ia , P hoen ic ia a nd P a le s t ine , J udaea a nd A rab ia a nd a l t h ep owe ro ft he p i ra te sb ys ea a nd l and " ( P lu tarch P omp . XLV ;c f . App ian M i th r . CX V I -CX V I I I ) . Wh i l s t t he o u tcome o fP ompey ' se a s te rn Med i te r ranean c ommand n eed n o t b ed oub ted , av a r ie ty o fr e ason s h ave b een a dduced t oe xp la in w hy i tt ook t h ef orm i t d id . W i th a l l , h oweve r , al o s s o f p e r spec t ive r e su l t s w hen t he a c ta a re c harac te r i sed a s a n " Ea s te rn S e t t lemen t " . T h i s p ape rw i l l e mphas i se am in ima l is t ' s v i ew a nd s ugge s t t h a t t he " s e t t lemen t " c anno t h ave b een p rede te rm ined . O bv ious t hough t h i s m igh t b e , i th as i mp l ica t ion s w hen t r y ing t o u nde r s tand wha t P ompey m igh t h ave h ad i nm ind a nd w ha t h e i st hough t t o h ave h ad i nm ind . R a the r t han c r ed i t h im w i th am as te r ly o ve rv iew o ft he p rob lem s o ft h e e a s t , i ts ugge s t s t h a t h e w as mo re p reoccup ied w i th s ho r t te rm c on s ide ra t ion s . I fs o t hen i tm igh t a l so b e t ha tt he t wo ( o rt h ree )p rov ince s" o rgan i sed "b yh im r e su l ted f o ro the rr ea son s . P ompe iu sy eD ogu 'dak ib a ar i lar i : b i rs unu § s orunu mu? " Pompe ius 'un z a f e r a l ay i ö y le s ine b üyük tü k i , i k i g un s ü rme s ine r agmen , h u s ü re y e te r l i o lmad ig i g i b i , y ap i lm i § o l an h az ir l ik la r in b i rcogu d a b u g ö s te r ide y e r a l amad i . Z af e r a l ay in in ö nünde t ainan y az i larda , o nun m ag lup e t t ig i u l u s lar b e l i r t i l iyo rdu . B un la r P on tu s , A rmen ia , C appadoc ia P apha lagon ia , Med ia , C o lch i s , I be r ia , A lban ia , S y r ia , C i l ic ia , Me sopo tom ia , P hoen ic ia y eP a le s t ine ,J udaca y e A rab is tan y e k aradak i y e d en izdek i t Ur n k o r san lard i . " ( P lu tar ch P omp . 4 5 ; k r. A pp ian M i th r . 16 -118 ) . P ompe ius 'un d ogu A kden iz K omu tan l ig i s i ra s inda y apm i § o ldugu i lerden k u ku d uyu lmama l id ir , f a ka t o l ay lar in o§ eki lde c e reyan e tme s ine s ehep o l an f a rk l i n eden le rd eg öz a rd i e d i lmeme l id i r . E ge r P ompe ius 'un t ur nb u e y lem le r in i" Dogu 'da Y e r let i rme " d i ye t a n im la r sak , o l ay lar i e k s ik d ege r lend i rr n i o l u ruz . B u t e b lgde m in ima l i s t g 6rb§ ü ze r inde d u ru lacak y e o l ay la r in " y e r let i rme " a mac ty la p l an lanmad ig i o r taya k onacak t ir . He r n e k adar a mac in b u o lmad ig i a ç ikc a b ei l i i s e d e , P ompe ius 'un p l an lad ig i § ey le rde , o nun d ü ündügü s an i lan § ey le r i a n lamaya c a 1 ii rken , h u d ü üncen in ö ner n i o r taya ç i kmak tad i r . B u g ö rü, P ompe ius 'u d ogunun p rob lem le r in i c özmede u s tün d ü Unceye s ah ip b i r k ii o l arak d ege r lend i rmek ten c ok , o nun d aha z i yade k i sa v ade l i a maç la r la h areke t e t t ig in i i l er i s ü rmek ted ir . B u d urumda , o nun " ö rgü t lenm i" o l dugu i k i y ada i çe ya le t te , b a ka n eden le r le ö rgü t lenm i o l ah i l i r .

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H e rac l ius ' r e v iva lo ft he e a s tR oman e mp ire , A l ) 6 22 -29 : a na t temp ta ta ne xp lana t ion J ame s H oward -Johns ton O x f ord T he E a s t R oman Emp i re s eemed d oomed t o d e s t ruc t ion i nt he w in te r o f 6 2 1 -2 . T he a rm ie s o f t he S as san ian S hah K hu s ro I h ad o ve r run t he r i ch e a s te rn p rov ince s o f S y r ia , P a le s t ine a nd E gyp t , a f te r f i r s t b reak ing d own R oman f r on t ie r d e fence s i n A rmen ia a nd Me sopo tam ia ( 603 -10 ) a nd t hen w inn ing a d ec i s ive v i c tory i n t he f i e ld o ve r He rac l iu s h imse l f n ear An t ioch i n 6 13 . K hus ro I ' s a mb i t ions h ad g rown w i th s ucce s s , a nd h ew as n o t i n ten t o nl i qu ida t ing P e r s ia ' s o l d r i va l i n t he s eden tary w o r ld a t t he w e s te rn e nd o f E u ra s ia . T he re w as a n e x t rao rd inary a bou t turn i nf o r tune s i nt he f o l low ing e i gh t y ear s . I n 6 22 a nd 6 23 H e rac l ius r ema ined o n t he d e f en s ive , i nA s ia M ino r a nd t he B a lkans r e spec t ive ly . h e t hen s e t o f f o n b o ld c oun te r -o f fen s ive c ampa ign s , i n s p r ing 6 24 c u t t ing l o o se f r om R oman t e r r i to ry , a nd , a par t f r om a n i n te r lude d ur ing h i s f l ee t ing r e turn t o A s ia M ino r i n 6 26 , p u t s t eady a nd i n c rea s ing p re s sure o n t he mo re v u lne rab le n o r th -we s te rn p rov ince s o f t he S as san ian e xecu t ion o f t he S hah o n t he 2 8 th F eb ruary , 6 28 a nd t h e n ego t ia ted w i thd rawa l o ft he P e r s ian o ccupa t ion f o rce s f r om R oman t e r r i tory , p robab ly i n t he a u tumn o f 6 29 , i mp re s sed c on tempo rar ie s a nd s ub sequen t h i s to r ians a s l i t t le s ho r t o f m irac le s . T he p ape r a t temp t s t o a s se s s t he c on tr ibu t ions m ade t ou l t ima te R oman v i c tory b y i n s t i tu t iona l r e fo rm s , i nnova t ion s i ns t ra tegy , d ip loma t ic i n i t ia t ive sa nd p ropaganda .

