Industries Lithiques, Tome 1 et Tome 2: Tracéologie et Technologie. Tome 1: aspects archéologiques, Tome 2: aspects méthodologiques 9781407389950, 9781407389967, 9780860545286, 9781407346922

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Industries Lithiques Traceologie et Technologie Volume 1: aspects archeologiques

edite par

Sylvie Beyries ·

Centre de Recherche Archeologique du C.N.R.S.

BAR International Series 411(i)

1988

B.A.R. 5, Centremead, Osney Mead, Oxford OX2 ODQ, England.

GENERAL EDITORS A.R. Hands, B.Sc., M.A., D.Phil. D.R. Walker, M.A.

BAR S411 (I),

©

1988:

'Industries Lithiques: Tra ceologie et Technologie' Volume I

The Individual Authors, 1988

The authors’ moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9781407389950 (Volume I) paperback ISBN 9781407389967 (Volume II) paperback ISBN 9780860545286 (Volume set) paperback ISBN 9781407346922 (Volume set) e-format DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860545286 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

SO M M AI R E TO ME I A SPECTS ARCHE O LOG IQUES AVANT PROPOS

3

BULLER J ohannes . Hand l ing , h af t ing a nd o chr e s ta ins

5

DROBN IE W ICZ B arba ra . U se -w ear a na lys is o fs hoe— L as t i mp lemen ts a nd a x es f r om e ar ly N eo l i th ic ( LPC ) C racow -Nowa h u ta s e t t l emen t i n w es t l i t t l e P o land

3

W IN IARSKA -KABAC INSKA Ma lgorza ta . E xam ina t ion o fh af t ing t r aces o n e nd -scraper s f r om t h e s i te o f Wo jnowo «a» ,c onc en tra t ion II 17 5( wes t ern P o land )

4 7

YACOBACC IO Hug o D an ie l . Mu l t ifunc t ion a nd morpho log ica l h omog ene i ty: Ap aragon ian c a se s tudy

5 3

CALLEY S y lv ie , GRACE R oger . T echno logy a nd f unc t ion o f m icro -bor ers f r om Kumar tepe ( Turkey )

6 9

A TAMAN K a thryn , CALLEY S y lv ie . Ap r e l im inary s t udy o fu ps i lon b lad es: al o ok a t an ew t o o l t y pe

8 3

B INDER D id ier , GASS IN B ernard . L e d eb i tag e l am ina ir e c has se en a pr es c hauf f e :t e chno log ie e tt r aces d 'u t i l isa t ion

9 3

D 'ERR ICO F rancesco . L e b ur in n go l i th ique s ur e ncoche l a tera le o u «b u l ino d i r i pab l ianca » . Approche f onc t ionne l le

1 27

FUJ I MOTO T suyosh i . E ar ly c e r ea l u t i l iza t ion ?S ick l e p o l i sh o n m icro l i ths f rom t h e U pp er - a nd E p i - P a l eo l i th ic a ssemb lag es f r om Pa lmyra b as in , S yr ia

1 65

ANDERSON -GERFAUD P a t r ic ia . U s ing p r eh is tor ic s t one t o o ls t oh arves t c u l t iva ted w i ld c e r ea l s :p r e l im inary o bs erva t ions o ft r ac es a nd i mpac t

1 75

v an G IJN A nne lou . T he u se o fb ronz e a g e f l in ts s i ck l es i n t h e N e ther land s: ap r e l im inary r e por t

1 97

B IENENFELD P au la . S tone t o o l u se a nd t h e o rgan iza t ion o ft e chno logy i n t he d u tch N eo l i th ic

2 19

J UEL J ENSEN H e l le . M icrod en t i cu la t es i n t h e d an ish s t one a g e: af unc t iona l p uzz le

2 3 1

1

KNUTSSON K , DAHLQU IST B . , KNUTSSON H . P a t tern s o ft o o l u se T he m icrowear a na lys i s o ft h e q uar tz a nd f l in t a ss emb lag e f r om t he B jurse le t s i te , V äs terbo t ten , Nor thern Sweden

2 53

CHEL IDON IO G iorg io . E xper imen ts o n b or ing -dr i l l ing t e chno logy: w ear c hang es i n t o o l s hape a nd m icro -wear

2 95

TOME I A SPECI 'S T ECHNOLOG IQUES SUSSMAN C aro le .A sp ec t so fm icrowear a s a pp l ied t oq uar tz

3

MANSUR -FRANCHO MME Mar ia E s te la . T racgo log ie e tt e chno log i e : q ue lques d onng es s ur l ' obs id i enne

2 9

PROST D om in ique C hr is t ian . E ssa i d 'g tud e s ur l e s mg can ismes d ' en l gvemen t p rodu i ts p ar l e sf aeons a gr ico l es e tl ep ig t inemen t h uma in s ur d es s i lex e xpgr imen taux

4 9

SHEA J ohn J . Me thodo log ica l c ons id era t ions a f f ec t ing t h e c ho ic e o fa na ly t ica l t e chn iques i n l i th ic u s e -wear a na ly s is: t e s t s , r e su l ts a nd a pp l ica t ion

6 5

L EV I SALA I r ene . P ro cess es o fp o l i sh f o rma t ion o nf l in t t o o l s urf ac e

8 3

TO MENCHUK J ohn . Ef ec ts o fl o ad ing r a t e o n t he r e l iab i l i ty o ft h e e ng ineer ing u se -wear models

9

BEYR IES S y lv ie , DELAMARE F ranpo is , QUANT IN J ean Chr istophe . T racgo log ie e t r ugos img tr ie t r id imens ionne l le

15

FULLAGAR R ichard . R ec en t d eve lopmen ts i n Aus tra l ian u se -wear a nd r es idue s tud ies

1 33

P L ISSON Hugues . A per çu s ur l a t r acgo log ie s ov ig t ique c on t empora ine

1 47

P L ISSON Hugues , G IR YA E ugen i i t ourev in , TCH IST YAKOV D im i tr i i A rkadev i th . Q ue lqu es t e rmes r usses d e t e chno log i e , t r ac go log i e e tt y po log i e l i th ique

1 69

M ise äj our d e l ' annua ir e d es t r acgo logu es

1 73

V ILA A ssumpc iö . F ormu la t ion a na ly t ique d es c arac tgr e s f onc t ionne l s

1 89

D 'ERR ICO F reder ico , REDURON M iche le . T racgo log ie e tt e chno log i e : u n d ess in s c i en t if ique a i n ven ter

2 07

GRACE R . , ATAMAN K . , FABREBAS R . , HAGGREN C .M .B . A mu l t i -var ia te a pproach t ot h ef unc t iona l a na ly s i so fs t one t o o ls

2 17

OTTE Marce l . T ypo log ie e t f onc t ions :c e q u i ac hang g

2 3 1

2

AVANT- PROPOS

L es 1 8 , 1 9 e t2 0o c tobre 1 986 , s ' est t enue a u C entre d eR echerches A rcheo log iques d u C .N .R .S . ä Va lbonne ( France ) , u ne t ab le r onde s ur l e t heme :«I ndus tr ies l i th iques : t r acCo log ie e t t e chno log ie » . L es d eux p rem ieres j ournees d e c ette r eun ion f urent c onsacrees a ux r esu lta ts a rcheo log iques . L es c o mmun icat ions p resentees o nt montre c omment l e s e tudes t raceo log r iques p ouva ient a ider ä l a c o mprehens ion d 'un c er ta in n ombre d e c ho ix t e chno log iques . L es d emonstrat ions d es a uteurs s ' appuya ient d 'une p ar t s ur l ' etude d e mater ie ls p rovenant d e g i sements l a rgement r epar t is g eog raph iquement ( Po logne , Turqu ie , Austra l ie , T anzan ie , A rgent ine , P ays -Bas , F rance , S uede , D ane mark . . .) e t d ans l et emps ( de l ' O ldowa ien a u Neo l ith ique ) . I l s s ' appuyerent a uss i , d 'autre p art , s ur d e n ombreuses e xper i mentat ions . r assemb lees d ans l ep rem ier v o lume d e c es a ct es .

C es

c o mmun icat ions

s ont

L a d ern iere j ournee d u c o l loque a ad c entree s ur d es p rob lemes methodo log iques p ropres a l a t raceo log ie . Ou tre d es i n tervent ions i nd iquant d es r esu lta ts o b tenus l o rs d e l ' e tude d e ma ter iaux c omme l e q uar tz e t l ' obs id ienne , e t d es a na lyses q uant itat ives d es t r aces d 'usages , u ne l o ngue d i scuss ion , t r es a n imee s ' es t t enue ä l a f o is s ur l eb ien -f onde d es methodes d ' etude af o r t o u äf a ib le g ross issement m icroscop ique e t s ur l a v a l id ite d e l ' interpretat ion d es o bservat ions f a ites s e lon l ' une o u l ' au tre d e c es d emarches . Une c ommun icat ion c oncernant l a t raceo log ie s ov iet ique a b ien montre q u 'une b onne u t i l isat ion d e c es d eux methodes l e s r enda ient c o mp lementa ires e t q ue l e p assage d e l ' une ä l ' autre p ermet ta it u n c ontrö le r egu l ier d es r esu ltat s . L es a na lyses mu lt ivar iees s ont a pparues a l ors c omme u n moyen s age e t p rudent d ' ana lyser l e s d i f f erentes t races l a issees p ar l ' ut i l isat ion s ur l e s o u t i ls d e p ierre . L es c onc lus ions d e c e t te d i scuss ion o nt e t e e xposees d ans l ' ar t ic le d e R . G ra ce e t a l i i q u i emane d e c e t te d i scuss ion e t q ue j ' a i s ouha ite j o indre ä l a f i n d e c e v o lume . C 'est Mons ieur l e P rof esseur M . O t te d e l ' Un ivers ite d e L iege q u i aa ccepte d e f a ire l a s ynthese d e c es j ournees . S es r e marques s ont d onc p ub l iees e n c onc lus ion . C ette d ern iere j ournee d u c o l loque c ons t itue l a ma t iere d u d eux ieme v o lume p resent e i c i . A l ' i ssue d e c e t te r eun ion , j e v oudra is r e merc ier l e M in istere d es A f fa ires E trangeres p our l ' a ide f i nanc iere q u ' i l ab ien v ou lu n ous a ccorder . J e t i ens e ga lement ä d i re ma g rat itude ä Mons ieur B runo He l ly , D irecteur d u C entre d e R echerches A rcheo log iques d e V a lbonne , q u i ab ien v ou lu met tre ä ma d ispos it ion l e s moyens n ecessa ires a uss i b ien p our l ap repara t ion e tl eb on d erou lement d e c e t te t ab le r onde , q ue p our l a r ea l isa t ion d es a ctes p resent & i c i .

S y lv ie BEYR IES URA 2 8d uC RA d u CNRS

3

HA NDLING , HAFTING AND OCHRE STAINS

J ohannes BÜLLER *

ABSTRACT:

The a pp l ica t ion o f o chre was w ide ly k nown i n p reh is tor ic t e chno logy t o h ave a p reserv ing e f e c to nh ides . S ince o ne o ft he f unc t ions o fh ide wa s t oa id i n t he h and l ing a nd h af t ing o ff l in t t oo ls , o ne c an e xpec tt oe n coun te ro n t hese t oo ls t he m ic rowea rc aused b yt he i mpa c to fo chre . The f o l low ing s e lec t ion o ff l in t a r t ifac ts f r om s evera l p reh is tor ic p er iods , r ang ing f r om t he Mous ter ian t ot he E ar ly B r onze , may i lus tra te t h is p o in t . R ESUME: L 'emp lo i d ' ocre ö ta i t amp lement c onnu e n t e chno log ie p rA is tor ique p our a vo ir u n e f f e t c onserva teur s ur l e s p eaux . P u isque l ' une d es f onc t ions d e l a p eau d ta it d ' a ider a u man iemen t e t ä l ' emmanchement d es o u t i ls d e s i lex , o n p eu t s ' a t tendre a r encon trer s ur c es o ut i ls l a m icrousure c ausöe p ar l ' impa ct d e l ' oc re . L e c ho ix s u ivan t d ' a rtefa c ts d e s i lex p rovenan t d e d iverses é poques p r6h istor iques a l lan t d u Moust ör ien a ud ebu td uB r onze p eu ti lust rer c ep o in t .

I— I NTRODUCT ION Th is p aper w i l l t r yt o s ket ch t he t e chno log ica l a pp l icat ion o fo chre i n t he p reh is tor ic p er iods . F rom t he e nd o ft he M idd le P a laeo l i th ic i t s p resence i sw e l l a t tes ted , a nd p ieces o f t h is m inera l w ere f ound i n s evera l Mouster ian s i tes . Bu t o n ly f r om t he b eg inn ing o ft he Upper P a laeo l ith ic s t ar tt races o fo chre t ob e more o rl e ss f r equent ly f ound f eatures . G eo log ica l ly s peak ing o chre i s al imon i te , a nd i tc ons ists o f ar ange o fm ixtures o f h ydra ted i r on o x ides a nd i r on h ydrox ides wh ich a re made u p o fv ar ious amorphous a nd c ryptocrysta l l ine c ons t ituents . I n i t s n atura l s tate i tw ide ly o ccurs a s t he w eather ing p roduct o f i r on c onta in ing m inera ls . The n atura l c o lour i s y e l low t o b rown ish -ye l low . A s e ar ly a s t he C hate lperron ian t he t e chn ique o fs c orch ing t he y e l low o chre , o x id iz ing i t i n o rder t o o bta in a d eep r ed c o lour , was k nown . Na tura l ly t he m inera l was u sed a s a c o lour ing a gent a nd p a int a s e v idenced b y many c ave p a int ings . F or s t orage a nd e a sy t ranspor t t he o chre c ou ld b e f o rmed i n to b a l ls a nd s omet imes i nto s t ick -shaped p endants ( e .g . b a l ls i n A rcy -sur -Cure , A . a nd A . L ero i -Gourhan , 1 964 :4 6 ) . B a l ls a nd p endants w ere r eproduced b y E . Wreschner ( 1983 ) b y p owder ing t he o chre a nd m ix ing i tw ith water o r f a t , a f ter wh ich i tc ou ld b e f o rmed i nto t he d es ired s hape . Af ter d ry ing f o r t wo d ays i t was s o l id e nough t o b e h and led a nd t ranspor ted . T o p repare i tf o ru se a ga in i th ad t ob e d i sso lved w ith t he o r ig ina l s o lvent .

* I n s t i tu te o fA r chaeo logy , D epar tmen t o fP r eh is tory , H ebr ew Un iver s i ty o fJ e sura l em , Moun t S copus , 9 1905 J eru sa l em ,I s rae l .

5

P la te 1 :( x2 00 magn if icat ion )

a Mat p o l ish p roduced b y s crap ing s o f t o chre w ith e xper imenta l t o o l .

b Mat p o l ish o n s ame t o o l a s i n a ) .

c Ma t p o l ish a nd c ap i l lar s t r ia t ions p roduced b y c u t t ing c rysta l l ine o chre w ith e xper imenta l t oo l .

6

d C ap i l lar s t r ia t ions p rodu ced b y s c rap ing s o f t o chre w i th e xper imenta l t o o l .

e Ma tp o l ish a nd t h in , w h i te s t r ia t ion p rodu ced b y s c rap ing s o f t o chre w i th e xper imen ta l t o o l .

f Ma t p o l ish ;c ap i l lar s t r ia t ions a nd l o ng , d eep s t r ia t ion p rodu ced b y s c rap ing s o f t o chre w ith e xper imenta l t o o l .

7

P la te 2 :( x 2 00 magn if icat ion )

a Du l l l uster ;n arrow , d eep w e l l d ef ined s t r iat ion a nd a t tr it ion o f e dge . E xper imenta l t oo l made o f C arme l f l int u sed f o r s crap ing d ry h ide .

b Du l l l uster p rodu ced b y s crap ing f r esh h ide w ith e xper i menta l t o o l made o ff i ne g ra ined Har Hare f l int .

c L inear f ea tures p roduced b y f l esh ing f r esh h ide w ith e xper imenta l t oo l made o f Har Hanf f l int .

8

d HYC b ur in 1 .L oca t ion o ft he m icrowear s . A t ( 3 ) as pa l l b roke o f t ak ing a way m os t o ft he f unc t iona l m icrowear p rodu ced b y s aw ing b one .

o

I I

2 Icm

e HYC b u r in 1( 1 ) . B one p o l ish c aused b y h af t ing .

f HYC b ur in 1( 2 ) . Ma tp o l ish a nd l i near f ea tures p rodu ced b y o chre i mpre -gna ted h ide u sed t of i xt he f l int t o o l i n ab one h and le .

9

F or s ome t ime n ow i th as b een s pecu lated t ha t o chre was u sed t o c o lour h ides . R osenf e ld ( 1971 ) e xam ined Magda len ian e nd -scraper s u nder l ow magn if i cat ion ( up t o x8 0 ) a nd a n umber o ft hem w ere s t a ined w ith o chre . H e c onc luded t hat s o me e ndscrapers w orked a n o chreous s urface a nd s ome «w ere u sed w ith i mpermanent h af ts s uch a s ap ad o ff i brous mater ia l h e ld i n t he p a lm o ft he h and »( i b id em :1 81) . K ee ley ( 1980 :1 71) d escr ibes t he h igh p ower e xam inat ion o f 1 0 Magda len ian e ndscrapers , a l l o f wh ich s howed t he m icrowear c aused b y w ork ing d ry h ide . E ight o f t hese e ndscrapers b ore t races o fo chre . B es ides t he o bv ious a esthet ic a spect o f c o lour ing u ntanned h ides , o chre p robab ly a lso h ad a more u t i l itar ian p urpose . H ide i s p r imar i ly made o f c o l lagen a nd d ecays when a ttacked b y b acter ia p roduc ing c o l lagenase , a n e nzyme wh ich d estroyes c o l lagen . I th as b een e stab l ished t hat many meta l ions , i nc lud ing t hose o ff e rr ic a nd f e rrous o x ide , i nh ib it t he a ct ion o f c o l lagenase ( Mand l , 1 961 :1 96 ) . T hus , t he a pp l icat ion o n h ides o f o chre , b e ing p r imar i ly a n i r on o x ide , s l owed d own t he d ecay , a nd i tm ight h ave b een t he o n ly way t op reserve h ides when t he t e chn ique o fr ea l t ann ing was n ot y et k nown . A t t he l a te Magda len ian s i te o fP incevent , L ero i -Gourhan a nd B rdz i l lon ( 1972 :8 9 9 3 )f ound ap os i t ive c orre la t ion b etween t he i n tens ity o ft he c o lour ing o ft he o chred p at ches a round t he h ear ths a nd t he n umber o ft oo ls f ound i n t hem . T he t oo ls c o mpr ised ma in ly o f b ur ins , b orers a nd b acked b lade lets . T h is c orre lat ion c an b e u nderstood when o ne r ea l izes t hat many b ur ins w ere f i xed i n t he ir h and les w ith t he a id o f ap iece o f h ide ( Bü l ler , 1 983 :1 09 -110 a nd 1 984 :2 03 ) . A f ter e xhaust ion t he f l int t oo ls w ere d iscarded t ogether w ith t he ir o chre i mpregna ted p ieces o fh ide . O ft he l a t ter o n ly t he o chre r e ma ined a f t er t he h ide i t se lf h ad d ecayed . T ha t o chre s ta ined f l int t oo ls s how ag eog raph ica l ly w idespread d istr ibu t ion i n t he O ld Wor ld i s , f o r e xamp le , i lustrated b y t he s tudy o fS . B eyr ies ( 1983 ) o fo chre s ta ined b lades f r om C aps ian s i tes i n N or th A f r ica . A lso i n t he L evant a re o chre s ta ined t oo ls a w e l l k nown p henomenon . Two g roups o f b ur ins a nd a m isce l laneous g roup o ff l int t oo ls f r om d i f f erent p reh istor ic p er iods i n I s rae l w i l l b e d iscussed i n s o me d eta i l . T hey a l l s hare t he c o mmon f ea ture o f b e ing h and led o rh af t ed w ith t he a id o fo chre i mpregnat ed h ide .

— EXPERIMENTAL OBSERVATIONS B ef ore w e t urn t ot he a rchaeo log ica l p i eces l e t u sh ave a l o ok a t t he e xper imenta l ly o bta ined m icrowear c aused b y t he i mpact o f o chre i n o rder t o r ecogn ize i t i n a n a rchaeo log ica l c ontext . T he e xper iments i nvo lved t he s c rap ing a nd c ut t ing o f l u mps o f o chre . T he ma in c haracter ist ic o ft he m icrowear p rodu ced b y o chre i s a mat p o l ish ( p l . l a , b ) , o f ten a ccompan ied b y c ap i l lar s t r iat ions ( p l . 1 c ) . T he c ap i l lar s tr iat ions c an a l so o ccur b y t hemse lves ( p l . 1 d ) . A lso s i ng le s t r ia t ions a re p ar t o ft he m icrowear a ppearance c aused b y o chre . T hese a re :t h in , wh ite s t r iat ions ( p l . l e ) a nd l ong , d eep s tr iat ions ( p l . 1 0 . T h is l a st f ea ture r esemb les t he n arrow , d eep , w e l l -def ined s t r ia t ions wh ich a re c haracter ist ic o ft he m icrowear p roduced b y h ide w ork ing ( p l . 2 a ) . O ther f ea tures o ft he m icrowear c aused b y h ide a re d u l l l us ter ( p l . 2 b ) a nd l i near f eatures ( p l . 2 c ) .

1 0

I I — ARCHAEOLOG ICAL P IECES F rom t he Na tuf ian l ayer a t Hayon im C ave f i ve b ur ins f r om l o cus 4 w i l l b e d i scussed . HYC bur in 1 Th is p i ece w a s h a f ted i n b one ( p l . 2 e ) a nd f i xed w ith a p iece o f h ide wh ich w as i mpregnat ed w ith o chr e ( p l . 2 0 . T he w ork ing e dge s erved t o s aw b one a nd w as s evere ly d amaged b y ab reak o f as pa l l wh ich t o ok a way most o ft he m icrowear c aused b y b one . T he b reakag e was t he r eason f o r d i scard ing . HYC bur in 3 S et i n ab one h and le , a si nd i ca ted b yt he g reasy l u st er a nd al i t t le b one p o l ish a tt he e l eva ted s po t s o ft he f l int s urf ace . F ixed w i th t he a id o ff r esh h ide . T he w ork ing e dge c u t f r esh h ide i mpregnat ed w ith o chre ( p l . 3 b ) . HYC bur in 4 A lso t h is p i ece w a s s e t i n ab one h and le a nd f i xed w i th a n o chre i mpregna t ed p i ece o fh ide ( p l . 3 d ) . T he w o rk ing e dge w a s c r ea ted b y al a rge b ur in b l ow a nd s erved t os c rape f r esh h ide , t r ea ted o n ly s l igh t ly w i th o chre w h i ch e nhanced t he d u l l l u s ter ( p l . 3 e ) . HYC bur in 6 T h is p i ece was u s ed t o c u t p lant ma ter ia l . I tw as s e t i n ab one h and le ( p l . 4 c ) . T he f l in t was f i xed w ith v ery f r esh h ide , wh ich l e f t mea t l ike f ea tures l i ke a l i p s t r ia t ion ( p l . 4 e ) . T he h ide w a s t r eated w ith o chre , l e av ing ama t p o l ish a nd at h in , w h i te s t r ia t ion ( p l . 4 b ) . HYC bur in 7 T he b a t tered e dg e f unc t ioned t o s c rape b one . T he b ur in e dge s hows f ea tures o f m ic rowear c aused b y w ood w ork ing , l i ke c r oad , s ha l low s t r ia t ions . T he p i ece w a s h e ld i n t he h and i n s ide ap a t ch o fh ide f o r p ro tec t ion . T he h ide w as t r ea ted w ith o chre . T he o chre w as f r esh ly a pp l ied a nd l e f t c l ear c ap i l lar s t r ia t ions o n t he f l in t s ur fa ce ( p l . 5 b a nd c ) .

T he f o l low ing t hree t o o ls c ome f r om t he N eo l i th i c l a yer a t S efun im , ac ave s i te a t Mount C arme l ( Ronen , 1 984 ) . S ef .b ur in 1 2 Was n o th af ted . T he s car o ft he b ur in b l ow i sa c tua l ly as nap , t he r e su l t o ft he m icro b ur in t e chn ique a pp l ied t ob reak t he b lade . T he w ork ing e dge w as u sed t of l esh f r esh h ide , l e av ing p ronounced f l esh ing s t reaks ( p l . 5 e ) . T he h ide w as i mpregnated w ith o chre . C ap i l lar s t r ia t ions a re c l ear ly v i s ib le ( p l .

5 0 .

S ef .b ur in /endscraper 5 N ot h a f ted . B ur in e dge a nd e nds craper e dg e w ere u sed t or ub o chre i n af r esh h ide . T he ma t p o l ish r anged f r om h eavy ( p l . 6 b ) t o l i ght ( p l . 6 c ) . A s c an b e s een i n t he l a t ter c ase , o chre h as a s as i de -ef f ec t t he e nhancement o f t he d u l l l us ter c aused b y s c rap ing h ide . S ef .b ur in iendseraper 1 0 T he w ork ing e dge i st he e ndscraper e dge , w h ich h ad a s i t s t a sk t he s c rap ing o ff r e sh h ide . T he p iece w as h af t ed i nb one ( p l . 6 e ) a nd f i xed w ith a n o chre i mpregna ted p i ece o f h ide ( p l . 6 0 . 1

P la te 3 :( x 2 00 magn if ica t ion )

a HYC b ur in 3 .L oca t ion o ft he m icrowears . A t ( 2 ) a nd ( 3 ) i sa l i t t le b one p o l ish f r om b one h and le .

0

2

b HYC b ur in 3( 1 ) . Du l l l us ter a nd a t tr it ion o fe dge p roduced b y c u tt ing f r esh h ide . T he d u l l l uster d eve lops i n to a mat p o l ish a s t he h ide i si mpregna ted w ith o chre .

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C HYC b ur in 4 .L oca t ion o ft he m icrowears . A t ( 3 ) a nd ( 4 ) i sa l i t t le b one p o l ish f r om b one h and le .

0

2 cm

d HYC b ur in 4( 1 ) . Mat p o l ish a nd d u l l l uster p roduced b y o chre i mpregna ted h ide u sed t of i x t oo l i n b one h and le .

e HYC b ur in 4 ( 2 ) . Du l l l us ter r esu lt ing f r om s c rap ing f r esh h ide .

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P la te 4 :( x 2 00 magn if ica t ion )

a HYC b ur in 6 . L ocat ion o f t he m icrowears . T he e dge a t ( 4 ) i st he w ork ing e dge wh ich s erved t o c ut p lant mater ia l .

0 I

2 1

1c m

HYC b ur in 6 ( 3 ) . Mat p o l ish a nd d u l l l uster c aused b y o chre i mpregnated h ide u sed f o r f i x ing t oo l i n b one h and le . Note t he t h in , wh ite s t r iat ion .

HYC b ur in 6 ( 1 ) . B one p o l ish o ff l at "type

c aused

b y

c art i lag inous b one .

1 4

h and le

o f

d F lat

p o l ish

c aused

b y

s aw ing

c art i lage w ith e xper imenta l t oo l made o f C arme l f l int . T h is p o l ish c an b e q u ite e x tens ive .

e HYC b ur in 6 ( 2 ) . Du l l l uster a nd l i p s t r iat ion c aused b y t he i mpact o f v ery f r esh h ide .

f Du l l

l uster

a nd

l i p

s t r iat ion

p roduced b y f l esh ing f r esh h ide w ith e xper imenta l t o o l made o f Har Hanf f l int .

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P la te 5 :( x 2 00 magn if ica t ion )

\/

a HYC b u r in 7 .L oca t ion o ft he m icrow ear s . A t ( 1 ) i s al i t t le p o l i sh a l ong t he e dge c aused b y s c rap ing b one .A t( 2 )p o l ish c au sed b y s c rap ing w ood a nd ab road , s ha l low s t r ia t ion w ere f ound .

b HYC b ur in 7 ( 3 ) . C ap i l lar s t r ia t ions p roduced b yf r esh ly a pp l ied o chre .

C HYC b ur in 7( 3a ) . Ma tp o l ish a nd c ap i l lar s t r ia t ions .

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d S ef . b ur in 1 2 . L oca t ion o ft he m icrowears .

0

2 Icm

e S ef . b ur in 1 2 ( 1 ) . E nhanced s t reaks o fd u l l l uster o r f l esh ing s t reaks , p roduced b y f l esh ing o chre i mpregna ted f r esh h ide .

f S ef . b ur in 1 2 ( 2 ) . C ap i l lar s t r iat ions c aused b y o chre .

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P la te 6 :( x 2 00 magn if icat ion )

0

2

a S ef . Bur in /endscraper 5 . L oca t ion o ft he m icrowears .

b S ef . Bur in /endscraper 5 ( 1 ) . H eavy mat p o l ish a nd c ap i l lar s t r ia t ions c aused b y r ubb ing o chre i n f r esh h ide .

C S ef . B ur in /endscraper 5 ( 2 ) . E nhanced d u l l l u s ter a nd l i ght ly d eve loped mat p o l ish c aused b y r ubb ing o chre i n f r esh h ide .

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0

2 cm

d—

S ef . Bur in lendsc raper 1 0 . L oca t ion o ft he m icrowears . A t ( 3 ) i sd u l l l uster c aused b y s c rap ing f r esh h ide .

e S ef . Bur in /endscraper 1 0 ( 1 ) . B one p o l ish c aused b yb one h and le .

f S ef . Bur in /endscraper 1 0 ( 2 ) . Du l l l us ter f r om ap i ece o ff r esh h ide wh ich f i xed t he t o o l i n ab one h and le .

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P la te 7 :( x 2 00 magn if icat ion )

0

2

I I l cm

a—

Mass ive s c raper 1 . L oca t ion o ft he m icrowears .

b Mass ive s craper 1 ( 1 ) . L us ter a nd l i t t le c racked p o l ish c aused b y f r ic t ion o fl imes tone o n f l int s urface .

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C Mass ive s craper 1 ( 2 ) . E nhanced d u l l l uster p roduced b yo chre i mpregnated h ide .

d C racked p o l ish p roduced b y c u t t ing l imestone w ith e xper imen ta l p iece made o f Har Hard f l int .

e L us ter a nd a bras ion t rack o n s ame e xper imenta l p iece a s i n d ) .

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P late 8 :( x 2 00 magn if ica t ion )

a—

Mass ive s c raper 2 . L oca t ion o ft he m i crowears .

b Mass ive s c raper 2( 1 ) . L i t t le d eve loped p lant p o l ish .

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C Mass ive s c raper 2 ( 2 ) . B r ight l uster a nd b road , s ha l low s t r ia t ion p rodu ced b y w ood .

d Mass ive s craper 2 ( 3 ) . C racked p o l ish a nd l uster c aused b y l imestone .

e B road , s ha l low s t r ia t ion p roduced b y s c rap ing w ood w ith e xper imenta l p i ece made o f C arme l f l int .

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P la te 9 :( x 2 00 magn if icat ion )

a Mous ter ian b lade . L oca t ion o ft he m icrowears .

0

2 cm

b Mouster ian b lade ( 2 ) . Ma t p o l ish a nd d u l l l uster c aused b y d ry h ide i mpregna ted w i th o chre .

C Mouster ian b lade ( 1 ) . Du l l l u ster c aused b y s l ic ing meat .

2 4

CM

e

d D u l l l us ter p rodu ced b y s l ic ing m ea t w i th e xper imenta l p i ece made o fC arme l f l int .

C res cent s haped b lade 2 5 . L oca t ion o ft he m icrowears .

f C rescent s haped b lade 2 5 ( 1 ) . L i t t le b one p o l ish f r om b one h and le .

g C res cent s haped b lade 2 5 ( 2 ) . P lan t p o l ish a tt op l e f tc o rner o f p hotog raph ;a tb o t tom r i gh tc o rner e nhanced d u l l l u s ter c au sed b y w ip ing w i th p i ece o fh ide i mpregna ted w i th o chre .

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P la te 1 0 :( x 2 00 magn i f ica t ion )

A

0 I

a—

b—

2 1

I cm

F anscraper 2 . L oca t ion o ft he m icrowears .

F anscraper 2 ( 1 ) . Ma t p o l ish , c ap i l lar s t r iat ions a nd d u l l l uster c aused b y d ry h ide i mpregna ted w ith o chre .

2 6

c—

d—

F anscraper 2 ( 2 ) . B one p o l ish p roduced i n ac ut t ing / saw ing mo t ion .

P o l ish p roduced b y s aw ing c ar t i lage w ith a n e xper imenta l p iece made o f Carme l f l int .

2 7

P late 1 1 :( x 2 00 magn if ica t ion )

0

2 cm

a—

b—

B ifac ia l k n if e 1 . L oca t ion o ft he m icrowears .

B ifac ia l k n if e 1 ( 1 ) . Mat p o l ish , a t tr it ion o f e dge c aused b y o chre i mpregnated h ide .

2 8

C B ifac ia l k n if e 1( 2 ) . L ip s t r iat ion c aused b y c u t t ing mea t .

0

2

d C rescent s haped b lade 6 .L ocat ion o f t he m icrowears .

e C rescent s haped b lade 6( 1 ) . P lan t p o l ish a nd c ap i l lar s t r iat ions c aused b y w ip ing w ith p i ece o fh ide i mpregna ted w ith o chre .

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Mass ive s craper s 1a nd 2 F ound i n a n E a r ly B ronze f i nd s po t i n B iqa t U vda , i n t he s ou thern N egev a l i t t le n or th o ft he p or t o fE i la t . M icrowear a na lys is h as d et e rm ined t ha tt hese ma ss ive s c raper s w ere a c tua l ly t hresh ing s l edg e s t ones . T he p lant p o l i sh ( p l . 8 b ) w as l i t t le d eve loped a s a r e su l t o f t he a bras ion c aused b y t he s t one b e ing d ragg ed o ver t he l imes tone t hresh ing f l oor . A lso t he m icrowear c aused b y t he l imest one c ou ld n ot d eve lop f o r t he s ame r eas on ( p l . 7 b a nd p l . 8 d ) . M i crowear c aused b y l imes tone s h ow s l i ke a c ra cked p o l i sh , a s c an b e s e en o n t he e xper imenta l p i ece ( p l . 7 d ) . A bra s ion t ra cks a l so o c cur ( p l . 7 e ) . T he f l ints w ere s e t i n w ood , p robab ly a k ind o f b oard w ith s l ot s . The w ood m icrowear c an b e w e l l d eve loped w ith many b road , s ha l low s t r ia t ions ( p l . 8 c ) . L ikew i se o n e xper imen ta l ly o b ta ined w ood m icrowear b road , s ha l low s t r ia t ions a r e p rom inen t f ea tures ( p l . 8 e ) . T he f l int w as s e cured i n t he w ooden s l o t w i th t he a id o f ap i ece o fh ide , w h i ch w as t r ea ted w i th o chre ( p l . 7 c ) . Mous ter ian b lade f r om B iqa t Qune i t ra o nt he G o lan H e igh ts T he b lade w as h and led i n ap i e ce o fh ide t r ea ted w i th o chre ( p l . 9 b ) . T he f unc t ion o f t he b lade w as t os l ice mea t ( p l . 9 c ) . T h is l e f t a n i n ten se d u l l l u s ter , c l ose ly r e semb l ing t h e e xper imenta l ly o b ta ined mea t m icrowear ( p l . 9 d ) . F an scraper 2 F rom A in Um A hmed , aC ha lco l i th ic f i ndspo t i nt he N eg ev . T he s t one w as h and led i n ap i e ce o fh ide o rk ep ti n s ide al e a ther b ag . I n e i ther c a se t he h ide was t r ea ted w ith o chre ( p l . 1 0b ) . C ap i l lar s t r ia t ions a re v i s ib le . T he f unct i on i s n ot s o c l ear b u t a t o ne s po t m icrowear p o l ish c aused b y c u t t ing b one o r c ar t i lage c ou ld b e d i scerned ( p l . 1 0 c ) . B ifac ia l kn ife ( Broken t i p ) F rom Ham ifgash V , aN eo l i th ic s i te i n t he N egev . T he f i ne ly c h ipped e dge a t t he v en tra l s i de d id n ot a l low m icros cop ic o bserva t ions , d ue t o t he l a ck o f af l a t s urfa ce . A f l a t s ur f a ce w as p rov ided b y t he r emova l o ft he c o r tex a l ong t he e dge a t t h e d orsa l s i de , a nd h ere m icrowears c ou ld b e o bserved . N ear t he t i p t he m icrowear c aused b y o chre i mpregna ted h ide w a s f ound ( p l . 1b ) . T he ma t p o l ish s moothed t he v ery e dg e . P robab ly t he k n if e w as k ept i n s ide as hea th . O n t he p ar t t ha t w a s n ear t he m idd le o ft he k n if e t h e d u l l l u s ter o f meat a nd e ven a l i p s t r iat ion w ere f ound ( p l . 1c ) . L ip s t r ia t ions a re f r equent f ea tures o n h un t ing t o o ls l i ke t he Na tuf ian l una t es a nd b a cked b l ade le ts ( Bü l ler 1 983 :10 ) . Another b ifac ia l k n if e f r om t he s ame f i ndspo t s howed s o me b one p o l ish . C omb in ing t hese d a ta w i th t he g enera l s hape o ft he t o o l , ap oss ib le i nterpre tat ion o ft h e f unc t ion o f t he b i fac ia l k n ives i s t ha t t hey w ere u sed f o r s l aughter ing d o mest ica t ed a n ima ls . C rescen ts haped b lades 6a nd 2 4 F rom a n E a r ly B ronze f i ndspo t i n B iqa t U vda . T hey w ere s e t i n ab one h and le a nd t he w ork ing e dges s how t he m icrowear o f c u t t ing p lant ma ter ia l . T he c onsp icuou s f e a tures a re t he d u l l ing o ft he p o l ish a nd c ap i l lar s t r ia t ions p ara l le l t o t he w ork ing e dg e ( p l . l ie a nd p l . 9 g ) . Ap oss ib le i n terpreta t ion o ft he ir f unc t ion i st ha tt hey w ere u sed t oc u tp l ant ma ter ia l w h ich s ecreted a s t icky s ubs tance . T h is s t icky s ub s tance w as r emoved f r om t he b lade e i ther t oc l ean i to rt oc o l lec tt he s ub s tance i t se lf . T he w ip ing w as d one w i th ap i ece o fh ide i mpregna ted w i th o chre .

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A s w e h ave s een i n t h is s urvey , m icrowear c aused b y o chre i s aw idespread p henomenon a nd m icrowear a na lysts s hou ld b e o n t he ir g uard t o r ecogn ize i ti n o rder t o u nderstand a n i mpor tant a spect o fp reh ist or ic t e chno logy .

POSTSCRIPTUN I A s i t emerged f r om t he d i scuss ion d ur ing t he c onf erence t hat n o u n if orm method o f c l ean ing i s p ract ised b y a l l m icrowear a na lysts , i ts hou ld b e n oted t hat a l l t he a bove d escr ibed p ieces w ere c hem ica l ly c l eaned b ef ore m icroscop ic e xam ina t ion . The i mportance o f p roper c l ean ing was r ecent ly s t ressed b y E .H . Moss ( 1986 ) . I n h er o p in ion t he i mmers ion i n d i lute c hem ica ls c an h e lp t o a vo id t he c oncea lment o ft he r e la t ive ly s tab le m icrowears wh ich c an b e o bscured b y o rgan ica l r es idues o r s o i l d epos its .

ACKNO WLEDGE MENTS I wou ld l i ke t o t hank t he f o l low ing f o r k ind ly p rov id ing t he a rchaeo log ica l ma ter ia l . P rof essor A v raham R onen ( Un ivers ity o f Ha ifa ) , Anna B e lf er -Cohen , Naama G oren -Inbar , N ige l G or ing - Morr is ( a l l o ft he H ebrew Un ivers ity o fJ erusa lem ) a nd U z i A vner ( I srae l i S urvey , D epar tment o f An t iqu it ies ) .

B IBLIOGRAPHY BEYR IES , ( S . ) , 1 983 .— F onct ion e t mode d 'ut i l isat ion d 'une s er ie d e l ames o crees . I n M .-C . C auv in ( ed .) T races d 'u t i l isa t ion s ur l e s o u t i ls nM l i th iques d u P roche O r ien t . T ravaux d e l a Ma ison d e l ' Or ient n ° 5: 135 -139 . BÜLLER , ( J . ) , 1 983 .— Methodo log ica l P rob lems i n t he M icrowear Ana lys is o f T oo ls S e lected f r om t he Natuf ian S ites E l Wad a nd Mn Ma l laha . I n M . -C . C auv in ( ed ) T races d 'ut i l isa t ion s ur l e s o u t i ls nM l i th iques d u P roche -Or ien t .T ravaux d e l a Ma ison d e l ' Or ien t n ° 5 :1 07 -125 . BÜLLER , ( J . ) , 1 984 .— A P i lot M icrowear Ana lys is o f S amp led T oo ls o f L ayer 7 a t S efun im . I n A . R onen S efun im P reh is tor ic S i tes . Mount C arme l , I srae l . B .A .R . I nterna t iona l S er i es 2 30 ( i ) :2 01-214 . KEELEY ,

( L .-H . ) , 1 980 .— E xper imen ta l D e term ina t ion o f S tone

T oo l

U ses . T he

Un ivers ity o fC h i cago P ress . C h icago a nd L ondon . LEROI -GOURHAN , ( A .) a nd ( A . ) , 1 964 .— C hrono log ie d es g rottes d 'Arc -sur -Cure . Ga l l ia P rO t is to ire 7 :1 -64 . LERO I -GOURHAN , ( A . ) a nd BRE.Z ILLON , ( M . ) , 1 972 .— F ou i l les d e P incevent . V il e S uppMmen t äG a l l ia P r6h is to ir e .

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MANDL , ( I . ) , 1 961 .— C o l lagenases a nd E lastases . Advances i n Enzymo logy . 2 3 :1 64 2 64 . MOSS , ( E . -H .) , 1 986 .— What 9 / 10 /11 9 1 -96 .

M icrowear Ana lys ts

L ook

RONEN , ( A . ) , 1 984 .— S efun im P reh is tor ic S i tes . Mount I nterna t iona l S er ies 2 30 ( i ) .

A t . Ear ly Man N ews .

C arme l , I srae l .

B .A .R .

ROSENFELD , ( A . ) , 1 971 .— T he E xam ina t ion o f Use Marks o f S ome Magda len ian E nd S crapers . T he B r i t ish Mus eum Quar ter ly 3 5 : 176 -182 . WRESCHNER , ( E .) , 1 983 .— S tud ies i n P r eh is tor ic O chre T echno logy . Unpub l ished P h . D -thes is . Hebrew Un ivers ity o fJ erusa lem .

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USE - WEAR A NALYSIS OF SHOELAST IMPLE MENTS AND AXES FRO M EARLY NEOLITHIC ( LPC ) CRACO W - NO WA H UTA SETTLE MENT IN WEST LITTLE POLA ND

Barbara DROBN IE W ICZ *

ABSTRACT :

As et t lemen t o ft he LPC was s i tua ted o n t he l ef tb ank V is tu la t e r ra ce i n C ra cow -Nowa Hu ta ( L it t le P o land ) . Twe lve s hoe las t i mp lemen ts i nc lud ing f our f ragmen ts a nd t wo a xes o ccurred i n t he N owa Hu ta s e t t lemen tc omp lex . I ts eems u nques t ionab le t ha t s hoe las ti mp lemen ts w ere u sed f o r w ood work ing . L inear t r a ces o f u se -wear a nd t ra ces o fh af t s w ere f ound . T ra ces o fp o l ish ing a nd l i nea r mark s i nd ica te t ha t r e la t ive ly s of t ma ter ia l was w orked . Work e f ec t w ith s hoe las t t oo l was a ch ieved b y p ressure . Ma rks f r om t he h af t i nd ica te t ha t s hoe las t a nd a xes w ere h af ted s im i lary w i th t he b lade p erpend icu lar t ot he h af t . R tsumA : L e s i te d e l a c dram ique r ubande ( LPC ) e s t s i tud s ur l a r i ve g au che d e l a V is tu la ä K raköw Hu ta , d irectement s ur l a t erra sse l o ess ique . C e s i te a f ourn i d ouze f o rmes d e b o t t ier , yc ompr is q ua tre f ragments e t d eux h erm inettes . L es r echerches t rac6o log iques c onf irment q ue c es i n s t rumen ts , s ur tou t l e s f o rmes d e b o t t ier , o n t d td u t i l is6s d ans l et rava i l d u b o is . L es s t r ies s ur l e s p ar t ies t ranchantes e t l e s t ra ces d ' emmanchement o n t 6 td i den t if ides . L es m icropo l is e t l e s s t r ies i nd iquent l e t rava i l dune ma t iäre a ssez mo l le . L es e f ets d e t rava i l o n t d tö a chev6s p ar p res s ion . L es t races d ' emmanchement i n c l iquen t q ue l e s f o rmes d e b o t t ier o n t d td f i xdes d e f a £on ä c e q ue l a p ar t ie t ranchan t ,e s o it p erp end icu la ire al axe d u manche .

The mu lt i -cu lture s et t lement i n t he C racow -Nowa Huta a rea , wh ich y ie lded t he s t one f i nds , was s i tuated o n t he l e f t b ank V istu la t errace . T he o ldest s e t t lement t races c ome f r om t he Gn iechow ice a nd Z of ipo le p hase . I n t he «N otenkopf» p hase a s e t t lement d eve loped a t t he e dge o ft he V istu la t er race wh ich was a bandoned d ur ing t he Z e l iezov ce p hase . P ro longed a ccumu lat ion o f s e tt lement l ayers f r om v ar ious p er iods — B ronze Age L usa t ian Cu lture , i n tens ive s e t t lement f r om t he L a Une , R oman P er iods a nd t he e ar ly M idd le Ages — r esu lted i n ac ons iderab le d amage t o t he t races o f t he o ldest N eo l ith ic s e t t lement ( God lowska e ta l . 1 985 ) . S hoe last i mp lements a nd a xes o c cur red o n ly a t 4s i tes i n t he N owa Hu ta s e t t lement c omp lex :1 7 a nd 1 8 ( P leszöw ) , 1 2 ( B ienczyce ) a nd 6 2 ( Mog i la ) . E laborat ion o f t hese ma ter ia ls c onst itutes o n ly a s t ar t ing p o int f o r f ur ther s tud ies o ft h is n umerous g roup o f L PC a rtefacts . Ana lys is o fl i th ic i mp lements was c arr ied o ut a t e ach s i te . F inds o n wh ich t races o f w ork o r h af t ing w ere n o t iced h ave b een d escr ibed i n d eta i l . S evera l t erms t o d enotate t he

I n s t i tu tA rcheo logu i , U n iwer sy t e tJ ag ie l lon sk i , G o tzb ia 1 1 , 3 1 -007 K rakov , P o logne .

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s t a te o f p reserva t ion o f b lade a nd t oo l s urfaces h ave b een i ntroduced . T hey r equ ire a dd it iona l c l ar if ica t ion s i nce s ome o ft hem a re a lmo s t s ynonymous . T ra ces o f p o l ish ing f o rm d ur ing t he s hap ing o ft he t o o l . T races o fw ork r e f er t o :l i near ma rks r unn ing f r om t he b lade p ara l le l o r d iagona l ly t o t he t o o l a x is , n ibb l ing —n umerous s ma l l c onnec t ed o r s epara te i ndenta t ions i n c u t t ing e dges , j agg ed b lade s —s evera l i ndenta t ions d ue t ou se w ear , p ar t ly d amag ing t he c u t t ing e dge , b lun t ing —r ound ing o f t he e dg e wh ich d ue t o a bras ion b ecomes r ounded a nd b lunt , r ubb ing — d ef ines s moo th s ur fa ces , g loss —w hen t he a l ready r ubbed s ur fa ce o b ta ins g l oss a s ar e su lt o fc onta c t w i th t he w orked ma ter ia l ; t r aces o fh af t ing d ue t op ro long ed d i rec t c onta ct b e tween t he h af ta nd t he t o o l movemen ti n i ta re i ndenta t ions , s ha l l , o wer o r d eeper g rooves , c o loura t ion —t he d if erence i n c o lour o rh ues b etween t he p ar t o ft he t o o l c overed b y t he h a f t a nd t he p ar t o u s ide i t , n o t ches — r esu lt o f moun t ing t he h af t w ith a no ther t o o l , s moo th ing —mak ing t he s ur face s moo th a nd s h ine —as h in ing s ur f a ce .

DESCRIPT ION OF TOOLS Two b as ic t ypo log ica l g roups h ave b een d if er ent ia ted i n o ur ma t er ia l: a xes a nd l ow o r h igh -backed s hoe last i mp lements . L ow -back ed s hoe las t t oo ls a re t hose w hose max imum w idth i sg rea ter t han t he ir max imum h e ight; h igh -ba cked t o o ls , t hose w hose max imum w idth i s e qua l t o o r s ma l ler t han t he ir max imum h e igh t . F igures i n m i l l ime tres s hown i n b ra ckets a re r espec t ive ly: max imum l eng th , w id th a nd h e igh t o f t o o ls . A ccord ing t o t he a na lys is p er f ormed b y M . P aw l ikowsk i p o l ished i mp lements f ound i nt he a rea d i scussed i nt h is p aper w ere made o f amph ibo l i te .

S i te 1 7( P leszöw ) —f rom a nu ndated l ayer 1—L ow -ba cked s hoe las t t o o l ( 7 1 x3 3 x2 1) , s ymme tr ica l i n c ross -se c t ion , t ape red t owards t he b lade . C arefu l ly p o l ished . T he b lade p ara l le l t o t he r ock l am inat ion . T he c u t t ing e dg e i ss l ight ly d amaged , b lunt a nd s hows l i near u se -wear . T he r ubbed n ea r t he c u t t ing e dg e o b l it era ted t ra ces o fp o l ish ing . T he h ead i sc onvex , u neven , p art ly p o l ished a nd s moo thed .

S i te 1 8( P leszöw ) ,f ea ture 3 1— «No tenkopf »p ha se o ft he LPC 2—A p ar t o f af l a t a xe w ith a n a symmetr ic b l ade . C arefu l ly p o l ished . T he r o ck l am ina t ion i si nd is t inc t , p a ra l le l t ot he b lade . T he c u t t ing e dge i sf i ne ly n ibb led , o n b o th s i des a re a f ew s hor t l i near t races o f u se -wear p ara l le l t o t he a x is . E xtens ive i n d enta t ions o nt he f l a ts i de p robab ly r e su l ted f r om i t su se a s as t one s l ab ( t ab . I 1) .

S i te 1 8( P leszöw ) —f rom a nu nda ted l ayer 3—A h igh -ba cked , l a rge , s hoe las t i mp lement ( 2 18 x 3 2 x3 7 ) ;t he c ross -se c t ion s hows a w e l l d ef ined b ase , t he b ack i s s ymmetr ica l ly d is t inct ly c onvex . T he r o ck l am ina t ion d i rec t iona l , i r regu lar u ndu la t ing , s l ight ly o b l ique t o t he b lade . T he s ur f ace i sc arefu l ly t r ea ted , g rey ish , d u l l a s t hough w ea the red w h i le n ear t he b lade i ti sd ark g rey , s h in ing g reasy . T races o f p o l ish ing a re d i sce rn ib le o n ly o n t he g reasy s u r fa ce . 3 4

T he b lade i ss l ight ly a symme tr ica l , i t s l ower s i de i sf o rmed b y t he o b l ique ly c u tb ase . T he h ead i sn a tura l , d amaged ( t ab l . 1 2 ) . 4— L arge h igh -ba cked s hoe las t t o o l ;t he c ross -sec t ion s hows a w e l l p ronounced e dge o f b ase , t he b ack i s s ymme tr ica l ly s t rong ly c onvex ( 2 16 x 2 3 x3 6 ) . T he h ead i s o b l ique t o t he b a se . T he s ur f ace o ft he i mp lement i sc arefu l ly p o l ished , al a rge p ar ti s ma t . T he b ack o ft he b lade a nd i t sl ower s i de h ave ag l oss . T he b ase 7c mf r om t he h ead a nd t he h ead a re b o th r ubbed a nd s h iny . T he s ur face o f t he h ead s hows s evera l «n ot ches » p ara l le l t o t he b ase t o wh ich t he s moo th ing w as a pp l ied . T he s ymme tr ica l b lade i s r ounded , n arrow , p erpend icu lar t ot he l o ng itud ina l a x is o ft he i mp lemen t a nd t ot he r o ck l am ina t ion . Ad i s t inc t ly o b l ique b ase f o rms t he l ower p ar t o ft he b lade . F ine n ibb l ing o f t he c u t t ing e dge i sv i s ib le u nder amagn ify ing g lass . F rom t he c u t t ing e dg e , o n t he u pper a nd l ower s i des r un p erpend i cu la r r e la t ive ly w ide , s hor t l i nea r t r a ces o fu se -wear . T hey a r e n ot q u i te l eg ib le b e cau se o fr o ck l am ina t ion ( t ab . 1 , 3 ) . 5— A h igh -backed , med ium s i zed s hoe last t oo l , p robab ly d amaged b y b urn ing ( ?x 2 0? x 3 2? ) . T he c r oss -sec t ion s hows a p ronounced e dge o f t he b ase , t he b ack i s d i st inct ly c onvex , a symmetr ica l . D irect iona l l am inat ion , c l ear c l eavage , p erpen d i cu lar t o t he b ase . T he b ase i sc arefu l ly t r ea ted , t he s i des r e la t ive ly l e ss s o . A t ad i stance o fa bou t 7c m f r om t he h ead o n t he s i des , t he b a ck a nd e dges o ft he b ase a re i nden ta t ions s how ing t he l im it o ft he h af t . T he i ndenta t ions mark t he b order l ine b e tween t he l i ght er s urface e xtend ing t owards t he e dge a nd t he d arker s urface —t owards t he h ead , w e l l l e g ib le o n t he b ack a nd s i des a nd a l so b e tween t he s moo thed a nd n ot s moo thed s ur fa ces . T he h ead i sp erpend icu lar t o t he b ase ( f ragmentar i ly p reserved ) a nd i sw e l l s moothed a nd s h iny . T he c u t t ing e dg e i sd amag ed ( t ab . 1 , 4 ) . 6—A f r agment o f as ma l l , p robab ly b urn th igh -ba cked s hoe las t i mp lement ( ? x1 x2 0 ? ) . The b ack i sd i s t inc t ly c onvex . D irec t iona l l am ina t ion , p erpend icu lar t o t he b ase . T he b lade i sd amaged w ith ad i s t inc t ly o b l ique b a se . T he t o o l w as c are less ly made . T he s moo thed a nd s h iny p r eserved b ack p ar t o ft o o l i st he e v idence o f ah af t . B es ides o n o ne s i de a re n ot ches f r om t he e ven ing o ft he h af t( t ab . 1 , 5 ) . 7— A s ma l l h igh -backed s hoe las t i mp lement , a symmetr ica l ly c onvex , aw e l l d ef ined e dge o ft he b as e ( 62? x1 7 x1 5 ) . T he s ur fa ce o ft he i mp lemen t i sc a refu l ly f o rmed , ma t , b are ly d i scern ib le t r aces o fp o l ish ing . T he h ead i sp erpend icu lar t o t he b ase . T he b asa l p art o f t he h ead s hows d i s t inct s mooth ing a nd s h in ing . T he c u t t ing e dge i s d amaged , c l eavage i sd i rec t iona l ,p erpend icu lar t ot he b a se . 8—A f r agment o f as hoe la st i mp lement . As ma l l s e c t ion n ear t he b lade h as b een p reserved . T he b lade i sp erpend icu lar t ot he r o ck l am ina t ion . T he c u t t ing e dg e i sr ubbed , b lunt . 9— A f r agmen t o f ap robab ly h igh -backed s hoe las t t o o l . I t s s t ruc tu re i sh etero g eneous , me tamorph ic . T he p reserved b lade i sw e l l p o l ished , p erpend icu lar t o t he r o ck l am ina t ion . T he c u t t ing e dg e i sb lun t . T ra ces o fp o l ish ing n ear t he c u t t ing e dge a re l e ss d i s t inc t , b ecom ing s ha l low d ue t or ubb ing e f ec to fu se -wear .

S i te 1 2( B ienezyce ) ,f ea ture 6 — «No tenkop »p ha se o ft he LPC 1 0 —A n a symme t r ica l t r apezo id a xe , c arefu l ly p o l ished ( 9 8 x5 3 x1 3 ) . T he r o ck l am inat ion i sp ara l le l t o t he b lade . T he c u t t ing e dge i sb lun t , j agged , s l ight ly r ounded a nd r ubbed . T he r ubb ing p ar t ly o b l itera ted t he «o r ig ina l s er ies » o f b lade d amage 3 5

T ab le I

1—

S i te 1 8 ( P leszöw ) ,f ea ture 3 1 — «N otenkopf t »p hase o ft he LPC .

2— 5 S ite 1 8 ( P leszöw ) ,f r om a n u ndated l ayer . 3 6

6— 7—

S i te 1 2 ( B ienczyce ) ,f ea ture 6—«N otenkopf t »p hase o ft he L PC . S i te 6 2 ( Mog i la ) ,f ea ture 1 51 —Z e l iezovce p hase o ft he L PC .

8—

S i te 6 2 ( Mog i la ) ,f ea ture 1 33 —f r om a nu nda ted l ayer .

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f o l lowed b y s ubsequent d amage o ft he c u t t ing e dge b y w ide f l ake s cars o n t he b a ck a nd s hor ter o nes o n t he b ase o ft he i mp lement . T he s car s w h ich d amaged t he r ounded h ead r un a l terna te ly o n t he u pper a nd l ower s i des o ft he a xe . O n t he s u rface a tc a . o ne t h ird o f t he p reserved l eng th o f t he t o o l , o n t he s i des a nd u pper s i de d e l icate i ndenta t ion c ont inuous a s as t r ip c a . 1 . 5 t o 1 . 2 mm w ide . O n t he s i des o ft he a xe t he s t r ip make s a d i s t inc t b order l ine b etween t he l i ght er c o lou ra t ion o ft he s ur f a ce s pread ing t he b lade a nd t he d arker o ne i nt he d i rec t ion o ft he h ead . T he s t r ip u ndoub ted ly marks t he e x tent o ft h e h af t . A s may b e s een , t he b lade p rotruded o n ly s l igh t ly f r om t he h af t b ut w e mu s t r emember t ha t i tb ecame s hor ter a s ar esu l t o f u se -wear . S hor t smoo thed s t r ips a r e d i scern ib le o n t he u pper a nd l ower s i des a bout 8mm f r om t he e dge o f t he h ead . A p oss ib i l i ty c annot b e e x c luded t ha t t he h ead f unct ioned a s aw ork ing p ar t d ur ing s ome s t ages o ft he a xe e xp lo ita t ion . T h is a xe w as p robab ly u sed a s amu l t ifunc t iona l t oo l . O n ly e xper imenta l s tud ies c ou ld r e crea te a s equence o fa c t iv it ies p erf ormed w i th as im i lar t o o l ( t ab . 1 , 6 ) . 1 1 —A s ma l lf l a ts hoe las tf r agment ,r o ck l am ina t ion p ara l le lt ot he b a se .

S i te 6 2( Mog i la ) ,f ea ture 1 5 1 —t he Z e l iezovee p hase o f LPC 1 2 —A s ma l l , l ow -backed s hoe las t t o o l . I t s c r oss -se c t ion s hows a w e l l d ef ined b a se , t he b a ck i ss ymme tr ica l ly c onvex ( 4 9 x1 9 x1 4? ) . T he b lade i sp erpend icu lar t o t he r o ck l am ina t ion . T he s urfa ce i sc arefu l ly p o l ished , s moo th . T he c u t t ing e dge i sr ounded . T he b ase o ft he b lade i sf o rmed b y o b l ique b ase w ith f i ne l i near t races o fu se -wear s l igh t ly o b l ique t ot he t o o l a x is . T he b a ck i ss l ight ly f l a t tened b y t he t wo p lanes p robab ly r esu l t ing f r om r epa irs o ft he j agged e dge . T he h ead i sd amag ed , p erpend i cu lar t o t he b ase ;i ti s s moo thed o n t he e dge n ear t he b a se ( t ab l . 1 , 7 ) .

S i te 6 2( Mog i la ) ,f ea ture 1 23 —f rom t he u nda ted l ayer 1 3 —Med ium s i zed , l ow -ba cked s hoe last t oo l . I t s c ross -sect ion s hows a w e l l d ef ined e dge o f t he b ase , t he b a ck i s f l a t tened , s l igh t ly c oncave i n t he m idd le a nd s ymmetr ica l ly s l ight ly c onvex a t t he h ead ( 122 x 3 2 x2 4 ) . T he s urfa ce i s c arefu l ly p o l ished , o n ly t he c oncave s urf a ce o n t he b ack i ss l igh t ly r ougher . R ock l am ina t ion i s p a ra l le l t ot he b lade . T he b lade i sb road , i t s e dge u neven ,j agg ed w i th s econdary r ubb ing . T he b ase i so b l ique n ea rt he b lade . L inear t r a ces o fu se -wear r un o n b oth s i de s o ft he b l ade p ara l le l t ot he t o o l a x is . G rooves f o rm ing ad oub le s t r ip —t r aces o ft he h af t —c an b e f e l to n t ouch h a lf t he l e ng th o ft he i mp lemen t a ti t s s i des a nd b a ck . T he h eard i sp erpend icu la rt o t he b ase ,v ery w e l l s moo thed a tt he b ase ( t ab . 1 , 8 ) . 1 4 —A f r agment o f ap robab ly h igh -ba cked s hoe las tt o o l . O n ly ap ar tn ear t he b l ade h as b een p reserved . L am ina t ion p erpend icu lar t ot he e dge . T he f unc t ion o fp o l ish s t one i mp lement s h as f r equent ly b een d i scu ssed . T he v i ew t ha t t hey w ere t he w ork ing p ar t s o fa gr icu ltura l t o o ls a ppeared q u ite o f t en i n l i tera tu r e , a nd d i scus ions w ere u sua l ly f o cus sed o n t he ir a pp l ica t ion i n t i l lag e ( K ruk , 1 973 , p . 1 66 , n o te 4 4 ) . O bserva t ions a nd r esu lt s o f e xper imenta l s tud ies c oncern ing t he r o le o f p o l ished i mp lements w ere s ummed u p b y S .T abaczynsk i ( 1979 ) , w ho s uppor ts t he v i ew o fm os t a rchaeo log is ts a nd e thnog raphers t hat s hoe last t o o ls s hou ld b e a ssoc iated w i th w oodwork ing . T h is o p in ion i s s t i l l u phe ld b y many r esearchers i nc lud ing 3 8

P .J .R . Modermann ( 1970 ,

P .

1 85 ) , K . S ch ietze l ( 1965 ,

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3 8 ) , B . S ch lüt ter ( 1983 ,

P .

8 2 ) ,

J .P avük ( 1972 , p .4 8 ) a nd c f . ) a nd E . H enn ig ( 1961 , p .1 89 a nd c f . ) . J .K ruk ( 1973 , p .1 66 ) o n t he o ther h and s uppor ts t he v i ew a bout t he mu lt ifunct iona l c haracter o fs t one c ou lters a nd «h oe » . A . Ku lczycka -Lec ie jew iczowa ( 1971 , p . 7 1) i s i nc luded t o a ssoc iate s t one «h oe ' >a nd c ou lters w ith t he f o rest c l ear ing wh ich may b e t r eated a s a n a gr icu ltura l a c t iv i ty . I t was o n ly t he r esu lts o ft raceo log ica l i nvest igat ions t ha t h ave a lmos t u n ivoca l ly e stab l ished t hat s hoe last i mp lements w ere u sed f or w oodwork ing . A ccord ing t o S .A . S emenov ( 1957 , p .1 57 a nd c f . )t races o fw ork a ppear o nb lades a nd r un p ara l le l t ot he t oo l a x is . The ma in a bras ive f o rce was d i rec ted t o t he c onvex s i de o ft he b lade , wh ich was i n d i rect c ontac t w ith w orked ma ter ia ls a nd h ad t oo ver come t he g rea test r es is tance wh i le t he l ower , f l at s i de , d i rec t ed u pwards when t he t o o l was u sed , was r e lat ive ly l e ss e xposed t o r es istance s ince o n ly c h ips f r om t he w orked w ood b rushed a ga inst i t . S l ight e n large ments o f t races o f s urface a bras ion o n s hoe last t oo ls s how w ide g rooves a t t he b ase e nd ing i n t h in s t rokes . T he s hape o ft hese t ra ces i si dent ica l o n b oth s i des o ft he b lade ,b ut t hey a re s hor ter o nt he b ase . E . Henn ing ( 1961 , p . 2 02 a nd c f . ) i nvest igat ed 2 50 p i eces whose c u ltura l a f i l ia t ion i n u nknown , f r om t he c o l lect ions o fJ ena Museum . T races o fu se w ere n ot iced o n o n ly 8 1 0 o ft hese s pec imens . H e a l so n ot iced t races o fh af ts o n t he s i des o ft hese i mp lements . J .P avük ( 1972 , p . 6a nd c f . ) i n h is t horough p ub l ica t ion o ft he Z e l iezovce p hase c emetery a t N i tra d escr ibed 1 0 s hoe las t t o o ls , o f wh ich 5b ore l i near t races o fw ork a nd 9t races o f h af ts . J .P .R . Modermann ( 1970 , p .1 89 a nd c f . ) i n t he p ub l icat ion o f mater ia ls f r om E ls loo i nterprets a s t ra ce s o fh af ts t he n otches s i tua ted t wo t h ird u p t he l eng th o f ab road «s hoe l ast » wh ich r esu l ted f r om f i t t ing t he h af t w ith a f l int k n if e a nd r ubb ing t he s ur f ace h a lf way u p t he l e ng th o ft he i mp lement o n i t sf l at s i de . J .P avük ( 1972 , p .5 4 ) a nd P .J .R . Modermann ( 1970 , p . 1 89 ) c l a im t ha t b etween t he t oo l a nd i t s h af t was p ut «l i n ing »wh ich l e ssened t he p ressure o ft he h af t o n t he c entra l p ar t o ft he i mp lement . I t s eems , h owever , t hat t he f unct ion o ft he l i n ing w as r ather t of i x t he t oo l more s ecure ly i n i t sh af t . Another i n terest ing p rob lem i s t he v ar iety , p ropert ies a nd s t ructure o f t he r ocks u sed i n t he manufactur e o f p o l ished s t one i mp lements . P etrog raph ic i nvest igat ions c arr ied o ut , among o thers , b y A . P r inke a nd J . S koczy las ( 1980 ) , A . Ma jerow icz ( Ku lczycka -Lec ie jew iczowa , 1 983 , p .5 4 ) , a l so b yJ .S t e lc l a nd J . Ma l ina ( 1970 ;1 975 ) s how t hat amph ibo l ite , b asa lt , d iabase , g abbro , g ne iss , g reen s ch ist , p hy l l ite a nd o thers w ere r ead i ly u sed b y makers o f p o l ished t oo ls . T he a u thors d i scussed r ock p roper t ies , t hey r eached d ef in ite c onc lus ions c oncern ing t ypo log ica l r aw mater ia l a spects . T hey c l a im t hat t oo l makers h ad a t horough k now ledge o f r ocks wh ich e nab led t hem t o s e lec t a ppropr iate r ocks f o r p roduct ion o f as pec if ic i mp lement . T oo l makers c erta in ly made u se o f t he r ock s t ructu re , e .g . t o s t reng then t he ir d urab i l ity b lades w ere f o rmed p erpend icu lar ly t o t he r o ck l am inat ion ( Ste lc l , Ma l ina , 1 970 , p . 4 0 a nd c f . ;1 975 , p . 2 12 a nd c f . ) . Twe lve s hoe last i mp lements i nc lud ing f our f ragments a nd t wo a xes h ave b een d i scovered i n t he N owa Huta s e t t lement c omp lex . H igh -backed f o rms d om inate ( 6p ieces ) among s hoe las t i mp lements , a l l d i scovered i n a n u nda ted l ayer a t s i te 1 8 . Af r agment f r om a l oose f i nd f ound a t s i te 6 2 ( Mog i la ) s hou ld a l so b e i nc luded i n t o t h is g roup . L ow b acked f o rms a re r epresented b y 3s pec imens: 1 f r om s i te 1 7 a nd t wo f r om s i te 6 2 . O ne s pec imen f r om s i te 6 2 h a s b een d a ted t o t he Z e l iezovce p hase o f LPC , t he o ther t wo a re i s o la ted f i nds . T he f r agm ent o f a n i mp lement f r om s i te 1 2 ( B ienczyce ) f ound i n al ayer d a ted t ot he «N otenkopf» p hase o fL PC c annot b ed ef ined . 3 9

I nf orma t ion a bou t methods o f manufacture o f p o l ished l i th ic i mp le ments i s s upp l ied b y e thnog raph ic a na log ies a nd e xper imenta l s t ud ies ( Semenov , 1 968 , p . 7 5 a nd c f . ) . Amph ibo l ite b e long s t o t he r ocks s u i tab le f o r t r eatment . T he f i rst s t age i nvo lved k napp ing o f fr o ck f r agments t o o b ta in r ough ly t he d e s ired f o rm . One e xamp le i n t hese ma ter ia l s hows t races o fk napp ing ( t ab . 1 , 2 ) . P roduc t ion o fb lanks f o r t oo ls b y s aw ing i s a l so k nown ( Semenov , 1 957 , p . 9 0 a nd c f . ) . T he s aw ing t e chn ique was e mp loyed i n C zechos lovak ia a l ready i n t he e ar ly L PC p hase ( Vend , 1 960 , P . 6 ) . The manufa c tured p iece w as t hen s moo thed o u t a nd i t s s ur face p o l ished o n as l ab , e .g . f r om q uar t ize s and stone .T h is t r ea tment w as c ont inued u n t i l as moo th s u r f ace w as o b ta ined . A l l a r t ef ac ts f r om t he N owa Hu ta s e t t lement c omp lex w ere r e lat ive ly w e l l made . T races o fp o l ish ing , w eaker o r s t ronger , a re d i scern ib le o n a l l i mp lemen t s . T races r un r andom ly i n a l l d i rec t ions , p ar t i cu lar ly t hose p roduced d ur ing t he p o l ish ing o fs i des a nd b a ck . T ra ces o n t he b lade a re more r egu lar t han t hose o n t he b ack , w h ich i s more d if i cu l t t os hape . A l l s hoe las ti mp lemen t s h ave f l a tb a ses , t he i r w id th i se qua l t o o r s ma l ler t han t he max imum w id th o f t he i mp lement . T he b ase n ea r t he b lade i s s l igh t ly o b l ique , i n s ome c ases , s ot ha tt he e dg e i ss i tua ted a tt he l e ve l o ft h el o ng a x is o ft he t oo l m os t o f t en i n i t s l ower h a lf ( t ab . 1 , 2 , 7 ,8 ) . T he b a ck o fh igh -ba cked f o rms i sp rom inen t ly c onvex , o f l ow -ba cked o nes -c onvex . When f a sh ion ing s hoe las t t o o ls o r a xes t he t o o l -maker t o ok i nto a ccount t he r o ck s t ru c ture . A l l h igh s hoe last t o o ls f r om s i te 6 2 h ad l am ina t ion p ara l le l t o t he l ong itud ina l a xes . We may i n f er t ha tt h is h appened b ecause i tw as e as ier t oo bta in e l onga t ed s hape b y f o l low ing t he r ock s t ruc ture . T he f a c t t ha t i n a l l h igh -ba cked p i eces r ock l am ina t ion i s p ara l le l t ot he b lade i nd i ca tes t ha t t he t o o l -maker b ore r o ck l am ina t ion i n m ind when h e d ec ided t o make a c e r ta in t o o l a nd n o t a no ther . I n c on sequence , a n i mp lement l i ke t h is c ou ld n o t b e u sed f o r h i t t ing a s t he r e la t ive ly n arrow b lade , w i th s uch r ock l am ina t ion , w as w eaker a nd w ou ld h ave b een d es troyed f a s ter . L ow -ba cked s hoe las t t o o ls , h owever —o ne p i ece f r om s i t e 1 7 , o ne f r om s i te 6 2 a nd p erhaps 2f r agmen ts f r om s i t e 1 8 a nd 1 2— w ere made i n s uch a w ay t ha t t he b lade w as p ara l le l t ot he r ock l am ina t ion . B lades l i ke t h is a re a s ar u le w ider . When e xp lo ited t hey w ere d amaged b y h or izon ta l e xf o l ia t ion . T he a b i l i ty o ft o o l -makers t o make u se o fr o ck p roper t i es i sf ur ther e v idenced b y mak ing f l a t a xes i n s u ch aw ay t ha t t he b lade w as p ara l le l t o t he r o ck l am ina t ion . Two a xes l i ke t h is a re f ound i nt he N owa Hu ta s e t t lemen t c omp lex: af i ne p i ece f r om s i te 1 8 a nd am ore r obus t f r om s i te 1 2 ;c u t t ing e dges a re i n v ar ious s t at es o fp reserva t ion w h ich i nd ica te t he ir v ar ious f unc t ions . My o bserva t ions a re s upp lemented b y t he r esu l ts o f p rev ious r esear ch i nto r o ck s t ruc ture ( S te lc l , Ma l ina , 1 970 , P . 4 0 a nd c f . ;1 975 , p .2 12 a nd c f . ) wh ich r evea led y e t a no ther a spec t . A n i mp lement w as u sed f o r s pec if ic t asks d epend ing o n t he s hape o ft he b lade i n r e la t ion t o s t ru c ture . S hoe las t i mp lemen t w ith n a rrow b lades p erpend icu lar t o t he l am ina t ion h ave ag rea ter r e s is tance wh i ch i sr e inf o rced b y t he s u itab le l e ng th o ft he t o o l . T he b lades w ere e xposed t ot he i mpac t o ft he b low , i na l l l i kehood t hrough t he h af to r a tl e as t w eak b lows , t hen s unk i n to t he w orked w ood . I mp lement s w i th b lades p ara l le l t o t he l am ina t ion w ere u sed f o rt a sks w here t he f o r ce o ft he b l ow w as i mpor tant . O fv i ta l i mpor tance i st he f unc t ion o ft hese i mp lemen ts , w h ich w e s ha l l b e a b le t o d eterm ine a lmost a l l c er ta in ly , o n t he b as is o f u se -wear a nd t races o f h af t s . T races o f p o l ish ing a nd h af ts c an b e e as i ly s e en w i th t he u na ided e ye . B u t l i near t ra ces o fu se -wear r equ ire e n largement u p t o t en t imes . B igger e n la rgements O f r ocks u sed i n t o o l manufac ture f a i l t op rov ide t he r equ ired e f ec t s b ecause o fr o ck g ra ins a nd s i ze o ft ra ces . R ock g ra ins a re c l ear ly b rought o u t , w h ich l e ads t ot he f a d ing o fl i near t ra ces o fu se -wear

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a nd p o l ish ing . L inear t r a ces o fu se -wea r d i scern ib le o n o ne ( t ab . 1 , 7 ) o r t wo s i des o ft he b lade ( t ab . I ,2 ,8 )w ere f ound o n f ou r a r t ef a ct sf r om s i tes 1 7 , 1 8 ( P leszöw ) a nd 6 2 ( Mog i la ) . Two o ft hem h ad f i ne n ibb l ing o nt he c u t t ing e dg e . T o d iscover d i s t inc tc hara cter is t ic t r a ces u nques t ionab ly r e lat ed t ot he t ypes o fh af t s i sa l so e ssent ia l . O ne s pe c imen f r om s i t e 6 2 o n t ouch r evea ls g rooves o n b o th s i des , h a lf way i t s l eng th , p ar t ly e x t end ing o n t he b ack ( t ab . 1 , 8 ;t ab . I , 3 ) . S im i lar marks f r om h af ts w ere d i s covered o n t he i mp lement f r om N it ra ( Pavük , 1 972 , f i g . 3 4 ) . Moreover , t he s ur fa ce o ft he i mp lemen tf r om t h is l i ne t owards t he h ead i s much s moo ther . T he h ead w a s s moo thed — p ar t icu la r ly i t s b asa l p ar t . T he s e cond s pec imen f r om s i te 6 2 h a s as im i la r ly s moo ther h ead . T he p i ece f r om s i t e 1 7 h as s hor t l i near t ra ces o n ab lunt ed c u t t ing e dg e . T hey a re d i scon t inued o ver o ther p ar ts o ft he t o o l , w h i le t r aces o fp o l ish ing o c cur w h ich a re s ha l low d ue t o r ubb ing . S im i lar ly , n ear t he h ead t races o fp o l ish ing c an h ave b een s moo thed b y t he h a f t . I mp lement s w ere p o l ished o n ah ard b ase wh ich l ef t s c ra t ches o f v ar ious d epth , whereas w ork ing s of ter o r f i ne -gra ined mater ia ls r esu lted i n s imu l taneous o b l itera t ion o f marks f r om p o l ish ing a nd r ubb ing o ft he s urf ace . T he h igh b a cked s hoe la s t i mp lement f r om s i te 1 8 h as a s moo thed a nd s h iny b ase 7c m f r om t he h ead , w hose s ur f ace i so b l ique t ot he b ase , w i th s evera l n ot ches p ara l le l t ot he b ase . Two h igh -backed s pec imens h ave f i ne n ibb l ing o n t he c u t t ing e dg es: al a rge p i ece f r om s i te 1 8 ( t h is i so n ly a n i mp lemen t w i th a n a tura l h ead ) a nd a f r agment f r om s i te 6 2 . T he f i rs t p iece h as , b es ides , as o t o s ay g reasy s ur f ace n ear t he b lade ( t ab . I , 1 ) . ( No a dd it iona l s tud ies w ere c arr ied o u t t o s uppor t t h is f i nd ing . ) S urf aces o fp o l ish ing l i th ic i mp lement s f r om P o l ish l ow lands w er e s a tura ted w ith f a t ( Pr inke , S koczy las , 1 980 , p . 7 1 ) . We s ha l l n o t a t t empt t oi n terpre tt h is o bserva t ion , e spec ia l ly s i nce t h is w as t he o n ly s pec imen w i th p robab ly a n a tura l h ead . T hree h igh -backed p i eces f r om s i te 1 8 w ith d amaged b lades s how t races o fh af t s s u ch a s i ndenta t ions o n t he s i des w h ich f o rm , a t t he s ame t ime , t he b order l ine b e tween d if erent s urfa ce c o loura t ions ( t ab l . I , 2 ) ;s im i lar marks w ere f ound o n at o o l f r om N it ra ( Pavük , 1 972 , f i g . 3 1) , i . e . t he l ower p ar t o ft he h ead w as s moo thed , a nd t here w ere n ot ches i n t he s i des p robab ly f r om h af t ing ( t ab . 1 , 5 —s im i lar t r aces w ere n o t i ced b y Modermann 1 970 ,p l . 1 57 :6 ) , i na dd i t ion t o as h iny s ur f a ce . I ts eems u nques t ionab le t ha t s hoe las t i mp lemen ts f r om t he N owa Hu ta s e t t lement c omp lex w ere u sed f o r w oodwork ing . T h is t hes is h as b een c onf irmed b y p rev ious c omparat ive w orks c oncern ing f o rms a nd t races o f u se -wear o f p reh istor ic a nd e thnog raph ic s hoe las ti mp lement s( Henn ing , 1 961 ,p .1 96 a nd c f . ) . T he v as t ma jor ity o fs hoe las t i mp lements b ears t r aces o fh af t s . R econs tru c t ion o f h af ts w as u nder taken b y H enn ig ( 1961 , p .1 99 , 2 14 ) . When at o o l o ft h is t ype w as b e ing u sed t he g rea tes t s t ra in w as e xer ted o n t he c ent ra l p a r t w here i tw as t i ght ly f i xed i n t he h af t . Ap ar t o f t he s t ra in w as d i s tr ibu ted a l so o nto t he b ack a nd t he h ead , wh ich a re s t rong ly s moo thed . I ts e ems t ha tt he p os i t ion o ft he h ead i nr e la t ion t ot he t o o lb ase p layed a n e s sent ia l r o le . S hoe la s t i mp lement swere mounted i n ab ent -knee h af t s o t ha t t he b lade w as p erpend icu lar t ot he h af t a nd i t s c onvex s i de t ot he w orked ma ter ia l ( Semenow , 1 957 , p l . 6 5 :2 ) . I ncorrec t h af t ing o r a ng le d ur ing w ork w i th t o o much f o r ce a pp l ied , o r f l aws i n r ock s t ructure , may h ave c aused d es tru c t ion o f s evera l t oo ls , p robab ly d ur ing e xp lo i ta t ion s i nce t he ir b lades a re r ubbed . Unf or tuna te ly , t he r a ther e x tens ive d amage t o a r tefa c ts made i ti mposs ib le t o i nves t iga te s uch p rob lems a s , e . g . , t he p os it ion o ft he h ead i n t he h af t i n r e la t ion t o t he a ng le o ft he b lade b etween t he t oo l b a ck a nd t he o b l ique b ase o ft he b lade —w h ich c ou ld r eso lv e t he q ues t ion w he ther ap ar t icu lar t o o l w as f o r s ha l low w ork o rw a s m eant t or ea ch d eeper l ayers o fw ood . T he h igh -ba cked i mp lemen tf r om s i te 1 8 w i th ah ead f o rmed a tt he o b tu se a ng le t ot he b ase p r ov ided ac e r ta in p o in ter . T he p urpose o fs u ch p os it ion ing c ou ld 4 1

T ab le I ( photo b yM . D ok tor )

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1— 2 S i te 1 8 ( P lesz6w )f r om a n u nda ted l ayer . 3— S i te 6 2 ( Mog i la ) ,f ea ture 1 33 — f rom a nu nda ted l ayer .

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h ave b een t o o b ta in t he r equ ired c u t t ing a ng le . I t s eems t ha t s ma l ler t oo l h eads f o rmed p erpend icu lar t ot he b a se f a c i l itat e b y t he ir s i ze t he a ch ievement o fa n a ppropr iate a ng le d u r ing w ork . O fv i ta l i mpor tance w as , t heref ore , t he s e l ec t ion o f as u i tab le h a f ts o t ha tt he t o o l c ou ld b e m oun ted a t t he r equ ired a ng le . T he s t r onger s moo th ing o ft he h ead p ar t a d ja cent t ot he b ase r esu lt ed f r om t he i n tens ive r ubb ing o ft h is p ar ta ga inst t he h af t wh ich l o osened d ur ing w ork . T hese d e l ibera t ions a re r e levan t o n ly i fw e a ssume t ha t t o d o t he w ork h af t ed s hoe last i mp lement sw ere u sed . D esp it e d i s t inc t marks f r om h af ts o n t he i mp lemen ts i nd ica t ing —i n a way — t he d u ra t ion o fe xp lo i ta t ion , l i near t r a ces o fu se -wear a re v ery f a int a nd r ubbed o n t he b lades a s ar esu lt o fe xp lo ita t ion . T races o fp o l ish ing a nd l i n ear marks i nd icat e t ha t r e la t ive ly s of t mater ia l w as w orked . Work e f ect w ith s hoe last i mp lements wa s a ch ieved b y p ressure o n o r s t r ik ing t he h af t o r d i rect b l ow o n t he w orked o b jec t , s ubsequen t ly s unk i n to t he ma ter ia l w i th a s t eady movement . T he mater ia l i nc luded w ood o f v ar ious h ardness o r r es i l ience e t c . , a s t ypes o f t imber w ere c e r ta in ly c hosen t o meet s pec i f ic r equ irements . S ome t ypes o ft imber w ere u sed i n t he c ons truc t ion o fh ouses , o thers t o p rodu ce o b je ct so fe very -day u se . T he «N otenkopf» p hase o f t he L PC i s r epresented b y t wo a xes f r om s i tes 1 8 ( P lesz6w ) a nd 1 2 ( B ienczyce ) . T he f i rs t , w i th a s mooth , s l ighty n ibb led b lade a nd l i near marks o n b o th s i des , w as p robab ly u sed f o r t asks wh i ch d id n o t r equ ire p owerfu l b lows , e . g . t r imm ing r e la t ive ly l a rge s ur fa ces o fw orked t imb er , wherea s t he more mass ive a xe f ound a t B ienczy ce w as u sed f o r v ig orous b l ows —t he i mpac t wave was a bsorbed b y t he t r ansversa l l am ina t ion o ft he b road b lade a nd s u cces s ive b lows c aused n o d amage s u ch a s l o ng itud ina l c h ipp ing , a s men t ioned b y S te lc l , Ma l ina ( 1975 , p .1 80 ) a nd Modermann ( 1970 , p .1 90 ) . Marks f r om t he h af ti nd ica te t ha ti tw as h a ft ed s im i lar ly t o s hoe last t o o ls: w ith t he b lade p erpend icu lar t o t he h af t . T he h ypo the s is t ha t p ar t icu lar t o o l f o rms w ere u sed f o r s pec if i c t a sks c an t hus b e a ccep ted . T he a xe f r om s i te 1 2 c ou ld h ave b een u sed f o r s p l i t t ing o rc l eav ing w ood . I ti sn o te w or thy , b es ides , t ha t w e h ave b een a b le t o r ecogn ize t he s k i l ls t he t o o l maker d eve loped . H e e xper t ly c hose p ieces o f r ock f o r p roduc ing t oo ls i ntended b ef orehand f o r s pec if i c t a sks . U sers o ft hese t o o ls mus ta l so h ave h ad s o me k now ledge o f r o ck s t ru c tu re . Wood w ork ing b e longed t ot he b as ic o c cupa t ions o ft he L PC p eop le . T imber s eems t o h ave b een p ar t icu lar ly i mportant i n t he ir e conomy . T he p opu la t ion o f N owa Hu ta s e t t lement c omp lex l i ved i n t he l andscape w i th a v ar i e ty o ft r ees :p op lar , w i l low , b i r ch , a sh , e lm , h aze l , o ak , a lder a nd l ime tree g rew i n v ar i ou s p ropor t ions ( God lowska e ta l . 1 986 ) . R ich f o res ts t ands made i tp oss ib le t oe xp lo it w ood , b as ica l ly w ithou tr e s tr ic t ions , u p t ot he e nd o ft he Z e l iezov ce p hase o fL PC . T imber w a s f o r t he p roduc t ion o f c ons truct ion e l ements o fh u ts . C ons ider ing t he f a ir ly s ma l l p ropor t ion o f f l int i mp lements , t oo l i nventor ies w ere , i n a l l l i kehood , s upp lemented w i th w ooden i mp lemen ts . Wood w as c e r ta in ly u sed i n t he manuf acture o f e very d ay u stens i ls . Ar i ch i nventory o fv ar ious w ooden o b jects r equ ired , t heref ore , t o o ls f o rt he ir manu f a c tu re . T he c hrono log ica l p os it ion o fs hoe las t i mp lemen t s f r om t he N owa -Hu ta s et t lemen t c omp lex i s d if i cu lt t o e s tab l ish . T he ma jor ity o f t o o ls c ome f r om u nda ted l ayers o r s e condary d epos it s , w ith t he e xcept ion o ft he f r agment f r om s i te 1 2 ( B ienczy ce ) , f r om t he l ayer d a ted t o t he «N otenkopf» p hase o fL PC , a nd t he s pec imen f r om s i te 6 2 ( Mog i la ) ,

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d i scovered i n al ayer d a t ed t o t he Z e l iezovce p hase o f LPC . T he t wo a xes f r om s i te 1 8 a nd 1 2w ere s t ra t i f ied i nt he l ayer d a ted t ot he «N otenkopf» p hase o ft he LPC . Unf or tuna te ly , w e c annot a scr ibe t he s er ies o fs hoe last i mp lements d i scovered a t s i te 1 8 t oa ny o ft he p ha ses o ft he L PC . We s ha l lu se ,t heref ore ,t he v ar iant s o lu t ion: 1 .— C ons ider ing t he h omogeneous n ature o f t he a ssemb lage ( d isregard ing t he morpho logy o f i mp lements ) t hey may b e c ons idered a s c ontemporaneous w ith t he «N o tenkopf» p hase o ft he LPC . Th is i ss ubstant ia ted b y t he ir c oncentra t ion o ver a sma l l a rea , ma in ly w ith in t he s e t t le ment a rea . A l l i mp lements w ith t he e xcep t ion o fo ne s hoe las t t oo l w ith t he n atura l h ead w ere f ound w ith in t h is a rea . 2 .— T he morpho logy o f s hoe last i mp lements i nd icates t he ir l ater d at ing . An h ypothes is may b e p u t f o rward t hat 3 00 y ears l a ter a t t he mos t a t t he s i te o ft he f o rmer «N otenkopf » p hase s e tt lement , when v egetat ion d estroyed b y e ar l ier s ett lers r egenerated , a n i ndependent w oodwork ing b ase was s e tu p a ssoc iated w ith t he s e t t lement a bout 2 00 m e ast ( s ite 1 7 ) , d ated t o t he Z e l iezovce p hase o f t he LPC . T he b ase was c onven ient ly s i tua ted b e tween t he s et t lements a nd f i e lds u nder c u lt iva t ion . I fw e a ccept t he h ypothes is t ha tt he t ypo log ica l d a t ing i sc orrect w e may a scr ibe t he s pec imen f r om s i te 6 2( Mog i la )t ot he Z e l iezovce p hase o ft he LPC .

B IBLIOGRAPHY

GODLO WSKA , ( M . ) , ROOK , ( E . ) a nd DROBN IE W ICZ , ( B ) , 1 985 .— A s et t lement o f t he L inear P o ttery C u l ture a tP lesz6w ,P rz eg lad A rcheo log iczny , P oznan , 3 3 ,p .5 7 -103 . GODLO WSKA , (M . ) , KOZLO WSK . I , 1 986 .— E ar ly N eo l i th ic S et t lement a t

STARKEL , ( L . ) a nd WASYLIKO WA , ( K . ) , P lesz6w a nd e nv ironmenta l c hanges i n t he

C racow r each o fV is tu la v a l ley ,P r zeg lad A r cheo log iczny , P oznan , 3 4 ,i np r in t . HENNIG , ( E . ) , 1 961 .— Untersuchungen ü ber d e V erwendungsweck u rgesch l icht l icher S chuh le istenke i le ,A l t -Thür ing en , We imer ,p .1 89 -222 . KRUK , ( J . ) , 1 973 .— S tud ia o sadn icze n ad n eo l item w yzyn l e ssowych ( Sum . S tud ies o n t he Neo l i th ic S e t t lemen to ft he L oess U p land s ) , Wroc law . KULCZYCKA -LECIEJE W ICZO WA , ( A .) , 1 979 .— P ierwsze s po leczenstwa r o ln icze n a z iem iach p o lsk ich . Ku ltury k regu n adduna jsk iego , P rah is tor ia z i em p o lsk ich ,I Neo l i t , Wroc law ,p .1 9 -164 . KULCZYC KA -LECIEJE WICZO WA , ( A .) , 1 983 .— Badan ia n ad o sadn ictwe m n eo l itycznym w S trachow ie , w o j . Wroc law ( Sum . :T he I nvest igat ions o n t he Neo l ith ic S ett lement a t S trachöw , P rov ince o f Wroc law ) , Sprawozdania A r cheo log i czne , Wro c law , 3 4 ,p .9 -24 . MODER MANN , ( P .J .R . ) , 1 970 .— L inearbankeram ik a us E ls loo u nd S te in , Analec ta P raes tor i ca L e id ens ia II , L e iden .

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PAVUK , ( J . ) , 1 972 .— Neo l ith isches G räberf e ld i n N itra , S lovenskd Archeo ldg ia , N itra , 2 0 ,1 ,P . 5 105 . PR INKE , ( A . ) , SKOCZYLAS , ( J . ) , 1 980 .— S tone R aw Mater ia l E conomy i n t he Neo l i th ic P o l ish L ow lands ,P rz eg lad A rcheo log iczny , P oznan ,1 7 , p .4 3 -85 . SCHIETZEL , (K) , 1 965 .— Müddershe im , e ine Ans ied lung d er j üngeren B andkeram ik i m R he in land ,F unadamen ta ,A .1 , K ö ln . SCHLÜTTER , ( B . ) , 1 983 .— D ie b andkeram ische S ied lung a uf d e m Müh legrund i n R osdorf , L dkr . G öt t ingen , F rühe Bauernku l turen i n N ieder sachsen , O ldenburg , p .4 5 -90 . SE MENOV , ( S .A . ) , 1 957 .— P iervobytna ja t echn ika , Mater ja ly i I ss ledovan i ja p o A r ch eo log i i SSSR , 5 4 , Moskwa -Len ing rad . S TELCL , ( J . ) , MAL INA , ( J . ) , 1 970 .— Anwendung d er P etrog raph ie i n d er A rchäo log ie , F o l ia F acu l ta t is S c ien t iarum Na tu ra l ium Un iver s i ta t is P urkyn ianae B runens is , G eo log ia , 1, B rno . S TELCL , ( J . ) , MALINA , ( J . ) , 1 975 .— Z ak lady p etroarcheo log ie , i b . , S er ia Mono g raph ia ,I I , B rno . TABACZYNSK I , ( S . ) , 1 970 .— Neo l i t s rodkowoeurope jsk i . P ods tawy g ospodarcze ( Res .: L e N eo l i th ique d el ' Europe c entra le :S truc ture e c onom iques ) , Wroc law . VENCL , ( S . ) , 1 960 .— K amenne n ästr i je p rvn ich z e mede lcu y e s t redn i Europe , S born ik Narodn iho Muz ea vP raz e , H istor ie ,S er ia A , p .1 93 .