LS .6 22 -629 'da D ogu R oma i mpara tor lugu 'nun H erak l ius ' la y en iden d ogu u ü zer ine a c ik lama g i r iim i

i . s . 6 2 1-622 y i l lar in in k i a y la r inda Dogu R oma i mpara to r lugu c ökü e g i d iyor g i b id ir . S asa r i i a h i I . H üs rev ' in o rdu lar i , A rmen ia y e Mezopo tamya 'dak i s i n ir s avunma lar in i l . S . 6 03 -10 'da k i rd ik ta r i s onra , S u r iye , F i l i s t in y e M i s i r g i b i z eng in d ogu e ya le t le r in i d c g ec i rm i, I . S . 6 13 y i l inda He rak l ius 'u s ava§ a l an inda k e s in b i r y en i lg iye u g ra tm it i . I . Hü s rev ' in e me l le r i b aa r iy la b üyümü, I r an ' in A v rasya 'n in h a t i u cunda y e r le§ m i § b u e sk i d ü man in i o r tadan k a ld i rmay i k af as ina k oymutu . B undan s onra g e len 8 y d i cnde o l ay lar in g i d iinde o l aganus tu b i r d eg i me o l du . I . S . 6 22 y e 6 23 ' te He rac l iu s h em A sya 'da h em B a lkan la r 'da s a vunmada k a ld i . 6 24 y i l inda c ü re t l i b i r k a ri s a ld ir iya g eç t i : R oma t op rak lar indan ç i k t i , 6 26 y i l inda K ücük A sya 'ya k i sa s ü re l i d önü ü d iinda , s ürek l i o l arak a r tan ö l çüde S asan i K ra l ! ig i 'n in z ay if n ok ta s i o l an k uzey -ha t i e ya le t le r ine y ük ienmeye b alad i . l . S . 6 28 y i l in in 2 8 u ba t ' inda a h ' in t ah t tan i n d i ri ip i d am e d i lme s i U ze r ine 6 29 y t l in in s onbahar inda I r an 'h lar R oma t op ra ldar indan c ek i ld i . B u o l ay lardan e t k i lenen h em o z amanm h em d aha s on ras in in t a r ihc i le r i b unu muc ize g i h i y o rum lad i lar . B u b i ld ir ide R oma 'n in k e s in z af e r ine k a tk i s i o l an k urum la rda y ap i lan y en i b i ç im lend irme le r , a ske r i y en i l ik Je r , d i p loma t ik g i r iim le r y e p ropaganda 'n in ü ze r inde d uru lacak t i r .

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J ov in ianu s ,s a trap o fC orduene J .F . Ma t thew s O x f ord I n ab r ie f c hap te r o f B ook 1 8 o f h i s H i s to r y , Amm ianus Mar ce l l inus d e sc r ibe s h i s v i s i t t o t he s a trap o f C o rduene , J ov in ianu s , w h i le p u r su ing am i s s ion o f e sp ionage t o d i scove r t he i n tended r ou te o f t he P e r s ian i n va s ion o f 3 59 . H is d e sc r ip t ion r evea l s i n te re s t ing f a ce t s o f t he p o s i t ion b o th o fJ ov in ianus af o rme r h o s tage w ho h ad s pen t t ime i n S y r ia a nd t h en , i ts eem s , b ecame a cqua in ted w i th t he An t iochene Amm ianu s a nd o f h i s s a t rapy , b a lanced b e tween R oman a nd P e r s ian e mp i re s . T he a mb igu i t ie s i nJ ov in ianus ' p o s i t ion a re f u r ther i lus t ra ted b y aS y r ian s ource , t he L if e o f Mar S abha , w h ich s how s Amm ianus ' f r iend s e t t l ing A rab t r ibe smen i nt he c u l t ivab le l a nd o fA rhayé , t he r e g ion b e tween N is ib i sa nd t he T ig r i s . I n e xe rc i s ing t h i s o ve r lo rd sh ip o f r eg ions p rope r ly c ons ide red p ar t o f R oman Me sopo tam ia , w hi le h i s s a t rapy s t r ic t ly a g a in s t t he t e rms o f G a le r ius ' t r ea ty w i th N ar se s i n c l ined t o t he R oman i n te re s t , J ov in ianu s s how s h ow t he e a s te rn f r on t ie r f unc t ioned w i th a c omp lex i ty i n p rac t ice n o t a pparen t i nf o rma l d e sc r ip t ions c ons t ruc ted e n t i re ly f r om t he R oman s i de . A nd g ene ra l ly , Amm ianus ' f r iend w e l l i l us t ra te s t he i n s t i tu t ion o f h o s tage e xchange w h ich a t a l l p e r iods o f R oman h i s to ry c on t r ibu ted s i gn if ican t ly t ot he c u l tura l c on tex tw i th in w h ich f o re ign r e la t ions w e re c onduc ted . -

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C orduene s a trap il o v in ianus P e r s ' le r in i . S . 3 99 y i hndak i i s t i las indan O nce o rdu lar in in i z leye ceg i y o lu O g renmek i çn b i r R oma i s t ihbara t k o lunun a rkas indan C o rduene 'ye g e len Amm ianus Marce l l inus , T ar ih a d l i y ap i t in in 1 8 . k i tah in in k i sa b i r b ö lümünde h u b ö lgen in s a t rap i l ov in ianus 'u z i yare t i a n la t i r . l ov in ianu s d aha O nce S ur iye 'de r eh in t u tu ldugu i cn , A n takya 'h Amm ianu s ' la t a n 1iyo r o lma l id i r . Amm ianus 'un l ov in ianus h akk inda a n la t t ik lar i h em o nun h em d e R oma 'y la I r an I mpara to r luk lar i a ra s inda d engede k a lm i o l an s a trap l ig in in i l g inc d u rumunu g ö le r ö nüne s e re r . I ov in ianus 'un h u i k i a r ada k a lm i § d urumdan b i r S u r iye k aynag inda d a s ö z e d i l ir . " Ma r S abha 'nu z Y a 'anu " a d l i k aynak ta Amm ianu s 'un a rkadain in N iz ip ' le D ic le a r as indak i t a r ima e l ve r il i A rhaye t op rak lar ina A rap k av im le r in i y e r let ird ig i a n la t i lmak tad i r . l o v in ianus b oy le y apmak la , G a le r iu s 'un N ar se s ' le y apm i § o l dugu a n la maya t amamen a yk ir i o l arak , a s l inda R oma ' l i la ra a i t o l an Mezopo tamya 'n in b uy ö re s inde R oma ' l i lar in c i kar lar ina h i zme t e tme e g i l im inded i r . B u h i ze t amamen R on ia ' l i lar in q i zm i § o l dugu d ogu s i n i r la r inr n h i ç im se l t a n im inda g ö rünmeyen k arma §i k l ig in u ygu lamada n as i l o l dugunu g ö s te rmek ted i r . Amm ianus 'un a rkadaiy la i l g i l i h u o l ay b i ze a y r ica g ene lde r eh ine k u rumunun R oma ' l i la r l wh ine i ley iin i d e g ö s te rmek ted i r . R oma ' li lara v e r i len r eh ine le r in , R oma ' l i lar in d i iki le r ine , e d ind ik ie r i L a t in k ü l türünün e t k i s iy le O nem l ik a tk i lar i o lmutur . -

-

6 00

I NDEX OF S ITES AND PLACE NA MES

A lba P ompe ia 9 43 A lb ingaunum ( A lb . I nguan .) 8 4 A lco ta in 3 03 A les ia 8 6 A lexandr ia 8 5 , 8 6 , 9 8 , 1 06 , 1 44 , 1 46 , 2 37 , 2 99 , 3 89 , 3 96 , 4 87 , 4 88 , 4 96 , 4 97 , 4 98 A lexandr ia T roas 9 7 , 1 00 , 5 23 A lexandr ium 4 70 Al i fe 1 73 A lupka 5 16 Amasra 5 23 Amas tr is 9 5 , 9 8 , 1 03 Ama ta ( Ama tha , Ama thus , Ama thous ) 2 99 , 3 00 , 3 01 , 4 65 Amb lada 1 92 Ammaedara 8 3 Ampe lone 4 90 Am ida ( D iyarbak ir ) 2 04 , 2 16 , 2 21 , 2 85 , 2 86 , 2 87 , 2 88 , 2 89 , 2 90 , 5 41 , 5 59 , 5 60 , 5 61 , 5 7 1 Anbar ( F iruz S ahur , P eroz S hapur ) 2 59 , 2 60 , 2 61 , 2 62 ,2 65 Ancyra ( Ankara) 8 2 , 8 6 , 8 8 , 1 43 Anemur ium 1 92 ,195 An ta lya ( A t ta le ia ) 8 7 , 9 0 , 3 11 An thedon 2 44 ,465 An t inoë 4 92 ,493 An t ioch ( An takya , T heopo l is ) 18 , 1 44 , 1 48 , 1 50 , 1 60 , 1 91 , 1 93 , 1 95 , 1 97 , 1 98 , 2 14 , 2 33 ,

A achen 2 49 Abe l l inum 8 4 Abgar 1 55 Abu Dhah ir , s ee T e l l Abu Dhah ir 5 4 , 5 5 , 6 1 ' Abu S ha 'ar 4 88 , 4 89 , 4 93 , 4 94 , 4 95 , 4 98 , 4 99 Abu Wa jnam 5 4 A cco ( Ac re , Akko ) , s ee P to lema i s 3 40 , 4 22 , 4 28 , 4 31 , 4 34 A cmon ia T hemeno thyra i ( Eumen ia ) 8 3 , 9 1 , 9 4 , 1 03 A c t iu m 2 2 ,466 Ad iya man 5 19 Ad i tha ( Ad i t tha , Ha t i ta ) , s ee Had i tha , Kh irhe t e s -Samra 3 59 , 3 56 Adora 4 65 Adra ( Dera) 2 97 Adrou ( Udruh) 3 63 Adu l is 18 , 3 84 , 3 94 , 3 95 , 4 05 Adia C ap i to l ina ( H ie roso lyma , J erusa lem) 4 76 A ere 2 44 Aesern ia 9 1 Ag in 3 29 A i la ( Ae lana ,A i lana) , s ee Aqaba 13 , 17 , 3 60 , 3 63 , 3 85 , 3 88 A in S inu ( Zagurae ) 1 0 , 1 4 , 5 3 , 5 4 , 5 5 , 5 6 , 5 7 , 5 8 , 5 9 , 6 1 Akçay K a les i 1 95 A las tus 1 93 A lba He lvorum 8 3 -

6 01

2 35 , 2 40 , 2 44 , 2 60 , 3 37 , 3 38 , 3 40 , 4 31 , 4 39 , 4 40 , 5 22 , 5 23 , 5 24 , 5 34 , 5 35 , 5 38 , 5 46 ,5 50 , 5 76 ,577 An t ioch a d P is id iam 7 9 , 8 2 , 8 3 , 8 4 , 8 7 , 8 9 , 9 1 , 9 2 , 3 14 An t ioche ia -ad -Cragum 1 92 An t ipa tr is , s ee Aphek

A r ikamedu 4 92 A rnona 3 56 ,359 A rsame ia 3 30 A rsamo sa ta ( Haraba ) 2 23 ,227 A rs inoe , s ee C leopa tr is , C ly sma 16

3 42 ' Anwadum ( Shabwa ) , s ee a l 'Uq lah 1 47 Aos ta 1 70 Apamea ( Apamaea ) 1 72 , 2 40 , 2 44 , 4 76 Apamea ( Phryg ia ) 3 14 Aphek ( Te lA feq ) , s ee An t ipa tr is 1 25 Apo l lon ia 3 14 Apsarus 3 3 , 3 4 , 3 5 , 3 7 , 3 9 Aqaba , s ee Ada 3 63 Aqraba 3 57 Aqu i le ja 8 3 Aqu incum 8 2 ,88 Aqu inum 9 7 A rab issus

A r ta leson 2 07 , 2 14 , 2 19 , 2 20 , 2 21 , 2 23 A r taxa ta 4 9 , 5 0 , 3 84 A r tv in 2 07 A saba ia 3 03 , 3 56 , 3 57 A sar T epe 1 95 A sca lon 2 44 , 3 42 , 4 69 , 4 70 A scu lum 9 8 A shdod , s ee Azo tus 4 40 A soch is 3 46 A s tra 1 92 A s t ig i 8 9 Au tka 3 31 Avan 4 38 ,439

2 27 A radus ( Arvad , Ruad)

A thens ( A then ian a gora) 4 39 ,576

2 44 A raq e l -Am ir 4 28 A rche la is

A t t id ium ( A t t ig io ) 2 52 Aua tha 3 56 ,357

3 42 A rchaeopo ! is 3 6 A rdon 2 23 A reopo l is 2 6 , 2 95 , 3 57 , 3 59 A re thusa 2 44 A rezzo ( Arre t ium )

Augus ta T aur inorum 9 2 ,96 Avda t 2 69 ,270 Awa ina t 5 5 A xum 3 86 , 3 91 , 3 94 , 3 96 , 4 06 Aydo l in K a les i 1 92

5 75 A r ie lde la 3 63

Aynunah , s ee Khuraybah 'Aynunah 13 , 15

6 02

B e th S hean ( Be i san ) , s ee S cy thopo l i s 3 42 B e thZu r 4 62 , 4 64 , 4 65 B e thba s s i 4 62 B e th lehem 1 33 ,4 22 B e t tho ro 2 95 ,356 B ezabde 2 65 ,2 90 ,5 58 , 5 60 ,5 7 1 B ingö l 2 03 ,2 05 ,2 07 ,2 08 , 2 11 ,2 13 , 2 23 ,224 B i r ' Abu S ha 'ar e l -Q ib l i( Tadno s F on s/A ino s? ) 4 89 ,494 B i rdo swa ld 1 34 F i r1 l im5 3 92 B i rK a re im 4 94 B i r sama 2 68 B izana 2 17 B izm ien 31 B ogazköy ( Ha t tu sha sh ) 4 40 B o lbo su s ( Go lgo sus? ) 1 94 B onn 2 48 B o s t ra ( Bo s rä , B us ra ) 2 6 , 17 , 18 , 1 43 , 1 44 , 1 48 , 1 52 , 1 53 , 1 55 , 1 58 , 1 59 , 1 72 , 1 79 ,2 95 , 2 97 , 2 98 , 3 00 , 3 01 , 3 02 , 3 03 ,3 56 , 3 57 ,3 58 , 3 59 , 3 61 B oya l ik 32 B ucak 3 18 ,325 B ugdaco r 31 B u rdu r 3 20 B y l l i s 9 0 , 9 4 , 9 , 1 03 B yzan t ium , s ee C on s tan t inop le 3 2 ,33