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EXA M INAT IO N OF HAFT ING TRACES ON END -SCRAPERS FRO M THE S ITE OF WOJNO WO «a » , CO NCENTRATION 1 1 1 175 (WESTER N POLA ND )

Ma lgorza ta

WIN IARSI CA -KABACINSI CA *

ABSTRACT:

Th is a r t ic le p resen t s t he r esu lts o fe xper iments c onnected w ith h af t ing o ff l in t t oo ls a nd t he i n terpreta t ion o f h af t ing t ra ces wh ich e x is t o n a r t ifac ts c om ing f rom F ina l P a laeo l ith ic s i te a t Wo jnowa «a» , c oncen tra t ion 1 1 /75 . One o f t he mos t n umerous g roups — e nd -scrapers — w ere e xam ina ted . E xper imen ta l t oo ls w ere made a nd h af ted i n a n t ler , w ooden a nd s k in h af ts . T han e nd -scrapers w ere u sed f o rr e mov ing t he f a t f r om f r esh h ide , s c rap ing b o th f r esh a nd s oaked a n t ler a nd s c rap ing f r esh w ood . T he c ompar ison o f t ra ces o n e xper i menta l t oo ls a nd a r t ifa c ts s hows t ha t mos t o fe nd -scrapers u sed o n s i t e Wo jnowa «a»w ere u nhaf ted . On t he e dge o f 1 4 t oo ls t ra ces o f p o l ish ing , p oss ib ly r esu l t ing f r om h af t ing p rocesses , h ave b een n o t iced .

R ESUME : C et a r t ic le p r6sen te d es r 6su lta ts d ' exphr imen ta t ion d ' emmanchemen ts f a it hs p our p erme t tre l ' i nt erpr6ta t ion d e t ra ces o bserv6es s ur d es o u t i ls p rovenan t d e l a c oncen tra t ion 1 1 175 d u s i te d u P a lho l i th ique F ina l d e Wa jnowo «a» .D es o u t i ls e xpör imentaux o n t 6 t6 f abr iqu6s e t emmanch6s d ans d es a ndou i l lers , d u b o is e t d e l a p eau . A ins i , d es g ra t to irs o n t 6 t 6 u t i l is6s p our r e t irer d e l a g ra isse d e p eau f ra i che , g raf t er d es a ndou i l lers f ra is e t t r emp6s e t d u b o is f ra is . L es c ompara isons d e t r a ces s ur d es o ut i ls e xp6r imen taux e ta r chho log iques mon t ren tq ue b eaucoup d e g ra t to ir s u t i l is6s Wa jnowo «a»n ' hta ien t p a s emmanch6s . S ur l e sb ords d e 1 4 o u t i ls , d es t races d e p o l issage o n t 6 t h n o t6es ;e l les p euven t r 6su lt er dun p ro cessus d ' emmanchemen t .

I— I NTRODUCT ION T he p resent a r t i c le d i scusses t he r esu lt s o f e xper iments p er f ormed o n f l int t o o ls h af t ing s a nd a t tempts a t i n terpre t ing h af t ing t races o n a r t ifa cts y ie lded b y t he l a te P a leo l i th ic s i te i n Wo jnowo «a»( c oncen tra t ion 1 1 /75 ) . T he Wo jnowo «a»s i te , w i th in wh ich t wo c oncentra t ions o fa rcheo log ica l mat er ia l h ave b een e xp lored , i ss i tuat ed i n w estern P o land o n t he n or thern b order o ft he Wo jnowo v i l lage , c a 2 8 km n or th -eas t o fZ ie lona G öra . I ti sl o ca l ized i n t he v i c in ity o f an arrow s t r ip o f l and wh ich s epara tes t he B ab imo jsk ie a nd Wo jnowsk ie l akes . Dur ing t he e x cava t ion w ork c onduc ted b y M . K obus iew icz i n t he y ears 1 975 -1976 t he i nves t iga ted c oncentra t ion 1 1 /75 y i e lded 5 7 77 f i nds . T he f i nds o c curred i n t he s ands a nd g rave ls o f t he t e r race o f ag lac ia l t r ough f o rmed a t t he e nd o ft he l a s t g la c ia t ion . Among 3 02 t o o ls d i s t ingu ished , t he mos t n umerous w as t he g roup o fb ur ins ( 121 ) , e nd -scrapers ( 63 ) a nd a hrensburg ian a nd s v ider ian p o int s ( 2 1) . T he Wo jnowo «a»t ype a ssemb lages c an b e f ound o n t he t e rr i tor ies o ft he w est ern P o l ish P la in a t t he e nd o ft he l a te g lac ia l p er iod . T he e nd -scrapers w ere s ubm i t ted t o e xam ina t ion . T he r easons f o r t h is w ere b o th t he ir Mu seum o fA rcheo log iczn e u l Wodna , P o logne .

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c ompara t ive ly l a rge n umber a nd t he p oss ib i l i ty o fa n e xa c t i d ent i f ica t ion o ft he a c t iv it ies t hey c ou ld b eu sed f o r .

I— THE EXPERIMENTS T he i nventory f r om t he I I /75 c oncentra t ion e xh ib it s a marked d iv is ion i n to e nd s c rapers made o n b lades a nd o n f l akes . A s a n e xper imen t , t heref ore , t he a u thor made 4 b lade e nd -scrapers a nd 4 f l ake e nd -scrapers ( f ig . 1 ) . C hoco la te f l int w as u sed f o r p rodu c t ion , a s o ne p ossess ing s im i lar p roper t ies t ot he e r ra t ic B a l t ic f l int wh ich h ad b een t he o n ly r aw mat er ia l u sed f o r t he p rodu c t ion o ft he a r chaeo log ica l t o o ls a t t he Wo jnowo s i te . T he s c rap ing e dges o f a l l e xper imenta l t oo ls w ere made w i th t he h e lp o f ah ard h ammer . T he e nd -scrapers h ad b een h af t ed i n p a irs: 1f l ake e nd -s craper , 1b lade e nd s c raper . T he f i rst p a ir was h af t ed i n r oe -deer a nt ler ( f ig . 2 ) , t he s e cond i n w ood ( p ine , b i r ch ) ( f ig . 3 ) a nd t he t h ird i n s oaked h ide . T he f our th p a ir was l ef t u nhaf ted ( f ig . 4 ) . Ma t ch ing ma ter ia ls f o r h af t ing w as d i rected b y t he r esu lts o f f auna l a nd f l ora l r e cons truc t ion f o r t he l a te g lac ia l p er iod o n t he P o l ish P la in t e rr it or ies . B ef ore h af t ing e ach t o o l was s ubm it ted t om icros cope e xam ina t ion s o a s t oo bserve t he m icro t races t ha t m igh th ave b een made b ef ore t he e nd -s crapers w ere h af t ed a nd u sed . T he t o o ls w ere f i xed i n s p l i t a n t ler a nd w ood , s ea led u p w ith w ax a nd a dd i t iona l ly t i ght ened w ith a s t r ip o f h ide . T he e nd -scrapers h af t ed i n a n t ler a nd w ood w ere u sed f o r r emov ing f a tf r om ab oar s k in t ha th ad b een p rev ious ly p ar t ia l ly t anned . T he b lade e nd -scraper h af t ed i n s k in w as u sed f o r s c rap ing f r esh w ood ( b ir ch ) , a nd t he f l ake e nd -scraper s im i lar ly h af t ed s e rved f o r s c rap ing s oaked a nt lers o f a n e lk . E ach o f t he e xper iments l a st ed f o r 6 0 m inu tes . Af t er c omp let ion t he e nd -scrapers w ere r emoved f r om t he ir h af t s a nd c l eaned , f i r st i n a 1 5% s o lu t ion o f NaOH ( 15 m inu tes ) a nd s ubsequen t ly i n s oapy w a ter . I mmed ia t e ly p r ior t o t he o bserva t ions e ach f l int t o o l w as s ubm it ted t o a c t ion b y a ce tone . T he o b serva t ions w ere c arr ied o u t w ith t he h e lp o f a me ta l log raph ic m icroscope Me t ta l lux ( Le itz ) w i th magn if i ca t ion o f1 00 , 2 00 a nd 5 00 . T he a na lys is o fm ic rowear t r a ces s howed t ha t a nt ler a nd w ood h af t ing s u sed i n t he e xper imen ts d id n ot c ause a n i d ent if y ing p o l ish o n t he e dges o f t o o ls . H orn a nd w ood p o l ish ing s , h owever , w ere o bserved o n t he p ro jec t ing p o in t s o fm icro topog raphy ( e .g . , o n t he r i dg es o ff l ints ) . W i th movement s o ft o o ls d ur ing u se r endered i mposs ib le b yt he t ypes o f h af t a pp l ied , t he o n ly c onv inc ing e xp lana t ion o f t he p o l ish ings i n q ues t ion i st he ir e mergence d ur ing t he p rocess o ff i x ing f l in t s i n t he ir h af t s . On ly s l ight p o l ish a tp la ce o f c ontac tb etween t he h and a nd af l in th as b een n o t iced o n t he r i dges o fe nd -sc rapers h af t ed i n s k in o n ly . T he p ressure o ft he h and o n t he t o o l a nd , b y t he s ame t oken , o n t he h a f t c au sed t he r ubb ing o ft he s k in a ga inst t he r i dge o ft he e nd -scraper a nd t he e mergence o fa p oor ly v i s ib le p o l ish . T he m icroscop ic a na lys is s howed n o d amage o ft he r i dg e . T he e nd -scrapers w ere u sed u nhaf ted s o a s t o ( 1 ) o bserve t he p oss ib le i n f luence o f t he s k in o ft he e xper imenter 's h ands o n to t he t o o l s ur f ace a nd ( 2 ) o bserve ( s ub jec t ive ly ) t he d i f f erences i n u se b etween h af t ed a nd u nhaf t ed f l in t s . I ts eems t ha t u s ing u nhaf t ed e nd -scrapers makes t he ir man ipu la t ions e as ier i n a ny k ind o f w ork . Y et t he h and , h owever , i so pened t oc on tac t w i th as harp -edged , h ard o b jec to rr i dge . T he o bserva t ions made d ur ing t he h af t ing p rocess i nd ica te t hat e nd -s crapers o n f l akes ( and b roken b lade e nd -scrapers ) w ere e as ier t o h af t , t ha t t hey w ere u sed w i th g rea ter a ssurance a nd t ha t g rea ter p ressure w as a pp l ied i nu sag e t ha t h ad b een t he c ase w ith b lade e nd -scrapers . B lade e nd -scrapers r equ ired a l onger a nd m ore c arefu l

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F ig . 1: E xper imenta l b lade e nd -scrapers a nd f l ake e nd -scrapers .

F ig . 2: E nd -scraper h af ted i n r oe -deer a nt ler .

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F ig . 3 :

E nd -scraper h af t ed i n w ood ( p ine b i rch ) .

F ig . 4 :

E nd -scraper u nhaf ted .

5 0

ma t ch ing o f t he h af t ing . T he ir b igger f ragments ( a s c ompared t o f l ake e nd -scrapers ) p ro jec ted b eyond t he h af ta nd t hus w ere more e xposed t op oss ib le b reak ing .

I I— ART IFACTS I n a l l , 5 8 e nd -s c rapers , 1d oub le e nd -scraper a nd 4 e nd -scrapers m ixed w ith b ur ins h ave b een i nves t iga ted . 3 9 t oo ls c ar r ied s i gns o fp o l ish ing w h ich h ave b een i d en t if ied a s t ra ces o fw ear w i th s ome c erta inty . On t he e dges o f 8e nd -scrapers u n ident if iab le p o l ish ing h as b een r eg is tered a nd 1 2 s pec imens w ere n ot u sed . I n 1 1 c ases t he s i de e dges h ad b een u sed a par t f r om t he s c rap ing e dg e . The ma jor ity o fe nd -scrapers b ear ing s i gns o fu se ( 32 ) h ad b een u sed f o r t ann ing s k in . 3s pec imens h ad b een u sed f o r w ood s c rap ing , 4f o r a nt ler p rocess ing a nd 4 f o r q ua r ter ing a nd f l ay ing f l esh o f a n ima ls . On t he e dg e o f1 4 t o o ls t r a ces o fp o l ish ing , p oss ib ly r esu l t ing f r om h af t ing p rocesses , h ave b een n o t iced . O ne e nd -scraper made o f ab roken f l ake h ad b een most p robab ly h af t ed i n h ide . 1 0 t o o ls ( 8o f who le f l akes , 1o f ab roken f l ake a nd 1o f ab roken b lade )h ad w ood h af t ing s . 2b lade e nd -scrapers a nd 2f l ake o nes ( i nc lud ing o ne b roken ) w ore t r aces o fa nt ler h af t ing . T he ma jor i ty o ft o o ls ( 47 ) b ore n o t races o fh af t ing . T o t h is g roup a l so b e long t he e nd -s craper s w ith =cha ra ct er is t ic p o l ish ing , a s w e l l a s t he u nused t oo ls . Observa t ions i nd ica te t ha t t he d eb i tage t ype ( a b lade o r af l ake ) d id n o t p lay a s i gn if i cant r o le i nt he c ho ice o ft o o ls f o rh af t ing . S ome r o le , o n t he o ther h and , w as p layed b y t he t oo l s i ze: a l l h af t ed e nd -scrapers a re s ma l l , a nd made o f s ma l l f l ake p ieces a nd b r oken f l akes o rb lades .T he a bove o bserva t ion s uppor t st he s ugges t ion t ha tt he d eb itag e o r r eady t oo ls h ad b een b roken p r ior t o h af t ing . T he s ame a pp l ies t o t oo ls o n wh ich n o h af t ing t races h ave b een n ot iced , a s t he l a ck o f t ra ces d oes n ot e xc lude t he o ne -t ime p resence o fh af t ing . On t he o ther h and , i n t en t iona l b lade b reak ing may b e i nd ica t ive o fa n e conom ica l t r ea tment o fs ma l l d eb itag e , c au sed b y r aw ma ter ia l s hor tag es . T h is i sa l so s uppor t ed b y t he f a c t o f max imum u t i l iza t ion o fc o res a tt he s i t e . T he c ompara t ive ly s ma l l n umber o f t oo ls w ith h af t ing t races may h ave r esu lt ed f r om t he u npro f itab lenes s o ft he p rocedure , e i ther b ecause o f as hor t -t erm s t ay a tt he s i te ( t he a rrangement o f r e f i t t ings c onnect ing p ar t icu lar s ubconcentra t ions i nd ica tes a s i ng le o ccupa t iona l s t ay ) o rb ecause o ft he s pec if i c i ty o ft he s i t e i t se lf . I t mu s tb e b orne i n m ind , h owever , t ha t t he ma t er ia lf ound a tt he Wo jnowo s i te c ons is ts i n ah uge ma jor i ty o f p rodu ct ion w a s tes o r t o o ls d i scarded d e l ibera te ly ( i n o ther w ords , f o r s ome r ea son u nf i t f o rf u r ther u sage ) . T hus i si th igh ly p robab le t ha tb e t ter s pec imens h ad b een c ar r ied a way f r om t he s i te , e nd -scrape r s i n c luded . T he a bove -presen ted r esu l ts o fo bserva t ions o fe xper imenta l t oo ls a nd a r t ifa ct s o n ly p a r t ia l ly e xhau s tt he i s su e o ft o o l h af t ing , d ea l ing , a s i td oes , w i th o n ly o ne t ype o fh af t ing a nd o ne t ype o ft o o ls . T h is i s sue w i l l b e t he o b jec t o ff ur ther , m ore e xt ens ive s tud ies .

5 1

BIBLIOGRAPHY ANDERSON , ( P . ) , 1 980 . —A t est imony o f P reh istor ic T asks: D iagnos t ic R es idues o n S tone T oo l Work ing E dges . Wor ld A rchaeo logy 1 2 ( 2 ) :1 81-194 . KEELEY , ( L .H . ) , a nd NE WCO MER , ( M . ) , 1 977 . —M icrowear A na lys is o f E xper imenta l F l int T oo ls :A T ext C ase . J ourna l o fa rchaeo log ica l S c ience , 4 :2 9 -62 . KOBUSIE WICZ ,

(M .) ,

a nd

KABACINS K I ,

( J .) ,

1 987 . — Wo jnowa

« a »—

p öznop le jstocensk ie s tanow isko z l i sc iakam i . F on tes A rchaeo log ic i P osnan ienses 3 6 . KO WALS K I , ( K . ) , 1 983 . —F auna p le jstocenu , ( i n: ) ( J .K . K oz lowsk i , S .K . K oz lowsk i — e d it . ) C z low iek is rodow isko w p radz ie jach , 7 3 -79 , Warszawa . MOSS , ( E .H . ) , 1 983 . —T he f unct iona l Ana lys is o f F l int I mp lements — P incevent a nd P ont d 'Ambon :Two c ase S tud ies f r om t he F rench F ina l P a laeo l ith ic: B .A .R . I n terna t iona l S er ies 1 77 . MOSS , ( E .H .) , a nd NE WCO WER , ( M .H . ) , 1 982 . —R econstruct ion o f T oo l Use a t P incevent :m icrowear a nd e xper iments . S tud ia P raeh is tor ica B e lg ica 2 :2 89 -313 . SCHILD , ( R . ) ; 1 975 . —P özny p a leo l it , ( i n : )P rah istor ia z i em p o lsk ich , v o l . 1 . P a leo l it i mezo l it , 1 59 -338 , Wroc law - Warszawa -K rak6w -Gdansk . SRODON , ( A .) , 1 983 . —0 r os l innosc i p öznego p le js tocenu , ( i n : ) ( J .K . K oz lowsk i , S .K . K oz lowsk i —e d it . ) C z low iek is rodow isko w p radz ie jach , 4 3 -52 , Warszawa .

5 2

M ULT IFUNCT IO N AND MORPHOLOGICAL HO MOGENEITY: A PATAGONIA N CASE STUDY

Hugo Dan ie l YACOBACCIO*

ABSTRACT:

The a im o ft h is p ape ri st op resen tp re l im inary r esu lt s o f as tudy i n t he f unct ion o fP a tagon ian e nds crapers r ecovered f r om s evera l s i tes . I ti st o d emonst rat ed t ha t t h is t oo l type i sn o t s pec if ica l ly o r ien ted t owa rds w ork ing o ne k ind o f ma ter ia l ( i .e . s k in ) , b ut d if eren t o nes ( wood , b one , e t c . ) . R ESUME: L e b u t d e c e p ap ier e s t d e p resent er l e s r ösu lta ts p re l im ina ires dune e tude t raceo log ique d e g ra t to irs p rovenant d e d if eren ts s i t es d e P a tagon ie . ne st d emontre q ue c e t ype d ' ou t i ls n est p as o r ien te s pec if iquemen t p ou r t rava i l ler u n t ype d e ma t er ie l ( peau ) ma is p lus ieur s ( bo is , o s , e t c . ) .

I NTRODUCTION The e ndscraper i s a ma jor t ypo log ica l g roup i n t he a rchaeo log ica l c ontexts o f c on t inenta l P a tagon ia a nd T ierra d e l F uego , n o t o n ly f o r i t s q uant ity —18% a verage o f t he l i th ic a sse mb lages — , b ut a lso f or i t s h igh s tandard izat ion a nd morpho log ica l h omogene ity . Th is l ed a rchaeo log ists t o g enera l izat ions a bout i t s c u ltura l p er t inency a nd s ty l ist ic mean ing . T hat i s , t he e ndscraper t ype -group h as b een c ons idered a s a n i d iosyncrat ic i nd icator ( Aschero 1 984 ;O rquera 1 984 -85 ) . T h is c oncept i s c ha l leged i n t h is p aper . The s amp le h ere a na l ized i sd rawn f r om 5 s i tes l o cated a t d if erent e nv ironments a nd p erta in ing t o d is t inct c u ltura l c o mp lexes ( f ig . 1 ) . T he r andom e f ect o f t he sma l l s amp le ( 68 s c rapers ) i sd im in ished b y t ha t r eason . The s i tes i nvo lved a re : ( 1 ) Aguada Barrera P rov ince o f R io N eg ro , r i o L i may d ra inage . T ype o f s i te :o pen -a ir c amp . I t i s l o cated n ear a n i nterm it tent s pr ing . T he s i te a ct iv ity p at tern ing c orresponds t o a Mu lt ip le A ct iv ity L oca t ion (MA UI) . Chrono logy: c a . 7 00 BP . Cu ltura l C omp lex : P atagonian . ( 2 ) Cueva T rafu lI P rov ince o f Neuquen , r i o T rafu l d ra inage . T ype o f s i te :c ave w ith mu lt ip le o ccupat iona l l eve ls . T he a rt ifacts a na l ized h ere in w ere r ecovered f r om l ayer 1 3 . C hrono lo g y: 7 850 ± 7 0 BP a nd 9 285 ± 3 13 BP . T he r esu lts o ft he m icrowear c amp — a * I n s t i tu to d e C ienc ias An tr opo l6g icas , U n iv er s idad d e Bueno sA ir es , 2 5d e Mayo 2 17 , 4 °( 1002 ) Bueno s A ir es , Argen t ina .

5 3

F ig . 1 :Map o fP a tagon ia w ith s i tes men t ioned i n t he t ext .

5 4

L im ited A ct iv i ty L ocat ion ( LAL — where manufactur ing a nd ma intenance o f s t one t oo ls w ere p erf ormed ) . Cu ltura l C omp lex: C omponent I( Curz io e ta l . 1 982 ) .

( 3 )A lero d e l Buho . P rov ince o f S anta C ruz , r i o P inturas d ra inage . T ype o f s i te :r ockshe lter w ith s evera l

o ccupat iona l

l eve ls .

The

a rt ifacts

o f t he

s amp le

a re

f rom

l ayer

4 .

C hrono logy :1 450 ± 5 0 BP . Wood , b one - a nd s k in -work ing w ere t he ma in a ct iv it ies c arr ied o ut a t t he s i te t hus b e ing a LAL . Cu ltura l C omp lex: Cu ltura l L eve l R io P inturas I V( 1 600 -1200 BP ) ( Grad in e ta l . 1 979 ) . ( 4 )C erro d el os I nd ios . P rov ince o f S anta C ruz , L ago P osadas d ra inage . T ype o f s i te: r ockshe lter w ith s evera l o ccupat iona l l e ve ls . A 1 0 -endscraper s amp le was d rawn f r om l ayers 3 e a nd 4 a . C hrono logy: l ayer 3 e h as a r ad iocarbon d ate o f 3 320 ± 5 0 BP . Ic annot b r ing a ny s pecu lat ion a bout s i te f unct ion ;b u t i ts eems t ha t a t t h is t ime i t was a MAL . Cu l tura l c omp lex: Cu ltura l L eve lR io P inturas I I ( 3300 -1600 BP ) . ( 5 )B loque Ern it ico 1 . North o f T ierra d e l F uego , C armen S y lva s l opes . T ype o f s i te :o pen -a ir c amp . C hrono logy :7 85 ± 1 20 BP . The s i te i sc ons idered a l o cus f o r t he p rocess ing o fg uanaco ( Lama g lama g uan icoe ) c arcasses ( Borrero e ta l . 1 985 ) . Cu ltura l Af f i l iat ion: S e lk 'nam . ( 6 ) Punta Mar ia 2 . North o f T ierra d e l F uego , s outh o f r i o G rande . T ype o f s i te :o pen -a ir s he l l m idden . The s amp le w as d rawn f r om t wo s amp l ing s t ra ta ( Si a nd S 2 ) . C hrono lo g y: 3 00 ±1 00 BP ( Si) a nd 'c hara c ter ist ic o ft he n or thern T ehue lche a nd a no ther i n t he «c urve -haf t» o f t he s ou thern T ehue lche ( s ee C asam ique la 1 978 ) . Mansur a ssessed , b y h igh -power m icrowear a na lys is , t ha t b o th s c raped d ry h ide . M icrowear s tud ies c arr ied o u t o n a r chaeo log ica l e ndscrapers s how t hat t h is t o o l c l ass w as w ide ly e mp loyed n ot o n ly t o w ork h ide o r s k in ( Cahen e t a l . 1 979 :6 63; S emenov 1 964 ) , b u t a l so t o s c rape w ood a nd a nt ler ( J ensen 1 982; P l isson 1 982; S ymens 1 986 ) . R egard ing a r t ifa cts f r om s i tes o f P ampa a nd P a tagon ia , H . N am i ( 1984 ) h as a ssessed t ha t o u t o f2 9 e ndscrapers a na lyzed f r om C a sa d e P iedra 1 s i t e —p r ov ince o fL a P ampa — 1 9 a c ted o n h ard ma ter ia l l i ke b one a nd w ood a nd 0 o n s of t ma ter ia l . A n e ndscraper f r om E l C e ibo —p rov ince o fS anta C ruz — ,l a y er 1 2 , w a s u sed t os c rape a nd c u t d ry h ide l i ke o ne r ecovered a t L os T o ldos s i te — s ame p rov ince — , l e ve l 1 ( Mansur F ranchomme 1 983 ) . A g rea t amount o f h eavy d i s lo ca tory d amage o n t he e dges o f 4 3 e ndscrapers w as n o t iced a t C ueva d e l a s Manos ( Cu l tu ra l l eve l I I ) ( Grad in e ta l . 1 976 : 2 37 ) .

ANALYSIS OF SAMPLE DATA T he e ndscrapers a re made o n f l akes o r s hor t b l ades . T hey a re s hor t , a nd t he w id th i sv ar iab le . T he a c t ive e dge i s a lways c onvex ( 2) .S omet imes , t he l a tera l e dges c an b e r e touched a s w e l l a y o b l ique o r a brupt a ng les . T he manufa cture t e chn ique i s b y p ercuss ion f l ak ing a nd r e touch . S ome t imes t he r e tou ch i se xt ended t o o ne o rt wo o ft he l a tera l e dges . T he e dge , i n t ransverse v i ew , i sa symme tr ica l . I n a ccord t ot h is v ar iab le ( s ing le -edge r etouch o r e xtended -edge r e tou ch , e t c . ) , 1 v ar ie t ies a re d i s t ingu ished b y C .A s chero ( 1983 ) . T he s amp le , h ere a na l ized , i s ma in ly c omposed b y e ndscrapers w ith r e touch o n ly i nt he a p ica l e dge . T ab le 1s hows t he v ar ie t ies a nd T ab le 2t he ir s i ze a nd r aw ma ter ia l . I n o rder t o t e s t t he h ypothes is o f mu lt ifunc t ion , t he a ssess ing o f t he o bserved d if erences p rodu ced b y s c rap ing s of t a nd /or h a rd ma t er ia l w i l l b e emp loyed a s r e levan t c r iter ion . S crap ing c ou ld b e c ons idered a f o rm o f s ta t i c l o ad ing . I t c an b e d ef ined a s a «. .movement o ft he i mp lement a ga ins t t he o b jec t ive ma ter ia l i n s uch amanner t ha t t he l o ng a x is (es ) o ft he e dg e (s ) a re a pprox ima te ly p erpend icu lar o r t r ansverse t ot he d i rec t ion o f mo t ion > '( De l B ene a nd S he l ley 1 979 :2 47 ) . G enera l ly , w ear i su n ifac ia l a nd l o ca ted i n o ppos it e s i de t ot he f r ont mo t ion . E thnog raph ic a ccoun t s ,j us t men t ioned , s ugg es t t ha tt he v ent ra l f a ce o ft he t o o l i si n f r ont a nd d orsa l ( i . e . r e t ou ched ) f a ce d ownward a nd b eh ind i n mot ion . T hu s i tc an b e e xpec ted t ha t t he d i s loca tory d amage w i l l b e p resent o n d or sa l f a ce i ft he a ng le o fw ork i sh e ld c onstant . N ow , It urn t o t he d ef in it ion o f t he c harac t er is t ics p resent i n t he t wo b road f unc t iona l c a tegor ies h ere emp loyed : 5 6

TABLE 1

S it e

A p ica le dge SH UE BE

Aguada B arrera C ueva T rafu l Aker i d ek B uho C erro d e l o s I nd ios B loque E rrä t ico P unta Mar ia 2 -S1 P unta Mar ia 2 -S2

3 1 5 5

1 1 3 1

R es

2 1 1 2

L at era l e dges UT RE ( 1 ) ( 2 )

1 1

1 3

1 1

1 6 1 2

1

2

S H: s ho r t ;UE :u n i la t era l e x tended; B E: b i la t era l e x tended; R es .: r e s t r ic t ed ; UT: u t i l ized ;R E :r e t ou ched ,( 1 )o ne e dg e ,( 2 )t wo e dges .

TABLE 2

S i te 1

Aguada B arrera Cueva T rafu l A lero d e l Buho C erro d e l o s I nd ios B loque E r rä t ico 1 P unta Mar ia 2 -S1 P unta Mar ia 2 -S2

6 3 8 1 0 2 1 6 1 2

2 9 5 1 4 0 3 1 3 1 3 7 3 3

Mean w t

2 1 4 5 3 3 2 1 2 6 3 2 2 5

6 1 5 1 0 8 1 0 1 0 8

S tandard D ev iat ion

9 . 9 3 .4 4 . 7 6 .0 1 4 .2 9 . 1 6 . 1 1 . 7 1 0 .6 1 0 .6 9 . 4 8 . 6 1 0 .7 5 . 6

1 . 2 6 . 5 4 . 6 3 . 2 2 . 8 4 .4 2 . 5

R aw Mater ia l ( 1 ) ( 2 ) ( 3 ) ( 4 )

6 2 7 1 0 7 7

1 1

5 3

2 4 2

( I )c he r t ;( 2 )O b s id ian ;( 3 )t u f a ;( 4 )o t her s( q uar tz it ea tB E 1;r hyo l i te a nd b a sa l ta t PM 2 )

5 7

1 —S of t mater ia ls crap ing T he u se -wear i s d ef ined b y p o l ish , r ound o r a b ras ive w ear o f t he e dges a nd a r educed f r equency o f f r actures . T hese , when p resen t , a re f ea ther t erm ina ted . An i mpor tant f ea ture i st he e xt ens ion o ft he marks o n t he t o o l s urfa ce . E ven t hough t he s k in p o l ish i sl e ss r e f lec t ive t han t ha t p rodu ced b y w ood ( Br ink 1 978 ;K ee ley 1 980 ) , i te xtends u p t o 0 . 6 mm o ver t he a r t ifa ct f a ces . T he f l ak ing n ega t ive r i dges a re a l so r ounded l i ke t he e dge s e ct ion . T he f ra c tures a re s ma l l a nd , a s h as b een s a id , t he t erm ina t ions a re f ea ther , a l though s ome s t ep o nes may a ppear . T he a brad ed p or t ion o ft he e dge c an b e 1o r 2 mm .

2 — Hard mater ia ls crap ing As er ies o fs ubs tances a re i nvo lved i n t h is c a teg ory: w ood , b one a nd a n t ler . H ere , t he s crap ing p roduces a h igher q uant i ty o f d is loca tory d amage , a l though p o l ish , s t r ia t ions a nd a bras ive w ear a l so a ppear . T he h igher r e s is tance o f ma ter ia l r e su l t s i n a n i n crease i n h ardness a nd ad ecrease i n t he c on ta c t a rea b e tween t he t o o l a nd t he w orked ma ter ia l . T here i s ag rea ter p ropor t ion o f s t ep a nd h inge t e rm ina ted f rac tu res . T he r edu c t ion o ft he c on ta c ta rea p rovokes c one i n i t ia t ions . S evera l e xper iments p rov e t ha tt he h igher mat er ia l r es istance p roduces g rea ter d i s loca tory d amag e ( Br ink 1 978; D e l B ene a nd S he l ley 1 979 ;K ee ley 1 980 ) . C onverse ly , i nverse c o rre la t ion i sn oted w i th f ea ther t e rm ina t ions a nd h ardness . K ee ley ( 1980 ) r ecords 5 o c currences o ff r ac tures i n s k in s c rap ing a nd 1 5 i n b one , f r om wh ich 1 3 h ave s t ep t e rm ina t ions . I n t he s ame w ay , f r ac ture s i ze i ncreases , r each ing 2mm i n w id th a nd 2 .2 mm i n l eng th i n b one s c rap ing . Wood s c rap ing p rovokes f r ac tures o f 1 . 16 mm a nd 1 . 42 mm r espec t ive ly . A verage o bserva t ions o f s k in s c rap ing t o o ls s how f r a c tu res o f0 . 5 mm o rl e ss . I n h ard ma ter ia l , t he p o l ish i sr e s tr ict ed t ot he w ork ing e dge a nd t he h igher a rea s o f t he c her t o rf l int m icrot opog raphy . F or t ha t r ea son , i ti sd i s cont inuous ( Kee ley 1 980 :4 5 ) . S tr ia t ions c an a ppear p erpend icu lar o r d iag ona l ly o r ien t ed t o t he w ork ing e dg e . I n w ood s c rap ing , t hese f r equent ly s t ar t a t ad i s tance o ft he e dge . T h is f a c t w as a l so n o t iced b y K ee ley ( 1980 :3 5 ) . T he a r t if ac ts o ft he s amp le w ere o bserved u nder ab inocu lar m i croscope Meopta DM 2 3 .2 ( 24x t o 1 50x ) a nd a W i ld VHZ ( 6x t o 1 60x ) . F igu res 2 -4 s how p ar t o f t he s a mp le . T ab le 3 s hows e a ch o ne o ft he o bserved a t tr ibu tes ( ea ch o bserva t ion h as a v a lue o fo ne ) . E xper imenta l d a ta w ere e mp loyed f o r f unc t iona l d e term ina t ions . Ag enera l c omment c an b e made i n t he s ense t ha t d i s loca tory d a mage v s . p o l ish a nd a bras ive w ear i si nverse ly p ropor t iona l d epend ing o n t he w orked ma ter ia l . I n e f ec t , i n s of t ma ter ia l t he 2 2 .2% o fa t tr ibu tes a re f r ac tures a nd t he 7 7 .7% a re p o l ish , s t r ia t ions a nd a bras ive w ear . On t he o ther h and , i nh ard ma ter ia l w e o bserve a7 9 .5% a nd a2 0 .4% r e spec t ive ly . T h is s i tua t ion i sa l so s een i n e xper imenta l s amp les . F or e xamp le , K ee ley ( 1 980 ) r e cords a3 9 .3% o ff r a c ture s a nd 6 0 .7% o fp o l ish a nd a bras ive w ear p rodu ced b y s o f t ma ter ia l , a nd a6 0 .4% a nd 3 9 .5% r e spec t ive ly b y h ard ma t er ia l .

5 8

TABLE 3

F unct ion

D is loca tory Damage

Hard ma ter ia l s crap ing S of t mater ia l s crap ing Hard ma ter ia l ( wood ) Hard mater ia l ( wood )* Hard mater ia l ( bone )

1

2

3

5

6 2

4

5

8 1 0

1 1 3 2

5 1 0

2

5 1 0

3

1 3

6

7

9 2 1 2 4

1

1 8

Abrass ive Wear 8 9

P o l ish

3

7 5 2 4 7

1 1 1 3

2 3

4

2 5

6

1 6

S tr iae

5 6

1 2

3

1:b end ing i n i t ia t ions; 2 : c one i n it ia t ions; 3 : f e a ther t e rm ina t ions; 4 a nd 5 : s t ep Ia nd I t e rm ina t ions; 6 : s ca led m icrof ra c tures ;7 : c rushed; 8 : r ounded; 9 : m icrof laked a brass ion . *R es idues o n t h ee dge .

The ma jor ity o f a r t ifacts i n t he s amp le w orked o n h ard mater ia l ( Tab le 4 ) . B one w ork ing p roduces s ma l l f ractures o n t he v entra l f ace o f t he t oo ls w ith c one i n it iat ions a nd f eather t erm inat ions — s i ze b etween 0 .5 mm a nd 3 mm — t ha t a re c haracter ist ic ( Br ink 1 978 ;Yacobacc io 1 982 ) . T he p o l ish i so n ly i n t he w ork ing e dge a nd s o met imes i s p a r t ly e l im ina ted b y t he r eac t iva t ion o ft he a bras ive p rocess t hat i nc luded t he l o sen ing o f s ma l l p art ic les . TABLE 4

S i te Hard

Aguada B arrera Cueva T rafu l Aker i d ek Buho C erro d e l o s I nd ios B loque E rrät ico P unta Mar ia 2 -S1 P unta Mar ia 2 -S2

2 7

Worked Mater ia l S of t I ndeterm inate

5 1 8 6 2 3 (8 .5 )* 2 (7 )

1 1 2 1

1 0

2

1 1

3 (8 .5 ) 2 (7 )

x : s :

E dge Ang le ( Mean ) Hard S of t

7 3 8 5 8 6 7 7 9 0 8 7 5 5

8 5 7 0 7 0 6 5

7 9 1

7 9 8

*I np a ren thes is p ro je c t ion o ft h em icrowea rr e su l ts t ot h ew ho le a s semb lage

5 9

7 3 5 8

1 0

20

I 3

J 24

I .

2 5

F ig . 2 :A lero d e l Buho s amp le .

6 0

Two i mp lemen ts o fA lero d e l B uho ( f ig . 2:1 0 , 1 6 ) p resent r es idues o n t he ir e dges a s sessed b y w ood . A n a r t if ac t r ecovered a t C erro d e l o s I nd ios ( f ig . 3H ) p resents a t t he p rox ima l p or t ion o ft he d orsa l f a ce a n i mpregna ted s ubstance t ha t c an b e i n terpreted a s v eg e tab le r e s in f o r a ssur ing h af t ing . A nother a t tr ibu te i n terpre tab le a s h av ing b een u sed i nt h is s ame w ay i s ad i scont inuous a braded p rox ima l p or t ion o ft he e nds craper ( f ig . 3G ) . An i n t eres t ing c a se i st ha t o fs evera l a r t if ac ts t ha t a ct ed o n d if erent ma ter ia ls w i th d if erent e dges . One o ft hese f r om A lero d e l B uho ( f ig . 2 :2 4 ) s c raped a h ard ma ter ia l ( b one ) w ith t he a p ica l e dged a nd w ood w i th t he l a tera l o ne . A t C erro d e l o s I nd ios , a n i mp lement w orked o n h ard mat er ia l w ith t he a p ica l e dge a nd a s of t o ne ( sk in ) w i th t he l a tera l o ne ( f ig . 3A ) . Th is a l lows s ome s pecu la t ion a bou tt he b ehav ior r e lat ed w ith t oo l -use . C ura t ion c an b e t he c au se f o r t he o b served v ar ia t ion a t C er ro d e l o s I nd ios a nd A lero d e l B uho . T he s ame a r t ifa c t c ou ld h ave b een c arr ied a nd emp loyed o n d if erent ma ter ia ls d ur ing i t s u se l if e . A t P unta Ma r ia 2 c er ta in e ndscrapers s how r emova ls i n t he a p ica l e dge a t t r ibutab le t o r esharpen ing . Bu t r esharpen ing i s n ot a n u namb iguous i nd ica tor o f c u ra t ion . I n t h is s i te , t he e ndscrapers w ere f unc t iona l ly s pec if i c u n its a ct ing o n au n ique q ua l i ty o f ma ter ia l —s of t o r h ard — , a s i n C ueva T rafu l , Aguada B arrere a nd B loque E rrä t ico 1 . The S e lk 'nam mode l o fe ndscraper u se s ugges ts a n e xp id iency b ehav ior a s h a sj u s t b een s a id . T h is mode l i sr e levant t oc ont ro l l ing t he P unta Mar ia 2 s i tua t ion b u tl e ss s of o r t he o ther s i tes . M icrowear d a ta a nd r aw ma ter ia l a na lys is o f t he f o rmer s i te s eem t o s upport t he S e lk 'nam m ode l . F or t ha t r eason , c ura t ion a nd e xped iency b ehav ior c ou ld h ave b een a ct ed i n t he p ast . Af i ne -g ra ined a na lys is o f t he t e chno log ica l s ys tems w i l l p erm it a n a pproach o ft he p rob lem i n s pec if ic s i tua t ions . T he d ata h ere r ev iewed s ugg es t t ha t c ura t ion b ehav ior w as i n a ct ion a t C erro d e l o s I nd ios a nd A lero d e l B uho s i tes a nd a n e xped iency o ne a tt he o ther s i t es . The w id th / leng th , t h ickness /w idth a nd t h ickness / leng th r at ios s how n o s i gn i f i ca t ives d if erences ( Tab le 5 ) ;t hu s , t he p ropor t ions o ft he a r t ifa cts r ema in c omparab le . Me tr ic d a ta w ere c ompa red b y u s ing ts c ores . T h is s c ore measures t he d if erence b etween m ean v a lues o f e ach q uant i ta t ive v ar iab le f o r e ach s amp le a ga inst t he a na logous v a lue f o r a nother s amp le ( W i lmsen 1 970 :5 1) ( 3) .S ign if i cance l eve l i s s e t a t 0 . 01 . T ab le 6 d i sp lays t he r esu lts . S ign if i ca t ive d if erences a re n oted i n l eng th , t he v ar iab le mos t a f ec ted b y f unct iona l r easons ( wear ;r esharpen ing ) . W idth i s a l so s i gn if ica t ive ly d if erent . T h is f a ct c ou ld b e r e la ted w i th t he d eg ree o fr e t ou ch a nd u se -wear o ft he l a t era l e dges . Th ickness r ema ins a lmos t c ons tant i n t he s amp le . T hese d a ta s how t ha t o vera l l m orpho logy i sc ompa rab le . D ibb le ( 1 984 ) p o in ted o u t t ha ti n tra -assemb lag e v ar iab i l i ty c ons t itut es al og ica l s t ep t o t ake i nto a ccoun t b ef ore e xam ing i n ter -assemb lage v ar iab i l ity . P unta Mar ia 2 ' s s amp le p erm its s uch a n a na lys is . T he d if erent ia l d i s tr ibu t ion o f r etou ch type ( s ca led v s . p ara l le l ) o n t he a p ica l e dges o f e ndscrapers i s t he o n ly s i gn if ica t ive d if erence b e tween S t ra tum 1 a nd 2 s amp les ( x2 :50 83 ;d . f . :1;p=0 025 ) . H owever , t here i sn o f unct iona l e xp lana t ion f o r t h is d i st inc t iveness b ecause n o c ovar ia t ion c an b e f ound b e tween t ype o fr e tou ch a nd mat er ia l w orked ( s ee C onc lu s ions , a l so Y a cobac c io 1 986 ) .

6 1

F ig . 3 :C erro d e l o s I nd ios s amp le .

6 2

F i g . 4 : C u e v a T r a f u l s a m p l e .

1

i

6 3

TABLE 5

S i te

Width / leng th

Aguada B arrera Cueva T rafu l Aker i d ek Buho C erro d e l o s I nd ios B loque E rrä t ico P unta Mar ia 2 -S1 P unta Mar ia 2 -S2

T ickness Width

0 . 72 0 . 88 0 .82 0 .67 0 . 83 0 . 89 0 . 76

0 . 28 0 . 33 0 . 30 0 . 38 0 . 38 0 . 32 0 . 34

T ickness / length

0 . 20 0 . 29 0 . 25 0 . 25 0 . 32 0 . 28 0 . 26

TABLE 6

AB

S i te

Aguada B arrera Cueva T rafu l Aker i d ek Buho C erro d e l o s I nd ios B loque E rrä t ico P unta Mar ia 2 -S1 P unta Mar ia 2 -52

CT

BO

C I

BE1

PM2 -S1

PM2 -52

l w

l w t l w

t l w w t

w w

l w t l w w l w t

w t l w l w w

l wt

l e t t er s ma rks s i gn if i ca t ive d if eren ce a t 0 . 01 l e ve l . I :l e ng th; w : w id th; t :t h i ckness .

CONCLUSIONS S ty l ist ic p er ta in ing c annot b e a ssessed u namb iguous ly t ak ing i n to a ccount o ne t oo l -c lass o n ly . T he a na lys is b y P . Wiessner o f S an p ro ject i le p o ints i s e n l ighten ing i n t h is s ense (W iessner 1 983 ) . R ecent d iscuss ion o n t h is matter h as s hown t ha t t he i s ochrest ic v ar iat ion ( Sackett 1 982 ) i s a n e qu ivoca l c oncept when a pp l ied t o a rchaeo l og ica l mater ia l ( s ee B inf ord 1 986 ) . S acket t f a i ls t o i dent ify t he s e lec t ion mechan ism a ct ing u pon t he a r t isan i n o rder t o c hoose a n «a t tr ibute » w ith s ty l is t ic v a lue — a l l a t tr ibutes h ave a n e qua l p robab i l ity t ob e c hosen . I nh is v iew , c raf tt rad i t ion d i ctates t h is c ho ice . But t h is c oncept d oes n ot t ake i nto a ccoun t t he i nterna l v ar ia t ion o f ma ter ia l c u lture . T hus , t he f unct ion ing o ft he s e lec t ive mechan ism r e ma ins u nknown .

6 4

On t he o ther h and , emb lem ic s t y le —o r s imp ly s t y l e ( W iessner 1 985 ) —a ssumes a s em iot ic c omponen t ( a message a bout e thn ic i dent i ty ) d if i cu lt t o s ubs tant ia te i n a r chaeo log ica l s i tuat i ons . Bu t n e i ther t he i s ochres t ic n or e mb lem ic c oncep ts o fs t y le c ons ider m orpho logy a s a u n ique — o r e ven ma in — i nd ica tor a s t he mos t t rad it iona l a pproaches s t a te . F or o ur p urpose , t he c onc lu s ion t ha t c an b e d rawn f r om t he «s t y l is t ic a rgument »d i scuss ion i s t ha t morpho logy i s n ot a s t ra i tghf orward i nd ica tor o f s ty le . E ven more , s ty le a nd m orpho logy a r e d if er ent t h ing s . The match ing o f s ty le a nd morpho logy i s i mp l ic it ly u sed i n P atagon ian A r chaeo logy ( f or a n a l t erna t ive e xp lana t ion s ee A s chero 1 984 ) . T ha t a pproa ch i sd er ived f r om t he B ordes ian m e thodo logy r i ght ly c r i t ic ized b y S a cket t ( 1 982 :6 5 ) : «. . a r chaeo log i s t s w o rk ing i nP er ig o rd h av eb een q u i ck t oa s sume t ha tr eg iona l a s semb lag e s w h i ch l i e p rox ima t e i nt ime b u t e xh ib i t q u i t e u n l ike f o rma l v a r ia t ion s hou ld b e a s s ign ed t o d i s t in c t e thn i c t r a d it ions » . I fw e c hange P er igord f o r P a tag on ia a nd e thn i c ( a lthough n ot a lways ) f o r c u l tura l , t hen t he s tat ement m ir rors t he s t andard a pproach s o f a r a pp l ied i n a r chaeo log ica l s tud ies i n t he l a t ter z one . On t he c ontrary , morpho logy i sn o t e nt ire ly d ependent o n f unc t ion . T he s eek ing o f ef i c iency i n s t one -t oo ls c anno tb e c ons idered a s at e leo log ica l s ear ch o ft he b es t f i tb y t he a nc ient p eop le . O therw ise , t he s ear ch f o r ef i c iency i n s t one too l u se i s ac omprom ise b e tween c o s ta nd b enef i t . I n o ther w ords , p eop le c hoose t he b es t —a l though n ot a lway s t he o pt imum — f o r l ower ing c ost a nd i ncreas ing b ene f it . T h is c ho ice i nc ludes l og is t ica l c ons idera t ions a s w e l l , l i ke t ime e xpend i ture i n d o ing aj ob ( s ee T orrence 1 983 ) . F rom a n a rchae o log ica l p o int o f v i ew , t he n a ture o f t he a ssemb lage i n wh ich a r t if acts a re i nc luded i s o f p r ima ry i mpor tance . C ura t ion b ehav ior w i l ld d e term ine a v ery d if f erent s t ructure a nd a ssoc iat iona l p a t terns when c ompared w ith a p re d om inant ly e xped iency b ehav ior ( Banf or th 1 986 ) . The n a ture o ft h e v ar iab i l ity i n s t one -t oo l a ssemb lag es , t hen , i s embedded i n t he f unc t ion ing o ft he a dap t ive s ys tem . T h is i st he o rgan iza t iona l f a c tor o f t e chno logy . F or t ha t r eason , t he d ef in i t ion o f t he a dap t ive s ys tem i s al og ica l s t ep b ef ore d eterm in ing a t t r ibu tes w i th s t y l is t i c mean ing i n ma ter ia l c u l ture . S ty le i sn e ither m orpho logy n or f unc t ion n or t e chno logy . N e i ther i st he s umma t ion o ft h is t hree a spec t s o fa r t if ac ts . I ti n c luded t he s o c ia l f unc t ion o ft he t o o ls . T he p rob lem h ere r ev iewed , a bou t mu lt ifunc t ion a nd morpho log ica l h omogene ity , i s ag ood c ase i n p o in t . S ty le o ught t o b e c ons idered , n o t o n ly r e f err ing t o i n ter -group r e la t ions b u t a l so «e ncod ing »i n tra -g roup b ehav ior . T he s i gn if i ca t ive d if erence i n r e tou ch -type i n P unta Mar ia 's 2 e ndscrapers c annot b e a ssumed a s r epresent ing i n ter -g roup i n f luences , b u t a s p roduced b y t he e x ist ence o f i n tra -soc ie ta l d if erences i n k napp ing m icro -trad it ions w i th in t he S e lk 'man s o c iety ( Ya cobac c io 1 986 ) . The s ty l ist ic mean ing o f t h is d if erence i s y e t e lus ive , b ut d ef in ing i n terna l v a r iab i l ity i n t he mat e r ia l c u lture o fl o ca l g roups i n c l ear ly o u t l ined a dapt ive s ys tems s hou ld b e o ne o ft he m o s t p rof i tab le w ays t of o l low i no rder t oe xp lore t he s t y l is t ic mean ing o ft e chno -morpho log i ca l a nd f unct iona l a t tr ibu tes i n a r chaeo log ica l s i tua t ions .

6 5

ACKNO WLEDGE MENTS T o S y lv ie B eyr ies f o r i nv i t ing me t o p ub l ish t h i s p aper . S pec ia l ly t o L id ia C . Gar c ia f o rh er k ind ly h e lp i n t urn ing t h is p aper i n to E ng l ish .

NOTES ( 1 )

Mu lt ip le A ct iv ity L ocat ions ( MAL; t erm ino logy f r om Wi lmsen , 1 970 ) r epresen ts s i tes t ha t y ie ld e v idence o f av ar iety o fa ct iv it ies p er f ormed b y r e la t ive ly n umerous p eop le . T he t erm c an b e emp loyed a s ar ough s ynon im o fB ase Camp o r R es iden t ia l B ase . L im ited A ct iv ity L oca t ions ( LAL ) a re s pec ia l -purpose s i tes l i ke k i l l s i tes , p rocess ing s i tes o r w orkshop l o ca t ions , e t c .

( 2 )

Ia vo id t he i nc lus ion o fe ndscrapers made o n l ong b lades c haracter is t ics o f t he s o c a l led C asapedrense i ndustry , b ecause t hey p resent marked d if erences i n t echno logy a nd morpho logy . T he ir i nterna l v ar iab i l ity a s ag roup i s c urrent ly u nder i nvest iga t ion b y C . B e l le l l i ( s ee B e l le l l i 1 983 ) .

( 3 )

ts core f o rmu la :

X i X2

= e -e 1

x :mean v a lue o fo ne v ar iab le o ft he s amp le

2

e:s tandard e r ror

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6 7

ORQUERA , ( L .A .) , 1 984 -85 .— T rad ic iones

Cu ltura les y E vo luc iön e n P atagon ia .

R e lac iones d e l a S oc iedad A rg en t ina d e An tr opo log ia , XV I (NS ) :2 49 -267 . PL ISSON , ( H . ) , 1 982 .— Ana lyse F onct ionne l le d e 9 5 M icro -g ratto irs «T ourass iens » . R ecen t P rogress i n Microwear Ana lys is ( ed ited b y D . C ahen ) . S tud ia P reh is tor ica B e lg ica , 2 :2 79 -287 . SACKETT , ( J .R .) , 1 982 .— A pproaches t o S ty le i n L ith ic A rchaeo logy . J ourna l o f An thropo log ica l A rchaeo logy 1 :5 9 -112 . SACKETT , ( J .R . ) , 1 985 .— S ty le a nd E thn ic ity i n t he K a lahar i: A R ep ly t o Wiessner . Amer ican An t iqu i ty 5 0: 1 54 -159 . SE MENOV , ( S .A . ) , 1 964 .— Pr eh is tor ic T echno logy . N ew Y ork: B arnes a nd N ob le . SY MENS , ( N . ) , 1 986 .— A F unct iona l Ana lys is o f S e lected S tone A r t ifac ts f ro m t he Magda len ian S i te a tV erber ie , F rance . J ourna l o fF ie ld A rchaeo logy 1 3: 2 13 -222 . TORRENCE , ( R .) , 1 983 .— T ime Budget ing a nd Hunter -gatherer T echno logy . Hun ter g a therer e conomy i n P reh is tory ( ed ited b y G .N . B a i ley ) , p . 1 1-22 . C ambr idge: C ambr idge Un ivers ity P ress . WIESSNER , ( P . ) , 1 983 .— S ty le a nd S oc ia l I nf ormat ion i n K a lahar i S an P ro ject i le P o ints . Amer ican An t iqu i ty 4 8: 2 53 -276 . WIESSNER , ( P . ) , 1 985 .— S ty le o r I s ochrest ic Var ia t ion ?A R ep ly t o S acke t t . Amer ican An t iqu i ty 5 0 :1 60 -165 . WIL MSEN , ( E .N . ) , 1 970 .— L ith ic Ana lys is a nd C u ltura l I nf erence . A P a leo -Ind ian C ase . An thropo log ica l P apers o ft he Un iver s i ty o fA r izona , 1 6 . Tucson . YACOBACCIO , ( H .D . ) , 1 982 .— E stud io d e m icrodesga te p or u so e n a r tefac tos l i t icos I : F racturas .A c tas d e l V II C ongr eso d eA rqueo log ia d e U ruguay , p . 1 62 -166 . C o lon ia . YACOBACCIO , ( H .D . ) , 1 986 .— P unta Mar ia 2 : B ehav iora l I mp l icat ions f r om S tone T oo l Ana lys is . T ierra d e l Fuego: S e t t lemen t a nd S ubs is tence a t Mank ind 's S ou thern F ron t ier ( ed ited b y D .H . S tuar t a nd L .A . B orrero ) i np r ess .

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TECHNOLOGY AND FUNCT ION OF MICRO -BORERS FRO M KU IKARTEPE (TURKEY ) S y lv i e CALLEY * a nd R og er GRACE **

ABSTRACT:

Th is p aper i s ap re l im ina ry r epor t o n ab ead w orkshop wh ich i sd a ted t ot he s i x th m i l lenn ium . A l lt he s tages o fb ead manu fa c ture a re p resen to nt he s i te . T he t e chno log ica l s tudy c oncerns t he r e cons truc t ion o ft he c omp le te p roduc t ion s equence o ft he f l in t m icro -borers . T h is i n c ludes t he c ore r educ t ion s equence t o p roduce s u itab le b lade le ts . T he s tudy o ft he b y -produc t s a l lows f o r t he r econs tru ct ion o ft he manufa c ture o ft he m ic ro -borers , wh ich a re t he most n umerous t oo ls i n t he a ssemb lage . T he b ead b lanks a re sma l l d i scs made f r om c o rne l ian f l akes d e ta ched f r om s ma l l c o res a nd p repa red b y a brup tr etouch . A m icrowear a na ly s is , i n c on junct ion w ith a p re l im inary e xper i men ta l p rogramme , was c a rr ied o u t t o s tudy t he t e chn iques u s ed t op er f ora t e t he b eads . I n p a r t icu lar t oa s certa in whe ther o r n o t a mechan ica l d r i l l ing a ct ion wa s i nvo lved .

R E SUME : I s ' ag it l ä dun r appor t p re l im ina ire c oncernan t u n a te l ier d e f abr ica t ion d e p er les d e c orna l ine d a tan t d u 6 e m i l lena ire . T outes l e s e tapes d e f abr ica t ion d e c es p er les s on t r epresen tdes d ans l e s i te . L 'ana ly se t echno log ique c oncerne l a r econs t itu t ion d e l a c ha ine o pera to ire , a bout issan t äl a p roduct ion d e m icro -per co i rs . C e la i nc lu t l a c ha in s o pera to ire n ecessa ire ä l a p roduc t ion d e l ame l les a daptees . L 'e tude d u d eb i tage p erme t l a r econs t itu t ion d e l a f abr ica t ion d es m icro -per p irs , q u i s on t l e s o u t i ls l e s p lus n ombreux d e l ' ensemb le l i th ique . L es s uppor ts d es p er les s on t c ons t itues d e p et i ts d i sques f a mmes p ar r e tou ches a brup tes d ans d es p e t its e c la ts d e c orna l in e d eta ches e ux -mömes d e p e t its n uc leus . Une e tude d es t race s d 'u t i l isa t ion e n l i a ison a vec u n p rog ramme e xper imenta l p re l im ina ire a6 t h e ngagee p our e tud ier l e s t e chn iques d e p erf ora t ion d es p er les , e n p ar t icu l ier p our v er if ier s io u i o u n on u n p ro cede me can ique e ta it emp loye p our l ef a £onnage .

Kumar tepe i s aN eo l i th ic s i te d i scovered i n 1 982 b y T .J . W i lk inson a nd G . S t e in d ur ing a s urvey o ft he S amsa t a rea i n s ou th -eas tern T urkey . T h is s urvey w as c onduc ted i n a dvance o ff l ood ing t ob e c aused b yt he c ons tru c t ion o ft he A ta tü rk D am . I ti sl o ca ted o n t he l ef t b ank o f t he E uphra tes . I tw as e x cava ted i n 1 983 b y aj o int t eam d i rected b y J .J . R oodenberg ( Roodenberg e ta l . 1 984 ) . T he p re l im inary r epor t g ives a p rov is iona l d a t e o ft he m idd le o rt he s e cond h a lf o ft he 6 th m i l lenn ium . T h is p aper i s ap r e l im inary p resenta t ion o f ab ead w orkshop w h ich w as d i s covered i n T rench ' A ' o n t he t op o f ap ebb le p aved s urface . Al a rge c oncentra t ion o ff l int t o o ls , c h ips a nd c ores was f ound . W i th in t h is c oncentra t ion w ere s evera l t housand m icro b orer s . T he f a ct t ha t t he v as t ma jor i ty o ft he t o o ls p resent w ere o f as i ng le t ype s ugg es ted U .R .A . 1 7d u C .R .A .du C .N .R .S . , Ma ison d e l ' Or ien t r n& l i t errangen , 7r ue R au l in , 6 9007 L yon , F rance . **

I n s t i tu te o fA rchaeo logy , 3 1 -34 G ordon S quar e , L ondon WC1 H , Eng land .

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t ha t t h is a rea wa s s pec if ica l ly u sed t o manufa c tur e t h is k ind o f t oo l . T he s ys tema t ic s i ev ing o f a l l t he ma ter ia l p erm i t ted t he r ecovery o f ag reat n umber o fb y -produ c ts o f manufa cture a nd s evera l b roken b eads . T h is p rompted u s t o s tudy t he r e lat ionsh ip b e tween t he m icro -borer sa nd t he b eads . I ti sn o tab le t ha tn owhere e l se o nt he s i te was s u ch ac oncen tra t ion o fb ead b lanks a nd m icro -borers f ound . Ac omp le te t e chno log i ca l a nd f unc t iona l s tudy w i l l b e p ub l ished i n t he monog raph o f Kumar tepe . T he f o l low ing s tudy i s l im ited t o as amp le b ased o n a rchaeo log ica l o bserva t ion a nd p re l im inary e xper iments i n to t he manufacture o f m icro -borers a nd t he ir u se f o rb ead p er f ora t ion . At e chno log ica l s tudy d emons tra ted t ha t a l l s t ages o ft he manuf a c tur ing p ro cess w ere c arr ied o u t i n t h is a rea o ft he s i te :b lade c ore r edu ct ion , t o o l p rodu c t ion a nd b ead manufacture .

TECHNOLOGY C ore r educ t ion t echn ique s T he who le a ssemb lage i s made o ff l int e xcept f o rt he c o rne l ian c ores u sed t op rodu ce b lanks f o r t he manuf ac ture o fb eads . T here a re v ar ious k inds o ff l int i n t he a ssemb lag e , b u t t he o ne mos t o f t en u sed t o manuf ac ture p i er c ing t o o ls i s al i gh tb rown , s l ight ly c oa r se g ra ined f l int . T he d ark b rown , f i ne g ra ined f l int i sn ever manufactured i nto m icro b orers , s omet imes b u t r are ly i n to p i er cers . T he r aw ma ter ia l i sa va i lab le l o ca l ly o n t he b anks o ft he E uphra tes . Mos t o ft he c o res a re s ma l l a nd p r isma t ic w ith o ne o r t wo p la tf orms . The l ong es t b lade i n t he a ssemb lage h as a max imum d imens ion o f 8 0 mm . T he t r imm ing a nd r e s hap ing e l emen ts ( f ig . 2 ,n o . 2a nd 3 ) a re v ery r are . I ts hows t ha t t here w as n o s pec ia l p repara t ion b ef ore t he b lades w ere d e tached . C ores o f ten h ave a n i r regu lar s hape a nd m os t o ft hem h ave c o r tex r ema in ing o n t he s ur f ace ( f ig . 1 ,n o . 2 1 a nd f i g . 2 ,n o . 4 ) , b u tt he b lade p roduc t ion i si n tens ive . Ar ough e s t ima t ion o fb l ade p rodu c t ion s ugg es ts t ha t u p t o 2 4 b lades may h ave b een p roduced f r om e ach c ore . Many o ft he b lades ( 4 4% ) a re d oub le r i dged . T h is means t ha t b lade r emova l w as q u ite s y stema t ic . T he d es ired b lade s hape w as r a ther n arrow ( b e tween 7a nd 1 8 mm ) a nd t h ick ( b e tween 2a nd 4mm ) . T h is d es ired b lade s hape r a ises s evera l q ues t ions c oncern ing t he p rocess o f t he ir p roduct ion . F or e xamp le , s ome o f t he c ores w h ich a re made o n f l akes h ave f ea tures w h ich r esemb le b ur ins ( f ig . 1 , n o . 2 1) . T he b lade let s d e tached f r om t hese c o res h ave a b ur in s pa l l l ike a ppearance ;t he c r oss s e c t ion i sr a ther t h ick i nr e la t i on t ot he w id th a nd t he d i sta l e nd i s h ing ed . T hese h ing e f r a c tures d o n o t a ppear s o le ly o n t h is t ype o fc ore h owever , many o f t he o ther c o res a l so h ave h ing ing s cars o n t he f l ak ing s ur f ace ( f ig . 1 , n o . 2 0 , 2 1 , 2 2 a nd f i g . 2 ,n o . 1a nd 4 ) . T he most t yp ica l c o res o ft he l i th i c a ssemb lag e f r om t he w orkshop a r e b ip o lar c o res w ith t wo f l ak ing s urf aces ( f ig . 1 , n o . 2 0 , 2 2 a nd f i g . 2 , n o . 1 ,4 ) . I n p lan t hese f l ak ing s ur f aces d o n o t h ave t he s ame o r ienta t ion . T h is b ip o lar f l ak ing t e chn ique s eems t ob e t he r esu l t o fu s ing e ach p la tf orm i ndependent ly f r om t he o ther . T hese c o res a l so f r equent ly e xh ib it s cars w ith h ing e f r ac ture t e rm ina t ions . T he p resence o fh inge f r a c tures , w h ich a re g enera l ly c ons idered t o b e a cc iden ta l , d oes n o t s eem t oh inder t he c o re r edu c t ion p rocess . O nt he c ont rary i n s ome c ases i tw ou ld b e p oss ib le t or e f resh t he f l ak ing s urf a ces b y r emov ing af l ake f r om t he o ppos ite p la tf orm , b u t t he f l int k napper w ent o n t o d e ta ch b lade le ts t erm ina t ing i n h inge f r ac tures . I th as 7 0

3 cm

« g* > VZ 7 :7

F ig . 1 :1 -7 :M icro -borers; 8 -19 :B y -products o f manufa cture ; 2 0 -22 -23 :B ip o lar c ores ;2 1 :«B u r in l ike -core » . 7 1

9

l cm

. e &2 2 2 : h e , F ig . 2 :1 a nd 4 :B ipo lar c ores ; 2 :C ore t r imm ing e l ement ; 3 : C ore t ab let; 5:C orne l ian b lade; 6:C orne l ian c ore; 7:S t eps o fb ead manufa c ture . 7 2

b een o bserved t ha t s ome o ft he m icro -borers w ere manufa c tu red o n b lade le ts w ith h ing e f r ac tures , t he h inged t e rm ina t ions b e ing u t i l ised a s t he b ase o ft he m icro -borers ( f ig . 1 , n o . 5 ) . I tw ou ld s eem t ha t t he c o re r edu c t ion s equences a t Kumar tepe a re w e l l a dap ted t o t he p rodu ct ion o f s hor t t h ick b lade lets , w h ich a re u sed e xc lus ive ly a s b lanks f o r t he manufacture o f m i cro -borers a nd p iercer s . T hese t e chn iques f o r t he p roduct ion o f b l ade lets w ith h ing e f r ac tures i ss im i lar t o « bur in t e chn ique »;t he p rodu ct s a re t hen made i nt o m icro -borer s . T h is m e thod may w e l l h ave b een u sed t oc ontro l t he l e ng th a nd t h ickness o ft he b lank s .

Manufac ture o f t he m icro -borer s T he manuf ac tu re o ft he t o o ls r epresen ts av ery i mpor tan t s t ag e i nt he t e chno log i ca l p rocess o ft he w orkshop . T he w e ight o ft he m icro -borers a nd p i er cers ( o fw h ich t here a r e a pprox ima te ly 12 00 p i eces ) r epresents 6 . 1% o f t he t o ta l w e ight o f t he w ho le s amp le s t ud ied . W i th t he e x cep t ion o f af ew mu l t ip le b orers made o n f l akes a l l t he t o o ls a re made o n b lades a nd b lade let s . 1—d escr ip t ion There a re t wo ma in t o o l t ypes :b orers a nd p i er cer s . T he p resent p aper d ea ls o n ly w i th t he m icro -borer s o n wh ich t he w ear t r a ces w ere a na lysed . T here a re t wo ma in t ypes o fb orers . T he f i rs t t ype a re l o ng b orers w i th u nret ouched b ases ( Cauv in 1 968 , p .1 54 -156 ) . T hese a re w e l l k nown i n t he N ea r E a s t , b u t a re r are a t K uma r tepe ( 7 .1% o ft he b orers ) . T he b orers h ave t i ps w ith e i ther d i rec t o r a l t erna te r et ou ch , a nd p rom inant s hou lders . M os t o ft hem a re b roken , t heref ore i ti sd if i cu l tt os t udy t he ir t e chno logy . T he s e cond t ype o fb orer , t he m icro -b orer , i ss hor t a nd r e tou ched a l l r ound t he e dg es ( R oodenberg e ta l 1 984 , f i g . 6n o . 1-14 ) . T h is t ype i sl e ss w e l l k nown i nt he N ea r E as tb u t i sa bundan ta t Kuma r tepe ( 8 1 .5% o ft he b orer s a nd 5 1 .7% o ft he t o o l a ssemb lag e ) . T he t i p , e dg es a nd b ase a re f a sh ioned w i th d i rec t a brup t r e tou ch ( f ig 1 ,n o . 1t o7 ) . T hese t o o ls a re made o fc oarse g ra ined , h omogeneous f l int . T he f i ne g ra ined f l int i sn ever u sed t o make t h is t ype o fb orer a t K umar tepe . T he t i p i su sua l ly o n t he c en tra l a x is o ft he b ody o ft he b orer . T he t i ps a re o f t en t h inned b y i nverse r e tou ch a t t he s hou lders , a nd t he d i s tance b e tween t he s hou lder s a nd t he p o int o ft he t i p n ever e x ceeds 3mm . T he b a cked e dges a re p ara l le l o r s omet imes c onvergent f r om t he b ase t o t he t i p . T he t ransver sa l s e c t ion i s t r iangu lar , t rapezo ida l , r ec tangu lar o r p o lygona l . P o lygona l i st he mos t c ommon . T he p rof i le o ft he v entra l s u rfa ce i su sua l ly f l a t , w i th s ome e xamp les o fc urved a nd t w is ted p rof i les . T he b ase i sa b rup t ly r e tou ched , d i rec t o r b ip o lar o n a n a nv i l . I ti ss ome t imes t h inned b y i nverse r e tou ch . When t he b ase i sn o t r e touched i ti ss ome t imes f o rmed b y a b reak , ab u t t ( f ig . 1 ,n o . 4 ) o r ah inge f r a c ture ( f ig . 1 ,n o . 5 ) . T he o r ien ta t ion o ft he t o o l i s i ndependent o f t he b lank a x is . 2 5% o f t he b ases a re f ormed o n t he p rox ima l e nds o f b lanks , 2 . 6% o n t he d i s ta l a nd r ema inder a re i ndeterm ina te . T he d imens ions o f t he b orers a re v ery r egu lar h av ing am ean l eng th o f1 6 .7mm , w id th 5 . 7mm a nd t h i ckness o f 3 . 2 mm . T he l eng th /w id th r a t io h as a n a verage o f3 . 1 , a nd t he w id th / th icknes s r a t io i s 1 . 8 .T o c on t ro lt he l e ng th o ft he t o o ls an umber o ft e chn iques w ere u sed . 2— T echno log ica l p ro ce s ses o f manuf ac tur e T he f i rs t s t eps o ft he manu fa c ture o ft he m icro -borers c anno t a lway s b e s e en o n t he t o o ls t hemse lves , a nd t h e t e chno log ica l p rocesses w ere r e cons tru c ted f r om t he f r agmen ts o fb lades a nd t he b y -produ c ts o f manuf a c tu re . More t han o ne h undred o ft hese b y -produ c t s w ere f ound i nt he s amp le s tud ied . 7 3

T he mos t f r equent t e chno log ica l f ea tures s een o n b lade f r agments a re e v idence f o r b reakage o n a n a nv i l ;t he v entra l s urface s hows a mark o f i mpact , a nd t he d orsa l s urfa ce h as t ra ces o f c ru sh ing o n t he r i dges w i th r ad iant m icro -cracks . T h is k ind o f b reakage , w h ich c an b e o bserved o n b oth d i s ta l a nd p rox ima l b lade f ragmen ts , i s n ot p repared b y an o t ch . S omet imes t he b lank w as b roken b ef ore t he t oo l w as p roper ly r e touched . T h is f i rst p rocess o c curs o n ag ood p ercen tag e o f t he b roken b lanks ( abou t 2 0% ) . T he b lanks b roken d ur ing t he c o re r edu c t ion p roce ss w ere p robab ly u sed a s w e l l . I n o ther c ases , t he b reakage i sc ont ro l led b y an ot ch , d i rect o ri nverse ( f ig 1 ,n o . 9a nd 1 0 ) , o r b y t wo n ot ches ( f ig . 1 ,n o . 1 3 ) . T he b reakage i sp erpend icu lar t o t he a x is o ft he b lank , u n l ike t he o b l ique b reaks t ha t o c cu r w i th m icro -bur in t e chn ique . T h is i si n o rder t o make t he a brup t o rb ipo lar r e tou ch o ft he s t ra ight b ase e as ier ( f ig . 1 ,n o . 7 ) . On s ome o ft he b y p roduc ts , t he d if erence b etween r e touched n o t ches a nd b ack ing r e touch i sd if i cu lt t o d i s t ingu ish ( f ig . 1 ,n o . 8 ,1 , 1 2 ) . T he s e cond most f r equen t t e chno log ica l p rocess i st he manufa c ture o fm i cro -borers o n b lanks b y b a ck ing t he e dges b ef ore b reakage o n a n a nv i l ( f ig . 1 , n o . 1 7 a nd 1 8 ) . S omet imes t he b low i s s o h ard t ha t t he p repared b lank may b e b roken i n s evera l f r agment s ( f ig . 1 ,n o . 1 4 , 1 5 a nd 1 6 ) . I ti sa l so p oss ib le t of i nd o n t he s ame f r agment a n o t ch a nd a s ma l l p ar t o ft he b acked e dge ( f ig . 1 ,n o . 1 9 ) . S ome b lade lets w ere r e jec ted b ef ore t he e dges w ere e n t ire ly r e tou ched . E xper imen ta l r ep l icat ion o f t hese v ar iou s t e chn iques d emons tra ted t ha t t he e as iest w ay w as t o b ack t he e dge b ef ore b reak ing t he b lank o n a n a nv i l .

S uppo sed f unc t ion o ft he m icro -bor er s I ti sa n a dvantage i ft he t e chno log ica l s tudy p repa res t he g round f o r t he m icro -wear a na lyst , w ho may c onf irm o r r e jec t a n h ypothes is p roposed b y t he t echno log ist . A c o l labora t ion b etween t hem i s o f g rea t i n terest . T he m orpho logy o f t he t o o l a nd t he manuf a c tur ing p rocesses may i nd icat e t he w ay i nw h ich t he t o o l w as u sed . F or t he m icro b orers o f Kumar tepe , t he p rev iou s o bserva t ions a nd t he e v idence f r om t he b eads s ugg es t t ha tt hese t o o ls w ere u sed a sd r i l l -b i ts . T he s hape o ft he t o o ls s ugges ts t ha t t hey c ou ld h ave b een h af t ed i n aw ooden d owe l a nd u sed w ith a r o tary mot ion . T h is h ypothes is i ss ugges ted b y t he morpho logy o f t he m ic ro -borer s t hemse lves . T he p ara l le l e dg es o ft he b ody , t he p o ints b e ing c en t red o n t he a x is o ft he b ody , t he l a t era l p rof i le f o rmed b y t he t wo p ara l le l f a ces o ft he b lank a nd t he a brup t s hape o ft he b ase c omb ine t og ive t he t o o l ag ood b a lance . S u ch a n o b ject c an b e i nserted i n to a w ooden d owe l a nd u sed w i th t he m in imum r i sk o f b reakage . T he t r ansversa l s e c t ion o ft he b ody , w h ich i sa lway s w ider t han i ti st h ick , p reven t s t he t o o l f r om mov ing i n t he d owe l . T he t i p , w hen i ti sp oss ib le t om ea sure i t ,i st he o n ly p ar t o ft he t o o l wh ich h as a c i r cu lar s e c t ion . S ome o f t he d r i l l -b i t s a re v ery l o ng a nd t h in w i th a r ounded s e c t ion a nd may h ave b een u sed a s r eamers . F ina l ly , s ome d r i l l -b it s w ith b ur in l i ke b reakages may h ave b een u sed a s p unches . P erhaps t he d r i l l b i t s w ere u sed t od eta ch t he c on ica l f l akes ( f ig . 2 ,n o . 7 d ) , w h ich i st he s e cond s t ep i nt he p er f ora t ion o ft he h o le .

Manufac ture o f t he b eads A s s een a bove , t he b eads w ere made o fc o rne l ian . T he s our ce i s n o t k nown , b u t t h is s t one i sn ot r are i n T urkey . I n t he w orkshop , t he b locks o f c orne l ian a re s ma l l ( never m ore t han 8 0 mm l ong ) ;t here a re c hunks , f r agments w ith n a tura l b reakages , c ores a nd

7 4

f l akes . The b eads a re n o tn umerous a nd m os t a re b roken , b u ti ti sp oss ib le t or e cons tru c t t he manufa c tur ing p rocess . T he mos t i mpor tant morpho log ica l c harac ter is t ic o f t he b lanks i s t ha t t he v ent ra l a nd d orsa l s urf aces mus t b e p ara l le l . I n o rder t o g et s ma l l f l ak es , t he l ap idar ies o fK umar tepe u sed d if erent c o re r edu ct ion t e chn iques w h ich d o n o t s e em t ob e s y s tema t ic . T here i so ne c o rne l ian c o re o fd i sco ida l t ype i n t he s amp le s tud ied ( f ig . 2 , n o . 5 ) . T hese f l akes w ere manufac tured i n to d i sks b y a brupt o r s em i -abrupt r e tou ch , a lways d i rect . T he d imens ions o ft hese d i s cs a re b etween 7t o1 0mm i n d iame ter a nd b etween 3t o 4mm i nt h ickness . T he p erf ora t ion o ft he h o le w as a lway s b egun o n t he v en t ra l s ur face o f t he b lank ( f ig . 2 , n o . 7 a ,b ,c ) . T he h o le i s made i n t wo s tages , 1 ) t he p er f orat ion o fh a lf t he t h ickness o f t he d i sc a nd 2 ) t he d e tachment o f as ma l l c on ica l f l ake . The a na lys is o ft he m icro -wear t ra ces w as d one t o s t a te p rec ise ly t he p er f ora t ing p rocesses .

Funct iona l a na lys is T he m icrowear a na lys is o f t he m icro -borers w as d es igned t o a nswer o ne ma jor q ues t ion . Tha t was w he ther o r n o t s ome f o rm o f mechan ica l d r i l l ing w as i nvo lved i n t he manufacture o f t he c orne l ian b eads . T h is s tudy w as c arr ied o u t i n t wo s t ages . F irs t a s amp le o f t he m icro -borers was e xam ined a nd t he w ear • t races r ecorded a nd p ho tog raphed . T hen a s ma l l e xper imenta l p rog ramme was c arr ied o u t t o t ry a nd r ep l i ca te t he w ear t ra ces p resen t o n t he a r chaeo log ica l ma ter ia l . I t h as b een d emons tra ted t ha t c orne l ian b eads c an b e p erf ora ted b y ap unch t e chn ique ( Cheva l ier , I n i zan a nd T ix ier 1 982 ) , t ha t d oes n o t i nvo lve d r i l l ing a t a l l . S o t he e xper imenta l p rogramme i n c luded a t tempt s t o r ep l ica te t h is p unch t e chn ique a s w e l l a s u s ing a mechan ica l d r i l l ing a c t ion . I n f a c t t he p re l im inary a t tempts t o p unch a h o le t hrough c orne l ian b y u s ing r ep l icas o f t he d r i l l b i t s a nd s t r ik ing t hem w i th a w ooden h ammer p roved u nsu cce ssfu l . T he d r i l l b i t r ep l icas b roke a lmos t i mmed ia te ly , w i th in t wo o r t hree b l ows . T he b reakage c ons is ted o fe i ther a l a rge b ur in t ype b reak o ver t he e n t ir e l eng th o ft he t o o l , o rt he d r i l lb i t s w ere c omp let e ly s ha t tered . T he p ene t ra t ion o ft he c o rne l ian w as m in ima l . When t he d r i l l b i t s w ere h af t ed a nd u sed w ith a b ow d r i l l t he r esu l ts w ere more s a t is fa c tory . T he i n it ia l d if i cu lty w as i n c entr ing t he d r i l l b i t , b ecau se i th a s at endency t os k id away u nt i l as ma l li ndenta t ion h as b een c r eat ed . Once t he d r i l l b i ti ss ea ted o n t he s ur f a ce o f t he c orne l ian , d r i l l ing c an p roceed q u i te s moo th ly . Dur ing t he e xper imenta l p rog ram me i tw as o bserved t ha t t he more p o inted , n arrower d r i l l b i ts t ended t o b reak , e i ther i nt he f o rm o fb u r in b reaks a tt he t i p o rt he w ho le t i pb reak ing a way . T he b lunter t i pped d r i l ls t ended t o w ork m ore ef i c ient ly a nd c ou ld a ch ieve a p ene t ra t ion o f 1mm i n1 0m inu tes . I tw as f u r ther n ot ed t ha tt he a dd it ion o fs and p la ced i n t he h o le a c ted a s a n a bra s ive a nd d ecreased t he amount o ft ime n ecessary t o a ch ieve t he d es ired d epth o f p enet ra t ion . M icrowear a na lys is o f t he e xper imenta l d r i l l b i ts d emonstra ted t ha t t he r e su lt ing w ear t races b ore a r emarkab le s im i lar ity t o t he w ear t r a ces o bserved o n t he a r chaeo log ica l s pec imens ( f ig . 3 a -d ) . A l l o f t he e xper imenta l d r i l l b i ts e xh ib i ted t he r ound ing , p o l ish a nd c i r cu lar s t r ia t ion p a t tern . O f ten t he r ound ing w ou ld f o rm a nd t hen b reak a way l e av ing s ma l l a r eas o fp o l ish w i th s t r ia t ions o n t he s i des o ft he d r i l lb i t s , mos to ft he t i ph av ing b een l o s t . T h is w as a l so o bserved o n t he a r chaeo log i ca l d r i l l b i ts ( f ig . 4 a ,b ) .

7 5

A

B F ig . 3: aa nd b :A rchaeo log ica l d r i l l t i ps . ;ca nd d : E xper imenta l d r i l l t i ps . ( magn if icat ion 1 00x ) . 7 6

C

D

7 7

A

B F ig . 4 : aa nd b : S ide v i ew o f a rchaeo log ica l d r i l l t i ps . ( magn if icat ion 1 00x ) . 7 8

H av ing e s tab l ished t he k ind o f w ear t races p rodu ced b y d r i l l ing a nd b y p unch t e chn iques , al a rger s amp le o f d r i l l b i ts w as a na lysed . I n a l l 5 18 d r i l l b i t s h ave b een e xam ined m icroscop ica l ly . 6 2 o ft hese h ave b een e xam ined i n g rea t d eta i l . T ha t i s , e very a rea f r om t he t i p t o t he b a se o n b o th s urf aces h as b een s c ru t in ised , d rawn , a nd a l l w ear t ra ce s n oted . T he r ema inde rh ave b een e xam ined a t magn if i ca t ions o fu p t o2 00x , t hough 1 00x w as u sua l ly s uf i c ien tt on ote a ny w ear t r ace . O bserva t ion w as c oncentra ted o n t he t i ps . O f t he 6 2 s ubm it ted t o af u l l d eta i led a na lys is , 3 8 h ad e i ther r ound ing p o l ish o r c i r cu la r s t r ia t ions o r ac omb ina t ion o ft hese f ea tures . T h is i nd ica tes t ha t t hey w ere u sed w ith a mechan ica l d r i l l , a s t he w ear t races w ere t he s ame a s t hose f ound o n t he e xper imenta l d r i l l b i ts u sed w i th ab ow d r i l l . 7h ad t he ir t i ps b roken o f , a nd s o n o t r a ces c ou ld b e o bserved . T he r ema in ing 1 7 h ad b reaks a t t he t i ps t ha t meant o n ly t he v ery t i p w a s i n ta ct c ons t itu t ing a rea s t ha t w ere t o o s ma l l o n wh ich t o make r e l iab le o bserva t ions . O ft h e 4 56 e xam ined m icroscop ica l ly , b u t n ot i n d e ta i l , 1 26 h ad c l ear t ra ces o fp o l ish , r ound ing o r c i r cu lar s t r ia t ions , s o t ha t o ft he t o ta l s amp le o f5 18 , 3 1% h ad e v idence o f b e ing u sed i n amechan i ca l d r i l l . Mos to ft he r es to ft he d r i l lb i t sh ad t he ir t i ps r emoved b y b reakag e wh ich w as c ons is tant w i th t he b reakage p a t terns s een o n t he e xper imen ta l d r i l l b i ts . E i ther t he t i ps c omp le te ly b roke o fo rt o rs ion b reaks o c curred t ha t r emoved s o mu ch o ft h e t i p t ha t p o l ish a nd s t r ia t ions w ou ld n o t r ema in . Af ew d r i l l b i ts h ad f l u t ing o rb ur in t ype b reaks p robab ly r e su l t ing f r om u se a s p unches . F u r ther e v idence o ft he u se o f a mechan ica l d r i l l w as p rov ided b y t he m icros cop ic e xam ina t ion o f t he c orne l ian b ead b lanks . 3 1 p ar t ia l ly p er f ora ted b ead b lanks w ere e xam ined , o ft hese ac l ear d if eren t ia t ion c ou ld b e made b e tween t hose t ha tb roke d ur ing t he i n i t ia l p eck ing o ft he b l anks a nd t hose t ha t b roke d ur ing d r i l l ing . 2 0 o ft he b roken b lanks e xh ib ited t races o f p eck ing o n ly . T ha t i s , c oncho ida l f racture s cars a nd a n i r regu lar o u t l ine t o t he h o le . T he d ep th o ft he h o les r anged f r om 0 . 07 t o 0 . 27 mm . T he 7b lanks t hat b roke d ur ing d r i l l ing h ad c i r cu lar h o les o fr egu lar o u t l ine w ith s t r ia t ions a round t he r im o ft he h o les a s w e l l a s i nt he h o le ( f ig . 5 ) .

F ig . 5 : S t r ia t ions a round t he s ur f ace o ft he b ead p er f ora t ion . ( magn if ica t ion 1 00x ) . 7 9

T he c r oss s e c t ion o f t he b lanks w as c on ica l a nd e x treme ly r egu lar . T here w ere 3b lanks t ha th ad b een d r i l led a nd t hen a bandoned , e ven t hough t hey w ere u nb roken . T he b ases o ft he h o les o ft hese b lanks w ere o bservab le a nd ma t ched t he s i ze o ft h e t i ps o ft h e d r i l l b i ts , a nd w ere p o l ished i n t he s ame w ay . T he d ep th o ft he h o les c r ea t ed b y d r i l l ing r anged f r om 0 . 92 t o 1 . 3 mm . O ne u nbroken b lank w a s a bandoned a f ter p e ck ing o n ly . O ther e v idence f o r t he d r i l l b i ts b e ing u sed i n am echan ica l d r i l l i st he p r esence o fa r e s idue o n 4 0 o ft he 6 2 d r i l l b i ts e xam ined i n d eta i l . T he r e s idue a ppears t ob e s ome k ind o f mast ic a nd i sp redom inant ly o n t he b ase e nd o f t he b i ts a nd p oss ib ly r epresen t s a r es idua l mas t ic u sed f o rh af t ing t he d r i l l b i ts . O f1 9 p i er cers e xam ined o n ly 2h ad s po t s o f r es idue o n t hem a nd n o w aste f l akes h ad a ny o f t he r e s idue . T h is i nd ica tes t ha t t he r e s idue i sn o t an a tura l d epos i tf ound o n t he s i te , b u t i t s e x is tence o n t he d r i l lb i ts s ugg e s t i t s p resence i sd ue t o h uman a c t iv i ty . T he r es idua l ma t er ia l i sb e ing a na ly sed a nd i t s c ons t ituents may c l ar ify w he ther o r n o t t he r e s idue i s ama ter ia l s u itab le f o rh af t ing t h e d r i l l b i ts . T hese o bservat ions o f t he d r i l l b i ts a nd t he c a rne l ian b ead b lanks a low f o r t h e r econstru c t ion o f t he t e chn ique u sed i n p erf ora t ing t he b eads . A f ter t he b l anks w ere p repared p eck ing w ou ld h ave b een u sed t op rov ide as l ight i ndenta t ion i n t h e c ent re o ft h e b lank , ( t he ma jor ity o ft he b lanks b roke a t t h is s t ag e i . e . when a p ercuss ive a ct ion w a s b e ing u sed ) . T he i ndenta t ion w ou ld t hen a l low t he d r i l l t o b e p la ced i n p o s i t ion a t t h e c ent re o ft he b lank w i thou t s k idd ing a way a cross t he s urf a ce . D r i l l ing w ou ld t h en b e u sed t op erf ora te a pprox ima te ly h a lf w ay t hrough t he b lank . T he c omp let ion o ft h e p erf ora t ion s eems t oh ave b een a ch ieved b y t he r emova l o f ac on i ca l f l ake a s s uggested b y C heva l ie r , I n izan a nd T ix ier ( 1982 , f i g . 1 ) . T ha t i s ad r i l l b i t i s p laced i n t he h o le a nd s t ru ck , p roduc ing a c on ica l f r ac ture s car , a nd t h is c omp le tes t he p erf orat ion . T here i s o ne e xamp le o f ab roken b lank t ha t w as d r i l led t o ad ep th o f0 . 92 mm a nd t hen b roke d ur ing t he f i na l b l ow i n tended t o r emove t he c on ica l f l ake . 5c on ica l f l akes w ere r ecovered d ur ing t h is a na lys is . Unf or tuna te ly n o c omp lete b eads h ave b een r ecovered s o t ha t w e h ave n o i n f orma t ion o n t he f i na l p o l ish ing o ft he b ead s . T hese r esu lt s a re b ased o n ap re l im inary e xper imenta l p rogramme . F ur ther e xper imenta t ion w i l l b e c arr ied o u t u s ing d r i l l b i t r ep l icas o n av ar ie ty o f mater ia ls . T h is w i l l b e t o t e s t w he ther i ti sp oss ib le t o c r ea t e s im i lar w ea r t races t ot hose o n t h e a r chaeo log ica l ma ter ia l b y u se o n o ther ma ter ia ls r a ther t han h ard s t one l i ke c orne l ian . Kumar tepe i s ar are e xamp le o f ab ead w orkshop b ecau se o fi t s e ar ly d a te a nd t he h ug e c oncentrat ion o f a l l t he ma ter ia ls r equ ired f o r t he manufacture o f b eads . S im i lar t e chn iques f o r t he p roduc t ion o f m icro -borer b lanks a re f ound e l sewhere . More s ys tema t ic u se o f b ur in t e chn ique i sf ound i n t he A f r ican N eo l ith ic o f t he G oa r eg ion ( Lho te 1 942 , 1 943 ) a nd i n Ma l i ( Gaussen M . a nd J .1 965 ) , o r i n t he t h ird m i l lenn ium i n I ran a t T epe H isar ( Bu lgare l l i 1 974 ) . T here i sn o e v idence o f t h is t echn ique a t L ar sa ( Cheva l ier e ta l 1 982 ) o r a t A bu S a lab ikh ( Ung er -Ham i lt on e ta l i np ress ) i nI r aq , w her e t he d eb i tag e i sb y p ressure f l ak ing . T he morpho logy o ft he d r i l l b i t s i sc omparab le t o t ha t a t L arsa a nd T epe H isar , b e ing s hor t a nd a brup t ly r e tou ched w ith s l igh t ly s hou ldered t i ps . T he a bsence o fa ny c omp lete b ead a nd t he p resence o ft housands o fd r i l l b its a nd l a rge amount s o f c o rne l ian d ebr is i n s uch a s ma l l a rea a t Kumar tepe s ugg e st t ha t t h e ma ter ia l r epresent s as pec ia l is t b ead manuf ac tur ing s i te . T he a uthors w ou ld l i ke t o a cknow ledge t he i nva luab le a dv ice a nd a s s istance o f J a cob R oodenberg , o ft he D u t ch I ns t i tu te o fA r chaeo logy , I s tanbu l .

8 0

The t e chno log ica l s tudy was s uppor ted b y ag rant o ft he M in istbre d es R e la t ions E x ter ieures f ran9a is .

B IBLIOGRAPHY CAUVIN , ( J . ) , 1 968 .— L es o u t i l lag es n do l i th iques d e B yb los e t d u l i t tora l l i bana is ( f ou i l les d e B yb los , 4 ) . P ar is: Ma isonneuve . CHEVAL IER , ( J . ) , I NIZAN , ( M . -L . ) a nd T IX IER , (J . ) , 1 982 .—

Une t echn ique d e

p erf orat ion p ar p ercuss ion d e p er les e n c orna l ine ( Larsa , I raq ) . P a lgor ien t ,

8 (2 ) :

5 5 -65 . LHOTE , ( H ) , 1 942 .— D ecouvert e d 'un a te l ier d e p er les n eo l ith iques d ans l ar eg ion d e Gao ( Soudan f ranca is ) . Bu l le t in d e l a S oc id tg P rgh is tor ique F ranea ise 3 9 :2 77 -297 . LHOTE , ( H . ) , 1 943 .— D ecouver te d 'un a te l ier d e p er les n eo l ith iques d ans l a r eg ion d e Gao ( Soudan f ranca is ) . ( su ite e t f i n ) . Bu l le t in d e l a S oc ig tg P rgh is tor ique F rança ise 4 0 :2 4 -35 . ROOD ENBERG , ( J .J . ) , WILK INSON , ( J .J . ) a nd BAYR I -BAYKAN , ( S . ) , 1 984 .— S urveys a nd s ound ing s a t Kumar tepe :a n i n ter im r epor t . Ana to l ica 1 1 :1 16 . UNGER -HAMILTON , ( R . ) , GRACE , ( R .) , MILLER„ ( R .) a nd BERGMAN , ( C . ) ( ä p ara itre ) . D r i l l b i ts f r om A bu S a lab ikh , I raq . T ab le r onde d u CNRS . Manches a nd emmanchemen ts p r gh is tor iques . L yon Ma ison d e l 'Or ien t ( 27 -29 n ovembre 1 984 ) .