A zo tus , s ee A shdod 3 42 , 4 65 A z raq 19 , 1 51 , 1 72 ,308 B ab e l - Mandeb 4 86 B aby lon ( O ld C a i ro ) 1 06 , 2 61 ,4 87 , 4 88 B ae te r rae 8 2 B ag in ton 1 74 B a Iou louo s( Bag in ) 2 23 ,227 B ama ta -Duma ta ( Bana tha ) 2 98 ,2 99 , 3 01 B anaha (Manava? ) 1 94 B a rH i l l 2 41 B a rd iya ( s i te n o . 9 ) 1 5 ,5 , 6 1 B a ns 4 65 B a s ien i sa ( Bas ie ) 2 98 , 2 99 , 3 00 , 3 01 ,3 02 ,3 03 B ava i 2 70 B ay i r ( Bay r ) 3 00 ,3 08 B e i san ( Be th S hean ) ,s ee S cy thopo l i s 5 75 B e la l i s Ma jo r 8 7 B eneven tum 8 4 , 9 3 , 9 8 , 1 03 B e rgomum 9 6 B e rem ( "Co s t rad i s "o rC o t t rad i s ) 1 94 B e ren ice ( Be ren ike ) 16 ,4 87 , 4 88 ,4 90 , 4 92 , 4 96 , 4 97 , 4 98 ,4 99 B e roea ( A leppo ) 2 44 B e rosaha 2 68 B e ry tus ( Be i ru t ) 8 9 , 9 1 , 9 2 , 9 3 ,9 , 1 02 , 1 03 , 2 37 ,244 B e th Gub r in ( E leu the ropo l i s ) 3 42 B e th S eha r im ( Be th S he 'ar im ) 1 48 , 1 49 , 3 42 ,3 47 ,4 22

6 03

C abu lon ( Chabu l ) 3 46 , 3 47 ,4 22 C áceres 1 70 C aenopo l is 1 82 C aesaraugus ta 8 2 ,89 C aesarea ( Ga la t ia ) 8 9 ,92 C aesarea Mar i t ima , s ee S tra to (n) 's T ower 2 44 , 3 42 , 4 69 , 4 70 C aesarea Maure tan iae 8 9 , 9 5 , 9 9 , 1 03 C a iro 4 87 C a lagurr is 9 2 , 1 03 C a lama 9 6 , 9 9 , 1 03 C a l l in icum ( N icephor ium) 2 04 , 2 26 , 5 7 1 C ana 1 9 C aparco tna 3 62 C apernaum 3 42 C ap i to l ias 2 44 C apua 8 3 ,99 C ar l is le 2 49 C ar rhae ( Harran) 6 7 , 2 41 , 3 79 , 5 7 1 C ar thago ( Car thage ) 8 3 ,86 C ar thago Nova 8 3 C arvoran 2 41 C asae 1 92 , 1 94 C as te l lum A rab icum 1 36 C as tra Maurorum 1 , 1 2 C as tron Mefaa , s ee Umm e r -R isas 3 56 C es trus 1 92 Cha lc is 2 44

Charax 5 16 Char ton ( Har t ) 2 25 C hosomachon ( cem i kezek ) 2 23 ,227 Chozanon ( 1 loza t ) 2 23 ,227 C irce i i 9 4 ,96 C irc ina 9 0 C ir ta 8 9 ,93 , 9 6 , 1 02 C i thar izon 2 03 ,2 04 , 2 05 , 2 06 , 2 07 ,2 08 , 2 09 , 2 11 , 2 14 , 2 15 , 2 17 , 2 19 , 2 20 , 2 21 , 2 23 , 2 24 , 2 27 C laud iopo l is (Mu t ) 1 95 C leopa tr is , s ee A rs inoë , C ly sma 15 C ly sma ( Qo lzoum , S uez ) , s ee A rs inoë , C leopa tr is 3 84 , 3 85 , 3 88 , 4 00 , 4 87 , 4 88 , 4 98 ,499 Co logne 1 70 ,270 Co lon ia 2 16 Co lybrassus 1 92 , 1 93 , 1 94 , 1 96 , 3 14 Comama 3 18 ,325 Concord ia 1 00 Cons tan t inop le ( I s tanbu l ) , s ee B yzan t ium 1 35 , 1 97 , 1 98 , 2 23 , 2 26 , 2 57 , 2 77 , 2 78 , 2 79 , 2 80 , 2 81 , 2 90 , 38 , 3 85 , 3 89 , 5 38 , 5 39 Convenae 8 3 Cop tos 16 , 4 89 , 4 92 , 4 93 , 4 96 , 4 97 Coraces ium 1 92 C or in th 4 38 ,539 Cor in thus 8 2 Corycus 1 93 Co tenna 1 92

6 04

D iocaesarea , s ee S epphor is 3 36 , 3 37 , 3 38 , 3 39 , 3 42 D ioscur ias 3 1 , 3 2 , 3 3 , 3 4 , 3 8 , 7 1 D iospo l is 3 37 , 3 40 , 3 42 , 3 44 D irev l i 1 96 D iur n , s ee D ia 4 65 D jaw f , s ee Duma t a l -Janda l , J auf 19 Doganc i Mevk i i 1 95 Dogubayaz i t 2 07 Dor 4 28 Dur na t a l -Janda l ( a l -Jawf ) , s ee D jaw f , J auf 2 98 ,299 Du r ne r 1 35 Dura -Europos 5 5 , 5 6 , 1 26 , 1 54 , 1 55 , 1 56 , 1 57 , 1 79 , 2 40 , 2 89 , 3 75 Du R aydan 3 99 Dyrrhach ium 9 5

C o trad is 1 95 C remna 3 11 ,3 12 , 3 13 , 3 14 , 3 15 , 3 17 , 3 18 , 3 20 , 3 22 , 3 23 , 3 24 , 3 25 C tes iphon , s ee S e leuc ia 5 3 , 1 45 , 2 58 , 2 60 , 2 61 , 2 65 C u icu l 9 4 C yprus 4 70 C yrrhus ( K i l is ) 2 40 ,244

c a t

2 03 ,207 ç ar nhk ( G irme ) 3 11 , 3 18 , 3 25 D ad ir non ( Tad ir n ) 2 23 ,227 D a jan iyeh ( Da 'a jan iya , Da ' jan iya ) 3 58 D a idan 2 95 Damascus 1 25 , 2 44 , 2 95 , 3 59 , 4 65 , 4 76 Damascus ( Naba taean ) 2 1 D aphnae ( Daphne ) 5 22 , 5 34 , 5 35 , 5 38 Dara ( Anas tas iopo l is ) 2 04 , 2 20 , 2 24 , 2 25 , 2 59 , 2 62 , 2 65 , 5 37 , 5 45 Dara -H in i ( K ra l K iz i K a les i) 2 05 Das ian is 2 98 , 2 99 , 3 00 , 3 02 Dayr a l -Kahf ( De ir e l -Kahf ) 2 97 , 3 00 , 3 02 , 3 03 , 3 57 , 3 58 , 3 59 ,362 De los 4 97 Denderah 4 92 Den k Ka le 3 30 D ia ( D ion ) , s ee D iur n 2 99 D iafen is ( D ia -Fen is ) 2 95 , 2 96 , 2 97 , 2 98 , 2 99 , 3 56 , 3 57 D ibek tai 1 92 D ibs i F ara j 5 76

E dessa , s ee U rfa 5 3 ,2 04 , 5 37 , 5 41 , 5 45 , 5 7 1 E in Ged i 3 42 E is iba ( E ise iba) 1 23 E laz ig 4 37 E !ege ia 2 50 ,251 E leus ia 5 23 , 5 36 E lusa 1 36 , 2 68 , 2 69 , 2 70 , 2 71 Er nesa ( Hor n s ) 9 6 , 1 45 , 1 55 , 2 44 E n B oqeq 1 23 , 1 24 , 1 26 , 1 27 , 1 28 , 1 29 , 1 30 , 1 31 , 1 32 , 1 33 , 1 34 , 1 35 , 1 36 , 1 37 , 1 39 E phesus 8 2 , 8 3 , 8 4 , 8 8 , 8 9 , 9 1 , 9 2 , 9 4 , 9 5 , 9 6 , 9 7 , 1 00 , 1 02 , 1 03 , 1 05 , 2 70

6 05

E p idau ru s 8 3 E p iphan ia , s ee H ama 2 44 E rz incan 2 50 ,331 E rzu rum , s ee T heodo s iopo l i s 2 03 E sd rae lon ( J ez ree l ) 4 70 E sk iA rabk i r 31 E sk iK âh ta 3 30 ,331 E sk i Mo su l( E sk i - Mo su l ) 7 ,1 4 , 5 3 , 6 1 ,5 7 1 E umene ia 9 9 , 1 00 ,314

G ade s

F ab r iano 2 52 F acu sa 3 85 ,405 F ae su lae 8 3 F a le r i i 9 8 F anum 8 3 F aynân ( Phaeno ) 2 95 F e ren t inum 9 3 ,99 F i rmum P i cenum 9 6 F lanona 8 5 F orm iae 8 3 F o rum N ovum 9 4 , 9 9 , 1 03 F orum S emp ron i i 9 1 , 9 5 , 1 03 F u runcu Hüyük 30

8 2 , 8 3 , 8 8 G a ma l a 4 65 G au lane 4 65 G aza 2 , 16 , 17 , 18 , 1 36 ,2 44 , 2 68 ,2 69 , 38 , 3 60 , 4 65 ,4 69 G azara ( Geze r ) 4 64 G az ipaa 1 9 5 G ebe !D ukhan 4 98 Ge lengeç 25 G enç 2 05 G e ra sa ( J e ra sh ) 1 7 9 ,465 G e runda 8 3 Gevne 1 9 5 Gharanda l 3 63 G i r Ma tbakh 1 5 , 5 4 , 6 1 G iv 'a t S hau l 4 70 Gomoha 3 56 ,357 Gophna ( J i fnah ) 3 42 Go rg ipp ia ( Anapa ) 3 4 ,38 Go rneae ( Garn i ) 7 0 Gökog lan 24 Gu sh H a !av 3 42 , 3 43 , 3 47 Güney K a !e s i 1 9 2

G aba ( Gaba H ippeon ) 4 22 , 4 33 , 4 34 G aba la 2 44 G adara , s ee Umm Q e i s 2 44 ,465 G adda 2 95 , 3 56 , 3 57

H ac ibag 3 18 ,325 H ada 3 42 a l -Had id 3 57 H ad im 1 9 2

6 06

H ad i tha , s ee Ad i tha , K h i rbe te s S am ra 3 00 ,308 H ad ramu t 3 99 H a i fa 3 42 ,3 46 , 4 2 1 H a 'i l 1 51 H â j Iâbâd 2 90 H a l te rn 1 70 ,171 H ama , s ee E p iphan ia 4 40 , 5 75 , 5 76 H an i ' ( Ca i rn o f Han i ' ) 1 54 H a rabe K öy 2 07 ,2 08 , 2 11 H a rmoz ica 7 0 H a t ra ( a l -Had r ) 5 3 , 2 42 ,4 75 H a t t in 1 24 H auana ( Aua ra ) 3 60 H aurãn ( Hau ran ,H aw ran ) [ r eg ion ] 1 43 , 1 50 , 1 52 , 1 5 3 , 1 54 , 1 55 , 2 98 , 3 02 , 3 03 , 3 57 H eg ra , s ee Meda in S a leh 2 0 ,2 1 , 2 6 H e l iopo l i s( Baa lbek ) 8 6 , 2 37 , 2 44 H e rac lea a d S a lbacum ( ad L a tmum ) 8 9 , 9 3 , 9 6 , 1 0 3 H e rod ium 4 63 ,468 ,470 ,471 H iasp i s 58 H ie rapo l i s ( Memb i j ) 2 44 H igh R oche s te r 4 75 H imyar 3 83 , 3 87 , 3 88 ,3 89 , 3 90 , 3 91 , 3 92 ,396 ,397 ,398 ,399 ,401 , 4 02 ,4 03 , 4 07 ,4 09 , 4 12 H ippus ( An t ioche ia ) 2 44 H i ra 1 50 , 3 87 ,3 89 ,4 00 , 4 01 ,4 03 , 4 09 H i sma 3 60

H i sn a l -Ghu rãb 3 93 H i spelum 9 2 ,94 d e Ho ldeu rn 2 49 Ho ronon 2 17 , 2 20 ,2 21 ,2 25 House s teads 1 74 Humayma ( Homa ima , Hume ima ) 1 79 ,360 Hu s i f a 3 46 H y rcan ia 4 66 ,475 I con ium , s ee K onya 2 47 ,251 I g aed i tanu s 9 6 I mmae 1 50 I m tãn 3 57 ,359 I ndu s t r ia 8 3 l o tabe 19 ,3 88 , 3 92 , 3 99 , 4 00 l o tape 1 92 , 4 22 I t h ra 3 00 l uvanum 9 1 h i c 3 31 ,332 I m ikuag i 4 38 J af f a ( Te lA v iv ) , s ee J oppa 3 46 J a thum 1 54 J au f( a l -Jawf ) , s ee D jaw f , Duma ta l J anda l 2 1 ,3 08 J az i ra t F a ra 'un 3 88 ,407 J ebe l R uwaq 3 59 ,360 J ebe lY a t ib 1 51

6 07

J er icho

Kh irbe t Mesad 4 70 K h irbe t Manara 3 00 ,302 Kh irbe tT annur 2 3 ,25 Kh irbe t Umar i 3 03 Khoraz in 3 42 K hurayhah 'Aynunah , s ee Aynunah 4 91 K if r in 1 72 K i l ise 1 95 K irkes ion ( C irces ium) 2 65 , 5 61 K i thara 1 80

4 70 ,522 J erusa lem , s ee Adia C ap i to l ina 1 72 , 2 32 , 2 53 , 3 35 , 3 40 , 3 41 , 3 42 , 3 44 , 3 45 , 3 75 , 3 79 , 3 96 , 4 03 , 4 34 , 4 39 , 4 61 , 4 62 , 4 63 , 4 64 , 4 65 , 4 66 , 4 67 , 4 68 , 4 69 , 4 70 , 4 72 , 4 73 , 4 74 , 4 75 , 4 76 , 4 77 , 4 78 , 4 84 , 5 22 J ima l 3 58 J i za 3 57 , 3 59 , 3 61 J oppa , s ee J af fa ( Te l Av iv ) 4 65 , 4 69 , 4 70 J o tapa ta 2 2 ,318 J u l iosebas te 1 92 J urf c d Daraw ish 1 79