8 1

A PRELIMINARY STUDY OF UPSILON BLADES: A LOOK AT A NE W TOOL TYPE

K a th ryn ATA MAN *a nd S y lv ie CALLEY *

ABSTRACT :

Ag roup o ft oo ls mad e o n u ps i lon b lades f r om Hayaz Höyük w ere t he o b jec t o f ap re l im inary f unc t iona l s tudy . T he p o l ish o n t he t oo ls e xam ined was p robab ly t he r esu lt o f p os t -depos i t iona l p ro cesses . F or t h is r eason e dge d amage a nd e xper imenta l r ep l ica t ion a nd u se w ere p r imar i ly emp loyed i n t he r econs truct ion o ft he f un c t ion o ft hese t oo ls . E xper imen t s s howed t ha t t he b reakag e p a t terns p rodu ced b yu se a s ap ro jec t i le p o in tb es t ma t ched t hose o n t he a r chaeo log ica lp i eces . R t sum t : Que lques o u t i ls s ur l ames u ps i lon d e Hayaz Höyük o n t f a it l ' ob je t d 'une e tude f onc t ionne l le p re l im ina ire . L es p o l is v i s ib les s ur l e s o ut i ls e xam ines s e s on t p robab lement f o rmes a präs l eur a bandon . P our c e t te r a ison , o n ae ssen t ie l lemen to bserve l ' a spec t d es e ca i l lemen ts s ur l e sb ords e to n af a it q ue lques e xper iences p our t enter d e r etrouver l ' usage d es o ut i ls p reh istor iques . L es e xper iences montren t q ue l e s c assures o b tenues e n u t i l isan t d es o u t i ls e xper imentaux c omme a rma tures d e f l äches s en tt r äs p ro ches d e c e l les q ue l ' on o bserve s ur o u t i ls p reh is tor iques .

A s d emons tra ted b yt he p aper s i nt h is v o lume , i ta ppears t ha t a s m icrowear s tud ies p ro l if erate , m icrowear a na lys ts a re b ecom ing more a ware t ha t c a refu l s e lec t ion s hou ld b e e xer c ised i nt he c ho i ce o ft op ics f o r e xam ina t ion w ith t h is t e chn ique . I ti sn ow c l ear t ha t i nm os t c ases a ssemb lage s c anno tb e s tud ied i ne n t ire ty . One t ype o fs tudy a ppropr ia te f o r e xam inat ion b y m icrowear i so ne wh ich i sl im ited i n s c ope , f o r e xamp le t he s tudy o f a s i ng le t oo l t ype . As tudy o ft h is t ype a t t emp t s t ol e arn a bou t s pec if ic a c t iv i t ies t ak ing p la ce a t ap art icu lar t ime a nd p lace , t he r e la t ionsh ip b etween t he f o rm a nd f unct ion o f p a r t i cu lar t oo ls a nd p erhaps t os hed s ome l i ght o n more g enera lb ehav iour p a t t erns . F rom t he A ceram ic N eo l i th ic l e ve ls o ft he s i te o f Haya z H öyük , l o ca ted o n t he r i ght b ank o ft he E uphra tes i n s ou theas tern T urkey a pprox ima te ly 4 0 km . S ou th o ft he c i ty A d iyaman , at o o l t ype p rev ious ly u nrecogn ized wa s f ound t ob e o ne o ft he mos t n umerous t oo l t ypes ( a long w ith p o ints a nd r etouched b lades ) i n t he v ery l a rge a ssemb lage ( Roodenberg 1 979 -80 ) ( s ee f i g . l a n os . 9 12 ) . T he e xcava ted a reas o f t he N eo l i th ic o c cupa t ion o ft he s i te , w h ich w as e xcava ted b y J .J .R oodenberg o ft he Du t ch H is tor ica l a nd A rchaeo log ica l I nst i tute i n I nstanbu l , i nc lude a l a rge f l int -work ing a rea where h ug e q uant it ies o fd eb i tag e h ave b een r e covered . Mos t o ft h is ma ter ia l i n c lud ing t he t o o ls t ob e d i scussed h ere , i s made o ff i ne -g ra ined f l int .

I n s t i tu te o fA rchaeo logy , 3 1 -34 G ordon S quar e , L ondon WC1 H OPY ,G rand eB r e tagne . **

URA 1 7 , d u CRA d u CNRS , Ma ison d e l 'Or ien t mgd i terrangen , 7r ue Rau l in , 6 9007 L yon F rance .

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F ig . 1: a ) T oo ls f r om Hayaz Höyük ;n os . 1 -8 p o ints , n os . 9 -12 u ps i lon b lade t o o ls . S ca le 1 :2 . ( af ter R oodenberg 1 979 -80 ) ;b ) Meta l p ro ject i le p o ints f r om v ar ious s i tes i n c entra l A s ia . S ca le n ot p rov ided ( af t er S aeko 1 980 ) . 8 4

T he t o o l t o b e d i scussed i n t h is p aper h as b een n amed a n u ps i lon b lade f o r t he Y s haped c onf igu ra t ion o fr i dges w h ich o f t en o c cur o n t he d orsa l f a ce . I ti s made o n ab lade l i ke f l ake whose e dges g enera l ly e xpand a tt he d i s ta l e nd a nd i ti si nverse ly r e touched o n t he p rox ima l e nds o ft he l a t era l e dges . T he d i s ta l e nds o ft hese p i eces a re v ery t h in a nd o f ten c oncave . T he s hape o ft he t o o l i su nusua l a nd t hough c l ear ly made o n ab ipo lar c o re , u nt i l c a refu l a na lys is o ft he d eb itag e i sc omp let ed w e c annot s ay d ef in i te ly whether t he b lanks f o r t hese t oo ls w ere p roduced d e l iberat e ly o r w ere mere ly t he b y -produ cts o f ap ar t icu lar c o re r educ t ion t e chn ique ( s ee d i scuss ion C a l ley a nd A taman 1 987 ) . T he b lanks o n w h ich t hese t o o ls w ere made h ave b een f ound a t an umber o fs i t es i nt he a rea b u ta sf a ra sw e a re a wa re a re n ever e l sewhere c ommon ly made i n to t h is t ype o f t oo l . A t C af er H öyük , a no ther A ceram ic N eo l i th ic s i te i n s ou theas tern T urkey , t hey a re f ound made o fo bs id ian a nd a re r etouched i n t o t o o ls s ome t imes r ef erred t o a s s t rangu la ted b lades ( Cauv in a nd B a lkan 1 985 ,f i g . 4 ,n o . 4 ) .I ti sp oss ib le t ha ta ts ome s i t es u ps i lon b lades a re b y -produ c t s o f b ipo lar f l ak ing wh i le a t o thers t hey w ere p roduced d e l iberat e ly , b u t a t Hayaz , t hough a lmos t a l l o ft he u ps i lon b lade b lanks p rodu ced w ere r e touched , a l l w e c an s ay i st ha t t hese b lanks w ere d e l ib erate ly s e lected f o r t he manufac ture o f t h is p art icu lar t o o l , p oss ib ly f o r o ne s pec if i c u se . A g roup o f t hese p ieces f r om Hayaz h as b een e xam ined f o r u se -wear t ra ces . M icros cop ic e xam ina t ion , a t magn if ica t ions o f x 100 a nd x 200 w as c arr ied o ut o n a s amp le o f t h ir ty -three o f t hese p i eces . D isappo int ing ly , f ew u se -wear t races c ou ld b e o b served . A l l o ft he p i e ces e xam ined h ad b een a f ec ted b y p os t -depos it iona l p rocesses a nd w ere c overed w i th v ary ing amount s o fp o l ish w h ich c ou ld n o t b e d i s t ingu ished f r om u se w ear t r aces ( p la te l a ) , s o t he a ppearance a nd d i s tr ibu t ion o ft he p o l ish c annot h e lp t o d et erm ine t he f unct ion o ft hese t o o ls . S ince t h is s eems t o b e ac ommon p rob lem w hen d ea l ing w ith N ear E a ste rn ma ter ia l i t may b e u sefu l t o d i scuss a l ternat ive ways o f a pproa ch ing t he q ues t ion o ff unc t ion i n s uch c ases . S ince t he t o o ls d o make u p al a rge p e r cen tage o ft he t o o la ssemb lag e a nd b ecause t hey h ave n o tb een r epor t ed f r om o ther s i tes , w ew an ted t ol e arn a s mu ch w ec ou ld a bou tt he p oss ib le f unc t ion o rf unc t ions o ft hese t o o ls . T h is w as a t tempted b y t he c arefu l e xam inat ion o f a dd it iona l m icroscop ic a nd ma cros cop ic c hara cter is t ic s o ft he p i eces . T hough t he a ppearance a nd d i s tr ibu t ion o f t he p o l ish c ou ld n o t b e u sed i n a f unc t iona l r econstruc t ion , i n s ome c ases , s t r ia t ions a nd l i near f ea tures ( p la te l b ) c ou ld b e o bserved o n t he t o o l s urf aces . F rom t he ir a ppearance u nder t he m icroscope , i ti sn o t c l ea r w hether o rn ot t hese s t r ia t ions w ere c aused b y t he s ame p os t -depos i t iona l p rocesses w h ich p roduced t he p o l ish es . T he ir d i s t r ibu t ion h owever , p rov ides u s w ith s l ight ly more i n f orma t ion . I n mos t c a ses t hese s t r ia t ions w ere l o cat ed n ear t he d i s ta l e dges o ft he t o o ls ( f ig . 2 b ) . I f p ost -depos it iona l p rocesses w ere r espons ib le f o r t he p resence o f t hese s t r ia t ions , o ne w ou ld e xpe c t t ha t t hey w ou ld b e more r andom i n d i s tr ibu t ion . I n a dd i t ion , m os to ft he s t r ia t ions h ad t he s ame g enera l o r ienta t ion , t ha ti sp erpend icu lar t ot he d i s ta l e nd o f t he t oo l . T he l o ca l ized d i s tr ibu t ion a nd g enera l ly u n if orm o r ienta t ion o f t he s t r ia t ions s ugg es tt ha tm os to ft hese f ea tu res w ere t he r e su l to fu se . E xam ina t ion o ft he r e t ou ched e dges ( l a tera l e dges )s howed t hem t ob e q u i te s harp a nd u nworn . I ts e ems u n l ike ly t ha tt hese e dg es c ons t i tu t ed t he w ork ing e dges o ft he t o o ls . A t magn if i ca t ions o fa t l e as t x 100 , ab lack s ubstance c ou ld b e s een a dher ing t o t he e dg es o f af ew p i eces . I tw a s n o t d i s t r ibu ted i na ny n o t iceab le p a t tern . T h is s ubs tance w as s h iny i n a ppearance , w as u naf f ec ted b y s oak ing i n w a ter o r a l coho l a nd c ou ld n ot b e r emoved b y r ubb ing w i th a n a l coho l -soaked c o t ton s wab . A f ter s oak ing i n a cetone f o r 8 5

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P la te 1 : a )T yp ica l p o l ish s een o n u ps i lon b lade t oo ls f r om Hayaz , i nterpreted a s p os t d epos it iona l ( o r ig ina l magn if icat ion x 1 00; b ) L inear f eatures o n t he d i s ta l e dge o f t oo l s hown i n f i g . 2 b ( o r ig ina l magn if icat ion x 1 00 ) ;c )E xper imenta l u ps i lon b lade t o o l h af ted o n a rrowshaf tw ith r es in a nd b eeswax .

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F ig . 2: a ,b ,c , )A rchaeo log i ca l u ps i lon b lade t oo ls f r om Hayaz s how ing p oss ib le i mpa ct f rac tures :a ,b )f l u t ing f ra ctures ( a rrow o n bs hows l o ca t ion o f m icroscop ic s t r ia t ions i n e xaggerated s ca le ) , c )b ur in l ike f r ac ture .; d , e ,f , ) E xper imenta l u ps i lon b lade t o o ls s hot a s p ro jec t i les ;g ,h )T oo ls made o n u ps i lon b lade b lanks f r om J er icho ( a f ter C rowf oo t -Payne 1 983 ) ;a f ) d rawn a t 1 : 1 .

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4 5 m inu tes h owever , s ome o f t he s ubs tance h ad a ppa rent ly d i sso lved . A na lys is o ft h is s ubs tance w i l l b e c onduc ted t od e term ine w he ther i tp oss ib ly c ons is t s o fr es in o rb i tumen . T he p resence o f t he s t r ia t ions a nd l i near f ea tures , t he u nworn a ppea rance o ft he l a tera l e dges a nd t he f a c t t ha tt here may b e t r a ces o f mas t ic r es idues o n s ome o ft he t o o ls s uggest: 1 .— t ha tt he d i s ta l e nd w as t he w ork ing e dg e o ft h et o o l; 2 .— t ha t t he c omb ina t ion o fh ardness o fw orked ma ter ia l a nd f orce a pp l ied i n u se w as s uf f icent t oc ause s t r ia t ions ; 3 .— t ha tt he t o o lw as u sed i n amo t ion g enera l ly p a ra l le lt ot he a x is o ft h et oo l; 4 .— t ha ts ome o ft he t o o ls may h ave b een h af t ed . T he n ex t s t ep i n af unc t iona l a na lys is o f at o ta l ly u nfam i l iar t oo l t ype must b e t o e xam ine t he f unc t iona l c apab i l i ty o ft he w ork ing e dg e . I n t he c ase o ft hese u ps i lon b lade t o o ls f r om Hayaz H öyük , t he w ork ing e dge i s e xt reme ly f rag i le , w ith e dg e a ng les o f a pprox ima te ly 1 5 -25 d eg rees . T he s hape o f t he w o rk ing e dge i so f ten c oncave a nd t he e dges o n t he t o o ls a re a lmos t a lway s b roken . Ou t o ff i f t y p i eces e xam ined , o n ly f our w er e u nbroken . T he b reakage p a t tern o ft he e dg es o n as amp l e o ft he t o o ls was c l o se ly e xam ined , a nd a pprox ima te ly h a lf o ft hese h ad h inge t e rm inat ions wh ich i nd icated t he d i rec t ion o f t he f o rce c aus ing t he b reaks . T he f o rce w as e qua l ly d iv ided a s c om ing f r om t he v en t ra l a nd d orsa l s ur f aces o f t he t o o ls . T he e dges a re s o f r ag i le t ha t s ome o f t h em may h ave b roken a f ter d epos it ion o r d ur ing manufac ture ( i n f a c t , o ur r ep l icat ion e xper imen t s s howed t ha t t h is t ype o fb reakage c an o c cas iona l ly o c cur d ur ing manu fa c ture ) , b u t i t s e ems u n l ike ly t ha tt he v as t ma jor i ty o ft he p i eces w ou ld b e d amag ed t o t h is e x tent u n les s a tl e as ts ome o ft he b reakage w a sd ue t ou se . A dd it iona l t ypes o f b reakage w ere o bserved o n t hree e xamp les . T hese f ractures w ere l o ca ted o n t he d i s ta l e nds o f t he p ieces n ear t he l a tera l e dges a nd a l l o f t hem r e semb led f ra c tures wh ich h ave b een d es cr ibed e l sewhere a s b e ing t he r e su lt o fi mpa c t ( Bergman a nd N ewcomer 1 983 ) . Two o ft hese w ere f l u t ing f ra c tures ( f ig . 2 a , b ) a nd o ne w as a b ur in l ike f r ac ture ( f ig . 2 c ) . H owever , s i nce t hese b lades w ere d e tached f r om b ipo lar c ores , i ti sp oss ib le t ha t t he f r ac tures w ere c aused d ur ing manufa c tur e b ut d u r ing o ur r ep l ica t ion e xper iments n o s uch b reakage o c cur r ed . T he f ea tures n o ted a bove may s ugg es t s evera l a l t erna t ive u ses f o r t h ese t oo ls , t h e p oss ib i l it ies o f wh ich may b e e xam ined w ith e xper imen ta l r ep l icas . S ince t h is w ork h as o n ly j us t s t ar ted , w e h ave o n ly made af ew , n o t c omp let e ly s u cessfu l , a t temp t st or ep l i ca te t he t o o ls . C hr is B ergman , a n e xper ienced f l in tknapp er , d i d t he k napp ing a nd w as a b le t o make s ome o bserva t ions a bou t t he s hape o f t he c o re wh ich i sn ecessary , t he f l ak ing s equence e t c . H e b e l ieves t ha t w ith p rac t ice i tw ou ld b e p oss ib le t op rodu ce q uant it ies o f u ps i lon b lades w i thou t t o o much d if i cu l ty a nd t ha t as ma l l n umber o ft hese may o ccu r a s b y -produc ts i n t he d eb i tage o fb ipo lar f l ak ing i ndus tr ies . T he l a t ter o bserva t ion c an b e s uppor ted b y r ef erence t ot he i lus tra t ions i n s i t e r ep or t sf r om s ome Neo l i th ic s i t es i nt h e N ear E as t . O ccas iona l u ps i lon b lades a ppear r etouched i n to a v ar iety o f t oo ls . F or e xamp le , a tJ er icho t here i so ne r et ouched u ps i lon b lade d escr ibed a s ah o l low s c raper a nd a nother c a l led a g raver ( Crowf oot -Payne 1 983 :688 f i g . 3 18 n o . 1 , 6 93 f i g . 3 23 n o . 2 ) ( f ig . 2 g , h ) . T hree t ypes o fp re l im inary e xper iment s w ere c onduct ed w ith r ep l ica s o ft he u ps i lon b lade t o o ls f r om Hayaz . T he r ep l icas w ere a b i t mo re i r regu lar t han t he a r chaeo log i ca l 8 8

p i e ces b u tb ecause t he s hapes o ft he e dg es o ft he e xper imenta lt o o ls w ere v ery s im i lar t ot he o r ig ina ls w e f e l t i tw ou ld b e i nt eres t ing t o u se t hem i n af ew e xper imen ts t o t e st t he ir e f e c t iveness a nd b reakage p a tt erns . We c hose t asks w h ich w ou ld h ave b een c ommon d ur ing t he N eo l ith ic a nd wh ich s eemed p oss ib le t o e xecute w ith t he d i sta l e nds o f t he u ps i lon b lades . I n o ur f i rs t e xper iment , t he s hape a nd s harpness o f t he d i s ta l e nds o f t he a r chaeo log ica l p i eces s ugg es ted t he p oss ib i l i ty o fu se a s as c rap ing o r as hav ing t o o l t o s mooth o r s t ra igh ten a w ooden s t ick w ith a s ma l l d iameter . U s ing e x treme ly d ry w ood , t he t oo l , a f t er r e ce iv ing s ome i n it ia l e dge d amage , w as q u i te e f ec t ive i n i t s t a sk , b u t af t er o n ly f i ve m inu tes o fu se s howed c l ear r ound ing o ft he e dg e n ot o bservab le o n a ny o ft he t h ir ty three a rchaeo log ica l p i eces e xam ined . When f r esh w ood w as u sed , t he t o o l w as e x t reme ly e f ec t ive a t s c rap ing t he b a rk o f ag r een s t ick , a nd c ons id erab ly l e ss e dg e d amag e w as c aused t han w i th d ry w ood . I tw as a l so e f ec t ive a ts c rap ing t he w ood a f t er t he b ark h ad b een r emoved ,b u tc ou ld n o tb eu sed t o s harpen t he s t ick t o ap o int , t he e dge was j u st n ot s t rong e nough . W i th m icroscop ic e xam ina t ion a t x1 00 , r ound ing o ft he u sed e dg e , n o tp resent o n t he a r chaeo log ica l p i eces , c ou ld b e o bserved . T he s e cond e xper iment i nvo lved c u t t ing h ide . T h is t ask w as a l so s ugg es ted b y t he e x t r eme ly s harp b u tf r ag i le d i s ta l e nd o ft he t o o ls . I tc er ta in ly w ou ld n ot b e p oss ib le t oc u t a ny th ing h arder t han h ide w ith t hese t oo ls , a nd t he s hape o f t he d i sta l e nd makes i t =su i tab le f o r at ask s u ch a s s l ic ing mea t . T he t o o l w as a l so ef i c ient a t t h is t ask; a f t er e i gh tm inu t es , o ver 1 00 c m o fs t r ips o fd eersk in h ad b een c u t a nd t he e dge w as s t i l l s harp . T he r e touch d id f a c i l i tat e h o ld ing t he t oo l f i rm ly w ithou t c u t t ing t he f i ngers . O ne o ft he e dges s napped o f a s s e en i n many o ft he a rchaeo log ica l e xamp les b u t t he t o o l w as o n ly e f e c t ive i fu sed i n am o t ion p erpend icu lar r a ther t han p ara l le l t ot he a x is o ft he b lade . I f t he s t r ia t ions o bserved o n t he a r chaeo log ica l p i e ces w ere c aused b y u se , t h is w as p robab ly n o t t he o r ig ina l t ask t he t o o ls w ere u sed f o r . M icroscop ic e xam ina t ion s howed t ha t s ome e dge r ound ing h ad o c cu r red . T he f i na l s et o fe xper imen ts i nvo lved t he h af t ing o f t he b lades a nd t he ir u se a s p ro jec t i les . T he r e tou ch a nd p oss ib le mas t i c s uggest ed h af t ing a nd t he p oss ib le s t r ia t ions a nd i mpact f r actures s ugges ted u se a s ap ro ject i le . We k now t ha t h un t ing was a n i mpor tant a c t iv ity a t t he s i t e . E ight een p er cen t o ft he i d ent if iab le a n ima l b ones r e cover ed f r om t he Neo l i th ic l e ve ls h ave b een a t tr ibu ted t ow i ld s pec ies ( Bu i tenhu is 1 985 ) . We s ho t as ma l l n umber o fp i eces , o n ly f i ve b lades , a t at arg et s e t a t ad i stance o f 1 0m .T he b ow w as as e lf -bow made o fw ood w h ich d raw s 5 5l b s a t2 6 i n s . T he a r rows w ere h af t ed w i th am ix ture o fb eeswax a nd r es in a nd w ere w rapped w ith s i new ( s ee p la te 1 c ) . When s hot t hrough a f our i n ch t h ick c ompressed f oam t arget , t he d ep th t o wh ich t he u ps i lon b lades c ou ld p enetra te c ompared t o a meta l b road b lade t arget a rrow w as i mpr ess ive . T he p ene t ra t ion p er f ormance o ft he u ps i lon b lades w as b et ter t han t he me ta l t a rg e t a rrow . When s hot i nt o at a rge to f mea ta nd b one , o ft he 5a r rows 1b ounced o ft he t a rge ta nd w as l o st , 1r ema ined u nb roken a nd 3b roke a s t hey h i t b one . One o ft hese b roken p i eces s u s ta ined a b ur in l ike f r acture a nd o ne w as b roken i n to s evera l p i eces b u t a l l t hree h ad s napped o n e i ther o ne o rt wo c orners ( f ig . 2 d , e ,f ) , s im i la r t ot hose i n t he a r chaeo log ica l a ssemb lage . O n t hree o ft he p i eces s hot a s p ro je c t i les , s t r ia t ions a nd l i near f ea tures c ou ld b e o bserved o n t he d i s ta l e nds o ft he b lades . S ince t he p i eces w ere n o t e xam ined w i th t he 8 9

m icroscope b ef ore t hey w ere s hot a nd b ecause w e d id n ot t e s t t he e f ect o fs hoot ing i n to a f oam t arget , w e must b e c arefu l a bout a ny c onc lus ions d rawn f ro m t h is . However , e xper iments c onducted w ith t ransverse a rrowheads ( wh i ch a re b road ly s im i lar i n s hape t ou ps i lon b lades ) a l so s how s im i lar p att erns o fs t r iat ions ( F ischer e ta l . 1 984 ) . We k now t hat s hapes s uch a s t hose o ft he u ps i lon b lades h ave b een u sed a s a rrows i n o ther c ontex ts . Meta l a r rows a nd s pears , o ft he s ame g enera l s hape o ft he u ps i lon b lades , a re k nown f r om v ar ious p la ces ( s ee f i g . l b a nd S aeko 1 980 ) . ' What i sp uzz l ing i st ha t i ft hese t oo ls w ere i ndeed u sed a s p ro ject i les , wha t i st he r eason f o rt he ir s hape t ob e s od if erent f r om t he o ther p o int sa tt he s i te wh ich a re l arge l e af s haped f o rms s im i lar t o t hose f ound a t many s i tes i n t he a rea ( f ig . l a , n os . 1 -8 ) ?Were t hey d es igned f o r ap ar t icu lar p urpose , as pec if ic t ype o ft arget t o wh ich t hey w ere b et ter s u ited t han t he l eaf s haped p o ints? The manufacture o f d if erent t ypes o f p o ints f o r u se o n d if erent t argets i s w e l l d ocumented i n t he e thnog raph ic r ecord a nd t he ir a ctua l f unct iona l s u itab i l ity f or o ne t arget o r a nother c an b e r ea l o r i mag ined ( Heath a nd C h iara 1 977 :83 ) . I n many c ases , e ven w ith m icrowear a s ar esearch t oo l w e may n ot b e a b le t o r ecogn ize t hese mo t ives i n t he a rchaeo log ica l r ecord . H owever , t he r easonab le p oss ib i l i t ies f o ru se o ft hese t oo ls h ave n ot b een e xhausted , a nd p erhaps w ith a w ider e xper imen ta l p rog ramme f o cus ing o n t he s pec if ic a dvantag es t o u s ing s uch p ro ject i les a s w e l l a s av ar iety o fo ther t a sks c ou ld h e lp u s t o n ar row d own t he p oss ib le u ses o ft h is u nusua lt o o l .

ACKNO WLEDGE MENTS We w ou ld l i ke t o t hank C hr is B ergman , Mark N ew comer a nd J .J . R oodenberg f o r t he ir h e lp w ith t h is p ro jec t .

BIBLIOGRAPHY BERG MAN , ( C .A . ) a nd NE WCO MER , ( M .H . ) , 1 983 .— F l int A rrowhead B reakage: E xamp les f r om K sar Ak i l , L ebanon . J ourna l o fF i e ld A rchaeo logy , 1 0 :2 38 -243 . BU ITENHUIS , ( H . ) , 1 985 .— P re l im inary R eport o f t he F auna l R ema ins f r om Hayaz Höyük f r om t he 1 979 -1983 S easons . Ana to l ica ,X II :6 1-74 . CALLEY , ( S .) a nd ATAMAN , ( K . ) , 1 987 ( i n p ress ) .— S ome Quest ions C oncern ing Ups i lon B lades . T o a ppear i n t he p roceed ings v o lume o ft he Round T ab le o n t he Aceramic Neo l i th ic i n S outheastern A rchaeo log ica l I nst itu te o fI s tanbu l .

T urkey , b y t he Du tch H istor ica l a nd

CAUV IN , ( J . ) a nd BALKAN , ( N . ) , 1 985 .— C af er Höyük :a na lyse d e l ' out i l lage l i th ique ( Campagnes 1 982 -1983 ) . P robMmes t ypo log iques e t c hrono log iques . C ah iers d e l 'Euphra te , 4 :5 3 -85 .

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CRO WFOOT -PAYNE , ( J . ) , 1 983 .— T he F l int I ndustr ies o fJ er icho . I n K enyon , KM . a nd H o l land , T .A . , E xcava t ions a t J er icho , t he P o t te ry P hases o f t he T e l l a nd O ther F inds , v o l . V , B r i t ish S choo l o fA rchaeo logy i n J erusa lem , T he B r i t ish A cademy , L ondon . F ISCHER , ( A . ) , HANSEN , ( P .V . ) a nd RA ,S MUSSEN , ( P . ) , 1 984 .— Macro - a nd M icro Wear T races o n L ith i c P ro ject i le P o ints . J ourna l o f Dan ish A rchaeo logy 3 : 1 9 -46 . HEATH , ( E .G . ) a nd CHIARA , ( V .) , 1 977 .— Braz i l ian I nd ian A rchery . S imon A rchery A ssoc ia t ion . Manche ster . ROODENBERG , ( J .J . ) , 1 979 -80 .— P rem iers r esu lta ts d es r echerches a rcheo log iques a Hayaz H öyük . Ana to l ica , V I I: 3 19 . . SAEKO , (M . ) , 1 980 .— C ons idera t ion s ur u ne p o inte d e f l eche ä l a f o rme d e c ro issant r epresentee d ans l a s c ene d e c hasse d e B ahram Gur . Bu l le t in o ft he Anc ien t O r ien t Museum , 2 : 8 3 -97 .

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LE D BITAGE LA M I NA 1RE CHASStEN APRÜS CHAUFFE : TECHNOLOGIE ET TRACES D ' UT ILISATIO N D id ier B INDER * e tB ernard GASSIN >

ABSTRACT:

T he a u thors c ross t he t e chn ica l a nd f unct ionna l a na lys is o f al i th ic a ssemb lage f r om t he p rovenca l e ar ly C hassey c u l tur e . T hey p ropose a d if eren t ia t ion b etween a s pec ia l ised p roduc t ion o f b lades k napped o u t o ft he c av e b y p er cuss ion a nd p ressure , a nd a d omes t ic p roduc t ion o fb lade le ts k napped i nt he c ave b yp ressur ea f t er h ea t trea tmen to fc ores . i t tsumt L es a u teurs p rocädent a l ' ana lyse t e chno log ique e t f onc t ionne l le d 'une s er ie l i th ique d u Chasseen p rovenca l . I l s p ropos en t u ne d i s t inc t ion e n tre d eux c ha ines o pera to ires e td eux e conom ies d if eren tes d e l ' ou t i l lage . I l s s uggären t u ne p ar t it ion e n tre u ne p rodu ct ion s pec ia l isee , h ors d u s i te , d el ames d eb itees p ar p er cus s ion e tp ar p ress ion , e tu ne p roduc t ion d omes t ique , s ur p la ce , d e l ame l les d eb it ees p ar p ress ion a pr äs t ra i temen t t herm ique d es n uc leus .

I NTRODUCTION L e t ra itement t herm ique d u s i lex p our l e d eb itage l am ina ire p ar p ress ion e st u ne c arac ter ist ique ma jeure d es e nsemb les l i th iques d u C hasseen mer id iona l ( B inder 1 983 , 1 984 ) . B ien q u 'ame l iorant n ettement l ' apt itude a l a t a i l le d e c er ta ins s i lex ( I n izan , R oche e tT ix ier 1 975 , T ex ier 1 982 ) c e t ra itement n ' es t e n a ucune f a pn i nd ispensab le p our r ea l iser u ne p roduct ion l am ina ire a bondante a p ar t ir d e mater iaux , g enera lement c retaces d ans l e s c as q u i n ous o ccupent ( Masson 1 984 ) , d ont l a q ua l ite e st t out ä f a it e xce l lente . Que l les s ont l e s r a isons q u i o nt mot ive u n t e l t ra itement d es mater iaux ?S 'ag it i l d e r a isons s tr ic tement t e chn iques , p ar e xemp le l er ecours a d es p rocedes d e f i xa t ion d es n uc leus s imp l if ies p our l e d 6tachement d e l ame l les d e p et ites d imens ions ( B inder 1 984 , P e leg r in 1 984 ) ?C orrespondi l au ne e xp lo itat ion max ima le d es mat i &es p rem iäres i t g rande d istance d es g i tes n ature ls ( Ph i l l ips 1 970 ) ?R epond i l ad es p reoccupat ions d ' ordre f onct ionne l , p ar e xemp le l es ouha it d ' obt en ir c erta ines q ua l it es d e t ranchants ? N o tre p ropos n ' est c ertes p as d e r epondre a l ' ensemb le d e c es q uest ions ma is d e t enter d e l es r edu ire e n c r o isant , d e f avon e ncore t r äs p art ie l le , l e s r esu lta ts q ue n ous a vons P u o bten ir s ur l e s p lans t echno log ique e t f onct ionne l . Nous v errons q ue c et te d emar che p ose p lus d e p robMmes q u 'e l le n ' en r esou t . L ' etude p re l im ina ire q u i s u it e st f ond & s ur l ' exp lo itat ion d 'une s er ie d u C hasseen a nc ien d e l a g rotte d e l ' üg l ise f ou i l lee p ar J .C our t in a B aud inard d ans l e s g orges d u *

U .R .A . 3 6d u C .R .A . d u C .N .R .S . , S oph ia An t ipo l is , 0 6565 V a lbonne c ed ex , F rance .

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V erdon ( Var , F rance ) . P rovenant d es c ou ches 7 e t 8d u r eseau s uper ieur d e c e t te c av ite , e i le e s t d a tee d e l a p rem iöre mo it ie d u I V e m i l lena ire B .C . ( e che l le d u r ad iocarbone s ans c a l ibrat ion ) e t p eu t ö t re c ons ideree c omme l a s er ie d e r ef erence p our l e C hasseen a nc ien l i guro -provenQa 1 ( Court in 1 970 , 1 974 ) .

DONNEES

GENERALES SUR L ' OUT ILLAGE L ITH IQUE

L a s er ie c o mprend u n p eu mo ms d e 6 00 p iöces ( p rodu its e t d echets ) . Al ' except ion d 'une p o inte l o sang ique e n o bs id ienne l i parote r e tou chde p ar p ress ion ( Warren , T horpe e t C our t in , äp ara itre ) e t d e q ue lques e l ements t al ies d ans d u c a lca ire o u d u q uar tz h ya l in a lp in , l e s mater iaux t af i es s ont d es s i lex d e q ua l ite v ar iab le :s i lex p lutöt g ross iers p robab lement r amasses d ans l el i t d e l a r iv iöre q u i c ou le a u p ied d u s i te; s i lex t räs f i ns ( b lond t rans luc ide b arremo -bedou l ien e t r ubane d e l 'O l igocöne l acustre ) i mpor tes s ur d ' assez l ongues d istances . L a s er ie d es p iöces r et ouchees au s ens s t r ic t , c ' es t ad i re a bs tract ion f a it e d es p i öces ae n lövements i r regu l iers - e st d om inde p ar d es p ibces b ifac ia les ( 35 % ) :i s ' ag it e ssent ie l lement d e p o int es f o l iacees r e touchees p ar p r ess ion s ur d es mater iaux i mpor tes . V iennent e nsu ite d es r ac lo irs ( 14 % ) e t d es b ur ins ( 14 % ) f abr iques d ans l a p lupar t d es c as s ur d es l ames o u l ame l les d e s i lex i mport& D es p i öces e squ i l lees ( 12 % ) s ont o b tenues s ur d es d c lats d e s i lex l o ca l . L es g eometr iques ( 1 1 % ) s ont t af ies i nd if f eremment s ur d es l ames o u d es e c lats d e s i lex i mpor te . G rat to irs e t t r onca tures s ont p r is i nd ist inctement s ur l ames o u s ur e c lats , s ans c ho ix p ar t icu l ier p arm i l e s mat iöres p re m iöres . L es p rodu i ts l am ina ires r epresen tent u n p eu p lu s d ut i ers d u ma ter ie l l i th ique ( 36 % s ur l a t o ta l itd d u mater ie l , 3 5 % p arm i l e s o u t i ls r etouches ) . P rös d 'une l ame s ur q ua t re e s t r e touchee ;l e s a utres p ortent d ans l a p lupart d es c as d es e n lövements i r regu l iers q u i p euven t p roceder d ' act ions d iverses :e n lövement s s pontanes a u d eb itage , p i et inement e t , b ien e ntendu , u t i l isa t ion . L e d etachement l am ina ire p ar p ercuss ion p our ra it c oncerner u ne l ame s ur c i nq . C ependant , d ans c el o t , u ne p ropor t ion i mportante e st c onst i tuee p ar d es p rodu its c our ts e t t r ös i r regu l iers a t te ignant c o mme p ar a cc ident l e s eu i l t ypometr ique d es l ames . T af f i es d ans d es ma ter iaux l o caux p eu a ptes al ap roduc t ion d e s er ies , c es c our tes l ames o u e c la ts l am ina ires s ' inscr ivent t r ös c er ta inement d ans l a c ha ine d e p roduct ion d ' ec la ts &b i tes a u p ercu teur d ur e t d ans l e s s chemas d e t a i l le d e p iöces b i fac ia les p ar p er cuss ion q u i , i c i , p euvent ö t re c ons iderees c o mme d es p rdf ormes r epr ises u l ter ieurement p ar p ress ion . P ar a i l leurs , d es l ames a ssez r obustes , s ystdma t iquemen t r etouchees , s ont t a i l lees d ans d u s i lex r uband i mporte ( f ig . 6 , n ° 1 , 2 ) ;l eur mode d e d dta che ment n ' est p as c onnu e t l ' on p eu tt ou t e nv isager a c o mmencer p ar l ap ercuss ion d ir ecte a u p ercu teur t endre . L a p ress ion r epresente l ' essent ie l d u mode d e d etache ment l am ina ire ( de V ordre d e 8 0% ) e t s ' adresse e xc lus ivement a d es matdr iaux äg ra in f i n i mportes ( f ig . 6e t 7 ) . I c i i n terv ient l et ra itement t herm ique d es n u c leus . N ous n e n ous e tendrons p as o utre mesure s ur l e s c r itöres d iagnost iques d e c e t ra itement . E n d ehors d es e l ements l e s p lus e v ident s , q u i p resentent s ur l eur f ace s uper ieure d es r e l iques d es u rfaces d eb itees a n ter ieurement a l a c hauf f e ( f ig . 7 ,n °11 ,13 ) , l et ra itement e st r econna i ssab le p ar a na log ie e n r a ison d e l a f o rte b r i l lance d es s ur faces d eb itees a prös c hauf f e ( I n izan , R oche e t T ix ier 1 976 , B inder 1 984 , Masson 1 984 ) . Dans q ue lques c as l e d oute s ub s is te s ur l a p oss ib i l ite d 'une l egäre c hauf f e ;l ' examen m icroscop ique p ermet t ou tef o is d e l ever l ' amb igu ite .

9 4

LE DÜTACHE MENT LA K INAIRE PAR PRESSION S e lon l a p resence o ul ' ab sence d e c hauf f e o n p eu t o perer u ne p rem iäre p ar t i t ion a u s e in d e l a p opu la t ion d es l ames d e ta chees p a r p ress ion ( f ig . 1 ) .

PRESSION

SANS

THERMIQUE

TRAITEMENT

PRESSION AVEC

•

THERMIQUE

TRAITEMENT

•A

•

•

•

•

•

1 , 5cm

ä/ 4 1 • tal k

•

•

•

1 ,0 c m

0 ,5cm

-

0 ,0 0,0 c m

0, 15c m EPAISSEUR

F ig . 1: D iag ramme d e d i spers ion d es p rodu its l am ina ires p ar p ress ion e n f onc t ion d e l eur e pa isseur e td e l eur l a rgeur ;äg au che s ans t ra itement t herm ique , äd ro it e a vec t ra it emen t t herm ique . 9 5

Une l ame p ar p ress ion s ur c i nq a e te d etachee d en u c leus n on c hauf f es ( f ig . 6 ,n ° 3ä 8 ) . I l s ' ag it d e p rodu its g enera le ment t rapezoidaux e t b ien c entres a t a lon s ystemat iquement l i sse p our a u tant q ue V on p u isse e n j uger . D s s ont r e lat ivement r obustes :l ' epa isseur &passe 0 , 35 c m p our l e s t r o is q uarts d es p ieces ;l eur l a rgeur , s ys tema t iquement s uper ieure a 1c m , d epasse s ouven t 1 , 5c m ma is e i le e s tt r es l arg ement s ous -est imee c o mpte t enu d e l ' amp leur d es r etou ches r asantes o u s em iabruptes q u i af ectent f r equemment l e s b ords . C es l ames s ont r et ou chees d ans l e s d eux t i ers d es c as e t r epresentent ä c ues s eu les l a mo it ie d es p rodu i ts d etaches p ar p ress ion t r ansf ormes p ar r e touches . E n d ehors d es r etouches l a tera les c es p rodu its l am ina ires r obustes p resentent p arf o is d es b ur ins d ' ang le s ur c assure . R ien n e p ermet d ' evoquer l a t a i l le s ur p la ce d e c es o b jets . P res d e 8 0 % d u d eb itage l am ina ire p ar p ress ion p rov ient d e b locs c hauf f es . D ans l eur e nsemb le , c es p rodu its o nt d es d imens ions n ettement mo indres q ue l e s p recedent s e t p resentent i nd if f eremment d es t a lons l i sses o u f a cet tes , t res r edu its ä l ' except ion d e q ue lques p ieces q u i p rov iennent d es e xtrem it es d u f r ont d e d eb itage . O n o bserve , s ans e ntrer d ans l e d eta i l , q uatre c a tegor ies d e s chema s d ' extract ion l am ina ire ;c es q ua tre g roupes s ont r egu l ierement r epar t is d ans l a s er ie a vec d es f r equences c ompr ises e ntre 2 0%e t3 0% . L e p rem ier g roupe e s t c onst itue d e p rodu its l am ina ires p resentant d es t races d e m ise e n f o rme a vant o u a präs l a c hauf f e . Al ' except ion d e r ares p ieces f r onta les , i ls ' ag it d e l ame l les p rovenant d es e xtrem ites d u f r ont d e d eb i tage; l eur t a lon e s t a lors i n c l ine v ers l a s urface p resentant c es t races d e m ise e n f o rme . L es p ieces d e c e g roupe p ara issent c ara cter iser d es m ises e n f o rmes s em i -con iques . L e d eux ieme g roupe r eun it d es p rodu its d e s e ct ion t rapezo ida le e x tra its s e lon u n s chema 2 -1-2 ( f ig . 2 ) . C es l ame l les s ont g enera lement b ien c entrees ( f ig . 3 ) a vec d es b ords l e p lus s ouvent p ara l le les . E l les a ppart iennent f orme l le ment ä d es s er ies r y thm iques o btenues e n r epartant s ys tema t iquemen t d ' une meme e xtrem ite d u f r ont d e d eb itage d ans l ec as d e n uc leus d e f o rme s em i -con ique .

zS--

CODE

2 -1-2'

I

-• := 4 .-

-

CODE

1 -2-3

F ig . 2 :S chemas c orrespondant a ux d if erents c odes o perato ires p our l ' obtent ion d e p rodu its l am ina ires d e s e ct ion t rapezo ida le . 9 6

0 % 1 00% —

1 0

90 — 80

—

20

e , . / 3 0

Versant

70

Central 5 0

Versant

40

4 ) C . ) e u c

60

40

Gauche 5 0 60

i

/

7 0 80

20

90

1 0 — 0 %

1 00% 1 3 1 00%

1 90

80

1 70

60

Versant

5 0

40

3 0

20

1 0

0 %

droit

1 00

Versant

Versant

Central

0 %

1 00% 1 00%

0 %

Versant D roit SCHEMA OPERATOIRE

1 -2-3

Gauche

1 00%

0

1 00%

0 % Versant Droit

ou

3 -2-1

SCHEMA OPERATOIRE

2 -1-2'

F ig . 3 :D iag rammes t r iangu la ires d e d i spers ion d es p rodu its l am ina ires p ar p ress ion d e s ect ion t r apezo ida le e n f onct ion d e l eur c entrage . L a l argeur d es d if f erents v ersants e s t e xpr imee e n p ourcentages c a lcu les p ar r apport a l a s o mme d es l argeurs d e v er sants . L 'axe d e c entrage o pt imum c orrespond ä d es p rodu i ts p our l e sque ls l a l a rgeur d u v ersant d ro it e st s t r ictement e ga le a c e l le d u v ersant g auche . S ur l ed iag ramme montrant l e s moda l ites d e c onstruc t ion d es n uages d e p o ints , l a v a leur marquee p ar u n s ymbo le t r iangu la ire c orrespond ä u n p rodu it p arfa i t e ment r egu l ier p our l eque l l e s l a rgeurs d es t r o is v ersants s ont e ga les . S ur l ed iag ramme d e d i spers ion d es p rodu its d e c o te o pera to ire 1 -2 -3 o u 3 2 -1 o n p eu t i nd iv idua l iser d eux g-r oupes d e p i ces d ecentrees ( a d ro ite o u ä g auche ) c e q u i n es tp as l ec as a u s e in d es p rodu its d e c ode 2 1 -2 ' .

9 7

L e t r o is iäme g roupe r a ssemb le d es p rodu i ts d e s e c t ion t r apezo ida le e x t ra i t s s c ion u n s chema 1 -2 -3 o u 3 -2 -1 . C es p ikes s ont mo ms b i en c ent rees q ue l e s p receden tes ( f ig . 3 ) a vec d es b ords l e p lus s ouvent c onvergents . E l les a ppar t iennent f orme l lement ä d es . s er ies r y thm iques o b tenues e n p ar tant a l terna t ivement d e c ha cune d es e x t re m ites d u f r on t d e d eb itag e d ans l ec as d e n u c leu s s em i -con iques . L e d ern ier g roupe r eun it d es p rodu i t s d ont l af a ce s uper ieure p on e l e st r a ces d e p lu s d e t r o is e n lävemen t s l am ina ires . O n p eu t yd i s t inguer d eux e nsemb les . D 'une p ar t , d es p ikes p resentent d es e n lävement s l am ina ires e n e cha rpe r e coupes p ar u n o u p lus ieu r s e n lävements a x iaux ;e l les t emo ignent d e c hangemen ts m ineurs d ans l a d i rect ion d u d eb itage , p robab lement al a s u i te d e r ef ec t ions d u p lan d e p ress ion; c e s on t d es p rodu i t s d ans l a p lupar t d es c as c onvergents . D 'au t re p ar t , d es p ikes p resenten t p lus d e t r o is e n lävemen ts p ara l ldes ;e l les c orrespondent a l ac onvex it e o p t ima le d u n u c leu s e n f i n d e d eb itage ;l e sb ords s ont p arf o is d ivergents v ers l ap art ie d i s ta le a vec u ne l e g är e t endanc e al ' ou trepassage . D ans u ne c erta ine mesure l e s p ikes d e c g roupe p our ra ient ö t re c ons iderees c omme d es d eche ts d e t a i l le a u möme t i tre q ue l e s p ikes d u p rem ier g roupe p ar o ppos i t ion a ux p rodu i ts d e s e c t ion t rapezo ida le q u i c a rac ter isera ient l ' op t imum d u d eb i tage . P ou r c q u i c oncerne l e s p rodu i ts t rapezo idaux , o n p ou rra it s onger ä d es o pt ions d e t a i l le d if eren tes c orrespondan t äu ne v ar iab i l ite i nd iv idue l le ( P loux 1 984 ) , c ependan t , o n c onsta te q ue c es d eux s chema s d ' ex trac t ion c oex i s tent c l äs l o rs q ue l e d eb itage e s t c ondu it d e f a con e p isod ique p ar d e p et ites s er ies p ar t ie l les p rog ressant d ans d es s ens o pposes e ta l ternan ta vec u ne o up lus ieu rs s e r ies p a r cou ran tl at o ta l i te d uf r on td e d eb itag e ( f ig . 2 ) . L 'ex istence d e p et ites s er ies p art ie l les amenagements d u p lan d e p ress ion e s t a t tes tee p resentant p lus d e t r o is e n lävements a nter ieurs e t T ous l e s e l ements p resents ( p rodu its , d echets e t c onf or tent l ' hypothäse d 'un d eb i tage d es l ame l les e t r ea l ises s ur p la ce .

p robab lement s epa rees p ar d es s ur c er ta ins p rodu i ts l am ina ires s ur u n n uc leus e n f i n d e d eb itag e . a c c ident d e c hauf f e d ' un n uc leu s ) d un t ra itement t herm ique d u s i lex

Ac c l assement t e chno log ique s es uperpose u ne p ar t i t ion t ypome tr ique d es p rodu i t s l am ina ires c hauf f es . E ncore f au t i l p rec iser q ue l o rsqu e I on s e t r ouve d an s u n mode d e d eb itage s ur d es n u c leus c on iques o u s em i -con iques l e s p rodu i ts ä b ords c onvergents e t e xt rem ite d i sta le a iguö s ont f r equents; a uss i e s t i l n ecessa ire d e n e p a s p rendre e n c ompte l e s f r agments mes iaux e t d i s taux p our u ne e va lua t ion d e l a d i s t r ibut ion d e s l a rgeurs . On c onsta te ( f ig . 4 ) q ue l a d i s tr ibu t ion d e s l a rgeurs e t d es e pa isseurs e s t v ar iab le s c ion l e s d if erents s chemas d ' ex trac t ion e t q ue l a p r ise e n c omp te d es s eu ls e l ements e n t iers o u p rox imaux p ermet d ' env isager l a p oss ib i l ite d 'une p ar t it ion d e s l a rgeur s d e p ar te td ' au t re d ' un s eu i l d e 1c m . C e t te p ar t it ion s emb le p lus c r ed ib le p our l e s p rodu i ts t r apezo idaux , i ndependammen t d u c en trage e td u s chema d ' ex trac t ion ;t ou tef o i s e i le d ev ra ö t re v er if i ee s ur d es s e r ies p lu s a bondantes .

EC ONOM IE D U DEB ITAGE :A SPECT S T ECHNOLOG IQU ES D ans u ne f o rme p lus a chevee , l ' e tude d e l ' e conom ie d u d eb itage d o i t b i en e ntendu p rendre e n c ompte f ondamen ta lement l e s r esu lta ts d e l ' ana lyse d es t races d ' u t i l isa t ion . D ans u n p rem ier t emps d es r e su lta t s p ar t ie ls s on tl i vre s i c i s ous l af o rme d e t ab leaux . O n c ons ta te ( t ab . I )q ue d ans l ' ensemb le l e s p rodu its l am ina ires c hauf f äs s on t n et temen t mo ms t r ansf ormes p ar r e tou ches q ue l e s a u t res p rodu it sd e ta ches p a r p ress ion ;l et aux d e

9 8

r e tou che d es p rodu i t s l am ina ires p ar p er cuss ion e s tq uant al u i s ou s e s t ime c ar i n e t i ent p as c o mpt e d es d if eren ces d ' or ig ines d es ma t iäres p rem ieres . P ar a i l leurs , a u •se in d es p rodu its t ra ites t herm iquement i e x iste u ne n ette v ar iat ion d ans l e t aux d e t ansf orma t ion p ar r e t ou ches s e lon l es chema d ' ex t ra c t ion :s eu les l e s l ame l les d e s e c t ion t r apezo ida les d e c ode 2 1-2 ' s ont r e touchees d ans d es p ropor t ions s ens ib les ( t ab . I ) . D e m öme c e s ont l e s p rodu i ts l e s p lus l a rges , c hau f f es o u n on , q u i o nt e t e s e lec t ionnes p our ö t r er etou ches .

T ab leau I — D is tr ibu t ion d es t ypes d ' ou t i ls e t d es t aux d e t ransf orma t ion p ar r et ou che s s e lon l e s d if erent es c a t egor ies d e p rodu i t s d u d eb i tage .

E c la ts o u i ndet .

L ames p ar p er cuss ion

G ra t to irs

3

T roncatures

1

G 6omar iques

9

B ords a ba t tus a brup ts

1

1

R a c lo irs e t l ames a r e touches r asan tes o u s em iabrup tes

5

4

P o in tes f o l ia c6es e t p i 6 ce s ar e touche s b i fac ia les

4 8

B ur ins

6

P iaces e squ i l l6es

1 6

C oches c l ac ton iennes

1

L ame s p ar p ress ion i nde t .

2

L ames p ar p ress ion n on c hauf f .

L ame l les c hauf f6es

3

1

1

1

2

2

2

2

1

2

1

P e t i tes l a me l les c hauf f 6es

7

1

2

1

5

8

9

3 4

5

2 5

E n lbvernen ts i r r6gu l iers

1 02

2

B ru ts d ed 6b i tage

1 82

1 6

2

4

T aux d e t ransf orma t ion p ar r e touche s

0 , 32

0 , 14

0 , 66

0 , 19

3

_

9

0 , 10

( , ) 4 4

4

P L U S D E 3

4

41 4

4 4

4

4

4

1 2 3 e t 3 2 1

4

4

4 4 4

44

4

4 4

4 41

4

4

44 4 1

4 4

4

T R A C E S D E M I S E

E P A I S E U R

4

t i n souv r i

E

1 00

T ab leau I — D istr ibut ion d es t aux d e r etouches d es l ame ( I le )s c hauf f des s e lon l e s c odes o pdra to ires .

S chema s o pe ra t o ir es ( Lame l les c hau f f ees )

T ra ces d em ise e n f o rme

2 1-2 '

1 2 -3

P lu sd e3 e n lävemen t s

0 , 12

0 , 30

0 , 06

0 , 03

T aux d e r e tou che

ET UDE E XPER IMENTALE D ES T RACES D 'U T IL ISAT ION S UR smEx DEB ITE A PREST RA ITEMEN 'T T HERM IQU E L 'dtude f onct ionne l le d es i ndus tr ies l i th iques d es n iveaux c hass6ens d e l a g rotte d e l Egl ise s up6r ieure n äcess it e u n t rava i l p rd l im ina ire d ont l e s r dsu lta ts s ont p rdsent6s i c i , e ta uque l s ont a ss ignd s p lus ieurs o b ject if s : —6 ta lonner e xpdr imenta lement l a v ar iab i l it6 d es t races d 'ut i l isa t ion d ue a ux mod if ica t ions d u s i lex p rovoqudes p ar l et ra it ement t herm ique d es n u c leus ; —v er if ier s i l eur 6 tat d e c onservat ion p ermet d ' entreprendre u ne a na lyse f onct ionne l le ; —6 1aborer d es h ypotheses d e t rava i l p our o r ienter I ' dtude u l t6r ieure d e c e t te s dr ie l i th ique . P our c e la , d eux 6 chant i l lons o nt 6 t 6 e xam ines : —u ne s dr ie l im i t6e d e p ieces e xpär imenta les e n s i lex d 6b it6 a pres t ra itement t herm ique ( '; —u n 6 chant i l lon d 'une q uaranta ine d e l ame ( 1 1e )s d es c ouches 7 e t 8d e l ag rot te d e s updr ieure . L es l ames e n s i lex d 6b itdes a pres t ra itement t herm ique p rdsentent u ne b r i l lance c aractdr ist ique ( I n izan , R oche , T ix ier 1 975 ) ;l ' examen a u m icroscope o pt ique r dve le d es s urfaces t r es c l a ires e t r ef ldtant f o r tement l a l um iere . A p lus f o r t g ross issement , a u m icroscope d l ectron ique , c es s urfaces a ppara issent p lus l i sses q ue c e l les p rodu ites p ar l e d 6b itage d e s i lex n on t ra itds t herm iquement ( Se i tzer -O lausson e t L arsson 1 982; Masson , 1 984 ) . L a n a ture d es mod if icat ions p rovoqudes p ar l a c hauf f e e t r esponsab les d e c es a l terat ions n 'a p as e ncore 6 t6 6 c la irc ie d e f a 9on c onva inquant e . Une 6 tude e xpdr imenta le ( au m icroscope o p t ique a f a ib le g ross issement ) d e l ' usure d es o ut i ls e n s i lex c hauf f d ( D . S e itzer -O lausson 1 983 ) a montr6 q ue l e s m icro e squ i l le ments s ont p lus l ongs , p lus s ouvent r 6 f 16ch is o u s ca lar if ormes , e t q ue l e s o u t i ls s ' u sent p lu s v i te e tp lus s 6verement q ue c eux e n s i lex n on c hauf f 6 . Notre 6 tude e xpdr i menta le s e p ropose d ' exam iner s id es t races d 'u t i l isa t ion ( p o l is , s t r ies , 6mouss6s ) s ont o bservab les e n m icroscop ic o pt ique a f o r t g ross issement ( de 1 00 ä 4 00 x ) ;s i c es t races d 'ut i l isat ion p rdsentent d es c aractdr ist iques p ermettant d e r e const ituer l e s mouvements d es o u t i ls e t l a n ature d es matdr iaux t rava i l lds e t , e n

1 0 1

p ar t icu l ier , s i c es c aracter ist iques s ont s im i la ires ä c e l les o bservees s ur d es o ut i ls e xper imentaux e n s i lex n on c hauf f e . D eux s i lex d if erent s o nt e t e u t i l ises: d es l ame l le s d eb it ees p ar p ress ion p ectora le a l a b equ i l le , e n s i lex b lond d e Murs , a präs c hauf f e a u f our e l ectr ique a 2 50 °C ( s i lex 1 , d eb itage P . -J . T ex ier ) , e t d es e c lats d eb ites p ar p ercuss ion d irecte , e n s i lex b lond d e V eaux - Ma laucäne , c hauf f e a3 00 ° C e nv iron d ans u n b a in l i qu ide ( s i lex 2 , d eb itage D . B inder ) . L es e xper iences q ue n ou s a vons f a ites s ont c ons ignees d ans l e t ab leau I I .

T ab leau I I — T ab leau d escr ipt if d es e xper iences r ea l isees a vec d es p rodu i ts d eb ites a präs c hauf f e .

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L es maerot races D es c assures o nt d etru it u ne p ar t i mportante d ub ord a ct if d e p lus ieurs o u t i ls . L es d eux l ame l les u t i l isees p our f endre d es r oseaux o nt e te p r ivees d e l eur a ng le a c t if p ar u ne f racture o b l ique ( f ig . 5 , n °3 ) . L a l ame a yant s erv i as c ier d u b o is d e c erv ide s ' est c assee l o rs d u d emanchement , e f ectue e n f a isant l ev ier s ur u ne e xtrem it e d e l a l ame l le f i xee p ar d e l a r es ine d ans s on manche ;c ett e f racture a p rovoque l a' f ormat ion d ' un «b ur in s pontane » l e l ong d u b ord a ct if ( f ig . 5 , n °4 ) . L a m inceur d es l ame l les e t l eur f rag i l ite a ccrue p ar l et ra itement t herm ique o nt , d e t out e e v iden ce , r endu c es f r actures t r äs a isees .

1 02

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F ig . 5 :P iäces e xper imenta les t a i l lees s ur s i lex c hauf f e ( n° 1 ä 6 ) e t s ymbo les f onct ionne ls ( d 'apres Vaughan e t P l isson , 1 986 ) . S ymbo l e s f onc t ionn e l s :B , s ur fa ce b ru te; L S , l u s t re d e s o l ;2 1 , v ege ta l n on l i gneux; 2 2 ,v ege ta l n on l i gneux t end re ;2 3 , v ege ta l n on l i gneux d ur ( e x .: r o seau ) ;2 4 , b o is; 3 2 , p eau; 4 0 , o s o u b o is d e c e rv ides ;4 1 , O s; 4 2 , b o is d e c e rv idd ;7 3 , ma t er iau d ur ; 9 0 , ma ter iaux i n c l eterm ine ; 1 ,l o ca l isa t ion d es p ho tograph ies ;— , mouvement l ong itud ina l; . . , mouvemen t t r ansversa l; I — , I — — , p o l i i n ter rompu p ar u n o u p lus ieur s e n läv emen ts ;x xx , t r a ces d ' or ig ine i n c let erm inee .

D es e n lävements s e s ont p rodu its s ur l a p lupar t d es l ame l les ( 2) , ma is e n n ombre v ar iab le . I l s o n t p u ö t re f a c i l it es p ar l ec aractäre r e la t ivement s i nueux d e c er ta ins b ords e t p ar l eur a ng le g enera lement a igu , ma is a uss i p ar l a c hauf f e d u s i lex . I l s s ont p lus a bondants ( e t o nt P u e l im iner d ' eventue l les t races m icroscop iques ) s ur l e s d eux o ut i ls a yant p erce d e l ' os e t s ur l al ame l le a yant c oupe d e l ap eau s ä che . Une l a me l le n 'a mon tre a ucun e n lävement :e i le a me ld u ne p eau s äche , t r empee d ans l ' eau , e n v ue d e l ' ep i ler ( f ig . 5 , n ° 2 ) . L 'ec lat a yant s erv i ae charner u ne p eau f ra i che ( done u n mat er iau p lus s oup le ) a ,e n r evanche , montre d e t r äs p et its e n lävements d irec ts . C ette d i f f erence p ent s ' exp l iquer p ar l ad if erence d ' ang le d es b ords , p roche d e 4 50 d ans l ep re m ier c as , d e 2 00d ans l es e cond c as . L a r epar t it ion d es e n lävements n ' est p as a pparue s ign if icat ive :d ans l e c as d es mouvements l ong itud inaux , u s s ont l o ca l ises s ur u ne f ace ( c ouper d es f ougäres ) o u s ur l es d eux f aces ( s c ier d u b o is d e c erv ide , c ouper d es f ougäres ) ;d ans l e c as d es mouvements t ransversaux , u s s ont l o ca l ises s ur u ne f a ce :f ace d ' ä t taque p our l a l ame l le a yant r ac le d u b o is ( f ig . 5 ,n o1 ) , f ace e n d epou i l le p our l ' ec la t a yant e charne u ne p eau d e mou ton f ra iche . 1 03

L es m icro trace s Ie s t p oss ib le d ' observer d es p o l is , s t r ies e t emous ses , e n m icroscop ie o pt ique af o r t g ross issement , s ur d es o u t i ls e n s i lex d eb it es a pres t r a i temen t t herm ique ( p l . 1 , a , c ,e ; P l . 2a ,c ,e ) . L es s t r ies e tl e s e mou sses s ont b i en v i s ib l es . E n r evanche , l e s p lages p o l ies s e d i s t inguent d es s ur faces v ierges d e t oute u su re n on p as p ar l eur c ou leur o u l eur b r i l lance , ma is u n iquement p a r d es d if erences d ans l e «mode le »d e l a m icrot opog raph ie d u s i lex , e n r a ison d e l af o r te r e f lect iv i te d es s ur f a ces d eb itees a pres t r a i tement t herm ique . L es p o l is n e s on t a i semen t r eperab les q ue d ans l e ur z one d e p lus g rande i nt ens ite ;l ' observa t ion e t l ap hotog raph ie s ont d one p lus d if f i c i les q ue l o r squ ' i l s ' ag i t d e s i lex d eb ites s ans t r a it ement t herm ique . D ans p lu s ieur s c as , i le s t p oss ib le d e r e cons t itu er l e mouvement d es o ut i ls g rä ce a d iver s t ypes d e t ra ces : —d es s t r ies o r ientees d ans l es ens d u t rava i l s ont p rdsent es s ur l e s l ame l les a yan t c oupe d es f ougäres ( p l . 1 , a ) , s c ie d u b o is d e c erv ide , e p i ld u ne p eau s e che h um id if iee ; —d es o ndu la t ions p ara l le les a u m ouvemen t , a per mes s ur l e s o u t i ls a yant f endu d es r oseaux , r ac le d e l ' os ( p l . 2 ,c ); —l ' or ienta t ion g enera le d es t ra inees d e p o l i , c omme s u r l e s o u t i ls a yant c oupe d es f ougeres ( p l . 1 ,a ) , f endu d es r oseaux ( p l . 1 ,c ) , s c ie d ub o is d e c erv ide ( p l . 2 ,a ); —l af o rma t ion d ' un b i seau s u r l et r anchant a yant r a c le d e l ' os ( p l . 2 ,c ); —l ar epar t i t ion d u p o l i l el ong d u t ranchan t , c onf orme ä l al ongueur d u b ord a c t if e n c onta ct a vec l e ma ter iau t rava i l le :l im it e al a p ar t ie mes ia le d e l a l ame l le a yant r ac le d u b o is ( f ig . 5 ,n ° 1 ) , a u b ord g auche p rox ima l d e l a l ame l le a yan t f endu d es r oseaux ( f ig . 5 ,n o3 ) , a u b ord d ro i t p rox ima l d e l ' ec la t a yant me ld d e l ' os ( f ig . 5 , n ° 6 ) , p lus e t endu p our l e s l ame l les a yant s c ie d u b o is d e c erv ide ( f ig . 5 , n °4 ) , c oupe d es f ougeres ( f ig . 5 ,n ° 5 ) , d p i ld u ne p eau d e m outon ( f ig . 5 , n ° 2 ) ; —l ar dpar t it ion d u p o l i s ur l e s d eux f a ces d e l ' ou t i l , p lus s ymetr ique ( s ans q ue c e t t e s ymetr ie s o it c omp lete ) p our l e s o ut i ls a yant t rava i l le s e lon u n mouvemen t l ong i tud ina l ( c ouper d es f ougeres , f endre d es r o seaux , s c ier d u b o is d e c erv ide ) , n et tement d i ssyme tr ique p our l e s o u t i ls a yant t rava i l le s e lon u n mouvemen t t r ansversa l ( r a c ier d e l ap eau , d e l ' os , d u b o is ) . D ans l e c as d es o u t i ls a yan t s erv i ap ercer d e l ' os ( f ra is e t s ec ) , a ucun i nd i ce m icroscop ique n 'a p u e t re o bserve ;c e la p ourra it s ' exp l iquer p ar r abondance d es d ca i l lures . L ' ec la t a yan t e charne u ne p eau d e mouton f r a i che n ' a p resente q ue q ue lqu es t races t r es d i scrätes ( po l i p eu d eve loppe ) n e d onnant a ucune i nd ica t ion s ur l e s mouvements d e l ' ou t i l . L e t rava i l d e ma ter iaux d if drents a ti l l a isse d es t ra ces s uf f isamment t yp iques p our d i s t inguer e tc arac tdr iser c e s ma t ieres ?

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L es t ra ces o bserv ees s ur c e r ta ines p i eces e xper imenta les s emb len t t r op p eu t yp iques p our f onder u n d iagno s t i c: —L a l ame l le a yan t c oupe d e l ap eau s e che n ' a p resent e q u 'un t r es l äg er emou sse d u b ord e td es n ervu res t ransversa les . —L 'ec la t a yan t e cha rne u ne p eau d e m ou t on f r a i che av u s e d eve lopper u n p o l i t r es l eger , at rame l ä che , ac ont our f l ou , n e s emb lan t mod if ier n i l a d e l inea t ion d u b ord , n i l a m ic rot opog raph ie d u s i lex . D eux p o l is d ' or ig ines d if erentes n ' ont p as montre d e d if erences n otab les , e n d ehor s d e c e l les c oncernan t l es ens d u t rava i l: —L a l ame l le a yan t mad d ub o is p resen te u n p o l i p eu e t endu , d eve loppe s ur tou t s u r l a f a ce d e c ontac t , at r ame u n ie s ur l eb ord , p u is s e rree ;l am icrotopog raph ie d u s i lex e s t l egerement a f ec t& p ar l ep o l i , q u i a douc it s eu lemen t l e s i r regu lar i tes e t f orme d e l egeres b osses ;l ef i l t ranchan t p resen te u n a rrond i l i sse af a ib le r ayon ( f ig . 5 ,n ° 1 ;p l . 1 ,e ); —L a l ame l le a yant s c iä d u b o is d e c erv ide t r empe p resente u n p o l i p eu e t endu , d eve loppe s ur l e s d eux f a ces , at rame u n ie l el o ng d ub ord ( s ur l ac ourt e p or t ion d u b ord q u i n 'a p as e t e e mpor tee p ar l e «b ur in s pontane » ) , s erree ä l ä che v ers l ' inter ieur , q u i n e s emb le p as mod if ier l a m icrotopog raph ie d u s i lex ;l e f i l t ranchant p resen t e u n a rrond i d i scont inu ;d es s t r ies l ong itud ina les e t l ' or ien t a t ion d es t r a inee s p o l ies i nd iquen t l es ens d u m ouvement ( f ig . 5 ,n ° 4 ;p l . 2 ,a ) . C es d eux p o l is s e r e ssemb lent e ssent ie l lemen t p ar l eur f a ib le d eve loppemen t ( m i cr o topog raph ie d u s i lex p eu a f ec tee , f a ib le e x tens ion , b ande t r es e t ro ite d e p o l i ät r ame u n ie ) . D es c onvergences d ef o rme o nt d e ja e t e n o tees , e n tre p o l i d e b o is e tb o is d e c erv ide , p our l e s i lex n on c hau f f e ( Vaughan 1 985 , P l isson 1 985 ) . D es e xper iences p lus n ombreuses , p lus v ar iees e tp oursu iv ies p lus l o ng temps p erme t tront p eu t -öt re d ' e tab l ir d es d i s t inct ions p ar t ie l les e nt re e ux . N o tons c ependan t q u ' i ls d if eren t s ens ib lement d es a u t res p o l is o bserves . L es t ra ces r e levees s ur l e s o u t i ls a yan tt r ava i l le d es f ougeres , d es r oseaux , d e l ' os e t d e l ap eau s e che h um id if i ee p resen tent d es c arac ter is t iques ( mode le , e x tens ion , t rame ) q u ip ermet ten tn et temen t d e l e s d i s t inguer l e su nes d es a u tres : —L es l ame l les a yant c oupe d es f oug eres p resen ten t u n p o l i d eve loppe s ur l e s d eux f a ces d e l ' ou t i l , d ' assez g rande e x tens ion , at r ame u n ie a s er ree , a ux c ontours f l ous ;l e s s urf a ces p o l ies s on tl i sses e tp lu tö t p lanes ( p l . 1 ,a ); —L es l ame l les a yan tf endu d es r oseaux p resen tent u n p o l i b i en d eve loppe s ur l e s d eux f a ces , e nvah i ssan t , at rame u n ie a s e rree , a ux l im i tes f l oues ;l e s s ur f a ces p o l ies s ont p arf a i t ement l i sses e t r egu lar isees p res d u b ord , p lus i r regu l ieres , d 'aspec t b oursouf le , l o rsque l a t rame n ' es t p lus u n ie ( f ig . 5 , n ° 3;p l . 2 ,c ) ;u ne p et ite p lage p o l ie e s t v i s ib le a r c e i l n u ;l ef i l t r anchant p resente u n a r rond i t r es l i sse a g rand r ayon ; —L 'ec la t a yant ru le d e l ' os p or te d es p lages d e p o l i b ien l o ca l isees , d ' ex tens ion l im itee , ät r ame u n ie , äc ont our n e t , f o rmant u n b i seau s ur l eb ord; l a s ur f ace

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P lanche 1 :L es g ross issements i nd iquent l e g ross is sement i n it ia l .

a P iece e xper imenta le n °1 78 . S i lex c hauf f e . C ouper d es f ougeres . 2 00 x . ( f ig . 5 ,n ° 5 ) .

b P iece e xper imenta le n ° 6 7 . S i lex n on c hauf f e . C ouper d es f ougeres . 2 50 x .

C P iece e xper imenta le n °1 76 . S i lex c hauf f e . F endre d es r oseaux . 2 00 x ( f ig . 5 ,n ° 3 ) .

1 06

d PMce e xper imenta le n ° 1 47 . S i lex n on c hauf f e . F endre d es r oseaux . 1 25 x .

e P i ce e xper imenta le n °174 . S i lex c hauf f e . R ac ier d u b o is . 2 00 x ( f ig . 5 ,n ° 1 ) .

f P i ce e xper imenta le n ° 3 4 . S i lex n on c hauf f e . R ac ier d u b o is . 4 00 x .

1 07

P lanche 2 :

a P i ke e xpdr imenta le n ° 1 77 . S i lex c hauf f d . S c ier d u b o is d e c e rv idd . 2 00 x . ( f ig . 5 , n ° 4 ) .

P i ke e xpdr imenta le n °139 . S i lex n on c hauf f d . S c ier d ub o is d e c erv idd . 4 00 x .

IC

P i ke e xpdr imenta le n ° 1 66 . S i lex c hauf f d . Rac ier d e l ' os . 3 00 x . ( f ig . 5 ,n ° 6 ) .

P i ke e xpdr imenta le n °1 86 . S i lex n on c hauf f d . R ac ier d e l ' os . 3 00 x .

1 08

e P iäce e xpdr imenta le n ° 1 75 . S i lex c hauf f d . E p i ler u ne p eau . 3 00 x ( f ig . 5 ,n ° 2 ) .

f PMce e xpdr imenta le S .B eyr ies . S i lex n on c hauf f d . E p i ler u ne p eau . 2 00 x .

g

n °2 183 E 6 7 .

S i lex c hauf f d . P o l i d e p lante n on l i gneuse . 4 00 x ( f ig . 7 ,n ° 9 ) .

h

n °1 437 E 6 7 .

S i lex n on c hauf f d . P o l i d e p lante n on l i gneuse , a ntdr ieur äl a r et ouche . 1 00 x . ( f ig . 6 , n °4 ) .

1 09

p o l ie a u n a spect n ive le , a vec d es o ndu la t ions p erpend icu la ires a u b ord ( f ig . 5 n ° 6 ;p l . 2 ,c ); —L a l ame l le a yant d p i le u ne p eau s ä che h um id if ide p resente u n p o l i b i en d eve loppe s ur l a f a ce d e c ontact , moyennement e tendu , ät rame u n ie ä l äche , a u c ontour f l ou ;l e f i l t ranchant e s t i r regu l iärement a rrond i ;l e s s urfaces p o l ies s ont l i sses , a vec q ue lques p et it s t r ous , e tf o rment d es b osses a rrond ies e nt re l e sque l les l e p o l i p enätre ;p lus ieurs s t r ies e tro ites p erpend icu la ires a u b ord o nt e t e o bservees ( f ig . 5 , n ° 2 ;p l . 2 ,e ) . I if audra b ien e ntendu v er if ier , c o mp le ter e t n uancer c es o bservat ions p ar d ' au tres e xper iences . C ependant , i s e mb le , s ur l a b ase d e c e t rava i l p re l im ina ire , q ue l e d iagnos t ic d es mater idux t rava i l les e s t p oss ib le , a vec d es d eg res d e p rec is ion v ar iab les . I ii mpor te ma intenant d e c o mparer l e s t races o bt enues a vec d es s i lex d eb ites a präs t ra itement t herm ique a c e l les o bservab les s ur d es s i lex n on c hauf f es . L es t races p resentent u ne f o rte r essemb lance d ans t r o is c as : —c ouper d es f ougäres ( p l . 1 , ae tb ) :p o l is e t endu s , at rame u n ie ä s erree , äs urf ace l i sse ;c ependant , l ep o l i o btenu s ur l al ame n on c hauf f ee e st p lus e t endu , p our u n möme t emps d e t rava i l . —f endre d es r oseaux ( p l . 1 , ce t d ) :p o l is e tendus , ät rame u n ie ä s e rree , äs urfa ce l i sse; l e p o l i f o rme u ne s urface l i sse c ont inue l o in d u b ord , p lus d t endue s ur l a l ame n on c hauf f ee ( pour u n möme t emps d e t rava i l ) . —r ac ier d e l ' os ( p l . 2 , ce t d ) :t aches d e p o l i a ux l im ites n ettes , ät rame u n ie , b iseau tant l eb ord . S ur l e s l ame l les a yant me ld d u b o is ( p l . 1 , ee t0e td u b o is d e c erv ide ( p l . 2 , ae tb ) , l e s p o l is o bserves s ur l e s s i lex d eb ites a präs t ra itemen tt herm ique o nt u ne e x tens ion p lus f a ib le , u ne t rame p lus l äche , u n mode le a f f ectant mo ms l a m icrotopograph ie q ue l o rsqu ' i l s ' ag it d e s i lex n on t ra ite ;i l s o nt d one d es c ara c ter ist iques mo m s marquees d u f a i t d e l eur p lus f a ib le d eve loppement . L e p o l i d e p eau a pparu s ur l al ame l le n °1 75 s ' est a vere b eaucoup p lus l i sse q ue c e lu i q u i s ' est f o rme s ur u n r a c lo ir e n s i lex b lond d e Murs , n on c hauf f e , u t i l ise p our l a möme t äche , s ur l a möme p eau e t p endant l e mdme t emps ( e xp . S . B eyr ies ) e t s ur l eque l e s t a pparu u n p o l i äs ur face g renue e t c r ib lee d e p et its t r ous ( p l . 2 ,f ) . S i l ' on a dmet q ue l a r ugos i te d u p o l i d e p eau v ane e n f onct ion d e l a p resence d e l ubr if iant ( e au o u g ra isse ) ( Mansur -Franchomme , 1 983; V aughan , 1 985 ,

P .

3 7 ) o n p eu t emettre l ' hypothäse q ue l e

s i lex d eb ite a präs c hauf f e p resente u ne s urface p lus g l issante q ue l e s i lex n on c hauf f e . C ependant , c es d if erences n e d o ivent p as masquer l a r essemb lance d u p o l i o bserve a vec d es p o l is d e p eau s ur s i lex n on c hauf f e :b ord emous se , c aractäre c ouvrant d u p o l i , q u i p enätre d ans l e s c reux , c ont inu ite d u p o l i l el ong d ub o rd . Ia ppara it d onc q ue l e s t races pols , s t r ies , emousses - p rodu ites p ar l ' usage s ur l e s s i lex c hauf f es p resentent d e n ombreuses r essemb lances a vec c e l les p rodu ites s ur l e s s i lex n on c hauf f es . Une marge d e v ar ia t ion s e mb le e x ister , q u i d evra ö t re p rec isee e xper imenta lement , e t q u i p ourra it p roven ir d e l a me i l leure c apac ite ä g l isser q ue p ossädent l e s s urfaces d eb itees a präs c hauf f e .

10

T UDE F ONCT IONNELLE D 'UN ÜC HANT ILLON D EL AME ( L LE )S D ES C OUCHES 7 E T 8D EL AG ROTTE D EL 'EG L L SE S UPER TEURE B ien q ue l a s er ie e xper imenta le s o it t r op p eu f ourn ie p our c onst ituer u ne b ase d e r ef erence p our l ' ana lyse d e p i ces a rcheo log iques , l ' examen d 'un e chant i l lon d e l ame ( 1 1e )s d eb itees a prA t ra itement t herm ique a e te t ente , s ur l a b ase d e l ' hypothäse p rov iso ire s e lon l aque l le l e s t races d 'ut i l isat ion s ur s i lex d db ite a pr s c hauf f e s ont c omparab les ä c e l les s ur s i lex n on c hauf f e . L 'echant i l lon e tud ie c omprend 2 2 o ut i ls r etouches s ur l ames o u l ame l les ( s o it u n p eu mo ms d el a mo it id d es o u t i ls r etou ches s ur l ame ( 1 1e )s d es c ouches 7e t8 )e t2 1 l ames o u l ame l les b ru tes o u äe n lävement i r regu l iers ( s o it u n p eu p lus d u d ix i me d u t o ta l ) ;c es 4 3 p ices s e r dpar t issent e n 2 7 l ame ( 1 1e )s c hauf f ees e t 1 6 n on c hauf f ees , s o it , d ans F un e t l ' au tre c as , e nv iron 2 0 %d ut o ta l d es c ou ches 7e t8 .L e c ho ix a e t ef a it d ef a pon ar especter a pprox ima t ivement r equ i l ibre t ypo log ique c o mpte n on t enu d es g eometr iques e t d es p ices s ur e c la ts ( notamment d es p ibces b ifa c ia les ) .

D ESCRIPT ION D ES O BSERVAT IONS L es s i lex s ont g enera lement b ien c onserves ; l e s p i ces p at indes s ont p eu n ombreuses . L es t races d 'u t i l isat ion o bservees s ur l e s s i lex c hauf f es r essemb lent ä c e l les p rodu ites e xper imenta lement s ur d es l ame l les d eb itees a pr s t ra itement t herm ique , e t ä c e l les v i s ib les s ur l e s s i lex n on c hauf f es ;p our c es d ern i &es , n ous n e d dta i l lerons p as l e s t races d 'ut i l isat ion o bservees , c e l les -c i a yant e te ma intes f o is d ecr ites d ans d es p ub l ica t ions a nter ieures ( L . -H . K ee ley 1 980 , Mansur -Franchomme 1 983 , E . Moss 1 983 , H . P l isson 1 985 , P .V aughan 1 985 ) .

T rava i ld es vedtaux n on l i gneux S i lex c hauf fA D eux o u t i ls s ur l ame: u n b ur in e squ i l le s ur l ame r etouchee ( f ig . 7 , n ° 9 ) , e t u ne t r oncature n orma le p oster ieure a u n b ur in ( f ig . 7 , n ° 1 0 ) p resentent d es t races i n terpretees c omme p rovenant d e l a c oupe d e v egetaux n on l i gneux :l ep o l i e s t e t endu e t c ont inu , at rame u n ie ä s erree , p u is l ä che , a vec u n b ord a rrond i , u ne s urface l i sse , r egu Ure , c omme r abotee , p arf o is l d ürement b ombee , a vec d es p et its t r ous e t q ue lques s t r ies ( p l . 2 , ge tp l . 3 ,a ) . Dans l e s d eux c as , c e p o l i n e s e v o it p as al ' o e i l n u o u e st ap e ine d ece lab le d ans l e s z ones d e p lus f o r t d eve loppement . C e la p eu t s ' exp l iquer a l af o is p ar l a f o r te b r i l lance d u s uppor te tp ar u n d eve loppement modere d up o l i . S i lex n on c hauff t s Un g rand p erpo ir , d eux l ames a r etouche r asante o u s em iabrupte o nt c oupe d es v egetaux . ( f ig . 6 ,n ° 1 ,4 ,6 ) .

11

a

n ° H7 8 A .

S i lex c hauf f d . P o l i d e p lante n on l i gneuse , a n tdr ieur äl ar etouche . 2 00 x . ( f ig . 7 ,n ° 1 0 ) .

b

n °9 754 J 78 .

S i lex n on c hauf f d . P o l i d e p lante n on l i gneuse , a n tdr ieur äl ar e t , ouche . 1 00 x . ( f ig . 6 ,n ° 6 ) .

c

n °1 930 E 5 7 .

S i lex c hauf f d . C ouper d el ap eau . 2 00 x ( f ig . 7 ,n ° 6 ) .

d n °9 754 J 78 . S i lex n on c hauf f d . R ac ier d e l ap eau . 2 00 x . ( f ig . 6 ,n ° 6 ) .

12

e

n °2 948 G 5 7 .

S i lex c hauf f 6 . R ac ier d u b o is . 2 00 x ( f ig . 7 ,n ° 1 2 ) .

f

n ° 3 035 E 7 7 .

S i lex n on c hauf f 6 . Rac ier d e l a p eau . 2 00 x . ( f ig . 6 , n ° 8 ) .

g n °3 421 F 7 7 . S i lex c hauf f d . Rac ier d e l os . 2 00 x ( f ig . 7 ,n ° 4 ) .

h

n °3 627 G 8 7 .

S i lex n on c hauf f 6 .Couper d u b o is . 2 00 x . ( f ig . 6 , n ° 2 ) .

13

T rava i ld el ap eau S i lex c hauf f gs Une l ame l le a e n levements i r regu l iers ( f ig . 7 , n ° 6 ) e t u n b ur in d ang le s ur l ame l le r e tou ch & ( f ig . 7 , n1 2 ) p ort ent d es t r aces p rovenan t , s e lon n o t re i n terpre ta t ion , d e l a &coupe d e l ap eau p our l ap rem iere , d u r ac lage d e l ap eau p ou r l as econde . L e p o l i e s t a ssez e t endu , c ont inu l el ong d ub ord e ta rrond i t l eb o rd e tl e s n ervures d es r e tou ches . I la u ne t rame u n ie e t u ne s urf ace c r ib lee d e p e t i ts t r ou s , c e q u i l u i d onne u ne a pparence g renue ( p l . 3 ,c ) . C e p o l i r es semb le b eau coup a u p o l i d e p eau s e che ( r ehum id i f iee o u n on ) e tn e p resen te p as l ' aspec t p lus l i sse o bserve s ur l ap i ece e xper imenta le e n s i lex c hauf f e . C et te d if erence p rov ient p eu t -ötre dune d if erence d ans l ' e ta t d e l a ma t iere t rava i l lee ( p lus s e che ?p resence d ' abras if ? ) . S i lex n on c hauf f es : Un g ra t to ir d oub le ( f ig . 6 , n ° 5 ) e t u ne l ame ä r e touche r asante o u s em iabrupte ( f ig . 6 ,n ° 6 ) , a nt g ra t te d e l ap eau ( apres a vo ir c oupe d es v egetaux , d ans l ec a s d e l al ame r e touchee ) .

T rava i l d u b o is S i lex c hauf f e s D eux p i eces ( une l ame l le a ppo int ie p ar r e tou che s em iabrup te , f i g . 7 ,n ° 1 , e t u n b ur in d ' ang le s ur t r onca ture , f i g . 7 , n ° 1 2 ) a nt m on t re u n p o l i i n terprete c omme u n p o l i d e b o is ( s c ier d u b o is p our l a p rem iere , r ac ier d u b o is p our l a s e conde ) ;c ' es t u n p o l i ä t r ame u n ie ä s e rree , a ux l im i tes f l oues , d ' ex tens ion m oyenne , f o rmant d e l e geres b osses ( p l . 3 ,e ) ;s ur l ap rem iere l ame l le , l ep o l i e s t a ssez c ont inu l el ong d u b ord e ta douc it l e s n ervures d es m icro -en levements . L a c onfus ion a vec u n a u t re p o l i ( par e xemp le d e b o is d e c e rv ide ) r es te p oss ib le . L e b ur in e s t u ne p i ece c ompos i te s ur l ep lan f onc t ionne l ( r ac ler d u b o is p ar u nb ord , d el ap eau p ar l ' au t re ) . S i l ex n on c hauf f es Une l ame r e tou ch & ( f ig . 6 ,n °2 )p or te , s ur l eb ord d ro i t s up6r ieur , u n p o l i e voquan t l es c iage d ub o is ( p l . 3 ,h ) . C ependan t , l eb ord d ro i ti n f 6r ieur n e p räsente p as d e t r a ces ;u n a rrond i d i scont inu d u b ord g auche , l ' abras ion d e t outes l e s n ervures d e l a f a ce s uper ieure , u n p o l i ma t e t endu s ur l a mo it ie g au che d e l a f a ce i nf ör ieure t r ouven t d i f f ic i lement u ne e xp l ica t ion f onc t ionne l le ;i l p ourra it p eu t -ötre s ' ag ir d e t races p rovenant dun emmanchement .

T rava i l d e F os ( ou d u b o i s d e o erv id6 ) S i l ex c hauf f e Une l ame l le ä e n levement s i r regu l iers ( f ig . 7 ,n °4 ) p resen te s ur l eb ord i nf er ieu r u ne b ande e t ro ite d e p o l i at r ame u n ie , as urfa ce l i sse e t d ' aspec t n ive le , a ux l im i tes n et tes , a vec d es s t r ies e t o ndu la t ions p erpend icu la ires a u b ord , f o rmant u n b iseau ( p l . 3 ,g ) . L e t rava i l e f ec tue e s t u n r a c lag e .

14

Ma t i &es d ures S i lex c hauf f es Un b ur in d ' ang le s ur t r onca ture ( f ig . 7 ,n °8 )e s t af ec te p ar u n p et it b i seau d e p o l i ä t rame u n ie , s ur u ne d ent d u b ur in , q u i p ourra it p roven ir d 'un mouvement t ransversa l s ur u ne mat iöre d ure . S il e x n on c hauf f e Une l a me ä e n lövements i r regu l iers ( f ig . 6 ,n ° 7 ) ar ac le u ne mat iöre d ure p ar u ne c our te p ort ion d ub ord g auche .

Ma t ik -es t endres i nd6term in6es S il e x c hauf fA Un b ur in ( f ig . 7 ,n °7 )p resente u n p o l i ma t , a vec d e n ombreux t r ous , n on s t r ies , s ur l e b ord g auche i nf er ieur , e t a rrond issant l a n ervure g auche s uper ieure ;l en egat if d e l a c hu t e d e b ur in r ecoupe c e p o l i s ans q ue l e s d eux n ervures e n r esu ltant s o ient emoussees : l e c oup d e b ur in e st d onc p oster ieur a c e p o l i d 'u t i l isa t ion , q u i e voque u ne ma t iöre t endre e t l ap resence d ' abras if . Une l ame a t r oncature n orma le a montre u n p o l i ät rame u n ie a s erree , äl a s urface l i sse a g renue , a u b ord a rrond i , a vec d es s t r ies d ' or ientat ions mu l t ip les , s ur l eb ord g auche p rox ima l .

Ma t ik -es i ndd term ine 'e Une l a me ä r etouche r asante o u s em i a brupte , e n s i lex n on c hauf f e , p or te u n p o l i g ranu leux a t rame u n ie ä s e rree , e td es s t r ies l ong itud ina les .

Carcasse an i ma le S i lex c hauf f e Une l ame l le e tro ite t r onquee a p resente q ue lques s t r ies l ong itud ina les q u i p ourra ient p roven ir d 'un c ontact a vec u n o s l o rs d 'une o perat ion d e d ecoupe d 'une c arcasse a n i ma le , ma is c e t te i n terpreta t ion r epose s ur d es i nd ices t r ös p eu p robants .

T races d ' or ig ine i ndd term in6e S i lex c hauf f e Qua tre l a me l les b rute s o u äe n lövements i r regu l iers n ' ont q ue q ue lques s pots d iscre t s , o u d es s t r ies d esordonnees , d ont l ' or ig ine n e p eu t ö t re e tab l ie . S ur d eux l ames ( une c hauf f ee , f i g . 7 , n ° 5 , l ' au tre n on c hauf f ee , f i g . 6 , n ° 3 ) u n «d epö t

( ? ) ma t , g r is o u b leuätre , i nterrompu p ar d es l a cunes i r regu l iöres e t d es s t r ies ,

s e mb le c ouvr ir u ne s ur face b lanche b r i l lante . S ur l a l ame n on c hauf f ee , c es t races s ont p lus d enses s ur l a f ace i nf er ieure , p ar t icu l iörement s ur l e b ord g auche , e t a bsentes d es n egat if s d e r etouche d e l a f ace s uper ieure , al ' except ion d u b ord g auche mes ia l . L 'ensemb le e voque u ne u t i l isat ion s ur u n ma ter iau t endre , s u iv ie d 'un r av ivage p ar t ie l . S ur l a l ame c hauf f ee , c e t e tat d e s ur face a p u ö t re o bserve s ur u ne p ar t ie d es b ords d e l a mo it ie p rox i ma le . S i l ' on p eu t l ä a uss i e voquer u n ma ter iau t endre , i le st d i f f ic i le d e

15

s uggerer i m s ens d 'ut i l isa t ion . C ependant , o n n e p eut p as 6 car ter , p our c e s d eux l ames , l ' hypothese d 'une a l terat ion . Une l ame a ppo int ie a r etouche r asante e n s i lex n on c hauf f 6 p or te d es t ra ces d iverses e t p robab lement d ' or ig ines mu l t ip les .

Lu strd d e s o ! Quatre l ames b rutes o u ae n levements i r regu l iers e n s i lex c hauf f 6 , u ne l ame ä r etouche r asante o u s em i a brupte , u n g ra t to ir e t u ne l ame ä e n levement s i r regu l iers e n s i lex n on c hauf f e s ont marques p ar u n l ustre d e s o l .

Absence d e t races C inq l a mes o u l ame l les b rutes o u ae n levements i r regu l iers , u ne l a me l le ä t r onca ture n orma le ( f ig . 7 ,n °1 ) , u n g rat to ir m ince ( f ig . 7 ,n °2 ) e tu n p et i t p erpo ir ( f ig . 7 , n ° 3 ) e n s i lex c hauf f 6 o nt p resent6 u ne s ur face f ra iche , d e möme q ue d eux l a mes ä e n levements i r regu l iers e tu ne l ame a ppo int ie p ar r et ouche r asante e n s i lex n on c hauf f e .

Com men ta ire S ur l e s 4 3 p ieces e xam inees , 1 8 ( s o it l egerement mo ms d e 4 0% ) p resentent d es t races d 'ut i l isat ion . C e l les -c i ( t ab leau n ° I V ) s ont e ga lement r epart ies e ntre a ct ions l ong itud ina les e t t ransversa les , mat ieres a n ima les e t v egeta les . L es d eux a ct iv ites d om inantes s ont l a c oupe d es v egetaux n on l i gneux ( 5l ames o u l ame l les ) e tl et rava i l d e l a p eau ( 4 o u t i ls ä r ac ier o u g raf ter , u ne l ame a d ecouper ) ;s iI on c o mp te l en ombre d e b ords u t i l ises , l e s p ropor t ions n e v ar ient p as s ens ib lement ( 7b ords u t i l ises p our l et rava i l d e l a p eau , 6p our l a c oupe d es v egetaux n on l i gneux ) . L ' echant i l lon e tud ie e xc luant t ous l e s 6 c la ts e t p rodu its s ur 6 c lats , a ins i q ue l e s g eometr iques , o n n e p eu t p as p roposer d ' hypothese g enera le s ur l e s a ct iv ites d es o ccupants d e l ag rotte . L es o u t i ls n on c hauf f es u t i l ises ( t ab leau n °5 ) s ont e ssent ie l lement d es l ames ar e touche r asante o u s em i a brup te , t and is q ue l e s o ut i ls c hauf f es u t i l ises s ont s ur tou t d es b ur ins e t d es t ronca tures . I ls ' ag i t l ä dun r e f let d e l a c o mpos it ion d e F echant i l lon ( c f . t ab . n ° I )e t l ' on y r etrouve l e s c ategor ies t ypo log iques d om inantes a u s e in d u d eb itag e l am ina ire d es c ou ches 7 e t 8 . T outef o is , c es o bserva t ions n ' ont p as l e meme s ens s u ivant q ue l a r e touche e s t a ntär ieure o u p oster ieure a l ' ut i l isa t ion . A ins i , l e s 5o u t i ls a yant c oupe d es v egetaux n on l i gneux o nt 6 t 6 r etouches a pres u sage , äl ' except ion d ub ord g auche d 'une l ame c hauf f ee ä t r oncature n orma le ( f ig . 7 , n °10 ) , b ord p our l eque l l a r e lat ion c hrono log ique e ntre l a r etouche e t l ' usage n e p eut e t re e tab l ie , ac ause d 'une f r acture t herm ique . D ans u n c as , l ' usage p os ter ieur ä l a r e touche e st c onnu ( f ig . 6 ,n °6 ): c e t te l ame a s erv i är ac ier d e l a p eau . Un b ur in s ur c assure ( f ig . 7 ,n °9 ) s ur u ne l ame c hauf f ee , e st p robab lement l i 6 ä l ' esqu i l lement d e l ' extrem it6 d ista le , e t p ourra it t emo igner d 'une b reve u t i l isa t ion c o mme p iece i ntermed ia ire p our f endre u n ma ter iau d ur . L 'absence d e t races p oster ieures ä l a r etouche s ur u ne l ame l le t r onquee ( f ig . 7 , n °1) , s ur u n p erpo ir ( f ig . 7 , n ° 3 ) e t s ur u n g ratt o ir ä f r ont c arre ( f ig . 7 ,n ° 2 ) i nd ique s o it u ne a bsence d 'ut i l isa t ion , s o it u ne u t i l isat ion b reve .