K onya , s ee I con ium 1 95 Korp in ik Hüyük 3 29 Köksek i 3 31 Köpeks iz k öy 30 K u lu lu 4 39 Kurugo l 31 K ü l tepe ( Kanesh ) 4 40

Kabu l 2 90 K af 2 99 ,300 K af r Zummar 1 K aram i ldan ( K irman Höyük ) 4 37 , 4 38 , 4 39 , 4 40 , 4 48 . 4 49 K ar l iova 2 07 K ars 2 07 a l -Ka t if 2 87 Kawkab 3 91 ,392 Kemah 3 32 Kema l iye 3 29 ,331 K erak 2 2 , 2 3 , 2 6 , 2 7 , 1 59 Kerch ( Pan t ikapa ion )

L aer tes 1 91 ,192 L aco tena 30 L amhae s is 1 72 , 1 74 , 2 50 L amos 1 92 ,196 L ampsacus ( Lapsek i) 2 78

5 15 K esaf l i Yay las i 1 95 K far Hebrona

L aod icea ( La tak ia) 2 40 , 2 44 , 4 91 , 5 38 , 5 39 L ar issa 2 44

3 46 Kha !de ( a l -Kha lde , K h irbe t e l Kha lde ) , s ee P raes id ium 1 80 ,363 Kh irbe t e s -Samra , s ee Had i tha 1 43 , 3 56 , 3 57 , 3 59

L egâ ( Le jâ ) 2 96 e l -Le j j i in ( Leg io) 2 69 , 3 56 , 3 57 , 3 58 , 3 67 ,3 68 L eon ( Leg io ) 1 73

6 08

Masm iyah (M ism iye , e l -M ism Iye ) , s ee P haena 2 95 , 2 96 , 3 57 Mass i l ia (Marse i l le ) 9 5 , 1 03 Mecca 15 Meda in S a leh (Meda ' in S a l ih) , s ee Hegra 15 ,116 Mefa (Mefaa ) , s ee C as tron Mefaa , Umm e r -R isas 2 95 , 3 56 , 3 57 , 3 59 , 3 61 , 3 62 Me i r on 3 42 ,343 Me lebasa 2 26 Me l i tene , s ee E sk i Ma la tya 1 81 , 2 04 , 2 13 , 2 16 , 2 17 , 2 18 , 2 19 , 2 25 , 3 30 , 3 31 , 4 37 , 4 40 Meno is 2 68 Mersa Gasus (Wad i Gawas is ) 4 89 Mersa Muharak 4 90 Mersa T undaha (Mersa N akar i ) 4 90 Mer t iker ton (Mazg ir t ) 2 23 ,227 Messana 9 7 Messene 9 0 ,102 Meydanc ik 4 40 M i le tus 8 5 M indouos 2 27 M isenum 2 51 ,497 M ishmar h a -Emek 4 34 Moah i la 1 23 Mo lea tha , s ee Ma la tha 2 68 Mons C laud ianus 4 89 Mons P orphyr i tes 4 95 Mosu l 7 ,1 4 , 5 3 , 5 4 , 6 1

L en ( Kabaköy ) 2 25 L euke Kome 2 1 , 13 , 15 , 16 , 17 , 18 , 4 90 , 4 91 , 4 99 L eukos L imen ( Quse ir a l -Qad im) 4 89 ,497 L eu then 1 25 L ibb ( Kh irbe t e l -L ibben ) 3 57 L ibona 3 56 , 3 57 L im isa 1 35 L i r ia Ede tanorum 9 2 ,103 L ydda ( Lod) 3 40 , 3 41 , 3 46 Machaerus 4 66 , 4 67 , 4 70 , 4 73 , Mac tans 8 4 ,90 Madaha (Madeha ) 2 1 ,271 Mad ian ( a l -Bad ' ) 15 Maghar a lN assara , P e tra 2 4 , 2 5 Magnes ia 8 3 Ma iozama lcha 2 91 Ma laca (Ma laga) 9 3 ,105 Ma la tha , s ee Mo lea tha 1 23 , 1 33 , 1 36 Ma la tya 3 29 , 3 30 , 4 37 , 4 38 , Mamps is 1 33 Mar ib 3 87 ,413 Mar isa 4 65 Mar tyropo l is ( S i lvan ) 2 03 , 2 14 , 2 15 , 2 16 , 2 24 , 2 65 , 5 45 , 5 46 , Masada 1 72 , 4 39 , 4 63 , 4 66 , 4 75 ,478 M 'as i J Gumhãn 4 00

4 75 , 4 76

4 47

2 20 , 2 21 , 5 63 , 5 7 1 4 70 , 4 74 ,

6 09

Mo tha

N i jmegen ( Nov iomagus ) 2 49 ,250 N im rud 4 38 ,440 N ineveh 6 1 , 2 61 ,2 65 ,4 38 N i s ib i s ( Nu sayb in ) 1 , 1 4 ,6 1 ,2 04 , 2 25 , 26 , 2 27 , 2 59 ,2 61 ,2 65 ,2 87 , 2 90 ,3 75 , 3 84 ,5 55 ,5 57 , 5 59 , 5 61 ,5 63 , 5 64 ,5 7 1 No la 9 2 , 9 6 , 1 02 N uman t ia 1 70 N y sa 8 7

2 95 ,3 56 , 3 57 , 3 59 Muha 4 09 ,410 Muhã t . te te l -Hä j 3 57 ,359 Mu t ina 8 7 Muz ir i s 4 96 Muza 17 Myo s Ho rmo s 15 , 16 , 4 87 , 4 88 , 4 89 ,4 92 , 4 95 ,496 N aa r saf ar i ( Naha rA f ar i s ) 3 56 ,357 N abak a bu -Qas r 2 99 N ab ra te in 3 42 ,343 N a jrãn 3 87 , 3 90 , 3 91 , 3 92 , 3 93 , 3 97 , 3 99 , 4 00 ,4 01 , 4 09 , 4 10 N aq i R us tam 1 55 N eapo l i s( Nab lus ) 9 3 , 9 6 , 9 8 , 1 05 N eapo l i s ( Nap le s ) 9 2 , 9 6 , 1 02 , 2 51 N aq sh i -Ru s tam ( Naq i R u s tam ) 2 91 N eche s ia 4 87 ,4 88 ,4 90 N egev [ r eg ion ] 3 59 ,3 60 ,4 70 N eha rdea 1 48 N emau su s 8 5 N em rud D ag 3 30 N e s sana ( Ne sana ) 2 68 ,270 N ew s teads 1 2 N icaea ( I zn ik ) 8 2 , 8 8 , 9 8 , 3 47 N icomed ia ( I zm i t ) 9 9 ,524 N icopo l i s ( Emmaeus ) 2 16 , 2 18 , 3 31 N icopo l i s 3 42

Oboda 1 2 3 ,268 O enoanda ( O inoanda ) 8 7 , 9 2 , 9 5 , 1 02 , 1 03 O lo sada 1 9 4 Onne 17 Ono 3 46 O s t ia 9 0 , 9 4 , 9 8 , 1 02 , 1 03 , 1 7 0 , 5 22 P ae s tum 1 7 3 P a l io s( Pa lu ) 23 ,227 P a lmy ra ( Tadmo r ,T admur ) 8 3 , 9 3 , 9 4 , 9 6 , 1 03 , 1 0 4 , 1 09 , 18 , 1 43 , 1 44 , 1 45 , 1 46 , 1 47 , 1 4 8 , 1 49 , 1 50 , 1 51 , 1 5 4 , 1 55 , 1 57 , 1 58 , 1 59 , 1 72 , 1 7 8 , 1 79 , 2 04 ,2 20 , 2 38 , 2 40 , 3 14 ,3 24 , 3 59 ,486 P an ia s ( Ban iyas ) 3 42 P a sa rgadae 4 38 P a tara 9 4 , 1 0 3 P e l la 4 65 P e n 24 P e rg amon ( Pe rgamum , B e rg ama ) 9 0 , 9 5 , 9 7 , 1 02 , 1 03 , 5 73

6 10

P to lema is , s ee Acco ( Acre , Akko ) 2 37 ,244 P u teo l i 8 5 P ü türge 3 30

P e rge 8 2 , 8 6 , 3 24 P e rsepo l i s 2 90 P e s s inus 9 0 , 9 8 , 9 9 P e tra 2 0 , 2 1 , 2 2 ,2 3 ,2 4 , 2 5 , 2 6 , 2 7 , 8 2 , 13 , 15 , 16 , 17 , 1 44 , 1 45 , 1 46 , 1 79 , 2 68 , 2 69 , 3 42 , 3 63 , 4 85 P e tra ( T s ikh is Dz ir i ) 3 6 , 3 7 , 3 8 P haena , s ee Masm iyah 2 95 , 2 96 , 2 99 P haeno ( Faynan) 2 95 P haran 2 70 ,271 P has is 3 3 , 3 4 , 3 5 , 3 6 , 3 7 , 3 8 , 3 9 , 4 75 P he ison ( F is ) 2 03 , 2 14 , 2 15 , 2 21 P h i lade lph ia ( Amman ) 1 9 , 1 79 , 2 44 P h i le ( Phy le ) 1 35 P h i lae 3 86 P h i l ippopo l is 1 48 P h i lo teras 4 87 , 4 88 , 4 89 P hocaea 8 9 ,102 P i ro t 4 40 P i saurum 9 7 P i t inu m Mergens 9 8 P i tyus 3 1 , 3 2 , 3 3 , 3 4 , 3 7 , 3 8 , 3 9 P oe tov io 9 0 P ompe i i 1 35 , 5 22 , 5 23 P ompe iopo ! is 8 3 P raes id ium , s ee Kha lde 3 63 P r ima 3 86 P rus ias a d Hyp ium 9 1 , 9 5 , 1 02 , 1 03

Qa ' la t a d -Dabaa ( Qa 1 'a t Deba 'a) 2 95 ,362 Qa 1 'a t e l -M ishnaqa 4 67 Qa ' la t e z -Zarqa 3 57 ,359 Qana 16 , 17 Qarqar 1 51 Qasr Amra ( Qusayr Amra) 3 03 Qasr A sa ikh in ( Qasr A saykh in) 1 79 ,300 Qasr Azraq ( Kasr e l -Azrak , Qasr a l Azraq , T el ' Ezraq ) 1 79 , 2 96 , 2 97 Qasr a l -B in t ( Pe tra) 1 44 Qasr B sh ir 1 79 , 3 56 , 3 57 , 3 58 ,3 59 ,3 69 Qasr a l -Ha l laba t 3 00 Qasr e lK i thara 3 63 Qasr e l -Quwe ira ( Qwera , Qasr e z Z uwe ira) 1 80 ,363 Qar e th -Thura iya 3 57 ,358 Qasr e t -T iah 3 63 Qasr Uwe in id ( Qasr Uwayn id ) 1 79 ,300 a l -Qas ta l 3 61 Q re iye 1 74 Quse ir a l -Qad im Quse ir 4 98 R abba 3 57 ,359 R ae te 8 2 , 9 3 , 9 6 R agaba 4 65

6 11

R aph ia

S a ldae

4 65 R awwa fa 1 82 R ehovo t 2 68 ,271 R e f ah iye 3 31 R hande ia 7 1 , 7 3 , 2 41 R h inoco lu ra 13 R h izaeum ( Rh i zus , R ize ) 2 04 , 2 17 R iyadh 13 R ome ( Roma ) 4 5 ,4 6 , 4 7 , 4 9 , 5 0 , 5 1 , 8 0 , 8 2 , 8 5 , 8 7 , 8 8 , 9 0 , 9 4 , 9 5 , 9 6 , 9 7 , 1 04 , 18 , 1 44 , 1 45 , 1 46 , 1 48 , 1 50 , 1 52 , 1 53 , 1 54 , 2 35 , 2 38 , 2 40 , 2 41 , 2 42 ,2 78 , 2 80 , 3 11 , 3 22 , 3 37 , 3 43 , 3 45 R o s s ing ton 1 70 R ou soumb lada ( Zenonopo l i s , I z nebo 1 ) 1 97 R u jm Mudawwar 3 03 R u selae 8 3 E r -Ruwe ih i 1 79

8 9 S a lkhad 3 57 e l -Sa l t 3 42 S a lona 8 2 , 8 5 , 8 8 , 3 20 S amaga 4 65 S amar ia ( Sehas te ) 9 3 , 9 6 , 9 8 , 3 42 ,4 28 , 4 38 ,4 39 , 40 ,4 65 ,4 69 ,4 70 , 5 76 S amo s 9 1 , 9 4 , 1 02 , 1 03 , 5 73 S amo sa ta ( Samsa t , S ümey sa t ) 1 79 ,2 04 , 2 44 , 4 37 , 4 39 , 40 , 5 19 ,5 20 , 5 21 , 5 22 , 5 23 , 5 24 , 5 73 ,5 74 ,5 75 ,5 76 , 5 77 S arapana 3 7 ,39 S ard i s ( S arde s ) 8 6 , 9 7 , 1 05 S a rm izege tu sa 9 0 ,102 S a ta la ( S adak ) 1 7 2 , 1 8 1 ,2 04 , 2 16 , 2 18 , 25 , 26 ,2 50 , 3 29 , 3 30 , 31 S cy thopo l i s , s ee B e th S hean 1 4 4 ,244 S eba s te [ =S amar ia?? ] 2 40 ,2 44 ,4 68 ,4 69 S ehas te ia ( S ivas ) 2 16 ,218 S ebas topo l i s 3 29 S ehas topo l i s , s ee D io scur ia s 3 , 3 4 ,3 7 , 3 9 S eh Q ubba 7 ,8 ,1 0 , 1 , 1 2 , 1 4 , / 5 ,16 ,53 , 5 4 , 5 ,6 1 S e leuc ia ,s ee C te s iphon 9 5 ,375 S e leuc ia P i e r ia 2 40 ,5 38 , 5 39 S e leuc ia i nG au lan i t i s 4 65 S e leuce ia o n t he C a lycadnu s 1 9 6 S e l inu s 1 9 2 S e lge 3 24 S ennah r i s 3 41

S a 'adon 2 68 S aba ( Tel S aba ) 3 99 ,408 S aba ia 3 03 S ab ra tha 9 S abus 31 S adaqa ( Zodoca tha ) 3 60 S aep inum 1 70 S af aga 4 89 S aga las su s 3 18 , 3 22 , 3 25 S agun tum 9 4