16

Tableau IV - Distribution des outils etudies selon le materiau travaille, le mouvement et la presence ou absence de chauffe. Materiau action silex non chauffe

"& i::i � � i::i

silex chauITe

�

silex chauITe

.s al

2

materiau tendre

bois

os ou bois de cervide

matiere dure

1? 1

1

rien ou materiau indetermine sol ou indet.

1

1?

2+1*

silex chauffe silex non chauffe

carcasse animale

2+1 *

silex non chauffe

�i::i

·s

vegetal non peau lignem

1

1*

1 *?

1

1

8

2

silex non chauffe

3

3

silex chauffe

2

2

17

1? 1

2

2

1 1

1

1

8

17

* fonctions composites : chaque piece apparaft deux fois dans le tableau.

On peut faire une constatation exactement inverse pour le travail des peaux : dans les trois cas, !'utilisation est posterieure a la retouche; on peut leur associer une lame non retouchee utilisee pour couper de la peau; la chronologie n'a pas pu etre etablie pour un grattoir doubJe1 cm

2

2

4

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L es l a me ( 1 1e )s d eb i tees s e lon l e s chema 2 1-2 ' s ont p lus f r equemment u t i l isc les q ue l e s a u tres p rodu its l am ina ires c hauf f es ( t ab . V I ) . C es 6 l ame l les o nt e ssent ie l le ment s erv i äc ouper d es mater iaux t endres :d eux o nt c oupe d es v egetaux n on l i gneux , u ne a c oupe d e l a p eau , u ne a u tre a p eu t -etre e te u t i l isee e n b oucher ie , l e s d eux d ern ieres o nt a ccomp l i u n t rava i l i ndeterm ine s ur u ne mat iere t endre . C omme l o rsque l ' on c o mpare l e s d onnees d e l at ypo log ie e td e l at raceo log ie e n f onct ion d e l a d imens ion d es p rodu its , i s e mb le q ue

l e s t aux d 'u t i l isat ion c orrespondent a ssez f i de lement a ux t aux d e

t ransf ormat ion p ar r etouches :l e s l ames e t l ame l les d eb itees s e lon d ' autres s chemas o pera to ires s ont mo ms f r equemment t ransf ormees e t mo ms f r equemment u t i l isees . L es r esu lta ts o btenus s ur l e s p i eces p resentant d es t races d e m ise e n f orme ( deux u t i l isees s ur q ua tre o bservees ) , c omme l ef a ib le e f ect if d e l a s er ie , l im itent c ependant l a p or t& d e c es r e marques .

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1 20

L 'absence d e t races s ur l e s l ame l les l e s p lus e t ro ites , q u 'e l les s o ient b rutes o u q u 'e l les p or tent d es e n levements i r regu l iers , p ose u n p rob leme v is -à -v is d uque l o n p eu t p roposer d eux h ypo the ses n on c ontrad icto ires .

T ab leau V I —D istr ibut ion d es l ame ( 1 1e )s c hauf f ees s e lon l e s c odes o perato ires e t l e s t ra ces d 'ut i l isa t ion .

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1 — Un l o t i mpor tan t d e l ame l les d äb i tCes a pr Cs c hauf f e n 'aura i tp as g t C u t i l is6 . L es l ame l les t ra itkes t herm iquement p our l e d eb itage c onst i tuent l a ma jor ite d es p rodu its l am ina ires ;p arm i e l les l e s p rodu i ts e t ro its s ont d om inants ma is n e p euvent p as p ar t ic iper , s i non marg ina lement , äu n p rocessus d e f abr icat ion d e p rodu its p lus l a rges . S ' ag issant d 'une mat iere p rem iere d ' or ig ine e l o ignee , o n c o mprend ma l q ue c es l ame l les n 'a ient p as d td u t i l isees s ans e voquer l ' hypothese d 'une r eserve , d 'une p rov is ion . E n e f et , l al og ique d u d eb itage p ar p ress ion e st u ne l og ique d e p roduct ion e n s d r ie q u i n e p ara it p as p ouvo ir a dmet tre d e d eb i tage ä l a d emande . Auss i p eu t -on p enser q ue l a ma t iere p rem iere a ppor tee s ur l e s i te y a e te t ra itee t herm iquement p u is e n t iere ment d eb itee e n v ue d 'ut i l isat ions u l ter ieures . On a ura it a fa ire ä l a c ons t itut ion dun s tock d ans l eque l o n a ura it p u ise s e lon l e s b eso ins e n c ho is issant d ' abord l e s me i l leurs p rodu its :l e s l a me ( 1 1e )s l e s p lus l arges e t l e s p lus r egu l ieres ( de c ode o pera to ire 2 1-2 ' ) . L e c ho ix d es 2 1-2 ' ap u e t re g u ide t ou t s imp lement p ar l eur me i l leur a spec t , l ' ex is tence d e d eux c ha ines o pera to ires a u s e in d u ma ter ie l c hauf f e n e p ouvant p as e t re r e tenu e n l ' eta t a c tu e l . L ' ex ist ence dun s t ockage d o it c ependant e tre d i scute a pres e xamen d es d onnees r e la t ives ä l ar epar t i t ion s pa t ia le .

2 —Les p e t i tes l a me l l es a ura ien t g t C u t i l isCes p our l e t rava i l d e ma t iCres t endres ( n ota mment &coupe d e l a v iande e t b ou cher ie ) o u l o rs d 'a ct ions b reves n 'ayant p as l a isse d e t ra ces . L e s econd v o let d e c e t te p ropos it ion n e p eut e t re d i scu te e t i le st i nd ispensab le d e mu l t ip l ier l e s e xper iences . L 'hypothese d 'une u t i l isa t ion d e c es l ame ( 1 1e )s d ans l a &coupe d es c arcasses n e s aura it e t re r e jetee d ans l a mesure o u d es t races d e &coupe e f ec tuees d e t ou te e v idence a u s i lex s ont a bondantes s ur l e s r es t , es f aun iques e t q ue l a d ecoupe e n q uar t iers e s te ga lement a t tes tee d ans c es n iveaux 7 e t 8d e l a c av ite ( He lmer , V i l la e t C our t in 1 987 ) . E ncore f au t i l v er if ier l o rs d 'une e tude p lus e xhaus t ive q ue c e t te f onc t ion n 'eta i t p as a ssuree p ar d ' au tres o b jets ( e c lats b ru ts v o ire p ieces b ifac ia les ) . S il ' on o bserve l e s r esu lta ts o b tenus e n c r o isant d 'une p art l e s a spec ts c oncernant l a c hauf f e ( presence o u a bsen ce ) e t c eux q u i c oncernent l e s r e lat ions e ntre l a l o ca l isat ion 1 21

d es t ra ces d 'u t i l isa t ion e t l a l o ca l isa t ion d es r e tou che s ( t ab . V I I ) o n r ema rque q ue l e mater ie l s e c ompor te d i f f eremment s e lon l a p resence o u l ' absence d e t r a ite ment t herm ique . L es l ame l les e n s i lex t r a i te o nt ad u t i l isees d ans 6 c as s ur 9p ar u n b ord b ru t d e d eb i tag e t and is q ue l e sp i eces e n s i lex n on t r a i te o n te t e u t i l isees d ans 8c a ss u r 9p ar u n b ord r e tou che a vant o u a pres c e t t e u t i l isa t ion . C e f o r t c ontras te c onf or te r i d& d e d eux c ha ines o pera to ires , i dee q ue l ' un d ' entre n ous n 'ava i t p as e nv isagee d ans u ne e tude p receden te ( B inder 1 984 ) . I lc onf or te e ga lement l ' i dee d e d eux e c onom ies d i f f erentes d e l ' ou t i l lage ( Per les 1 986 ) s e lon q ue l e ma ter ie l s o i t o u n e s o i tp as t a i l le s ur p la ce . L e ma ter ie l n on c hauf f e , p lu tö t r obus te , e conom ise , p ourra it c orrespondre ä u ne p rodu ct ion s pec ia l isee h ors d u s i t e . L e ma ter ie l c hauf f e , p lu s f r ag i le , mo ms u t i l ise s i non g asp i l le , c orrespondra it a u ne p rodu c t ion d omes t ique s u r p lace . L a c hauf f e , f a c i l itant l a t a i l le , a u tor isera it d onc u ne mo indre s pec ia l isa t ion e t p ermet t ra it u ne p lus g rande p rodu ct iv i te d ans l a g es t ion d es ma t ieres p rem ieres i mpor tees . C es e l emen t s c onf or ten t l ' i dde d 'une f o r te s t ru c tura t ion d es t e rro irs c hasseens e t d ' une s pe c ia l isa t ion a ccrue d es t äches . P ar a i l leurs , i le s t c l a ir q ue p lus l e s d iagnos t ics t ypo log ique , t e chno log ique e t f onc t ionne l t endent a s ' af f iner , p lus l e s aupoudrag e d es d onnees e st i mpor tant . L es h ypotheses q u i s urg issen t d e l ac onf ronta t ion d e c es t r o is c hamps s ont f r ag i les e n r a ison d e l a f a ib lesse n umer ique d es e f f ec t if s . I e s t d on e n ecessa ire d e mu l t ip l ier c e t ype d ' etudes .

NOTES ( 1 )

L es t r aces d ' u t i l isa t ion s ur s i lex n on c hauf f e o nt f a i t l ' ob je t d ' une e xper imenta t ion u t i l isan t l e s p r inc ipa les s our ces d e s i lex a t tes tees a u N eo l i th ique e n P rovence , e t d ont l e sr esu l ta ts n e s ont p a sp re sen t& i c i .

( 2 )

In ' a p as e te p oss ib le d ' observer l e s r e touche s d ' u t i l isa t ion s ur l e s d eux l ame l les a yant f endu d es r o seaux e tl ' ec la t r e tou che a yan t me ld d e l os , d ont l ' e tat d es b ords n 'ava it p as ad n o te a van t u t i l isa t ion .

( 3 )

L es d eux f r on ts d e c eg ra t to ir n ' ont p as P u ö t r e e xam ines c o r rectemen t , c ompte t enu d e l ' appare i l lage d ont o n d i sposa it .

1 22

T ab leau V II — D istr ibut ion d es o ut i ls aud ids s e lon l a t ypo log ie , l a t ypo rndtr ie e t l e s t ra ces d 'ut i l isat ion .

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1 23

-

B IBL IOGRAP H IE B INDER ,

( D .) ,

1 983 .— Approche d es i ndus tr ies l i th iques d u Mo l i th ique a nc ien

p rove f l l . T h . se d e U me c yc le , Un ivers ite d e P ar is X , 2v o l . mu lt ig raph ies . B INDER , ( D . ) , 1 984 .— S yst mes d e d eb itage l am ina ire p ar p ress ion : e xe mp les c hasseens p roven pux . P rM is to ire d e l a p ierr e t a i l ld 'e , 2 : d eb itage l am ina ire , p .7 1 -84 . COURT IN , ( J . ) , 1 970 .— L e C hasseen mer id iona l . L es c i v i l isa t ions n& J l i th iques d u M id i d e l aF rance , A ctes d u C o l loque d e Narbonne , p .2 7 -31 . COURTIN ,

( J .) ,

19 74 .— L e

Mo l i th ique

d e

P rovence .

Memo ires d e l a S oc iete

P reh istor ique F rança ise , T ome 1 1 , E d . K l incks ieck , P ar is . DAUVOIS ,

( M .) ,

1 976 .— Préc is d e d ess in d ynamique e t s truc tural d es i ndus tr ies

l i th iques p ra t is tor iques , E d . F an lac , P er igueux . HELMER , ( D . ) , V ILLA , ( P .) e t COURT IN , ( J . ) , 1 987 .— Que lques e xe mp les d e d ecoupe d ans l e Neo l ith ique d u S udEs t d e l a F rance . An thropo lozoo log ica ( s ous p resse ) . I NIZAN , ( M . -L . ) , ROCHE , ( H . ) , T IX IER , ( J . ) , 1 975 .—

Avantages d 'un t ra itement

t herm ique p our l at a i l le d es r oches s i l iceuses . Q ua ternar ia , X IX , p .1 18 . KEELEY , ( L . -H . ) , 1 980 .— E xper imen ta l d e term ina t ion o f s t one too l u ses , Un ivers ity o f Ch icago p ress . MANSUR -FRANCHO M ME , ( M . -E . ) , 1 983a .— S cann ing e l ectron m icroscopy o f d ry h ide w ork ing t oo ls: t he r o le o f a bras ives a nd h um id ity i n m icrowear p o l ish f o rmat ion . J ourna l o fA rchaeo log ica l S c ience , 1 0 ( 3 ) , p .2 23 -230 . MANSUR -FRANCHO M ME ,

(M .-E .) ,

1 983b .— T races d 'u t i l isat ion e t t e chno log ie

l i th ique :e xemp les d e l aP a tagon ie . T h se d e

3

r ne

c yc le , Un ivers ite d e B ordeaux I .

MASSON , ( A . ) , 1 984 .— Un p o int d e t echno log ie c hasseenne . Nouve l les A rch ives d u Museum d 'H is to ire Na tur e l l e d e L yon , f asc . 2 2 , s upp l . , p .3 1-42 . MOSS , ( E . -H .) , 1 983 .— T he f unc t ionna l a na lys is o f f l in t i mp lemen ts . P inceven t a nd P on t d 'Ambon : t wo c ase s tud ies f rom t he f r ench f ina l pa laeo l i th ic , B .A .R . I nternat iona l S er ies ( 177 ) , O xf ord . PELEGR IN , ( J . ) 1 984 .— S yst mes e xper imentaux d ' immob i l isat ion d es n uc leus p our l e d eb itage p ar p ress ion . PHh is to ire d e l a p i err e t a i We , 2 : da i tag e l am i na ire , p .1 05 -116 . PERLES , ( C . ) , 1 986 .— L es I ndus tr ies l i th iques d e F ranch t i ( Argo l ide ) . T h se d e D octorat Un ivers ite d e P ar is X , 2v o l . mu l t igraph ies . PETREQU IN , ( P . ) , 1 974 .— I nterpreta t ion dun h ab i tat n eo l ith ique e n g ro t te :l en iveau X I d e G onv i l lars ( Hau te -Saöne ) , Bu l le t in d e l a S oc ié té P r6h is tor ique F ran m ise , T . 7 1 , e tudes e tt ravaux ,f asc . 2 ,p .4 89 -534 .

1 24

PH ILL IPS , ( P . ) , 1 970 .— D eterm ina t ion d e f ac ies r eg ionaux d ans l e Chasseen p ar moyen d e mesures d e l ames e t d e f r agments d e l ames . L es c i v i l isa t ions r to l i th iques d u Mid i d e l aF rance , A ctes d u C o l loque d e Narbonne , p .4 8 -51 . P L ISSO N , ( H . ) , 1 985 .— t tude f onc t ionne l le d 'ou t i l lages l i th iques p rM is tor iques p ar l ' ana lyse d es m icro -usures :r e cherche m d thodo log ique e t a rc Uo log ique . T hese d e d octora t , Un ivers i te d e P ar is I . P LOUX , ( S . ) , 1 984 .— ü tude d e d eb itage a rcheo log iques e t e xper imentaux :l a marque d u t a i l leur .Pr M is to ir e d e l ap ierr e t a i lMe , 2 :dM i tag e l am ina ir e , p .4 5 -52 . S EITZER -OLAUSSON , ( D . ) , 1 983 .— E xper iments t o i nvest igate t he e f f ects o f h eat t reatment o n u se w ear o n f l int t oo ls . P roceed ings o f t he p reh is tor ic s oc ie ty , 4 9 , p . 1 -13 . S E ITZER -OLAUSSON , ( D . ) , LARSSON , ( L . ) 1 982 .— T es t ing f o r t he p resence o ft herma l p retrea tment o f f l int i n t he Meso l ith ic a nd Neo l ith ic o f Sweden . J ourna l o f a rchaeo log ica l s c ience , 9 ,p .2 75 -285 . TEX IER , ( P . -J . ) , 1 982 .— D es i l ic i f ica t ion d es s i lex t al ies . Qua ternar ia , XX I II , p .1 59 -169 . VAUGHAN , ( P . ) , 1 986 .— U se -wear a na lys is o f f l aked s t one t oo ls . T he Un ivers ity o f A r izona p ress , Tucson . VAUGHAN , ( P . ) e t PL ISSON , ( H . ) , 1 986 .— C omment p resenter l e s d onnees t raceo l og iques i n Owen L . e t Unra th G . E ds . , T echn ica l a spects o fm icrowear s tud ies o n s t one t oo ls . Ear ly Man N ews , 9 / 10 /11 , p .1 77 -182 . WARREN , THORPE e t COURT IN , ( J . ) , äp ara itre .— T he S ources o f d istr ibut ion o f a rchaeo log ica l o bs id ian i n S ou thern F rance .

1 25

LE BURIN NtOLITH IQUE SUR ENCOCHE LATERALE OU «BULEVO DI RIPABIA NCA » . APPROCHE FONCTIO NNELLE *

Francesco

D 'ERRIC0**

ABSTRACT:

T he R ipab ianca b ur in , ac hara c ter is t ic t oo l o fa nc ien t N eo l ith ic o f Nor thern I ta ly , i ss ub ject ed t o af unc t iona l s tudy o n t he b a s is o ft he u se -wear p resent o n i t . E xper imen ta l mak ing o fR ipab ianca b ur ins a l so e nab les u s t o u nders tand t he mos t l i ke ly manufa c tur ing t e chn iques . T he e xam ina t ion o f t he w ear was made w i th a S cann ing E lectron M icroscope ( S .E .M . ) o n as amp le o fb ur ins f r om s i tes i n V eneto . T o a vo id t he me ta l -coa t ing o ft he o r ig ina ls , a nd b ecause o ft he ir s i ze , h igh -f ide l ity r es in r ep l icas w ere o bserved w ith SE M . F ina l ly n on d es truct ive m icro -ana lyses w ith E .D .S . s pec trometer a re made o n t he o r ig ina ls . A ltogether , o bserva t ions a nd a na lyses d emons tra te t he v a l id i ty o ft he me thodo log ies w e u sed a nd e nab le u s t o make ar e l iab le i nf erence a bou tt he f unct ion o f t he e xam ined t oo ls . RESU ME:

Ou t i l c ara cter is t ique d u N eo l ith ique a nc ien d e l ' I ta l ie d u Nord , l e b ur in d e R ipab ianca e s t s oum is , d ans c e t te e tude , äu ne a na lyse f onc t ionne l le b asee s ur l e s t ra ces d ' usure i den t if iab les . L e f a£onnage e xper imenta l d e b ur ins d e t ype R ipab ianca a e xp l ique l eur t e chn ique p robab le d e f ab r ica t ion p ar p ress ion . L ' examen d es t races d 'usure a e te ef ectue ä l ' a ide dun m icroscope e l ec t ron ique ä b a layage ( M .E .B . ) , äp ar t ir dun e chan t i l lonnage d e b ur ins p rovenan t d e s i tes d e l a r eg ion d e V en ise ( Veneto ) . P our e v iter l a me ta l l isa t ion d es o u t i ls e t e n r a ison d e l eurs d imens ions , d es r ep l iques e n r es ine d es o r ig inaux o n t e te e xam inees . Une m icroana lyse n on d es truc t ive a vec m icrosonde E .D .S . ae te e ga lement e f f ec tuee . L ' ensemb le d es a na lyses e t d es o bs erva t ions s ou l igne l a v a l id ite d es methodes emp loyees e t e xpr ime u ne h ypo thäse e nv isageab le s ur l a f on c t ion d e c es p ibces .

INTROD UCTIO N L e bur in a e n leve ment , l atera l s ur r etouche l atera le , mieux c onnu s ous l e n om d e «bur in d e

R ipab ianca » ( Brog l io e t L o l l in i 1 963 ) e st un o ut i l c aracter ist ique du

L 'au t ,eur a p res ente s ur c e s u je t s a t hese i t a l ienne ( D 'Err ico F . , 1 986 , T ecno log ia ef unz ione d e l B u l ino d i R ipab ianca . S cuo la d i s pec ia l izzaz ione p er A rcheo log i , i nd ir izzo p re is tor ico , Un iv . P ise . L e t ex te d e c e t te c ommun ica t ion r eprend , a vec d es mod if ica t ions , c e t rava i l e tl et ex te d e l ' ar t ic le D 'Err ico F . , s ous p resse , T echno log ie e t f onc t ion d u b ur in d e R ipab ianca d ans l e c adre c u lture ] d u N eo l ith ique a nc ien d e l ' I ta l ie s ep ten tr iona le , L 'Anthropo log ie **

L abora to ire d e P rgh is to ir e , U .A . 1 84 C .N .R .S . , I n s t i tu t d e P a lgon to log ie Huma ine , 1r ue R eng P anhard , 7 5013 P ar i s . S ez ione d i P a leon to log ia Umana , D ipar t imento d i Ana tom ia e F is io log ia Umana d e l l 'Un iver s i tä d i T or ino , c o r so M . D 'Azeg l io 5 2 , 1 0126 , T or ino , I t a l ie .

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N eo l ith ique a nc ien d e l ' I ta l ie s ep tentr iona le . C et te d tude a borde l e p rob leme d e s on i nterpretat ion t e chno log ique e t f onct ione l le . R ea l ise l ep lus s ouvent s ur l ame o u f ragment d e l ame , p lus r arement s ur é c lat , c e t o u t i l p rdsente c o mme c aractere p r inc ipa l l ' en levement d 'une l ame l le d e c oup d e b ur in ä p ar t ir d 'une r etouche , g dnera lement e n f o rme d ' encoche , p ra t iqude s ur l eb ord d u s uppor t . L ' en levement , c o mme l a r etouche d e p reparat ion , s e d dve loppe d ga le ment s ur l eb ord d u s upport e n d i rect ion n orma lement p ara l le le a l ' axe d e c e d ern ier . P lus ieurs e n levements , r da l isds d ans l e meme s ens q ue l a d i rect ion d e p ercuss ion d u s upport o u d ans l e s ens o ppose , p euvent s e t r ouver a ssoc ids s ur l e meme o u t i l , s ur u n s eu l o u s ur l e s d eux b ords ( pour u ne d escr ipt ion d eta inee d es t ypes d i f f drents v o ir B arf ie ld e t B rog l io 1 965 , Guerresch i 1 972 ) . Dans d es c as p art icu l iers , l ' encoche e t l ' en levement c aractdr ist ique p euvent s e t rouver a ssoc ids ä u ne t r oncature o u au n b ec , d ' au tres f o is l a t r oncature e st r e mp lacde p ar u n p e t it e n levement d e c oup d e b ur in p erpend icu la ire ä l ' axe d u s uppor t e tr da l isd s ur l ' extrdm itd d i sta le . L 'en levement l a tera l s ur r etouche l a tdra le f a it d e c e t o ut i l u n c as u n ique d ans l a t e chno log ie l i th ique p rdh istor ique . i ls ' ag it , e n e f f et , d u s eu l b ur in c onnu s ur l eque l l a r etouche d e p reparat ion e tl ' en levement c onsdcu t if n e mod i f ient e n r i en l e s e x t rdm itds d u s upport .

D ISTRIBUT ION ET CADRE CULTUREL L e b ur in d e R ipab ianca a d td l ong temps c ons iddrd c omme u n d l dment t yp ique d es s i tes a ppartenant a l a Cu lture d e F iorano ( Guerresch i 1 972 ) o u as a s phere d ' in f luence ( Barf ie ld e t B rog l io 1 965 ) . S a d dcouverte e n a bondance d ans u ne a ire d e d ispers ion t ou jours p lus g rande e t e n a ssoc iat ion a vec d e l a c dram ique d e t ous l e s p rem iers G roupes n do l ith iques p ada ins ( Vho ' , Gaban , F iorano , F agn igo la ) ad larg i s on r o le d e f o ss i le d i recteur . Une c arte a ctua l isde d e l a d dcouver te d e c e t o ut i l ( f ig . 1 ,p our l ab ib l iog raph ie r e lat ive ä c haque s i te v o ir D 'Err ico 1 986b e t s ous p resse ) f a it r essor t ir s on a bondance a u c entre d e l a P adan ie a ins i q ue s a d i f fus ion o cc identa le e t o r ienta le , a t testee p ar l e s n ouve l les d dcouvertes . Meme s ' i l a d td p arf o is t r ouvd mé lange , d ans d e v ie i l les c o l lect ions o u a u c ours d e r amassages d e s ur face , äd e l ' industr ie l i th ique d u N do l ith ique moyen o u t ard if e t m ' eme a d u B ronze a nc ien , i ln e p eu t p as , p our c ette s eu le r a ison , e t re a t tr ibud ( Guerresch i 1 972 ) äu ne p dr iode s id t endue . A ctue l lement c et o ut i l p eut e tre c ons iddrd c omme u n i nd ice d es t endances ä l a N do l ith isa t ion q u i s e d dve loppent d ans l a p la ine d u P ö p endant l e Ndo l ith ique a nc ien e t c omme u n d l dment c aractdr ist ique d es s i tes t ard if s d u C ard ia l m is e n c ontact a vec l e s G roupes p ada ins ( Bago l in i 1 980 , 1 985 ) . L ' industr ie l i th ique d es G roupes p ada ins s e mb le f o rtement a pparentde ä c e l le d u Mdso l ith ique d ont e i le p ara it e t .r e i s sue . C et te c ont inu itd s e mb le d dmontrer q ue l e s p rocessus d e Ndo l ith isa t ion c ons is tent , e n c et te r eg ion , d ans u ne a ccepta t ion p rog ress ive d es s t imu l i e x ternes . E n e f f et , l e b ur in d e R ipab ianca e st l ' une d es r ares i nnova t ions d ans u ne i ndustr ie l i th ique e ncore e ssent ie l lement mdso l ith ique q uant a u d eb itage e t äl a t ypo log ie d es p ieces r etou chdes . C es i ndustr ies s e c ara cter isent g dndra lement p ar u n t r es f o r t i nd ice d e l am inar itd a ssoc id ä l ' emp lo i d 'une mat iere p rem iere d e t r es b onne q ua l itd .

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L a morpho log ie d es n uc leus e t l e s c aracteres s t y l ist iques d es p rodu it s d e d db itage s uggerent u n emp lo i s tandard ise d e l a t e chn ique d e d eb itage p ar p ress ion ( Tex ier 1 984 , P e leg r in 1 984 , P er les 1 984 ) e t c ec i möme d ans d es r eg ions p auvres e n ma t iäre p rem iere d e b onne q ua l ite e t d e d imens ions f avorab les ( Ventur ino , e t a l . , s ous p resse ) . T res v ivante e st a uss i l a t echn ique d u m icrobur in q u i p ara it p ers ister d ans c e r ta ins c as j usqu 'au Ndo l ith ique moyen c o mpr is . Une c arac ter ist ique d e c ette i ndustr ie e st l ' abondance d e t rapezes a vec o u s ans p iquant t r iedre , d e r hombo ides , d e t r onca tures s ur l ame o u l ame l le , d e l ame l les ä d os marg ina l , d e g ra tto irs f r ontaux l ong s e t c our ts u ngu if ormes e t d e l ongs b ecs s ur l ame . A l a c ont inu ite a vec l e s i ndustr ies l i th iques meso l ith iques c orrespond , d ans l e s p rem iers g roupes n do l ith iques p ada ins , u ne e conom ie e ncore f o r tement t r ibu ta ire d e l a c hasse e t d e l a c ue i l let te . L es p ourcentages d ' an imaux d omest iques d dcouver ts d ans l e s p rem iers s i tes n eo l ith iques p ada ins ( Brog l io 1 973 , 1 980 , Barker 1 977 , B ago l in i 1 980 ) r es tent t ou jours f a ib les . L a c u lture d e Hordeum ( Eve t t e tR enf rew 1 971) e s t c onnue a ins i q ue c e l le d e T r i t icum monococcum ( Jarman 1 971 , 1 976 , C aste l let t i 1 975 , J arman e ta l . 1 982 ) . L 'agr icu lture , l a p resence d 'une c eram ique a vec d es c aracteres c ommuns ma is a uss i d ivers if ide d 'un s i te ä l ' au tre , l ' ex is tence d e q ue lques s t ruc tures d 'hab itat ( f onds d e c abanes , p u its , f osse p our l a d ecanta t ion o u l e p rd levement d ' arg i le . . . ) s uggerent u ne t endance v ers u ne s ddentar isa t ion p lus o u mo ms c omp lete .

MATER IAUX ET 1 V IETHODES T races d 'ut i l isat ion L 'examen d es t races d 'ut i l isat ion a d te r ea l ise s ur u n d chant i l lon d e 2 1 b ur ins ( f ig . 2 ) p rovenant d e t r o is s i tes d u N do l ith ique a nc ien d e l ' I ta l ie s eptentr iona le

:L e

B asse d i Va lca laona ( 11 o u t i ls ) , C a ' B issara ( 9 ) , F imon F aenza ( 1 ) . L 'dchan t i l lon a e t e c onst itud e n t enant c ompte d u b on d ta t d e c onserva t ion d es s urfaces ( absence d e l i gnes d e f racture ä l ' etat i n it ia l , d e c upu les t herm iques . . .) e t d e l a n ecess ite d 'un l arge a ssort iment morphometr ique e t t ypo log ique . F ont e n e f et p ar t ie d e l ' echant i l lon d es b ur ins ä e n levement l a tera l s ur é c lat , l ame e t l ame l le d e d imens ions v a r iees , äu n o u p lus ieurs e n levements p resents s ur u n s eu l o u l e s d eux b ords . L a morpho log ie e t l a l ongueur d es e n levements s ont d ga lement v ar ides . L e n et toyage d es o ut i ls o r ig inaux a d td p rat ique d ans u n p re m ier t emps a vec d e l ' eau e tu n d etergent l i qu ide , p u is p ar u n b a in d ans l ' acdtone p endant e nv iron 1 5 m inut es e t u n n et toyage a u p ince u t r empd d ans l ' acetone . Möme s i q ue lques o u t i ls o nt e t e o bserves d 'abord a u m icroscope b inocu la ire ä l um iere r ef ldch ie a vec u n f a ib le a g rand issement ( 20x -50x ) , l ' examen e f f ect if d es t races d 'ut i l isat ion a e t d r ea l ise a u m icroscope d l ectron ique a b a layage ( M .E .B . ) . P our e v iter l a meta l l isa t ion d es o u t i ls o r ig inaux , l ' examen d es t races a e te r ea l ise a u m icroscope e lectron ique s ur d es mou lages e n r ds ine d e c er ta ines p ar t ies d es o ut i ls s e lon l e s t e chn iques c onnues d ans l a l i t tera ture ( Pant 1 979 ,R ose 1 983 , P o t ts e tS h ipmann 1 981 , D 'Err ico 1 985 1 986a ) . C ep rocedd ae td p ref ere a ux t e chn iques p oss ib les d e mdta l l isat ion e t d e d emdta l l isa t ion ( Se la e t B oyde 1 977 , D 'Er r ico e tV aret to 1 985 ) q u i p ermet tent l ' observat ion d i recte d es o r ig inaux , ä c ause d es d imens ions d e q ue lques -uns d es d chant i l lons . L es empre intes d es o ut i ls o nt e t e p r ises ä l ' a ide d 'un e lastomere R hodors i l RTV 5 73 A d e R höne P ou lenc I ta l ie a vec u t i l isat ion d 'un c ata lyseur «s tandard » .L es p os it if s o nt e te r ea l ises e n r e s ine RBS ( T2L C h im ie S .A . 1 1230 C ha labre , F rance ) . L es mou lag es e n r ds ine o nt d te m ontds s ur d es s uppor ts mdta l l iques a vec u ne c o l le c onduc tr ice , me ta l l isds ä l ' or -pa l lad ium e t o bserves 1 30

F ig . 2 : E xemp les d e b ur ins a e n lävement l a tera l s ur e ncoche l a tera le e xam ines a u M .E .B . p our l ' etude d e t races d 'usure ;( 1 , 5 -7 1 1 1 3 :B asse d i Va lca laona ;2 -4 , 8 1 0 :C a ' B issara; 1 2 :F i mon F aenza ) . L es l e t tres f ont r ef erence a ux p hotos c orrespondants a ux f i g . 1 1 e t1 3 .

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äl ' a ide d 'un M .E .B . J eo l J .S .M . 2 55 I I äu n v o ltage d e 1 5 K y . L es p hotog raph ies o nt e t e p r ises a vec u ne p e l l icu le I l f ord PF 2 6 . Que lques o u t i ls a uthent iques , o u f abr iques e t u t i l ises e xpdr imenta lement , o nt e te e ga lement o bserves s ous f o rme d ' or ig inaux p ar m icroana lyse n on d estruct ive a u s pectromötre ä r ayons X a d ispers ion d ' energ ie ( E .D .S . ) a pp l iquee a ux z ones u t i l isees . L es o u t i ls a u thent iques n ' ont p as e t e m eta l l ises , l a meta l l isa t ion n ' etant p as n ecessa ire p our l a m icroana lyse . L es p hotog raph ies o nt e t e a l ors r ea l isees e xc lus ivement a f a ib le a g rand issement e t b as v o ltage ( 12 ,5 K v ) . P our l a m icroana lyse ä l a m icrosonde , o n au t i l ise u n m icroscope e l ectron ique ä b a layage d e t ype S tereoscan 2 50 c oup le a vec u ne m icrosonde E .D .S . L ink .

Exper imen ta t ion L a r echerche d es t echn iques p oss ib les d e f abr icat ion d u b ur in d e R ipab ianca a n ecess ite l a t a i l le d e q ue lques k i los d e s i lex d e b onne q ua l ite ( p rovenant d u Gargano s eptentr iona l , S ud I ta l ie ) . D e l a möme man iöre , u ne c er ta ine q uant i te d e s uppor ts o nt e t e r ea l ises e n v erre a p art ir d e b locs c ompac ts ( dechets d e v er rer ie ) d ans l eb u t d ' essayer l e s p rocedes t e chn iques s ur d es ma tdr iaux a bso lument i s o tropes . L e s i lex , e n e f et , p eu t ö t re r etenu c o mme u n mater iau s eu lement p ar t ie l lement i s otrope c ar , c ontra iremen t a u v erre o u äl ' obs id ienne , l e s e l ements q u i l ec omposent n e s on t p as p arfa itement c ohdrents e tn e p resentent p as p our c et te r a ison , d ans t ous l e s p o ints d e l a mat iöre , d es p ropr ietes i nvar iab les . L 'exper imentat ion p ara l lö le s ur s i lex e t v erre f ourn it d onc u ne g arant ie s upp lementa ire q uant a ux r esu lta ts p oss ib les e t p ermet d ' iso ler d ' eventue ls c o mpor t ements p ar t icu l iers a u s i lex . L a p roduc t ion d es s uppor ts a e t e r ea l isee p ar p er cuss ion a u p ercuteur d ur o u t endre ( b o is d e c erv idd e t b o is v egeta l ) . E nv iron l a mo it ie d es p rodu its d e d eb itage o btenus d e c e tte f a9on o nt montre d es c arac tkres p lus o u mo ms a ccuses d e l am inar ite . L ' ensemb le d es p rodu its d e d eb itage a e te u t i l ise p our l a f abr icat ion e xper imenta le d e b ur ins ä e n lövement l a tera l s ur e ncoche l a tera le . Une c enta ine e nv iron d e s upports , p arm i l e sque ls u ne v ingta ine e n v erre , o nt e te a ins i amenagds e n a utant d e b ur ins ä e n lövement l a tera l . D eux t e chn iques a vec q ue lques v ar iantes o nt e te u t i l isees p our l a f abr icat ion d e c et o ut i l a präs l a p reparat ion d e l ' encoche l a tera le :l a t echn ique d ' en lövement p ar p ress ion e t l a t echn ique d ' en lövement p ar p ercuss ion a vec u n p ercu teur i ntermed ia ire .

P reparat ion d e l ' encoehe L es e ncoches o nt e te p repardes p ar p ress ion a vec u n p o in pn p rovenant d e l a d iaphyse d 'un o s l ong d e b ov ide . L a p ress ion a e t e e f f ectuee s ur l e b ord d e l a f a ce d ' ec la tement d u s uppor t e n t enant l af ace d orsa le p a r t ie l lement e n c onta c t a vec u n p lan d ' appu i ( f ig . 3 ) . On a f a9onne a uss i q ue lques e ncoches i nverses o u ar e touche b ifa c ia le b ien q u 'e l les a ppara issent p lus r arement s ur l e s o r ig inaux n eo l ith iques . L es t enta t ives d e r ea l isat ion d es e ncoches p ar p ercuss ion o nt montre l e p eu d e s o in e t l ' inut i l ite d u r esu lta t . C et te t e chn ique a d onc d te a bandonnee . L 'u t i l isa t ion d u p rocede d ecr it c i -dessus aa bout i äu ne p roduct ion d ' encoches v ar ides q uant al eur p rof ondeur , l eur l a rgeur , l eur s y metr ie e t l a d ynam ique d es e n lövements d es m icro -dc lats . C et te d ern idre p eu t ö t re d ef in ie c o mme l a s uccess ion d es d irect ions s u iv ies p ar l ' instru ment e xecutant l a p ress ion ä p ar t ir d u b ord d e l ' ou t i l , p our l a p roduct ion d 'une e ncoche d 'une morpho log ie d onnee . D iverses p oss ib i l ites o nt e t e t e stdes e t m ises e n r e lat ion a vec l e s t echn iques u t i l isab les p our l ' en lövement d e l a c hu te d e b ur in .

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L a t echn ique d ' enMvement p ar p ress ion Env iron l a mo it ie d es e ncoches o nt e te t ransf ormees e n u t i l isant c e tt e t e chn ique . L e s upport , t enu v ert ica lement , e st i mmob i l ise e n a ppuyant u ne e xtrem ite s ur u n p lan e t e n e xer vant s ur l ' autre e xtrem ite u ne l egere p ress ion . L e p o in9on , t enu h or izonta lement , l ' ex t rem ite p osee ä f in ter ieur d e l ' encoche a u p o int d e c ontact e ntre c e l le -e i e t l eb ord d u s upport , s ub it u ne p ress ion c ro issante j usqu 'a l ' en levement d 'une c hute d e b ur in ( f ig . 4 ) . Une v ar iante d e c et te t e chn ique ( J . T ix ier , c o mm . p ers .) p revo it l ' immob i l isat ion d u s uppor t d ans u ne ma in . P our u ne p rehens ion p lus s üre , o n l e t i ent e ntre l e s b ords d 'un mor ceau d e p eau . L e p o inv on , e n p os it ion q uas i p ara l lä le a l ' axe d u s uppor t , a g it e n e xenant u ne p oussee a ins i q u 'une a ct ion d e l ev ier p renant a ppu i s ur l ' extrem ite d e l ' encoche o pposee ä c e l le s ur l aque l le s ' exerce l a p ress ion ( f ig . 5 ) . C et te t echn ique d emande u ne e ncoche p a r t icu l iere e n f o rme d ' ouvre -bou te i l les .

F ig . 5 : T echn ique e nv isageab le p our l ' obtent ion , p ar p ress ion , d 'une c hute d e b ur in ä p art ir d 'une e ncoche l a tera le . L e s uppor t p eut ö t re i mmob i l ise d ans l a p aume d e l a ma in p rotegee d ' un morceau d e c u ir . L ' en levement e st p rodu it p ar u ne f l ex ion e t u n mouvement d e l ev ier . L e p o int d ' appu i d u l ev ier ( F ) e st s i tue a l ' extrem ite d e l ' encoche o pposee ä c e l le o ü l ' on e xerce l a p ress ion .

T echn ique d el ' en l e men tp ar p ercuss ion a vec u np ercu teur i n termdd ia ire L e s uppor t e st e n p os i t ion v er t ica le . L ' extrem ite d u p ercuteur i n termed ia ire , t enue h or izon ta le ment , e st a ppuyee , c omme d ans l ec as p recedent , s ur l eb ord d e l ' encoche . Une p er cuss ion e st e f ectuee s ur l ep ercu teur i n termed ia ire d ans l a z one l a p lus p roche d e s on p o int d e c ontact a vec l ' encoche ( f ig . 6 ) . C et te t e chn ique e st d i f f ic i le ä r ea l iser p ar u n s eu l o pera teur e t p eut d one d emander , e n p ar t icu l ier p our l a p ercuss ion , l a p resence d 'une s econde p ersonne . Une v ar iante d e c et te t echn ique ( J . T ix ier , c omm . p ers . ) p ermet l a p resen ce d 'un s eu l o pera teur . L e s uppor t e st t enu v er t ica lement e ntre l e s d o ig ts a u n iveau d e l ' encoche . L e p ercuteur i n termed ia ire , d e l a f o rme d 'une b aguet te d e s ect ion r edu i te ,

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e s t p lace s ur l ' encoche a u m i l ieu d e s a l ongueur e t l e s d o ig ts s ' y a ppu ient . Une l egere p ress ion e st e f ectuee s u rl a b aguet te d ans l az one l a p lus p roche d e l ' encoche . C et te z one e s tl i bre e ntre l e s d o ig ts ma intenus e car tes .

RESULTATS T echno log ie L e mode d e p repara t ion e t l a morpho log ie d e l ' encoche o nt u ne i mportance n otab le p our l a p oss ib i l ite d e r ea l isat ion d e l ' en levement l a tera l . L a r etouche p ar p ress ion s ' est r eve lee l a s eu le c apab le d e g arant ir u n c ontrö le c onstant s ur l a morpho log ie d e l ' encoche a u c ours d e s a f abr ica t ion . E n p ar t icu l ier , l a o u l e s d i rect ions p r ises p ar l a r etouche a p ar t ir d e l ' en levement d es p rem ieres e squ i l les j usqu 'a l a r ea l isat ion f i na le d e l ' encoche , c ond it ionnent l a morpho log ie d e c et te d ern iere e t s a p lus o u mo ms g rande a p t itude ä e t re u t i l isee c omme p o int d ' appu i p our l ' en levement d e l a c hu te d e b ur in . L ' epa isseur e tl a s ect ion d u s uppor t o nt a c et e gard u ne f onct ion i mpor tante . D es s uppor ts d ont l e s b ords t endent a e tre a brupts empechent l e c ho ix d e l a morpho log ie e t d e l a p rof ondeur d e l ' encoche e t f avor isent , a u moment d e l ' en leve ment d e c oup d e b ur in , l a d i spers ion s uper f ic ie l le , o u d irec te v ers l ' inter ieur , d es s urfaces d e f racture ( Tex ier 1 984 ) a vec p our c onsequence l a p roduct ion d ' en levements c our ts e t r ef lech is o u t r es m inces e t t ournes v ers l a f a ce v en tra le . L a morpho log ie d u b ord d u s upport c ond it ionne d e f a 9on marquee l e s p oss ib i l ites d 'a l longe ment d e l a c hute d e b ur in e t s on a l lure ( f ig . 7 ) . D es b ords r ect i l ignes o u f a ib lement s inueux e ntra inent , e n g enera l , d es e n levements a l longes . S i l a s inuos ite a ugmente , o n o bt ient d es e n levements a l longes e n s p ira le o u c ourts e t r ef lech is . D es b ords c onvexes o u c oncaves a u v o is inage d e l ' encoche e ntra inent d es e n levements c our ts , l arges , m inces e t t ournes v ers l a f ace v entra le . I e st d emontre q u 'une s eu le p ercu ss ion p eu tp rodu ire l ' ouver ture d 'une d oub le s ur face d ef racture e tl ed epar td e c hu tes d e b ur ins embo itees ( Dauv o is 1 976 ) . C e c as s ' est montre p oss ib le a ins i p our l a p ress ion . L es c hu tes embo itees , p rodu ites äl a s u ite d 'une s eu le p ress ion , s ont g enera lement c ourtes e t r e f lech ies o u l a rges e tm inces .

F ig . 7 :L a p roduc t ion d 'une c hute d e b ur in a l longee ä p art ir d 'une e ncoche l a tera le , d epend , e n p lus d ' autres f acteurs , d e l a morpho log ie d u b ord d u s uppor t . L 'a l longement d e l a c hu te e st f a c i l ite p ar d es b ords r ect i l ignes o u q ue lque p eu s i nueux , ma is , a u c ontra ire , e s t r endu d i f f ic i le p ar d es b ords f o r tement c oncaves o u c onvexes . 1 37

T ous l e s t ypes d ' encoches n e s e p retent p as ä l ' emp lo i d e t outes l e s t e chn iques d ' en levement u t i l isab les e t p recedemment d ecr ite s . Q ue lques e ncoches s ont i nu t i l i sab les p our c er ta ines t e chn iques d ' en levement , d ' au tres e n c ond it ionnent l e r esu l ta t . Meme s ' i ls s ont s eu lement l e s e x tremes d ' une r ea l it e q u i n e p resente p as d e v er i tab le s o lu t ion d e c ont inu ite , a u mo ms c i nq t ypes d if erent s d ' encoches p euven t e t re r econnus ( f ig . 8 ) . A —E ncoche d eve loppe e e n l ongueur , e n f o rme d 'arc d e c e r c le L ' encoche s e d eve loppe , p our u ne p e t it e p ar t , v ers l ' i nter ieur d u s uppor t e t p ou r s a p lus g rande p ar t l e l ong d es b ords ( f ig . 8 ,A ) . S auf l e s c as p ar t icu l iers p our l e sque ls l a morpho log ie d u s uppor t p erme t al a t e chn ique p ar p ress ion a vec p o inpon h or izonta l d e p rodu ire d es e n lävements d 'une c erta ine i mpor tance , c e t ype d ' encoche p rodu it s eu lement d es e n lävements c our ts e t r ef lech is o u c ou r t s e td eve loppes e n s urfa ce s ur l e s d eux p o int s d ' appu i p oss ib les . B —Encoche g t ro i te , e n o g ive , d eve loppe e e np rof ondeur L a r e touche s e d i nge p resqu 'exc lus ivement v e rs l ' i nter ieur d u s uppor t empor tan t s ur l e s b ords l e m in imum n ecessa ire p our p ouvo ir a vancer e n p rof ondeu r ( f ig . 8 ,B ) . L a t e chn ique a vec p o inpon h or izonta l p rodu it g enera lement d es e n levement l ong s e t r e la t ivement p rof onds a p ar t ir d es d eux p o in ts d ' appu i . D es e n levement s s uperf ic ie ls d e l o ngueur moyenne o u t ournant s ur l af a ce p lane s on t p oss ib les . L a p er cu ss ion i nd i rec t e «ä t r o is ma ins » d eve loppe d es e n levements r ef le ch is o u s uperf ic ie ls e t m inces . L e m eme c as s e p rodu it p our l ap er cuss ion i nd irec te ä d eux ma ins ä c ond i t ion d e r eus s ir ä t r ouver u n p er cu teur i n termed ia ire d e s e c t ion s uf f isamment r edu ite p our p enet rer d ans l ' encoche . L a t e chn ique a u «p o inpon p ara l le le» n e p eu t p as e t re u t i l isee s ur c e t ype d ' encoche q u i n e l a isse p as a ssez d ' espa ce d e man c euvr e äl ap o in te d u p o inpon . C —E ncoche l a rg e , e n d em i -c er c le , d eve loppge e n p rof ond eur E l le s e d i s t ingue d e l ap receden te p ar l ed eve loppement d e l ar e tou che d ans t ou tes l e s d i rec t ions , c e q u i d onne ä l ' encoche u n a spec t s em i -c ir cu la ire ( f ig . 8 ,C ) . L a t e chn ique d u p o inpon h or izonta l au n r endement l e gerement i n f er ieur ä c e lu i o b tenu d ans l ec as p recedent . L a t e chn ique a u p o inpon p ara l le le , d i f f ic i lement u t i l isab le , p rodu it d e s imp les e brechures o u d es e n levement c our ts e t marg inaux . L es t e chn iques a u p er cu teur i n termed ia ire n e d onnent p as d e r e su l ta ts a pprec iab les . D —E ncoche a symgr ique e n «o uvr e -bou te i l les » L ' encoche a vance o b l iquement , p rodu isant u ne a nse p eu d eve loppee e n p rof ondeur q u i mont re , s ur u n c ö te , u n a spe ct e n c r oche t e ts ur l ' au t re s er e l ie g radu e l lement a ub ord d u s uppor t ( f ig . 8 ,D ) . C e t ype d ' encoche p ermet , c ont ra irement a ux c as p recedents , r en levement d e l a c hu te ( l e b ur in s ur u ne s eu le d es d eux e xt rem ites d e l ' encoche . T ou tes l e s t e chn iques p ar p ress ion p rodu isent d es e n levemen ts l ong s e t b ien d eve loppes . L a t e chn ique a u «p o inpon p ara l le le » p ara i t p ar t icu l ierement a vantageuse p our c e t te morpho log ie . L es t e chn iques a u p ercu teur i nd irect p r odu isent d es e n levements c our t s e t r e f lech is ;l ed eve loppement e n l o ngueur d e q ue lque s e n levemen ts e st p oss ib le ma is r are . E —E ncoche a symg tr ique ä «d oub le o uvr e -bou te i l l e s» L a r e tou che s ed eve loppe o b l iquement s ur d eux f r on ts d ans l eb ut d ep rodu ire s u rl e s d eux p o int s d e c ontac t e n tre l ' encoche e t l eb ord d u s uppor t u ne morpho log ie e n c r o che t ( f ig . 8 ,E ) . L ' encoche a ins i p rodu ite n e p enetre g enera lement p as e n p rof ondeur . P ar r appor t a u c as p recedent , c e lu i -c i o f f re l a p oss ib i l ite , a vec l a t e chn ique d u «p o inpon h or izonta l » ,d ' un d oub le e n levement a l longe e tb i en d eve loppe . On n o te u ne d i f f i cu lte ä

1 38

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F ig . 8 :Quatre t echn iques p our l a p roduct ion dun e nMvement l a tera l s ur l e b ur in d e R ipab ianca ( de g auche ä d ro ite , p rocede ä p o inpon h or izonta l , äp o inpon «p ara l le le» e t d eux t echn iques p ar p ercuss ion i nd irecte ) s ont m ises e n c orre lat ion a vec c i nq d ynam iques d e p roduct ion e t morpho log ies d ' encoche ( A :e ncoche e n a r c d e c erc le ;B :e ncoche o g iva le e n p rof ondeur ;C :e ncoche s em i -c ircu la ire ;D :e ncoche e n o uvre -boute i l les ;E :e ncoche e n d oub le o uvre b oute i l les ) . S eu les l e s t e chn iques p ar p ress ion p rodu isent d es e nMvements l ong s . S eu l l e p rocede ä p o inpon h or izonta l n e n ecess ite p as u ne e ncoche d e f o rme s pec if ique . 1 39

l ' u t i l isa t ion d e l at e chn ique a u «p o in9on p ara l lä le »q u i p resen te , e ntre a u t res , l er i sque d e l af r a c ture d u c r oche t o ppose äc e lu i s ur l e que l s ' exer ce l ap ress ion .

C 'es t d one l at e chn ique p ar p ress ion q u i p ermet l ed eve loppement e n l o ngueur d es e n lävements d e b ur in p ra t iques s ur e ncoche l a tera le ( f ig . 9 10 ) . L a p rodu c t ion p ar l a t e chn ique d u p er cu teur i nd irec t d 'une c hu te d e b ur in a l longee e st r are e t p eu t ö t re c ons ideree e n q ue lque s o r te c omme u n a cc ident . L a p resence d 'un c roche t f a c i l i te l e d eve loppemen t e n l ongueur d e l ' en lävemen t , ma is n ' es t p as n ecessa ire ä s on o b tent ion q uand o n u t i l ise l a t e chn ique d u p o i mon h or izon ta l . L a t e chn ique d u p o in9on p ara l lde e st a u c ontra ire d ependante d 'une f a 9on p lus marquee d e l a morpho log ie d e l ' encoche e tp eu tö t r e , e n e f e t , u t i l isee s eu lemen t d ans l ec as d 'une e ncoche e n «o uvre -bou te i l les » . L a p resen ta t ion s chema t ique d es r esu l ta ts s ' en r ich i t d es i nd icat ions d onnees p a r l e s a cc idents d e t a i l le d ans l a p repara t ion d e l ' encoche . L es a cc ident s ( f racture d u s uppor t , r ea l isa t ion r a tee d e l ' encoche r echerchee , f a ib le f onc t ionna l ite d e c e l le -c i , e t c . ) a ppara issent a vec u ne f r equence v ar iab le s e lon l e s t ypes d ' encoches e t l a morpho log ie d u s uppor t , ma is c ompr ise e nt re 1 0 e t 2 5 % . L ' echec d u d eve loppement e n l ongueur d es e n lävement s d e b ur in , ma lg re l a p repara t ion p reven t ive d ' une e ncoche a ux c arac täres a dequa t s äl ' u t i l isa t ion d el at e chn ique p ar p ress ion , a t te in tl e s 2 5 a3 0%d es c as . L ' ex tens ion d e l a r e touche a l a f a ce v entra le , d ans l a r ea l isa t ion d e l ' encoche , a fa ib l it g enera lement l e p o int d ' app l ica t ion d e l a p ress ion r endant p lus f r equent s l e s a cc idents d e d eb i tag e d e l ac hu te d eb ur in .

T races d 'u t i l isa t ion S u r 1 5 d es 2 1 b ur ins ae n lävement l a tera l q ue n ous a vons e xam ines , i laad p os s ib le d ' iden t if ier d es c a ra ctäres d e s urf a ce a t t r ibuab les a u ne u su re d e l ' ou t i l p rodu i te p ar s on u t i l isat ion . S ur q ue lques b ur ins o n an o te , möme ä l ' c e i l n u , o u p ar u n e xamen a u m icroscope ä l um iäre r e f lech ie , q ue lques i nd ices ma croscop iques c o mme l a p resence d e r e tou ches d 'u t i l isa t ion o u d e s urfaces montrant u n p lus f o r t d eg re d e r ef lex ion d e l a l um iäre . L ' examen a u M .E .B . am is e n e v idence s ur l e s b ords d es b ur ins d e R ipab ianca l ' assoc ia t ion d e t r o is t ypes d ' usure :u ne m icroretouche d 'u t i l isat ion , u ne mod if ica t ion d e l at exture s uperf i c ie l le d u s i lex e tl ap resence d e s t r ies ( p our u ne d escr ip t ion d es u su res v i s ib les s ur c haque o u t i l e xam ine c f . D 'Err ico 1 986b ) .

M icrore touche d 'u t il i sa t ion E l le p eut d t re d ecr ite c omme u n e nsemb le g enera lement c ont inu d e m icro e n lävement s d e m orpho log ie e td e d imens ions v ar iab les . L a l a rg eur e t l ap rof ondeur d es r e touches i s o ldes p eu t o s c i l ler e n t re 5e t2 0 gm ( f ig . 1-12 ) . O r ientee s ouvent v ers l af a ce d orsa le ( d irec te ) , l am icrore touche a ppara i t a u ss i s u r l af a ce v ent ra le ( i nver se ) o u p eu t s e d eve lopper , ma is p lus r arement , s ur l e s d eux f a ces . C et i nd ice d 'u t i l isa t ion s ' observe d e p ref erence d ans l e s z ones c arac ter isees p ar u ne s e ct ion d u b ord r edu i te . C e s ont , p ar e xemp le , l e s z ones n on t ou chdes p ar l ' en lävement l a tera l d e b ur in o u d ans l e sque l les , 1 40

F ig . 9 :Bur ins a e n lbvement l a tera l s ur e ncoche l a tera le r ea l ise e xper imenta lement a vec u ne t echn ique p ar p ress ion a u p o in9on h or izonta l ( po ints n o irs ) e t p ar p ercuss ion i nd irec te ( carres ) .

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l ' en lavement , s e p ropageant e n d i rec t ion d ' une d es d eux f a ces d u s uppor t , n ' en tra ine p as u n e pa iss issemen t e f e ct if d e l a s e c t ion d u b ord ( f ig . 1-12 ) . L a v ar ia t ion d e l a s e c t ion e t d e l a morpho log ie d u b ord e nt ra ine u n d ep lacement d e l al o ca l isa t ion d e l am i crore tou che d 'u t i l isat ion . E l le a ppara i t , e n f a i t , t ou jours d ans l ez ones l e s p lus e xposees . Une s e c t ion a iguö f avor ise l ed eve loppem en t d ' une m icroret ouche d e p lus g rande d imens ion , p lus p la te e t p lus e nvah issante . D es s ec t ions mo ms a iguös , c e l les p ar e xemp le f o rmees p ar u n c oup d e b ur in l egärement «t o rse » v ers u ne d es d eux f aces d u s uppor t , p rodu isent d es m icroretouches d e p lus p et ites d imens ions , s ouvent n on v i s ib les a l ' c e i l n u , p eu e nvah issantes a vec u ne morpho log ie d e l eur b ord d i sta l r ect i l igne e t r ef lech ie . D ans l ' examen a u M .E .B . l a s u ccess ion ä t r äs c our te d i stance d es b ords d i s taux d es n ega t if s d es m icrodc la ts , a ppara it c omme u ne s ur f a ce e ca i l leuse . S ur c e l le -c i , l e s b ords d i staux p rennent l ' aspect d e c orn iches s uccess ives . L es p ar t ies a vancees d e c es c orn iches i n terv iennent n orma lement d ans l a mod if ica t ion d e l ' aspec t d es s urfa ces d u s i lex .

Mod if ica t ion d e l a t ex ture s uperf ic iele E l le p eu t ö re d dcr ite c omme u n e nsemb le d e p lu s ieurs d eg res d ' homog end isa t ion d e l as t ructure s uperf i c ie l le d u s i lex , al a s u ite d ' une a bras ion e t d ' une p er te d e ma t iare . L a s t ru cture d u s i lex , r ugueuse e t p oreuse l o r squ 'on l a p ho tog raph ie a u M .E .B . a vec u n a g rand issement s uff i san t , s ur d es s ur fa ces f r a iches d e f r ac ture , p ara i t , d ans l e s z ones i n teressees p ar c e t ype d 'usure , p erdre s on a spect d iscont inu . S e lon l ' etat d e d eve loppement d e l ' usur e e tl a morpho log ie d e l ap ar t ie d e l ' ou t i l e xam inee , i le s tp oss ib le d ' ind iv idua l iser p lus ieurs s tades d ans l a mod if i cat ion d e l a s urface u t i l isde . Un p rem ier s tade c ons is te e n u n s imp le d c rasemen t d es g ra ins d e s i lex ( f ig . 1) . C e s t ade e s t a sso c id g enera lement a l a m icroretouche d 'u t i l isa t ion , d onnant u n a spec t e mou sse e t c ompact a ux b ords d i staux d es n ega t if s d es m icroec la ts d e r e touche e t i n teressant d e f apn p lus marquee l eb ord möme d e l ' ou t i l . A vec l ' avancemen t d u p rocessus d ' u sure , l e s n aga t if s d es m icroec la ts p rodu its a u t ou t d ebu t d e l ' u t i l isa t ion d e l ' ou t i l p euvent ö t re e f a ces p lus o u mo ms c omp lat ement p ar l ' en lavemen t s uperf ic ie l d e ma t iare . Au n s t ade p lus a vance d e l a mod if i cat ion d e s urf a ce , i ld ev ient r are d e p ouvo ir d i s t inguer l e s t ra ces d e l ad i scon t inu ite i n i t ia le . L a s ur fa ce d e l ' ou t i l p rend u n a spec t l i sse , p resque mou . Une t e i le u sure n es t g enera lement p as a ssoc ide a l am icroret ou che d ' u t i l isa t ion n i a ux z ones d e l ' ou t i l s ur l e sque l les c e t te d ern iäre a ppara i t g enera lement ( f ig . 1 3 ) . E l le s emb le , e n e f e t , a ppara i t re s ur tou t s ur l e s e ncoches e ts u rl e sb ords d e l ' en lavement d e c oup d eb ur in d ans l ec as o üce d ern ier s ' est d eve loppe e n l o ngueur e te n p rof ondeu r , e n levant l ap ar t ie l ap lu s f rag i le d u b ord .

S tr ies L es a i res r ecouver tes d e s t r ies s on t p resentes e xc lus ivement s ur l e s b ords d es e ncoches d es b ur ins d e R ipab ianca e t t ou jours a ssoc iees a u n s tade a vance d e mod if icat ion d e l a s t ruc ture s uperf ic ie l le d u s i lex . D ans t ous l e s c as l e s s t r ies s ont p erpend icu la ires a u b ord d e l ' ou t i l . E l les p rdsentent u ne s e c t ion d es p lus r edu ites ( 0 ,5 3gm ) e t u ne l ongueur v a r iab le s c ion l a m icromorpho log ie d u r e l ief s ur l e que l e l les s e s on t p rodu ites ( f ig . 1 3 ) .

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F ig . 1 : a— ( 45x ) , p hoto a u M .E .B . d 'une r dp l ique e n r ds ine d u b ord d ' un b ur in d e R ipab ianca ( c f . f i g . 2 ) . L a f a ce d orsa le d e l ' ou t i l s e s i tue d ans l a p ar t ie s updr ieure d e l a p hoto , s a f a ce v entra le d ans l a p ar t ie i n f dr ieure . A u m i l ieu o n a perp it l a p ar t ie d i s ta le d u n dga t if dune p rem iere c hu te d e b ur in , e n levde a ux d dpens d e l af a ce d or sa le d e l ' ou t i l , e t d e c ef a it n 'ayant p as r enf or cd l eb ord . Une m icrore touche d ' u t i l isa t ion s ' dtend t ou t a u l o ng d ub ord e n e f f a wt e n p ar t ie l ' empre inte d el ac hu te d e b ur in . b—( 70x ) , p ar t ie d i s ta le d u n dga t if d e l ad eux ieme c hu te d e b ur in e n levde . D ans l a p ar t ie s updr ieure d e l a p ho to :f a ce d orsa le d e l ' out i l , d ans l a p ar t ie i nf dr ieure :f a ce v entra le . A g auche , l ' empre inte d e l a p rem iere c hu te e n levde . L a m icroretou che d 'u t i l isa t ion s e d dve loppe , d ans c e c as , s ur l a l i gne d e c ontac t e n tre l en dga t if d e l a d eux ieme c hu te d e b ur in e t l a f a ce d orsa le d e l ' ou t i l ( c f . f i g . 1 1 ) . L a f l eche i nd ique l a z one a g rand ie e n c .

1 44

c— ( 300x ) , d e ta i l d e l a p hoto p recedente . L a m icroretouche d 'u t i l isa t ion p resente u ne a spec t e ca i l leux d a ad es m icrof rac tura t ions e n tra inees p ar l ' u t i l isa t ion d u b ord . d— ( 20x ) , e n levements p rodu its ä p ar t ir d e l ' encoche d i s ta le d u b ur in d e R ipab ianca n . 11 a f i g . 2 . Dans l a p ar t ie s uper ieure d e l a p ho to :f a ce v entra le d e l ' ou t i l , d ans l a p ar t ie i n f er ieure :f a ce d orsa le , äg auche : e x t rem i te d e l ' encoche . T ro is e n levemen ts d e b ur in , d eve loppes a ux d epens d e l af a ce v en tra le , n ' ont p as r enf or ce s uf f isamment l eb ord e n p ermet tan t a ins i l a p roduc t ion d 'une r e tou che d 'u t i l isa t ion s ur l a l i gne d e c ontac t e ntre l a f a ce d orsa le e t l ' en levement d e b ur in l im itrophe . R emarquez c omme l a m icromorpho log ie d es e n levements p ermet d e r e constru ire l ' ordre d ' ouver ture d es f r a c tures .

1 45

F ig . 1 3: P hotos a u M .E .B . d e r ep l iques e n r es ine d e b ords d e b ur ins d e R ipab ianca .

e— ( 200x ) :e ncoche p rox ima le d u b ur in n .11 ä f i g . 2 . F ace d orsa le d ans l a p ar t ie b asse d e l ap ho to . R emarquez l ' aspe ct f o r tement a douc i e t empät e d u f—

b ord e t d es m icroen levements p roches d e c e lu i -c i . ( 1500x ) :e ncoche d i s ta le d ub ur in n .12 af i g . 2 .F ace d orsa le d ans l a p ar t ie b asse d e l ap hoto . L 'aspect d es z ones l e s p lus e n r e l ief s e mb le e mpäte . C es d ern ieres s ont t raversees p ar d es s t r ies p arf o is s uperposees e t s ub p erpend icu la ires a u b ord . L eur l ongueur d epend d e l a m icromorpho log ie d u r e l ief o ü e l les s e s i tuent .

1 46

g— ( 450x ) :e ncoche p rox ima le d e l ' ou t i l p rdcddent . F ace d orsa le d ans l a p ar t ie b asse d e l ap hoto . L 'homogdnd isa t ion d e l ' aspect d e s urface e s t b i en v i s ib le s ur l e s «c orn iches »c onst itudes p ar l e s b ords d i staux d es e n lävements d us äl ar etou che . h— ( 450x ) :b ord d e l ' en lbvement d e b ur in d e l ' out i l n . 13 äf i g . 2 . F ace v entra le d ans l ap ar t ie h au te d e l a p hoto , e n lävement d e b ur in d ans l ap ar t ie b asse . L 'usure d u b ord d u b ur in a e ntra ind l ' ouver ture d e m icrof ractures p resque c omp lätemen t e facdes p ar u n dmoussement f o rtement d dve loppd .

1 47

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M icroana lyse E .D .S . L a m icroana lyse E .D .S . d es s ur faces d 'un b ur in a e n lävement l a tera l s ur e ncoche l a tera le a m is e n e v idence ( f ig . 1 4 ) , o u tre l a c o mposante ma jeure d u s i lex ( S i ) , l a p resence s ur l e s p ar t ies u sees d e l ' out i l d e q ue lques e l ements ( N i , F e , Cu , A l , P ) a bsen ts d es s urfaces e l o ignees d u b ord .

F ig . 1 4: Microana lyse E .D .S . e f f ectuee s ur u n b ur in d e R ipab ianca . C ompos it ion e l ementa ire d e l a s ur face d e l ' ou t i l d ans u ne z one e l o ignee d u b ord c omparee ä c e l le d 'une z one u see . P lus ieurs m icroana lyses o nt e te e f ectuees p our t ester l a f i ab i l ite d u s pec tre .

DISCUSSION S ur l a b ase d es r esu lta ts e xper imentaux i le st p oss ib le d ' af f irmer a vec u ne b onne c er t itude q ue s ur l e s b ur ins d i ts d e R ipab ianca , s o it l ' encoche l a tera le , s o it l ' en lävement l atera l , o nt e te r ea l ises a vec l a t echn ique p ar p ress ion . L 'encoche r evät s ur c et i nst rument u ne i mpor tance t r äs d if f erente d e c e l le q u i l u i e st g enera lement a t tr ibuee d ans l e c as d 'un e xamen t ypo -techno log ique t rad it ionne l . E l le e st a stre inte i c i al a f onc t ion d e c onst ituer l ep o int d ' app l ica t ion d 'une f o rce d est inee a p rodu ire u ne c hute d e b ur in . S on r o le e st c o mparab le a c e lu i d e l a p repara t ion d 'un p lan d e p ercuss ion p our l e d eb itage p ar p ress ion d 'un n uc leus a l ame l les . A ins i s e j ust if ie u ne a na lyse p onctue l le d es p oss ib i l ites o f f ertes p ar l e s d if f erents t ypes d ' encoches r eproduct ib les e xper i menta lement , q uand e l les s ont s oum ises a ux d i f f erentes t e chn iques d ' en lävement . D es d eux t e chn iques p ar p ress ion u t i l isees e xper imenta lement p our l ' en lävement d e l a c hute d e b ur in , c e l le a u «p o in9on p ara l lä le » n ecess ite u ne e ncoche d e f o rme p art icu l iäre ( en o uvre -boute i l les ) q u i n 'appara i t p as t ou jours s ur l e s o ut i ls n eo l i th iques o r ig inaux ( c f . p ar e x . B arf ie ld e t B rog l io 1 965 ) . C ec i s uggäre q ue l a t e chn ique a u «p o inpn h or izonta l »s era it c e l le q u i a ura it e te u t i l isee . C et te c ons idera t ion n ' exc lu t p as l a p oss ib i l ite d 'une u t i l isat ion , a u N eo l ith ique , d e t ou tes l e s d eux t e chn iques o u d ' autres v ar iantes p oss ib les q ue n ous n 'aur ions p as e xper imentees . Une c onf irma t ion d e n otre h ypothäse d 'ut i l isat ion p räf erent ie l le d u «p o inpon h or izonta l »p ourra it v en ir d e

1 49

l ' examen d es e xt r6m it6s d es s uppor ts c orrespondant a u s ens d ans l e que l l a p ress ion a 6 t 6 e f f ectu6e . Dans l a t echn ique a u «p o in9on h or izonta l » ,l a p roduct ion d ' esqu i l lements s ur l ' extr6m it6 d u s uppor ta ppuy6e s ur l ep lan e s tn orma le . S ur e i le s e r 6per cut e e n ef e tl a p ress ion e xer c6e s ur l eb ord d e l ' encoche a vant 1 ' en l6vemen t d e l a c hu te d e b ur in ( f ig . 1 5 ) D e l a möme man iare , d eux c aract6res p ar t ie l lement d i scr im inants s e mb lent 6 tre l a morpho log ie d e l ' extr6m it6 d u s uppor t o ppos6e äl ' encoche e tl ad i s tance e ntre l ' encoche e t c e t te e x träm it6 . L a t e chn ique d u p o in9on h or izonta l n ' est p as , e n e f et , f ac i l it6e p ar u ne e ncoche t r op p roche d e 1 ' extr6m it6 d u s uppor t . L a p rox im it6 d e l ' encoche empöche d 'avo ir u ne p r ise s üre p endant l ' app l icat ion d e l a p ress ion . E n o u tre , in ' est p as e xc lu q u 'une a na lyse p lus a pprof ond ie d e l a m icromorpho log ie d es n 6gat if s d es c hu tes d e b ur in o btenues e xp6r imenta lement p ermet te d ' ind iv idua l iser l e s c aractäres d i st inct if s d es d eux t e chn iques p ar p ress ion u t i l isäes .

(

F ig . 1 5 :L 'u t i l isa t ion e xpär imenta le d e l a t e chn ique p ar p ress ion a vec l e s upport d i spose v er t ica lement e t a ppuy6 s ur u n p lan l a isse s ouvent s ur l ' extr4m it6 e n c ontact a vec l e p lan u ne o u p lus ieurs 6 br6chures . L eur r econna issance s ur l e s o u t i ls o r ig inaux p ermet d ' ident if ier u n 6 1 6ment d e l a t e chn ique d e f a9onnage u t i l is6e p ar l e s N6o l ith iques .

L e p rob l6me d e l ' ind iv idua l isat ion d es c aract6res t e chno log iques d i s t inct if s t ouche a uss i l a morpho log ie g enära le d u s uppor t . L ' expär imenta t ion a montr6 l ' importance d es f a cteurs l i es a ux t e chn iques d e d 6b itage c omme l ' 6pa isseur d u s upport e tl a morpho log ie d e s on b ord p our l a p roduct ion d es c hu tes d e b ur ins a l long6es . L e c ontrö le s t andard is6 d e c es v ar iab les e st s ouvent p erm is d ans l e s i ndustr ies m6so l ith iques e t n 6o l i th iques p ar l a t e chn ique d e d 6b itage p ar p ress ion ( I n izan 1 984 , B inder 1 984 , P er l6s 1 984 ) . D e n ombreux b ur ins d e R ipab ianca p räsentent d es s uppor ts a vec d es c aract6res q u i r appe l lent l e d 6b itage p ar p ress ion . D ans l ' a ttente d 'un e xamen p lus a pprof ond i , d e c e p o int d e v ue , d es i ndustr ies d u N 6o l ith ique a nc ien , u ne t e i le c ons iderat ion p ermet d ' inc lure c et o ut i l d ans u n p robab le «i t er» t e chno log ique q u i p r iv i l6g ie a uss i b ien d ans l a r ea l isa t ion d u s uppor t q ue d ans l ac onf ect ion d e l ' out i l u n e nsemb le d e t e chn iques p ar p ress ion . 1 \ 46me s i e i le e st l i 6e ä l ' exp6r ience e t al ' hab i let6 manue l le d e l ' op6ra teur , l a f r 6quence d es a cc idents d e t a i l le c onst itue u n i nd ice q u ' i l n e f aut p as n 6g l iger l o rs d e

1 50

l ' exa men d e l ' econom ie d e f abr icat ion d u b ur in l a tera l s ur e ncoche l a tera le . L e p ourcentage a vec l eque l u s a ppara issent d ans l e s c o l lect ions d ' or ig inaux mer itera it d ' ê tre r econs idere ä l a l um iere d es d onndes e xper imenta les . B ien e v idemmen t , d ans l a p roduct ion d es a cc idents d e f abr ica t ion , l a s ect ion e t l ' epa isseur d u s uppor tj ouent u n r o le i mportant . L e p rob leme d e l a f racture d u s uppor t , m er ite , äc e s u jet , u ne a t tent ion p ar t icu l iere . E l le p eu t i n terven ir a d es s tades d ivers d e l a r ea l isat ion o u d e l ' ut i l isat ion d 'un b ur in s ur e ncoche l a tera le ( f ig . 1 6 ) . L 'exper i mentat ion a montre l a p oss ib i l ite d e f racturat ion a cc idente l le a u c ours d u f a9onnage d e l ' encoche . Une p art ie d es d em i -encoches r encontrees s ur l e s o ut i ls n eo l ith iques o r ig inaux s ont e ga lement u t i l isees p our l ' en levement d e l a c hute d e b ur in . L ' examen d u p o int d e c ontact e ntre l ' encoche e t l e b ord d e l a c assure p ermet g enera lement d e c omprendre l a s uccess ion c hrono log ique d es d eux e venements . Une p oster ior ite d e l ' encoche p eut s ign if ier u ne f racture i ntent ionne l le a p art ir d e l aque l le a d te c onf ect ionnee u ne d em i -encoche p repara to ire a l ' en levement d e b ur in o u l a p oursu ite d e l a f abr icat ion d e l ' encoche p oster ieurement a u ne f racture i n tervenue a cc idente l lement a u c ours d u t rava i l . L ' examen d es p rodu its d e t a i l le e xper imentaux n e p ermet p as d e d i st inguer s ur l e p rodu it f i na l c es d eux e venements . Une b onne p ar t ie d es f ractures v i s ib les a l a h auteur d e l ' encoche s ur l e s o ut i ls o r ig inaux montre , t outef o is , u ne p os ter ior ite d e l a f racture p ar r apport ä l a f abr ica t ion d e l ' encoche . D eux h ypotheses p euvent a lors e t re f o rmu lees p our e xp l iquer c e c as : A —L e b ur in ä e n levement l a tera l ae t e r ea l ise a uss i s ur d es a cc idents d e t a i l le d u s upport . B — Une f racture i ntent ionne l le a c asse l e s o ut i ls p oster ieurement a l eur r ea l isat ion . P our l e s d eux c as d ecr its c i -dessus i n 'y a p as n on p lus d ' e lements t e chno log iques q u i p ermet tent u ne d i scr im inat ion c l a ire . L 'hypothese d 'une f racture i ntent ionne l le p oster ieure a l a r ea l isa t ion d e l ' out i l , c on jo inte ment a c e l le dune r ea l isat ion d e l ' encoche p reparato ire s ur d es s uppor ts p recedemment f r actures ,n ' est p as ä e xc lure . On e n t r ouve u ne c onf irma t ion p ar t ie l le d ans l e s o u t i ls p resentant d es f rac tures q u i c oupent l a mo it ie d e l ' en levement d e b ur in e t l u i s ont d one c er ta inement p oster ieurs ( presence p ar e xe mp le d e f ragmen ts a vec l a p ar t ie d i sta le d e l ' en levement ) . C es c ons iderat ions d o ivent e n o u tre e t re m ises e n r e lat ion a vec l ap resence a t test & ( Barf ie ld e tB rog l io 1 965 ) d ' en leve ments d istaux o u p rox imaux p erpend icu la ires ä l ' axe d u s uppor t . D e t e ls e n levements p ara issent l im iter l ' expans ion e n l ongueur d e l ' out i l e t n e c ontred isent p as u ne u t i l isa t ion modu la ire d es b ur ins a e n levement l a tera l . E nf in l e s f ractures p euvent s ' e tre p rodu ites p ar s u ite d e l ' ut i l isa t ion d e l ' ou t i l . S i l a f racture a empeche l a p oursu ite d e l ' ut i l isat ion , l e p o int d e c ontact e ntre l a f racture e t l a s em i -encoche r estante d o it montrer u ne b rusque i n terrupt ion d es t races d 'usure . C e l les c i d evra ient , e n f a it , e t re a bsentes d u b ord d e l af r acture . C e la p ermet d e s ou l igner l ' impor tance e t l e s p oss ib i l ites o f f er tes p ar u ne a pproche c onvergente b asee s ur u n e xamen d es c arac teres t e chno log iques e t s ur l a l o ca l isa t ion d es t r aces d 'usure . Nous c o m men9ons s eu lement d ans c es d ern ieres a nnees , a a vo ir u ne c onna issance s uf f isante d e l a mecan ique d e f o rma t ion d es t races d 'usure s ur l e s o u t i ls e n s i lex . En p ar t icu l ier , u n d eba t s ' es t i nstaure s ur l ep rob leme d e l af o rma t ion d es t races d 'usure s ur l e s o u t i ls d e s i lex u t i l ises p our c ouper e t t rava i l ler d es c erea les . Un e xamen c r it ique

d es h ypotheses p roposees j usqu 'ä ma intenant f ac i l itera l ' interpretat ion

f onc t ionne l le d es t races d ' usure p resentes s ur l e s b ur ins d e R ipab ianca . On d i scu tera p lus l o in s ur c e q ue l ' etude d es t races d 'u t i l isa t ion q ue n ous a vons mende p eu t a pporter a u d eba t g enera l s ur l a mdcan ique d e l eur f o rmat ion . L 'ut i l isat ion d 'un t ranchant e n s i lex 1 51

F .V .

A

F ig . 1 6 :L 'examen d es b ur ins s ur e ncoche a e n lävement l a tera l f racture p ermet d ' e tab l ir s il a f r a c ture d u s uppor t p recede o u s u i t l a d ern iere r e touche ( A -B ) . C e t te c ons ta ta t ion p eu t «c acher »u n i t er t e chno log ique p lus c omp lexe , m is e n e v idence p ar l ' exper imenta t ion e t e xp l ique i c i :F .V . :f racture v o lonta ire ; F .A . :f r ac ture a cc iden te l le .

1 52

s ur u n mater ie l d onnd c ompor te u n p lus o u mo ms g rand e n lövement d e c e t ranchant . L e mode d e d dve loppement d es f ractures s ur d es ma tdr iaux d e t ype i s o trope e s t c onnu d epu is l ong temps e n t ant q u 'ob jet d ' dtude d e l a p ar t d e l ' industr ie d u v erre ( Kherkhof 1 970 , Ch e rm a nt , e t a l .

1 970 ) .

L es r esu ltats d e c es t ravaux a pp l iqués a ux mater iaux

a r cheo log iques o nt p erm i s l a c omprehens ion d e l a p lupar t d es p aramötres c oncernant l a f ra cturat ion d u s i lex ( Crabtree 1 968 , I n izan ,e ta l . 1 976 , D auvo is 1 976 , L awn e t Marsha l l 1 979 , T s irk 1 979 , T ex ier 1 984 ) . L e p rob leme , d é jà c omp lexe d ans l ec as d 'une f ra ctura t ion d ue ä l ' app l icat ion d 'une p ress ion o u d 'une p ercuss ion s ur u n p o int c onnu , d ev ient p ar t icu l iörement

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m icrof ractures p rodu ites p ar l e t rava i l d 'un t ranchant . L ' isotrop ie i mparfa ite d u s i lex p ose e ncore d e n ombreux p rob lemes p our l a f o rmu lat ion d 'un mode le mathdmat ique c apab le d e met tre e n r appor tl e s v ar iab les e ventue l les ( s ec t ion d ut ranchant e ta ng le q u ' i l f a it a vec l a s ur face , p ress ion , d l as t ic i te d u s i lex , d uretd d e l a mat iöre t rava i l lde , a l lure d u b ord , d i rect ion d u mouvement . . . ) . Un t e l modä le p rdsentera it l ' avantage d e p ermet tre u ne a pprec iat ion q uant itat ive d u r o le j oue p ar c haque v ar iab le i s o ldment d ans l a p roduct ion d es m icrof rac tures d e d i f f erent e morpho log ie . C hacune d es v ar iab les c i tdes , e t d es a u tres p oss ib les , p rend , s ur u n t ranchant , u n p o ids d if erent p ar r apport a l ' impor tance q ue r evötent l e s a u tres v ar iab les . C ec i e st e ncore p lus v ra i äI ' dche l le m icroscop ique . E n e f f et , c haque p o int d u t ranchant e n c ontact a vec l e mater ie l t rava i l ld , möme s ' i l e st l i e a u c ontex te g enera l d e l a morpho log ie d u b ord , c onst itue u n c as p art icu l ier , c apab le d e f ourn ir u ne r eponse l o ca le a ux s o l l ic itat ions e xercdes s ur s a s urface . L e mouvement p rodu it p ar l ' act ion h uma ine i mp l ique , o utre u ne mod if icat ion c onstante d es v ar iab les c i tdes , u ne v ar ia t ion d e l av i tesse d u mouvement d u t ranchant e t d one d es s urfaces e n c on ta ct a vec l a mat iere t r ava i l lde . L e r e mode lage d e l a m icromorpho log ie d u b ord d ue ä u ne e ventue l le r etouche v o lonta ire , r endra e ncore p lus d i f f ic i le l a modd l isa t ion . C es c ons iderat ions , p arm i d ' au tres , o nt i nc ite c eux q u i s e s ont a pp l iqués ä l ' interpreta t ion f onc t ionne l le b asde s ur l e s m icrof ractures ( Tr ingham ,e ta l . 1 974 , O de l l 1 979 , 1 981) ä s e l im iter d ans l eur e xamen d es r dsu lta ts e xpdr i mentaux , a u ne d escr ipt ion d e l a morpho log ie d es d ivers t ypes d e m icrof ractures o btenus a ins i q u 'ä l eur e ventue l le a ssoc iat ion . L a f ormat ion d e l a «r etouche d 'ut i l isa t ion » ,v i s ib le s ouvent macroscop iquement , e st c e r ta ine ment c ond it ionnde p ar l e s a u tres mod if icat ions d e s urface p rodu ites p ar l e c ontac t d u t ranchant a vec l a mat iere t rava i l lde . S ur l a n a ture d e c es mod if icat ions i ln 'y ap as a ccord e ntre l e s a u teurs . L ' observat ion a u M .E .B . d e b ords f o rtement u ses p ar u ne a c t iv itd e xper imenta le montre c onstamment u n a r rond issement d e l a z one af ectee p ar l ' usure e t u n e facement p ar t ie l d e l a morpho log ie v i s ib le a vant l ' ut i l isa t ion . E n möme t emps , d es l e s p rem ieres o bserva t ions a u m icroscope a l um iere r df ldch ie , e t p ar l a s u ite a u M .E .B . , l e s s urfaces u sdes o nt montrd a ux c hercheurs u n d eg rd v ar iab le d e mod if ica t ion d e l ' aspect d es s urf aces p ar r apport a ux z ones n on u sdes . Au M .E .B . , l e s z one s u sdes e xpdr imenta lement , möme s i e l les s e p rdsentent d if dremment s e lon l e t ype d e mat iere p rem iere , s e d ist inguent p ar u n a spect p lus c o mpa ct q ue c e l les q u i n e s ont p as u sdes . C et te morpho log ie p eut -e l le ö t re p rodu ite p ar l e s eu l p rocessus d ' abras ion d u t ranchant c ontre l a mat iere t rava i l lde ? (D iamond 1 979 , Dauvo is 1 977 , 1 978 ) S i c ' es t l e c as , c omment e st i l p oss ib le d e j ust if ier l a p resence d e s tr ies s u r l e s s urfaces d u s i lex ?C e l les -c i d o ivent a vo ir d td n dcessa irement p rodu ites p ar u ne ma t iere d 'un d eg rd d e d urete e ga le o u s updr ieure a c e l le d u s i lex . L es r esponsab les d e l a p roduct ion d es s t r ies p euvent ö t re d es f ragments d e m icrodc la ts d e s i lex , d etaches p endant l ep rocessus d ' usure e t i n terceptes p ar l et ranchant . L a möme c hose p eu t s e d i re p our l e s g ra ins d e q uar tz p r esents s ur l a s urface t rava i l lde ( p ouss iere , s a letd , s ubs tance

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t ra itante ) e t r ddu its e n m iet tes p ar l a p ress ion e xercde p ar l ' instrument s ur e i le . L 'hypothese d e l a s imp le a bras ion n e p ara it p as e xp l iquer l a morpho log ie c o mpac te e t h omogene p r ise , a u M .E .B . , p ar l e s z ones u sees . L e c onta ct d e l a s urface d e l ' out i l a vec l a mat iere t rava i l lee p ermet u n r e man iement , a u mo ms s uperf ic ie l , d e l a s t ructure d u s i lex . L a n ature e t l e mode d e f o rmat ion d e c e r eman iement f ont l ' ob jet d e d iscuss ions . Que lques a uteurs ( Dauvo is 1 977 , D 'Err ico e t Moucade l -Esp inet 1 986 ) o nt montre c omment , s ur l e s z ones u sdes e xpdr imenta lement , e t o bservees a u M .E .B . , o n a ss iste äu n r e mp l issage g radue l d e l ' espace i n terg ranu la ire . Un t e l r e mp l issage n ' empöche p as l e p hdnomene d ' abras ion , ma is l e s tab i l ise r ap idement . S e lon c ette h ypothese , l e s s urf aces s ub ira ient u ne a ugmenta t ion l o ca le d e l a p las t ic i te d es g ra ins o u d e l eurs e l ements d e c on jonct ion , p ara l le lement ä u ne c ompactat ion d e l a s t ructure d es s urf aces . L es z ones u sdes p erdra ient d onc u ne p ar t ie d e l eur p oros itd e t d e l eur v o lume . C e p henomene s era it o bservab le a u m icroscope ä l um iere r ef lech ie p ar u n d eg rd p lus g rand d e r e f lex ion d e l a l um iere . On a a vancd l ' hypothese d ' apres l aque l le c r e man iement c ons iste e n u ne v er itab le e t r ee l le f us ion l o ca l isee d e l a s i l ice ( Kamm inga 1 979 , Anderson 1 980 , 1 981 , S ussman s ous p resse ) . S c ion u ne t e l le i nterpreta t ion , l es c ond it ions p art icu l ieres d ' hum id itd , d e p ress ion e t d e t empera ture , r endra ient p oss ib les u ne d isso lut ion e t u ne p rec ip i tat ion d e l a s i l ice c ontenue d ans l e b ord d e l ' ou t i l . C c d dpöt d e s i l ice s era i t d e d imens ions t e l les q u ' i l empr isonnera it d es m icrof ragments d e mat iere t rava i l lee ( dp iderme , p arce l les d ' os . . .) . S ur l a b ase d e c et te h ypothese o nt e te i dent if ies c omme p hyto l ithes d es r estes p hotog raph ies a u M .E .B . s ur l e s b ords d es l a mes n eo l ith iques ( Anderson -Gerfaud 1 982 , 1 983 , R ovner 1 983 ) . L 'hypo these d 'un d epöt d e s i l ice amorphe a ppara it , d ans c c as , p lus p laus ib le q ue p our l e s a ut r es t ypes d e ma t iere t r ava i l lee . L ' eau c ontenue d ans l e s t i ges d es c erea les c onst itue e n e f et u ne s o lut ion d e s i l ice ä l ' eta t amorphe ( v o ir b ib l iog raph ie i n Anderson -Gerfaud o p . c i t .) . L a c oupe d ' une g ram inde , möme s ans d i sso lut ion d e l a s i l ice c ontenue d ans l eb ord d e l ' out i l , p ourra it l i bdrer l a s o lu t ion d e g e l d e s i l ice p resente d ans l a t i ge . L a s u r fa ce d e l ' out i l s e r ecouvr ira it , d e c f a it , dune c er ta ine q uant itd d e s i l ice amorphe . C es d ern ieres a nnees , c e t te h ypothese a e td , äp lus ieurs r epr ises , d urement a t taqude ( Mas son , e t a l . 1 981 , Meeks e t a l . 1 982 , Unger -Ham i lton 1 984 ) . L es p hotos a u M .E .B . d es b ords d e f racture d es e le ments d e f auc i l les e xper imenta les n ' ont p as montrd , e n c oupe , l a p resence d 'une c ouche d e s i l ice d eposde s ur l a s urface . Dun a utre c öte p ourtant , l ' ana lyse ä l a m icrosonde E .D .S . a montre u n p resence d e s i l ice s ur l e s s ur faces d es o b je t s e n o so u e n t er re c u i te u t i l ises p our l a c oupe o u l e t rava i l d es c erea les ( Anderson -Gerf aud 1 984 /86 , S tordeur , e t a l . 1 985 , V aughan , e ta l . s ous p resse ) Un a ppor t r ddu it d e s i l ice s ur l e s s urfaces d ' un i nstrument d e s i lex e st masque , äl ' ana lyse ä l a m icrosconde , p ar l a h aute t eneur e n s i l ice d e l a matr ice s ous jacente . A u ne c onna issance morpho log ique d e l ' aspec t d es s urfaces u sees , q uand o n l ' observe a u M .E .B . , n e c orrespond p as , p ar c onsequent , u ne c omprehens ion d e l ' ensemb le d es mod if icat ions c h im ico -phys iques q u i p res ident a l a p roduct ion d es i nd ices d 'usure o bservab les . L es b ords d es b ur ins d e R ipab ianca , q ue n ous a vons p r is e n c ons idera t ion , montrent g enera lement u ne u sure i ntense . P lus ieu rs i nd ices d e c e l le -e i s e t rouvent e n c orre la t ion . L eur l o ca l isat ion s ur l e b ord e t l eur a ssoc iat ion s ont f onct ion d e l a morpho log ic l o ca le d e c d ern ier ( f ig . 1 7 ) . D ans l a p lupart d es c as , t ou t l eb ord a vec d es e n levements l a tdraux e st u se . L ' intens itd d es u sures o bservdes p eut s e r apporter ä l ' a l lure d u b ord . L es z ones l e s p lus e xposees s ont s oum ises ä u ne u sure p lus i n tense ( f ig . 1 8 ) . Que lques p ar t ies d e l ' encoche , q u i p ara issent e chapper ä c e t te r eg le , montrent u ne u sure p ar t icu l ierement d eve loppde .

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R. U.M. S.ST OC

F ig . 1 7 : Bur in d e R ipab ianca t heor ique r epresenta t if d e t outes l e s p oss ib i l ites d e s ect ion d ub ord . E l les p euvent e t re m ises e n r appor t a vec l e s d if erents t ypes e ti n tens ite d es i nd ices d ' usure o bserves s ur l e s o r ig inaux . R .U . :r etouche d 'u t i l isat ion ; M .S . :mod if i ca t ion d e l a t ex ture d e s urf ace; S .T . :s t r ies ;c :a ng le f o rme p ar l a f a ce i nf er ieur e e t s uper ieure d u s upport , o u p ar l en ega t if d e l ac hu te d e b ur in e tl af a ce q u i l u ie s to pposee .

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A

B

F ig . 1 8 :L a l o ca l isat ion d e l ' usure s ur u n b ur in d e R ipab ianca d epend , e ntre a utres , d e l ' a l lure d u b ord . E n d ehors d es e ncoches , l e s z ones l e s p lus e xposees p resentent g enera lement l e s u sures l e s p lus i n tenses .

L a d i rect ion d es s t r ies , l e t ype e t l a l o ca l isat ion d e l a m icroretouche d 'ut i l isa t ion , l ' envah issement d e l a c o mpacta t ion d e l a s t ructure s ur l a s urface d e l ' ou t i l , s ug ürent s on u t i l isat ion s e lon u ne d i rect ion p erpend icu la ire a u b ord . I le st p oss ib le d ' ident if ier u ne p os i t ion v er t ica le o u s ubver t ica le d u t ranchant p ar r apport ä l a s urface . Une t e i le a ct ion d e «r ac lage » a e te c ondu ite , d ans l a p lupart d es c as , d ans l e s ens d e l a f a ce v entra le . C e mouvement a p rodu it s ur l a f a ce d orsa le l a r etouche d 'ut i l isat ion e t u ne d im inut ion g radue l le , äp ar t ir d u b ord , d u p henom6 le d e c o mpactat ion . On p eut q ue lquef o is r econna itre u n mouvement d e v a e t v i ent . E n a ucun c as o n n e p eut v o ir u n mouvement c ondu it e xc lus ivement d ans l e s ens d e l a f a ce d orsa le . P our u n s eu l b ur in ( I .G .287 ) l e t ype d e r etouche d 'ut i l isa t ion e t l e c aract re marg ina l d e l a c o mpac ite p ourra ient s uggerer u ne a ct ion d e c oupe . C e l le -c i a ura it e t e p ra t iquee p ar u ne z one d i s ta le d u b ord n on i n teressee p ar l ' enkvement . If au t n oter l ec aractäre p art icu l ier d e c et o u t i l e t l a q uas i a bsence d e t races d 'ut i l isa t ion l el ong d e l ' en lbvement d e b ur in p rox ima l . D es ma t i res p ossedant u n d eg re d e d urete p lus g rand p ara issent a vo ir e te t rava i l lees p ar d es b ur ins ä e nMvement l a tera l s ur e ncoche l a tera le . P our u ne meme morpho log ie d u b ord , e n e f f et , o n t r ouve d es r etou ches d 'ut i l isat ion p lus o u mo ms af ectees p ar u ne c ompa c ite d e l a s t ructure . Que lques e ncoches p resentent d es z ones a vec l ep lus f o r t d eg re d e c ompac ite q u i a i t e t e i d ent i f ie s ur c e s o u t i ls . L a p resence d 'une u sure b ien d eve loppee ä l ' inter ieur d es e ncoches t emo igne d u t rava i l dun mater ie l s oup le q u i a 1 56

p eu p d r idtrd d ans l eur c oncav itd . L e t ype d 'usure p resent s ur l e s e ncoches e st c o mparab le a c e lu i q u 'on p eu t v o ir a u M .E .B . s ur l e s s urfaces d es i nstruments n do l ith iques o u e xpdr imentaux , u t i l isds a u c ontact d es t i ges d e g ram indes o u d e v dgdtaux n on l i gneux . L ' or ientat ion d es s t r ies v i s ib les s ur l e s z ones u sdes d es e ncoches n ' ind ique p as u ne a c t ion d e c oupe d es t i ges ma is p lu töt d ef r ottement d ans l es ens d el al ongueur d uv ege ta l . L e f a9onnage d ' une o u p lus ieurs e ncoches l im itrophes n e d o it p as , d ' a i l leurs , e t re m is f o rcd ment e n r apport a vec u ne a ct ion d e c oupe c o mme c e l le montrde s ur l e s d ent icu ldes n do l ith iques d ano is ( Jensen s ous p resse ) . S ur l a b ase d e n ot re t rava i l d ' expdr imentat ion , u ne t e i le a ct ion p ermet , s e lon l e s g ram indes t ra itdes , u n d g renage ef i ca ce d es d p is o u l eur s epara t ion n et te d e l a t i ge . P our l e s e speces a ctue l lement a t testdes d ans l e N do l ith ique a nc ien d e l ' I ta l ie s eptentr iona le ( Hordeu m , T r i t icum monococcum) , l ' ut i l isat ion d e c et i nstrument c ondu it a l ' en le v ement d e 1 ' dp i e nt ier . L ' dgrenage a u p e igne d es c d rda les r eprdsente , p our u ne p opu la t ion d u d ebut d u N do l ith ique , u ne a l terna t ive v a lab le a u b at tage d es d p is . D es c ompara isons e thnog raph iques s ont p oss ib les , mö rne a vec l ' Europe j usqu 'au d ebu t d e c s i èc le ( S igau lt 1 978 ) . C ette t e chn ique e ntra ine , e n e f f et , u ne p lus f a ib le p er te d e g ra ins e t l eur r dcupdrat ion t o ta le a u moment d e l a mo isson . C 'est u n a vantage n on ne l igeab le p our l a r dco lte d ' especes e ncore s em i -domest iques a yant t endance ä l a c hute d es g ra ins p arvenus ä matur itd . B ien a t tes tde a u d ebu t d u N do l ith ique moyen o r ienta l ( Stordeur e t a l . 1 985 ) c et te t e chn ique f u t u t i l isde a Gany -Dareh ( I ran ) a vec d es omop lates d e c hevre . Une s dr ie d e t r ous p ra t iquds a p ar t ir d e l ' extrdm itd d e f dp iphyse p rox ima le , c onvergent v ers I ' dp iphyse d i sta le . Une p ress ion b r ise l ' os p lat e n d onnant u n t r iang le . C e q u i r este d e l ' omop late a l ' aspec t d un «V » a vec l e s b ords i nternes d ente lds . L ' dp iphyse d is ta le s er t d e manche . Dans l e «V »o n f a it p asser l e s t i ges d es c drda les ä d g rener . C e p rocddd p ermet e n o u tre l a r ecuperat ion c omp lete d es t i ges . L eur u t i l isat ion p our l a f abr icat ion d ' ob jets o u d e s t ructures e s t a t test & d ans l e s s i tes n do l ith iques moyens -or ientaux ( Moore 1 979 , C auv in 1 978 ) . D ans l ec as d u b ur in d e R ipab ianca , l ' en levement l a tera l p rodu it u n r enf orcement d u b ord q u i b l oque l a p roduc t ion d e r e touches d 'ut i l isat ion . D ans u n t rava i l e f ec tud s ur l e s t i ges d es c d rda les c ec i d yne l e mé lange d e m icrodc lats d e s i lex a ux g ra ins o u a ux d p is t ou tj uste d g rends . L ' encoche f avor ise l e c hem inement d es t i ges e n u n p o int u n ique . L 'act ion d e p e igner a ins i p rodu ite p eut e xp l iquer , d ans c e t te z one , u ne c ompac itd d e l a s t ructure p lus marquee q u 'a i l leurs ( f ig . 1 9 ) . L a c onservat ion dun t e l i nd ice d 'usure s ur l e b ord d e l ' encoche , b ien p rotégé p ar s a morpho log ie , e t l a p resence s imu ltande , l e l ong d e q ue lques e n levements d e b ur in , d 'une r etouche d 'u t i l isat ion f a ib le c ompac it d , p erme t d e f o rmu ler l ' hypothese s c ion l aque l le , e n d ehors d u moment d e l ' dg renage , l a p ar t ie l ap lus e xposde d u b ord a ura it p u t rava i l ler s ur d es ma t iäres d e p lus g rande d uretd . O n n e p eu t d one p as e xc lure q ue l eb ur in a e n levement l a tera l s ur e ncoche l atera le s o it u n i nstrument a u sage s imp le e t mu lt ip le , a daptd ä s a f onct ion , ma is d ga lement u t i l isab le l o rsque s a s pdc if ic itd n ' est p as r equ ise p our l e r ac lage d 'au tres mat ieres . L 'ex istence d ans l e N do l ith ique a nc ien d e l ' I ta l ie s eptentr iona le , d ' d ldments d e f auc i l le , g dndra lement d es l ames a vec u ne u sure d ista le l u isante , n ' est p as e n c ontrad ict ion a vec l a p oss ib i l itd d e l ' u t i l isat ion d ' instruments ä d g rener a pres l a c oupe d es t i ges . I e st p oss ib le d e p roposer u ne h ypothese s ur l e mode d ' emmanchement d e l ' ins trument . Que lques e ncoches , a ssoc ides ä l ' en levement d e b ur in p rdsentent s ouvent u ne z one d ub ord p eu u sde o up as u sde d ut out . C et te c ons tata t ion e s tp eu t -ötre ämettre e n r e lat ion a vec u ne e ncoche , d es r etouches o u u ne c oncav itd n ature l le d isposdes s ymdtr ique ment s ur l e b ord o ppose d u s uppor t . Une d tude d dta i l lde p ourra it met tre e n e v idence l e r o le d ventue l d e l ' encoche c omme p o int d e f i xat ion dun l i en . L a r ea l isat ion

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F ig . 1 9 : E ssa i d e r econst itu t ion h ypo thet ique d e l ' u t i l isat ion d u b ur in d e R ipab ianca .

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d ' une e ncoche s ur l eb ord o ppose ä c e lu i d es t ine ä l ' u t i l isat ion d e l ' ou t i l p ourra it s uggerer l ' emp lo i d 'un emmanchement s oup le ( vegeta l o u p eau ) d u b ur in d e R ipab ianca . Dans l a p resenta t ion d es r esu ltats , o n ac herchd ä e tab l ir u ne c or re la t ion e ntre l e s i nd ices d 'usure o bserves e n v ue d ' exp l iquer l eur mode d ' assoc ia t ion e t l e r appor t q u ' i ls e ntret iennent a vec l a morpho log ie d u b ord . D ans u ne a ct ion d e r ac lage d 'un t ranchant s ur d es s urfaces s em ir ig ides , l a p roduct ion d e l a m icroretouche d 'ut i l isat ion s ' accompagne p resque i mmed iatement d 'une c ompacta t ion marg ina le d e l a s t ructure . L es d onndes q ue n ous a vons p resentees f ourn issent u n p anorama d e c e t te a ssoc ia t ion a p lus ieurs s tades d e d eve loppement . Au c ours d 'une s econde e tape , l a c o mpa c ite p rend l e d essus , s tab i l ise l ' abras ion e t , v ra isemb lab lement , d im inue s ens ib lement l a f onct ion n a l ite d u b ord a ct if . L es n egat if s d es m icrodc la ts d e r etouche , p rog ress ivement efaces , c ont inuent ä e t re v i s ib les s ous f o rme d e d epress ions montrant e ncore u n a spec t d e s ur face n on u se . D if f erentes morpho log ies e t d es d eg res v ar ies d e c o mpac itd s ont m is e n e v idence . L e p lus d eve loppe s e d i st ingue p ar u ne h omogend isat ion t o ta le d e l a s urface . C e l le -c i p rend u n a spec t a douc i e t empäte . L a t e chn ique d ' observa t ion a dopt & n e p ermet p as d e f o rmu ler d ' hypotheses s ur l e s e ventue l les mod if ica t ions s t ructura les p ropres ä c e tte d tape . L a p resence d e s t r ies s ur l e s s ur fa ces af ectees p ar u ne t e i le u sure p eut e t re a t tr ibuee a ux e l ements a bras if s r estant s ur l e s t i ges d es v dgetaux o u äF act ion a bras ive d es c orps s i l iceux c ontenus d ans l e s t i ges ( Sharp 19 62 ;Kamm inga 1 979 ;Anderson -Gerfaud 1 982 ) . Dans u n c as c omme d ans l ' au tre , c e la n e s e mb le p as b ien s ' accorder a vec l ' hypothese d 'un a ppor t c ons istant d e s i l ice amorphe ä V eta t d e g e l . D 'au tre p ar t r i en n ' empeche l a p oss ib i l ite , d ' a i l leurs d esorma is d emontree s ur l e s s uppor ts n on s i l iceux , q u 'un c er ta in a pport d e s i l ice e x terne p u isse c o mb ler l e s a nf rac tuos ites d e l a s urface e t yr ester p oster ieurement ä l ' e mp lo i d e l ' out i l . L es d epöts o bserves s ur l e s omop la tes e ncochees montrent d es f ractures e t d es s urf aces d e d etachement . C ec i n 'a p as e te o bserve p ar n ous p eut -et re e n r a ison d e l ' absence d e d epot o u d es methodes d e r dp l iques u t i l isdes . L ' ouver ture d e m icrof rac ture e st b ien p oss ib le p endant l a m ise s ous v ide d es o r ig inaux l o rs d e l ' observa t ion a u M .E .B . ( A rm ig l ia to e t V a ldre 1 980 , D 'Err ico e t Varet to 1 985 ) l e sr dp l iques n e s ouf f rent p as d e c p henomene .

CONCLUSION L e b ur in ä e n levement l a tera l s ur e ncoche l a tera le r epresente u n d es e l ements d ' or ig ina l ite d es d ebuts d u N eo l ith ique d e l ' I ta l ie s eptentr iona le . Une morpho log ie d e t rad it ion meso l ith ique , c e l le d e l ' encoche , e ncore a bondamment u t i l isee p ar l e s p rem iers n eo l ith iques d ans l a t e chn ique d u m icrobur in , v i ent ä e t re u t i l isee p our l a p roduct ion d 'un i n s trument n ouveau , u n ique d ans l ' h is to ire d e l a t e chno log ie d e l a p ierre t a i l lee . L e s ucces d u n ouve l i nstrumen t e s t a t tes te p ar s on r ayonnement v ers l e s r eg ions l im i trophes e t p ar s on a dopt ion d ans l e s d ern iers s i tes ä c eram ique c ard ia le l i gure e t a dr iat ique . L e b ur in d e R ipab ianca , i nd ice s imu ltandment c hrono log ique , c u lture l , t e chno log ique e t e conom ique , t ämo igne d e l a v i ta l ite d u s ubstrat mdso l ith ique s ur l eque l , e n I ta l ic d u Nord , s e p ropagent l e s p rem ieres i nf luences n eo l ith iques . C ec i met e n e v idence l a c apac i te d es p opu la t ions d u d ebu t d u N eo l ith ique ä t r ouver d es s o lu t ions t e chno log iques a utonomes ä d es b eso ins e c onom iques n a issants .

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L es r esu ltats p resentes e t l e s c ons iderat ions q u i e n d ecou lent p ermettent d e s ou l igner l a v a l id ite d 'une a pproche e xper imenta le d ans l ' ind iv idua l isat ion d es c arac teres t e chno log iques p er t inents p our l ac omprehens ion d u mode d e f abr ica t ion d e c e t i nstrument . C ec i o uvre l a v o ie ä d e p oss ib les r echer ches , äl ' eche l le r eg iona le , s ur l a v ar iab i l ite t e chno log ique , l e s ty le , l a morphometr ie . C ette d ern iere , e n p ar t icu l ier , p ermettra it d e m ieux i nscr ire l ' instrument e xam ine d ans l e c ontexte i ndustr ie l d ' or ig ine e t d ' e mettre q ue lques h ypotheses s ur l e mode d 'ut i l isat ion e t d ' em manchement . L ' examen d es s urfaces u sees a e t e c ondu i t s ans p erdre d e v ue l e s q uest ions e ncore n on r eso lues s ur l a mecan ique d e f o rma t ion d es u su res s ur l es i lex . C e t te o pt ique a p erm is d e p roposer q ue lques r eponses p ar t ie l les a ux t hemes d e l ' ac tue l d eba t s ur c e s u je t . L ' etude d es t races d 'usure a e nf in p erm is d e s onder , m eme ä r eche l le m icroscop ique , l a v a leur f onct ionne l le d es c ho ix t e chno log iques e f ectues p ar l e s p rem iers N eo l ith iques p ada ins .

RE MERCIE I V IENTS J e t i ens a r e merc ier H enry d e L um ley q u i ma p erm is d e c ondu ire c e t te r echer che , a ins i q ue t ous c eux q u i e n o nt d i scu te l e s r esu ltats a vec mo i , e t e n p art icu l ier G iacomo G iacob in i , J acques T ix ier , A lberto B rog l io , R ene D av id , P atr ic ia Anderson -Gerfaud , Anna lu isa P edrott i . Annamar ia C h iecco -B ianch i e t E lod ia B ianch i ' m 'ont f ac i l itä l ' examen d es b ur ins o r ig inaux ;C hr ist iane Weber ( Laborato ire d e M icropa leonto log ie , Museum Nat iona l d 'H isto ire Nature l le ) e t L orenzo Varetto m 'ont a ide l ors d es o bservat ions a u M .E .B . ;Mar ie P erpere a e u l a g en t i l lesse d e t radu ire e t d iscuter l e manuscr it d e c et a r t ic le .

B IBL IOGRAPHIE ANDERSON -GERFAUD , ( P .C . ) , 1 980 .— A t est imony o f p reh istor ic t asks :d iagnos t ic r es idues o n s t one t oo l w ork ing e dges . Wor ld A r chaeo logy 1 2 , p .1 81-194 . ANDERSON -GERFAUD , ( P .C . ) , 1 981 .— C on tr ibu t ion Mg thodo log ique ä l ' Ana lyse d es m icro traces d 'U t i l isa t ion

s ur l e s

Ou t i ls P rgh is tor iques . These d e 3 e c yc le ,

Un ivers ite d e B ordeaux I ,n ° 1 607 . ANDERSON -GERFAUD , ( P .C . ) , 1 982 .— C omment p rec iser l ' ut i l isat ion a g r ico le d es o u t i ls p reh is tor iques ?C ah i er sd el ' Euphra te , 3 ,p .1 49 -164 . ANDERSON -GERFAUD , ( P .C . ) , 1 983 .— A c ons idera t ion o f t he u ses o f c e r ta in b a cked a nd «l ustred »s t one t o o ls f r om l a te meso l ith ic a nd n atuf ian l eve ls o fA bu Hureyra a nd Mureybet ( Syr ia ) . T races d 'u t i l isa t ion s ur l e s o u t i ls n go l i th iques d u P roche O r ient , T ab le R onde C .N .R .S . , T ravaux d e l a Ma ison d e l ' Or ient , L yon , V 1 983 , p .7 7 -105 . ANDERSON -GERFAUD ,

( P .C .) ,

1 984 -86 .— A f ew

c o m ments

c oncern ing

r es idue

a na lys is o fs t one p lant -process ing t oo ls . Ear ly Man N ews , 9 / 10 /11 , p .6 9 -81 . ARMIGL IATO , ( A .) e t VALDRE ' , ( U . ) , 1 980 . —M icroscop ia e l e t tron ica a s cans ione e m icroana l is i . B o logna . T he Un ivers ity P ress .

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BAGOL IN I , ( B . ) , 1 980 .— Neo l i t ico n e l t e rr i tor io v eronese . V erona . BAGOL IN I , ( B . ) , 1 981 .— I n troduz ione a l Neo l i t ico d e l i' I ta l ia s e t ten tr iona le , P ordenone . BAGOL IN I , ( B . ) , 1 985 .— I lP r imo N eo l it ico . I n L a p r e is tor ia i n t e rr i tor io V ene to . 1 985 , V erona , p .4 7 -60 . BAGOL INI , ( B . ) , BARF IELD , ( L .H . ) , BROGL IO , ( A . ) , 1 973 .— N ot iz ie p re l im inar i d e l le r i cerche s u l l ' insed iamento n eo l it ico d i F i mon - Mo l ino C asarot to ( V icenza ) ( 1969 1 972 ) .R iv is ta d iS c ienze P r e is tor iche , 2 8 1 ,P . 1 61 -215 . BARF IELD , ( L .H . ) e t BROGL IO , ( A . ) , 1 965 .— Nuove o sservaz ion i s u l l ' industr ia d e l le B asse d i Va lca laona ( Co l l i Eugane i ) . R iv is ta d i S c ienze P r e is tor iche , 2 0 , p .3 07 3 44 . B INDER , ( D . ) , 1 984 . —S ystemes d e d eb itage l am ina ires p ar p ress ion

:e xemp les

c hassdens p roven9aux . I n P rgh is to ir e d e l a p ierre t a i l lge , 2 , g conom ie d u d gb i tag e l a mina ire . C .N .R .S . , P ar is , p . 7 1-84 . BROGL IO , ( A . ) , 1 971 .— R isu ltat i p re l im inar i d e l le r i cerche s u i c o mp less i e p ipa leo l it ic i d e l la V a l le d e l l 'Ad ige . P re is tor ia A lp ina , 7 ,p . 1 35 -241 . BROGL IO , ( A . ) , 1 973 .— L a p re istor ia d e l la Va l le P adana d a l la f i ne d e l P a leo l it ico a g l i i n iz i d e l Neo l it ico :c rono log ia , a spet t i c u ltura l i et rasf ormaz ion i e conom iche . R iv is ta d i S c ienz eP r e is tor iche , 2 8 1 ,p .1 33 -160 . BROGL IO , ( A . ) e LOLL INI , ( D .G . ) , 1 963 .— Nuova v ar ietä d i b u l ino s u r i tocco l a tera le n e l l ' industr ia d e l N eo l it ico med io d i R ipab ianca d i Monterado ( Ancona ) . Anna l i d e l l 'Un iver s i tä d i F errara , n . s . s ez . XV 1 ,p .1 43 -155 . CASTELLETT I , ( L . ) , 1 975 .— R est i v egeta l i macroscop ic i d i C ampo C ereso le - Vho ' d i P iadena ( neo l it ico i n f er iore ) . P re is tor ia A lp ina 1 1 , p . 1 25 -126 . CAUV IN , ( J . ) , 1 978 .—Les p rem iers v i l lages d e S yr ie -Pa les t ine d u I 2 C e a u VHF m i l lgna ire a van t J . -C . , Ma ison d e l ' Or ient , L yon . CHERMANT , ( A . -L . ) , OBSTERSTOCK , ( F . ) , VADAM , ( G . ) , 1 979 .— U t i l isat ion d e l a mecan ique d e l a r up ture d ans l e c as d es ma ter iaux f r ag i les . V erres R gf rac t . 3 ,6 , p .8 43 -857 . CRABTREE , ( D .E .) , 1 968 .—

Mesoamer ican c ores a nd p r ismat ic b lades . Amer ican

An t iqu i ty , 3 3 , 4 ,p .4 46 -477 . DAUVOIS ,

( M .) ,

1 976 .— Préc is d e d ess in d ynam ique e t s t ruc tura l d es i ndus tr ies

l i th iques p rgh is tor iques . P ierre -Fan lac , P er igueux . DAUVOIS , (M . ) , 1 977 .—

S t igmates d 'usure p resentes p ar d es o u t i ls d e s i lex a yant

t rava i l le l ' os . P rem iers r esu lta ts . I n Mg thodo log ie a pp l iquge ä l ' indus tr ie d e l ' os p rgh is tor ique . C .N .R .S . , P ar is 1 977 , p .2 75 -292 . D 'ERR ICO , ( F . ) , 1 985 . —T races d 'usure s ur l ' industr ie l i th ique :a pproche mdtho d o log ique e tp ropos it ion dune t e chn ique .L 'An thropo log ie , 8 9 , 5 ,p .4 39 -456 .

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D 'ERR ICO , ( F . ) , 1 986 s ous p resse .— T he u se o fr es in r ep l icas f o r t he s tudy o fl i th ic u se w ear . S .E .M . i n A rchaeo logy , B .A .R . I nterna t iona l S er ies . D 'ERR ICO , ( F .) , 1 986b .— T ecno log ia e f unz ione d e l B u l ino d i R ipab ianca . T hese , S cuo la S pec . p er A rcheo log i I nd ir izzo P re istor ico , Un iv . P i se 1 986 , p .1 00 . D 'ERR ICO , ( F .) , s ous p resse .— T echno log ie e t f onct ion d u b ur in d e R ipab ianca d ans l e c adre c u lture l d u N eo l ith ique a nc ien d e l ' I ta l ie s ep tentr iona le . L 'An thropo log ie . D 'ERR ICO , ( F . ) e t ESP INET - MOUCADEL , ( J .) , 1 986 .— L 'emp lo i d u m icroscope e l ectron ique ä b a layage p our l ' etude e xper imen ta le d e t races d 'usure . Bu l le t in d e l aS ocU .M P ra t is tor ique F rança ise , 8 3 , 3 ,p .9 1 -96 . D 'ERRICO , ( F . ) e t VARETTO , ( L ) , 1 985 .— S cann ing e l ectron m icroscope s tudy o f m icrowear o n o r ig ina l s t one i mp lements . An tropo log ia C ontemporenea , 8 , 2 , p .1 35 -142 . D IAMOND , ( G . ) , 1 979 .— T he Nature o fs o -ca l led P o l ished S urfaces o n S tone A r t ifact s . I n L i th ic U se -W ear Ana lys is . A cadem ic P ress , N ew Y ork 1 979 , p . 1 59 -166 . EVETT , ( D . ) e t RENFRE W , (J . ) , 1 971 .— L 'ag r icu ltura n eo l it ica i t a l iana :u na n ota s u i c erea l i . R iv is ta d i S c ienze P re is tor iche , 2 6 , 2 ,p . 1 72 -183 . GUERRESCHI , ( A . ) , 1 972 .— O sservaz ion i s u l s i gn if icato c u ltura le e c r ono log ico d e l «Bu l ino d i R ipab ianca » . Anna l i d e l l 'Un ivers i ta d i F errara , n . s . s ez . XV , 2 , p .1 73 -194 . I N IZAN , ( M . -L . ) , 1 984 .— D eb itage e t s t andard isa t ion d es s uppor ts :u n e xemp le c aps ien a u R e l i la i ( A lger ie ) . I n P rM is to ire d e l a p ierr e t a i l l& , 2 , d conom ie d u da i tag e l am ina ire , C .N .R .S . , P ar is , p .8 5 -92 . I NIZAN , ( M . -L .) , ROCHE , ( H .) , T IX IER , ( J . ) , 1 976 .— Avantage d 'un t ra itement t herm ique p our l at a i l le d es r oches s i l iceuses . Q ua ternar ia 1 9 , p . 1 18 . JARMAN , ( M .R . ) , 1 971 .— Cu lture a nd e conomy i n t he N or th i t a l ian N eo l ith ic . Wor ld A rchaeo logy , 2 ,3 ,p .7 2 -54 . JAR MAN , ( M .R . ) , 1 976 .— P reh istor ic e conom ic d eve lopment i n s ub -A lp ine I ta ly . I n P rob lems i n E conom ic a nd S oc ia l A r chaeo logy . Duck - Wor th , L ondon , p . 5 23 -548 . JAR MAN , ( M .R . ) , BA ILEY , ( G .N .) , JAR MAN , ( H .N .) , 1 982 .— Ear ly Agr icu l tur e . I t s f ounda t ion a nd d eve lopmen t . C ambr idge Un iv . P ress .

European

J ENSEN , ( H . I . ) , s ous p resse .— D ent icu lates i n t he d an ish N eo l ith ic :a f unct iona l p uzz le . I n I ndus tr ie l i th iques :t r acdo log ie e t t e chno log ie , B .A .R . I nternat iona l S er ies . KAM M INGA , ( J . ) , 1 979 .— T he n ature o f u se -po l ish a nd a bras ive smooth ing o n s t one t oo ls . I nL i th ic U se -wear Ana lys is . A cadem ic P ress , N ew Y ork 1 979 , p .1 43 -155 . KERKHOF , ( F . ) , 1 970 .— Frac ture d es v err es . S erv ice D ocum . S t -Goba in I ndustr ies . T rad . P . A c loque , 3 02 p .

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LA WN , ( B .R . ) e t MARSHALL , ( D .B . ) , 1 979 ) .— Mechan ism o f m icrocontact f racture i n b r itt le s o l ids . I n L i th ic U se -W ear Ana lys is . A cadem ic P ress , New Y ork , p . 6 3 -82 . LOLL INI , ( D .G . ) , 1 964 .— R ipab ianca d i Monterado . R iv is ta d i S c ienze P r e is tor iche 1 9 , Not iz iar io , p .3 07 . MASSON , ( A . ) , COQUEUGN IOT E . , ROY ( S . ) . 1 981 — S i l ice e t t races d 'usage :l el ustre d es f auc i l les . Nouve l les A rchgo log iques d u Musge d 'H is to ire Na tur e l le d e L yon 1 9 , p .4 3 -51 . MEEKS , ( N .D . ) , S IEVEK ING , ( G . d e G . ) , T ITE , ( M .S . ) , COOK , ( J . ) , 1 982 .— G lass a nd u se -wear

t races

o n

f l int

s i ck les

a nd

s im i lar

p heno mena .

J ournal

o f

A rchaeo log ica l S c ience , 9 ,p .3 2 . MOORE , ( A .M .T . ) , 1 979 .— A P re Neo l ith ic f armers ' v i l lage o n t he Euphrates . S c ien t if ic Amer ican , 2 41 ,2 , p .6 2 -70 . PANT , ( R .K . ) , 1 979 .— T races d 'u t i l isa t ion s ur l e s o u t i ls d u P a lgo l i th ique i nf gr ieur d e l a C aune d e l ' Arago ä T au tave l . T hese 3 ° c yc le , Un iv . P rovence , Marse i l le . PELEGR IN , ( J . ) , 1 984 .— A pproche t echno log ique e xper imenta le d e l a m ise e n f o rme d e n uc leus p our l e d eb itage s ystemat ique p ar p ress ion . I n P rgh is to ir e d e l a p ierre t a i l lge 2 ,g conom ie d u d gb i tag e l am ina ir e , C .N .R .S . P ar is , p . 9 3 -116 . PERLÜS , ( C . ) , 1 984 .— D eb itage l am ina ire d e l ' obs id ienne d ans l e n eo l ith ique d e F ranchth i ( Grece ) :t e chn ique e t p lace d ans l ' econom ie d e l ' industr ie l i th ique . I n P rgh is to ire d e l a p ierre t a i l lge , 2 , g conom ie d u d gb i tage l am ina ir e , C .N .R .S . , P ar is , p .1 29 -137 . POTTS , ( R ) e t SH IPMAN , ( P . ) , 1 981 .— Cutmarks made b y s t one t oo ls o n b ones f r om O lduva i G orge , T anzan ia . Na tur e , 2 91 , p .5 77 -580 . ODELL , ( G .H . ) , 1 979 .— A n ew i mprov ided s ystem f or t he r etr ieva l o f f unct iona l i nf orma t ion f r om m icroscop ic o bservat ions o f c h ipped s t one t oo ls . I n L i th ic U se w ear Ana lys is , A cadem ic P ress , New Y ork , p . 3 29 -344 . ODELL , ( G .H . ) , 1 981 .— T he mechan ics o f u se -breakage o f s t one t oo ls :s o me t estab le h ypotheses . J ourna lo fF ie ld A rchaeo logy ,8 ,p .1 97 -209 . PROST , ( D . ) , s ous p resse .— E ssa i d ' etude s ur l e s mecan ismes d ' en levement p rodu its p ar l e s f apon a g r ico les e t l e p iet inement s ur d es s i lex e xper imentaux . I n I ndus tr ie l i th ique :t racgo log i e e t t e chno log ie , B .A .R . I nternat iona l S er ies . ROSE , ( J .J . ) , 1 983 .— A r ep l icat ion t echn ique f or s cann ing e l ectron m icroscopy

:

a pp l ica t ion f or a nthropo log is ts . Amer ican J ourna l o f P hys ica l An thropo logy , 6 2 , p .2 25 -261 . ROVNER , ( I . ) , 1 983 . —P lant o pa l p hyto l ith a na lys is :ma jor a dvances i n a rchaeo b otan ica l r esear ch . I n Advances i n A r chaeo log ica l Me thod a nd T heo ry , A cadem ic P ress , N ew Y ork ,p .2 55 -266 . SELA , ( J .) e t BOYDE , ( A . ) , 1 977 .— C yan ide r e mova l o f g o ld f r om SE M p reparat ion . J ourna lo fM icroscopy , 3 ,p .2 29 -231 . 1 63

SE MENOV , ( S .A . ) , 1 964 .— Pr eh is tor ic T echno logy . C ory , A dams a nd Mackay , L ondon . SHARP , ( R .B . ) , 1 962 .— P lant S i l ica: a n A bras ive C ons t ituent o fP lant Ma t ter ?J ourna l o f Agr icu l tura l Eng ineer ing R esearch , 7 ,p . 2 14 -220 . S IGAULT , ( F . ) , 1 978 .— I dent if icat ion d es t e chn iques d e r 6co lte d es g ra ins a l imenta ires . J ourna ld 'agr icu l tur ee td eb o tan ique a pp l iqu& , 2 5 , 3 ,p .1 30 -154 . STORDEUR ,

( D .) ,

ANDERSO N -GERFAUD ,

( P .) ,

DERAPRAH MIAN ,

( G .) ,

REYNOLDS , ( P .) , LE R IBAULT , ( L .) , 1 985 .— L es omop lates e ncoch6es n 6o l ith iques d e Gan j -Dareh ( I ran ) :t tude morpho log ique e t f onct ionne l le . C ah iers d e l ' Euphra te , 4 ,3 ,p .3 1 -52 . SUSS MAN , ( C . ) , s ous p resse .— A spec t o fm icrowear a s a pp l ied t o q uartz . I n I ndus tr ies l i th iques :t racdo log ie e t t e chno log ie , B .A .R . I nternat iona l S er ies . TEX IER , ( P . -J . ) , 1 984 .— L e d 6b itage p ar p ress ion e t l a mdcan ique d e l a r up ture f rag i le : i n it iat ion e t p ropagat ion d es f ractures . I n P rM is to ire d e l a p ierre t ai l lde , 2 .d conom ie d u da i tage l am ina ir e , C .N .R .S . , P ar is , p . 5 7 -64 . TR INGHAM , ( R . ) , COOPER , ( G .) , ODELL , ( G . ) , VOYTEK , ( B .) , WH IT MAN , ( A . ) , 1 974 .— E xper imenta t ion i n t he f o rmat ion o fe dge d amage :a n ew a pproach t o l i th ic a na lys is . J ourna l o fF ie ld A rchaeo logy , 1 ,p . 1 71 -196 . TSIRK , ( A .) , 1 979 .— R egard ing f racture i n it iat ion . I n L i th ic

U se -wear Ana lys is .

A cadem ic P ress , New Y ork , p . 8 3 -96 . UNGER -HAM ILTON , ( R . ) , 1 984 .— T he f o rmat ion o fu se -wear p o l ish o n f l int

:b eyond

t he «d epos it v ersus a bras ion » :c ontroversy . J ourna l o fA rchaeo log ica l S c ience 1 1 ,p .9 1 -98 . VAUGHAN , ( P . ) , JARR IGE , ( C . ) , ANDERSON -GERFAUD , ( P . ) , s ous p resse .— S ick les a nd h arvest ing mot ions i n B a luch istan ( Pak is tan ) . I n Manches e t emman c hemen ts , T ravaux d e l a Ma ison d e l ' Or ient , L yon . VENTUR INO , ( M . ) , GAMBAR I , ( F .M .) , D 'ERR ICO , ( F .) , s ous p resse . —A lba e l a Neo l it izzaz ione d e l P iemonte . Bu l le t t ino d i P a l e tno log ia I t a l iana .

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EARLY CEREAL UT ILIZAT ION S ick le P o l ish o nM icro l i ths f rom t he Upper -a nd Ep i Pa leo l i th ic A ssemb lages f rom Pa lmyra Bas in ,S yr ia

T suyosh i FUJ I MOTO *

ABSTRACT:

On m icroscop ic o b se rva t ions o fm icro l i ths f r om P a lmy ra B as in , S yr ia , u t i l iza t ion o f c erea ls b egan d ur ing L evan t ine A ur igna c ian C ( A t l it ian ) , f l our ished d ur ing K ebaran , d ecreased a t t he e ar l ier s tage o f G eome t r ic Kebaran A d rast ica l ly , a nd f i na l ly d i sappeared a t t he l a te s tage o f G eome tr ic K ebaran A . T he a na lys is o f s t one t oo ls f o r p rocess ing c erea ls i n t he L evant d oes n o t c on trad ict t hese a ssump t ions .

R E SUME : L 'observa t ion m icros cop ique d e m icro l ithes d u B ass in d e P a lmy ra , S yr ie , mon tre q ue l eur u t i l isa t ion p our l a ma ison d e c äräa les c ommeng t p endan t l ' Aur igna c ien C d e L evant ( A t l it ien ) , f l eur i tp endan t K äbar ien , d im inua n o tab lemen t al a p hase a nc ienne d u K äbar ien g äomätr ique A e t f i na lement d i sparut a l a p hase r äcente d u K äbar ien g äomätr ique A . L 'ana lyse d es o u t i ls l i th iques p our t r a iter l e sc ärda les a u L evan tn es t d onc p a s e n c on trad ic t ion a vec c e t te h ypo thäse .

I—I NTRODUCTION P a l myra B as in i s l o cated i n S yr ian D eser t . T he r eg ion i s a r id , t oday . Annua l p rec ip itat ion o f P a lmyra i s a bou t 2 00 mm . P a lmyra B as in l i es i n t he I rano -Turan ian c l ima t ic z one . The p eop le o f P a lmyra B as in l i ve ma in ly o n s t ock -breed ing o f s heep a nd g oa ti nt he n e ighbor ing s t eppe a nd d eser t . I n 1 974 , t he a u thor i nvest igated a rchaeo log ica l ly i n P a lmyra B as in a s o ne o f t he members o fT okyo Un ivers ity S c ient if ic E xped it ion t o Western A s ia . I n t hat t ime , t he a uthor c o l lected e ight a ssemb lages a ss igned t o t he l a te Upper P a leo l ith ic a nd E p i P a leo l i th ic , n ame ly D ouara C ave HA a nd IB , a nd S pots A , B , C , D , Ea nd F o fS ite 5 0 . T hese e ight a ssemb lages w ere d a ted a s f o l lows: S pots D a nd E -L evant ine Aur ignac ian C( A t l it ian ) ;S pot A -t he t rans it iona l s tage b etween L evant ine Aur ignac ian C ( A t l it ian ) a nd K ebaran; D ouara C ave IA a nd J IB , a nd S pots B , C , a nd F o fS ite 5 0 -G eometr ic K ebaran A . T he a ssemb lages o fD ouara C ave a re e ar l ier t han t hose o fS pots B , Ca nd F o f S i te 5 0( Fu j imoto 1 979a ,b ) . T he a u thor o bserved t races o f w ear o n m icro l iths f r om t hose a ssemb lages w ith a m icroscope a nd d iscussed t he ir n a ture ( Fu j imoto 1 979a , b , ca nd 1 983 ) . I n t hese a rt ic les , t he a u thor a ssumed p resence o f u t i l izat ion o f c erea ls a t t he l a te Upper P a leo l ith ic ,

* T he Un iver s i ty o fT okyo , F acu l ty o fL e t ter s , Hongo , Buokyo -Ku , T okyo 1 13 , J apan .

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L evant ine Aur ignac ian C ( A t l i t ian ) a nd d i sappearan ce o fi ta t t he E p i -Pa leo l ith ic , t he l a te s t age o fG eomet r ic K ebaran A o n h is m ic roscop ic o bserva t ions . H e a l so s upposed t ha t c e rea ls o nce b ecame o ne o ft he most i mpor tant f o od s ou r ces , t hough t he ir u t i l iza t ion w as e as i ly a bo l ished w hen c ond i t ions b ecame u nf avorab le , a nd t ha tt he w ays o ff o od p rodu c t ion w ere n o t s imp le b u tr a ther c omp lex i ne a ch r eg ion .

—MICROSCOP IC OBSERVAT IONS OF MICROL ITHS M icroscopes u sed w ere a m eta l log raph ic m icro s cope o f 7 5 -600 magn if i ca t ion w i th i n c ident l i ght a nd a b inocu lar m icroscope o f 1 5 -120 magn if ica t ion . A m eta l lograph ic m icroscope w a s ma in ly u sed t of i nd p o l ish a nd s t r ia t ions , w h i le t he b ino cu lar m icros cope w as u sed t o o bserve e dge d amages . A l l r e touched m icro l iths w ere o bserved w ith b o th me ta l log raph ic a nd b inocu lar m icroscopes . O ther r e touched t o o ls w ere o n ly o bserved w i th ab inocu lar m icroscope . I n t h is a r t ic le , d escr ipt ion i sl im i ted t o t r a ces o fw ear r e lat ed t o s i ck le p o l ish . O n o bserva t ion w i th h igh magn if ica t ion , e i gh t t ypes o f t r a ces o f w ear w ere f ound . Among t hem , t wo t ypes o ft r a ces o fw ear w ere t hough tt ob e r e la ted t os i ck le p o l ish . O ne o ft hem , c a l led t ype A , i s at r a ce o fw ear w h ich c ons is ts o fs t r ia t ion p a ra l le l t oe dge a nd p o l ish w ith ah igh ly r ef lec t ive s urfa ce . T he s t r ia t ion i sf i l led in a nd p o l ish h as a f l u id a ppearance . T h is t ype o ft ra ce o fw ear i s ma in ly s e en n ea r e dge . I ti st hought t ob e s i ck le p o l ish a nd s t r iat ion . A nother t ype , c a l led t ype B , i st he s t r ia t ion p ara l le l t oe dge , b ut i t s s i ck le p o l ish i s n o t w e l l d eve loped a s t ha t o f t ype A . F i l led in s t r ia t ions a re s een o n s ome s pec imens . Most s t r ia t ions a re f ound a tt he p ar t s d i s tant f r om e dges . A l though p o l ish o ft ype B i sn o t a s w e l l d eve loped a s t ha t o ft ype A , t he t r ace o fw ear o ft ype B i st hought t ob e r e la ted t o s i ck le p o l ish . I tr esemb les t he t r ace o fw ea r a t t he p ar ts d i s tant f r om e dges i n c u t t ing G ram ineae i n e xper imentat ion . T he t r a ce o fw ear o ft ypes A a nd B i sc l ose ly r e la ted t o s ma l l a nd c ont inuous e dg e d amages . T he s t r ia t ions o f t ypes A a nd B a re h igh ly c oncentra ted n ea r e dges a nd a re s een e qua l ly o n b o th v ent ra l a nd d orsa l s ur f aces . I n o ther w ords , m icro l i ths w ith t r a ces o fw ear o ft ypes A a nd B h ave s ma l l a nd c on t inuous e dg e d amages a nd h ave t he s t r ia t ions w h ich a re h igh ly c oncen t ra ted n ear e dg es a nd o bserved e qua l ly o n b oth s ur faces . S i ck le p o l ish h as c l ose r e la t ion w ith t hese f ea tures . A s m en t ioned a bove , m icro l i ths w ith t r a ces o f w ear o f t ypes A a nd B a re t hought t o b e u sed i n c u t t ing G ram ineae w ith a s l i c ing m ot ion , s i nce who le p a t terns o ft r ace o f w ear o n m i cro l iths w i th t ypes A a nd B c l ose ly r esemb le t he p a t terns o f w ear w h ich a re s een i n t he e xper imenta t ion o f c u t t ing G ram ineae w i th a s l ic ing mo t ion . T hese a spec ts a re s hown i n T ab le 1 . M icro l i ths w ith t r a ces o fw ear o ft ypes A a nd B e x is ted i n t he a ssemb lages o fS po ts D , Ea nd A o fS i te 5 0 a nd t hose o fD ouara C ave HA a nd IB . T he t r ace o fw ear r e la ted t o c u t t ing G ram ineae i ss e en i n t he a ssemb lages o fL evant ine Aur ignac ian C ( A t l it ian ) , a t r ans it iona l s t age b e tween L evant ine Aur ignac ian C ( A t l i t ian ) a nd K ebaran , a nd t he e ar ly s t ag e o fG eome tr ic K ebaran A . H owever , i ti sn o t f ound a t a l l i n t he a ssemb lag es o f S po ts B , Ca nd F o fS i te 5 0 , n ame ly t he l a te s t ag e o fG eome t r ic K ebaran A .

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T ab le 1

C ompa r ison b etween m icro l iths w ith t ra ces o fw ear o ft ype A a nd B a nd e xper imen ta l s pec imens . t ype o r s tr iat ion

s ick le p o l ish

c ont inuat ion o fs tr iat ion

p ar to f s tr iat ion

e qua lne ss o nb o th s urf ace s

c oncentrat ion o fs tr ia t ion

e dge d a mage

m icro l iths w ith t races o fw ear o f t ype A a nd B

p ara l le l t o e dge , mo s t ly f i l led in w ith c o me t s haped p i t

f a ir ly c lear

c ont inuous

most ly n ear e dge

e qua l

c oncent rated

sma l l

e xper i menta l s pec i men i n c u t t ing Gra m ineae w ith s l ic ing mo t ion

p ara l le l t o e dge , f i l led i n , w ith c o me t -shaped p i t

c lear

c ont inuous

n ear e dge

e qua l

c oncentrated

sma l l

M icro l i ths w i th t r ace o fw ear o ft ype B i nt he a ssemb lag es o fS po ts D a nd E o fS i te 5 0 , o f L evant ine Aur ignac ian C ( A t l it ian ) , a re s ma l l i n n umber a nd h ave o ther t ypes o f s t r ia t ions . I n t hese a s semb lages , morpho log ica l t ypes o f m icro l iths a re n ot u n if orm . M icro l iths o f t hese a s semb lages a re made o f s pa l ls o f s o -ca l led s t eep s c rapers a s m en t ioned e ar l ier ( Fu j imoto 1 979c :1 54 ) . T ypo log ica l s pec ia l iza t ion o f m icro l iths w as n ot y et s een i n t hese a ssemb lages . A lthough n e ither t ypo log ica l s pec ia l iza t ion n or m orpho log i ca l u n if orm i ty i ss een , i ti sc e r ta in t ha t s ome m icro l i ths f r om S pot s Da nd E o f S i t e 5 0 w ere u sed i n c ut t ing G ram ineae . T hus , i tc an b e a ssumed t ha t t he p eop le o f L evan t ine A ur igna c ian C ( A t l it ian ) i n t h is r eg ion may h ave u sed c e rea ls a s o ne o ft he ir f o od s ources a nd t ha to ne o ft he t a sks o fm icro l i ths may h ave b een c u t t ing G ram ineae . A s ment ioned e a r l ier ( Fu j imo to 1 979b :8 0 ) , m icro l iths f r om S po t A o f S i te 5 0 u nderwent g l az ing o rd i sso lu t ion . H ence , t r a ce o fw ear o n t hem c an h ard ly o bserved w i th h igh magn if i ca t ion . T he s t r ia t ions p ara l le l t o e dges a nd s ma l l e dge d amages a re s e en o n s ome m icro l i ths . C lear s i ck le p o l ish a nd f i l led in s t r ia t ions w ith c omet -shaped p i ts a re s e en o n o n ly t wo m i cro l i ths ( Pho to 1 ) . T he ir s urf aces a re i nf a ir ly g ood c ond i t ion a nd t hey h ave s ma l l e dge d amages a nd s t r ia t ions p ara l le l t o e dg es . T hey a re n arrow -backed b lade le ts w ith w id ths o fa bou t 5mm . T ypo log ica l s pec ia l iza t ion b ased o n f unc t ion i ss een i n m icro l iths f r om S pot A o f S i te 5 0 , a s men t ioned p rev ious ly ( Fu j imo to 1 979c :1 32 ) . Nar row -backed b lade le t s h ave s ma l l e dge d amages a nd s t r ia t ions p ara l le l t o e dges w h i le w ide -backed b lade le ts h ave l a rge e dge d amages a nd s t r ia t ions p erpend icu lar t o e dg es . A lthough m i cro l i ths o n w h ich t race o f w ear i so bserved a re s ma l l i n n umber , i t c an b e s a id t ha t m ic ro l i ths w ith s ma l l e dge d amages may h ave b een u sed i n c u t t ing G ram ineae a nd t ha t t he ma in t ask o f n arrow -backed b lade lets may h ave b een c u t t ing G ram ineae . I n t he a ssemb lages o fD ouara C ave HA a nd I B , mos t m ic ro l i ths w i th s ma l l e dge d amages h ave s i ck le p o l ish a nd f i l led in s t r ia t ions . T hey w ere c e r ta in ly u sed f o r c u t t ing G ram ineae . T h is a spect g i ves c i r cums tant ia l e v idence t o t he a ssump t ion . I n t he a ssemb lages o f S pot A o fS i te 5 0 , more t han t hree -quar ters o f m icro l iths a re n arrow b acked b lade le ts w i th w id ths o fa bou t 5mm . Mos t m icro l i ths f r om S pot A o fS i te 5 0 may h ave b een u sed f o r c u t t ing G ram ineae . Numbers o f m icro l iths b ecome l a rge , o f a bou t 2 5 %o ft o ta l t o o ls . C u t t ing G ram ineae b ecame o ne o ft he ma jor t a sks o fs t one t o o ls .

1 67

P ho to 1:

M icros cop ic p ho to o fm icro l ith f r om S po t Ao fS i te 5 0 ( w id th o fp ho to: 2 00 m icron s ) .

T hese f ea tures s how t ha t c u t t ing G ram ineae w h ich may i nd ica te u t i l izat ion o f c e rea ls , r emarkab ly i n creased i n t h is s t age , t he t ran s i t iona l s tage b etween L evan t ine Au r ignac ian C ( A t l it ian ) a nd K ebaran . T hey a l so s how t ha t s pec ia l t o o ls f o r c u t t ing G ram ineae , n ar row -backed b lade let s a ppeared a nd t hat s y s tema t ic u t i l iza t ion o fc erea ls b egan i n t h is r eg ion . T he s urfa ces o f m icro l i ths f r om D ouara C ave HA a nd IB a re i n af a ir ly g ood c ond it ion . T he ir s urfaces a re n ot s o h ard ly w eathered a s t hose o f S i te 5 0 . T he a ssemb lages o fD ouara C ave HA a nd J IB h ave t rapeze -rec tang les a nd b a cked b lade le ts . T yp ica l t r apeze -rec tang les a nd s ome b a cked b lade le ts w h ich a re t hough t t ob e f r agmen ts o f t r apeze -rec tang les h ave w id ths o f a bou t 7mm . T hey h ave l a rge e dge d amages a nd s t r ia t ions p erpend icu lar t o e dges . B es ides t hem , a l though t hey a re s ma l l i n n umber , n arrow -backed b lade le ts a nd a typ ica l t r apeze -rec tang les w i th w id ths o fa bou t 5mm a re f ound . Most o ft he n arrow m icro l iths h ave s ma l l e dge d amages a nd s t r ia t ions p ara l le l t o e dges . T he ir s t r ia t ions a re f i l led in ( Photo 2 ) , c ont inued , c oncen t ra ted n ear e dges a nd e qua l o n b o th v entra l a nd d orsa l s ur f aces . C ome t -shaped p i ts a re s een o n s ome o ft hem . Mos t m icro l iths w ith t hese t races o f w ear a l so h ave s i ck le p o l ish . T races o f w ear o n n arrow m icro l iths a re s im i lar t o t hose w h ich a re s e en i n c u t t ing G ram ineae w ith a s l ic ing mo t ion i n e xper imenta t ion . H ence , i ti s f a ir ly c e r ta in t hat n ar row m icro l i ths w ere u sed f o r c u t t ing G ram ineae . Number s o fm icro l iths w h ich a re t hough t t ob e u sed f o r c u t t ing G ram ineae a re s ma l l , o fa bou t 2 0 %o ft o ta l m icro l i ths a nd o fa bou t 1 2 %o ft o ta l t o o ls . A s c ompared w i th t he a ssemb lage o fS po t Ao fS i t e 5 0 , t he r a t io o fm ic ro l iths w h ich a re t hought t o b e u sed f o r c u t t ing G ram ineae d ecreased . T ypes o f o ther t o o ls s uch a s g ravers a nd s c rapers c hanged . N ew t ype o ft r aces o fw ea r a ppeared . T hese f e a tu res s how t ha t s ubs is tence s ystem may h ave c hanged . U t i l izat ion o f c erea ls d ecreased a nd o ther o c cupa t ions d eve loped . I ti sn o t c l ear w ha tk ind o fo ccupa t ions d eve loped . We h ave n o a ssemb lages o fK ebaran i n P a lmyra B as in . Mos t o ft he a s semb lag es o f K ebaran i n t he L evant h ave t wo -th irds o r t hree -quar ters o f n arrow -ba cked b lade le t s . Narrow m icro l i ths a re t he mos t n umerous . I n t he a s semb lage o fS pot A o fS i te 5 0 , t he f o rerunner o fK ebaran a nd t he a ssemb lages o fD ouara C ave HA a nd IB , t he s uc cessors o f K ebaran , n arrow m icro l iths w ere ma in ly u sed f o r c u t t ing G ram ineae ;h ence , i tc an b e s upposed t ha t i n t he a ssemb lag es o f K ebaran n arrow m icro l iths may h ave b een ma in ly u sed f o r c u t t ing G ram ineae a nd t ha t u t i l iza t ion o f c e rea ls may h ave f l our ished i n K ebaran s t age .

1 68

P ho to 2 :

M icroscop ic p hoto o fm icro l ith f r om D ouara C ave HA ( w id th o fp hoto :2 00 m icrons ) .

I n t he l a te s tage o fG eometr ic K ebaran A , i n t he a ssemb lages o fS pots B , Ca nd F o f S i te 5 0 , n arrow m icro l iths a re l i t t le s een a nd t races o fw ear r e lated t o u t i l iza t ion o fp lant ma ter ia ls a re n ot f ound a t a l l . T hese f eatures s how t hat u t i l iza t ion o f c erea ls was c omp lete ly a bo l ished i n t h is s tage . On t he b as is o f m icroscop ic o bervat ion o f t races o f w ear o n m icro l iths f r om t he Upper - a nd E p i -Pa leo l ith ic a ssemb lages i n P a lmyra B as in , w e c an s uppose t he f o l low ing : 1 .— U t i l iza t ion o fc e rea ls b egan a t L evant ine Aur ignac ian C ( A t l it ian ) , h owever , i t w as n ot s ystemat ic . 2 .— S ystemat ic u t i l izat ion o f c erea ls a ppeared a t t he t rans it iona l s tage b etween L evant ine Aur ignac ian C ( A t l it ian ) a nd K ebaran . A t t h is s tage , s pec ia l t oo ls f o r c utt ing G ram ineae , n arrow -backed b lade lets c ame i nto b e ing . T hese a spects may h ave c ont inued u nt i l t he e ar ly s t age o fG eometr ic K ebaran A . A t t he e ar ly s tage o fG eometr ic K ebaran A , u t i l izat ion o fc erea ls b ecame l e ss i mpor tant . 3 .— F ina l ly , a t t he l a te s tage o f G eometr ic K ebaran A , u t i l izat ion o f c erea ls c omp lete ly d i sappeared .

i f iSTONE TOOLS FOR PROCESSING CEREALS Another e v idence o fu t i l iz ing c erea ls a re s t one t oo ls f o r p rocess ing c erea ls s uch a s mor tars , p est les , g r ind ing s l abs a nd h and s t ones . T hey a ppeared d ur ing t he l a te Upper P a leo l ith ic . F rom Hayon im C ave D ( Be lf er -Cohen a nd B ar -Yosef 1 981) a nd F azae l X ( Ger ing - Morr is 1 980 ) , f a ir ly l a rge n umbers o ft he s t one t oo ls wh ich a re t hought t ob e u sed f o r p rocess ing c erea ls a re f ound . Am inor ity o ft hem h as a t race o fo chre . G r ind ing s l abs a nd h and s t ones a re f ound f r om b oth s i t es . S evera l t ypes o fs t one t oo ls a re f ound a nd t he ir morpho log ica l f o rms s omewhat r esemb le t hose f r om K ebaran s i tes . T hey h ave a p robab i l ity t ob e u sed f o r p rocess ing c erea ls . I n Kebaran p hase , s t one t oo ls f o r p rocess ing c erea ls a re s een a t Naha l Hadera V ( Saxon , Mar t in a nd B ar -Yosef 1 978 ) , H ef z iba ( Ronen , Kaufman , G ophna , B ak ler , Sm ith a nd Am ie l 1 975 ) , a nd E in Guev I( S teke l is a nd B ar -Yosef 1 965 ) . T he ma in s t one t oo ls f o r p rocess ing c erea ls f r om t hese s i tes a re mortars a nd p est les ( Bar -Yosef 1 975 ) . T hese s i tes a re s i tuated i n t he Med iterranean c l imat ic z one . Hand s t ones a nd g r ind ing s l abs a re

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a l so f ound a t E in Aqev i n Negev . T hese f eatures s how t hat s t one t oo ls f o r p rocess ing c erea ls d rast ica l ly i ncreased a t K ebaran s i tes i n t he Med iterranean c l ima t ic z one . M icro l iths w ith s i ck le p o l ish w ere f ound f r om E in G uev I ,a nd b ar ley a nd wheat w ere f ound f r om t he K ebaran l ayer o f Naha l O ren ( Noy , L egge a nd H iggs 1 973 ) . O n t he b as is o fm icroscrop ic o bserva t ions o fm icro l iths f r om P a lmyra B as in a nd o ft he a ppearance o f s t one t oo ls f or p rocess ing c erea ls i n t he Med iterranean c l i mat ic z one , i tc an b e a ssumed t hat s ystemat ica l ly u sed c erea ls b egan a s o ne o f t he ma jor f o od s ources i n t he who le L evant a tK ebaran p hase . Dur ing G eometr ic K ebaran A , t he s t one t oo ls f o r p rocess ing c erea ls s ee med t o d ecrease s o f ar a s t he a u thor h as s een i nvest iga t ing r eport s . E spec ia l ly , i n t he s o -ca l led c ore a rea , i n t he Med iterranean c l imat ic z one , t he a uthor c ou ld f ind o n ly o ne s i te , Haon I I , where s t one t oo ls f o r p rocess ing c erea ls w ere f ound . Th is s hows t ha t a r e markab le d ecrease i n u t i l izat ion o f c erea ls h appened i n t he Med iterranean c l ima t ic z one . T he s ame a spect a s t hat i n P a lmyra B as in , i s s een i n t h is r eg ion . E ven i n t he Med iterranean c l imat ic z one where u t i l iza t ion o fc erea ls h as t rad it iona l ly b een t hought t o g row s mooth ly , when c ond it ion b ecame u nfavourab le , u t i l iza t ion o fc erea ls was e as i ly a bo l ished . I n t he a r id z one , s uch a s N egev a nd S ina i , s t one t oo ls f or p rocess ing c erea ls a re s porad ica l ly f ound a t G eometr ic K ebaran A p hase . F rom L e p o int 1 04 ( Ronen , Y ossef a nd P errot 1 967 ) , L agama N or th V III ( Bar -Yosef a nd G or ing - Morr is 1 977 ) , Mushab i V a nd X IV ( Ph i l ipps a nd M intz 1 977 ) , sma l l n umbers o fp est les a nd mor tars w ere f ound . Un if orm ity a nd c o mp leteness o ft ypes o f s t one t oo ls f o r p rocess ing c erea ls a re n ot s een , b u tt hey a ppeared i nt he a r id z one . C ompared w i th K ebaran p hase , t he p eop le o fG eome t r ic K ebaran A p hase e n larged t he ir t e rr itory . T h is m ight s how t ha tt hey d eve loped s ubs is t ing ways d if erent f r om t hose o fK ebaran p hase . I n Natuf ian p hase , many s t one t oo ls f o r p rocess ing c erea ls w ere f ound . The ma in t oo ls f o r p rocess ing c erea ls a re mor tars a nd p es t les . Most o ft hem a re f ound a tt he s i tes i n t he Med iterranean c l imat ic z one s uch a s A in Ma l laha ( Perrot 1 966 ) , Hayon im T erra ce ( Henry a nd L ero i -Gourgan 1 976 ) , Hayon im C ave ( Bar -Yosef a nd T chernov 1 966 , B ar Y osef a nd G oren 1 973 ) , Naha l O ren ( Noy , L egge a nd H iggs 1 973 , S teke l is a ndY izrae ly 1 963 ) , e l Wad ( Garrod a nd B a te 1 937 ) a nd e lK ebarah ( Turv i l le -Petre 1 932 ) . Many s i ck le b lades w ere a l so f ound f r om t hese s i tes . T hese f eatures s how t ha t u t i l isa t ion o f c erea ls f l our ished i n t he Med iterranean c l ima t ic z one . On t he o ther h and , o n ly s ma l l n umbers o f s t one t oo ls f o r p rocess ing c erea ls a nd s i ck le -b lades w ere f ound f r om t he s i tes i n t he a r id z one . I t means t ha t u t i l iza t ion o fc erea ls was n o t s oi mpor tant i n t he a r id z ones s uch a s Negev a nd S ina i . I n t he n orthern L evant , o n ly s ma l l n umbers o f s t one t oo ls f or p rocess ing c erea ls a re f ound f r om t he Na tu f ian l ayer o f Mureybet ( van L oon 1 966 , 1 968 , Cauv in 1 972 , 1 974 , 1 977 ) a nd Abu Hurey ra ( Moore , H i l lman a nd L egge 1 975 , Moore 1 975 , 1 978 ) . Most o ft hem a re g r ind ing -s labs a nd h and s t ones . T hey a re n a tura l p ebb les w ithout mod if icat ion a nd h ave g r ind ing s urfaces . T hey a re n ot s tandard ized b u t v ery p r im it ive . A lthough t hey a re sma l l i n n umber a nd p r im it ive , s een f r om t he l a ter d eve lopment o f s t one t oo ls f o r p rocess ing c erea ls , i ti sv ery s ign if icant t ha t most o ft hem a re g r ind ing -s labs a nd h and s t ones . T hey a re t hought t o b e t he f o re -runners o f s t one t oo ls f o r p rocess ing c erea ls o f PPNA a nd PPNB i n t he n orthern L evant . The t rad it ion o f s t one t oo ls f or p rocess ing c erea ls i n t he s outhern L evant d i sappeared a f ter P PNA p hase . O n t he o ther h and , an ew ly b orn t rad it ion o ft he n or thern L evant c ont inued a nd i t s s t one t o o l b ecame a n a ncestor o ft hose o fP PNA a nd P PNB o ft he n or thern L evant . Open q uerns a nd s add le q uerns o f t he L evant may h ave o r ig inated

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f r om s t one t oo ls f o r p r ocess ing c erea ls o f Na tuf ian i n t he n or thern L evant s u ch a s t hose f r om Mureybet a nd A bu Hurey ra . A s s t at ed a bove , a na lys ing s t one t o o ls f o r p rocess ing c erea ls , t he f o l low ing f ea tures a re t he most i mpor tant . U t i l izat ion o f c erea ls d id n ot g row s mooth ly i n t he Med iterranean c l ima t ic z one , e i ther . Once i tb ecame o ne o f t he ma jor f o ods , when c ond i t ions t urned u nf avorab le , i tw as s oon a bo l ished .

I V -D ISCUSSION On m icroscop ic o bserva t ions o f m icro l i ths f r om P a lmyra B as in a nd a na lys ing s t one t oo ls f o r p rocess ing c erea ls f r om t he L evant , f o l low ing f ea tu res c an b e a ssumed: 1 .- U t i l iza t ion o f c erea ls b egan i n t he L evant a t t he l a te s tage o f t he Upper P a leo l i th ic , L evant ine A ur igna c ian C ( A t l i t ian ) , b u t i ti sn o t s ys tema t ic . 2 .- S ys tema t ic u t i l iza t ion o f c erea ls a ppeared i n t he L evant a t t he t rans it iona l s t ag e b etween L evan t ine Au r igna c ian C ( A t l it ian ) a nd K ebaran , a nd f l our ished d ur ing K ebaran . C erea ls b ecame o ne o ft he ma jor f o od s our ces . 3 .- U t i l iza t ion o f c erea ls d ecreased r emarkab ly i n t he L evant i n G eometr ic K ebaran A . Another means o f s ubs ist ence d eve loped , wh ich e nab led t he p eop le o f G eometr ic K ebaran A t oe n la rge t he ir l i v ing t e rr it ory . 4 .- I n Na tuf ian , u t i l izat ion o f c erea ls f l our ished much i n t he Med iterranean c l ima t ic z one . I n t he a r id z one , i tw as l e ss i mpor tan t . T he w ay o fl i f e i n t he a r id z one w as d if e rent f r om t ha t i nt he Med it er ranean c l ima t ic z one . Why d id u t i l iza t ion o f c erea ls d ecrea se r emarkab ly i n G eometr ic K ebaran A? I t may h ave b een c aused b y d eter iora t ion o f c l ima te . L ero i -Gourhan s ugges ted i n h er p a lyno log ica l s tudy o fH ayon im T errace ( Henry a nd L ero i -G ourhan , 1 976: 4 02 ) t ha t i t w as c o ld a nd d ry d ur ing G eometr ic K ebaran A . S akaguch i a ssumed i n h is g eomorpho log i ca l s tudy o fP a lmy ra B as in ( 1978: 2 5 -26 ) t ha t t he P a lmyra P luv ia l l ake d r ied u p a t t he t erm ina l P le is tocene . I t may b e s a id w ith c er ta inty t ha t d ess ica t ion h appened i n t h is p er iod . B ecause o ft he d eter iora t ion o fc l ima te , t he p eop le o fG eome t r ic K eba ran A c ou ld n ot c ont inue t he ir f o rmer way o f s ubs istence o f u s ing c erea ls a nd d eve loped o ther w ays . W ith t h is c hange , t hey w ere n o l onger c onf ined t o t he ir f o rmer h ome ra nge; t hey w ere a b le t o e n la rge t he ir l i v ing t e rr it ory b y i n c lud ing t he a r id z one w her et hey h ad n o tb een a b le t os urv ive p rev iou s ly . L ero i -G ourhan a l so s ugg es ted t ha t i n Na tu f ian , i tb ecame w armer a nd w e tt er . T he p eop le o f Na tu f ian i n t he Med i ter ranean c l ima t ic z one b egan a ga in t o u t i l ize c erea ls . T hos e i n t he a r id z one c ont inued t os ubs is t o n t hose w ays wh ich t he p eop le o fG eome tr ic K eba ran A h ad d eve loped t oc ope w i th more a r id c l ima te . T he ways o ff o od p rodu c t ion a re g rea t ly v ar ied a nd v ery d if erent f r om r eg ion t o r eg ion .

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B IBLIOGRAPHY BAR -YOSEF , ( 0 . ) , 1 975 .- The E p ipa leo l ith ic i n P a les t ine a nd S ina i . W endorf a nd Marks e d s , 1 975 . p .3 63 -378 . BAR -YOSEF , ( 0 . ) a nd GOREN , ( N . ) , 1 973 .- Natuf ian R ema ins i n H ayon im C ave . P a lgor ien t 1 .p .4 9 -68 . BAR -YOSEF , ( 0 . ) a nd GOR ING - MORR IS , ( A .N . ) , 1 977 .- G eo metr ic K ebaran A O ccurences . Bar -Y osef a nd P h i l l ips e d s . 1 977 . p .1 15 -148 . BAR -YOSEF , ( 0 . ) a nd PH ILL IPS , ( J .L . ) e ds , 1 977 .- P reh istor ic I nvest iga t ions i n G ebe l Magahara , Nor thern S ina i . QEDE M 7 .J erusa lem . BAR -YOSEF , ( 0 . ) a nd TCHERNOV , ( E . ) , 1 966 .- A rcheo log ica l F inds a nd t he F oss i l F aunas o f t he Na tuf ian a nd M icro l ith ic I ndu s tr ies a t Hayon im C ave (Wes tern Ga l i lee , I s rae l ) . I srae lJ ourna l o fZ oo logy . 1 5 . p .1 04 -140 . BELFER -COHEN , ( A . ) a nd BAR -YOSEF , ( 0 . ) , 1 981 .- The Aur ignac ian a t Hayon im Cave . P akor ien t 7 -2 . p .1 9 -42 . CAUV IN , ( J . ) , 1 972 .- Nouve l les F ou i l les ä T e l l Mureybet ( Syr ie ) 1 971 -1972 . Anna les A rchgo log iques A rabes S yr iennes . 2 2. p . 1 05 -115 . CAUV IN , ( J . ) , 1 974 .- T ro is iäme C ampagne d e F ou i l les a Mureybet ( Syr ie ) e n 1 973 . Anna les A rchgo log iques A rabes S yr iennes 2 4 . p .4 8 -57 CAUV IN , ( J . ) , 1 977 .- L es F ou i l les d e Mureybet ( 1971 -1974 ) e t l eur s ign if i ca t ion p our l e s o r ig ines d e l a s ddentar isa t ion a u P roche -Or ient . Annua l o ft he Amer ican S choo l o f O r ien ta lR esearch 4 4 . p .1 9 -48 FUJI MOTO , ( T .) , 1 979a .- The E p i -Pa leo l ith ic a ssemb lages o f Douara Cave . T he Un ivers i ty Museum , T he Un iver s i ty o fT okyo ,Bu l l e t in 1 6 . p .4 7 -75 . FUJ I MOTO , ( T . ) , 1 979b .- Upper P a leo l ith ic a nd E p i -Pa leo l ith ic a ssemb lages i n t he P a lmyra B as in . i b id .p . 7 7 -130 . FUJ I MOTO , ( T . ) , 1 979c .- T he p rob lems o n t he Upper - a nd E p i -Pa leo l ith ic a ssemb lag es i n t he P a lmy ra B as in . i b id .p .1 31-158 . FUJ I MOTO , ( T . ) , 1 983 .- M icrowear a na lys is o f m icro l iths f r om t he U pper a nd E p i P a leo l ith ic a ssemb lages f r om P a lmyra Bas in . T he Un ivers i ty Museu m , T he Un ivers i ty o fT okyo , Bu l l e t in 2 1 .p . 1 09 -133 . GARROD , ( D .A .E . ) a nd BATE , ( D .M .A . ) , 1 973 .-The S tone Age o f M t Carme l . I . O xf ord . GOR ING - MORR IS , ( A .N . ) , 1 980 .- Upper P a leo l ith ic S i tes f r om Wad i F azae l , J ordan Va l ley . P a lgor ien t 6 .p .1 73 -191 . HENRY , ( D .0 . ) a nd LEROI -GOURHAN , ( Ar . ) , 1 976 .- T he E Xcavat ion o f Hayon im T errace: An I nter im R epor t . J ourna l o fF ie ld A rchaeo logy 3 .p . 3 91 -406 .

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V an LOON , ( M . ) , 1 966 .- F irst R esu lts o f t he 1 965 E xcavat ions a t T e l l Mureybat n ear Meskene . Anna les A rchgo log iques A rabes S yr iennes . 1 6 . p . 2 11-217 .

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USING PREH ISTORIC STONE TOOLS TO HARVEST CULT IVATED WILD CEREALS: PRELIMINARY OBSERVAT IONS OF TRACES AND IMPACT

P a tr ic ia ANDERSON -GERFAUD *

ABSTRACT:

Th is p aper d i scuss es p rob lems a nd p re l im ina ry o bserva t ions s t emm ing f r om a f i rs t s er ies o f e xper imen ts u s ing h af t ed a nd u nhaf t ed t oo ls t o h arvest w i ld a nd d omest ic s pec ies o f whea t a nd b a r ley . We p lan ted a v a r iety o fa cqu is it ions o ft hese c erea l t ypes i n a Med iterranean e nv ironmen t , a tJ a läs , i n t he A rdeche p rov in ce i n s ou thern P rance . T he t ra ces t hese a c t ions l ef to n t he t oo ls w ere n o ted ,a sw e l l a st he r esu l to ft he t oo ls u s eo nt he p lan ts :wa st he s t raw c u tb roken o ru proo ted ?Were s eed h eads s ha t tered o r g a thered , a nd a re t he h a rvest ed g ra ins v iab le? B y c ont inu ing t hese e xper imen ts , w e h ope t o d o cumen t c r iter ia f o r i n terpret ing E p i -Pa leo l ith ic a nd N eo l ith ic a r tefa c ts r e la ted t oa g r icu ltura l p ra ct i ces , a s w e l l a s , o ver al onger p er iod o ft ime , t e s t whe ther u s ing s i ck les t o h a rves t w i ld c erea ls i ndu ces u n consc ious s e lec t ion f o r t he mu tan t , d omes t ic t ype g ra ins , f o r t h is c ou ld h ave p layed a d e c is ive r o le i n t he p ro cess o fc erea l d omes t ica t ion i n t he N ea r Ea s t . r t t sumt : Nous e xposons d es p rob lemes e t d es o bserva t ions r esu ltan t d 'une p rem iere s er ie d ' exper ien ces a ve c d es o u t i ls emmanches e t d es l ames , u t i l ises p our mo issonner d es b les e t o rges s auvages e t d omes t iques . Nous a vons c u l t ive d ivers l o ts d e c es p lantes e n r eg ion med iterraneenne , al ' Ins t itu t d e p rdh is to ire o r ien ta le d e J a läs ( A rdeche ) . No s o bserva t ions p ort en t s ur l e s e f f e ts d e c es a ct ions e n c e q u i c oncerne l e s o u t i ls ( m icro tra ces ) , a ins i q ue s ur l er esu lta t d e l eur u t i l isa t ion: l a p a i l le e s t e l le c oupee , d era c inee o u c a ssee ?L es e p is s on t i ls b r ises o u r eco lt es , e t l e s g ra ines mo issonnees s on t -e l les v iab les ? L a s u ite d e c es e xper iences v ise a f ourn ir d es c r it eres p our i nt erpreter d es d o cuments e p i -pae lo t l ih iques e t n eo l ith iques t ra i tan t d e l a t e chno log ie a g r ico le . Ap lus l ong t e rme , n ous c herchons ä d et erm iner s i l a mo isson d es c erea les s auvages p a r c oupe a l a f auc i l le a p u e n t ra iner u ne s e lect ion p ar t icu l iere ma is i nconsc iente e n f aveur d es g ra ines mu tan tes d e t ype d omes t ique , c ar c e la a ura i t P uj ouer u n r o le d e c is if d ans l ep ro cessus d e d omes t ica t ion d es c erea les a u P ro che -Or ient .

I-I NTRODUCT ION O b servat ions o fp reh is tor ic d a ta When w ere c erea ls f i r st g a thered w i th s t one s i ck les , a nd i n wha tc on tex t? C ou ld t he u se o fs i ck les t o c ut c e rea l s t ems h ave h ad a p a r t icu lar r e la t ionsh ip t o d omes t ica t ion i t se lf? H ere , w e w i l l c ons ider t he r o le f unc t iona l a na lys is o f ap ar t icu lar c a tegory o f t o o ls c an p lay i n u nderstand ing a spec ts o f e ar ly a g r icu ltura l t e chno logy i n t he N ear E a st . E xper iment s h ave s hown t ha t g ra in o f p r im it ive -type d o mest ic c e rea ls s uch a s e inko rn , emmer a nd s pe l t whea t c an b e e f ect ive ly h arvested u s ing s t one t oo ls ( eg . * CNRS , URA 1 7d u CRA , Ma ison d e l 'Or ien t , 7 ,r ue R au l in , 6 9007 L yon , F rance .

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Anderson -Gerfaud 1 983 , Anderson -Ger faud , R eyno lds a nd H e lmer 1 983 , K orobkova 1 981 , S teensberg 1 979 ) . I t h as a l so b een c l a imed t ha t s t one s i ck les a re ef i c ient f o r h arvest ing g ra ins o f w ild c erea ls , t he a ncestor s o f t hose a bove ( Ha r lan 1 967 ) . C onsequent ly , f l int f l akes a nd b lades w ith l uster ed o r g lossed marg ins , «s i ck les » f ound i n E p i -Pa laeo l i th i c o r Na tu f ian ( f ig s . 1 ,2 )a nd N eo l i th ic l e ve ls o fS ou thwest A s ian s i tes w ith g ra ins o fw i ld c e rea ls , a re o f ten t hought t oh ave b een u sed t oh a rvest t hem . E xamp les o fs u ch s i t es a re Mureybe t ( phases I IV , a bou t8 500 -7000 BC , C auv in 1 978 ) a nd A bu Hurey ra ( Ep i -Pa laeo l i th ic d a t ing f r om a pprox imat e ly 9 100 -8700 BC , M oore e ta l . i n p ress ) i n t he E uphrat es V a l ley i n S yr ia . Were t hese t rue a g r icu ltura l t oo ls? A p rev ious m icrowear s tudy ( Anderson -Gerf aud 1 983 ) u s ing o pt ica l m icroscopy a nd t he s cann ing e l ec tron m icroscope t o e xam ine t he s ma l l n umber o f «l u s t red »f l akes a nd b lades f r om t he Na tu f ian l e ve ls a t Mureybe t ( e x . f i g . 2 ) , a nd o ne l us t red b a cked p i e ce ( s evera l o thers a re p resen t ly u nder a na lys is , f i g . 1 ) f r om t he E p i -Pa laeo l i th ic o f A bu Hureyra , s howed t he m icroscop ic t ra ces w ere c harac ter ist ic o f t races o n e xper imen ta l t o o ls o b ta ined b y c u t t ing p lan t s t ems , b u tp robab ly n o t s t ems o fc e rea ls t oo b ta in g ra in . I t s eemed f ar more l i ke ly t hese p lant s t ems w ere p rocured i n r e lat ion t o t e chno log i ca l a c t iv i t ies , p erhaps r e f lect ing i n creas ing s eden t ism ( i b id . ;s ee a l so P er lbs a nd V aughan 1 983 , Moss 1 983 ) . H owever , d ue t o l a ck o f e xper iment s w ith w i ld c er ea ls i n n a tu ra l e nv ironmen ts a nd u nder c u l t iva t ion , t h is e ar l ier w o rk r e l ied o n c ompar i son w i th a w ide v ar iety o f t oo ls u sed t o h arvest p r im i t ive , d omes t ic c erea ls ( emmer , e i nkorn , b read w hea t , c l ub w hea t ) a t L i t t le B u t ser F arm i n E ng land ( R eyno lds 1 980 , A nder son -G er f aud , R eyno lds a nd H e lmer 1 983 ) . E xper imen ts w i th r e cons truc ted f l int t oo ls h av e s hown t ha t v i s ib le «s i ck le g l oss » c an b e p rodu ced o n f l int t oo ls b y u s ing t hem t o h arvest t hese c e rea ls , a s w e l l a st oh arves ta nd p ro cess o ther s i l ica -r i ch p lant s ( s u ch a sp as ture g ra s ses , r eeds , r ushes a nd s edg es ) ( Anderson -Ger f aud 1 980 , 1 983 , 1 986 ;J ue l -Jensen ,t h is v o lume; Unger -Ham i lt on 1 985 ;V aughan 1 985 ) . T heref ore t he e xper imenta l e v idence i nd ica tes t ha t «g l oss »o n t he ir e dges i sn ot s uf i c ient p roof t ha t e ar ly «s i ck les »f r om s ou thwes t A s ia w ere u sed t oh arves t w i ld c e rea l g ra ins . O ther , p ra c t ica l r ea sons w hy t h is may n o t h ave b een t he ir u se w i l l b e d i s cussed b e low o n t he b a s is o fp re l im inary e xper imen ts w e h ave c arr ied o u t s i nce t he p rev ious s tudy , i n c u lt iva t ing a nd h arves t ing w i ld c erea ls u s ing h af t ed a nd u nhaf t ed f l int f l akes a nd b lades s im i lar t o «l u stered »t o o ls f r om A bu Hureyra a nd Mureybe t ( f ig . 1a nd 2 ) . Our a na lys is o fd if erent c ategor ies o fm icrow ea r t races o f u se f ound o n t he e xper imenta l t o o ls c ompr ises o bserva t ions w i th t he o p t ica l m icroscope , a nd c hem ica l a na lys is w ith t he e nergy -d ispers ive a na lyser ( EDAX ) . T h is p re l im inary m icrowear a na lys is i s a ccompan ied b y o bservat ion o f t he i mpac t o f t he h arves t ing o pera t ions o n t he w i ld c e rea ls t hemse lve s . A t p resent , o ther e v idence f ound i n l e ve ls w ith w i ld c e rea l g ra ins a tA bu Hurey ra ( w i ld e inkorn whea t , w i ld b ar ley a nd w i ld r ye , H i l lman i n Moore e ta l . 1 975 ) a nd Mureybet ( w i ld e inkorn , w i ld b ar ley , V an Z e is t 1 970 ) p o int t o t he ir i ncreas ing e xp lo ita t ion , b u t n o tn ecessar i ly t ot he ir c u lt ivat ion . D eta i led morphome t r i c s tudy s hows c er ta in h ands tones , mor tars a nd w orked s t one p es t les f r om Mureybet w e re v ery l i ke ly u sed f o r p rocess ing w i ld c erea l g ra ins ( N ier le 1 982 ) . T here i sa n i ncrea se i n p ercen tage o fl a rge p o l len o fG ram ineae c ons idered t o b e o fC erea l ia t ype b y L ero i -G ourhan ( 1 974 ) a nd o ft he p ropor t ion o fw i ld c erea l g ra ins i d ent if i ed b y V an Z e ist a nd B akkerHeeres , 1 984 / 1986 ) a s c ompared w ith o ther s eeds , b etween t he Na tuf ian l eve ls a nd t he E a r ly N eo l ith ic l e ve ls a t Mureybet . Sma l l c ompar tment s a nd r odent r e ma ins f ound i n t he N eo l ith ic l e ve ls , may c o rrespond t o c e rea l s t orage ( Cauv in o p c i t ) . However , i th as b een r ecent ly c onc luded t ha t o vera l l , t he macro -bo tan ica l r ema ins f r om t hese l eve ls ( Van Z e is t a nd B akker -Her res , o p c i t ) a nd f r om t he E p i -Pa laeo l ithk l eve l a t A bu Hureyra ( H i l lman e ta l . 1 986 ) a re n ot c harac ter is t ic p rodu c ts o fh arves t s o f c u l t iva ted f i e lds , a s o pposed t o p lants m ere ly g a thered f r om v ar ious n a tu ra l e nv ironment s a r ound t he s i t es . 1 76

F ig s . 1a nd 2 : E xamp les o ff l int «l ust ered p i eces »( f rom E p i -Pa leo l ith ic l e ve ls o fA bu Hureyra , f i g . 1 , a nd f r om a Na tuf ian l e ve l o f Mureybet , f i g . 2 ) , w ith a f a int , v i s ib le marg ina l b and o f g l oss . M icrowear a na lys is a t 1 00 -400X s hows t ra ces wh ich a re c hara cter is t ic o f e xper imenta l p lant -cu t t ing . E xper imen ts d escr ibed h ere s eek t o e s tab l ish r ef erence d ocument s f o r more p re c ise ly i n t erpre t ing t he u se o fs u ch t o o ls .

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F ina l ly , t ra ces i n t he s o i l o r t o o ls s ugges t ing t i l l ing o r p lant ing h ave n ot b een i dent if ied f o r t hese E uphra tes v a l ley s i tes . T he e ar l iest s ou thwes t A s ian s t one h oes w e k now o f h av ing macroscop ic g l oss t hought t o b e f r om w ork ing o ft he s o i l , a re f r om t he m id -6 th m i l len ium ( Te l lo A res lane , C auv in 1 958 ) a nd t he 5 th m i l lenn ium , ( Te l la , M . -C . C auv in 1 979 ) , a ssoc ia ted w i th d omes t ic c e rea l g ra ins a nd p robab le i r r iga t ion .

G ra in s e lec t ion b y h arves t ing , a nd t he d o mes t ica t ion p rocess A s o u r p resen t q ues t ions c oncern t he b eg inn ings o fa g r icu l ture i n t he N ear E as t , w e h ave c arr ied o u t e xper imen ts i n a«Med it erranean »c l imat e , a t t he «C en t re d e Cu l tures P reh istor iques E xper imen ta les » a t J a läs ( A rdäche , S . F rance ) . H ere , w e s uccessfu l ly c u l t iva ted s evera l d if erent p l ots o fw i ld b ar ley , w i ld e i nkorn a nd w i ld e mmer whea t o f v ar ious o r ig ins , a nd n umerous v ar iet ies o fp r im it ive d omes t ic w hea ts a nd b ar leys ( 1 ,2 ) . We w ish t o s ee wha t t he r esu l ts w ou ld b e o fu s ing v ar ious d if erent methods t o h arves t w i ld c erea ls , a s o pposed t op r im i t ive d omes t ic e i nkorn a nd emmer whea t , w i th wh ich w e h ave p rev ious e xper ience ( s upra ) . Our e xper iment s i nd ica te t ha t t he d if erences i n m orpho logy a nd i nr i pen ing r a tes b etween d omes t ic c erea ls a nd w i ld c erea ls a re s i gn if i cant i n u nderstand ing t he d i f f erences i n e f ec ts o f t he v ar ious p r im it ive h arves t ing p rocedures . F or e xamp le , e xper iments r epor ted h ere w ere c arr ied o u t w i th e mmer ( Tr i t icum d icoccum ) a nd e inkorn ( T r i t icum mono coccum ) . T he g lumed g ra ins o fe mmer a nd e inkorn whea t t end t o r i pen a t s im i lar t imes w ith in o ne p opu la t ion . T he s em i -br it t le o r s em i -f rag i le r a ch is ( s eed h ead , a s s e en i nf i gu res 5 ,1 a nd 1 2 ) r ema ins o nt he p lant a f t er t he g ra in i sr i pe a nd d oes n o t t end t o d i sar t icu la te a nd f a l l t o t he g round . H e ight o f i nd iv idua l p lan ts i n a p opu la t ion c an b e v ar iab le . On t he o ther h and , t he w i ld c erea ls g rown ( W i ld whea ts ( Tr i t icum b oeo t icum t haoudar ( f ig . 3 , 4 ) T . b oeo t icum a eg i lopo id es , T r i t icum u rar tu , T . d icocco id es , T . a rara t icum ) , a nd w i ld b ar ley ( H ord e um s pon tan eum ) ) t end t og row t ov ery d if erent h e ights i n a ny o ne s t and o r p l ot ( f ig . 1 , «g reen) ) w i ld c e rea l ) a nd a re c ha ra c ter ised b y a f r ag i le o r b r it t le r ach is . T h is n a tura l ly b reaks u p i n t he f i e ld i n to i nd iv idua l s p ike le ts j us t b ef ore ma tur i ty ( f ig . 3 ) wh ich f a l l t o t he g round , p ropaga t ing t he p lant n a tura l ly . E ars —a s w e l l a s i nd iv idua l g ra ins w i th in a ny o ne p lan t —r i pen a t d if eren t t imes . T he t op o f e ach e ar r i pens f i rs t a nd t he g lume -enc losed s e eds ( s p ike lets ) f a l l ( no te t he t op p or t ion o f t he s eed h ead b etween t he g a therer 's h ands i n f i g . 4h ave a l ready f a l len ) . G lume -enc losed g ra ins o fw i ld c e rea ls c ou ld b e s urp r is ing ly d if i cu l t t o g a ther o nce t hey f e l l t ot he g round , a s t hey w ork t he ir w ay d own i n t o t he s o i l a lmost i mmed ia te ly w i th t he h e lp o f t he ir l ong , j agged b arbs ( f ig . 3 ) . T heref ore , i n t he f o l low ing d iscuss ion c oncern ing s e lec t ion mos t o ft hese w i l l b e c ons idered a s «l o s t »t ot he h arv est er . I ti sp oss ib le t ha t a r tef ac ts s u ch a s s i ck les may b e a b le t o d ocumen t t he e ar l ies t a gr icu ltura l p ract ices l ead ing t o d omest ica t ion i f t he ir p rec ise f unc t ion c an b e d eterm ined : b ased u pon e xper imenta l o bservat ions made i n T urkey , H i l lman ( H i l lman a nd D av ies , i np ress ) h as p roposed t ha t t he method o fh arves tb r ing s a bou t a p ar t icu lar s e lect ion o fg ra ins o f w i ld c e rea ls w h i ch c ou ld i n s ome c ases e xp la in t he ir r ap id d omes t ica t ion . S pec if ica l ly , h arves t ing w ith s t one s i ck les ( hand -he ld o r h af ted f l akes a nd b lades ) s hou ld c ontr ibute t o t he a c tua l d omest icat ion o f c erea ls , i f a ccompan ied b y p ar t icu lar a g r icu ltura l p ra c t ices . H i l lman f ound t ha t h arves t ing o fw i ld e i nkorn ( T r i t icum b oeo t icum ) g ra in b y c ut t ing t he p l an ts n ear t he g round u s ing as i ck le ( o rb yu proo t ing t hem ) w ou ld t end t oc ause t he g lumed s e eds o ff r ag i le -ra ch ised , w i ld type c e rea ls t o s ha t ter i n to s p ike lets ( f ig . 3 ) a nd s p i l l t o t he g round . T heref ore t wo k inds o f 1 78

F ig . 3: P art o f ab r it t le -rach ised s eed h ead ( l ef t ) a nd d i sart icu la t ing s p ike lets o f w i ld e inkorn whea t ( T r i t icum t haoudar o r T r i t icum b oeo t icum t haoudar ) .T h is whea t was o ft he t ype f ound a tA bu Hureyra a nd Mureybet a nd i so ne o ft he a cqu is it ions p lanted i n o ur e xper imenta l p lots .

g ra ins s hou ld b e g athered when s t ems a re c u t w ith a s i ck le :1 ) a ny u nr ipe ( g reen ) s eeds ( i t w i l l b e r eca l led t hat w i ld c erea ls r i pen v ery u neven ly , a nd t he g lumed s eeds o r s p ike lets n a tura l ly f a l l t ot he g round j ust b ef ore f u l l r i peness ) ;a nd , 2 )a ny p lants w ith a n on -f rag i le r ach is ( s eed -head ) , wh ich d oes n ot b reak a part n atura l ly . I n c ontrast , b eat ing o r s hak ing o fw i ld c erea l g ra in i n to a c onta iner w ou ld h ave t he r everse e f ect , t o c o l lec t r ipe , w i ld -type g ra ins f r om s eed -heads wh ich s hat ter , b u t l eave b eh ind u nr ipe g ra ins a nd g ra ins o f n on -f rag i le r ach ised ( non -shatter ing ) , mutant p lants wh ich H i l lman a ssumes o ccur n atura l ly i n t he w i ld p opu lat ion . T hus , f r om t he i dea t ha t t he h arves t ing t e chn ique b r ings a bou t ap art icu lar t ype o f s e lec t ion , H i l lman e st ima tes t ha t i fw i ld e inkorn wheat w ere h arves ted y ear ly b y c ut t ing t he s t ems n ear t he g round w ith as ick le o rb y uproot ing t he p lant a nd i ft he r i pe ( v iab le ) p roduct o ft he h arvest o b ta ined u s ing e i ther o ft hese t e chn iques w ere p lanted e ach y ear i n ad if erent l o ca t ion ( 3 ) t he s e lect ion f o r d omes t ic -type mu tants w ou ld h ave b een s o s t rong a s t oc r eate a p opu la t ion o fd omes t ic e i nkorn whea t ( T r i t icum monococcum ) i n a s l i t t le a s 2 0y ears — o r w ith in a max imum o fo n ly 1 00 y ears! I ti se v ident t ha t i fd o mest ica t ion o c curred i ndeed i n t h is manner , t he p rocess w ou ld e ncompass a s pan o ft ime t oo b r ief t o b e i s o la ted i n t he a rchaeobotan ica l r ecord . T hus , a ccura te methods f o r s how ing t ha t c er ta in t o o ls w ere u sed f o r h arvest ing a nd t hresh ing

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c e rea ls may b e o ne d a tum o fp r ime i mpor tance i n g i v ing c l ues a s t o h ow a nd when t he t r ans i t ion t o a g r icu lture a nd d omes t icat ion c ame a bou t . F ina l ly , i ts eems t ha t d omes t ica t ion o fw i ld c e rea ls was n ot c onsc ious ly s ought a s s uch :a l though s ow ing o fg ra ins h arves ted w ou ld a pparent ly h ave t o o c cur , t here c ou ld n ot h ave b een c onsc ious s e lec t ion a th arves tf o rt he s o l id -ra ch ised p lants o fd omes t ic t ype , a s t hese p lants c annot b e v i sua l ly s i ng led -ou t i n af i e ld ( G . H i l l man a nd T . M i l ler , p ers . c omm . ) . Our e xper iments a im t o t e st h ypotheses c oncern ing s e lect ion ( s ee b e low ) , b y a ddress ing q ues t ions i n c lud ing t hese : 1— H ow e f ect ive i sh arves t ing w i th s i ck les ( a t d if erent t imes d ur ing t he g row ing s eason a nd h igh o r l ow o n t he s t ems ) a s c ompared w i th b ea t ing o r w ith p i ck ing t he s e ed h eads b yh and a tt hese t imes , i nt e rms o fv iab le g ra in o b ta ined? 2—Wha t d if erent k inds o ft r aces a nd marks a re l e f t o n b lades o fs i ck les u sed t o h arvest w i ld c e rea l g ra ins a t d i f f erent t imes a nd a t d if eren t l e ve ls o n t he s t em ? O fc ourse , t he a im o ft he e xper imen ta l r e cord ing o ft he v ar ious t races l e f t b y t hese a c t iv i t ies i st o s ee whe ther s im i lar c omb ina t ions o ft r a ces e x is t i n E p i -Pa laeo l ith ic a nd N eo l ith ic s i tes i n s ou thwes t A s ia :c e r ta in a nc ient h a rves t ing o r t hresh ing m ethods may r epresent p ar t o ft he s equence o fe ven ts l e ad ing t ot he d omes t ica t ion o fc e rea ls .