6 12

S epphor is ( D iocaesarea ) 3 38 , 3 39 , 3 40 , 3 41 , 3 44 , 3 47 , 4 22 S e rg iopo l is 2 44 S es t inu m 8 9 S ha 'ar h a -Amak im 4 21 ,434 S heba ( Saba ) [ r eg ion ] 4 85 S h iqmona 4 32 S h ishan 3 03 S h iv ta 2 68 ,270 S ide 8 6 ,324 S iq e iB and 2 5 ,26 S idon ( Sa ida ) 2 44 ,431 S ina i 3 59 ,360 S ingara ( S in jar ) 1 , 1 4 , 5 4 , 6 1 , 2 65 , 2 90 , 5 58 , 5 63 , 5 7 1 S i sara 1 2 Smyrna ( I zm ir ) 8 3 ,576 S oco tra 17 S pe lunc is ( Spe lunca) 2 95 , 3 02 , 3 03 , 3 56 S po le t ium 9 6 S t . J ohn 's Hebdomon 2 78 S t ra to(n) 's T ower , s ee C aesarea Mar i t ima 4 28 ,465 S uasa 8 3 S u i tan tepe 4 38 ,440 S ura 2 04 , 5 19 S yedra ( Dem ir ta) 1 92 , 1 95 S yene 3 85 ,386 e y tan Köprüsü 3 31

T a mara ( En T amar ) 1 23 , 1 36 T ar ichea i 3 46 T arraco 9 2 , 9 7 , 1 02 T arsus 4 38 , 4 39 , 4 40 T a ken t 1 92 T aur in i 8 2 T ayma 2 99 T e lA far ( Te l 'afar ) 1 0 , 1 4 , 6 1 T e l Anafa 4 28 T e l A rad 1 72 T e l l Abu Dhah ir 7 T e l Abu -Shusha 4 34 T e l Dor ( Dora) 4 62 ,463 T e l F ar 'ah 4 70 T e l l Ha laf 4 38 T e l l e l -Ha j 1 72 T e l l a l -Hawa 1 2 , 1 4 T e l l Hugna 1 2 , 1 4 T e l l ( Jebe l ) Ku 'ays 3 03 T eos 8 2 T epehan 3 30 ,331 T eqoa ( Kh irbe t S hema ' ) 3 42 ,343 T erges te ( T r ies te ) 8 9 , 9 2 , 9 6 , 1 02 T ermessus ( P is id ia ) 9 3 , 1 93 , 3 22 , 3 23 T ermessus Minor ( Lyc ia) 8 7 T ha ina tha ( Than t ia ) 3 56 , 3 57 T hamugad i 9 0 , 9 8 , 1 30 , 1 37

6 13

T hannu r i s 2 26 T hem i son ium 8 2 T heodo s iopo l i s ( E rzurum ) 2 03 ,2 04 , 2 15 , 2 16 , 2 17 , 2 18 , 2 19 , 2 21 , 2 25 , 2 26 , 2 61 , 5 46 T he rmae H ime raeae ( H ime ra ) 8 3 , 8 7 , 9 1 T he s sa lon ik i ( The s sa lon ica ) 5 64 T heve s te 9 4 ,135 T hou th thou rb ia 1 94 T hubu rbo M inu s 9 1 T hubur s ica 8 6 T hug ra t a l -Jubb 3 57 , 3 59 T hya t i ra 9 5 T hy sdru s 8 3 T ibe r ia s 37 , 3 40 , 3 41 , 3 42 , 3 44 , 3 47 , 4 02 T i l l i ( Te l l F af an , c a t tepe ) 5 60 , 5 61 ,5 7 1 T i t le ( Ge ld ibu ldu k öyü ) 4 38 ,439 T i ran 3 88 T ivo l i 5 24 T o loha 3 63 T rabzon , s ee T rapezus 2 07 T rapezu s ( T reb izond ) , s ee T rab zon 3 2 ,3 5 , 3 8 , 1 81 ,2 04 ,3 29 T rebenna 3 23 T r icom ia 2 95 ,3 56 , 3 57 T r imon t ium 1 2 T r ipo l i s 2 44 T roy ( H i sar l ik ) 4 8 ,523 T ul i -S if idak 2 90

T y re 8 7 , 2 40 , 2 44 , 4 65 Umm e l J imä l ( Umm a 1 -J iml ) 1 59 ,3 56 , 3 57 , 3 58 , 3 59 Umm Q e i s , s ee G adara 1 44 Umm a l -Qu t tayn ( Umm e l -Qu t te in ) 1 7 2 ,2 98 , 3 00 ,3 03 Umm e r -R i säs , s ee C as tron Me f aa 3 55 , 3 56 , 3 57 ,3 59 , 3 61 ,3 62 Umm Ub tu lah 1 7 9 a l 'Uq lah ( Shabwa ) , s ee ' Anwadum 1 47 U rc i tanu s 9 0 U r f a , s ee E de s sa 5 20 ,5 28 U rgavo 9 5 U zappa 8 4 V a len t ia 3 21 ,325 V a i tha , s e e Wad i Wa la 3 56 ,359 V an 2 07 , 2 14 , 2 23 V an i 3 6 V asada 1 92 V as io V ocon t io rum 9 2 V e i i 9 7 V e le ia 3 21 V enaf rum 8 4 ,97 V e rona 8 3 ,92 V e te ra 2 49 V ica t ( Te l l I b ra ) 5 4 ,6 1 V ienna 8 3 , 8 4 , 9 5 , 9 7 , 1 03 V im inac ium 5 16 V indo landa 1 7 4

6 14

V o loge s ia s 1 78 V o lubi i s 2 67

Z imara 3 31 Z i za ( Z iz ia ) 2 95 ,3 56 , 3 57 , 3 59 , 3 61 Z oa ra 1 33 , 1 36 , 2 68 Z odoca tha ( Sadaqa ) 3 60 Z ube ra t 2 95

Wad iA rabah 1 86 ,3 60 , 3 63 Wad ia l -f laf i ra 3 57 Wad i Ha sa 1 79 ,183 Wad i Mu j ib ( t he A rnon ) 1 79 , 1 83 , 3 57 , 3 61 Wad i Mas i l 3 99 ,4 00 , 4 13 Wad i S i rhan (Wad ia l -S i rhan ) 17 , 19 , 1 5 1 , 1 78 , 1 79 , 2 70 , 2 99 ,3 00 , 3 01 ,3 08 Wad iS uwa id iya 7 Wad i Wa la , s ee V a i tha 3 57 , 3 59

W ad iZ a f r i 3 62

X an thus 8 3 ,84 Y amana t 3 99 Y anbu 13 Y as s idag 4 39 Y ande re 3 31 Y az t ic ay i 1 95 Y en iK öy 2 07 ,2 08 , 2 11 Y o rk ( Ebu racum ) 2 49 Y un t 1 95 Z af a r 3 91 , 3 92 , 3 93 Z agu rae ( A in S inu ) 1 0 , 1 4 , 6 1 Z eng ibar K a le s i ( Nea I s aur ia ) 1 92 Z enob ia ( I Ia 1eb iye ) 5 25 , 5 41 Z eugma ( Be lk i s ) 1 79 ,244

6 15