1— RESULTS OF VAR IOUS EXPERIMENTAL HARVEST ING OPERAT IONS Harves t ing w i thou tt oo ls A lthough t hese t e chn iques w i l l n ot b e r epresented i n t he a r chaeo log ica l r e cord b y p ar t icu lar a r tefacts ( bu t s ee H i l lman 1 981 c oncern ing a rchaeobotan ica l r ema ins ) w e w ish t o c ompare t hem w ith t he r esu lts o b ta ined b y h arves t ing u s ing s i ck les . O ur e xper imen ta l h arves t ing , c arr ied o u t w ith G eorge W i l lcox ( a r chaeobotan is t , ATP 9 50126 ) s howed t ha t c a refu l ly p ick ing o r s tr ipp ing r i pe s p ik e l e ts o r e n t ir e s eed h eads b y g en t ly p u l l ing o rb end ing ( w i th am in imum o f movemen t i nt he p l ot , w as t he mos t e f ect ive w ay t o g a ther v iab le r i pe g ra in o f w i ld c e rea ls . W i ld c e r ea l g ra in r i pened a t d if erent t imes f r om p lant t op lant w i th in e a ch p opu la t ion ( p lo t ) p lan t ed a tt he s ame t ime a nd w i th in e a ch s eed h ead ;r i pe s eeds g rew a t v ery d if erent h e ight s f r om t he g round . T her ef ore , h and p i ck ing a l lowed u s t o s e lec t s e ed a t w i l l , d esp ite t h is v ar iab i l i ty . Our e xper imen ts s howed t ha t a n e f ec t ive t e chn ique o fo b ta in ing r i pe a nd n ea r -r ipe g ra ins w as t ow rap t he f i ng ers a round t he s eed h ead a s i tw as b ent o r p u l led t oh e lp « ca t ch »n ear -r ipe g ra ins ( f ig . 4 )a s t hey c ame f r ee ( t he p ar t o ft he s e ed -head g a thered w ou ld t end t o s ha t ter i n t he h and ) , w i thou t t ak ing «g reen »s eed h eads a nd s p ike lets w e w ished t o l e t r i pen f u r ther . ( Th is i mp l ies c o l lec t ing s eeds a t more t han o ne t ime ) . H owever , w hatever t he c ons c ious c r i ter ia t he c o l lec tor u ses t os e lec tg ra in t oh arves t i nt h is w ay , i td oes n o t a ppear t oc au se a ny p ar t icu lar u nconsc ious s e lec t ion f o r v iab le g ra in o f s o l id -ra ch ised «d omes t ic -type » p lants o ver w i ld type p lan ts . P ick ing i s a n e f ec t ive method f o r g a ther ing e ars o f d o mest ic c e rea ls a s w e l l ( e inkorn , e mmer , s pe lt ) , w h ich t end t o s nap o f fa t t he b ase o ft he r ach is o rj us t a bove t he l a st s p ike let , c aus ing o n ly m in ima l g ra in l o ss . ( How ever , i ft he s t raw i st ob e t aken , a n a dd i t iona l o pera t ion i sn eeded ( c u t t ing w ith s i ck les , u proot ing ) . 1 80

Our l im ited e xpe r iments i n g a ther ing w i ld c e rea l g ra in b y b eat ing s e ed h ead s g ave p oor r esu lts; r i pe g ra ins w ere i ndeed d e ta ched , b u t mere ly mov ing a round i n t he p l o t s b ea t ing g roups o fs eed h eads c aused g ra in l o ss b ecause r i pe s eeds o fa d jacent a nd l ower -down p lants f e l l a s w e l l , b ef ore t hey c ou ld b e «c augh t »i n ac onta iner . O n t he o ther h and , g reen e ars a nd s p ike le ts r es isted b e ing d e tached b y b ea t ing . ( We d o n ot k now , b u t d o n ot t h ink , r i pe , n on -f rag i le -rach ised s eed h eads , i fp resent , w ou ld b e h arves ted b y b ea t ing ) . S im i lar ly , b ea t ing w as s e ldom e f ec t ive f o r d e ta ch ing e ar s o fd o mest ic c e rea ls , a nd s eemed f ar l e ss e f f ic ient t han h and -p ick ing o r s i ck le -harvest ing . T he «b es t » r e su l ts w ere o n o ver -r ip e , d ry s eed h eads o f amodern d omes t ica te ( T r ic i tum t imopheev i ) , w hose r a ch is b roke i r regu lar ly ( c au s ing s ome s e ed l o ss ) when t he e ars w ere b ea ten . Harves t ing b y u proot ing o r b reak ing s tems o ft h e c e r ea ls b y h and w as t r ied i n l im i ted e xper iment s , s how ing p u l l ing -up o ft he p lan t c an i nduce t he i r regu lar b reakage o fd ry s t ems n ear t he b a se o r u proo t ing , w h ich c an b e f a c i l i ta ted b y w a ter ing t he g round . G ra in s p i l lag e o c curr ed f o r d o mest ic c e rea ls ( par t icu lar ly i ft hey w ere o ver -r ipe a nd d ry ) i fp u l l ing u p o n t he s t em c aused a v i o lent j e rk . Our o bserva t ion i s t ha t r i pp ing o r u proot ing s eem l e ss e f ect ive t han u s ing a s i ck le t o c ut s t ems o f d omes t ic c erea ls . U proot ing c an a l so c omp l ica te t he t hresh ing p rocess b ecause o fp oss ib le c on tam ina t ion o f t h e g ra ins w ith s ma l l s t ones f r om t he s o i l ( H i l lman 1 981) . Wi ld c e rea ls w ere n o t h arves ted i n t h is manner t h is y ear , b u t w e s pecu la te t h is w ou ld c ause l o ss o fr i pe g ra in , a l though g ra ins o fs o l id -rach ised c erea ls w ou ld p robab ly n o t b e l o s t b y u proot ing t he p lant . T h is t e chn ique w i l l b e e xper imented w i th i n f u ture h a rvests o fw i ld c e rea ls . O fc ourse , i tc an b e p ra c t ica l , a f ter e ar s a re p i cked ( o r c u t ) , t o u p r oo tt he s t ems .

Harvest ing w i th s t one t oo ls Numerous f l int b lades w ere k napped b y J acques P e l legr in ( URA 2 8 ) a nd G . D erapraham ian ( URA 1 7 ) a nd u sed w ithou t ah and le o r h af t ed i n s evera l o f t he h and les made b y G . D erapraham ian a nd D . H e lmer ( CRA ) o f g enera l f o rms k nown f o r N eo l i th ic o r l a ter p reh is t or ic s i tes wh ich a re r easonab le i n v i ew o f t he d i s tr ibu t ion o f l u s ter , m icrowear t ra ces a nd a dhes ive o n t he E p i -Pa leo l ith ic a nd N eo l ith ic t oo ls ( e g . f i g s . 1a nd 2 ) ( M . -C . C auv in 1 973 , A nderson -Gerfaud 1 983 , H e lmer 1 983 ) . T hese w ere u sed t oh arves tw i ld a nd p r im it ive c e rea ls b y c u t t ing a tv ar ious l e ve ls o n t he s t ems . Cutt ing b unches o f whea t s t ems u nd er t h e e ar s w i th a «h arves t ing k n if e »i n o ne h and wh i le h o ld ing t he s t ems w i th t he o ther h and w as e f ec t ive f o r h arves t ing p r im it ive d o mestic c e rea ls ( s em i f rag i le r ach is ) s uch a s emmer a nd e inkorn . Many e ars w ere h a rves ted b y o ne c u t a t w a is t leve l ( o f as tand ing h arves ter ) , a l though s ome e ars g rew l ower t han t he l e ve l o ft he c u t . H owever , l im i ted a t temp ts t oo b ta in v iab le g ra in o fw i ld c e rea l s b y c u t t ing u nder b unches o fe ars w i th a s i ck le s ugges t t h is i sd i sa strous f o r t wo r ea sons :1 )t he h e igh ts o ft he e ars i n a ny g iven p l ot a re s o i r regu lar t ha t a «h igh c u t> ' ( n ea r w a ist l e ve l ) h arves t sf ewer t han h a lf o ft he e ars a nd 2 )r i pen ing t imes o fe ar s —a nd g ra ins w ith in e ach e ar — d if er s o mu ch w ith in t he p l ot t ha t t he e ars c u t g ive a v ery i r regu lar g ra in h arves t: many r i pe g ra ins a re s p i l led ( s ee b e low ) , w hereas o n ly g reen a nd u nf ormed g ra ins ( l ike ly t o b e n on -v iab le ) , a nd a ny n on -f rag i le r ach ised p lants ( wh ich may o r may n o tb e v i ab le a tt he t ime o fh arves t ) a re g a thered . P inch ing o rc u t t ing of s e ed h eads o n e b yo ne o fg enera l ly r ipe w i ld c e rea ls , a tt he r ach is ( s eed h ead ) b ase b y p ressure w ith t he t humb a ga ins t t he e dge o f as t one b lade o r

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F igs . 4 -6 : Harvest ing t e chn iques wh ich c ou ld h ave b een u sed f o r w i ld e i nkorn a nd emmer wheat , i nc lud ing e xper imenta l u se o f t oo ls l i ke t hose i n f igures 1 a nd 2 .

F ig . 4 :

Harvest ing o f w i ld e inkorn w heat b y p luck ing :when g ra ins a re r i pe , f rag i le -rach ised s e ed h eads b reak i n to s p ike lets , a s s e en i n t he h and o ft he h arvester .

F ig . 5 : Harvest ing o f d o mest ic

em mer

whea t b y c u t t ing s t ems b eneath t he s eed h eads u s ing a r econstructed «h arvest ing k n if e »w ith a f l int i nsert .

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F ig . 6 : Harvest ing p r im it ive wheat b y c u t t ing g roups o fs t ems n ear t he g round , u s ing a r econstructed s i ck le w i th f l int i nser ts .

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h arves t ing k n if e , u sua l ly met w ith s ha t t er o ft he r a ch i s b eg inn ing w ith t he t op s p ike let s . I n g enera l , u s ing a t o o l o n ly s eemed c umber some c ompared w ith s imp ly p i ck ing e ach e ar w i th t he h and . S ome o ft he e ars w h i ch w ere f i rm e nough t oh o ld t oge ther w h i le b e ing c u t may h ave b een t o o «g reen »t ob e v iab le a nd w ou ld t heref ore n ot «c ount »a s b e ing s e lec ted f o r r e -p lant ing ;o thers may h ave b een r i pe e ars o fn on -f rag i le -rach ised p lan t s , w hose f r equency o fo c currence i n e a ch p opu la t ion s t i l l n eeds t ob e d eterm ined . When d o mest ic c e rea ls w ere h arvest ed t h is w ay , g a ther ing a nd c u t t ing o ft he e a r s w ere a ccomp l ished u s ing o ne h and , w ithou t g ra in l o ss . I n t h is w ay , t he o ther h and i sl e f t f r ee t o s imu l taneou s ly c o l lect t he e ars . A n h our o fi n t ens ive h arvest ing o fe mmer w hea t j us tu nder t he e ar , e i ther p lant b yp lant ( f ig . 5 )o rb y c u t t ing u p t of i ve s t ems a to nce u s ing p res sure o ft he t humb t o s l ide s t ems a cross t he b lade ( t hen p u l l ing b y r o ta t ing t he s t ems o nto t he o ther f a ce , s ever ing t hem ) , p roduced m ic rowear t races w ith a symmetr ica l d i s t r ibu t ion :o ne f a ce o ft he f l int t o o l d eve loped w eak m icrowear t ra ces ( a s s e en w i th a n o p t ica l m icros cope a t2 00 -400 X ) w i th al i near d i s tr ibu t ion ( f ig . 7 )o r iented i nt he d i rec t ion o ft he c u t t ing a nd p u l l ing mo t ions o ft he s t ems a s t hey w ere s evered , wher eas t he o ther s i de o ft he e dg e , i nc ontac t w ith t he s t ems p ressed a nd s l id f i rm ly a ga ins t t he c u t t ing e dge b y t he t humb o f t he h arves ter , d eve loped s t ronge r t r aces h av ing a v ery d if eren t a ppearance ( f ig . 8 ) . T he l a t ter t races w ere i n s ome w ays r em in iscent o f p rev ious e xper iments w ith n ot o n ly p lant ma ter ia l , b u t w ith h ide a nd g r it ( s o i l ) ( Anderson G ar faud 1 981 , P l isson 1 985 ) . I n a l l o u r e xper imen ts w ith h af t ed s i ck les w e f ound t he a c t ion n eeded t ob e a dap t ed b y «t r ia l a nd e r ror » ,w i th t he «i d ea l »h arves t ing m o t ion v ary ing s l igh t ly i n e ach c a se a c cord ing t o t he p ar t icu lar t o o l morpho logy a nd p os i t ion o f t he b ody a nd h and o ft he h arves ter i n r e la t ion t ot he l e ve l a tw h ich h e i sc u t t ing a nd wha t p ar ts o ft he p lant h e i s h a rves t ing . F or e xamp le , ac urved , p u l l ing o r «s l a sh ing »m ot ion t owa rds t he h arves ter u sed t o c u t h andfu ls o fs t ems a t o nce ( f ig . 6 )w a s f ound t ob e t he most e f ec t ive when t he c u t t ing e dg e w as s uf i c ient ly l o ng ( e x . f i g . 9 ) . O n o c ca s ion , a nd n otab ly w i th t he s t ra igh t s i ck les w ith s hor t b lades , as aw ing m ot ion w as n eeded i n o rder t o s ever g roups o fs t ems . T he d i rect ion o f t he mo t ion a nd i t s f o rce a f e c ted t he d i st r ibu t ion a nd i n tens i ty o ft he m icrowear t r a ces , a s w e l l a s o fc our se t he l e ng th o ft he t o ta l e f ec t ive c ut t ing e dge ( eg . h ow many c u t t ing mot ions a f ec ted e a ch a rea ) . Cut t ing b unches o fs t ems n ear t he g round ( f ig . 6 ) w as , f o r p r im it ive d o mest ic c e rea ls , a n e f f ec t ive means o fg a ther ing r i pe g ra in , p a r t icu lar ly when t he s i ck le -cu t w as l ow e nough t o c o l lec t mos t o ft he e ars , wh ich g row a tv ar ious h e ights f r om t he g round . R ipp ing a nd c ra ck ing o ft he s t ems w i th a s i ck le o c cur red w hen more o f as t r ik ing t han a c urved p u l l ing mo t ion w as u sed , p ar t icu lar ly i n t he c a se o fd ry s t ems o fd omes t ic c e rea ls w h ich o f ered t o o l i t t le r e s is tance f o rt he s i ck le t o «b i t e» ,b u t d id n ot o ccu rf o r w i ld c e rea l s t ems , a l though t hese w ere s ome t imes i nadver tent ly u prooted w hen t he s o i l w as m o is t . C rack ing , b end ing a nd u proot ing o ft he s t ems g enera l ly p roduced f ewer w e l l -deve loped m icrowear t r ac es t han a c tua l ly c u t t ing t hrough t hem w i th t he t o o l . F ina l ly , m icrowear t ra ces w ere a pparent ly a f ec ted b y t he d if erences i n h ardness o f t he s t ems b etween «g reen » a nd «d ry » s t ems , w h ich w e f e e l w i l l p rove t o b e s ign if icant ( e g . i nf ra ) . F or w i ld c e rea ls , t he s t ems i nm os tp l o t sw here t he g ra ins w ere a l r eady r i pe w er ec u tj us t af ter t he s eed h eads h ad b een r emoved b y h and , b ecause i t w as o bserved e ar ly i n t he e xper iments t ha t t he r i pe , f r ag i le s e ed h eads d i sar t icu la ted , c aus ing g ra in l o ss , w hen s i ck les w ere u sed t oc u t s t ems w i th s e ed h eads ( s ee b e low ) . T he t r aces w e t hus o b ta ined , c u t t ing a pprox ima t e ly 2 500 «d ry« s t ems o fc u l t iva ted w i ld e mmer a nd e i nkorn ( p lus a c company ing «w eeds » ,s e e b e low ) a t 1 0 -20 c m f r om t he g round w ith b lades h af ted i n as i ck le ( f ig . 9 ,1 0 ) , i n s ome ways r esemb le t ra ces f r om 1 84

c u t t ing r eeds a s w e l l a s t races o b ta ined h arvest ing d omest ic c erea ls i n p rev ious e xper iments . Hand -he ld b lades u sed t o h arves t o n ly s evera l h undred w i ld c e rea l p lants m ore r esemb le o ther e xper imenta l t o o ls u sed t o h arves t p as ture g rasses ( s ee Anderson G er f aud 1 983 ) . I t mus tb e emphas ized , h owever , t ha tt o o ls w i l l n eed t ob e u sed t oh arves t f a r g reater amounts o f w i ld c erea ls i n f u ture e xper iments ( eg . f o r t he 1 987 h arves t : l a rg er amoun ts o f w i ld c e rea ls w ere a b le t o b e p lan ted i n o ur f i e lds i n a u tumn , 1 986 ) . T h i s w i l l e nab le u s t o s e e t o wha t e x tent b e t t er d eve loped t r aces o fu se ( e g . p o l ishes a nd s t r ia t ions v i s ib le u s ing a n o p t ica l m icroscope a t 2 00 -400 X ) c an b e u sed t o d i s cr im ina te among t he v ar ious h arvest ing methods , a nd r esemb le m icrowear p a t terns o n t he p reh is tor ic i mp lemen t s u nder s tudy . I n s i ck le -harves t ing n ea r t he b ase o ft he s t ems , c e rea l s t ems w ere f ound t o b e f a r e a s ier t o s ever t han t ough , g reen weeds ( eg . t h is t les ) , f ound i n s ome o ft he p l o t s a tJ a les ( A rdeche ) a nd c ommon a t B u tser F arm i n E ng land ( Anderson -G erfaud 1 986 ) . T he o f ten a bundant w eeds c u t w i th t hese s i ck les a l ong w ith t he d omest ic c erea ls s eemed t o c on t r ibu te t ot he a ppea rance o ft he m icrowear t r a ces w et hen s aw o nt hese f l int t o o ls , u s ing t he me ta l log raph ic m icro scope . We w ondered i fw eeds i n t he f i e lds w ere c ont r ibu t ing t oa r e s idue l ayer c ompr is ing c a lc ium , w h ich w e d e tected o n t he s ame t o o ls u s ing t he S EM a nd e nergy -d ispers ive X -ray a na lys is ( EDAX ) , i n a reas where m icrowear p o l ish w as f ound ( i b id . ) . C er ta in s pec ies o f w eeds c u t w ere k nown t o c onta in c a lc ium ( Gayra l a nd V ind t 1 961) , b u t a s t he s o i l i n t he f i e ld w as a l so c a lcareous , t he e x tent t o wh ich w eeds o r s o i l c ontr ibu ted t o t he r es idue c ou ld n ot b e d emonstra ted . R es idues o f a «w eed » ( L i thospermum a rvens e ) w i th morpho log ica l ly i d ent if iab le p hy to l iths w ere s een o n at o o l u sed b y P . R eyno lds t o c u t ap lo t o ft h is p lan t t ype a t B u t ser F arme ( Ander son -G er faud 1 986 ) . A lthough weeds s e em t oi n f luence w ear t r aces ( s ee b e low ) w e a ssume o ur p resen t o bserva t ions o fw eed d ens ity a re r e la t ive t o e ach p a r t icu lar s i tua t ion . Weeds w ere l e ss c ommon i n s tands o fw i ld e inkorn h arvested i n T urkey b y N ier 16 ( p ers . c omm . ) t han i n p lo ts o fw i ld e i nkorn g rown i no u r 1 986 f i e ld a tJ a les ,b u ta re i na bou tt he s ame a bundance a s i n o ur 1 987 f i e lds ( t o b e h arves ted ) . T he r esu lt s o fs evera l y ears e xper imen t s w i l l b e n eeded b ef ore w e c an e va lua te t he s i gn if icance o fw eeds i n o ur f i e lds o fc u lt iva ted w i ld c e rea ls a s o pposed t o t hose i n w i ld s t ands a nd t he e x ten t o ft he ir i nf luence o n m icrowear t ra ces . Weeds s hou ld b e e xpec ted t o v ary a ccord ing t o t he n a tura l e nv ironment , me teoro log ica l c ond it ions f r om y ear t o y ear , s o i l p repara t ion , t ime o f p lant ing , e t c . H owever , w eed p resence a nd h e ight i n c erea l f i e lds a re i mpor tant t o e va lua te a s a p oss ib le i nd ica tor o f s i ck le -harves t ing e i ther «h igh »o r «l ow »o n t he s t em , a s f ewer o r n o w eeds w ou ld b e c u tw hen h arves ti s «u nder t he e ar s» . A lthough v ery f ew c a lc ium -r ich w eeds w ere a pparent ly h arves ted i n t he f i e ld c u l t iva ted i n t he A rdeche , p re l im inary c hem i ca l a na lys is o f h arvest ing t o o ls u sed a t J a les t o c u t c erea ls ( wh i ch d o n ot c onta in c a lc ium ) n ear t he g round , u s ing a n EDAX c oup led w ith a n SE M a nd a meta l log raph ic m icroscope , r evea l t he p resence o f c a lc ium r e s idues a long w ith «m icrowear p o l ish »o n t he ir w ork ing e dges . H ere i ta ppear s t ha t t he c a lc ium -conta in ing s o i l f r om t he f i e lds a tJ a les a dher ing t ot he t o o l e dge s urf ace i s more l i ke ly t he s our ce o ft he c a lc ium -r ich r es idue ma ter ia l . C onverse ly , X -ray a na lys is o fo ne f l int s i ck le b lade u sed e xper imenta l ly t o h arves t r eeds a nd o ne t o h arves t w i ld g rasses ( wh ich a re n ot c a lc ium -r ich , b u t g rew o n c a lcareous , u n t i l led g round ) d id n ot h ave c a lc ium r es idues o n t he ir e dges . T he f l int k n if e u sed t oh arves t i nd iv idua l s eed h eads o f e mmer whea t ( e g . f a r f r om t he s o i l ) d id n ot s how c a lc ium r es idues . T heref ore , w hen s u ch c a lc ium r es idues a ppea r l o ca l ized i n t he a rea o fo ther m icrowear t r aces c o r respond ing t o t he c u t t ing o fc e rea l s t ems ( s uch a s m icrowear p o l ish a nd r es idues o fa ny s i l ica p hy to l i ths h av ing a morpho logy c ha rac ter is t ic o ft he G ram i n ea f am i ly g rasses , c e rea ls a nd o thers c hara cter ist ic o f c er ta in «w eeds » ) , t hese t races may t oge ther f urn ish c r iter ia f o r d edu c ing t ha t t o o ls w ere u sed t oh arves t c e rea ls n ear t he b ase o ft he s t ems i nf i e lds w i th 1 85

F ig s . 7 , 8a nd 1 0 s how m i crowear t ra ces o n e xper imenta l t o o l e dges a s s e en w i th a n O lympus BHM m e ta l log raph ic m icroscope a t 2 70 X magn if icat ion .

F ig . 7: I nter sec t ing l i near m i crowear t ra ces s e en o n t he e dge o ft he t oo l i nf i gure 5 ,o n t he f a ce t ot he l ef to ft he p hoto , i nc on ta c tw i th s t ems o fc e rea ls r ubb ing p ara l le lt o t he e dg et hen p erpend icu lar t oi ta st he s t em i sc u ta nd t he s e ed h ead p lu cked o f .

F ig . 8: M icrowear «p o l ish »s e en o n t he t o o l i nf i gur e 5 ,l o ca ted o n t he e dg e o ft he f a ce i n c onta c tw i th t he h arvest er 's t humb , u sed t op res s a nd s l ide s t ems a l ong t h is e dg e .

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F ig . 9: R econstruct ion o f s i ck le w ith h af ted f l int b lades l i ke t hose i n f i gures 1 a nd 2 , u sed t o h arvest s tems o fw i ld e inkorn , emmer a nd b ar ley , b y c u tt ing n ear t he g round a s i n f i gure 6 .S ca le = 6c m .

F ig . 1 0: Microwear p hot o o f «p o l ish »p roduced o n l a rge b lade o ft oo l i n f i gure 9 ,u sed t o h arvest a pprox ima te ly 2 500 s t ems o fw i ld c erea l .

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l o ose s o i l ( e g . t i l led f i e lds ) a s o pposed t ow i ld p lan ts h arvest ed i n u nt i l led f i e lds o r o ther e nv ironments . T hese c r iter ia a re b e ing t e s ted f ur ther . We h ave n o t o bserved c l ear m icros cop i c s t r ia t ions t oo c cur s yste mat ica l ly o r w i th marked ly g reater f r equency t han o n o ther k inds o f p lant -work ing t oo ls , o n e i ther e xper imen ta l t o o ls w h ich w ere u sed t oh arves t w i ld a nd d omest ic c e rea ls a tJ aMs , where t he s o i l was t i l led mechan ica l ly , o r t hose u sed t o h a rves t mu ch l a rger q uant it ies o f p r im i t ive d omes t ic c e rea ls a t L i t t le B u t ser F a rm , wher e t he f i e lds a re t i l led b y a n o xen d rawn a rd . H owever , Unger -Ham i lton ( 1985 ) f ound s t r ia t ions a re c ha ra c ter ist ica l ly p resent o n e xper imenta l f l int t o o ls u sed t oh arves t c e rea ls i nt i l led f i e lds , a nd n o t o n t o o ls u sed t oc u t c e rea ls o r o ther p lant s i n d if erent c on tex ts . K orobkova ( 1981) n o tes s t r ia t ions o c cur more o n t oo ls u sed t o h arvest d omes t ic c erea ls t han p as ture g rasses . I t s eem s f ur ther e xper iments a re n eeded i n o rder t o d emonst rate t he p ar t icu lar a ssoc iat ion o f s t r ia t ions w ith c e r ta in a g r icu l tu ra l c ontex ts , h owever .

D iscuss ion o f ef ec ts o fs i ck le -harves t ing H ow e f fect ive i sh arves t ing r i pe w i ld c e rea ls b y c u t t ing t hem n ear g r ound l eve l f o r g a ther ing v iab le g ra in ?( I t w i l l b e r e ca l led t ha t t h is t e chn ique i so ne o ft wo t hought b y H i l lman ( i n p ress ) t ob e mos t l i ke ly t oh ave i ndu ced t he p ar t icu lar s e lect ion w h ich c ou ld h ave l e d t o d omes t ica t ion ) . Harves t ing o fw i ld c e rea ls b y c u t t ing w ith a s i ck le n ear t h e b ase o ft he s t ems w as a t temp ted w ith v ar ious k inds o fm o t ions a nd t o o ls , a t at ime w hen many o f t he g ra ins w ere n ear ly r i pe , b u t b ef ore t oo many r i pe g ra ins h ad f a l len . T he r esu l t , w i th f ew e xcept ions w as t o s p i l l a ny n ear -r ipe s p ike le ts t ot he g round . O n ly g reen s eeds ( and s eeds o f e ars o f n on -f rag i le -rach ised p lan t s , i fa ny , wh ich c ou ld h ave b een g reen o r r i pe ) w ere a pparen t ly h arves ted u s ing t h is m ethod . T hese r esu l t s s ugges t t ha t c u t t ing b unches o f s t ems o f w i ld c erea l when t hey a re r i pe s p i l ls r i pe a nd n ear -r ipe g ra ins :S ick le -harvest ing g enera l ly r esu lts i n t he t ak ing o f p oor g ra in s t ock ( p ers . c omm . J . Har lan a nd T . M i l ler ) a s c ompared w ith h and -p ick ing s eed h eads a nd s p ike lets . Wha ti st he r esu l t o f a«g reen h arves t» ,u sed i n t he r e cent a nd p robab ly p reh is t or i c ( Gyse ls a nd C ahen 1 982 ) p ast f o r d omes t ic c erea ls , w hen t r ied f or w i ld c erea ls? Harves t ing a t at ime when s t ems ( and t hus s eeds ) a re s t i l l g reen may b e r e cogn izab le f r om m icrowear t ra ces ( e x . m icroscop ic p o l ish b r igh tness a nd d i s tr ibu t ion ) a s o pposed t o c u t t ing l a ter i n t he g row ing s ea son , w hen s t ems a re d ry a nd s ome g ra ins a re r i pe a nd h ave f a l len . Harvest ing d omest ic emmer g reeen a t L i t t le B u tser F a rm p roduced a s omewha t b r igher , more r ap id ly -f orm ing m icrowear p o l ish t han h arves t ing e mmer a t o r a f ter f u l l g ra in ma tur ity . T h is i sa pparent ly d ue t o d if erences i n wa ter c ontent o ft he s t ems a tt hese d if erent s t ages a nd b ecause g reen s t ems a re more r es istan t t han d ry o nes ( Anderson 1 980 , A ndersen a nd Wh it low 1 983 ) . F u ture e xper iments w i l l a ddress t h is q ues t ion i n d eta i l . T hese e xper iments w i l l a l so d e term ine whe ther a «g reen h arvest »c an b e e f e c t ive f o r o b ta in ing v iab le s eed o fw i ld c e rea l i n t he s ame w ay a s f o r d omes t ic c e rea ls . T here a re s evera l p oss ib i l it ies t o t e st , s ome o fw h ich may b e s i gn i f ican t i n u nder s tand ing t h e d omest ica t ion p rocess :h arves t ing w i ld c e rea ls g ra ins «g reen » may r e su l t i n mos t o f t he g ra ins b e ing n on -v iab le ( pers . c omm . T . M i l le r ) , a l though o f c ourse e d ib le ( f or e xamp le , a s «f r ike » ) . A nother p oss ib i l ity i s t ha t a «g reen c ut » o f w i ld c erea ls s ys tema t ica l ly o b ta ins v iab le g ra in i fl ef tt od ry o n t he s t ems . We d id n o t a t tempt t h is f o r p l ots o f o ur f r ag i le -rach ised w i ld c erea ls wh ich w ere n ot e ven -r ipen ing , b ecause i t s eemed i mpract ica l a nd f o r f ear o f l o ss o f g ra in s t ock n eeded f o r t he n ext s eason 's 1 88

p l ant ing . H owever , o ne g roup o f w i ld emmer ( T r i t icum d iccoco ides ) a nd w i ld e i nkorn ( T r i t icum b o eo t icum a eg i lopo ides ) h ad u nusua l ly n on -f rag i le r ach ises a nd r i pened v ery e ven ly , f o r morpho log i ca l ly w i ld c e rea ls . T h is may b e d ue t o t he ir h av ing u ndergone s e lec t ion d ur ing p rev iou s c u lt iva t ion i n g ene b anks ( T . M i l ler , P lant B reed ing I ns t itu t e , T rump ing ton , G .B . , a nd G eorge W i l lcox , p ers . c omm . ) . T h is w i ld emmer a nd w i ld e i nkorn was a b le t o b e h arves ted j ust b ef ore ma tur i ty w ith v ery l i t t le g ra in l o ss , a nd g erm inat ion t e sts s how ed most o f t he g ra ins w ere v iab le . F ur ther r esear ch w i l l s how w he ther t h is s t a te c ou ld h ave e x isted i n t he w i ld o r r a ther i st yp ica l o fe ar ly s t ages o f c u l t iva t ion . However , i fw e f i nd a g reen h arvest c an u sua l ly o b ta in v iab le g ra in , e ven i n p opu lat ions o f w i ld c e rea ls w h ich a re n ot e ven -r ipen ing a nd a re f rag i le -ra ch ised , d oes t h is mean t here i sn o s e lec t ion f o r «d omest ic »o ver «w i ld »t ypes i n t he p opu la t ion , o r c ou ld t h is e xer c ise s ome o ther k ind o fd irect s e lect ion , f o r e a r ly -r ipen ing p lants w ith a n on -f rag i le r a ch is ( W il cox , c omm . p er s .) , f o r e xamp le ? S i ck le -harves t ing a t a ny o ne p ar t icu lar t ime s hou ld p roduce s e lec t ion o f g ra in w h ich , i fr ep lanted , may d i re ct ly o r i nd irect ly h e lp b r ing a bou t a n u nconsc ious d omes t ica t ion , b u t t he n a ture o ft h is s e lec t ion w i l l n eed t ob e a ssessed a s o ur e xper iments p rog ress ( Anderson -Ger f aud a nd W i l lcox , i n p ress ) . Nonethe less , e xper iments t o d a te s uggest t ha t i n f i e lds o f c erea ls w i th t he c haracter ist ic «w i ld » b ehav ior o f r i pen ing a t v ery d i f f erent t imes w ith in o ne p opu la t ion , c u t t ing w ith s i ck les a t o ne t ime i s n ot a s g ood a means o f o b ta in ing t he g rea test amount o f g ra in f o r s o wing , a s i s h and -p ick ing a t d if erent t imes , a s t he p opu lat ion r i pens . C ou ld t e chno log ica l , n on -d ietary n eeds h ave p rov ided t he i n it ia l i mpetus f o r s e lec t ion b y s i ck le -ha rve st ing wh ich c ou ld h ave p layed a r o le i n d omes t ica t ion ?I th as b een s ugges ted t ha t t he s t ems c ou ld h ave b een c u ti n ten t iona l ly f o rv ar ious a r t isana l a nd t e chno log ica l u ses ( mudbr ick i mpr ints o fb asketry , t emper o r b u i ld ing a rma tures may p rov ide e xamp les o f t h is ) , p oss ib ly c o rrespond ing t o i n creas ing s edent ism ( Anderson G er f aud 1 983 , P erMs a nd V aughan 1 983 ) . I n a dd it ion , s t ems may h ave b een c u t a s a n ima l f odder ( Anderson -Ger faud a nd W i l lcox , o p . c i t . ) . I n s ome c ases t he s eed h eads may h ave b een t aken w ith t he s t raw ( i nc lud ing a ny n on -f rag i le -rach ised p lants n o t a l ready h arves ted ) . A f ur ther e xamp le i lus tra tes a f unc t iona l r eason f o r c ut t ing l eng ths o f c erea l s tems w i th t he s e ed h eads , w h ich i nt u rn c ou ld h ave b rought a bou tg ra in s e lec t ion . I n a n e a r l ier e xper imenta l m i c rowear s tudy ( S tordeur a nd A nderson -Gefaud 1 985 ) , S tordeur i d en t if ied a nd r ep l ica t ed a n u nusua l b u t a bundant t ype o fE a r ly N eo l i th ic b one t o o l f r om l e ve ls o f Gan j -Dareh i n I r an ( e ighth m i l lenn ium ) . S he r eproduced t he t o o ls b y d r i l l ing h o les , g roov ing a nd s napp ing o u t aV -sec t ion , p rodu c ing a s capu la h av ing t wo n o t ched e dg es wh ich j o in t o f o rm a V -shaped f unc t iona l a rea ( f ig . 1 1) . A symme tr ica l w ear s ugg ests t he l ower f a ce o ft he t o o l r ubbed a ga ins t ah ard s u rf a ce . T he n o t ched e dg es h ave a b and o f macroscop ic g l os s , a nd a n o p t ica l m icros cope a t 1 00 a nd 2 00 X s howed t ha t t he l u s t red a rea w as made u p o f m icrowear p o l ish r em in iscent o f «s i ck le g l oss > 'o n s t one s i ck les , t ransected b y s t r ia t ions wh ich w ere o r iented f r om t he c enter o f t he n ot ches o u twards i n ar ad ia l f a sh ion . Our s tudy ing t wo o ft hese t o o ls u s ing t he S EM c onf irmed t ha t s ystems o fr ad ia l s t r ia t ions o fv ary ing w id ths w ere c l ear ly p resent i n t he n o t ches a nd t hat g lossed a reas w ere i n f a c t d ue t o af l at ten ing a nd a w ear ing -down o ft he b one s u r f a ce , c omb ined w ith a n a pparent f i l l ing in o fi t s s ur fa ce d epress ions . EDAX a na ly s is c a r r ied o ut i n a ssoc ia t ion w i th L . L e R ibau lt ( CARME ) o f v ar ious p o ints o n t he b one s u rf a ce n ear a nd f ar f r om m icrowear t r aces , s howed t hat t he mater ia l «f i l l ing i n» s u r f a ce d epress ions w ere r e s idues c omposed o f s i l icon ( eg . s i l ica ) . T hese s i l ica r es idues w e re p resen ti no n ly m inu te t r a ces o re nt ire ly a bsent i no ther a reas o ft he t o o l s urf a ce a nd 1 89

i n t he i n ter ior o ft he b one . F orms r esemb l ing s i l ica p hy to l iths o fG ram i neae k nown f r om e qu iva lent modern p lants , c ompr ised p ar t o f t he r es idue ma ter ia l . O u r e xtens ive e xper imenta t ion w ith P .R eyno lds a nd d eta i led morpho log i ca l a nd c hem ica l a na lys is o f t r aces , d escr ibed i n f ur ther d e ta i l e l sewhere ( i b id a nd A nderson -Ger faud 1 986 ) , a l lowed u s t o n arrow d own t he p robab le u se o f t hese t o o ls t o s t r ipp ing o f s eeds f r om l a rge r q uant i t ies o fs i l ica -r ich p lant s o ft he g rass f am i ly ( p robab ly c e rea ls ) , a f ter h arvest .

F ig . 1 1

E xper imenta l b one t oo l w i th v shaped n o t ched e dges l i ke t hose f r om G an j D areh ( Neo l ith ic , I r an ) made f r om s heep a nd g oa t s capu la . The t o o l was u sed t os t r ip s e ed h eads o fe mmer w hea t( l ef to fp hoto ) , a si nf i gure 1 2 ( pho to A . B edo s , CRA ) .

T h is was s uppor ted b y t he o vera l l o r ientat ion o f t he t races , s how ing p l iab le ma ter ia ls s u ch a s s t ems h ad b een p u l led t hrough t he n o tches o ft he t oo l a s p ressure w as e xer ted b e tween t he u nder s ide o ft he t o o l a nd a no ther h a rd o b jec t . T he u se o fe xper imen ta l t o o ls wh ich b est r eprodu ced t he t r aces f ound o n t he a r chaeo log ica l t oo ls , w as p u l l ing c ut b unches o fp r im i t ive c e rea ls t hrough t he V -shaped «f o rk »o ft he t o o ls wh i le t he t oo l w as h e ld p ressed a ga ins t as ur fa ce s u ch a s al a rge b one , al o g o r ap i ece o fw ood , c aus ing t h e s t ems t ob e g u ided i n to t o o l n ot ches , d rawn t hrough t hem a nd t he s eed h ead s s napped o f ( f ig . 1 2 ) . T hese e xper imenta l t o o ls , when s tud ied u s ing o pt ica l m icroscopy , SE M a nd EDAX , s howed t he s ame t r aces a s t hose f ound o n t he p reh istor ic t oo ls , a l though i n l e ss p ronounced f o rm . T hus , e xper imen ts a s w e l l a s t he d i s tr ibu t ion o ft he u se tra ces , s howed t ha t t h ese «n o t ched s c apu la »t o o ls d id n o tf unc t ion i nt he f i e ld a s s e ed c ombs , b u t r a ther mus th av e b een u sed h or izonta l ly , o n c u tb unches o fc e rea ls ( o r o t her s i l iceous p lant sf r om wh ich t h e g ra in i st ob e s t r ipped ) w ith af u l l o rv ery l o ng l e ng th o fs t em s t i l l a t tached , a s i n f i g . 1 2 . T hese «n o tched s capu la »t o o ls w ere f ound a t G an j -Dareh i n I ran , i n N eo l ith ic l e ve ls w here b oth w i ld a nd d omest ic b ar ley w ere e xp lo i ted ( pers . c o mm . , P h i l ip Sm i th , a na lys is: V an Z e is tI n S tordeur a nd A nderson -Gerf aud o p . c i t . ) . C ou ld t he a c t iv ity t hese t o o ls r epresent b e r e la ted t o ar e cent t r ans i t ion t oa g r icu l ture a t t he s i te ?T he m icrow ear t r a ces o n t he s i ck les r ema in t ob e s t ud ied , b u tw e s u rm ise t he s i ck les w ere u sed t oh arv es t b ar ley w i th t he s t ems , p erhaps p ar t ia l ly i ndu ced b y v ar ious t e chno log ica l n eeds f or s t ems

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( e x . b u i ld ing: Sm ith ( 1 977 ) ment ions p lant tempered mud -br ick i s a bundant a t G an j D a reh ) , a nd i n o rder t o a l low t hresh ing w ith t hese s pec ia l t o o ls , i n t he manner t he m icrowear t r aces i nd i ca te t hey w ere u sed . G rea t q uant it ies o f c e rea ls w ere a pparent ly p ro cessed w ith e a ch t o o l , g i ven t he i n tens ity o ft he w ear t ra ces , p robab ly o ver ap er iod o f many y ears . T he t o o ls c ou ld r epresent a p ar t o f ac omp lex c e rea l -process ing s equence ( numerous s t ruc tures o f mud -br ick f ound a t t he s i t e a re t hought t o b e f o r s t orage , a nd l a rg e n umbers o fg r ind ing s t ones a re f ound ( Sm ith , o p c i t . a nd S tordeur a nd A nderson G erf aud , o p . c i t ) ) .

F ig . 1 2 :E xper imenta l u se o fb one t o o l i nf i gu re 1 , p u l l ing c u tb un ches o fe i nkorn w hea t t hrough t he t o o l n o t ches a s i ti sh e ld p ressed a ga ins t aw ooden s uppor t , s t r ipp ing o ft he s eed h eads o ft he c e rea l ( s ee t ex t ) .

F ina l ly , w e w onder whether t hese b one t oo ls w ere i n s ome w ay r e la ted t o d omes t ica t ion o fb ar ley . D id t hese b one t o o ls f unc t ion i n t h is manner t o «d e -g ra in »w i ld c erea ls? F or e xamp le , w ere t hey h a rves ted g reen , t hen t he s e ed h eads r emoved w ith t he t o o ls a t s ome p o int , e i the r b ef ore t he r ach is f r agmen ted n a tura l ly , ( o b ta in ing p ar t icu lar ly c er ta in e ar ly -r ipen ing n on -f rag i le s eed h eads ) o r s l ight ly l a ter ( perhaps «l o os ing » s p ike le t s o ff r ag i le -rach is ed , w i ld type p lant s ) . C ou ld t h is h ave b rought a bou t as e lec t ion l ead ing t o ag radua l i n crease i n b ar ley w ith a n on -f rag i le r ach is ( eg . o f «d omest ic t ype » ) ?T h is h ypothes is w i l l b e t e s ted i n o ur e xper imen ts . T oo ls s uch a s t he n o t ched s capu la f r om G an j -Dareh s ugges t s oph is t ica ted , o rdered a gr icu ltura l a c t iv it ies w ere p rac t ice e ar ly i n t ime , a nd may u l t imate ly c ontr ibu te t o o ur u nders tand ing o f t he manner a nd c ontex t i n w h ich e ar ly a g r icu lture d eve loped . I n o rder t o r econs t ru ct b ehav ior i n r egard t o e ar ly p lant e xp lo ita t ion , v ar ious d if eren t p reh is tor ic d a ta n eed t ob e c ons idered i nf o rmu la t ing h ypo theses , a nd t hese n eed t o b e t e sted b y e x tens ive e xper imenta t ion . Our p resent o bserva t ions s ugges t a na lys is o f v ar ious u se -traces o n t o o ls , i f c ons idered t ogether , w i l l i n s ome i nstances a l low d i s t ingu ish ing: c u t t ing v ery g reen v s . r i pe c e rea ls; h arves t ing e ars b y p lu ck ing w ith a h arvest ing k n if e v s . c u t t ing b unches o f s t ems ;h arves t ing c e rea ls i n at i l led f i e ld a s o pposed t o p lants i n o ther c ontex ts ;a nd f i na l ly t he a bove h arves t ing o pera t ions f r om o ther p lant -process ing a c t iv it ies . We w i l l n eed t o a dd t o o ur e xper imenta l d a ta b ef ore

1 9 1

p rov ing c onc lus ive ly whe ther o r n ot E p i -Pa laeo l ith ic a nd N eo l ith ic «s i ck les »f rom s i tes ment ioned a bove w ere u sed f o r h arvest ing w i ld c er ea ls wh ich w ere b e ing c u lt iva ted . F ur ther s easons o fe xper imenta t ion a nd o bserva t ion i nv i ew o ft he q uest ions a sked a bove s hou ld h e lp n arrow d own t he p oss ib i l it ies , h owever , g iv ing i ns ight i nto i fn ot a l l t he «w hy » ,c er ta in a spects o ft he «h ow »a nd t he «when > 'o ft he d omest ica t ion p rocess . We h ope t hat t h is «p rogress r eport » h as s hown o ne way i n wh ich m icrowear a na lys is o f d if f erent k inds o f t races , c oup led w ith c arefu l e xper imentat ion a nd o bservat ion o f o ther r e lated d ata , c an h e lp t o a nswer f undamenta l t echno log ica l q uest ions .

ACKNO WLEDGEMENTS Th is r esearch , p ar t o f t he p ro ject , «Cu ltures p reh istor iques e xper i menta les a J a läs » ,( ATP n ° 9 50126 ) , i sf i nanced b y t he ATP «A r cheo log ie metropo l ita ine » o f t he CNRS . Ig ratefu l ly a cknow ledge t he h e lp o f my c o l leagues i n t he e xper iments , p ar t icu lar ly Karen L undstrom -Bauda is ( URA 3 5 ) a nd G erard D erapraham ian , Mar ie C laude N ier le a nd G eorge W i l lcox ( URA 1 7 ) . A lthough a ny e rrors i n i n terpretat ion a re my o wn , i nsp ir ing d i scuss ions w ith G ordon H i l lman ( I nst itute o fA rchaeo logy , L ondon ) , T erry M i l ler ( P lant B reed ing I nst itu te , T rump ing ton , GB ) , G eorge Wi l lcox ( URA 2 0 a nd URA 1 7 ) a nd P eter R eyno lds ( L it t le B utser F arm , GB ) h ave g reat ly c ontr ibued t o t h is w ork .

NOTES ( 1 )

On a l ong -term b as is , w e a re a t tempt ing t o i nduce a nd r ecord s tages o f t he d omest icat ion o f s evera l p opu lat ions o f w i ld c erea ls h arvested i n S yr ia a nd i n Turkey , t hen r ep lanted a nd h arves ted a ccord ing t o t he h ypotheses p resented i n t h is a rt ic le .

( 2 ) T he e xper iments r epor ted h ere w ere c arr ied o ut o n a pprox ima te ly o ne s quare h ectare o fw i ld a nd p r im it ive d omest ic c erea ls s own i n a u tumn 1 985 a nd s pr ing 1 986 . T he s eeds w ere e i ther b roadcast -sown , o r s own i n f ur rows a t 5c ent i meter i n terva ls , w ith d r i l ls 2 0 c m p ar t . P lots o f c erea ls w ith l i ke p lo ides ( chromosome n umbers ) w ere o f c ourse s paced f ar a part i n o rder t o a vo id c ross -po l l in iza t ion . ( 3 ) T heoret ica l ly , i ft he s eeds h arvested w ere r ep lanted i n t he s a me f i e ld , t he o vera l l p opu lat ion w ou ld r e ma in l arge ly u nchanged i n t erms o f f requency o f f rag i le r ach ised c erea ls v s . n on -f rag i le r ach ised o nes , o f «d omest ic » t ype .

1 92

B IBLIOGRAPHY ANDERSON , ( H .H . ) a nd WHITLO W , ( H .J . ) , 1 983 .— Wear t races a nd p at inat ion o n Dan ish f l int a r tefac t s , Nuc lear I ns trumen ts a nd Me thods i n Phys ics R esearch , 2 18 , p .4 68 -474 . ANDERSON , ( P . ) , 1 980 .— A t es t imony o fp reh is tor ic t asks :D iagnost ic r es idues o n s t one t oo l work ing e dges , Wor ld A rchaeo logy , 1 2 :2 ,p .4 68 -474 . ANDERSON -GERFAUD , ( P .) a nd WILLCOX , ( G . ) , i n p ress .— C erea les s auvages e t p r im it ives a u P roche -Or ient p reh istor ique : E xper imentat ions e n t echno log ie a g r ico le äJ a les ( A rdeche , F rance ) , C ah ier s d e l 'Euphra te 5 . ANDERSON -GERFAUD , ( P . ) , 1 981 .— C on tr ibu t ion mg thodo log ique ä l ' ana lyse d es m icro traces d 'u t i l isa t ion s ur l e s o u t i ls p rgh is tor iques . T hese d e d octora t , I nst itu t d u q uaterna ire , Un ivers ite d e B ordeaux I ,T a lence . ANDERSON -GERFAUD , ( P . ) , 1 983 .— A c ons iderat ion o ft he u ses o fc er ta in b acked a nd «l ustred » s tone s t oo ls f r om L a te Meso l ith ic a nd Na tu f ian l eve ls o f Abu Hureyra a nd Mureybet ( Syr ia ) , I n e d . M . -C . C auv in , T races d 'u t i l isat ion s ur l e s o ut i ls n eo l ith iques d u P roche -Or ient , T ravaux d e l a Ma ison d e l 'Or ien t ( T MO ) n ° 5 , L yon , p .7 7 -105 . ANDERSON -GERFAUD , ( P . ) , 1 986 .— A f ew c o mments c oncern ing r es idue a na lys is o f s t one p lant -process ing t oo ls , I n T echn ica l A spects o fM icrowear S tud ies o n S tone T oo ls , e d . L . Owen a nd G . Unrath , E ar ly Man N ews 9 / 10 /11 , p . 6 9 -81 . ANDERSON -GERFAUD , ( P .) ,

HEL MER ,

( D .) a nd REYNOLDS ,

( P . ) ,

1 983 .— An

e xper imenta l s tudy o f p reh istor ic p lant -harvest ing t oo ls . C ommun ica t ion , F our th I n terna t iona l F l in t S ympos ium , B r ighton , E ng land ( n .d .) . CAUV IN , ( J . ) , 1 958 .— L es o u t i l lages n go l i th iques d e B yb los e t d u l i t tora l l i bana is . F ou i l les d e B yb los I V , Ma isonneuve , P ar is . CAUV IN , ( J . ) , 1 977 .— L es f ou i l les d e Mureybet ( 1971 -1974 ) e t l eur s i gn if i cat ion p our l e s o r ig ines d e l a s eden tar isa t ion a u P roche -Or ient , Annua l o ft he Amer ican S choo l o f O r ien ta lR esear ch 4 4 , p .1 9 -48 . CAUVIN , ( J .) , 1 978 .— L es p rem iers v i l lages d e S yr ie -Pa les t ine d u I x e a u V ill e m i l lgna ir e a van t J . -C . , Ma ison d e l ' Or ient , L yon , S er ie a rcheo log ique n ° 3 . CAUV IN , ( M . -C .) , 1 973 .— P rob lemes d ' emmanchement d es f auc i l les d u P roche -Or ient : l e s d ocuments d e T e l l A ssouad ( D jez ireh , S ync ) ,P a lgor ien t I : 1 ,p .1 01 -106 . CAUV IN , ( M . -C . ) , 1 979 .— T e l lo e t l ' Or ig ine d e l a H oue a u P roche -Or ient , P a lgor ien t 5 , p .1 93 -206 . GAYRAL , ( P . ) a nd V INDT , ( J . ) , 1 961 .— Ana tom ie d es veg taux v ascu la ires , 2f asc . , J . Do in e t C ie , P ar is . GYSELS , ( J . ) a nd CAHEN , ( D . ) , 1 982 .— L e l ustre d es f au c i l les e tl e s a utres t races d 'usage d es o u t i ls e n s i lex ,B u l le t in d e l aS o c ig tg P r gh is tor ique F rança ise 7 9 :7 ,p .2 21-224 .

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HARLAN , ( J .R . ) , 1 967 .— A w i ld wheat h arvest i n T urkey . A rchaeo logy 2 0 , p .1 97 -201 . HELMER , ( D . ) , 1 983 .— L es f auc i l les e t l e s g estes d e l a mo isson , I n e d . M . -C . C auv in , T ravaux d e l a Ma ison d e l 'Or ien t 5 ,p .1 89 -198 . H ILL MAN , ( G .C . ) a nd DAV IES , ( S .M . ) , i n p ress .— E xper imenta l measurement o f d omest icat ion r ates i n p opu lat ions o f w i ld e i nkorn ( T r i t icu m b oeo t icu m ) u nder p r im it ive s ystems o f c u lt iva t ion . H ILL MAN , ( G .C . ) , 1 975 .— T he p lant r e ma ins f r om T e l l A bu Hureyra :A p re l im inary r eport , I n Moore ( A .M .T . ) , T he E xcavat ion o f T e l l A bu Hureyra i n S yr ia :A p re l im inary r epor t , P roc eed ings o ft he P r eh is tor ic S oc ie ty 4 1 , p . 5 0 -77 . H ILL MAN , ( G .C .) , 1 981 .— R econstruct ing c rop h usbandry p ract ices f r om c harred r e ma ins o f c rops , I n e d . Mercer ( R .J . ) , F arm ing p rac t ices i n B r i t ish p reh is tory , E d inburgh Un ivers ity P ress , p .1 23 -162 . H ILL MAN , ( G .C . ) , COLLEDGE , ( S .M . ) , a nd HARR IS , ( D .R .) ,

1 986 .— P lant -f ood

e conomy d ur ing t he E p i -Pa laeo l ith ic p er iod a t T e l l Abu Hureyra , S yr ia :D ietary d ivers ity , s easona l ity a nd modes o f e xp lo itat ion , I n :S ympos ium o n R ecent Advances

i n

t he

Understand ing

o f

P lant

Do mest icat ion

a nd

E ar ly

Agr icu lture , Wor /d A rchaeo log ica l C ongress . P re -pr int . KOROBKOVA , ( G . ) , 1 981 .— Anc ient r eap ing t oo ls a nd t he ir p roduct iv ity i n l i ght o f e xper imenta l t racewear a na lys is . I n e d . K oh l , ( P .L . ) , T he B ronze Ag e C iv i l iza t ion o fC en tra lA s ia , N ew Y ork , M .L . S harpe , p .3 25 -349 . LEROI -GOURHAN , ( Ar l . ) , 1 974 .— É tude p a lyno log ique d es d ern iers 1 1 0 00 a ns d e S yr ie s em i -deser t ique , P a l Mr ien t 2 :2 ,p .4 43 -451 . MOSS , ( E . ) , 1 983 .— M icrowear a na lys is o f b ur ins a nd p o ints f r om T e l l A bu Hureyra , S y r ia , I n e d . M . -C . C auv in , T ravaux d e l a Ma ison d e l 'Or ien t 5 ,p . 1 43 -161 . N IERLE , ( M . -C . ) , 1 982 .— Mureybet e tC he ikh Hassan ( Sy r ie ) :Ou t i l lage d e mou ture e td e b royage ( 9 e e t8 em i l lena ires ) , C ah i ers d e l ' Euphra t e 3 ,p .1 77 -216 . PERLÜS , ( C . ) AND VANGHAN , ( P .) , 1 983 .— P ieces l ustrees , t rava i l d es p lantes e t mo isson ä F ranchth i ( Grece ) ( Xe -IVe m i l lena ire B .C . ) I n e d . M . -C . Cauv in , T ravaux d e l a Ma ison d e l 'Or ien t 5 ,p .2 09 -224 . PL ISSON , ( H . ) , 1 985 .— ü tude f onct ionne l le d ' ou t i l lages l i th iques p reh is tor iques p ar l ' ana lyse d es m icro -usures :r echerche methodo log ique e t a rcheo log ique . Theses d e d octorat , Un ivers ite d e P ar is I . REYNOLDS , ( P .) , 1 980 .— I ron Age F arm , t he Bu tser E xper iment . L ondon , B r it ish Museum . SM ITH , ( P . ) , 1 977 .— An i n ter im r epor t o n Gan j Dareh T epe , I ran , T he Amer ican J ourna l o f A rchaeo logy . S TEENSBERG , ( A . ) , 1 979 .— D raved . An E xper iment i n S tone Age Ag r icu lture . Burn ing , S ow ing a nd Harvest ing . C openhagen .

1 94

S TORDEUR ,

( D)

e t

ANDERSON -GERFAUD ,

( P . ) ,

a vec

l a

c o l laborat ion

d e

DERAPRAHAM IAN , G . ) , REYNOLDS , ( P . ) e t LE R IBAULT , ( L . ) .— L es omop la tes e ncoch6es n eo l ith iques d e Gan j -Dareh ( I ran ) :E tude morpho log ique e t f onct ionne l le , C ah i ers d e l ' Euphra te 4 ,P . 2 89 -313 . UNGER -HAM ILTON , ( R . ) , 1 985 .— M icroscop ic s t r ia t ions o n f l int s i ck le -b lades a s a n i nd ica t ion o fp lant c u lt iva t ion :p re l im inary r esu lts , Wor ld A rchaeo logy 1 7 , p . 1 21 1 26 . VAUGHAN , ( P .) , 1 985 .— U se - Wear Ana lys is o f F laked S tone T oo ls . Un ivers ity o f A r izona P ress , Tu cson . ZE IST , (W . Van ) a nd BAKKER -HEERES , ( J .A .H . ) , 1 984 /1986 .— 3 . L ate P a laeo l ith ic Mureyb it , A rchaeobotan ica l s tud ies i n t he L evan t .P a laeoh is tor ia 2 6 ,

P .

1 71-199 .

ZE IST , (W . VAN ) , 1 970 .— T he O r ienta l I nst itute E xcavat ions a t Mureyb it , S yr ia : P re l im inary r epor t o n t he 1 965 c ampa ign , P ar t I: T he P a leobotany , J ourna l o f Near E as tern S tud i e s2 9 , p .1 67 -176 .

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THE USE OF BRONZE AGE FLINT S ICKLES IN THE NETHERLANDS: A PRELI M INARY REPORT

Anne lou v an G IJN *

ABSTRACT:

I ti sg enera l ly a s sumed t ha t c r escen t -shaped f l in t s i ck les s uch a s a re f ound i n t he n or thern h a lf o f t he Nether lands were u sed f or h arvest ing c erea ls . S ome o f t he ir morpho log ica l c ha ra cter ist ics h owever s e em t o a rgue a ga ins t t h is . E xper imen ts w ere p er f ormed , t e s t ing v ar ious a l ternat ive h ypo theses c oncern ing s i ck le -use . T he r esu lt ing w ear t races w ere s ubsequent ly c ompared w i th t hose o b serv ed o n t he a r chaeo log ica l t oo ls , s how ing t ha t t he o r ig ina l i n terpre ta t ion o f t h is t oo l t ype i sl i ke ly t ob ei n cor rec t . RESU ME:

On s uppose g enera lemen t q ue l e s l ames d e f au c i l les e n c ro issan t t e l les q u 'on l e s t r ouve d ans l a mo it ie n o rd d e l a Ho l lande s ont u t i l isees p our l a r eco lte d es c erea les . Que lques -unes d e l eurs c ara cter ist iques morpho log iques s e mb lent c ependant p la ider c ontre c et te h ypo these . D es e xper i men ta t ions o n t e t e f a ites p our t es ter d i f f erentes h ypo theses c oncernant l ' ut i l isa t ion d es f auc i l les . L es r esu lta t s d es t r a ces d ' u t i l isa t ion o n t e nsu ite e te c omparees a vec c e l les o bserves s ur l e s o u t i ls a rcheo log iques , mon t rant q ue l ' interpreta t ion p r im i t ive d e c e t ype d ' out i l e s t p robab lement i ncorrecte .

1 —I NTRODUCTION The p resent p aper d ea ls w ith c rescent -shaped f l int s i ck les f r om t he N ether lands . Most o f t he s i ck les a nd s i ck le f r agments h ave b een f ound i n t he n or thern p art o f t he c ountry , w ith a c oncen trat ion i n West -Fr ies land ( f ig . 1 ) . I n t he l a t ter a rea t hey a re g enera l ly a t tr ibuted t ot he L a te B ronze A ge . A f ter ap er iod o fn o o c cupa t ion i ti sd ur ing t he B ronze Age ( a f ter a round 3 600 BP ) t hat a g rar ian s e t t lements w ere f ounded i n t he e astern p ar t o f Wes t -Fr ies land . T hese s i tes w ere l o cated o n t he l evees o ft he f o rmer c r eeks a nd s urrounded b y c lay b as ins a nd p eat a reas . I n t h is a rea , most c o mp lete s pec imens o r ig inated f r om t he b as ins , wh i le t he g reater p ar t o f t he f ragments w ere e xcavated i n s e t t lement c ontext . I n t he n ortheastern p art o f t he Nether lands ( t he p rov inces o f F r ies land , G ron ingen a nd D rente ) s i ck les h ave b een f ound i n d epots ( supposed ly B ronze Age ) a nd i n t erps ( dated t o t he I r on Age ) . T he t o ta l n umber o f s i ck les , f ragments i nc lud ing , f ound t o d a te amounts t oc i rca 2 00 , a n i nventory o f wh ich i sb e ing p repared b y J .F . v an R eg teren A ltena . Th is p re l im inary s tudy o n ly d ea ls w ith c omp lete s pec imens . I t i s o bv ious ly i mpera t ive t o e xam ine t he f ragments a s w e l l , a s t he ir d if f erent p roven ience w ou ld s ugges t ad if erent b ehav ior a ssoc iated w i th t hem .

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T he s i ck les a re manuf ac tured o n l a rge , s l ight ly c urved b lades . T he r aw ma ter ia l mos t l i ke ly w as o b ta ined f r om n or thern G ermany . I n f a c t , i ti sp robab le t ha t t he s i ck les w ere made i n t h is a rea a nd t r ansported a s e nd -products t o t he N ether lands ( Van R eg teren A ltena , p ers . c omm . ) . T he t o o ls h av e o ne c onvex a nd o ne c oncave o r s t ra ight e dge . T he d i s ta l t i p i sp o in ted , t he b u t t e nd i su sua l ly s omewha t b roader . T he d orsa l s i de e xh ib i ts l a rge i nvas ive r e tou ch w h i le t he v en t ra l s i de i sc hara c t er ized b y f i ne r e touch w h ich c r eates a s e rra ted e dge ( f ig . 2 ) . F or t he s amp le r epor ted h ere ( N=22 ) t h e a verage l eng th amounts t o 1 4 .9 c m ( r ange 1 2 .6 -17 .6 c m ) , t he a verage max imum w id th 3 . 8 c m ( r ang e 2 . 8 -4 .8 c m ) ( t ab le 1 ) . T he ma jor i ty o ft he s i ck les e xh ib i ts a v ery p ronounced l us t re , d e te c tab le w i th t he n aked e ye a nd c over ing v i r tua l ly t he e nt ire s ur face . T he t oo ls a lmost g ive t he i mpress ion o fh av ing b een «l a cquered » .T h is s heen i sc ommon ly r ef er red t o a s s i ck le g l oss a nd i su sua l ly a ssumed t ob e t he r e su l t o fh arve s t ing c e rea ls . A lthough t he ir s hape , b y f o rma l a na logy t o o ur p resent -day s i ck les a nd t o t r ad it iona l E gyp t ian e xamp les , s e ems t o s ugg es t ah arves t ing f unc t ion , s ome o ft he ir o t her c harac ter ist ics a rgue a ga ins t t h is h ypo thes is . T he t oo ls o f t en h ave b een w orn t o s uch a n e xtent t ha t t h e e dges h ave b ecome t rapezo ida l , w ith a t h ickness v ary ing b e tween 0 . 1 -0 .5 c m . T h is b luntness h a s c au sed s ome a u thors t oq ues t ion t he ir u se a s c e rea l -ha rves t ing i mp lement s . B ruyn ( 1 986 ) r e cent ly s ugg es ted t he ir u se a s ac ou lter i n ap l ough , t o c u t t he v egeta l c over b ef ore t he p l ough g oes t hrough ( f ig . 3 ) . O thers h ave p os tu la ted t ha tt hey m ight h ave s e rv ed t oc u ts o d s ( J . -F . v an R eg teren A ltena , p ers . c omm . ) , wh ich c ou ld h ave b een e mp loyed i n t he c onstruc t ion o fh ouses a nd b a rrow s . Af our th h ypo thes i si st hat t hey w ere u sed t oc ut r e ed s . T he p resent s tudy o ft he w ea r t r aces h a s b een i n i t ia ted t o i nvest iga t e t he v a r iou s h ypotheses a bou t s i ck le u se . T h is p aper s hou ld b y n o means b e r ega rded a s af i na l s t a tement . R a ther i ti si n tended t o e l i c it s ome d i scus s ion a bou t y et a no ther «f unc t iona l p uzz le »( c f . J ue l J ensen , t h is v o lume ) .

F ig . 3: U se o f as i ck le a s c ou l ter ( f r om B ruyn 1 986 ) .

2 00

P rovince o f N orth H olland M useum I nventory N umber

L ocation

L ength W idth ( cm)

( cm)

I )

U se

H aft.

A ndijk

W F'

A ND-V8

1 7.6

3 .7

A

t

t4 .

A ndijk

W F

A ND-V9

1 7.3

3 .9

A

ta t4 .

B ovenkarspel

W F

B OV-V22

1 5.3

4 .2

A

t

-

B ovenkarspel

W F

N 1963/Xa

1 5.2

3 .8

A

t

t 4 .

E nkhuizen

W F

E NK-V19

1 3.0

3 .5

A

t

t

G rootebroek

W F

G RV7

1 2.7

3 .1

V

t

H eiloo

R M0 2 1 947/12.10

1 6.5

4 .5

A

t

H eiloo

R MO

1 947/12.11

1 6.3

4 .0

A

t

H eiloo

R MO

1 947/12.12

1 5.0

4 .0

V

/

H eiloo

R MO

1 947/12.13

1 5.0

4 .0

A

t 9

t

H oogkarspel

W F

N 1968/IIIa

1 7.0

4 .1

A

t

t

-

t -

V enhuizen

W F

V EN-V17

1 5.7

3 .9

Ata t

Z waagdijk O ost

W F

N 1969/XIn

1 5.3

3 .1

A

t

t 4 .

Z waagdijk O ost

W F

N 1969/IXv

1 6.2

3 .7

A

t

t

Z waagdijk O ost

W F

N 1969/XIo

1 4.5

3 .1

A

t

t 4 .

P rovince o f D rente

R olde

R MO

C 191

4 /5

. 19

1 4.2

3 .3

7

/

-

R olde

R MO

C 191

4/ 5

. 20

1 4.4

3 .1

V

/

-

R olde

R MO

C 191

4 /5

. 18

1 2.6

2 .8

A

1 913/6.54

1 4.7

4 .2

V

t

-

P rovince o f G roningen

B ourtange

P G

B ourtange

P G

1 913/6.54a

1 2.6

4 .1

A

t

t

B ourtange

P G

1 913/6.54b

1 2.9

4 .8

A

t

t 4 ,

B ourtange

P G

1 913/6.54c

1 4.8

4 .1

A

t

t4

T ABLE

3

-

V

1 A rchaeological c rescent-shaped s ickles e xamined

L egend W F

‚

P G'

g loss c learly v isib le w ith t he n aked e ye

:W est-Fries M useum, H oorn

R M0 2 : R ijks M useum O udheden, :P rovinciaal

L e iden

M useum , G roningen

loss n ot v isib le w ith t he n aked e ye V g U se

w orked m ateria l

aworked

m aterial

u nused " Hafting"

" rough" p o lish riction g loss 4 . f n o t races

2 01

i nterpreted a s s o il i nterpreted a s p lant

2 — THE EXPERIMENTS T he e xper imenta l p rog ramm n eeded t o i nves t igate t he a bove -ment ioned f our h ypo theses h ad t o d ea l w ith a g rea t many v ar iab les . B y f ar n ot a l l o f t hem h ave b een a ccounted f o r s o f a r a nd many more e xper iment s s hou ld s t i l l b e d one . Unt i l n ow Ih ave c oncent ra ted o n e xper iment s d ea l ing w ith c e rea l -harves t ing , c u t t ing o fr eed a nd c u t t ing o fs ods . Ih ave , f o r t he moment , r e f ra ined f r om t ry ing t he ir u se a s c ou lter b ecause o ft he p rac t ica l d if i cu lt ies i n o b ta in ing a n a rd . Harm P au lsen ( Museum S ch loss G o t torf , S ch lesw ig ) made f our c r escent -shaped s i ck les f r om f i ne -gra ined f l int g a thered f r om t he b each a t t he e ast c oas t o fS ch lesw ig H o ls te in . T h is r aw ma ter ia l b ea rs a s t r ik ing r esemb lance t o t he f l int t he a r chaeo log ica l s i ck les a re p rodu ced o f : b o th a re o f a mot t led g rey c o lour , v ery f i ne -g ra ined a nd e xh ib i t f o ss i l i n c lus ions . I n a dd it ion t o t he s i ck les , u nretouched b lades w ere u sed a s ac ompa r i son , b oth h af ted a nd b are -handed . T hese b lades w ere made b y Harm P au lsen a nd b y J aap B euker ( Drents Museum , A ssen ) f r om S ch lesw ig f l int a nd f i ne -g ra ined Dan ish ma ter ia l , r espect ive ly . T he h af t ing was d one w ith a m ixture o f r a is in a nd b eeswax . Wooden h and les w ere u sed ( p la t e 1 ) . C lean ing i n c luded t r ea tment i n a n u l t rason ic t ank i n a1 0 % HC 1 s o lu t ion , f o l lowed b y ar i nse w i th KOH . T he t o o ls w ere w iped w i th a l coho l d ur ing a na lys is . T he a na lys is w a s d one w i th t he a id o f aN ikon -op t ipho t m e ta l lograph ic m icros cope w i th magn if i ca t ions r ang ing f r om 5 0 xt o 5 60 x .

2 . 1 . —C erea l h arves t ing 2 . 1 .1 .— D es cr ip t ion o f t h e e xper imen ts T he c e rea l h arves t ing e xper iment s i n c luded t hree w ith s i ck le r ep l icas a nd t wo w i th h af ted u nre tou ched b lades ( p la te 1 ) . I n a dd it ion n ine u nre tou ched b lades w er e u sed b ar e h anded . T he d omes t ica ted c e rea ls w h ich w ere i nvo lved i n c luded b ar ley ( naked t wo— row a nd s i x— row v ar ie t ies ) , e mmer w hea t a nd modern w hea t . Work ing t ime v a r ied f r om 3 0 m in t o 5h ours . T he f i e lds h arves ted f o rmed p art o f a n e xper imenta l p rog ram o f t he Ag r icu ltura l Un ivers ity i n Wagen ingen a nd h ad o n ly b een f e r t i l ized o rgan ica l ly . T he c r op w as o ccas iona l ly s prayed a ga inst w eeds . I n t he b ar ley f i e lds f ew h igh g row ing w eeds w ere e ncountered , c ont rary t o t he w heat f i e lds w here b indweed , t a l l g rasses a nd t h is t le w ere n umerous . T he r ows o fp lant s s t ood a bou t1 5c m a pa r t . S ome c omments o n t he manner o f h arvest ing a re i n o rder h ere . L eav ing a s ide h andp ick ing o ft he e ars ( Reyno lds 1 977 ) , t here a re a tl e as t t hree w ays o fr eap ing c erea ls: f i r st t he s t a lks c an b e s napped d i rec t ly b e low t he e ar , s e cond ly , t hey c an b e c u tc l ose t ot he g round a nd , l a s t ly , t hey c an b e u proo ted . C u t t ing d i rec t ly b e low t he e ar i mp l ies t ha to n ly a f ew s t a lks a t at ime c an b e d ea lt w ith b ecause t he e ar sw i l l n ever b e a l l a tt he s ame h e ight . A l though t h is h arves t ing p rocedure d oes n ot s e em e c onom ica l i n ad ense f i e ld , i tc ou ld b e b enef ic ia l i n s i tua t ions where t he s t a lks a re g row ing r e la t ive ly w ide a par t w ith mu ch w eed i n terspersed . A d i sadvantage o f l eav ing t he s t raw o n t he f i e lds i st he ir l o ss a s p oss ib le t hat ch ing ma ter ia l , u n less o ne g oes b a ck t og a ther i td ur ing a s e cond h arves t ing o pera t ion . T he s e cond o p t ion , c u t t ing t he s t a lk al i t t le a bove t he g round , h as t he a dvantage o f l e av ing a s tubb le -f ie ld o n w h ich t he a n ima ls c an g raze , manur ing t he f i e ld a t t he s ame

9 1 12

P la te 1 :S ick les a nd h af t ed b lades u sed f o r t he c e rea l h arves t ing e xper imen ts .

2 03

t ime . A dd i t iona l ly , l eav ing t he s t raw a t ta ched t o t he e ar f a c i l ita tes t he r emova l o ft he k erne ls d ur ing t hresh ing a nd p ro tec ts t he g ra in f r om b e ing s quashed . T he l a st o p t ion o fu proo t ing t he e nt ire s t a lk c ou ld s ave al o t o ft ime . T h is , h owever , w ou ld make t he f i e lds p rone t o e ros ion a nd i tw ou ld l e ave l i t t le f o r t he a n ima ls t o g raze o n . A lso , t he p resence o f al o t o fs o i l p ar t ic les a nd s ma l l s t ones a t tached t ot he r oot s m igh t b e ah indrance d ur ing t hresh ing ( H i l lman 1 981) . V an d er K oo i j ( 1976 ) , w ork ing i n n or thern S yr ia , r epor ts t h is h arves t ing m ethod o n ly f o r t hose p l o t s where t he s ta lks s t and w ide a part a nd t he s o i l i sv ery d ry . H i l lman ( 198 1 ) ment ions t hat u proo t ing i s m os t c ommon ly u sed f o r b ar ley . A na lys is o f p a laeobotan ica l s amp les , t aken f r om B ronze A ge s t ru c tu res i n Wes t F r ies land i n terpreted a s g ranar ies , i nd ica tes t he p resence o f b oth l o ng - a nd s hor t g row ing w eeds a l ongs ide t he c e rea l r emnant s ( Buurman 1 979 ) . T he p resence o ft he s hor t g row ing w eeds p o ints t ot he s e cond o p t ion . O fc ourse t he w eeds c ou ld h ave b een b rough t i n to t he s e t t lemen t a l ong w i th t he s t raw , wh ich c ou ld h ave b een c o l lected a f t er t he r eap ing o ft he c e rea l -heads ( Reyno lds 1 981 ) . H owever , f o r t he e xper imen ts r epor t ed h ere , w e o p t ed f o rc u t t ing t he s t a lks a s c l ose t ot he g round a s p oss ib le , i np ra c t ice a bou t 1 0 -15 cm . A tt h is l e ve l w eeds g row ing c l ose t o t he g round c ou ld e as i ly b e a vo ided . Bund les o fg ra in w ere c u t i n ac i r cu lar mo t ion , s aw ing a round t he b und le t owards t he w orker . «H it t ing »t he b und les w ith t he e dge o ft he s i ck le a s i ss ome t ime s d one i n t he Near E as t w ith m e ta l c oun terpar ts ( Van d er K oo i j 1 976 ) , d id n o t w ork s o w e l l :many o ft he s t a lks w ere p u l led o u to ft he g round b ef ore t hey c ou ld b ec u t ,n or d i di ts e em t os peed u p t he p ro ce s s . W ith r e spec tt ot he ef i c iency o ft he v ar ious t o o lt ypes , mos t w orker s a g reed t ha tt he u nre tou ched b lade h af ted i n as t ra ight h and le ( p la te 1 d ) w as t he most ef i c ient . T he e dge , e ven a f ter 4 -5 h ours o f u se , c ont inued t o b e e ff i c ient . T h is i si n s harp c ontrast t o t he c r escent -shaped s i ck les w h ich w ere n o t o n ly l e ss s harp t o b eg in w ith , b u t a l so b ecame e x tens ive ly d u l l d ur ing t he c ourse o f w ork . A s t o t he «S ten i ld » t ype ( Curwen 1 930 ) ( p la te l e ) , i tc an b e r emarked t ha t t he a ng le b e tween t h e b lade a nd t he h a f tw as t oo s ma l l , i nh ib it ing t he c u t t ing o fl a rge b und les . T he u nhaf t ed u nretouched b lades w ere i nva r iab ly c ons idered a s b e ing u ncomf or tab le t ow ork w i th b u t n ever the less e f ec t ive .

2 . 1 .2 . W ear t r aces o n t h e c e r ea l h arves t ing t o o l s T he r e su l t ing w ear t r a ces w ere a lways c onf ined t o a0 . 5 -1 .5 c m w ide b and a long t he e dge . T he u se -re touch ( o n ly n oted f o r p rev ious ly u nre tou ched e dges ) wa s i r regu lar ly a nd w ide ly s paced . T he s cars w ere d eep a nd s ca lar i n f o rm a nd h ad a f ea ther t erm ina t ion . P o l ish w as v ery s moo th i nd r ef lec t ive , e xh ib it ing a n o r ienta t ion p ara l le l t o t he e dge ( p la te 2 b ) . I n i t s i n it ia l s tages o f d eve lopmen t t he p o l ish s pots s eemed «d omed » ( p la te 2 a ) ;w hen t hese p o l ish s po t s l i nked u p a f t er m ore p ro longed u se t hey b ecame af l a t p lane ( p la te 2 b ) , t he p o l ish e ven e x tend ing i n to t he u se s cars . T he b oundary b e tween p o l ished a nd u npo l ished s urf aces w as g radua l , t he p o l ish «f aded o u t» .S t r iat ions w ere r e la t ive ly s ha l low a nd s hor t , r egu lar i n s i ze a nd d i r e c ted p ara l le l t o t he e dge . The e dges w ere h eav i ly r ounded . N o a pprec iab le d i f f erences i n w ear a t tr ibu tes c ou ld b e o b served o p t ica l ly b e tween t he c erea l s pec ies . A lthough o ther r esearchers r eport s uch d i st inct ions ( Anderson G erf aud 1 982 , 1 983 ;Unger -Ham i lton 1 983 ) , If ound t hem t o b e s o m inor a s t o b e i nd is t ingu ishab le i n a r chaeo log ica l c ontex t , e spec ia l ly when p ost -depos i t iona l s urf ace mod if ica t ions a re t aken i n to c ons idera t ion . T he a na lys is o f p hyto l iths s eems t o o f f er m ore p oss ib i l it ies i nt h is r e spec t( Anderson -Gerf aud 1 982 , 1 983 ) . I ts hou ld b e s t ressed t ha t 2 0 4

Ic ons ider i t u n l ike ly t ha t t he p o l ish a nd s t r ia t ions w ou ld e ventua l ly , e ven a f ter p ro longed w ork , c over t he e nt ire s urface o f t he t o o l . T he w id th o f t he a rea o n w h ich e x tens ive p ressure i se xer ted g enera l ly d oes n o t e x ceed t he t h ickness o ft he s t em a nd w i l l b e c onf ined t o t he e dge . A lthough s ome c ontac t w i l l o c cur o n t he t o ta l t oo l s urface , e spe c ia l ly w hen l a rge b und les a re c u t , t he r e su lt ing p ressure w i l l n o t b e e nough t o c ause e xtens ive p o l ish ing , e spec ia l ly w hen w e r eca l l t he r a ther s l ow p o l ish f o rma t ion r a te t yp ica l f o r c e rea ls ( Vaughan 1 985 ) . R emarkab ly e nough Ih ave f ound n o e v idence f o r t he p resence o fl a rg e n umbers o f s t r ia t ions . B o th K orobkova ( 1981) a nd Ung er -Ham i l ton ( 1 985 ) r epor t t hem f o r p o l ishes r e su l t ing f r om r eap ing d omest ica ted c e rea ls o n f i e lds w h ich w ere w eeded r egu lar ly a nd t heref ore p ossessed al o o se s o i l . S o i l p ar t ic les a dher ing t ot he s t ems o ft he p lant c ou ld t hu s h ave s c ra t ched t he t o o l . T he s o i l o ft he p l o t s w h ich w e h arves ted w as a l so q u i te l o ose , a nd a s ar esu lt t he amount o fd us t w as c ons iderab le , c omparab le t ot he c i r cums tances u nder w h ich K orobkova a nd Unger -Ham i lton w orked . N ever the less t he r esu lt ing p o l ishes e xh ib i ted s moothness a nd t he amoun t o fs t r ia t ions w a s s ma l l . A pparent ly s omewha t i n d i screpancy w ith K orobkova 's a nd Unger -Ham i lton 's o bserva t ions J ue l J ensen ( t h is v o lume , p ers . c omm . ) h as r emarked t ha t r eap ing a f i e ld w i th e x tens ive w eed g row ing c auses a v ery d if erent p o l ish t o d eve lop o n t he t o o ls . T he p o l ish s he o b ta ined i sr ougher a nd e xh ib i ts a l o t o fp i t t ing , t he s t r ia t ions a re d eep a nd r andom ly d i str ibuted a nd t he e dge i s e x treme ly r ounded . T he f i e lds w e h arves ted p robab ly d id n o tc on ta in e nough w eeds t op rodu ce ap o l ish l i ke J ue l J ensen r epor ts . T he d i scuss ions a bou t t he c haracter o f p o l ishes r e su lt ing f r om r eap ing s i l ic ious p lant s a re l i ke ly t oc ont inue f o r s ome t ime b ecause t he n umber o fr e levant v ar iab les i ss o g rea t t hat i nd iv idua l r e s ear chers a re p robab ly t a lk ing a bou t d if erent s i tua t ions a l l t he t ime . W ith r e spect t o t he e xper iments r epor ted h ere i ti sv ery u n l ike ly i ndeed t hat t he r e la t ive ly «c l ean »f i e lds , o n w h ich t he e xper iments p resented h ere w ere c arr ied o u t , c an b e c ons idered r epresen ta t ive o ft he B ronze A ge f i e lds . H owever , r egard less t he amount o f w eed g row ing o n t he p l o t s o r t he r e la t ive «l o oseness »o ft he s o i l , Iw ou ld s t i l l e xpec tt he d i s t r ibu t ion o fp o l ish a nd s t r ia t ions t ob e r e s t r ic ted t o ab and o f ±1 1 .5 c m a l ong t he e dg e .

2 . 2 . —T he c u t t ing o f r eeds a nd g rasses Many s i ck les w ere f ound i n ar a ther h um id e nv ironment , e spec ia l ly i n West F r ies land ( Van G ee l e ta l . 1 982 /83 ) . R eeds mus t h ave b een p resent i n l a rge q uant it ies . T hese p lants c ou lds h ave b een u sed f o r v a r ious p urposes s uch a s c over ing r oof s , v ar ious c raf t a c t iv it ies l i ke manu fac tur ing b aske ts a nd ma ts , a nd c r ea t ing d ry a nd c omf or tab le l i v ing f l oors . U nf or tunate ly n o e xper imenta l c r es cen t -shaped s i ck les w ere a va i lab le t o c u t r eeds w i th . S even u nhaf ted u nre tou ched b lades w ere u sed d u r ing d if erent s easons , t ot ake i n to a ccount t he v ary ing s i l ica -content i n t he s t ems . Work ing t ime v ar ied f r om 7 t o6 0 m inu tes . A lthough r eeds c au se a s l ight ly s moo ther , a lmost «w et » p o l ish ( p la te 2 d ) , t he r esu l t ing w ear a t tr ibu tes a re r a ther s im i lar t ot hose c aused b y t he h arves t ing o fc e rea ls , c as t ing s o me d oub t o n c l a ims t ha t w e c an d i st ingu ish t he t wo p lant g roups i n a rchaeo log ica l c on tex t . T h is i sn ot v ery s urpr is ing s i nce t hey a l l b e long t o t he f am i ly o f G ram ineae . T he u se -re touch c ons is ts o f w ide ly s eparated s ca lar s cars w i th a f eather t e rm ina t ion . T he p o l ish i ss moo th a nd h igh ly r e f lec t ive , d i s tr ibu ted i n a0 . 5 -1 .0 c m w ide 2 05

P la te 2 : E xper imenta l ly u sed a r t ifacts . A l l s ca le b ars e qua l 5 0 mu .

a S ick le ( s ee p la te l b ) u sed o n b ar ley a f ter 9 0 m inutes o f w ork , s how ing «d o med » a ppearance o ft he p o l ish . O r ig ina l magn if icat ion 1 00x .

B lade ( s ee p la te 1 d ) u sed o n b ar ley a f ter 4 5h our s o fw ork . O r ig ina l magn if icat ion 1 00x .

B lade u sed o n r eeds f o r 6 0 m inu tes ( Ju ly ) . O r ig ina l magn if icat ion 1 00x .

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d T he s a me t oo l a si np la te 2 c ,b ut t aken w ith a magn if ica t ion o f 4 00x .

e B lade u sed o n d ry g rasses f o r 3 0 m inutes ( Ju ly ) . O r ig ina l magn if icat ion 2 00x .

f B lade u sed f o r c ut t ing s ods f o r 3 5 m inu tes . O r ig ina l magn if icat ion 1 00x .

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b and a l ong t he e dge ( p la te 2 c ) . Where t he p o l ish i sl e ss d eve loped , i ta ppea r s a s d omed «d rops » , wh i le t he l a t ter l i nk u p t of o rm af l a t p lane w i th a n o r ien tat ion p ara l le l t ot he e dge i n a more d eve loped s t age o ft he p o l ish . T he p r edom inant s t r ia t ions a r e t h in a nd s ha l low . E dge r ound ing w as c ons iderab le . T he d ry r eeds p roduced p o l ish s o mewha t q u icker t han g reen v ers ions , d ue t o t he i n crea sed s i l i ca c onten t i n t he s t ems d u r ing l a t e s um mer . I n a dd i t ion t o r eeds a nd c e rea ls , g rasses a re a l so h igh ly s i l ic ious a nd a re r epor ted t o c ause e xtens ive g l oss a s w e l l ( Anderson -Gerfaud 1 983 ) . F ive e xper iments w ere p er f ormed w i th w ork ing t imes v ary ing f r om 6t o6 0m inu tes , u s ing b o th d ry mater ia l a nd g reen «p asture »g ra sses . T he t o o ls u sed w ere u nhaf t ed b lades . A l though t he p o l ish a nd s t r iat ions a re s im i lar t o t hose i nf l icted b y t he c u t t ing o f r eeds a nd c e rea ls , t he ir d i s tr ibu t ion i s mu ch more r est r ic ted , i . e . c onf ined t o ab and o f 1 -2 mm a l ong t he e dge ( p la te 2 e ) . T he u se -ret ouch i sl e ss e x tens ive , w i th t he s c a r sb e ing l e ss d eep . A l though t he n umber o fe xper iments d one i ss ma l l a nd c er ta in v ar iab les c ou ld n o t b e a ccounted f o r , i t s eems i mprobab le t ha t e i ther r e eds o r g rasses w ou ld c ause t he d eve lopment o f ag l oss c over ing t he e nt ire s ur f a ce o ft he t o o ls , s u ch a s i sd i sp layed o n t he a r chaeo log ica l c r escent -shaped s i ck les .

2 . 3 . —The c u t t ing o fs ods 2 .3 .1 . D escr ip t ion o f t h e e xper imen ts T he c u t t ing o f s ods i sn o t a s i r ra t iona l a s i tm igh t s eem a t f i rs t t hought . I n t he w es tern p ar t o f t he N ether lands t he l andscape w as v i r tua l ly t r ee less ( Van G ee l e t a / . 1 982 /83 ) a nd b u i ld ing w ood a s ar esu lt v ery s c ar ce . S ods a re t heref ore u sed a s b u i ld ing ma ter ia l , a s i s d emonst ra ted f o r r ecent ly e xcavated «s odhouses » i n t he U itgees terbroekpo lder , n or thwes t o f Ams terdam ( Van G i jn , i n p rep . ;T herkorn e t a l . 1 986 ) . A lthough i n Wes t -Fr ies land n o s u ch h ouses h ave b een r epor ted , s ods a re o f t en ment ioned a s al i ke ly ma ter ia l f o r t he c ons truc t ion o f r oof s a nd wa l ls . A dd it iona l ly , e xcava t ions o f B ronze A ge b arrows i nd ica te t ha t many o ft hem h ave b een c onst ru c ted w ith s ods , f o r e xamp le t he b arrows o f H oogkar spe l I( Bakker 1 959 ) , G roo tebroek ( Van G if f en 1 953 ) a nd A nner T o l P hase I I ( Bu t ler e ta l . 1 972 ) . F ina l ly , s ods c ou ld b e u sed i n s t ab les t oc o l lec t t he manure f r om t he a n ima ls . I n t he e xper iment s w i th c u t t ing s ods , o ne u nhaf t ed c r es cent -shaped s i ck le , o ne v ery l a rge ( 15 c m l o ng ) u nhaf ted u nre tou ched b lade a nd t wo s ma l l h af ted u nre tou ched b lades w ere u sed . T he l a t ter t wo e xper iments w ere c ar r ied o u t o n ar a ther c oar se , s andy s o i l c onta in ing q u i te a n umber o fs ma l l s t ones; t he s o i l w as d ens i ly c overed b y g reen g ra ss . Work ing t ime w as 3 0 a nd 3 5 m inu tes r espec t ive ly . T he s i ck le a nd t he l a rge u nhaf t ed b lade w ere u sed o n l e vee ma ter ia l ( s andy c l ay ) i n w h ich n o s t ones w ere p resent . T he v egeta l c over h ere w as more v ar ied b u t e qua l ly d ense a nd c ons is ted o fg reen «p asture » g rasses . B o th t o o ls w ere e mp loyed f o r o ne h our , w ork ing a t al e isu re ly p a ce . E spec ia l ly t he s i ck le t u rned o u tt ob e aq u ite e f ec t ive s od cu t t ing t o o lb ecau se i t s s e rra ted e dge e a s i ly t o re t he g rass c over . I n c on t ras tt he u nre tou ched b lade s w ere mu ch s l ower b ecause t ear ing w as n o t p oss ib le w i th t he s moo th e dge . T he c r es cen t -shaped s i ck le w i th i t s p o in ted t i p w a s t he o n ly t o o l w h ich e f f ec t ive ly p enetra ted t he s o i l . T he s ma l ler b lades w ere t oo s hor t , w h i le t he w ide d i s ta l e nd o ft he l a rge b lade i nh ib i ted p ene tra t ion o ft he g round; o n ly i t s e dg e c ame i n to c onta c tw ith t he s o i l . I t i s o bv ious t hat a g rea t d ea l o f v ar iab les h as t o b e t aken i n to c ons idera t ion , r equ ir ing a l a rge n umber o f e xper iments t o a ccoun t f o r a l l p oss ib le c omb ina t ions . T he 2 08

t h r ee mos t i mpor tant v ar iab les a re t ype o fs o i l ( s andy c l ay , p ea t ) , v ege ta l c over ( g rasses , r e eds , h ea ther ) a nd p resence o f s t ones , s he l ls o r o ther h ard ma ter ia ls i n t he ma tr ix . F ind ing a s i tua t ion w h ich i si n a l l r e spec ts s im i lar t o t he p reh is tor ic o ne i sv i r tua l ly i mposs ib le . H owever b y i n creas ing t he n umber o fe xper iments i n t he f u ture Ih ope t ob e a b le t oa ccount f o r a tl e as t s ome o ft he r e levant v ar iab les .

2 . 3 .2 . Wear t r ac es r e su l t ing f r om c u t t ing s od s The c u t t ing o f s ods c aused a v ery e x tens ive g l oss o n t he s urf ace o f t he t o o l . T he p o l ish d eve loped q u i ck ly a nd w as v i s ib le w ith t he n aked e ye . O n t he b lades t h is p o l ish i s c onf ined t o aw ide b and a l ong t he e dge , a l though i n c ip ient p o l ish c an b e o bserved o n t he e n t i re s ur f a ce o ft he t o o l i nsof ar a s i th ad p enet ra ted t he s o i l . T he d i s t r ibu t ion o fp o l ish o n t he e xper imenta l s i ck le i s more e x tended , c over ing t he e nt ire d i s ta l e nd . T he a ppearance o ft he p o l ish i s s omewha t l e ss «me ta l l ic> ' t han t he o ne c aused b y t he h arves t ing o f G ramineae , v ery r ef l ect ive a nd s omewha t r ougher a nd e xh ib it ing a n o r ientat ion p a ra l le l t o t he e dge . R andom s t r ia t ions a re p resent , v ary ing i n s hape , l e ng th a nd d ep th ( p la te 2 0 . Where t he e nt ire s urfa ce i sp o l ished , t he d i rec t iona l i ty d i sappears . A t t hese s po t s , i . e . o n t he t i p o ft he t o o ls , t he s t r ia t ions s t and o u t v ery c l ear ly ( p la te 2 0 . T he c ha ra cter o ft he u se -ret ouch d epends o n t he p resence o fs t ones w i th in t he ma t r ix . T he t wo b l ades u sed o n r a ther s t ony g round e xh ib it a r ow o fr egu lar ly s pa ced r et ou ch , s ca la r i n f o rm , q u ite d eep a nd w i th af ea ther o r h inge t e rm ina t ion . O n t he t wo t o o ls e mp loyed o n s andy c l ay , u se -re tou ch w as v i r tua l ly a bsent . T he e dges w ere e x tens ive ly r ounded .

3—THE ARCHAEOLOGICAL S ICKLES A s ment ioned b ef ore , o n ly c omp lete s i ck les w ere e xam ined . O f t he c . 1 00 s pe c imens p resent i n t he N e ther lands , 2 2 t o o ls w ere s tud ied s o f a r . O bv ious ly t h is i sa s ma l l s amp le b u t t he w ear t r a ces o n t hese a r t ef ac ts a re s o r emarkab ly u n if orm t ha t s ome p re l im inary c omments o n t hem s eem j us t if ied . T he t oo ls w ere n ot s e lected i n a s y s t emat ic f a sh ion . S o f a r Ih ave c onf ined my se lf t o t hose e as i ly a ccess ib le i n museums . T he s i ck les f r om Wes t -F r ies land a re a l l s t ray f i nds , w i th t he e xcep t ion o ff our t o o ls f r om ad epo t n ear H e i loo ( t ab le 1 ) . T he s i ck les f r om t he n or thern N ether lands o r ig ina te f r om d epo t s i n B ou r tang e a nd R o lde . I n t he c ont ex t o ft h is a r t ic le Iw i l l n o t d ea l i n d e ta i l w i th f i nd c i rcumstances b e cause ap aper o n t h is s ub jec t i sb e ing p repared ( J .F . v an R eg t er en A ltena , i n p rep . ) . T he a rchaeo log ica l s i ck les w ere n ot c l eaned c hem ica l ly f o r f ear o f d es troy ing r e s idues o r a l ter ing p o l ishes . A s at e st o ne t o o l w a s s ub ject ed t o a1 0 % HC 1 s o lu t ion a nd r i nsed w ith 1 0 % KOH :n o c hanges i n p o l ish a t t r ibu tes c ou ld b e o bserved . T he a r tef a c ts w ere o n ly w iped w i th a l coho l d ur ing a na lys is .

3 . 1 . —Wear t races When e xam ined w i th t he n aked e ye 1 7 o ft he 2 2 t o o ls e xh ib i t av ery e x tens ive g l oss ( t ab le 1 ) wh ich c overs m o st o ft he s urf a ce ( f ig . 2 ) . T he d i s tr ibu t ion o ft h is s heen s hows a v ery d i s t inct ive p a t t ern , o bservab le o n m os t s i ck les :t he med ia l a nd d i sta l p ar t s o ft o o ls i sv ery h eav i ly w orn , w he reas t owards t he p rox ima l p ar t t h is g l oss g radua l ly f ades a way t o ad u l l l us tre . O n t he v e ry p rox ima l e nd ( t he «b u t t» )w e a ga in f i nd h eavy g l oss , t hough u sua l ly n ot a s r ef lec t ive a s o n t he m ed ia l a nd d i s ta l p ar ts . T h is d i s tr ibu t ion h a s l e d t o 2 09

P la te 3 : P reh istor ic s i ck les . A l l s ca le b ars e qua l 5 0 mu .

a S ick le f r om H e i loo ( R MO 1 947 /12 .10 ) . N ote t he a lmost t rapezo ida l e dge a nd t he n umerous r andom s t r iat ions , i n terpre ted a s t he r e su l to ft he c ontact w i th s o i l . O r ig ina l magn if icat ion 1 00x .

S ick le f r om B ovenkarspe l ( WF BOV V 22 ) i n terp re ted a s b e ing u sed o n s o i l . O r ig ina l magn if icat ion 5 0x .

S econdary u se p robab ly o n s i l ic ious p lants , o bserved o n a n a rchaeo log ica l s i ck le f r om V enhu izen (WF VEN V 17 ) . r esha rpen ing s car . O r ig ina l magn if icat ion 1 00x .

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Note

t he

C lose -up o f p o l ish i nterpreted a s b e ing t he r esu lt o f r eap ing s i l ic ious p lants , o bserved o n as i ck le f r om He i loo ( R MO 1 947 / 12 .13 ) wh ich f i rst was u sed o n s o i l . O r ig ina l magn if icat ion 2 00x .

«R ough » p o l ish o bserved o n at oo l f r om Zwaagd i jk O os t (WF N 1969 I Xn ) . N ote t he o r ienta t ion p ara l le l t o t he e dge . O r ig ina l magn if icat ion 1 00x .

f F r ict ion g loss d i sp layed o n t he b ut t o f a s i ck le f ro m Zwaagd i jk O ost (WF N 1 969 /X lo ) . N ote i t s f l a t a ppearance . O r ig ina l magn if icat ion 1 00x .

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s pecu la t ions a bou t ap oss ib le h af tw h ich c ou ld h ave p rot ec ted t he p rox ima l e nd f r om w ear ( Van G if f en 1 944 ) . T he f a c t t ha t t he v ery e nd a l so d i sp lays s heen c aused o ne a u thor t o p os tu la te i n c identa l u se b y al e f t -handed p erson ( W ie se 1 956 ) . T he h eavy g l oss o n t he med ia l a nd d i s ta l s e ct ions o ft he s i ck les i s , w hen e xam ined m icros cop ica l ly , u n if orm f o r a l l 1 7 t o o ls o n w h ich i tw as o bserved w ith t he n aked e ye . T he p o l ish i sh igh ly r e f lec t ive , h as af l a t a ppearance , a nd t o ta l ly l i nks u p i n mos t p la ces , r esu lt ing i n l i t t le o r n o u npo l ished s t one s urf ace ( p late 3 a ) . T he p o l ish e xh ib it s n o p redom inant o r ienta t ion . E verywhere t he p o l ished s ur face i s s carred b y ag rea t many s t r ia t ions wh ich v ary i n c haracter f r om s hor t , n arrow a nd s ha l low t o l ong , w ide a nd d eep . U sua l ly t he s t r ia t ions w ere d i str ibu ted i n ac omp lete ly r andom f a sh ion ( p la te 3 a , b ) . A t s ome p laces o n af ew s i ck les , h owever , ap redom inant o r ien ta t ion p ara l le l t o t he e dge c an b e d etec ted . A l l e dges a re e x t reme ly r ounded , e x cept where r e s harpen ing h ad t aken p la ce ( p la te 3 a ) . Ic ou ld o bserve n o d if erences i n w ear p a t tern b e tween t he c oncave a nd c onvex e dg es . T he d i s ta l t i p w as i nvar iab ly t he m os th eav i ly w orn s e c t ion o ft he t o o l . B ecause t he g rea ter p ar t o ft he e dges w ere e x tens ive ly r e tou ched i tw as d if i cu lt t o d i s t ingu ish u se r e tou ch f r om manufa ctu r ing r e tou ch . A n a dd i t iona l d i ff i cu lty f o r d etec t ing t he c hara c ter o f u se -retouch was t he c i rcumstance t hat mos t s i ck les h ad b een r esharpened . R esharpen ing w as i nf erred f r om t he v ery s t eep e dge -ang les , t he v ery c l umsy w ay o f r e touch ing , a nd f r om t he f a c t t ha t t he d i s ta l t i p e xh ib i ted a s ma l ler e dge -ang le , av ery r ounded e dge a nd more i nvas ive i n ten t iona l r e touch . T hree s i ck les (WF AND V 9; RMO 1 947 / 12 .13 ;WF VEN V 17 ) w ere u sed s e condar i ly o n ad if eren t ma ter ia l , d educ ted f r om t he p resence o fd if eren tp o l ish a t t r ibu tes o n t he c oncave s i t e ( p la te 3 c , d ) . F our teen s i ck les w ere r e -used o n t he s ame ma ter ia l w h ich c aused t he f l a t , e x tens ive p o l ish d escr ibed a bove . O f t he f i ve s i ck les o n wh ich n o g l oss c ou ld b e o bserved w ith t he n aked e ye f our w ere i ndeed u nused ( t ab le 1 ) . O ne h owever , d i sp lay ed i n c ip ient p o l ish a nd s t r ia t ions o f t he s ame k ind a s ment ioned e ar l ier ( WF GR V 7 ) .

3 . 2 . —I n terpre ta t ion o ft he wear t races o na rchaeo log ica ls i ck les H ow s hou ld w e i n terpret t he c omb ina t ion o f w ear a t tr ibu tes a s d escr ibed i n t he p rev ious p arag raph ?I ti sh ere t ha t ad e ta i led c ompa r ison i sn ecessary b e tween t he t r a ces o n t he a r chaeo log ica l s i ck les a nd t hose o n t he e xper imenta l t o o ls . C ompar ison w ith t he e xper imenta l t o o ls u sed o n c erea ls , r eeds a ns g rasses i nd icates f ew s im i lar it ies i n w ear a t tr ibu tes . T he p o l ish o n t he e xper imenta l p lantwork ing t oo ls i s v ery s mooth , s omewha t u ndu lat ing a nd l a cks t he r andom s t r ia t ions . More i mpor tant , t he d i s t r ibu t ion o ft he p o l ish o n t hese t oo ls i sc onf ined t o a b and a l ong t he e dge a nd n ever c overs t he e nt ire s ur f a ce . A l though i tc anno t b e e x c luded t ha t a f t er av ery l o ng p er iod o fu se t he d i s tr ibu t ion m ight b e more e x tens ive , i ti su n l ike ly t ha t at o ta l ly «l a cquered »s urfa ce , s u ch a s i sv i s ib le o n t he a r chaeo log ica l p i eces , w ou ld e ver d eve lop . I ti sn o tewor thy i nt h is r e spec t t ha t s i ck les f ound i n D enma rk , w ith as hape s im i lar t o t he Du t ch s pec imens , s how a d i s tr ibu t ion o f g l oss more r em in iscent o f t he e xper imenta l p lant c u t t ing t oo ls d i scussed h ere . O n t he D an ish s i ck les t he g l oss i s c onf ined t ot he c oncave e dg e , e xtend ing a bou th a lf -way t he w id th o ft he t o o l a nd s t opp ing a brupt ly ( Jue l J ensen , p ers . c omm . ) . T he t races o bserved o n t he e xper imenta l s od c u t t ing t oo ls a pproach t he a rchaeo log ica l o nes t o ac ons iderab le e x tent a l tough t hey d o n o t ma t ch i n a l l r e spec ts . S ods c ause t he s ame e x tended d i s tr ibu t ion o fp o l ish . T he l a t ter s eems e qua l ly f l a t a nd 2 12

r e f lect ive , e xh ib i t ing t he s ame d eg ree o fl i nkage . A l though t he p o l ish o n t he e xper imen ta l s od c ut t ing t o o ls g enera l ly p ossesses a n o r ienta t ion p ara l le l t ot he e dge , o n t hose p la ces w h ich h ad b een p o l ished t oa n e x treme e x tent ( i . e . t he t i p ) , t h is f ea ture d i sappear s . H ere t he p o l ish c overs t he e n t ire s ur f ace a nd i ss carred b y al a rg e n umber o fr andom s t r ia t ions ( p la te 2 0 . I ti s t hus l i ke ly t ha t a f t er more p ro longed w ork t han w as d one d ur ing t he e xper iments r epor ted a bove , t he d i rec t iona l i ty e v ident o n l a rg e p ar ts o ft he e xper imenta l p i eces w i l l d i sappear . T h is s hou ld b e c orroborat ed b yf u ture e xper iment s . Obv iou s ly w e s hou ld a l so c ons ider t he p oss ib l i ty t ha t t he e x tens ive g l oss o bserved o n t he a rchaeo log ica l s i ck le s w as a r esu lt o fp os t -depos i t iona l s ur fa ce mod if i ca t ions . Af l int t o o l i n p ea t s ed imen t c an o b ta in «g l oss -pa t ina »( Ro t t lander 1 975 ) o r c o lour p a t ina . I n f a ct s o me s i ck les d o e xh ib it a y e l low ish o r b lack p a t ina , a f ec t ing t he s urf ace o f t he o r ig ina l ly m o t t led -g rey f l int . E ven o n t hese p a t ina ted p i eces , h owever , t he p a t tern o fw ear a t tr ibutes i s t he s ame a s o n t he f r esh ly l o ok ing e xamp les . A bras ion b y r andom m ovement i n t he s o i l i s a no ther f a ctor wh ich m ight h ave a l tered s ome t oo ls . T h is p henomenon w as i ndeed o bserved b u t o n ly o n t hose s i ck les n ot d i sp lay ing e xtens ive g l oss . A lthough p os t -depos i t iona l p rocesses o bv ious ly h ave mod if ied t he s ur face o f s ome o ft he s i ck les , t he b as i c w ear p a t tern a ppears n ever the less s o c ons is tent t ha t Ic anno tb u t a t t r ibute i tt oh uman a c t iv i t ies . The e nt ire t o o l s u r fa ce , i n c lud ing t he d epress ions , w i l l s imu ltaneous ly h ave c ome i n to c ontac t w ith t he w orked ma ter ia l s i nce t here a re n o d if erences i n p o l ish i n tens i ty b etween t he w ork ing e dge a nd t he a reas o f t he t oo l f ur ther b ack . T heref ore t h is d i s t r ibu t ion o ft he p o l ish o n t he D u t ch a r chaeo log ica l s i ck les mus t h ave b een c aused b y a v ery p l iab le ma ter ia l . Moreover , t he w orked ma ter ia l a pparent ly w as v ery a bras ive , h av ing p roduced s u ch e x t ens ive p o l ish ing a nd e x treme e dge -round ing . I ta l so must h ave c onta ined s harp , h ard p ar t ic les t o i nf l ic t t he d eep a nd l ong s t r ia t ions . A t t he s ame t ime t he r a ther b lunt e dge o ft he i mp lement o bv ious ly d id n o t i mpede t he t ask a t h and t o a c ons iderab le e x tent . E v en t hough r esharpen ing t o ok p lace , s ome e dges p ossessed a t r apezo ida l s hape a nd n ever the less c ont inued t ob e u sed , a s c ou ld b e c onc luded f r om t he f a c t t ha t t hese b eve led e dges w ere h eav i ly p o l ished . O ne s i ck le ( W .F . N 1969 /X I o )h ad a «b ur in f ace t »o n b o th t he c oncave a nd t he c onvex s i des o ft he d i s ta l t i p . O ne f a ce t w as 3mm , t he o ther 5mm i nw id th . S trange ly e nough b o th f a cet s e xh ib ited t he s ame h eavy g l oss a s t he r ema in ing o ft he d i s ta l e nd . T he o n ly ma ter ia l w h ich s eems t of u lf i l l a l l t hese r equ irement s i ss o i l . I ti sp l iab le , h igh ly a bras ive a nd c ommon ly c onta ins s ma l l s t ones o r c oarse s and p ar t ic les w h ich c an c au se s t r ia t ions . S o i l i sk nown t o c r ea te e x tens ive g l oss . F or e xamp le , t hresh ing s l edge f l in t s , wh ich f r equent ly c ome i n to c ontact w ith t he t hresh ing f l oor , a re e x t reme ly s h iny a nd r ounded ( Wha l lon 1 97R ) . Hav ing i n terpre ted t he ma ter ia l w orked w ith s i ck les a s mos t p robab ly b e ing s o i l , i t r ema ins t o b e s een w h ich mo t ion w as i nvo lved . A s w i l l b e r emembered , n o u nequ ivoca l o r ientat ion c ou ld b e d e t ec ted w ith in t he p o l ish o n t he a rchaeo log ica l s i ck les . Iw i l l e va lua te t hree r e levant p oss ib i l it ies c oncern ing k inema t ics h ere :t he ir u se a s ac ou lt er , a s as od -cu t t ing t o o l a nd a s ah oe . O n t he b as is o fh i s e xam ina t ion o f ac r escent -shaped s i ck le f r om Medemb l ik ( West -Fr ies land ) , B ruyn ( 1986 ) h as r e cent ly s uggested t ha t s i ck les m ight h ave f unc t ioned a s c ou lters ( f ig . 3 ) . Iam n ot s ure t h is i n terpretat ion i s c o r rec t . If a i led t or e cogn ize t he r egu lar p a t t ern o fs t r ia t ions B ruyn n otes a nd o n w h ich h e b ases much o f h is a rgument . T he s t r ia t ions I o bserved w ere g enera l ly mu ch more r andom ly d i s t r ibu ted . B ruyn d oes n ote t hese r andom s c ra t ches b u t a t tr ibu tes t hem t o d amage i nf l ic ted b y p l ough ing , t r amp l ing , e t c . H owever , Id oub t t ha tt h is m ight h ave b een s o u n if orm a s t o i n cur e xac t ly t he s ame p a t tern f o r a l l s i ck les . More i mpor tant , i fw e 2 13

a ssume t ha tt he d u l l s e c t ion o ft he t o o li nd ica t es t he p re sence o f ah a f t , t hen t he p a r to ft he t oo l f i xed o n t o t he p l ough w ou ld h ave b een v ery s ma l l . A l though Ih ave n o t d one a ny e xper iments i n t h is r espec t ( nor h as B ruyn b y t he w ay ) , Iw ou ld g uess t ha t , d ue t o t he i n tense , c on t inuous p ressure , n ot o n ly t he t o o l may s l ip o u to fi t sf a s ten ing s ,b u ta l so t ha ti t w ou ld b reak a s ar e su lt o ft he l e verage e xer ted o n t he i mp lement a s t he p lough w as p u l led t hrough t he g round . E spec ia l ly i ft he v eg eta t ion w as d ense , as i tua t ion f o r w h ich ac ou l ter i s s pec i f ica l ly d ev ised , t he p ressure mus t h ave b een e normous . O n ly when t he g rea ter p ar t o ft he t o o l w ou ld h ave b een h af t ed o r w hen t he h a f t w ou ld b e v ery n ear t he w ork ing e dge w ou ld w e e xpect t he s i ck le t o f unc t ion a ppropr ia te ly a s a c ou l ter . B ruyn 's a ssumpt ion c an e as i ly b e c hecked b y e xam in ing t he s i ck le f r agments f o r b reakage p at terns c l ose t o t he d u l l ( haf ted ) s e c t ion . A t h ird a rgument a ga inst B ruyn 's i n ter p re ta t ion i st he f a c tt ha tt he c omp le te s pec imens w ere f o und a tp la ces where w ew ou ld l e a s t e xpect a gr icu lture a nd t hus p lough ing t o h ave b een p rac t ised , i . e . i n l ow ly ing c l ay b as ins a nd p ea ty a reas . As e cond a c t iv ity , i nvo lv ing s o i l a s aw orked ma t er ia l , i st he c u t t ing o fs ods . T he f i nd l o ca t ion o f t he c omp lete s pec imens s eems t o s uppor t t h is i n terpreta t ion . May b e , b ecause o ft he a ssumed r egu lar c u t t ing movemen t o ne w ou ld e xpe c t ac l earer o r ienta t ion p ara l le l t ot he e dge t han i sg enera l ly v i s ib le o n t he g reat er p a r t o fo ur e xper imen ta l s od c u t t ing t o o ls ( s ee p arag raph 2 . 4 .2 ) . O n t he t i ps o ft he e xper imenta l t oo ls , h owever , t he p o l ish w as s o e xtens ive t hat t he o r ienta t ion v i s ib le e l sewhere w ith in t he g l oss , h ad d i sappeared , a nd r andom ly d i s t r ibut ed s t r ia t ions c ou ld b e o bserved , r em in is cent o ft hose o n t he a r chaeo log ica l s i ck les . T hese r andom ly d i s tr ibu t ed s t r iat ions c an b e a t t r ibu ted t o t he f a c t t ha t t he a ng le o fa t tack i sn ever q u ite t he s ame b u t d epends o n t he r e s is tance w e mee t ae ach s pot , s o s harp p ar t ic les i n t he s o i l may s c ra t ch t he i mp lement i n a l l d i re c t ions . Iw ou ld s uppor tt heref ore t he i n t erpreta t ion o ft he ma jor i ty o ft he D u t ch s i ck les a s s od -cu t t ing t o o ls . T h is d oes n ot mean t ha t t he r emova l o ft he s ods , a f ter t hey h ad b een c ut l o ose , w as a l so d one w ith s i ck les . W ith s u ch a t o o l o n ly a m in ima l amount o f l e verage i s p oss ib le . A w ooden s pade o r al a rge s hou lderb lade w ou ld h ave b een more u sefu l f o r t h is t a sk . I n f a c t o ne s u ch s pade h as b een f ound i n t he M idd le -Bronze A ge s i t e o fB ovenkarspe l , made o f ac ow 's s hou lderb lade , a nd h eav i ly w orn ( I jzereef 1 981) . Dur ing t he c ourse o ft h is r esear ch , at h ird h ypo thes is a bou t t he k inema t ics o ft h is t o o l t ype w as f o rmu la ted :t he ir p oss ib le u se a s h oes . T h is e xp lana t ion h as n o t y et b een e xper imenta l ly i nves t iga ted , b u t c er ta in ly mer i ts s e r ious c ons idera t ion . R ees ( 1 981) h as ment ioned t ha t , f o r e xamp le , a xe -hammers c ou ld h ave b een e mp loyed t o b reak u p c l ods a f ter p lough ing . H oe ing i sv ery u sefu l a ga ins t w eeds ( Reyno ld 1 981) . C er ta in ly , when t he s i ck les h ave n o t b een u sed t ob reak u p ad ense v ege ta t ion , t he i mpac t w i th t he s o i l w ou ld p erhaps n o t h ave r esu lted i n t he f r a c tur ing o ft he i mp lement e ven t hough t he h af t w as c onf ined t o t he b u t t e nd o n ly . T here i so ne i mpor tant a rgument a ga ins t t h is t h ird i n t erpreta t ion . Ah oe i sa n a g r icu ltura l t o o ls a nd w e w ou ld n o t e xpe ct t o f i nd i ta t p la ces w here a g r icu lture h as n o t b een p ra c t ised :a s h as b een s t a ted b ef ore , t he s i ck les w ere , a t l e as t i n West -Fr ies land , f ound ma in ly o u t s ide t he a rab le l and . I t i s c l ear t hat t he i n terpreta t ion o f t he k inema t ics o f t he s i ck les r ema ins p rob lema t ica l . A t p resent Ic ons ider t he s od -cu t t ing h ypothes is t he m os t c onv inc ing o ne . I t i s , h owever , n ecessary t ha t s pec if ic i nf orma t ion b ecome a va i lab le a bou t t he f i nd l o ca t ion o ft he i mp lemen ts , e spec ia l ly w ith r espec t t o t h e ir l o cat ion o n l evee -depos it s , t he p ot ent ia l ly a rab le l and . Up t on ow t he l a ck o fd a ta c oncern ing d i s t r ibu t ion p lay s t o o mu ch o f ar o le i nt he i n terpre ta t ion o ft he f unc t ion o ft he s i ck le s .

2 14

3 . 3 . —Res idua l wear t race so nt he a rchaeo log ica ls i ck les A par t f r om t he t r aces i n terpre ted a s b e ing t he r esu l t o fc u t t ing s o i l , Ie ncoun tered t wo o ther c a t egor ies o ft r a ces o n t he a rchaeo log ica l s i ck les . F irs t o fa l l , ab and o fs mooth , d omed , h igh ly r ef lec t ive ( a lmos t «me ta l l ic » ) p o l ish w as o bserved o n t he r esharpened e dge o f t hree o therw ise h eav i ly p o l ished t oo ls ( p la te 3 c ;t ab le 1 ) . N o s t r ia t ions w ere a sso c ia ted w i th t h is g l oss a nd o n ly a v ery s l ight o r ien ta t ion p ara l le l t o t he e dge w as v i s ib le . T he e dge i t se lf w a s r ounded , b u t n ot t o t he e x ten t o bserved o n t he s i ck le -edges p resumab ly u sed f o r s o i l . B ecause o fs im i lar i t ies w i th t ra ces o n my e xper imenta l p lant c u t t ing t oo ls , Ii n terpre ted t hese t r a ces a s b e ing t he r esu l t o fc u t t ing s i l ic ious p lants , b u t w he ther i tc oncerned c e ra ls o rr eeds Ic ou ld n o tt e l l . T he s e cond g roup o fw ear f e a tu res w as o bserved o n t he b u t t -ends o f1 4t o o ls ( t ab le 1 ) . O n t he p rox ima l s e c t ion o f t he t o o l t he e dges w ou ld a brupt ly e xh ib it a v ery r ough , s omewha t a b raded , ma t t p o l ish w i th p i ts . T he g l oss w as s t rong ly d i rec t iona l , p ara l le l t o t he e dge , wh i le d eep s t r ia t ions r unn ing p ara l le l t ot he e dge a bounded ( p la te 3 e ) . T he e dg e w a s v ery r ounded a nd i ts e ems t ha t n o u se -re tou ch was a ssoc ia ted w ith t he p o l ish a nd s t r ia t ions . L oca ted f ur ther i n to t he p iece o n t he s urface o f 7t o o ls , f r ict ion g l oss wa s a sso c ia ted w i th t h is r ough p o l ish ( p la te 3 0 . Ii n terpreted t he c omb ina t ion o fr ough p o l ish a nd f r ict ion g l oss a s b e ing t he r e su lt o fh af t ing o r h o ld ing t he s i ck le . P oss ib ly t he r ough p o l ish was d ue t o ap i ece o fh ide i nser ted b etween h af t a nd t o o l , wh i le t he f r ict ion g l oss o c curred where n o s u ch i n terf er ing h ide layer was p resent . T he d i rect ion o f t he s t r ia t ions w i th in t he r ough p o l ish , p ara l le l t o t he e dge , s uggests t ha t t he t o o l moved s l igh t ly w ith in t he h a f t . I fw e r e ca l l t he «h oe -hypo thes is »e xpounded i n t he p reced ing p a rag raph , w e c ou ld i mag ine t ha tt he s i ck le r ebounded u pon e a ch i mpa c tw i th t he g round , c aus ing t he r egu lar ity o ft he s t r ia t ions . E xper iments w ith v ar ious h af t ing p rocedures s hou ld e luc ida te t h is f u r ther .

4— CONCLUSION T h is p aper h as t r ied t or eso lve af unct iona l p rob lem wh ich h as p reoccup ied Du t ch a r chaeo log is ts f o r q u i te s ome t ime :w ere t he s i ck les r ea l ly u sed f o r c erea l -harves t ing a nd a s s uch m er it t he ir t r ad i t iona l t ypo log ica l c l ass if i ca t ion? E xper iments w ere c ar r ied o u t w i th r eap ing v ar iou s c e rea l s pec ies , r eeds a nd g ra sses a nd t he c u t t ing o fs ods . T ra ces o b served o n t he a rchaeo log ica l s i ck les w ere t hen c ompared w ith t he w ear o n t he e xper imenta l p i eces . I tw a s c onc luded t ha tt he u sua l i n terpre ta t ion o ft he Du t ch s i ck les a s h a rves t ing i mp lements i sl i ke ly t o b e i n correct . I nstead , t he c ontac t ma ter ia l o f t he s i ck les most p robab ly c ons is ted o fs o i l . T he i n terpretat ion o ft he mo t ion i nvo lved i ss t i l l p r ob lema t ic :t he mos tl i ke ly h ypo thes is i st ha ts ods w ere c u t ,b u ti tc anno tb e e xc luded t ha t s ome o ther t ask w as i nvo lved , a s f o r i n s tance h oe ing . More e xper iments i n t h is d i rec t ion a re c e r ta in ly n ecessary , b u t o bv ious ly i t c an n ot b e e xc luded t ha t t he p art icu lar c omb inat ion o fw ear a t t r ibu tes c ou ld h ave b een c au sed b yy et a no ther a c t iv ity . T oo f ew s i ck les h av e b een e xam ined y e t t o n ote p oss ib le d if erences i n f unc t ion b e tween t he n or theast ern N ether lands a nd West -Fr ies land . On t he b as is o ft he s amp le r epor ted h ere i ts e ems l i ke ly t ha tb o th g roups d i sp lay t he s ame w ear p a t tern . A lthough i t m igh t b e a ma t ter o f c hance , a t tent ion i s d rawn t o t he f a c t t ha t a l l u nused s i ck les o r ig ina te f r om d epot s ( t ab le 1 ) . We c ou ld a sk w hy t h e B ronze A ge f a rmers u t i l ized t hese t o o ls , made f r om i mpor ted f l in t a nd d isp lay ing f i ne w orkmansh ip , f o r s uch a «mundane » t ask a s t he c u t t ing o f 2 15

s ods . I ti sr emarkab le t ha t w hen t he s od -cu t t ing h ypo thes is w as f i rst t hought o f , i tw as a u toma t ica l ly a ssumed t ha t t he t oo ls w ou ld i n it ia l ly h ave b een u sed a s h arves t ing i mp lements , a nd o n ly s e condar i ly f o r s ods . H owev er , o ne a rchaeo log ica l t o o l (WF GRV 7 ) , l a ck ing t he e xtens ive g l oss , n everthe less e xh ib ited a b and o f i n c ip ient «s o i l p o l ish »a s i nd ica ted b y t he l a rge amount o fr andom s t r iat ions . S od c u t t ing w as t hu s a p r imary a c t iv i ty , n ot o n ly p erf ormed w ith d i s carded t o o ls . S t i l l , i tc annot b e e xc luded t ha t s ome o ther s i ck les w ere f i rs t u sed o n p lant s , t he t r a ces o fw h ich a re n ot v i s ib le a nymor e d ue t ot he o ver ly ing p o l ish i n f l ic ted b y t he s o i l . I ti sc l ear t ha t mak ing s t a t ements a b ou t t he i d eo logy o fs t one t o o ls i sd if i cu lt; p erhaps s od cu t t ing m igh t n o t b e s u ch amundane a ct iv ity a f ter a l l , i fw e r e ca l l t he f a c t t ha t t hey w ere a l so u sed f o r t he c onstruc t ion o f b arrows . T he d i sm issa l o f t he s i ck les a s h arvest ing i mp lements d oes n o t mean a u to ma t ica l ly t ha t t he f i e lds w ere r eaped b y h and . I n H e i loo ab ronze s i ck le h as b een f ound i n t he s ame d epo ta s t he s t one s pec imens ( Bruns t ing 1 962 ) . I tw ou ld b e i ntere s t ing t od o u se w ear a na lys is o n t h is t o o l t o s ee whe ther o r n o t i tw a s u sed o n c e rea ls . Ia s sume t ha ti t s mu ch t h inner e dge w ou ld h ave b een m ore s u i tab le f o rt h is t ask . S tone t o o ls a re o f ten r egarded a s f o od -procu r ing i mp lements . A nder son -Ger f aud ( 1983 ) a nd J ue lJ ensen ( t h is v o lume ) d raw a t tent ion t o t he u se o ff l int t o o ls i n v ar iou s c raf t a ct iv it ies s u ch a s mat t ing a nd t he manufac tu re o f b askets . On t he b as is o ft h e a na lys is o ft he Du t ch s i ck les , w e c an a dd t ha t f l int t o o ls c ou ld a l so b e u sefu l i n r ougher , n on -subs is tence t a sks s uch a s t he a cqu is i t ion o fb u i ld ing ma ter ia ls .

ACKNO WLEDGEMENTS F oremos t Iw ant t o t hank H . P au lsen ( Museum S ch loss G ot torf , S ch lesw ig ) a nd J .B euker ( Drents Museum , A ssen ) f o r t he t ime t hey p u t i n to mak ing t he e xper imen ta l t o o ls f o r me . J .F . v an R eg teren A l tena ( ROB , Amer sf oor t ) i n i t ia ted me i n to t he p rob lem o f t he «s i ck les » . I am g ra tefu l t o J .W . B oersma ( P rov inc iaa l Museum , G ron ingen ) , T .Y . v an d er Wa l le — V an D er Woude ( Wes t -Fr ies Mu seum , H oorn ) a nd G .J . V erwer s ( R i jks Museum v oor Oudheden , L e iden ) f o r a l low ing m e t o s tudy t he s i ck les i n t h e ir c o l lect ions . Mr A .C . Z even a nd J .v an Wan ingen o f t he A gr icu ltura l U n ivers i ty i n Wagen ingen w ere s o k ind a s t o a l low u s o n t he ir e xper imenta l f i e lds . It hank P .A . A kkermans a nd H . F okkens f o r t he ir e d i tor ia l h e lp . J .P aupt it ( I nst itu te f o r P reh is tory , L e iden ( IPL ) ) p r inted t he m icrog raphs , J .N eder lof ( IPL ) d rew t he f i gu r es a nd M . Wanders — V an D er S anden ( IPL ) t yped t he manuscr ipt . T he h arves t ing e xper iments b ecame a l o t o ff un d ue t o t he e n thus ia s t ic p ar t ic ipa t ion o fC .V ermeer en , L .K oo is tra , W . Ku iper , M . Wans leben , J .S chreur s , H . F okkens , E . J unger ius , W . v an d er S anden a nd P . W . v an d er B roeke . P ar t o f t h is r esearch was f i nanced b y t h e N e ther lands F ounda t ion f o r t he A dvancement o fP u re R esear ch .

B IBLIOGRAPHY ANDERSON -GERFAUD , ( P . ) , 1 982 .— C omment p rdc iser l ' u t i l isa t ion a g-r i co le d es o u t i ls p rdh is tor iques ?C ah i er sd e l ' Euphra t e 3:1 49 -164 . ANDERSON -GERFAUD , ( P . ) , 1 983 .— A c ons idera t ion o ft he u ses o f c er ta in b a cked a nd l u s tred s t one t o o ls f r om t he l a te Meso l i th ic a nd N a tuf ian l e e ls o fA bu Hu reyra a nd 2 16

Mureybet ( Syr ia ) . I n: T races d 'ut i l isat ion s ur l e s o u t i ls n eo l ith iques d u P roche O r ient . T ravaux d e l a Ma ison d e l 'Or ien t 5 ,L yon: 7 7 -106 . BAKKER , ( J .A . ) , 1 959 .— O pg rav ingen t o Hoogkarspe l I . Wes t F r iese Oudheden 1 1 :1 59 1 81 . BAKKER , ( J .A . )e t a l . , 1 977 .— Hoogkarspe l - Water toren :t owards a r econstruct ion o f e co logy a nd a rchaeo logy o fa n a g rar ian s e t t lement o f1 000 BC . E x Horreo ( C ingu la 4 ) :1 87 -225 . BRUNSTI NG ,

( H .) ,

1 962 .— De

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He i loo .

Oudheidkundige

Medede l ingen 4 3 :1 07 -115 . BRUYN , ( A . ) , 1 986 .— E en v uurstenen «s i kke l »u i t Medemb l ik . J aarver s lag ROB 1 984: 8 9 -94 . BUTLER , ( J .J . ) , LANT ING , ( J .N . ) a nd WAALS , ( J .D . ) v an d er , 1 972 .— Anner T o l I I: af our -per iod B e l l B eaker a nd B ronze Age b arrow a t S chu i l ingsoord , g em . Z u id laren . He l in ium 1 2 :2 25 -241 . BUURMAN , ( J . ) , 1 979 .— C erea ls i n c i rc les :c rop p rocess ing a ct iv it ies i n B ronze A ge B ovenkarspe l . F es tschr if t Mar ia Hopf z um 6 5 G ebur s tag ( Archaeo -Phys ica 8 ) :2 1 3 7 . CUR WEN , ( E .C . ) , 1 930 .— P reh istor ic f l int s i ck les . An t iqu i ty 9 :6 2 -66 . GEEL , ( B . ) v an , HALLE WAS , ( D .P . ) a nd PALS , ( J .P . ) , 1 982 .— A l a te H o locene d epos it u nder t he Westf r iese Z eed i jk n ear E nkhu izen ( prov . Noord -Ho l land , t he N ether lands ) : P a laeoeco log ica l a nd a rchaeo log ica l a spects . R eview o f P a laeobo tany a nd P a lyno logy 3 8: 2 69 -335 . G IFFEN , ( A .E . ) v an , 1 944 .— G ra fheuve ls t e Zwaagd i jk , g em . Wevershoof ( N .H . ) . W es tf r ies land Oud e n N ieuw 1 7 :1 21-143 . G IFFEN , ( A .E . ) v an , 1 953 .— Onderzoek v an d r ie b ronst i jdg ra fheuve ls b i j G rootebroek , g em . G rootebroek . W e s tf r ies land Oud e n N ieuw 2 0 :3 -32 . G IJN , ( A .L . ) v an , i n p rep .— T he e xcavat ion o fT erp 1 00 , U itgeesterbroekpo lder . H ILLMAN , ( C . ) , 1 981 .— R ec onstruct ing c r op h usbandry p ract ices f r om c harred r e ma ins o fc rops . I n :R . Mercer ( ed . ) F arm ing p rac t ice i n B r i t ish P r eh is tory . E d inburgh : 1 23 -162 . I JZEREEF , ( G .F . ) , 1 981 .—Bronze Ag e a n ima l b ones f r om B ovenkar spe l . T he e xcava t ion a tH e t V a lk j e ( Neder landse Oudheden 1 0 ) . JUEL J ENSEN , ( H . ) , ( t h is v o lume ) .— M icrodent icu lates i n t he D an ish S tone Age: a f unct iona l p uzz le . KOOY , ( G .) v an d er , 1 976 .— No t i t ies o ver e nke le d orpen n ab i j d e J ebe l A ruda . I nterna l R eport , L e iden .

2 17

KOROBKOVA , ( G .F . ) , 1 981 .— A nc ient r eap ing t oo ls a nd t he ir p roduct iv ity i n t he l i ght o f e xper imenta l

t racewear a na lys is .

I n :P h .

L . K oh l

( ed . ) . The B ronze Age

c i v i l isa t ion o f C en tra l A s ia . N ew Y ork :3 25 -349 . REES , ( S . ) , 1 981 .— Ag r icu ltura l t oo ls: f unct ion a nd u se . I n :R . Mercer ( e d . ) F arming p rac t ice i n B r i t ish P r eh is tory . E d inburgh :6 6 -84 . REGTEREN ALTENA , ( J .F . ) v an , i n p rep .— F l int «s i ck les »f r om t he Nether lands . REYNOLDS , ( P .J . ) , 1 979 .— I ron -Age F arm: t he Bu tser E xper imen t . L ondon . REYNOLDS , ( P .J . ) , 1 981 .— D eadstock a nd l i vestock . I n: R . Mercer ( ed . ) . F arming p rac t ice i n B r i t ish P r eh is to ry . E d inburgh :9 7 -122 . RO TFLANDER , ( R . ) , 1 975 .—The f o rma t ion o f p at ina o n f l int . A rchaeome try 1 7: 1 06 1 10 . THERKORN , ( L .L . ) , R IJN , ( P . ) v an a nd VERHAGEN , ( M .) , 1 986 .— U itgeesterbroek p o lder . I n :K ron iek v an Noord -Ho l land o ver 1 985 :Wo lter ing ( ed . ) . H o l land 1 8 : 8 4 -88 .

UNGER -HAM ILTON , ( R . ) , 1 983 .— An i nvest igat ion i n to t he v ar iab les a f f ect ing t he d eve lopment a nd t he a ppearance o f p lant p o l ish o n f l int b lades . I n :T races d 'ut i l isa t ion s ur l e s o u t i ls n do l ith iques d u P roche -Or ient . T ravaux d e l a Ma ison d e l 'Or ien t 5 :2 43 -250 . UNGER -HAM ILTON , ( R .) , 1 985 .— M icroscop ic s t r ia t ions o n f l int s i ck le -b lades a s a n i nd ica t ion o f p lant c u lt ivat ion :p re l im inary r esu lts . Wor ld A rchaeo logy 1 7 :1 21 1 26 . VAUGHAN , ( P .C . ) , 1 985 .— U se -wear a na lys is o ff l ak ed s t one t oo ls . A r izona . W HALLON , ( R . ) , 1 978 .— T hresh ing s l edge f l ints . A d ist inct ive p a ttern o f w ear . P a lgor ien t 4 : 3 19 -324 . WIESE , (W .F .G . ) , 1 956 .— Twee v uurstenen s i kke ls b i j E nkhu izen . Wes terheem 5 :6 4 .

2 18

STONE TOOL USE AND THE ORGA N IZAT ION OF TECHNOLOGY IN THE DUTCH NEOLITHIC

P au la B IENENFELD *

ABSTRACT:

Ana lyses o f t he l i th ic a ssemb lages f r om t wo Dut ch N eo l ith ic s i tes , m idd le N eo l ith ic Gass e l a nd e ar ly Neo l ith ic Sw if terban t 5 2 , w ere c onduc ted t oe xam ine whe ther o r n o t t he a ssemb lages c ou ld b e s a id t or epresen t e i ther a «c ura ted »o r a n «e xped ien t »t e chno logy . T oward t h is e nd , b o th a u se w ea r a na lys is a nd a r ef i t t ing s t udy w ere c ar r ied o u t f o r b o th a ssemb lages . T he r esu lts i nd ica te t ha t a r t if a c ts f ound a tb o th s i tes w e re c ura ted b y t he i nhab itan ts . T h is s ugges ts t ha t t he u s e -wear r esu lt s may n o tr epres en ta l l t he t a sk sp erf o rmed a tt he s i te , a nd a l so , t ha tt he t asks r epresen ted b yt he w ear t ra ces may n ot h ave a l l b een p erf ormed a t t he s i te . I nstead , i t may b e mo re h e lpfu l t o v iew t hese a rchaeo log ica l a ssemb lages a s r epresen t ing p or t ions o f al arger N eo l ith ic t e chno log ica l s ys tem . RESU ME:

On a e f f ec tue d es a na ly ses d es a ssemb lages l i th iques d e d eux s i tes n eo l ith iques n eer landa is , l eG asse l d u Moyen N eo l ith ique e tl e Sw if terban t 5 2 d u N eo l ith ique Anc ien , p our e xam iner s io u i o u n on l e s a ssemb lages p euven t ö t re c ons ider & c omme r epresentant u ne t e chno log ie s o it «c ura t ive » , s o it «e xped ien te » .A c e t te f i n , o n af a it al af o is u ne a na lyse d ' usure e tu ne e tude d e r epara t ion p our l e s d eux a ssemb lages . L es r esu lta ts i nd iquen t q ue l e s a r tefa cts t r ouves s ur l e s d eux s i tes o nt e te e ntre tenus p ar l e sh ab i tant s . C e la s uggere q ue l e sr esu lta ts d 'usure p euven t n e p as r epresent er t ou tes l e s t ä ches a ccomp l ies s ur l e s i te e t e ga lement q ue l e s t ä ches r epresentees p ar l e s t ra ces d 'usure p euven tn e p as a vo ir e te t ou te s a ccomp l ies s ur l es i te . Ip eut a u c on tra ire e t re p lus u t i le d e v o ir c es a ssemb lages a rcheo log iques c o mme r epresentant l es p ar t ies dun s ysteme t echno log ique n eo l ith ique p lus v as te .

I NTRODUCTION R ecent E th ic u se -wear s tud ies h ave s hown t hat t he u se -wear method i s h igh ly e f ec t ive i n i nf er r ing p reh is tor ic s t one t oo l f unct ion . I n t h is p aper h owever , my a im i st o emp loy u se -wear r esu lts t o e xam ine t he p a t tern ing o fu sed a nd d i scarded t oo ls a nd i n t urn make s o me i nf erences a bou tt he ways i n wh ich a ssemb lages c an b e s a id t o r epresent «c ura ted » o r «e xped ient »s t one t oo l t e chno log ies . T he r e la t ive mer its o fa ssum ing t hat a rchaeo log ica l s t one t oo l a ssemb lages r esu lt f r om e i ther c ura ted o r e xped ient t e chno log ies h ave b een d ebated ( Hayden 1 975 ;B inf ord 1 977 , 1 979 ;B amf orth 1 986 ) . I n f a ct , ag iven a ssemb lage i sp robab ly n ot t he r esu lt o fa c ura ted o r a n e xped ient t e chno logy . I ti s most l i ke ly t he r esu lt o f s ome t oo ls b e ing u sed e xped ient ly , wh i le o thers a re c urated , d epend ing o n t ask , r aw mater ia l a nd t ime i nvo lved i n manufactur ing a p art icu lar t oo l . N everthe less , t he i dea o f c urat ion i s a v a luab le h eur ist ic .

2 4E . C ap i to lS t . , NE # I Wa sh ing ton , D .C . 2 0003 ( U .S .A .) .

2 19

L abe l l ing a n a ssemb lage a s c ura ted o r e xped ien th e lps c onceptua l ize t he movemen t o ft he a r t ifac t s i ndependent o f t he a r chaeo log ica l s i t e ;t ha t i s , a s o pera t ing w ith in t he t e chno log ica l a nd s oc ia l s ys tem o f t he t o o l makers a nd u sers . T he r esu lt c an a l ter t he i n terpreta t ions o fs i te f unc t ion b ased o n t he u se -wear r e su lts a l one b y i nd ica t ing whe ther o rn ot t he t o ta l r ange o ft heoret ica l ly e xpec ted p reh is t or ic a c t iv i t ies w i l l b e r ef lec ted i nt he a rchaeo log ica l a ssemb lage . A s a n a pproa ch t ot he q ues t ion o ft e chno log ica l o rgan iza t ion o ff l int a ssemb lag es i n t e rms o f c ura t ion , t he l i th ic a ssemb lages f r om t wo D u t ch N eo l i th ic s i te —t he m idd le N eo l i th i c s i te o fG asse l a nd t he e ar ly N eo l ith ic s i te o f Sw if terbant S 2 —w ere s tud ied . T o i d ent if y s t one t o o l u ses , u se -wear a na lyses w ere c ondu c ted . T he r ef i t t ing e xerc ises w ere c ar r ied o u t u s ing t he a ssemb lages f r om b o th s i tes .

METHOD T he u se -wear m ethod d eve loped b y L . K ee ley ( 1 980 ) i nvo lves t he u se o f ah igh magn if ica t ion meta l lurg ica l m icroscope w ith r ef lec ted l i ght . W ith t he i n tense l i gh t p rov ided b y t h is t ype o fm icroscope i ti sp oss ib le t os e em ic ros cop i c p o l ishes o n t he s ur f a ce o fs t one a r t ifa c ts . T hese p o l ishes c o rrespond t o s pec if i c w orked ma ter ia ls , s u ch a s w ood , s i l iceous p lants , b one o r a nt ler , h ide a nd s o f o r th . S ince i t s i n troduct ion , t he me thod h as r evea led a n u nexpected ly w ide r ange o f u ses o f p reh istor ic t o o ls a nd o f ten r evea led s urpr is ing p a t terns o f s pec if ic t o o l u se , t o o l manuf ac tu re a nd d i scard , a nd s i te f unc t ion ( e .g . A nder son 1 981 , B ienenf e ld 1 985 , C ahen e ta l . 1 979 , C auv in 1 983 ) . F or t h is s tudy , e ach a r t if a c t w as f i rs t s oaked i n a1 0 %s o lu t ion o fh ydr och lor ic a c id ( HC I ) , w ashed w ith a n on -abras ive d i shwash ing l i qu id a nd t hen r insed i n t ap w a ter . Magn if i ca t ions o f f r om 1 00x t o 2 00x w ere u sed t o i d ent ify t he p o l ishes u nder a Z e iss m e ta l lurg ica l m icros cope . I n a dd it ion t ot he s tudy o ft he a r chaeo log ica l ma ter ia l , t o o l u se e xper iments w ith f l akes a nd s c rapers w ere p erf ormed . T he e xper imenta l t oo ls w ere made f r om f l int c o l lected f r om t he R i jckho lt f l in t m ines l o cated i n t he s ou thern N ether lands . A lmos t h a lf o f t he f l int r ecovered a t G asse l w as R i jckho l t f l int . T he p urpose o ft hese e xper iments w as t oc r ea te ac ompara t ive c o l lec t ion o fp o l ishes t ha t c ou ld b er ef erred t od ur ing t he s tudy .

USE -WEAR DATA FRO M THE GASSEL S ITE G asse l i sl o ca ted i n t he e as tern N e ther lands o n as and d une n ear t he Maas r i ver ( f ig . 1 ) . T he s i te w as e xcava ted i n i t s e nt irety u nder t he d i rec t ion o f L eo V erhar t a nd L .P . L ouwe K oo i jmans , u nder t he a eg is o f t he Du t ch Na t iona l A rchaeo log i ca l Museum i n L e iden ( R i jksmuseum v an Oudheden t e L e iden ) , T he N ether lands . T he s i te y i e lded p ot tery , h ammer -stones a nd f r agments o f g r ind ing s t ones a nd q uerns , a nd h as b een d a ted t o c a . 29 00 B .C . , b ased o n p ot tery a na lys is . 2 15 f l int a r t ifacts w ere r ecovered d ur ing t he e xcava t ions , a nd o f t h is t o ta l , 9 5 a r t if a ct s w ere s tud ied f o r t he u se -wear a na lys is . T h is s amp le i n c ludes a l l t he r e tou ched a r t if acts a nd a l l c h ipped s t one t ha t m ight h ave b een u sed ( «g ebru ikksporen »i n Du t ch ) , 7 5 p i eces ( i dent if ied b y L .V erha r t ) . I n a dd it ion , ar andom s amp le o f 1 7 u nretouched f l akes ( i nc lud ing o ne m ed ia l b lade s egmen t ) , 2 4 ,6 % o ft he t o ta l o f6 9 f l akes , p lus aj udg ement s amp le o f 3mor e f l akes t ha t

2 20

. . f ? •S W F TERBA NT 5 2

F ig . 1 :Map o fT he N ether lands , s how ing l o ca t ions o f G asse l a nd Sw if terbant S 2 s i tes . A f ter L ouwe K oo i jmans , 1 976 . 2 21

l o oked a st hough t hey h ad b een u sed , at o ta l o f2 0u nre tou ched p i eces o fc h ipped s t one ,w e re s tud ied ( t ab le 1 ) .

T ab le 1 :A r t if ac ts A na lyz ed f r om G a sse l

Morpho log ica l C a tegory

Number

R etou ched a nd p oss ib ly u sed a r t if a c t s F lakes ( f rom r andom s amp le ) F lakes ( f rom j udgement s amp le )

7 5 1 7 3

-

TOTAL

9 5

O f t he 9 5 a r t ifacts a na lyzed , 1 7 p i eces , i n c lud ing 4 f r om t he f l ake s amp le , w ere e i ther s evere ly b urn t o r p a t ina ted . I n t hese c ases , n o p o l ish i d ent if ica t ions c ou ld b e made . Twenty -two p ieces f r om t he g roup o f 7 5 a r t ifacts a nd p oss ib ly u t i l ized p ieces ( «g ebru ikksporen » )b ore n o t ra ces o fu se . T h is f i gu re i n c luded 9 c ore o rc o re f r agments a nd 7 u nretouched f l akes o r f l ake f r agments . O f t he 2 0 s amp le f l akes , w ear p o l ish i nd icat ing u se w as v i s ib le o n o ne p iece . I t b ore t races o f w ood p o l ish f r om f i ne w oodwork ing o n t he d orsa l s i de o ft he r i ght l a tera l e dg e . F rom t he r ema in ing 4 0 p i eces , 1 4 c ou ld b e i d ent if ied a sh av ing b een u sed , a l though as pec if ic w orked ma ter ia l c ou ld n ot b e a ss igned . T h is n umber i nc ludes 1 d i s ta l b lade s egment t ha th ad b een u sed t ow ork af i ne ma ter ia l , 3p i eces u sed t ow ork ah ard ma ter ia l , p oss ib ly b one , a nt ler o r w ood , a nd 2 a r t ifa cts t ha t h ad b een u sed o n as of t o r m ed ium h ardness mat er ia l . I nt he c ase o ft wo a r t if a c ts t he m o t ion o fu se c ou ld b e i d en t if ied ,b u tn o t t he w orked ma ter ia l ;o ne p ro jec t i le p o in t t ha t h ad b een u sed t o s c rape ah ard ma ter ia l a nd o ne a r t ifa ct t ha t may h ave b een u sed f o rb or ing . A r t ifac ts f o r wh ich s pec if ic ma ter ia ls c ou ld b e i dent if ied i nc lude 1 8 u sed f o r w oodwork ing ( i nc lud ing 6 i dent if ied a s p oss ib le w oodwork ing ) a nd 5 f o r w ork ing h ide . Two a r t ifa cts w ere p oss ib ly u sed t o s c rape b one o r a nt ler ;5 w ere u sed f o r s o f t p lant w ork ing , i n c lud ing o ne w ith «p oss ib le » t races o f s o f t p lant p o l ish . S evera l a r t if ac ts w ere u sed f o r more t han o ne p urpose . T hese w ear t r a ces a re d i sp layed i nT ab le 2 . Woodwork ing makes u p t he l a rgest p er centag e o f t asks t hat a re r e corded i n t he a r t if ac ts d epos i ted a t G asse l . T he s ma l l n umber o fa r t if ac ts u sed f o r w ork ing s of t p lan t s , p oss ib ly d omes t icat ed whea t h arves ted f o r f o od , o r r e eds t ha t c an b e u sed t o c ons tru c t s t orage b askets , f l oor ma ts o r e ven dwe l l ing s t ruc tu res ( Madsen a nd J ue l J ensen 1 982 ; Mason 1 890 ) , i sw or th n ot ing f o r am idd le N eo l i th ic s i te a nd s ugg ests t ha tt he s i t e may b e o ne f r om w h ich al im ited r ange o fa c t iv it ies w as c ar r ied o u t . I ti st he 5 a r t if ac t s t ha t b ore t r aces o fh ide p o l ish t ha t w i l l b e u sed a s a means o f e xam in ing t he q ues t ion o fw he ther o r n ot s t one t o o ls a t G asse l may b e c ha rac ter ized a s «e xped ient » o r «c ura ted »

2 22

T ab le 2 :I dent if iab le U se -wear T races f r om t he Gasse l A ssemb lage*

K ind o fU se -wear T races

F requency

Wood Work ing H ide Work ing

1 8 5

6 0 ,0 % 1 6 ,7 %

S of t P lan t Work ing

5

1 6 ,7 %

B one o r A nt ler Work ing

2

6 , 6%

TOTAL

*N o t e:

P ercent

3 0

1 00 ,0 %

T he t o ta l n umb er o fw ea rt r a ces i sn o tt h es ame a st h et o ta ln umber o ft o o ls b e cause s e ve ra l t o o ls b o re t r a ce so fmo r et han o ne u s e .

ARTIFACTS USED FOR HIDE WORK ING O ft he 5h ide w ork ing t oo ls , o ne was a n u nre touched f l ake u sed t o c ut h ide , o ne , a b locky f l ake ( w ith i ndeterm ina te r e touch ) f o r w ork ing f r esh h ide , a nd o ne , ar etouched f l ake u sed f o r h ide b or ing , t he l a t ter a lso s how ing s i gns o f a s econd u se o n a n u ndeterm ined h ard mater ia l . Two a r t ifacts h ad b een u sed t o s c rape d ry h ide: a s c raper f r agment a nd a r etouched t oo l . T he s c raper a l so s howed s igns o f as econd u se , w ork ing w ood . T ransf orm ing g reen h ide i n to l ea ther i s at ime -consum ing a nd c omp lex p rocess a s p ract iced i n t rad it iona l t e chno log ies . Un l ike , f o r e xamp le , t rad it iona l wheat h arvest ing methods , t he e nt ire p rocess i s r are ly d escr ibed i n t he a rchaeo log ica l l i terature . A s a r esu lt , t he n umber a nd k inds o f a ct iv it ies p er f ormed a t t he s i te a s c onveyed i n t he e xpress ion «d ry h ide s c rap ing ' >a nd r epresented b y t he h ide w ork ing t oo ls a re n ot w e l l u nders tood . I ti su sefu l , t hen , t o d ig ress f o r a moment a nd d escr ibe t he w ide a nd v ar ied r ang e o fa c t iv it ies t ha tw ent o n a tG asse l a sr epresented b yt he u se -wear t races .

H IDE PROCESS ING H ide i s made b y a l ter ing t he d erma , o r c or ium , o f a n ima l s k in . T he d erma i st he c enter l ayer o f 3l ayers t ha t make u p t he s k in . I ti sc overed o nt he o u ts ide b yt he e p iderm is , a nd o n t he u nders ide , b y t he h ypoderm is . T he i n it ia l s t eps o fh ide p rocess ing s eparate t he c or ium f r om t he o ther t wo l ayers o fs k in . Once s eparated , t he c or ium must b e s of tened a rt if ic ia l ly . T he c or ium i t se lf i s d iv ided i nto 2 l ayers , t he g ra in l ayer a nd t he f i ber l ayer . T he f i ber l ayer i sc omposed o f i n terwoven f i ber b und les h e ld f ast b y as t if f , g luey s ubstance , r et icu l in . T he p urpose o f t r ea t ing h ide i st o r ep lace t he r e t icu l in w ith t ann ins a nd o i ls s o t hat ap l iab le , wa terproof ma ter ia l r esu lts ( Mann 1 962 ) . T he s t eps i nvo lved i n p rocess ing h ide , f r om t he r e mova l o f t he s k in f r om t he f r esh ly k i l led a n i ma l t o t he l a st s t ep o fp roduc ing a f i n ished p iece o fl ea ther , h ave b een 2 23

d escr ibed e thnog raph ica l ly f o r N or th Amer ican I nd ians ( Lyf ord 1 940 , 1 943 ;Mason 1 890 ) . A lso , a t l e as t o ne e thnoar chaeo log ica l a ccount e x is t s ( Ga l lagher 1 977 ) , a s w e l l a s a n a ccount b y aN or th Amer ican w oodsman ( Schaef er 1 973 ) . W ith s ome v ar ia t ion , d epend ing i n p ar t o n t he a n ima l a nd t he d es ired s t if fness o r t h ickness o f t he f i na l p roduc t , t here a re f our ma in s t eps: 1 ) F lens ing , o r f l esh ing; i n t h is f i rs t s t ep , t he f a t a nd mea t a re r emoved f r om t he h ide . 2 ) D eha ir ing ;s c rap ing t he h a ir a nd t he g ra in f r om t he h ide a f ter i th as b een s o f tened i n w a ter a nd w rung o u t . T he s oak ing n ot o n ly s o ft ens t he h ide , i ta l so r emoves b l ood a nd d i r t , a nd f a c i l i ta tes t he p ene t ra t ion o ft he s of t en ing o r t ann ing a g ents i n to t he h ide ( Mann 1 962 ) . W i th t hese t wo s t eps , t he d erma i ss epara ted f r om t he e p iderm is a nd t he h ypoderm is . 3 )T he t h ird s t ep i sb ra in ing , o r d ress ing t he s k in t os of ten i t . Am ix ture o fa n ima l b ra in a nd w arm w a ter i sr ubbed t horough ly i n to t he h a ir s i de o ft he s k in a nd a l lowed t o s oak i n . V ege tab le t ann ins c an a l so b e u sed ( Mann 1 962 ) . 4 ) S tret ch ing a nd s of ten ing . T he h ide i sa ga in s oaked i n c l ean w a ter t o s of ten i t a nd r emove d i r t . T he O j ibwa r epea t ed t he s c rap ing s t ep p r ior t o t he f i na l s t ret ch ing , t o r emove a ny r e ma in ing h a ir , f l esh o r l i qu id f r om t he h ide . A ccord ing t o L yman , a «r ough s t one o r modern s c raper »w as u sed ( Lyman 1 943 :9 9 ) . 5 )A n o pt iona l l a s t s t ep i st os moke t he h ide . T he r e su lt ing h ides c an r ange f r om s o f t b u cksk ins u sed f o r c l o th ing t ov ery h ard , t h ick s k ins f o r w arsh ie lds ( Ly f ord 1 940 ) o rf o r c over ing t ent s ( Mason 1 890 ) . T he e thnog raph ic d escr ipt ions i nd ica te , t hen , t ha t t he s t one s c raper s of am i l iar t o a r chaeo log is ts i su sed f o r d eha ir ing , w hen t he h a ir a nd g ra in a re r emoved f r om t he h ide , a nd f o r s of ten ing a nd c l ean ing t he h ide . Mos t o ft he a c coun ts s t a t ed t ha t i nt he f i rs t s t ep , f l esh ing , ab one t o o l , u sua l ly an a tura l ly s haped o r r e touched c annon b one , w as u sed . I n f a c t , S chaef er ( 1973 ) p o in ts o u t t ha t a l l t he ma ter ia l s n eeded t op repare t he h ide c an b e f ound i n t he a n ima l i t se lf; b ones a re u sed f o r f l ens ing a nd s c rap ing t o o ls , a nd t he b ra ins , f o r s of ten ing t he h ide . We c an c onc lude , t hen , t ha tt he s c rapers w i th h ide p o l ish o n t hem f r om G asse l w ere u sed i n t wo o f t he s t eps o f h ide p rocess ing , d eha ir ing a nd s o f ten ing t he s k in .

D ISCUSSION T o r e turn t ot he a r chaeo log ica l q ues t ion a th and , t he u se -wear d a ta s uggest i n i t ia l ly t hat t he a c t iv i t ies c arr ied o u t a t G asse l i n c luded w o odwork ing , h unt ing , v ar ious a spe c t s o f b u t cher ing , e spec ia l ly t he p rocess ing o f f r esh a nd d ry h ide , a nd s ome s of t p lan t p rocess ing . A no ther w ay t oa pproa ch t he d a ta i st oc ons ide r i t s c i r cumstances o fd epos i t ion . We s t ar tw i th t he p rem ise t ha tt he c h ipped s t one t ha tf o rms p ar to ft he a rchaeo log ica l r e cord a t G asse l r epresents t o o ls t ha t w ere u sed b y t he o c cupan t s , e i ther t here o r e l sewhere , a nd d i scarded t here b y t hem , f o r o ne o f t wo r easons :e i ther d e l iberate ly , o r a cc identa l ly , t hrough l o ss . T h is s cheme h as b een f o rma l ized b y S ch if f er , w ho t e rms t hese t wo k inds o f d ropp ing d i scard a nd l o ss ( S ch if f er 1 976 ) . D iscard c r ea tes t wo k inds o fr e fuse :p r imary 2 24

r efu se , wh ich i sd i scarded a t l o ca t ion o f u se , a nd s e condary r efuse , wh i ch i sd i scarded away f r om i t s l o cat ion o f u se . T h is i s s im i lar t o B inf ord 's c haracter izat ion o f t e chno log ies a s e i ther «e xped ient » o r «c ura ted »( B inf ord 1 977 ) i n t ha t b oth w ays o f o rgan iz ing t he d a ta a cknow ledg e t ha t a r t if ac t s c an b e d epos ited e i ther i n t he v i c in ity o f t he u se o r s o me d i s tance f r om i t . F a i lure t o r e cogn ize t h is c ontex tua l d i s t inc t ion i so f t en i mp l ic i t i n t he i d ea o f «a c t iv i ty a reas »w here a s pace w ith in a s i te , u sua l ly c omposed o f t o o ls a nd f ea tures , i sb e l ieved t or epresent ap reh ist or ic a c t iv ity o rs e to fa c t iv it ies . T o r eturn t ot he u se -wear r esu l ts a t G asse l , w e k now t ha t many s i tes r epresent a p a l impsest c rea ted b y a n u neven s er ies o fo c cupa t ions a nd a c t iv i t ies . A c t iv it ies t hat a re r ep resented b y u se -wear t r a ces o n t he t o o ls c an t hen b e t hough t o fn ot a s a c t iv it ies t ha t n eces sa r i ly o c cur red w i th in t he l im i ts o ft he s i te , b u t a l so a s a c t iv it ies t ha t may h ave b een c ar r ied o ut i n t he p ast b y t hese p eop le a t o ther s i tes ;t ha t i s , t he u se -wear r e cord o f a c t iv i t ies t ha tw er e p er f ormed b yt h is g roup , o rg roups , o fp eop le ,b u tn o tn ecessar i ly a tt h is s i t e . C onverse ly , i t mus ta l so b e t rue t hat s ome a c t iv i t ies c ar r ied o u t a tt he s i te w i l l n o tb e r epresen ted b y t he f l int a ssemb lage . I n s u ch c ases , t he t o o ls a re c ons idered t oh ave b een c ura ted . A n e xped ient t e chno logy , o n t he o ther h and , w ou ld b e o ne i n wh ich t here i s a n e qu iva lence b e tween a c t iv i ty p erf ormed a nd l o ca t ion o ft he d i scarded t o o l . F or e xamp le , t he A us tra l ian a bor ig ines o bserved b y G ou ld ( 1969 ) made s t one o r g lass f l akes f o r i mmed ia te u se a to ne l o ca t ion a nd d i scarded t hem i nt he s ame s po t d i rec t ly a f t er t he t a sk w a s c omp leted . T o c ons ider t he q ues t ion o fw he ther t he o c cupan ts o fG asse l h ad a n e xped ient o r a c u ra ted l i th ic t e chno logy , w e c an u se t he d a ta f r om t he u se -wear r esu lts , s pec if ica l ly , t he t o o ls u sed f o r h ide -work ing , c omb ined w i th e thnog raph ic a c counts . T he v ar iab le r ap id i ty o fu se p er t oo l c an b e u sed a s a n i nd ica tor o fs t one t o o l c ura t ion . A t l e ast t wo a ccounts d i s cu ss t he r ap id ity w i th w h ich d ry h ide s c rapers w ear d own . B o th r ema rk o n t he q u ick r a t e o fw ear . Mason ( 1890 :5 86 ) r epea ts a n a ccount g iven b y aL ieu tenant S toney , w ho o bserved w omen p rocess ing h ides a tK ot zebue S ound o n A laska 's w es t c oas t: «. . the l e a ther w orker i si ncessan t ly t ouch ing u p h i s s craper e dg e w i th t he c h ipper , a nd . . . i n t ime h e w ear s i to u t t o am er e s tub . T h i s c on s tan t s harpen ing a l so a ccoun t s f or t he f ac t t ha tf ew s pec imens s how s i gns o fg r ea tw ear . I ti si mpor tan tt or epea tt h i s , t ha t t he c on s tan t u se o ft he e dg ing t o o l r ap id ly w ear s d own t he s c raper b lad e a nd k eep s t he e dge s harp . » ( Mason 1 890 :5 86 )

More r ecent ly G a l lagher ( 1977 ) h as d escr ibed t he p rocess o fd ry h ide s c rap ing w i th o bs id ian t oo ls b y t rad i t iona l w orkers i n E th iop ia . I n h is f i rs t s e t o f o bserva t ions , h e w a t ched a s o ne man u sed t wo t h in u nre tou ched f l akes t os c rape a n o l d , s t if f , c ow h ide . I n a s e cond c ase , d r ied h ides w ere l a shed v er t ica l ly o n to af r ame , s prayed w i th w a ter t ok eep t hem s o f t a nd s c raped w i th ah af t ed o bs id ian s c raper .

S crap ing o ne l a rg e h ide u sua l ly t o ok s i x h ours a nd u sed u p f our s c raper b lades . I n b o th c ases , t he s c rap ing t o o ls w ore o u t q u ick ly . T he u nretouched f l akes d eve loped w ha t l o oked l i ke h eavy u se -r etouch , i nf i ve m inu tes . T he s c rapers n eeded r e t ouch ing e very 1 00 s t r okes , w i th t he r e su l tt ha tt he s c raper e dge l o s to ver 1c mp er h our . T hese d a ta s ugg es t t ha t , f o r o ne a n ima l t he s i ze o f ac ow , am in imum o f f our s c rapers o r s c rap ing t o o ls s hou ld h ave b een r e covered a tG asse l ;b u to n ly t wo a r t if a c t s f o r 2 25

s c rap ing d ry h ide , t he s c raper f r agment a nd t he r e touched t o o l , w ere f ound . O f c ou r se , s ome o ft he p a t ina ted t o o ls o rt o o ls w i th u nknown u ses c ou ld h ave b een u sed t os c rape d ry h ide . S t i l l , t he n umber i s v ery s ma l l , s uggest ing t he h ide w ork ing s c rapers u sed a t G asse l w ere c u ra ted , a nd t aken f r om t he s i te when p eop le l e f tG asse l . T he r ef i t t ing a t tempt s p rov ide a nother l i ne o fe v idence t o s uppor t t h is c onc lus ion . T he r ef itt ing e xer c ises w ere d one , i ndependent ly , b y L .V erhart ( p er s . c o mm . ) a nd myse lf . On ly 2 r ef i ts w ere p oss ib le f r om a l l t he c h ipped s t one , d esp ite t he f a ct t ha t t h e e n t ire s equence o ft he t o o l manu f ac tur ing p rocess i sr epresented a tt he s i t e ,f r om u sed a nd u nused c ores , t hrough d eb i tag e , t o d i sca rded t o o ls a nd t o o l f r agments . T he c onc lus ion i s t ha t t o o ls u sed b y p eop le f r om G asse l w ere n o t d i s ca rded a t t he ir p la ce o fu se , a nd w ere p robab ly c ura ted . T h is s ugg est s w e mus t b e c au t ious i n a ssum ing t ha t a l l t he u ses f ound o n t he t o o ls w ere p er f ormed t here a nd , v i ce v ersa , t ha t a l l t he a c t iv it ies c arr ied o u t d ur ing t he o c cupa t ion o f t he s i te a re r epresented b y t he t o o ls . T he r ef i t t ing e xer c ise s uppor t s t he i n terpre ta t ion t ha tp eop le made t o o ls a tt he s i te a nd t hen c arr ied t hem a way —«c ura ted » t hem , i n B inf ord 's t e rm ino logy . T he r everse s hou ld b e t rue a l so ;t ha t p eop le made a nd u sed t o o ls a to ther l o ca t ions a nd t hen b rought t hem t ot he s i te , d ropp ing t hem t here . S o ,t h e u se -wear t races a tG asse l s e em t or epresen t t wo o c cur rences : 1 )t a sks t ha tw ere c ar r ied o u t a to rf r om G asse l ,a nd 2 )t asks t ha tw ere c arr ied o u tp rev ious ly b yp eop le b ef ore t hey o ccup ied G a sse l . T he u se -wear a na lys is i nd ica tes t ha t t he a c t iv i t ies p erf ormed a t G a sse l i nc luded w oodwork ing , h unt ing , s ome b ut cher ing , h ide p rocess ing a nd t he p ro cess ing o f s o f t p lants , p oss ib ly t o make b aske ts . T h is i n f orma t ion , c omb ined w ith t he r ef i t t ing s tudy , i nd ica tes t ha t f l int a r t if a c ts made a t G asse l may h ave b een c ura ted , a nd w ere p robab ly c ar r ied f r om t h is s i te b y t he i nhab i tant s o fG asse l .

RESULTS FRO M THE SWIFTERBANT S 2 ANALYSIS Sw if terbant S 2 i so ne o f an umber o f e ar ly N eo l i th ic s i tes l o ca ted a l ong t he c l ay l e vees o f an ow e x t inc t c r eek s ys tem i n t he e ast F l evo land P o lder ( van d er Waa ls a nd Wa terbo lk 1 976 ) ( f ig . 1 ) . Ac arbon -14 d a te o f5 300 ±4 0 B P h as b een a ss igned t o t he s i t e , b ased o n a na lys is o f ac har coa l s amp le f r om t he o c cupa t ion l ayer ( van d er Waa ls 1 977 ) . T he f l int a ssemb lag e i sc omposed o f 15 03 p i eces o ff l in t , i n c lud ing c ores , c o r e f r agmen t s , f l akes , r e tou ched t o o ls s u ch a s s c rapers , a nd b lades a nd b lade s egmen t s ( pr imar i ly u nre tou ched ) . As tudy s im i lar t ot hat c arr ied o u t w i th t he G asse l mater ia l w a s c ondu c t ed u s ing t he f l in t a ssemb lag e f r om Sw if terbant S 2 . A r andom s amp le o f t he ma ter ia l w as s e lec ted f o r t he u se -wear a na lys is . T he s amp le w as c hosen f r om l i s t s o fa l l t he r e tou ched a r t if a c t s , b lades a nd b lade s egment s a t t he s i te , a nd t o ta ls 1 27 , o rc a . 2 3 %o ft he t o ta l n umber ( Tab le 3 ) . T he r esu l t so ft he a na ly s is a re t hese . O ft he t o ta l 1 27 a r t if a c t s ,2 2w ere d i s carded a se i ther t o ob urnt o rt o op a t ina ted f o r a ny p o l ish d e term ina t ion t ob e made . Two p i eces w er e e x c luded f r om t he s amp le b ecause t hey w ere t o o b roken f o r u se i d ent if i ca t ion . O f t he r ema in ing p ieces , 3 6 l a cked a ny o bservab le t r aces o fw ear p o l ish . T hese w ere c l assed a s u nused . T he r ema in ing a r t if a c t s b ore s i gns o fw ear , i n c lud ing i d ent if iab le p o l ishes ( Tab le 4 ) .

2 26

T ab le 3 :A r t if ac t s A na lyzed f r om Sw if t erbant S 2

Morpho log ica l C a tegory

Number

Who le B lades B lade S egment s B lade le ts a nd B lade let s egmen ts F lakes S craper s C ores B orers R etou ched T oo ls Unsu re o rb roken

1 6 9 0 5 5 4 2 1 1 3 1 27

TOTAL

T ab le 4 :I dent if iab le U se -wear T ra ces f r om t he Sw if t erbant S 2 A ssemb lag e*

K ind o fU se -wear T ra ces

*N o t e :

F requency

P ercent

Wood Wo rk ing H ide Work ing S of t P lant Work ing B one o r A nt ler Work ing

4 1 7 2 0 4

8 , 9 3 7 ,8 4 4 ,4 8 , 9

TOTAL

4 5

1 00 ,0

T he t o ta l n umb er o fw ea r t r a ces i sn o t t h e s ame a s t h e t o ta l n umbe r o ft o o ls b e cau s es e ve ra lt o o ls b o r et r a ces o fm o r et h an o ne u se .

Twenty a r t ifa c ts w ere u sed t o w ork s of t p lants , i n c lud ing o ne b lade s egmen t t ha t b ore t races o f a «p oss ib le » s of t p lant p o l ish . S cra t ches i nd ica t ing d i rec t ion o f mo t ion w er e o bserved o n 7o ft he se p i eces . I n s i x c a ses t he s c ra t ches r an p ara l le l t o t he w ork ing e dg e o ft he t o o l . I n o ne c a se , t ha to f ad i sta l b lade s egment , s c rat ches p erpend icu lar t ot he e dg e w ere v i s ib le . T hese d if erent s c ra tch p a t terns i nd ica te t he v ar iety o fp lant w ork ing t a sk sc arr ied o u tb yi nhab itant s o f Sw if t erban tS 2 . T he r ema in ing u sed t oo ls t e s t ify t o o ther t asks . S eventeen a r t if ac t s b ore t ra ces o f h ide p o l ish , i n c lud ing 1 p ieces w ith t ra ces o f «p oss ib le »h ide p o l ish . Wood w ork ing p o l ish was v i s ib le o n 4a r t if act s , w ith 1b lade s egment d i sp lay ing t races o f a «p oss ib le » w ood p o l ish . F our a r t if ac ts h ad t r a ces o f i d ent if iab le b one o r a n t ler p o l ish . U se t races w ere v i s ib le o n 1 9 o ther a r t ifac ts , a l though t he s pec if i c w orked ma ter ia l c ou ld n ot b e i d en t if ied . T hree a dd i t iona l a r t if a c ts a ppeared t oh ave b een u sed i n as c rap ing a c t ion , b u t

2 27

a ga in a w orked ma ter ia l c ou ld n ot b e s pec if ied . T he p resence o f t hese w ear t r aces s ugg es t s t he r ange o fa c t iv it ies c ar r ied o u ta t Sw if t e rbant S 2 . A s w ith t he s i te o f Gasse l , t o i nves t iga te t he q uest ion o f whe ther a r t if a c ts a t Sw if terbant S 2 may h ave f o rmed p ar t o f ac urated t e chno logy , ar ef i t t ing e xer c i se w as c ar r ied o u ta sp ar to ft he s t udy . A 6m b y 6m a rea o ft h es i t e ,t he p or t ion t ha ts e emed t oh o ld t he d enses t amount o ff l int a r t if ac ts , w as e xam ined . O n ly o ne j o in w a s f ound , as ma l l h inge f l ake t ha t c ou ld b e r ef i t w ith i t s c o re . T h is f i nd ing , a l though f r om o n ly ap a r to ft he s i te , s t i l l s ugges t s t ha t t he s i te w as p robab ly o c cup ied more t han o nce b y t o o l u ser s w ho c ura ted s ome o ft he ir a r t if ac ts .

CONCLUSION A tb o th G asse l a nd Sw if t erban t S 2 u se -wear t r a ces w ere i d ent if ied t os ugges tt ha t a v ar iety o fa c t iv i t ies w ere c arr ied o u tb yi nhab i tants a tt he t wo s i tes u s ing t he t o o ls f ound a t t he s i tes . R ef i t t ing s t ud ies i nd i ca t ed t ha tt he t o o ls w er ep ar to f ac u ra ted t e chno logy . T hese f i nd ing s s ugges t t ha tt he t wo a ssemb lag es d o n o t n e ce ssar i ly r epresent am omen t i nt ime , w i th ao ne t oo ne c o r respondence b e tween t he u se -wear t r a ces a nd u se a tt he s i te . I ns tead , a more r ea l is t ic i nterpretat ion i s t ha t t hey p robab ly r epresent p ar t i t ioned r anges o f a ct iv it ies , s l ices o f ab roader c ont inuum . S een i n t h is p erspec t ive , t he u se -wear t r a ces i d ent if ied o n t he t oo ls p robab ly r epresent t a sks t ha tt he o c cupants c arr ied o ut n ot o n ly a t G asse l a nd a t Sw if t erban tS 2 ,b u ta to ther l o ca t ions a sw e l l . O f more i n teres t me thodo log ica l ly , t hese f i nd ing s a dd s uppor t t o t he b e l ief t ha t a n a rchaeo log ica l a ssemb lage s hou ld n ot a u toma t ica l ly b e a ssumed t o r epresent p reh is tor ic a ct iv it ies t ha t o ccurred w ith in t he b oundar ies o f a n a rchaeo log ica l s i te . T he r e su l ts s ugges t t ha t a ssemb lages may i n s tead r epresent a s amp l ing o fp reh is tor ic a c t iv it ies . I n t he t wo c ases d escr ibed h ere , t he a rchaeo log ica l a ssemb lages w ere p robab ly c rea ted b y mob i le g roups o fN eo l ith ic p eop le who u sed t o o ls i n ar ange o fa c t iv it ies . S ome o ft h ese o c curred w i th in t he s i t e l im it s , a nd o thers d id n ot . We c annot a ssume , t h en , t ha t a l l t he a ct iv it ies a re r epresented b y t he a ssemb lage r ecovered a rchaeo log ica l ly . T h is p erspect ive , wh i le i ti s more c omp lex i n terpre ta t ive ly , e mphas izes t he r o le o ft he s i t e a s a c omponent i n al a rger N eo l ith ic s o c ia l a nd e conom ic s y s tem .

ACKNO WLEDGE MENTS F und ing f or t h is s tudy was g ranted b y t he Wenner G ren F oundat ion f o r A nthropo log ica l R esear ch ( Gran t 4 333 ) , t he S igma X i S c ient if ic R esea r ch S oc ie ty , t he R i jksmuseum v an Oudheden , L e iden , a nd t he B io log isch -A r chaeo log is ch I ns t ituu t , Dut ch Na t iona l Un ivers ity a t G ron ingen . It hank t hem f o r t he ir s uppor t . It hank L eender t P . L ouwe K oo i jmans a nd L eo V erhar t f o r p erm iss ion t o s t udy t he G a sse l ma ter ia l a nd f o r t he ir g enerous s uppor t a nd a dv ice . D ider ik v an d er Waa ls a nd P e ter D eckers k ind ly g ranted me p erm iss ion t o s tudy t he Sw if terbant c o l lec t ions a nd Ia l so t hank t hem f o rt he ir t ime a nd a dv i ce . P or t ions o ft h i s p aper w ere p resen t ed a tt he E igh ty f o r th a nnua l mee t ing o ft he Amer ican A nthropo log i ca l A ssoc ia t ion , D ecemb er , 1 985 .

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B IBLIOGRAPHY ANDERSON -GERFAUD , ( P .) , 1 981 .— C ontr ibut ion Mdthodo log ique a l ' ana lyse d e Microtraces d 'ut i l isat ion s ur l e s o ut i ls p rdh istor iques . d isser tat ion , Un ivers ity o fB ordeaux I .

Unpub l ished P h .D .

BAMFORTH , ( D . -B . ) , 1 986 .— T echno log ica l E ff i c iency a nd T oo l Curat ion . Amer ican An t iqu i ty 5 1 :3 8 -50 . B IENENFELD , ( P . ) , 1 985 .— P re l im inary R esu lts f r om a L ith ic U se -wear S tudy o f t he Sw if terbant S ites , S -51 , S -4 amd S -2 . ( Sw if terbant C ontr ibu t ion 1 3 ) . H e l in ium 2 5: 1 94 -211 . B INFORD , ( L .) , 1 979 — O rgan iza t ion a nd F ormat ion P rocesses :L ook ing a t Cura ted T echno log ies . J ourna l o f An thropo log ica l R esearch 3 5 :2 55 -273 . CAHEN , ( D . ) , KEELEY , ( L .H . ) a nd Van NOTEN , ( F . -L . ) , 1 979 .— S tone T oo ls , T oo lk its a nd Human B ehav ior . C urr en t An thropo logy 2 0 :6 61 -683 . CAUV IN , ( M . -C . ) , 1 983 .— T races d 'U t i l isa t ion s ur l e s Ou t i ls Ngp l i th iques d u P roche O r ien t , T ravaux d e l a Ma ison d e l ' Or ient n ° 5 , L yon . GALLAGHER , ( J . -P . ) , 1 977 .— E thnoarchaeo log ica l a nd P r eh is tor ic I nves t iga t ions i n t he E th iop ian C en tra l R if t V a l ley . Unpub l ished P h . -D . d issertat ion , D epartment o f Anthropo logy , S outhern Me thod ist Un ivers ity , Da l las , T exas . GOULD , ( R . -A . ) , 1 969 .— Y iwara F oragers o f t he Aus tra l ian D eser t . Char les S cr ibner 's S ons , New -York . HAYDEN , ( B . ) , 1 976 .— C ura t ion :O ld a nd N ew . I n P r im i t ive A r t a nd T echno logy , e d ited b y J .S . Raymond , B . L oveseth , C . A rno ld , a nd G . R eardon , p p . 4 7 -59 . T he Un ivers ity o f C a lgary A rchaeo log ica l A ssoc ia t ion , C a lgary , C anada . KEELEY , ( L . -H . ) , 1 980 .— Exper imen ta l D e term ina t ion o fS tone T oo l U ses . Un ivers ity o f Ch icago P ress , C h icago . LOU WE KOOIJ MANS , ( L . -P . ) , 1 976 .— L oca l D eve lopments i n aB order land , aS urvey o f t he Neo l ith ic a t t he L ower Rh ine . Oudhe idkund ige Medede l ingen u it .h et R i jksmuseum v an Oudheden t e L e iden 1 7 :2 27 -297 . LYFORD , ( C . -A . ) , 1 940 — Qu i l l a nd B eadwork o ft he W es tern S ioux . Educa t ion D iv is ion , U .S . O ff ice o f I nd ian A f fa irs . I nd ian Handcraf ts , 1 . LYFORD , ( C . -A .) , 1 943 .— T he C raf t s o ft he O j ibwa ( Ch ippewa ) . E ducat ion D iv is ion , U .S . O ff ice o f I nd ian A f f a irs . I nd ian Handcraf ts , 5 . MADSEN , TORSTEN a nd JUEL -JENSEN , (H ) , 1 982 .— S et t lement a nd L and U se i n E ar ly Neo l ith ic D enmark . Ana lec ta P raeh is tor ica L e idens ia X I: 6 3 -86 . MANN , ( I . ) , 1 962 .— Rura l T ann ing . A Gu ide f or T anners u s ing s imp le Me thods a nd h o me - made Equ ipment . S econd e d it ion . D epartment o f V eter inary S erv ices . K enya G overnment P r inter , Na irob i .

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MASON , ( 0 . -T .) , 1 890 .— Abor ig ina l S k in D ress ing . I n R epor t o f t he U .S . Nat iona l Museum , u nder t he d i rect ion o f t he Sm ithson ian I ns t itut ion , f o r t he y ear e nd ing J une 3 0 , 1 889 .A nnua lR epor t . :5 53 -590 . SCHAEFER ,

ARLINGTON ,

( C .) ,

1 973 .— T he I nd ian A r t o f T ann ing Bucksk in .

S chaef er -Knudtson P ub l ica t ions , R oseburg , O regon . SCH IFFER , ( M . -B . ) , 1 976 .— Behav iora l A rcheo logy . A cadem ic P ress , I nc . New -York . V an d er WAALS , ( J . -D .) , 1 977 —E xcavat ions a t t he n atura l l evee s i tes S 2 , S 3 /5 a nd S 4 ( Sw if terbant C ontr ibut ion 6 ) . H e l in ium 1 7 :3 27 . Van d er WAALS , ( J . -D . ) , WATERBOLK , ( H . -T . ) , 1 976 . —E xcavat ions a t Sw if terbant D iscovery , P rog ress , A ims a nd Methods ( Sw if terbant C ontr ibu t ion 1 ) . He l in ium 1 6 :3 14 .

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MICRODENT ICULATES IN THE DA N ISH STONE AGE: A FUNCT IONAL PUZZLE

H e l l e JUEL JENSEN *

ABSTRACT :

M icrodent icu lates a re c ommon t oo ls i n t he Dan ish Ea r ly Neo l ith ic . B ecause a n umber o f t hese p ieces s how d i s t in c t t r a ces o fg loss a long t he n o t ched e dge t hese i mp lemen ts h ave t rad it iona l ly b een c l ass if ied a s «s i ck les »f o r t he h arves t ing o fc erea l g ra ins . U se -wear a na lys is n ow s ugges ts t ha t t he t oo ls w ere u sed f o r p roce ss ing r a ther t han f o r c u t t ing , w ith movemen ts o r ien ta ted p erpend icu lar t ot he e dg e . T he w orked ma t er ia l r e ma ins a n o pen q ues t ion . T h is p aper p resen ts s ome p rob lems c oncern ing t he i n terpreta t ion o f t he p ar t icu lar p o l ish e ncountered o n t he d en t icu la tes . S ome f unc t iona l p oss ib i l it ies a re d i scussed . R i t sumt : L es m icroden t icu les s on t d es o ut i ls c ommuns d ans l e N eo l ith ique a nc ien d ano is . C omme b eau coup d e c es p ibces p resent en t d es t ra ces d i s t inct es d e l us tre l el ong d es e nco ches . C es o u t i ls o n t et c t rad it ionne l lemen t c l asses c omme «f auc i l les » p our l a mo isson d es g ra ins c 6r6a l iers . L 'ana lyse d es t races d 'u t i l isa t ion s ugg6re q ue l e s o u t i ls e ta ien t u t i l ises p our r ar t isana t p lu tö t q ue p our l a mo isson , a vec d es mouvements o r ien tks p erpend icu la irement a u b ord . L a ma t i6re t rava i l lee r es te u ne q ues t ion s ans r eponse . C e t a r t ic le p r6sente q ue lques p rob lknes c oncernan t l ' interpr6 ta t ion d u p o l i p ar t icu l ier r encon tr e s ur l e s d en t icu les . Que lques p oss ib i l it es f onc t ionne l les s on t d i scu täes .

I NTRODUCTION One o ft he p ers istent s t ereotypes i n S tone Age r esear ch i st he a u toma t ic a ssoc ia t ion b etween l i th ic t oo l u se a nd s ubs istence -re lated a ct iv it ies , i .e .b etween f l int t oo ls a nd t he p rocure ment a nd c onsumpt ion o ff o odstuf f s . F or e xamp le , t h is i st he c ase f o r a ct iv it ies a ssoc iated w ith c o l lec t ing a nd p repara t ion o fp lant ma ter ia ls . H ere , t he p resence o fl ustre o r g l oss o n N eo l ith ic f l in t t oo l w ork ing e dges i s a lmost i mmed ia te ly t aken a s e v idence f o r a grar ian a ct iv it ies ;e ven w ith in P a laeo l ith ic a nd Meso l ith ic a ssemb lages , t he o ccurrence o f p lant k n ives i s most o f ten i nterpreted i n t erms o f t he e xp lo itat ion o f c onsumab le g rasses a nd s e eds ( C larke 1 976 , Vaughan 1 985: 1 01) . R ecent ly , h owever , P . Anderson -Gerfaud h as r em inded u s t hat p reh istor ic p lantwork ing k n ives w ere a lso u sed t o a n e xtens ive d eg ree f o r t echno log ica l o r manufactur ing p urposes i nvo lv ing t he mak ing o fo ther t oo ls a nd a rtefacts ( 1982 , 1 983 ) . The p resent s tudy o f Dan ish m icroden t icu la tes d oes i n a way s upp lement a nd s uppor t h er r esearch , a nd i t o nce a ga in emphas izes t he i mportance o f d i st ingu ish ing b etween manufactur ing a nd s ubs is tence -re la ted i mp lements , a s t hese t wo c l asses o ft o o ls h ave e nt ire ly d if erent f unc t iona l i mp l ica t ions ( Oswa lt 1 973 , J ue l J ensen 1 986 ) .

* I n s t i tu t f or f o rh is tor i sk a rkx log i , Aarhus Un iv er s i te t , Mo e sgdrd , DK8 270 Ho jb j erg , D enmark .

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THE DENT ICULATES I n t h is p art icu lar c ontext m icrodent icu la tes a re d ef ined a s b lades o r f l akes w i th a s aw l ike e dge f o rmed b y n umerous sma l l , c l ose ly -spaced n otches ( S .H . A ndersen 1 975: 4 6 -47 , S kärup 1 975: 6 3 ,138 ) ( f ig . 1 ) . N orma l ly t he n ot ch -retouch i sf r om t he d orsa l t ot he v entra l f ace , where t he s cars a re t hen l o ca ted . M icroscop ic a na lyses c omb ined w ith e xper iments s how t hat t he i nd iv idua l n otches a re p roduced u s ing a s harp f l int e dge ( P late I A ) . T he d ent icu lat ion i s g enera l ly a ssoc iated w ith n atura l ly c oncave l a tera l e dges , a nd t h is i s what d eterm ines t he o r ienta t ion o ft he t oo l i n t e rms o fb e ing s in is t ra l o r d extra l :most f r equent ly t he p ieces h ave a c urved l ef ts i de , b u t s o met imes t he c oncav i ty , a nd t hus t he d ent icu la t ion , i s l o cated o n t he r i ght l a tera l e dge . I n t he l a tter c ase t he n otch ing i s n orma l ly «i nverse » ,t hat i s f r om t he v entra l t o t he d orsa l f ace ( f ig . 1 ) . A n umber o fp ieces a re d ent icu lated a l ong b oth l a tera l e dges . I n D enmark m icrodent icu lates a re k nown f r om s evera l L ate Meso l ith ic s i tes ( S .H . Andersen 1 975 , p ers . c o mm . ) . T hey a re r a ther c ommon i n t he E ar ly Neo l ith ic a nd a t t he b eg inn ing o ft he M idd le Neo l ith ic , a f ter wh ich t hey a pparent ly d i sappear ( Skärup 1 975 , F ischer 1 976 , Madsen 1 978 , Madsen a nd P e tersen 1 984 ) ( Tab le 1 ) . T he ir r e la t ive f r equency i n s i tes f l uctua tes b etween 1% a nd 9% a l though d ent icu la tes o ccas iona l ly c ompr ise u pt o2 2%o ft he r e touched l i th ic ma ter ia l . G eog raph ica l ly t h is t oo l t ype i sw e l l -known i n Wes tern D en mark ( f ig . 2 ) , whereas i ti sr are ly ment ioned i n c onnec t ion w ith E astern D an ish s i tes ( L iversage 1 981) ( 1) . Many d ent icu lates s how t races o f m icroscop ica l ly v i s ib le g loss , wh ich h as t rad it iona l ly b een f ound t o b e p roduced b y t he c u t t ing a nd w ork ing o f s i l iceous p lant mater ia ls (Wh it thof t 1 967 , Anderson 1 980 , Vaughan 1 985 i n ter a l ia ) . T heref ore , a s d ent icu la tes a re most o f ten f ound i n N eo l ith ic c ontexts , t hey h ave a u toma t ica l ly b een c l ass if ied a s «s i ck les » a nd t aken a s e v idence o f t he c u lt ivat ion a nd h arvest ing o f c erea ls ( Skärup 1 975 , N .H . Andersen a nd Madsen 1 978 ) . H owever , u se -wear n ow s uggests t hat t h is i n terpretat ion i si ncorrec t . Iw i l l d i scu ss t h is q uest ion i n t he f o l low ing s ect ions .

THE WEAR ANALYSIS Th is f unct iona l

a na lys is o f m icrodent icu lates i s p art o f a l arger p ro ject

c o mpr is ing a s ystemat ic , m icroscop ic e xam ina t ion o f t he s o -ca l led «f l int -s ick les » a nd o ther p lant -work ing i mp lements f r om t he D an ish N eo l ith ic . T he w ear s tudy f o l lows t he method a nd o bserva t ions p resented b y L . K ee ley ( 1 980 ) , P . Anderson -Gerfaud ( 1981) , E . Moss ( 1983 ) a nd P . V aughan ( 1985 ) . My i n terpreta t ions a re b ased o n e xper imenta l ly -made a nd u sed t oo ls o f l o ca l D an ish f l int . T he a na lyses w ere c arr ied o u t b y means o f ar ef lected l ight m icroscope , a n O lympus mode l BH M , a t magn if i ca t ions b etween 1 00X a nd 4 00X . A t p resent t he s tudy c o mpr ises a f unct iona l a na lys is o f 1 91 d ent icu lated p i eces s e lected f r om t he f o l low ing Western D an ish s i tes ( 2) :The E ar ly N eo l ith ic s i tes a t Mosegärden a nd S tengade Ia nd I ( Skärup , 1 975 , Madsen a nd J ue l J ensen 1 982 ) , t he

2 32

0 3

0 -

2 33

F ig . 2 : S ites r ef erred t o i n t he t ext . 1 . S tengade I a nd 1 .2 . T ro Ideb jerg .3 . S arup .4 . Hanstedgärd .5 . T of tum .6 . Mosegärden .7 . R ingk loster .8 . N orsm inde . 2 34

Mad sen 1 978 , E r iksen a nd Madsen 1 984 ) , a nd f i na l ly t he M idd le N eo l i th ic s i te o fS arup ( N .H . A ndersen 1 981) ( Tab le 1 ,f i g . 2 ) . Most o f t hese s i tes w ere i nves t iga ted d ur ing t he 1 970s a nd 1 980s , a nd a l l d en t i cu lates f ound d ur ing e x cava t ion h ave b een e xam ined . A t S arup , wh ich i s al a rge s e t t lement c omp lex c over ing s evera l p er iods i n t he M idd le N eo l ith ic , o n ly d en t icu la tes f ound i n w e l l -dated c ont ex ts l i ke p i ts a nd d i t ches h ave b een t aken i n to c ons idera t ion . F ina l ly t he a rtef acts f r om T ro ldeb jerg ( e xcava ted i n t he 1 930s ) c ons t itu te a v ery s ma l l a nd r a ther u nsys tema t ic s amp le o ft he o r ig ina l ma ter ia l . F or c o mpar ison a s ma l l s amp le o f m icrodent icu lates f r om t he Meso l ith ic s et t lements a t R ingk los te r a nd N orsm inde w ere e xam ined . B o th o ft hese s i t es b e long t o t he E r t e l :x i I le C u l ture , t he F ina l Meso l i th ic s t age i n D enmark ( S .H . A ndersen 1 975 , i n p ress ) ( f ig . 2 ) .

G enera l u se p a t tern A l l u sed p ieces d i sp lay t he s ame g enera l p a t tern o fu t i l iza t ion . I n most i n s tances , t he p o l ish i s s o w e l l -deve loped t ha t i ti sc l ear ly v i s ib le t o t he n aked e ye a s a n e x treme ly s h iny , l a cquer l ike g l oss c over ing a s e c t ion o ft he d ent icu lat ed w ork ing e dge . M icroscop ica l ly t he p o l ish i s r es tr icted t o as hor t s ect ion a l ong t he e dge l i ne , b e tween 0 .5 -2 .5 c m . T he s t ructure a nd o r ien ta t ion o f t he p o l ish a nd t he s t r ia t ions i nd ica t e t hat t he t oo ls w e re n o t u sed f o r c u t t ing o r s aw ing -a s w ou ld s eem n a tura l f o r a s erra t ed e dge -b u ti n at r ansverse mo t ion , p erpend icu lar o ra ta n o b l ique a ng le t ot he e dge ( f ig . 3 ) .

F ig . 3 : S chemat ic r epresentat ion o f u se -wear d istr ibut ion a nd o r ientat ion o n m icrodent icu la ted e dges . T he s carred s urf ace u sua l ly c onst itu tes t he l e ad ing s i de o r c ontac t s urfa ce . S tr ia t ions a nd d i rec t ion o fp o l ish i nd ica te a t ransverse movemen to ft he t o o l( 4 5 090 0 t ot he e dg e ) .

I n t he most d eve loped s t age t he n on -con tac t s urf ace i sc harac ter ized b y ah igh ly r ef lec t ive , v i treous , a lmo st «meta l l ic » p o l ish t ha t f o rms a s o l id , f l a t «mass » w ith h ard ly a ny u ndu la t ion ( P late IB -C ) . S tr ia t ions a nd g rooves a re r are , e xcep t f o r af ew a l ong t he v ery e dge . S ome t imes , e spec ia l ly n ear t he c r est , t he p o l ish r esemb les f r ic t ion ( P la t e ID ) .

P late I :

S ca le 0 . 1 mm .

A S uperf ic ia l s tr iat ions a t t he b ase o f a d ent icu lated n otch . These t echno log ica l t races a re o f ten e ncountered o n p reh is tor ic d ent icu lated e dges . O r ig . magn . 2 00X ( Neo l ith ic p iece ) .

P hotom icrograph p o l ish

o n

s how ing

n on-contact

f lat

s urface

s urface

o f

d ent icu lated e dge ( i . e . m icro -tooth ) . O r ig . magn . 2 00X ( Neo l ith ic p iece ) .

F lat s urface p o l ish , t yp ica l f o r t he c entra l a rea

o f

t he

n on-contact

d ent icu lated e dges . ( Neo l ith ic p iece ) .

•

> 1 44

e i

+4 ;

% . 1

/ 1 1 e x

•

•b k _

e mk b , 7 . 1 C

2 36

O r ig .

s urface magn .

o f

2 00X

F r ict ion l ike p o l ish o n t he c r est o f n on c ontac t e dge . M icrodent icu la te . ‚ Or ig . magn . 2 00X ( Neo l i th ic p i ece ) .

M icro -tooth , n on -contact s urface :a nt ler l i ke , «p ockmarked »p o l ish t yp ica l o f a reas c l ose t ot he c enter o fu se ( c ompare w ith r i ght h and c orner o fP la te IC ) . O r ig . magn . 2 00X ( Neo l ith ic p iece ) .

M icrodent icu late , n on -contact s urface: 4 B r ight , d omed a nd s moo th p o l ish s pread ing o ver t he h igh p o ints o f t he m icrosurfa ce . T yp ica l w ear p at tern i n marg ina l u se a reas . O r ig . magn . 2 00X ( Neo l ith ic p i ece ) .

2 37

Table 1 : Chronology of the Late Mesolithic and Neolithic of Denmark.

Dates C-14 B.C. 5900 4600

Periods

--

-

-

3000

-

2900

-,-

3100

2800 2700 2600 2500 2400 2300

I

...

Late Mesolithic

Kongemose

-

,-

---

,.

' • ·.•

E a rly

E.N.·I

_

.., '

?

,.

?

Erteb0lle

t-

,-

Unmodified Microknives denticulates

Subperiods

'

,

)

-

Neolithic (TRB)

i-

Middle

E.N. II

M.N. I

a b

i-

Neolithic A (TRB)

M.N. II M.N. d111v M.N. V

Middle Neolithic B (Battle Axe Cultu re)

238

.. . .

-·

I.

?

T he n ex tp hase w h ich c an b e s e en n earer t ot he c enter o ft he u sed a rea ( and t he f l a t s ur face p o l ish j us t d esc r ibed ) i si lus tra ted i n P la te IE . T h is p o l ish h as al o t i n c ommon w ith a w e l l -deve loped «s moo th -an t ler p o l ish) ) ( K ee ley 1 980: 5 6 , Moss 1 983: 8 7 , V aughan 1 985: 3 2 -33 ) . A t more marg ina l s e c t ions o ft he u se a rea , t he p o l ish a ppears a sb r ight a nd u ndu la t ing w ith i n ters t i t ia l d ark s paces . P la te IF s hows t h is w e l l -deve loped v ar ie ty . H ere b r ight , d omed a nd s moo th p o l ish c omponents a re s pread ing o ver t he h igh p o int s o f t he m icrosurface . T he c on tac t s ur fa ce o ft he v ar ious m icroden t i cu lat es d i sp lays a s omewha t d if erent p a t tern o fw ea r , a nd t he re a ppears t ob e more v ar ia t ion among t he i nd iv idua l p i eces . T he c ontact s urface may s how a b r ight , s moo th , s l ight ly f l a t p o l ish «c over »w ith s er ies o f v ague p erpend icu lar g rooves ( P la te I A) . I t may a ppear t o b e aw ood l ike p o l ish ( P lat e IB ) , o r ab eve l t runca t ing t he v ery e dge ( P la te I C ) . F requent ly t he c onta ct s urf ace i s e x t reme ly r ounded a nd t he p o l ish i sc r oss -cu t b y n umerous s t r ia t ions ( P la te I D -F ) , b u t t he p lant o r w ood l ike i mpress ion i ss t i l l p resent . At h ird v ers ion o fc onta c t s ur face w ear i s c haracter ized b y h eavy e dge -round ing , p i t t ing , a bras ion a nd s t r ia t ions , t ha t mos t r e semb le «d ry -h ide p o l ish » ( P la te I I A ) . H owever t h is p o l ish , o r r a ther a bras ion , a lways o ccurs i n a ssoc ia t ion w ith t he n on -contac t s urf a ce p o l ishes d escr ibed a bove . T h is c omb inat ion o fd i f f erent p o l ishes i sn o t c aused b y mu lt ip le f unc t ions , a s t he t wo t ypes o f p o l ish a re a lway s l o ca ted a t t he s ame s e c t ion o ft he e dg e o n t he v ent ra l a nd d orsa l f a ces , w hereas t he r es t o f t he e dge i s «c l ean » .T heref ore It end t o i n terpre t t he h ide l ike a ppearance a s ap o l ish t ha ti sh igh ly a f e c ted b y s o i l o rg r it p ar t ic les . I n s um , t he u se -wear o n t he d ent icu la ted e dg es s ugg est s at ransverse mot ion , o r iented b e tween 4 5 ° -90 °t ot he a x is o ft he t o o l , a s i nd i ca ted b y s t r ia t ions a nd b yd i rec t ion o f p o l ishes . T he s t ru ctu ra l d if erence b e tween v ent ra l a nd d orsa l p o l ish f ur thermore s ugg ests t ha tt he t o o ls w ere u sed t op u l l a t as u rf a ce o f ama ter ia l ,l i ke s c rape , p ee l o rn ap , r a ther t han f o r s p l i t t ing . The i n terpreta t ion o f t he ma ter ia l w orked i s more p rob lema t ic t han i s t he u nders tand ing o ft he k inema t ics o ft he t o o ls . P ersona l ly Ih ave n o tb een a b le t or eproduce a l l t he d if erent w ear a t t r ibu tes i nc omb ina t ion o nt he s ame p i e ce . Is uspec t , h owever , t ha t t he c ontact s ubstance i ss ome k ind o f s i l iceous p lant s t ems . T h is s ugges t ion i s , among o ther t h ing s , s ubs tant ia ted b y t he p resence o f t he h igh ly r ef lec t ive , macroscop ica l ly v i s ib le g loss . On t he m icro leve l , t he c omb ina t ion o f «s moo th a n t ler p o l ish) ) o n t he n on c on tact s urf ace a nd t he «w ood l ike p o l ish »o r p o l ish b eve l o n t he c ontac t s u rfa ce p o ints t owards p lan t ma ter ia ls l i ke r eeds o r r ushes ( P la te I D -F ) ( s ee a l so V aughan 1 985 :3 4 3 5 ) . F or n ega t ive r easons , Ic ons ider t he w ork ing o fl e ss s i l iceous ma ter ia ls l i ke y oung t r ee b ranches t o b e more u n l ike ly . E xper iment s i nvo lv ing t he p ee l ing a nd d ress ing o f g reen w i l low t w ig s c r eat ed a p o l ish w h ich h ad s ome e l ements i n c ommon w i th t he u se w ear e ncountered o n t he p reh is tor ic d en t icu la tes , b u t e ven a f ter 31/ 2h ours o fi n tens ive w ork t he p o l ish r esemb led o n ly t he marg ina l o r l e ss d eve loped v ers ion ( P la te I V A -B ) . F ina l ly t he w ork ing o fb one o r a nt ler , wh ich c ou ld b e s ugges ted b y s ome o f t he p o l ish a t t r ibu tes ( P la te IF ) , s e ems t ob e o u to ft he q ues t ion d ue t ot he r a ther u ndamag ed s t a te o f t he e dges . T he f a ir ly f r a i l d en t icu la te w ork ing e dge c ou ld n o t w ithstand t he p ressure f r om u se o n h ard mater ia ls l i ke t hese w ithout u ndergo ing s ome s ign if icant m icroch ipp ing .

Un mod if ied p lan t -work ing k n ives B ef ore d i scuss ing t he f unc t iona l p oss ib i l it ies o ft he m icrodent icu la tes Iw ou ld l i ke t oi n c lude s ome a dd i t iona l o bserva t ions o n p reh is tor ic p lant -kn ives f r om D enmark . 2 39

P late I:

S ca le 0 . 1 mm .

A M icrodent icu la ted e dge , c ontact s urface . B r ight , s mooth , s l ight ly f l a t p o l ish «c over » w ith s er ies o f v ague «v a l leys » ( arrow ) r unn ing p erpend icu lar t o t he e dge . O r ig . magn . 2 00X ( Neo l ith ic p iece ) .

«Wood l ike » p o l ish

o n

n on-contact

s urface o f m icrodent icu lated e dge . O r ig . magn . 2 00X ( Neo l ith ic p iece ) .

« F r ict ion

b eve l »t runcat ing t he v ery e dge

o ft he c ontact s urface o f ad ent icu lated e dge . O r ig . magn . 2 00X ( Neo l ith ic p iece ) .

2 40

D M icrodent icu late , c ontact s urface . B r ight p o l ish w ith s l ight p itt ing a nd s t r iat ions ( a rrows ) o r iented 4 5° t o t he a x is o ft he t oo l . O r ig . magn . 2 00X ( Neo l ith ic p iece ) .

E M icrodent icu late , c ontact s urface . B r ight p o l ish w ith e dge r ound ing a nd s t r iat ions p erpend icu lar t o t he e dge . O r ig . magn . 2 00X ( Neo l ith ic p iece ) .

F M icrodent icu late , c ontact s urface . r ound ing , p i t t ing a nd s t r ia t ions . O r ig . magn . 2 00X ( Neo l ith ic p iece ) .

2 41

E dge

P la te I I :S ca le 0 . 1 mm .

A -C M icrodent icu lated e dges , c ontact s urface . «H ide l ike » p o l ish w ith h eavy e dge r ound ing

a nd

p itt ing ,

a nd

s tr iat ions

o r iented p erpend icu lar t o t he e dge . T h is a bras ion i s p robab ly c aused b y g r it o r s o i l p ar t ic les . O r ig . magn . 2 00X ( Neo l i th i c p iece ) .

2 42

D -E R eed p o l ish o n n on -contact s urface o f e xper imenta l d ent icu lated p iece , u sed f o r s c rap ing f r esh r eeds f o r 11/ 2 h ours . T he p hotom icrographs w ere t aken i n t he a reas where t he p o l ish was most d eve loped . C ompare w ith P late IE ( non -contac t s ur face , N eo l i th ic d ent icu lated e dge ) . O r ig . magn . 2 00X .

F C ontact s urface o f t he s ame e xper imenta l p iece a s d ep icted i n P late I I D a nd E . S l ight ly f l at , b r ight a nd smooth p o l ish «c over » w ith v ague l i near d epress ions o r iented a t4 5 ° t ot he e dge ( a rrows ) . C ompare w ith P late I A . O r ig . magn . 2 00X .

2 43

P late I V:

S ca le 0 . 1 mm .

A E xper imenta l p iece ( unmod if ied e dge ) u sed f or p ee l ing a nd

d ress ing y oung w i l low

S ame p iece a s i n P late I V A . Wood p o l ish i n

t w ig s ( 85 t w ig s )f o r 31/ 2h ours . G ener ic w eak p o lish o n n on-contact s urface .

c entra l u se -area o ft he c onta ct s urface . N ote t he f a int s t r ia t ions p erpend icu lar t o t he e dge

P hotom icrog raph was t aken i n t he c entra l a rea o fu se . O r ig . magn . 2 00X .

( a rrows ) . O r ig . magn . 2 00X .

C -D E xamp les o fp o l ish t yp ica l ly s een o n t he n on -contact s urfaces o fu n mod if ied f l ake e dges . O r ig . magn . 2 00X ( La te Meso l ith ic p ieces ) .

E -F T yp ica l e xamp les o f p o l ish a nd a bras ion o bserved o n t he c ontact s urfaces o fu nmod i f ied f l ake e dges . O r ig . magn . 2 00X ( La te Meso l i th ic p ieces ) .

2 45

Ana lyses o f l i th ic ma ter ia l f r om v ar ious D an ish s i tes s how t hat t he s pec if ic u se w ear p attern r epresented b y t he d ent icu lates i s n ot c onf ined t o t h is p ar t icu lar morpho log ica l t ype . T he f unct ion p er s e r ecurs o n many u nmod if ied b lades a nd f l akes t hat a re f ound i n c ontexts wh ich a re o lder , c ontemporary w ith , a nd l ater t han , d ent icu lates . T hus , my o wn w ear s tud ies s how t ha t u nmod if ied p lant -work ing k n ives a re p resent a t s i tes a t l east a s e ar ly a s t he Meso l ith ic K ongemose Cu lture ( Jue l J ensen a nd B r inch P etersen 1 986 , J ue l J ensen 1 986 ) . T hey c ont inue t hrough t he E r teb0 l le p hase , t he E ar ly Neo l ith ic a nd w e l l i nto t he M idd le N eo l ith ic , a f ter d ent icu lates h ave d i sappeared ( Tab le 1 ) . Most o f t hese u nmod if ied i mp lements s hare o ne c o mmon t ra it , n ame ly a c urved e dge p ro f i le , a nd i ti sw ith in t h is n a tura l c oncav ity t hat t he p o l ish i s n orma l ly f ound ( f ig . 4 ) .

A

0

3 cm

F ig . 4 : Unmod if ied p lant -w ork ing b lades /f lakes . Meso l ith ic :A-B . Neo l ith ic :C-D .

2 46

Unmod if ied p lant -process ing k n ives i s ar e la t ive ly a bundant t o o l t ype a t s evera l Meso l ith ic s i tes . T hu s , i n t hree o f my s i te s amp les t he wh it t l ing o r s c rap ing o f p lant ma ter ia ls c ons t itu t es b e tween 8% a nd 1 3 %o ft he a c t iv i t ies c arr ied o u tw i th u nret ou ched b lades , wh i le a to ne s i te ,t he E rt e l : 10 1 1e k i t chenm idden , t h is p ar t i cu lar f unc t ion amount s t o 5 1 %( Jue l J ensen 1 986 ) .T he e x treme ly h igh f r equen cy a t E r te l :1 3 1 1e i sp robab ly s omewha t b ia sed: i n t h is p ar t icu la r i n s tance my s amp le w as d rawn f r om a c er ta in h ear th a rea i n t he s he l l m idden a nd i t may r e f lec t al o ca l ized a c t iv ity c omponen ta tt he s i te ( Ju e lJ ensen 1 986 , S .H . A ndersen a nd E . J ohansen 1 987 ) . I n g enera l t he w ear p a t terns o n t he Meso l i th ic s pec imens ( d en t icu la ted o r n ot ) c on f orm t o t he o nes o bse rved o n t he N eo l ith ic d ent icu lat es . H owever , a l though t he p o l ish i n most i ns tances i sv i s ib le t o t he n aked e ye , i tn ever q u i te r ea ches t he amount a nd i n tens ity s een o n t he N eo l i th ic w ork ing e dges ( P la te I V C -F ) . A t t he moment i ti sn ot c l ear t o me whether t hese d if erences b etween Meso l i th ic a nd N eo l i th ic s urface f e a tures 1 )a re d ue t ot he f a c tt ha ts l igh t ly d if erent ma ter ia ls w ere b e ing p rocessed o r2 )i f t he d ivergences r ef lec t d if erent s tages i n t he c ont inuum o f p o l ish d eve lopment , i nd ica t ing t he N eo l i th ic p i eces w ere u sed more i n tens ive ly o r f o r al onger p er iod o ft ime t han t he ir Meso l i th ic c ounterpar t s . Neo l i th ic u nmod if i ed p lan t k n ives d i sp lay a u se -wear p a tt ern t ha t i si d ent ica l t o t ha t o bserved o n d ent icu lat es — e ven d own t om inu te d e ta i ls . Wh i le t he d ent icu la tes a s a t ype d i sappear a t t he b eg inn ing o ft he M idd le N eo l i th ic ( MN I) ,t he u nret ou ched v ers ion c on t inues t ob e p resen t a tl e as tt ot he e nd o ft he M idd le N eo l i th ic , p er iod V ( MN V ) , wh ich c ons t i tutes t he t empora ll im i to f my s tud ies ( Tab le 1 ) . S ince e v ident ly t he c ontac t ma ter ia ls a nd k inema t ics a re i d ent ica l f o r t he t wo l i th ic t ypes , o ne c ou ld r easonab ly a sk w hy s ome w ork ing e dges a re d ent icu la ted wh i le o ther s a re n o t . One p oss ib le a nswer i st ha t as e rra ted e dge h as more o f a«r asp »e f ec t t han a n u nmod if ied o ne , b u t i n s evera l i n stances t he d en t i cu la t ion i ss o u npronounced t ha t i th ard ly c hanges t he n a tura l e dge o u t l ine . T hus , t he r eason f o r t h is t e chno log ica l d if erence h as n o t b een e luc ida ted b y means o fm icrowear . T he o n ly t h ing t ha t c an b e n ot ed i st ha tt he s cars f r om t he n ot ch r e tou ch a re a lways s i tua ted o nt he l e ad ing s i de o ft he e dg e , whether t h is i st he v en t ra lo rt he d orsa lf a ce o ft he t o o l( f ig . 3 ) .

CONCLUDING RE MARKS ON FUNCT ION Wha t w ere , t hen , t he p rec ise f unc t ions o ft hese i mp lemen t s? D esp it e t he f a c t t ha t t he D an ish b og s a nd s ubmerged s i t es h ave y i e lded i mpor tant i n s ights i nto t he r ang e a nd r i chness o ft he p er ishab le p a r t o f ma ter ia l c u l ture , Is ee n o a bso lute ly c onv inc ing s o lut ions among st t he a va i lab le o rgan ic a r tefacts f r om t he Me so l ith ic a nd N eo l i th i c p er iods . H owever , t wo p oss ib i l it ies o r c a tegor ies o f ma ter ia l h ave b een i nves t iga ted , n ame ly: 1 ) w ickerwork f i sh t raps a nd 2 ) s t r ing s f o r n e ts , c arry ing b ag s a nd f abr ics . I n t he c ase o f t he Meso l ith ic s i te o f E r te l : 30 1 1e , t he a ssoc ia t ion b etween f i shtrap p roduct ion a nd a t l e ast u nmod if ied p lant k n ives i s e spec ia l ly t emp t ing . A s a l ready n o ted , a n u nusua l ly l a rg e n umber o fp lant -work ing i mp lements w ere i d ent if ied a t t h is p ar t icu lar l o ca t ion . I nde ed , t he f i sh b one r ema ins s ugges t i n tens ive c a t ch ing o ff r esh 2 47

wa ter e l , p robab ly b y means o f t raps ( S .H . A ndersen a nd E . J ohansen 1 987 , B odker E nghof f1 987 ) . We s ee t ha t t he t ype o ff i sh t raps e ncount ered i n D an ish Meso l i th ic a nd N eo l i th ic s i tes a re t yp ica l ly made f r om u npee led t w ig s , b ound t ogether b y s p l it a nd d ressed p ine r oo ts o rl ime t w ig s ( Becker 1 941 , K ape l 1 969 , B r inkhu izen 1 986 ) ;t he l a t ter a re p oss ib le c and ida tes f o r t he u se o ft he p lan t -kn ives . H owever , e xper imen ta l w ork d oes n o t s peak i nf avour o ft h is , b ecau se t he p o l ish p rodu ced b y t he w ork ing o ff r esh t w ig s d oes n o t s e em t oa t ta in t he s ame a ppea rance a nd d eg ree o fd eve lopmen t a s e ncoun tered o n t he p reh is tor ic f l in t w ork ing e dges ( s ee a bove ) . A no ther p oss ib le i n terpre ta t ion o ft he f unc t ion o ft he m icroden t icu la tes c ou ld b e f o r t he w ork ing o ff i bres . T h is i d ea i sp ar t icu lar i ly a t t ra ct ive o n t he b as is o f as e r ies o fr ecen t p ub l ica t ions o n p reh istor ic D an ish f i nds o f c ords , n et s a nd f abr ics made f r om p lan t f i bres ( f ig . 5 ) ( S .H . Andersen 1 986 , B enn ike e ta l . 1 986 , B ender J orgensen 1 987 ) . F ur thermore , t he s t r ing a nd t ex t i le r ema ins i n q ues t ion a re d a ted t ot he L a te Meso l i th i c a nd E ar ly N eo l ith ic , wh ich makes t hem c onte mporary w ith t he a ppearance o f d ent icu la ted p ieces . I n t he f ew i ns tances where t he p reh is tor ic s t r ingwork c ou ld b e i d ent if ied a s a ny th ing more s pec if i c t han «p lant f i bre » ,t he ma ter ia l was d e t erm ined t o b e l ime o r w i l low b ast ( c f . B enn ike e ta l . 1 986 ) . T h is u nf or tuna te ly c rea tes p rob lems i d ent ica l t ot he o nes e ncount ered i n t he e xper imen ta l s c rap ing o ft w ig s a nd r oots , s i n ce , a tl e as ti n my p r esen t e xper ience , t he w ork ing o fl ime o rw i l low b as tn ever c r ea tes a w ea r p a t tern e xceed ing ah eavy , b u t t yp ica l «w ood -po l ish » .

0

1

3 cm

2

F ig . 5 : F ragment s o ff abr ic ( p lant f i bre ) f r om t he L a te Meso l ith ic s i te o fT ybr ind V ig ( a f ter S .H . A ndersen 1 986 ) .

2 48

T hus t he e xact f unct ions o f t he p lant -work ing k n ives i n g enera l a nd t he d en t icu lated p ieces i n p ar t icu lar r ema in a n o pen q uest ion . B ecause o f t he s pec if ic a t t r ibu tes o ft he p o l ishes d escr ibed a bove , Iam c onv inced t ha t w e a re d ea l ing w i th t he w ork ing o fh igh ly s i l iceou s p lant s t ems l i ke r eeds o r r u shes . T heref ore a c t iv i t ies l i ke t he p r epara t ion o f ma ter ia l f o r b aske ts a nd f i bres a re l i ke ly s o lu t ions wh ich mer it f ur ther i nves t igat ion a nd e xper imenta l w ork . I th as b een a rgued t ha t , a tb es t , m i crowear g ives u s o n ly s ome i d ea a bou t a c t iv i t ies c arr ied o u t i n p reh is tory . F unc t iona l s tud ies o f l i th ics may p rov ide u s w ith l i s ts o f «w orked mat er ia ls »a tt he v a r ious s i t es , b u tt hey d o n o tp erm i tu st od eterm ine i ft he t o o l i n q ues t ion w as u sed t o «f a sh ion a b ow , t o make a t rap , t o s hape a d igg ing s t ick . . . » ( P r i ce 1 978: 9 5 ) . T h is o b serva t ion i sc e r ta in ly a c curat e a nd i si lu s tra ted b y t he p resen t a na lys is . Thus , a l though o ne may b e a b le t o d eterm ine t ha t t he d ent icu la tes a nd u nmod if ied f l akes d i s cussed i n t h is s tudy w ere u sed f o r p rocess ing s i l iceous p lan t s t ems , i t i s d i ff icu lt t o g et b eyond t he g enera l c l iché o f «ma tmak ing , b asketmak ing a nd s t r ingmak ing » . H owever ,a l though w e may n ot b ea b le t op in d own t he s pec if ic u se o ft he d ent icu la tes a nd o ther p lant -work ing k n ives , t he f unct iona l s tudy o f t he ir w ork ing e dges h as e l u c ida t ed t wo i mpor tan tp o int s :f i rs t , i th as b een e s tab l ished t ha tt hese i mp lement s w ere n o t u sed f or c u t t ing c e rea l g ra in a s t r ad it iona l ly t hought . S econd , t he r esu lts o f t he m i crowear a na lys is d o d raw o ur a t ten t ion t o t he e x istence a nd o bv ious i mpor tance o f c e r ta in c raf t t e chno log ies o therw ise i nv is ib le i n t he a rchaeo log ica l r ecord . T h is i n i t se lf i se s sent ia l -b ecause Id o n o tt h ink t ha tw e c an b e r em inded t o o o f t en o ft he f a ct t ha t t he S t one A ge was more t han l i th ic s , p o t s a nd e d ib les .

ACKNO WLEDGE MENTS T h is w ork h as b een f unded b y t he C ar lsberg F ounda t ion . It hank S oren H . A ndersen , N ie ls H . A ndersen , T ors ten Madsen a nd J orgen S kärup f o r g enerous ly mak ing t he ir mater ia l , t he ir t ime a nd t he ir k now ledge a va i lab le t o me . W i thou t t he ir h e lp a nd c o -opera t ion t h is c ou ld n o t h ave b een p oss ib le . I am i ndebted t o P a tr ic ia A nderson -Ger f aud a nd P a t r ick V aughan f o r s har ing t he ir e xper ience w i th a nd i ns igh ts i n t o p lant p o l ishes w ith m e . Iw ou ld l i ke t o t hank P a t r ic ia Anderson -Ger faud , S oren H . Andersen a nd T ors ten Madsen f o r h e lpfu l c omments o n t he f i rst d raf ts o f t h is manuscr ipt .

NOTES ( 1 )

A tt he moment i ti sn o te n t ire ly c l ear whe ther t h is d i s t r ibu t ion l im i ted t ot he Wes ti s r ea l o r i fm icroden t i cu la tes h ave b een s imp ly o ver looked i n t he E astern D an ish mater ia l .

( 2 )

T he n umber o f p i eces e xam ined f r om e ach s i te a re a s f o l lows :Neol i thic : Mosegärden :1 3 , S tengade I : 1 4 , S tengade I : 1 7 , T of tum . : 6 8 , Hans tedgärd :2 , T ro ldeb jerg :5 ,S arup :3 4 . Meso l i th ic: R ingk los ter: 3 6 , N orsm inde :2 .

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BIBLIOGRAPHY ANDERSEN , ( N .H . ) , 1 981 .- S arup :b ef i estede n eo l it iske a n lf f lg o g d eres b aggrund . Kum l 1 980 . C openhagen :6 3 -103 . ANDERSEN , ( N .H . ) a nd MADSEN , ( T . ) , 1 978 .- S kä le o g bg re med s t orv inke lbänd f r a y ng re s t ena lder . Kum l 1 977 . C openhagen: 1 31 -160 . ANDERSEN , ( S .H .) , 1 975 .- R ingk loster . E n j ysk i nd landsbop lads med E rt ebo l leku ltur . Kum l 1 973 -74 . C openhagen :1 1 -108 . ANDERSEN , ( S .H . ) , 1 986 .- T ybr ing V ig . A P re l im inary R eport o n aS ub merged E r tebo l le S et t lement o n t he West C oas t o f F yn . J ourna l o f Dan i sh A rchaeo logy , v o l4 ,1 985 :5 2 -69 . ANDERSEN , ( S .H .) , i n p ress .- Norsm inde . E in Musche lhauf en m it s pä ter E rtebö l le u nd f rüher r hichterbeckerku ltur . V or läuf iger B er icht . ( t o a ppear i n Of a Bücher ) . ANDERSEN , ( S .H . ) a nd JOHANSEN , ( E . ) , 1 987 .- E r tebo l le R ev is ited . J ourna l o f Dan ish A rchaeo logy , v o l 5 ,1 986 :3 1 -61 . ANDERSON , ( P . ) , 1 980 .- A T est imony o f P reh istor ic T asks: d iagnos t ic R es idues o n S tone T oo l Work ing E dges . Wor ld A rchaeo logy , 1 2 ,2: 1 81 -94 . ANDERSON -GERFAUD , ( P . ) , 1 981 .- C on tr ibu t ion Mahodo log ique ä l ' Ana lyse d es Micro traces d 'U t i l isa t ion s ur l e s Ou t i ls P rO x is tor iques . Th se d e 3 e c y c le . Un ivers ite d e B ordeaux I ,T a lence n ° 1 607 . ANDERSON -GERFAUD , ( P . ) , 1 982 .- C omment p rec iser l ' ut i l isa t ion a g r ico le d es o u t i ls p reh istor iques ?C ah ier d e l ' Euphra te , n o .3 :1 49 -64 . ANDERSON -GERFAUD , ( P . ) , 1 983 .- A C ons idera t ion o ft he U ses o fC er ta in B acked a nd L ustred S tone T oo ls f r om t he L a te Meso l i th ic a nd Natuf ian L eve ls o fA bu Hurey ra a nd Mureybet ( Syr ia ) . T races d 'u t i l isa t ion s ur l e s o u t i ls e n p ierr e n 6o l i th iques ( Proche -Or ien t ) . T ravaux d e l a Ma ison d e l ' Or ient 5 . , L yon: 7 7 -105 . BECKER , ( C .J . ) , 1 941 .- F und a f Ruser f raDanmarks S tena lder . Aarbog er f or Nord i sk O ldkynd ighed o g H is tor ie: 1 31-149 . BENDER JORGENSEN , ( L . ) , 1 987 .- T he s t r ing f r om S igersda l Mose . J ourna l o f Dan i sh A rchaeo logy , v o l 5 ,1 986 :1 05 -106 . BENN I KE , ( P . ) , EBBESEN , ( K . ) a nd BENDER JORGENSEN , ( L . ) , 1 986 .- E ar ly n eo l ith ic s ke letons f r om B o lk i lde b og , D enmark . An t iqu i ty , LX , 1 986 :1 99 -209 . BR INKHU IZEN , ( D .C . ) , 1 986 .- S ome n otes o n r ecen t a nd p re - a nd p rot oh istor ic f i sh ing g ear f r om N or thwestern E urope .P a laeoh is tor ia , 2 5 , 1 983 :7 -53 . BODKER ENGHOFF , ( I . ) , 1 987 .- F reshwater F ish ing f r om a S ea -Coast S e t t lement . T he E rtebo l le L ocus C lass icus R ev is ited . J ourna l o f Dan ish Archaeo logy , v o l 5 , 1 986 :6 2 -76 .

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CLARKE , ( D .L . ) , 1 986 .— Meso l ith ic E urope: t he e conom ic b as is . P rob lems i n E conom ic a nd S oc ia l A rcha eo logy , e d ited b y G . S ievek ing , J . L ongworth a nd K . Wi lson . L ondon . Duckwor th: 4 44 -81 . ER IKSEN , ( P . ) a nd MADSEN , ( T . ) , 1 984 .— Hanstedgärd . AS et t lement f r om t he F unne l B eaker Cu lture . J ourna l o f Dan ish A r chaeo logy , v o l 3 ,1 984 :6 3 -82 . F ISHER , ( C . ) , 1 976 .— T id l ig -neo l it iske a n leg v ed Rust rup . Kum l 1 975 . C openhagen: 2 9 7 1 . JUEL JENSEN , ( H . ) , 1 986 .— Unretouched B lades i n t he l a te Meso l ith ic o f S ou th S cand inav ia . AF unct iona l S tudy . O xf ord J ourna l o fA r chaeo logy , 5( 1 ) :1 9 -33 . JUEL JENSEN , ( H . ) a nd BR INCH PETERSEN , ( E . ) , 1 986 .— A F unct iona l S tudy o f L ith ics f r om Veoge t Nord , a Meso l ith ic S i te a t V edbek , N .E . S je l land . J ourna l o f Dan ish A rchaeo log y , v o l 4 ,1 985 :4 0 -51 . KAPEL ,

( H . ) , 1 969 .— E n b op lads f ra t id l ig -at lant isk t id v ed V i l l ingeb k . F ra

Na t iona lmusee ts A rbe jdsmark :8 5 -94 . KEELEY , ( L .H . ) , 1 980 .— E xper imen ta l D e term ina t ion o fS tone T oo l U ses :A M icrowear Ana lys is . Ch icago . L IVERSAGE , ( D ) , 1 981 .— Neo l ith ic Monuments a t L inneb jerg , N or thwest Z ea land . A c ta A rchaeo log ica , v o l 5 1 , 1 980 :8 5 -152 . MADSEN ,

( T . ) ,

1 978 .— T of tum

v ed

Horsens .

E t «b ef E estet » a n leg t i lhorende

T rag tbegerku ltu ren . Kum l 1 977: 1 61 -184 . MADSEN , ( T . ) a nd JUEL J ENSEN , ( H . ) , 1 982 .— S et t lement a nd L and U se i n E ar ly N eo l ith ic D enmark . Ana lec ta P raeh is tor ica L e idens ia XV :6 3 -86 . MADSEN , ( T . ) a nd P ETERSEN , ( J .E . ) , 1 984 .— T id l igneo l it iske a n leg v ed Mosegärden . R eg iona le o g k rono log iske f o rske l le it i d l igneo l it ikum . Kum l 1 982 -83 :6 1-115 . MOSS , ( E . ) , 1 983 .— T he F unc t iona l Ana lys is o fF l in t I mp lemen ts . P inceven t a nd P on t d 'Ambon :t wo C ase S tud ies f rom t he F r ench F ina l P a laeo l i th ic . O xf ord . B .A .R . , I nterna t iona l S er ies 1 77 . OS WALT , (W .H . ) , 1 973 .— Hab i ta t a nd T echno logy . T he E vo lu t ion o f Hun t ing . Monog raph . N ew -York , H o lt , R inehar t a nd W iston . PR ICE , ( D .T . ) , 1 978 .— Meso l ith ic s et t lement s ystems i n t he N ether lands . T he Ear ly P os tg lac ia l S e t t lemen t o f Nor thern Europe , e d ited b y P . Me l lars :8 1-113 . SKÄRUP , ( J . ) , 1 975 .— S tengade . E in l ang e länd ischer Wohnp la tz m i t Hausr es te a us d er f rühneo l i t ischen Z eit . Monograph . Medde le lser f ra L ange lands Museum . Rudkob ing . VAUGHAN , ( P . ) , 1 985 .— U se -wear a na lys is o ff l aked s t one t oo ls . T ucson , A r izona .

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WINTHER , ( J . ) , 1 935 .— T ro ldebj erg . En b ymxss ig B ebygge lse I ra Danmarks Yngr e S tena lder . Rudkob ing . WITTHOFT , ( J . ) , 1 967 .— G lazed P o l ish o n F l int T oo ls . Amer ican An t iqu i ty 3 2 (3 ) :3 53 5 8 .

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PATTERNS OF TOOL USE T he m icrowear a na ly s is o ft he q uar t za nd f l int a ssemb lage f rom t he B jur se le ts i te ,V äs terbo t ten , Nor thern Sweden .

K NUTSSO N K * , DA HLQ U IST B . *, K N UTSSO N H .*

ABSTRACT:

Th is a r t ic le p resen ts t he r esu lts o f am icrowear a na lys is o ft he q uar tz a nd f l in t a ssemb lage f r om t he l a te m idd le n eo l ith ic s e t t lemen t s i t e B jurse le t i n n or thern Sweden . I n af i rs t s ect ion a c lass if ica t ion , u s ing c omputer ised i mage a na lys is o f m icroscop ic s urface a l tera t ions o n e xper imen ta l ly u sed f l in t t o o l s ur fa ces , i sd i scussed . I ti sc onc luded t ha t v ar ia t ion i n f l in t s urf ace t ex ture c aused b y f l in t t oo ls b e ing u sed o n d if eren tr aw ma ter ia ls i sp resen ti n t he a na lysed i mages , a nd t ha tt hese v ar ia t ions t hu s may b e s epara t ed b yt he u se o ft he a ppl ied t ex ture measures . At e s ts e to f s ur fa ce t ex tures o n ar andom s amp le o f f l int t oo ls a nd f l akes f r om t he B jurse le t s i te i s f ur ther a na lysed , u s ing t he k nown , e xper imen ta l ly p roduced s et o f t ex tures a s a c oro l lary . T he c ompu ter ised c l ass if icat ion i sc ompa red t o a manua l i nspect ion a nd c l ass if ica t ion o ft he s ame s e t o f t oo ls a nd f l akes . S im i lar it ies a nd d i screpanc ies b e tween t he t wo a pproa ches a re d i scussed a nd e va lua ted . I n t he l ater s e ct ion a m icrowea r a na ly s is b ased o n t he v i sua l i nspect ion o fq uar tz a nd f l in tt o o ls f rom t he B jurse le t s i te i su sed t oe va lua t e t he p r in c ip les a pp l ied t ot he s e lec t ion o fu sab le f l akes b y t he f o rmer s e t t lers o ft he s i te . I ti sc on c luded , b yr ef erence a l so t ot he t e chno log ica l c r iter ia o ft he f l aked a ssemb lage , t ha t t he i n troduc t ion o ff l in t t o Väs terbo t ten i n N or thern Sweden c a 1 800 BC , i lustrated b y s evera l «c a ches » o f t h ick -bu t ted f l intadzes d id n ot b r ing w ith i t a ny a r cha eo log ica l ly o bservab le n ew c on cep tf o rt oo l p rodu ct ion a nd u se . R ESUME : C e t a r t ic le p resen te l e sr 6su lta ts d ' une a na lyse d e m icro -usure d e l ' a ssemb lage d e q uar tz e td e s i lex d u s i te n 6o lo th ique moyen t ard if d e B jurse let e n S uede d u n ord . Un p rem ier c hap it re d i scute dune c lass if ica t ion u t i l isan t u ne a na lyse p ar i mages i nf orma t is6es d 'a lt 6ra t ions s uper f ic ie l les m icroscop iques s ur d es s urf a ces d ' ou t i ls e n s i lex u t i l is6es e xper imenta lement . On c onc lu t q u 'une v ar ia t ion d e l a t ex ture s uper f ic ie l le d u s i lex , c aus6e p a r u ne u t i l isa t ion d es o u t i ls d e s i lex s ur d if erentes ma t ieres b rut es , e s t p r6sent e d ans l e s i mages a na lys6es e t q ue c es v ar ia t ions p euven t a ins i e t re d egagees s i I on u t i l ise l e s mesures d e t ex ture a pp l iqu6es . On a na lyse e nsu ite u n e nsemb le t es t d e t ex tures s up er f ic ie l les s ur u n 6 chan t i l lon p r is a u h asa rd d ' ou t i ls e td ' 6 c la ts d e s i lex p rovenant d u s i te d e B ju rse let , e n u t i l isant e n c oro l la ire l ' ensemb le d e t ex tures c onnu , p rodu it e xper imenta lement . L a c l ass if ica t ion i nf orma t isee e s t c omparde a u ne c lass if ica t ion manue l le d u meme e nse mb le d ' ou t i ls e t d ' 6c la ts . On d i scu te e t o n 6 va lue l e s s im i l itudes e t l e s 6 car ts e n tre l e s d eux a ppro ches . Au c hap i tre s u ivant o n u t i l ise u ne a na lyse d e m icro -usure , f ond6e s ur l ' examen v isue l l d ' out i ls d e q uar tz e t d e s i lex d u s i te d e B jurse le t , p our 6 va luer l e s p r inc ipes a pp l iqués ä l a s e le ct ion d ' 6c la ts u t i l isab les p ar l e s p rem iers o ccupants d u s i te . On c onc lu t , e n s e r 6 ferant 6 ga lement a ux c r iteres t e chno log iques d e l ' assemb lage d eb ite , q ue l ' in troduct ion d e s i lex a Väs terbo t ten e n S uede d u n o rd v ers 1 800 a y . J . -C . , i lus tr6e p ar p lus ieurs «c a ches »d ' herm ine t tes d e s i lex ä p o ign6e 6 pa isse , n ' appor ta p a s d e n ouve l le n o t ion a rch6o log iquement o bservab le s ur l a p rodu c t ion e tl ' usage d es o u t i ls .

D ep t . o fA rcha eo logy , U n iv er s i ty o fU pp sa la , S ud e D ep t . o fS ta t i s t ic sa nd I mage Ana ly s i sL abora tory , Un iver s i ty o fU ppsa la , S i ck l e .

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B JURSELET 4 -1

R ive r

P resent c oas t l ine

5 0 m .c oas t l ine 2 000 B .C .

F ig l a:

Map o fn or thern Sweden . L oca l isa t ion o fB jurse let s i te .

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I NTRODUCT ION T he f i nds o f s evera l «c aches » ,c ons is t ing p r imar i ly o f u npo l ished t h ick -bu t ted f l in t a dzes , i nt he c oa s ta l r eg ion o ft he p rov ince o fV äs terbo t ten i n n or thern Sweden i sb y mos t a rchaeo log ists s e en a s t he r esu lt o f a n i mm ig rat ion b y p eop les o f s ou th S cand inav ian o r ig in t ot h is r eg ion i n t he l a te m idd le N eo l i th ic . P eop les b e long ing t o t he P i t ted Ware c u ltura l t r ad i t ion ( Becker 1 954 ) o r t ot he B a t t le A xe t rad i t ion a re b e l ieved t o h ave b een r espons ib le f o r ac o lon isa t ion o f t he a rea , p robab ly i n troduc ing a f arm ing e c onomy a nd a n ima l h u sbandry ( Ma lmer 1 975; C hr ist iansson 1 965; B roadbent 1 982 , 1 984 ;B er twa l l1 985 ) . I fw e a ssume t ha t «s o c ie t ies »o r g roups o fp eop les i n r egu lar f a ce t of a ce c on ta ct d ev e lop s im i lar n orms f o r t he p rodu c t ion a nd u se o fs t one t o o ls , t he i n t roduc t ion o f an ew «p eop le » a s e v idenced b y f l int «c aches » s hou ld a l so i nvo lve t he i n troduc t ion o f n ew a nd d i f f erent «n orms »f o r t oo l p rodu c t ion a nd u se i n c oas ta l V ästerbot ten . T hus t he i mm igrat ion t heory may b e e va lua ted b y u s ing t he p roposed r e la t ionsh ip b etween «c u l ture »a nd n orms a s ac o ro l lary . I n t h is s tudy t he u se o f u nmod if ied f l akes f o r t oo ls w i l l b e p r imar i ly d i scussed; o bserva t ions o ft e chno log i ca l v ar ia t ion w i l l b e c ons idered t o al e sser e x tent ( t h is w i l l b e d i s cu ssed e l sewhere ;K nu t sson i n p rep ) . T he m ethodo log ica l a pproach i se xper imen ta l , w here t he m i croscop ic o bserva t ion o fu se w ear t ra ces ( s ee K ee ley 1 980 ) i su sed a s t he p r imary o bserva t iona l t o o l . O n t he b as is o fa c tua l s tud ies i ti sa nt ic ipat ed t ha t t he u se o f f l aked s t ones f o r t o o ls i n p reh is tor ic t imes c r ea ted o b servab le w ear t r aces o n t hese t o o l e dg es . T he «method »( m icrowear a na lys is ) e mp loyed h ere h as t o d a te b een a pp l ied t o s evera l ma ter ia ls f r om p reh is tor ic a ssemb lages , a nd i t s u t i l i ty f o r measur ing «s t one t o o l u se »h as b een r easonab ly w e l l d emons t ra ted ( K ee ley 1 980 , V aughan 1 981 , A nderson 1 981 , Knu tsson 1 982 , Moss 1 983 ) . T he B jurse le t s i te , w ith f i nds o fa dze «c aches »a s w e l l a s e x cava ted f l ak ing d eb i tage o fb o th q uar tz a nd f l int , i st he o n ly s i te i n t he a rea w e l l s u i ted t ot h is t ype o fa na lys is . T he s i te ma ter ia l w as e x cava ted d ur ing t he y ears 1 962 -1968 , a nd i tc onta ined c oncentrat ions o f q uar t z a nd f l in t d eb itage a s w e l l a s b urned a n ima l b ones ( mos t ly r i ng ed s ea l ) . T he ma ter ia l w as f ound d epos ited t ogether i n h eaps o ff i re -cracked r o ck a nd h as b een p rov is iona l ly i n terpre t ed a sr efu se h eaps l e f tb yt he p reh is tor ic s e t t ler s o ft he s i te . T he s e t t lement ma ter ia l was d i spersed i n s ma l l ish c l us ters o ver a c urren t ly c u l t iva ted , s andy r i ver t e r ra ce ( f ig . 1b ,c ) . T he e x cava t ion w as c ar r ied o u tu s ing a2x2m g r id f o r t he r e covery o f c u ltura l d ebr is . A c ompu ter s o f tware s ystem f o r d i sp lays o f s pa t ia l ly d i s tr ibu ted d a ta w as u sed t oc r eat e c on tour maps o ft he s i te ,b ased o n t he n umber o fa r t if a cts a nd b ones r e c overed i n e ach e xcava ted u n i t ( Sampson 1 978 ) . T he d i s t r ibu t ion maps t hus c r ea ted , r evea led t ha tf l aked f l int a nd q uar tz a s w e l l a sb urned b ones c l ust ered t oge ther i n d i s crete u n i t s o ver t he s urf ace . Twenty u n i ts w ere s e lec ted f o r c ompar ison . N ine u n its c onta ined f l aked q uar t z a nd f l in t , t h ir teen u n it s w ere c hara c ter ised b y f l aked q ua r t z o n ly . I tw i l l b e a ssumed t ha tt he «f l in t -u s ing »g roup —t he «n ew »s e t t lers f r om s ou thern S cand inav ia — d epos i t ed t h e f l int c l u st ers ;c onsequen t ly t hese —i ft he i n i t ia l a ssumpt ion i s c or rect — w i l l p rov ide e v idence o f a «d if eren t »t o o l u s ing b ehav iour i n c ompar ison w i th t he q uar tz — u s ing g roups r epresented b y t he p ure q uar tz c oncentra t ions . T h is s i tua t ion s hou ld i n i t s t u rn a f ec t t he t ype a nd d i s tr ibu t ion o fm icrowear t races f ound o n b o th f l in ta nd q uar t z a r t ef a c t si nt he c l u s ters .

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F ig l b :T he B jurse let s e t t lement d ur ing e xcava t ion i n 1 965 . Most s e t t lement ma t er ia l was f ound d i spersed i n d i scre te c l us ters o ver t he s andy r i ver t e r ra ce s een h ere . P hoto : Hans C hr is t iansson

F ig . l c :Mos t o ft he s e t t lemen t ma ter ia l w as f ound i nh eaps o ff i re -cra cked r o ck , s u ch a s t he o ne i lus trat ed h ere . P ho to : H ans C hr is t iansson .

PART ONE :MICROWEAR ANALYSIS :THE FLINT ASSE MBLAGE Ar andom s amp le o f1 0 % o fa l l f l int f l akes , r epresent ing t he 9 d if eren t c lu st ers c onta in ing f l int w ith in t he s i te ( c ompare a bove ) , w as t aken f r om t he a ssemb lage . F u r ther , a l l s e conda r i ly m od if ied p i eces ( «s c rapers » )o ff l in t w ere a dded t o t h is s amp le . T hese p ieces , 1 05 i n a l l , w ere s ub ject ed t o am icrowear a na lys is , whereby s ur face f ea tu res o f t he f l int w ere s canned i n a n i nc iden t l i ght m icroscope a t magn if i ca t ions r ang ing b e tween 2 00x a nd 4 00x . A l l p i eces d amaged b y f i re ( 2 1 p ieces ) w ere e xc luded f r om t he s amp le b ef ore a na lys is . T he a na lysed p ieces w ere c l ass if ied i n to «f unct iona l »g roups u s ing a ccepted d ef in i t ions o f w ear f ea tur es , i . e . «w ood -work ing » , «h ide -work ing » e t c . ( Kee ley 1 980 , Knu t sson 1 982 ) .T he a na lys is b ased o n v i sua l i n spec t ion r evea led t ha t o n ly «f ew » t ra ces o f u se w ere p resen t o n t he p i eces a nd t ha t s urface a l tera t ions c aused b y p os t d epos i t iona l p rocesses w ere f r equent . B ef ore d i scuss ing t hese r esu lts i n d eta i l a nd e va lua t ing t he c u ltura l s i gn if icance o f t he o bserva t ions , ad if erent , c omp lemen tary a na ly t ica l a pproach w i l l b e i n troduced t o s t reng then t he i n terpreta t ive l eve l o f t he a na ly s is . T he manua l i nspec t ion a nd c l ass if ica t ion o f w ear f ea tures i n troduced a bove i s b ased o n t he a ssump t ion t ha t i n p reh istor ic t imes f l int t oo ls w ere p ut t o v ar ious u ses ( wh i t t l ing w ood , s l i c ing m ea t , c u t t ing v ege tab le ma ter ia l e t c . ) . I ti sb e l ieved t ha tt he w ear p a t terns t hus p rodu ced d if er s i gn if i can t ly f r om e a ch o ther . T h is h as b een d emons tra ted e xper imenta l ly ( K ee ley 1 980 ;V aughan 1 981 ;A nderson 1 981 ;K nu t sson 1 982 ;Mos s 1 983 e t c . ) ;v ar iat ions i nf l in t s ur fa ce t ex ture o n e xper imen ta l t oo ls ( smooth , r ough , p i t ted e t c . ) h ave b een s hown t ob e p os i t ive ly c or re la ted t ov ar ia t ions i n w orked mat er ia ls . T he u sua l me thod f or e va lua t ing a nd c l ass if y ing u se w ear p o l ishes i s , a s ment ioned a bove , b y m ic ros cop ic i nspec t ion a nd s ubsequent d escr ipt ion a nd c l ass if ica t ion o f t he f l int t o o l s ur f a ces . The c ons is ten cy o f c l ass if ica t ions i n t h is manua l a pproa ch c an b e s er ious ly q ues t ioned . A more o b jec t ive method f o r measurement o f t ex ture v ar iat ion ( po l ish s ur f a ces ) w ou ld b e o fi n te re s t , t os e ef i rs to fa l l w he ther t he e xper imenta l r esu l t sa re v a l id , t hen i ft hey a re ,t od ef ine o b serva t ions o np reh is tor ic s pec imens more a ccura te ly . I t was t hu s d ec ided i nt h is a pp l ica t ion o ft he m ethod t ot r y t oc orre lat e t he manua l c l as s if i ca t ion o f «p o l ishes »o n t he f l in t f l akes o ft he B jurse let s i te w ith a c omput er ised i mag e a na lys is , b ased o n d ig it ised p i c tu res o f «w ear » e va luated b y g l oba l t ex ture mea su res ( s ee a l so D ah lqu is t a nd K nu tsson 1 985 , G ra ce e ta l 1 985 ) . T he t wo a na ly ses w ere c onducted i ndependen t ly . T o t h is e nd , am inor s amp le o f 8«s c rapers »a nd 7f l akes was t aken f r om t he 1 0 % s amp le o f f l int a r tefac ts . T he c ompu ter ised i mage a na lys is i nc luded t wo s t eps . F ir st as e t o fe xper imenta l ly p roduced w ear p a t terns ( 3 2 i mages ) w a s c l a ss if ied u s ing a ppropr ia te g l oba l t ex ture mea su res .Second ly t he t e s t s e t c ons ist ing o f3 0 d ig i t ised i mages f r om t he s ubset ( 15 p i eces o f f l int ) w as c l ass if ied i n ac ompara t ive a na ly s is .

THE IMAGE ANALYSIS Ma themat ica l c l ass if ica t ion o f e xper imen ta l ly p roduced s ur faces I n t he f i e ld o f c ompu ter ised i mage a na lys is , where k now ledge o f p a t terns a nd p a t te rn c hara c ter is t ics h ave b een d eve loped i n t he l a s t d ecade , s ome methods h ave b een

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emp loyed t o d ef ine s urface t ex tures . T he s urface t ex tured m icrowear «p o l ishes »a re e ssent ia l ly o f a q ua l ita t ive n ature , wh ich makes t he u se o f c onvent iona l l o ca l measu remen t su nsu i tab le . I ns tead , g l oba lt ex tu re mea sures c an b ee mp loyed . T he ma ter ia l a na lysed h ere c ons isted o f3 2 i mag es o fp o l ish s urf aces b e long ing t o e xper imenta l ly i ndu ced w ear p a t terns o n f l in t t o o ls made f r om f l int o ft he s ame t ex tu re a s t ha tf ound i n t he p reh is tor ic a ssemb lage f r om B ju r se let ( Senon ian f l in tf r om S a l lerup , S can ia ;Rudebeck 1 986 ) . T hese p o l ishes w ere i nduced b y u s ing o ft he e xper imenta l t o o ls f o r h a lf a n h our . E a ch i mage i n t he s e t b e longed t o o ne o ft he f o l low ing g roups: u nused ( 5 ) , p lan t ( 5 ) , a nt ler ( 5 ) , b one ( 6 ) ,h ide ( 5 )o rw ood ( 6 ) . I n a dd i t iona l w e h ad a to ur d i sposa l t he s e t o f 3 0 i mages f r om t o o l e dges o f as ubse t o f 1 5 t o o ls t aken f r om t he B jur se le t a ssemb lage . T hese a r tefacts h ad f i rs t b een a ssesed t rad it iona l ly b y manua l v i sua l i n spec t ion . On e ach o ft hese p i c tures a d ig i t ised i mag e 5 12 x5 12 p ixe ls i n s i ze w i th 2 56 g r ey l e ve ls was p roduced . T he magn if ica t ion o ft he o r ig ina l p i c tures w as 4 00x a nd t h is makes t he p ixe l r eso lu t ion i n t he d ig i ta l i mag es a pprox ima te ly 0 . 05 m icromet res . T he i mages w ere s canned w i th t he Hasse lb lad O S IR IS S canner l o ca ted a t t he R oya l I nst i tu te o f T echno logy , D ep t o fP hys ics I V , S tockho lm . A l l f ur ther a na lys is was d one a t t he I mage A na lys is L aborat ory , Uppsa la Un ivers ity , u t i l iz ing aVAX h os t c ompu ter a nd t he i mage a na lys is s ystem I L IAD ( Er iksson e t a l 1 984 ) . E x tens ive FORTRAN p rog ramm ing a l so t ook p lace . T he s ta t ist ica l a na lys is w as c arr ied o u t w ith t he a id o f t he BMPD ( 1 981 ) s of tware p a ckag e .

T he p o l ishes T he u se -wear p o l ish c haract er is t ics p rodu ced b y u se o n d if erent r aw ma ter ia ls c an b e v erba l ly d escr ibed a s f o l lows . B one ma ter ia l r esu l ts i n a smoo th s urface w i th d eve loped l i nea r i ty a nd i r regu lar c rack f o rma t ion . T he u nused f l int s ur f a ce e xh ib i t s a r egu lar s urface t ex ture c haracter ised b y «t i ny » q uar tz c rysta ls . Work ing d ry h ide l e aves a s moo thed b u t p i t ted s u rf a ce . T oo l s ur fa ce i nf r i c t iona l c onta ct w i th w ood e xh ib i t s as mooth s urfa ce w ith marked u ndu la t ions . P lant p o l ish i sc harac ter ised b y i t s e x tr eme s moo thness . V ar ia t ions i n s urf ace t exture c aused b y v a r iab le ma ter ia l c ond it ions a nd t ime o f u se a re e xper imenta l ly d ocumented . T hese p arameters a re , h owever , n ot c ons idered h ere . B y l o ok ing a t t he d i s tr ibu t ion o fg rey s ca le v a lues i n a n i mage , i ti sp oss ib le t o s ee t he e f ects o fu se -wear . An u nu sed f l int s u rf ace p roduces au n imoda l h is tog ram , wh ich l o oks a lmos t n orma l ly d i s tr ibu ted ( f ig . 2 ) . I n c ontras t , ah is tog ram o r ig ina t ing , f o r e xamp le f r om a b one «p o l ish » l o oks more r ugged , h as g reater v ar iance a nd i s much m ore s kewed . E v ident ly , u se -wear f r om t h is ma ter ia l g i ves r i se t o s i gn if ican t c hanges i n t he i mag e c onten ta nd t he d i s tr ibu t ion o ft one i nt he p i c ture .

T ex ture d esc r ip tor s T ex ture f ea tures u sed i n i mage a na lys is w e re f i rs t d escr jbed b y H ara l ick ( 1973 ) . T hese measures c an b e t o u sed o n i mages t ha t c onta in a g rea t d ea l o f t extura l i nf ormat ion a nd n o t s o much o b jec t o r e dge i n f orma t ion . T ha t i st o s ay , t hey a re g ood f o r q ua l i ta t ive s tud ies o f p i c tures a nd a re e ssent ia l ly g l oba l i n n ature , n o t l o ca l . T ex tu re measures a re t aken o ver e ach p ixe l i n t he i mag e a nd , f o r ag iven s t ep l eng th a nd a c er ta in a ng le o r d i rec t ion , f o r an umber o fn e ighbors . T he g rey l eve l v a lu es o ft he p i xe l 2 58

U n u s e d s u r f a c e

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S C IO ; 0 ON

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D i f e r n t u s e w e a r g r e y l e v l h i s t o g r a m s . a — u n u s e d s u r f a c e a v e r a g e ; b — b o n e a v e r a g e .

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p a irs a re n o ted , a nd t he p ro cedure i sr epea ted o ver t he who le i mage . F rom t h is , e s t ima t ed c ond i t iona l p robab i l i t ies p ( i , j )a re o b ta ined o f g rey l e ve l io ccur r ing a f t er g rey l eve l j , a f ter a c er ta in s t ep . A l l o ft hese p robab i l it ies a re c o l lect ed i n to a c o -oc cur rence ma tr ix w h ich i st he e s t ima t ed ma t r ix o ft r ans it ion p robab i l it ie s . I n o ur s tudy , t he d imens ion o ft h is ma t r ix wa s 1 6x16 e l emen t s , i . e . t he 2 56 l e ve ls o f t he g rey s ca le w ere g rouped t og ether i n1 6 d i s t inc tc a t eg or ies , e a ch c onta in ing 1 6 d if eren t s c a le l e ve ls . F rom t he c o -occurrence ma tr ix an umber o ff i r s t s e cond o rder s ta t is t ics mea sur ing t he a ssoc ia t ion b e tween v ar ia t ions i nt ona l s t ruc ture i nt he i mage c an b e e x t ra ct ed . H ere , 2 3t ex tu re p a rame ter sw ere c ompu ted: 1 2 3 4 5

— — — — —

a ngu la rs e cond moment c on t ras t d if erence moment i nverse d if erence moment c o r re la t ion

6 7 8 9 1 0 1 1 2 1 3 1 4 1 5 1 6 1 7 1 8 1 9 2 0 2 1 2 2 2 3

— — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — —

s um a verag e s um v ar ian ce e nt ropy d if erence e n t ropy d if erence v ar ian ce mean v ar ia t ion c o ef i c ien to fv ar ia t ion i n f orma t ion measu re A i n f orma t ion measu re B p eak t r ans i t ion p robab i l ity e nergy i ner t ia l o ca lh omog ene i ty max ima lc o rre la t ion c o ef i c ient d iag ona lv ar iance d i ag ona lm omen t p rodu c t momen t t r iangu lar s ymmet ry

Many o ft hese m easures a re h igh ly c or re lated , a nd o n ly a s ubset c an b e s e lec ted a nd u sed i na na na lys is .

S uperv ised l earn ing T he i mag e ma ter ia l wa s u sed f o r as uperv ised l e arn ing w i th t he 3 2 e xper imenta l ly i ndu ced u se -wear p a t t erns u t i l ized a s ad es ign s e t . T he e xcava ted ma ter ia l o f3 0 p i c tures w a su sed a st e s ts e t . F irst , t he t ex ture p arame ter s w ere e x t ra c ted f r om t he c o -oc cu rrence ma t r ix , a nd t h is y i e lded ad a ta ma tr ix 6 2x345 i n s i ze , s i nce 1 5 d if eren t s t ep l eng ths w ere t r ied f o r e a ch o f t he 2 5t ex ture m easu re s . T h is d a ta ma ter ia l t hen w as u sed a s i nput t o as t epw ise l i near d i scr im inan t a na lys is , where e ach i mage w as l abe l led a s b e long ing t oo ne o f 6u se -wear g roups . As e t

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o f d i s cr im inan t f unc t ion s w as t hu s c ons t ruc ted a nd i tw as u sed o n t he t e s t s e t . A j a ckkn if e c l a ss if i ca t ion w a s a l so e xe cu ted o n t he d es ign s e t , i n o rder t ot e s t i t s v a l id i ty ( f ig .3 ) .

Ana ly s is r esu l ts T he d es ign s e t w a s a na lysed a nd a d i s cr im inant f unc t ion w as c ons truc ted . T he s t ep l e ng ths f i na l ly u s ed v ar ied b e tw een 1a nd 1 0 , i . e . t he r e levan tw ear i n f orma t ion w a s p r esen t a t t he a pprox ima te r ang e o f0 . 05 t o0 . 50 m icrome t res . F our t ex tu re p arame ter s w er ei d en t if i ed i nt he s t epw ise a na lys is: 1 2 3 4

— — — —

d if e renc ee n t ropy i n f o rma t ion m easu re A p eak t r ans i t ion p robab i l i ty i n f orma t ion m easu re B

a nd t hese f ea tures a c coun ted f o r at o ta l c o rrec t c l a ss if i ca t ion r a te o f 9 0 .6 % . W i th a j a ckkn i f ec l a s s if i ca t ion ,t h er a t ew en td own t o7 5% . As ca t t er p l o t o ft h e 3 2 c a ses i nt he c anon i ca l v ar iab le p lane s how s t he s epa ra t ion b ehav iour b e tw een t he g r oups ( f ig . 4 ) . T he i t em s o ft he g roups a re s hown w i th d if eren t s ymbo l s , a nd f o r e a ch g roup a n e l l ipso id ma rk s t he e x t ens ion o f a9 5 %c onf iden ce r eg ion f o r t he mean , a ssum ing a b ivar ia te n orma l d i s t r ibu t ion ) . B one w ear i s d i s t inc t ly s epa ra t ed f r om t he o the r k inds o fw ear , w h i le t he u nused a nd h ide c at eg or ies o ver lap g r ea t ly . T here i sa l so s ome o ver lap b e tween t he a n t ler g roup a nd w ood /p lan tg roups . I ti s t hu s e v iden t t ha t , w i th t he e x cep t ion o fb one «p o l ish » ,s ur f a ce t e x tures g enera ted b y d if e r en t w orked r aw ma t er ia ls a re n o t a s d i s t inc t ive ly d if er en t a s o ne m igh tb e l ieve o n t he s t r eng th o ft he many s u c ces sfu la pp l i ca t ions o ft he «K ee ley m e thod »d u r ing t he l a s t7 y ea r s . H owever , t he s c a t t e r p l o t( f ig . 4 )s e ems t oi nd icat e t he e x is tence o ft hr ee «t ex tur e g r oups »i ncorpora t ing s u r fa ces p rodu ced b y a l tera t ion o f more t han o ne r aw ma ter ia l ( 1 =b one , 2 =w ood a nd v eg e tab le ma t er ia l , 3=u nu sed s ur f a ce ,h ide a nd a n t ler p o l ish ) . I t mu s tb e r emembered , h ow ev er , t ha t t hese t hree g roups r epresen t t hese v ar iab le w orked r aw ma t er ia ls o n ly a tt he 3 0m inu t e t ime o fu se r a t e l e v e l . I tm igh tv e ry w e l lb e t ha tt o o l s u sed f o rl ong e ro rs hor t er p er iods o ft ime d eve lop s ur f a ce t e x tu r es w h i ch w i l l g i ve r i se t oa s t rong er ama lgama t ion o ft ex ture g roups . T h is c an b e s tud ied e xper imen ta l ly . R ecent w o rk u s ing t e chn ique s im i lar t o t he o ne p resent ed h ere ( G ra ce e ta l . 1 985 ) s e ems t o i nd ica t e t ha t , w ha t ev er t h e w orked ma ter ia l may b e , p o l ish s ur f a ces p rodu ced b y l o ng er u s e p er iods t end t o ama lgama te . A no ther i mpor tan t v ar iab le , n o t t aken i n to a c coun t i n t h is e xper imen t , i s t he s t a te o f t he w orked r aw ma ter ia l . Emp ir ica l ly , t h is f a ctor i s k nown t o c au se v ar iab le e f ec t s o n t he m icrosu r fa ce a f t er u se . I n a ny c ase , i ti sa l r eady q u i te o bv ious t ha t e v en o n e xper imen ta l p i e ces , p o l ish i d ent if i ca t ion i sv ery p r ob lema t ic , a nd c o r re la t ion w i th w o rk ed r aw ma t er ia l h azardou s . P erhaps ac omp let e ly n ew c onc ep t i sn eeded , whe re c ompu te r i sed t e x tu r e a na ly s is s u ch a s p resen ted h ere i su sed t oc l a ss if y s urf a ce t ex tures i n to «g enera l a t tr i t iona l g roups » w ith s pec if i c , d ef ined t ex ture d es c r ip t ions . T oge ther w i th o ther i mpor tan t v a r iab les s u ch a s e dg e a ng le , e dge f o rm , o r ien ta t ion o fl i near f e a tu res , e t c , l e s s s pec if i c b u t m ore r ea l is t i c u se c l as s if i ca t ions c an b e a r r ived a t ( G race e ta l . i n p rep . ) . A s w i l l b e d emonst ra ted b e low , e va lua t ion o f a r chaeo log ica l s pec imens i nvo lves e ven m ore p rob lems , a ccentua t ing t he n eed f o r o b je c t iv e mea su res o ft e x tu r ev a r ia t ions .

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CLASSIFICAT ION MATR IX

GROUP

PERCENT CORRECT

NUMBER OF CASES CLASS IF IED I NTO GROUP — UNUSED

UNUSED

PLANT

WOOD

H IDE

ANTLER

BONE

8 0 .0

4

0

0

1

0

0

PLANT

1 00 .0

0

5

0

0

0

0

WOOD

8 3 .3

0

0

5

0

1

0

H IDE

1 00 .0

0

0

0

5

0

0

8 0 .0

1

0

0

0

4

0

1 00 .0

0

0

0

0

0

6

9 0 .6

5

5

5

6

5

6

ANTLER BONE TOTAL

JACKKN IFED CLASSIFICAT ION

GROUP

PERCENT CORRECT

NUMBER OF CASES C LASS IF IED I NTO GROUP — UNUSED PLANT

UNUSED

WOOD

H IDE

ANTLER

BONE

8 0 .0

4

0

0

1

0

0

1 00 .0

0

5

0

0

0

0

WOOD

6 6 .7

0

1

4

0

1

0

H IDE

4 0 .0

3

0

0

2

0

0

P LANT

ANTLER BONE

TOTAL

6 0 .0

2

0

0

0

3

0

1 00 .0

0

0

0

0

0

6

7 5 .0

9

6

4

3

4

6

F ig 3 : D iscr im inant c l ass if icat ion r esu lts .

2 62

C K Li I — I — C C U U) U) C Y C Z D Z 0 Z C C U C C I — C C 0

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P r ima ry measu re

A NTLER

A NTLER

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E 237 F L

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E 284 F L

A NTLER

U NUSED

B ONE S CRAP ING

E 2 5

U NUSED

U NUSED

D RY H IDE

H IDE

B ONE

D RY H IDE

E7

S K

UN USED

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B ONE

E 62

S K

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3 24

F L

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F ig 6 : T ab le s how ing r esu lts o f s urface t ex ture c l ass if i cat ion b y v i sua l i nspect ion a nd c omputer ised t exture a na lys is . 2 67

F ig 7 a:

M icrograph o f f l ake e dge n o E 5 0 , c l ass if ied a s aw ood wh it t l ing kn if e b y manua l i nspect ion a nd a s «a nt ler »t exture b y c o mpu ter ised t ex tu re a na lys is . S ca le b ar : 5 0 my .

F ig 7 b :M icrograph o f e xper imenta l ly p roduced , i n c ip ient «a nt ler p o l ish » . I mage f r om d es ign s e t . S ca le b ar : 5 0 my .

2 68

F lake E 3 77g w as o n v i sua l i n spec t ion o ft he s urf ace t hough t t oh ave b een u sed f o r c u t t ing d ry h ide . T h is s ur fa ce t ex ture w as n ot p ar t o ft he s e t o f 6l e arned e xper imen ta l ly p rodu ced s ur fa ce t ex tures , t hus t he p i ece w as c l ass if ied b y t ex ture measurements a s b e long ing t o t he g roup m ost c l ose ly r esemb l ing t h is t ex ture . A n «i n tu it ive »i mpress ion i st ha t t he r ough , p i t ted s ur f ace n orma l ly f ound o n d ry -h ide w ork ing t o o ls may v ery w e l l b ec l oser t ot he «u nused" s ur f ace t ex ture t han t he s urf a ce u sed o n w e th ide . T he f o rma l s c raper E 2 5 i n t he t e s t s e t i sb y v i sua l i n spec t ion c l ass if ied a s at o o l u sed o n b one . T he t ex ture a na lys is c l ass if ied t h is s urf ace i n to t he u nused g roup . T hese c on t rad ict ing r esu lt s a re e as i ly e xp la ined a nd a c tua l ly v ery i lum ina t ing . T he p a t ches o f «b one p o l ish »f o rmed a l ong t he e dge r im o ft h is t o o l w ere t o o s ma l l t ob e i n teg ra ted i n to t he t exture a na lys is . T h is i s ap rob lem w ith s ome r e levance f o r t he p oss ib le a pp l ica t ion o ft ex ture m easu rement s i n l i th ic u se -wear a na lys is , a nd i tw i l l b e d i scus sed l a t er o n . T he l a s t p i ece i n t he a na lys is , n ° E7 ,i st he mos t d if i cu l t o ne t o e xp la in . T he d ry h ide s c raper , a s i tw as d ef ined b y v i sua l i nspec t ion , h as a h eav i ly r ounded e dge r im c au sed b y s evere mechan ica l a t tr it ion ( f ig . 8 ) . S ince t he l e arned s e t o f e xper imenta l ly p rodu ced p o l ishes d id n ot i n c lude d ry h ide , e spec ia l ly n o t t h is e x treme t ype , t he s urf a ce t e x tu re h appened t ob e c l oses tt ot he «b one p o l ish »o ft he l e arned s e t .

F ig 8: M icrog raph o fs c raper e dge n o E7 , ad ry h ide s c raper , c l ass if ied a sb e long ing t o t he «b one »t e x ture g roup b yc ompu ter ised t ex ture a na lys is . S ca le b ar 5 0 my .

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D ISCUSS ION I t i sr easonab le t o a ssume t ha t t he «w ood w h i t t l ing »t o o ls a nd t he p ieces w i th p a t ina , d ef ined a s a n t ler b y t ex tu re a na lys is , a re a spec ts o ft he s ame t ype o fp a t ina . I nt he manua l i n spec t ion o ft he 1 0 %s amp le t h is p a t ina w a s , a s men t ioned , p resent o n f r a c ture f a ce ts o fs evera l o ther f l int p i eces a t t he s i te , ma in ly o n p ar t s o fr uptured o u ter f r a c tu re s ur f a ces o n a dzes . B ecause o ft he c or re la t ion t o a dze o u ter s ur fa ces , i tw as a ssumed t ha t t h is p a t ina d eve loped wh i le t he p ieces w ere b ur ied i n as outh S cand inav ian c on t ex t . P ieces o ther t han a dze o ut er s urf a ces a l so r evea l t h is t ype o fs urf a ce a l t era t ion . T he s ma l l s c raper n ° E8 a a nd t he s ma l l b lade l ike p i ece E 5 0 w ere , a ccord ing t ot h is a rgumen t , made a nd d epos ited i n s ou thern S cand inav ia , b ecause t he s mooth p a t ina c over s a l l f r ac ture s ur faces . I t may b e w or th n o t ing t ha t s c raper n ° E8 a i s made f r om a p er f ec t , d oub le -r idged p r isma t ic b lade ( f ig . 9 ) . Ac omp lete t ransverse a rrowhead —d ef in i te ly o f s ou th S cand inav ian o r ig in — i st ob e f ound i n t h is c l ust er , t he «l ustrous »s ur face o ft h is p i ece i nd ica t ing a s im i la r i n terpre ta t ion . T he «w ood p o l ish »c l ass if ica t ion may f u r ther b e e xp la ined b y r ecent e xper imenta l s imu la t ion o fp a t ina t ion p rocesse s ( P l isson 1 983 , 1 986; L ev i -Sa la 1 986a , 1 986b ) . T hese e xper iment s s how t ha t «w ood l ike »p o l ishes may b e p art o f s u ch e roded s urfaces , ma in ly c onst itut ing a v ar iant o f s o -ca l led «b r ight s po t s» ,g enera l ly a ssumed t ob e c au sed b yf l in to nf l int c ontac t . S ince s urface a l tera t ions c aused b y p os t -depos i t iona l P rocesses a re d eve loped i n mos t s ed imen tary c on tex t s , t h is t ype o fs urf a ce f ea tu re s hou ld b e p ar t o ft he l e arned s e to f s ur fa ce t ex tures , i ft ex ture a na lys is i st o b e u sed i n f u ture m icrowear r e search . I n t h is p aper t he c ont rad ic tory r esu l ts o ft he manua l i n spec t ion o n t he o ne h and a nd t he t ex ture a na lys is o n t he o ther c an t hen b e e xp la ined b y t he f act t hat: s urf ace f ea tur es c harac ter is t ic o fd if er en tp os t -d epos i t iona lp ro c e sses w er e n o t a ccoun ted f o r a nd t hu s n o t p ar to ft h el e arn ed s e to fp o l ishes . T oo l n ° E 7e xemp l if ies a no ther i mpor tant p rob lem i n t he e va lua t ion o f s ur f a ce t ex tures . B y v i sua l i nspect ion t h is «s c raper » w as d ef ined a s ah eav i ly u sed h ide s c raper . T ex ture a na lys is g rouped t h is p iece i n to t he b one g roup . Th is c an p erhaps b e e xp la ined b y t he f a ct t ha t t he s c raper w as s o h eav i ly u sed t ha t av ery s mooth s ur f a ce t ex ture e vo lved , r esemb l ing «b one p o l ish » a s i t was d ef ined b y t he e xper imenta l s urf aces . E nter ing t he p i ece i n t he t wo d imens iona l c anon ica l p lane ( f ig . 5 )r evea ls t ha t t h is t ex ture a c tua l ly f a l ls s omewhere b e tween t he «b one »g roup a nd t he «h ide »g roup . T he c onc lus ion o ne c an d raw f r om t h is i s t ha t t he e f f ec ts o n p o l ish f o rma t ion o f t o v ar ia t ions i n mod e a nd t ime o f u se f or t o o ls h ave n o t b e en a ccoun ted f o r . I f t ex ture a na lys is i s t o b e f ur ther u sed i n l i th ic u se -wear s tud ies , w orn s ur f aces d eve loped b y f r ic t iona l c ontac t w ith d if erent r aw ma ter ia ls f o r d if erent p er iods o ft ime h ave t ob e a ccount ed f o r . I tc an b e a ssumed t ha t t h is w i l l t end t o d im in ish t he d if erences o bserved b etween c er ta in w ear t ypes , whereas o thers mus t b e e xpec ted t o b e d i s t ingu ished e ven more c l ear ly t han h as b een d emonst ra ted i n t he p resent s tudy . F or a s im i lar l i ne o f a rgument s ee ( Newcomer e ta l 1 986 ) . E xper iences f r om m icrowear a na lys is o f q uar tz t o o ls , h owever , d emons t ra tes t ha t «p o l ish »t ypes d ef in ite ly h ave d if eren t g enes is a nd t hus mus t b e e xpec ted t o d eve lop d if erent ly e ven d ur ing p ro longed u se ( Knu tsson i n p res s ) . T he s e condar i ly mod if ied p i eces E 2 5 a nd E 6 2 i lust ra te v ery w e l l a no ther ma jor p rob lem , i n t h is c ase t he p oss ib le a pp l ica t ion o fs urf ace t ex tu re a na lys is w ith t he a i d o f t ex ture measurements o n d ig i t ised i mag es . I n t h is e xamp le , t he s ma l l p a t ches o f «b one » p o l ish f ound s ca t tered o n h igher p o ints i n t he m i cro topog raphy a long t he e dge r im o f

2 70

c r z

2 71

s c rapers w ere d ec is ive f o r t he i n terpretat ion b ased o n v i sua l i nspec t ion . T ex ture a na lys is , h owever , e va luat ed a n a rea mu ch l a rger t han t he e x tent o ft he «b one »p o l i sh; most o f t h is a rea d id n ot s how a ny t r ace o f u se . W ith in t he p resen t m ethodo log ica l f r amework i ti sn o t p oss ib le t o a vo id t h is p rob lem . An ew a na ly t ica l m e thod o r am ore s ystema t ic u se o f h igher magn if ica t ions w ith t he S cann ing E lectron M i c roscope m igh t p rove t o b e f ru itfu l r esear ch s t ra teg ies . We may c onc lude :T he s i ze o ft h e c u t o u t a nd d ig i t iz ed p ar t o f t he a na lysed i mag e i s g iven p re sen t o bserva t iona l s t andards t o o «l a rg e »t ot ake s ma l l er p a tch es o f «w ear » i n to a ccoun t . T he p ara l le l a na lys is o f t he s ame s et o f f l int f l akes f r om t he B jurse let s i te i lustrates a nother b as ic p rob lem i n m icrowear a na lys is . The a c curacy o f t he i n terpreta t ions o fw orked ma ter ia l i s who ly d ependen t o n t he n umber a nd c hara ct er o f l earned r ef erence s urfaces . T h is o f c ourse i s t rue f o r b oth c ompu ter ized a s w e l l a s manua l c l ass if i ca t ions . T he p rob lem i sw e l l i lus tra ted b y t he t ex ture a na ly s is c ondu c t ed h ere , b ecause n o a l lowances f o r t he o ther v ar iab les o f t he a na lysed p i e ce a re made . Dur ing v isua l i nspect ion h owever t he h uman m ind w i l l —c onsc ious ly o r u nconsc ious ly — i ncorpora te «f unc t iona l »v ar iab les , s uch a s e dge a ng les , p resence o f e dg e s car r ing e t c , i n to t he i n t erpreta t ion f i na l ly a rr iv ing a t a «r easonab le »f unc t iona l d e term ina t ion . F rom a c u l tura l h is tor ica l p o int o f v i ew t h is i s ar ea sonab le w ay o f a rgu ing , b u t i fd ef ined s ur face t ex tures a re u sed a s w orked ma ter ia l i nd ica tors , t hen t he ir i n t erpreta t ion s hou ld a lway sb et he s ame ,o ther v a r iab les t ha th ave b een a dded b e ing e xp l ic it ly s ta ted . T h is c an b e a ccomp l ished b y t he t ype o f s ur face t e x ture a na lys is p resen ted h ere , wh i ch a c t sa s ar e inf or cement o ft he d ef in i t ion o f «u se p o l i she s» . T he c onc lus ion o f t h is i s :T he i den t if ica t ion a nd i n terpr e ta t ion b y v i sua l i n spec t ion o f «ma ter ia l -spec if ic » p o l ish s urf ac es o n e xcava ted t oo l s i s b iased b y a l lowances b e ing mad e f or o th er f e a tur es o ft h e a na ly s ed p i ec e . T exture a na lys is c an a c t a s ac oro l lary t o t he i n tu it ive i n terpreta t ion o f s ur fa ce t extures ( c ompa re H o l ly & D e l B ene 1 981 f o r as im i lar d i scu ss ion ) , r e inf or c ing t he a c cu ra cy o ft he i n terpr e ta t ion . T he c omb ined manua l a nd ma thema t ica l e va lua t ion o f w ear t ra ces i n t he f l aked a ssemb lag e f r om t he s i te h as r evea led t wo d i f f erent t ypes o fs ur f ace t ex tu re , t ha t may b e i mpor tant i n t he c u ltura l h istor ica l i n terpreta t ion o f t he s i te mater ia l . A g enera l ly s moo thed s urf ace , i n s ome i n stances «w ood l ike » ,c an b e a t tr ibut ed t o p a t ina t ion i nt h e s ou th S cand inav ian c ontex t . A nother g roup o f f l akes , o r more a ccu ra te ly f rac ture s urfaces , d ef in i te ly c orrespond t ex tura l ly t o t he u nu sed p i eces o ft he e xper imenta l t o o ls . T he l a t ter g roup e xh ib its a reas , o f ten o n e dges , w ith «w ear » ,p oss ib ly d eve loped i n p reh is tor ic u se s i tua t ions . I t mus t b e r emembered , h owever , t ha t t h is «w ear »may j u s t w e l l h ave b een g enera ted b y a nd /or a l tered b y p o s t -depos it iona l p roces ses o f al e s ser magn i tude , f o l low ing d epos it ion o ft he t o o ls i n t he n or th Swed ish s ed imen tary c ont ex t . P lo t ted i n t he d iag ram w i th t wo c anon ica l v ar iab les , t hese t wo g roups ( p a t inat ed a nd u nu sed ) d on o t , h owever , f o rm t wo d i st inc tg roups . B as ica l ly t he p i ece G 2 1 s e ems , a tl e as t v i sua l ly , t o h ave c l oser af in it ies w ith t he u nused g roup t han w i th t he «s ou th S cand inav ian » g roup , wh ich i s o therw ise w e l l s eparated f r om t en o t her r ead ing s , d i s t r ibu ted i nt he o u ter p ar to ft he s c a t t er ( f ig . 5b ) . U s ing a s econd s e t o f s urface f ea tures d ef ined b y t ex ture measur ements , t he p roposed b ipar t it ion o f s ur f a ces f r om t he s i t e c an b e t e s ted . As e t o f 1 3 i mages wa s , a s m ent ioned , made 5 mm a way f r om t he e dge r im o fa l l p rev ious ly d escr ibed f l akes a nd «s c rapers » .T he r esu l t o f t h is a na lys is may b e s a id t o b e p red ict ib le , b ased o n t he f o l low ing a ssump t ions :

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1— S ince e xtens ive p at inat ion , s uch a s t he «s ou th S cand inav ian p at ina » , n orma l ly c overs l a rge a reas o ff r a cture s urfa ces , i tc an b e p resumed t ha t t he s e cond measu re ment w i l l b e c l as s if ied a s b e long ing t o t he s ame g roup a s t he f i rs t mea sure , i . e . a n t ler . N of ur ther «u nused »c l ass if i ca t ions s hou ld o c cur i nt h is g roup . 2—The p ieces w ith p resumed «t rue » m icrowear t races , f l aked i n t he n or th S cand inav ian c on tex t , s hou ld e xh ib i t ad ua l ism b e tween t he w orn e dge a nd t he u nu sed o r l e ss w orn e dge , i . e . b etween u sed a nd u nused s ur f a ces . T oo ls u sed t ow ork s o f t ma ter ia ls s u ch a sh ide c an b e e xpec t ed t od i sp lay t he s ame c l ass if i ca t ion f o r t he t wo measured a reas o ft he t o o l e dge b ecause w ea rf r om s of tr aw mat er ia ls e xt ends al ong way b eh ind t he e dge . F ur thermore , t h is g roup s hou ld i n c lude s evera l «u nused »c l ass if i ca t ions . 3—T he t o o ls c l ass if ied a s «u nu sed »s hou ld h ave t he s ame g roup af i l ia t ion f o r t he s e cond a na lysed a rea . T here a re f our s e cond measurements i n t he g roup o f f i ve p ieces d ef ined a s «p a t inated » .T hree measurements c onf irm t he p red ic ted c l ass if ica t ion a s «a nt ler » , whereas o ne p i ece ( E 2 39 ) i sd e term ined a s u nused a t t he s e cond measur ing p o int . Th is d i sc repancy c an a c tua l ly b e e xp la ined b y t he f a c t t ha t t he f i rs t a nd s e cond measuremen t s o n t h is p iece w ere t aken o n t wo o ppos ing e dge a spec t s b y m is take . T he s e cond i mag e f r om af r ac ture f a cet c rea ted i n t he n or th Swed ish c ontex t i s t hus l a ck ing i n a ny «s ou th S cand inav ian p a t ina » . O f p ieces w ith «t rue »m icrowear t r aces , t he t wo u sed o n more w ear -produc ing ma ter ia ls ( b one a nd w ood ) p rodu ced , a s p red ic ted , a n u nu sed c l a ss if ica t ion f o r t he s e cond measurement . T he s e cond measurement o n t he t h ird p iece i n t h is g roup , ab u t chery k n if e , i . e . u sed o n s of t ma ter ia l , y i e lded , a l so a s p red ic ted , t he s ame c l a ss if i ca t ion a s t he i mag ef r om t he f i r s ta rea . O ne u nu sed p i ece w as , a s p red ict ed , c l a ss if i ed a s b e long ing t ot he s ame g roup a s t he a rea measured f i rs t . T he s econd p i ece i n t h is g roup w as c l ass if ied a s member o f t he «h ide »g roup . T h is i sd if i cu lt t oe xp la in . T he l ow d eg ree o fd i s t inc t ion b e tween t he h ide a nd t he u nused g roup ( a ss e en i nf i g . 5 )m igh tv ery w e l lb e t he c au se o ft h is d i s crepancy . A par t f r om t he 1 5 s pec imens i n t he t e s t d i scu ssed i n more d e ta i l h ere , a no ther 6 2 p i eces o ff l int f r om t he s i t e w ere s ub jec ted t o am icrowear a na lys is . T hey a l l a ccord w i th t he g enera l p a t t ern d i s cu s sed a bove , a nd t he c onc lus ions d rawn f r om t he e va lua t ion o ft he s ub se tt hus a pp ly t ot he w ho le o ft he a na lysed a ssemb lage . T hese r esu l t s w i l l b e u sed i na c u l tu ra lh istor ica l i n terpr e ta t ion f ur ther o n i nt he t e xt . T he a bove d i scuss ion o f t he c omparat ive a na lys is h as y i e lded s ome v ery i n teres t ing a nd i mpor tan t r esu lt s . O ne a spec t i st he c l ear -cu t d ef in i t ion o ft he s o -ca l led «s ou th S cand inav ian p a t ina » , a l low ing a s eparat ion b e tween s ou th S cand inav ian a r tef a cts a nd p i eces f l aked i n t he N or th . O n t he b as is o f t h is d i s t inc t ion , i th as b een p os s ib le t oi n c lude n o t o n ly a dzes , b u t a l so s c rapers , b lades a nd o ther «t ypes »i nt he 1 0 % s amp le . T he l ow d eg ree o f s urf ace t ex ture v ar iab i l ity i lus t ra ted i n t he c anon ica l p lane ( f ig . 5 )s eems t oi nd i ca te e i ther al ow u se r a te f o r t o o ls a tt he s i t e o r , more p robab ly , t ha t ma ter ia l s pec if ic «p o l ishes »h ave b een o b l it era ted o r t ransf ormed i n to t he c ommon ly o ccurr ing h ide l ike s urface . T h is t heref ore makes a ny i d ent if icat ion o f w orked ma ter ia l i n t h is a ssemb lage h azardous . T he g enera l p rob lem o f a ccura te ly d ef in ing w orked ma ter ia l h as a l so b een i lu st ra ted b y t he a na lys is o ft he t e st s e t . A l lowances f o r 2 73

t o o l morpho logy a nd a spe c t s o fw ea r o ther t han «p o l ish »a re p robab le . O n t he b as i s o f t hese o bserva t ions , i tw a s d ec ided t ha ti nt h i s s t udy n o i d en t if i ca t ion o fw ork ed ma t er ia l w i l l b ec ar r i ed o u to n t h ef l in ta ss emb lag e . O n ly t he u s ed a rea o f at o o l e dg ew i l lb es t a t ed . O bserva t ions made o n t he q uar t z a ssemb lag e ( s ee b e low ) s t reng then t he r e levance o ft h i s p r oposa l .

THE QUARTZ ASSEMBLAGE T he a na lys is o f t he 5 % s amp le o f q ua r tz f l akes w as c arr ied o ut u s ing a m e thodo log i ca l c oncep t d eve loped e a r l ier ( Knu t sson 1 985a a nd b ) . T he r e su l t s o f t h i s a na lys is h av e b een d e scr ibed e l swhere ( Knu t s son i n p r ess ) a nd w i l l n o t b e d i scussed i n a ny c l oser d e ta i lh ere . Af ew c ommen t so nw ea rp r eserva t ion a re h owever n eeded , a st hey h ave i mpor tan t i mp l i ca t ions f o r t he d e f in i t ion o ft he l e v e l o fi n terpre ta t ion w h i ch c an b e a pp l ied t o b o th t he f l in t a nd t he q ua r tz ma ter ia ls .The g enera l i mpress ion d es cr ibed e ar l ier o fb ad p reserva t ion o f w ear f ea tu res o n t he f l in t a ssemb lage i sr e inf or ced b y o b serva t ions o ft he f l aked q ua r t z ma ter ia lf r om t he B ju r se le t s i t e . C hara c ter i s t ic s moo th p ol i sh s ur f a ces o ft he t ype i d en t if i ed o n t he e xper imen ta l q uar t z p i e ces ( Knu t sson 1 985 a a nd b )c ou ld b ef ound n e i ther o nf l akes n or o nf o rma l t o o lt ypes i nt he q ua r t z a s semb lag e . E a ch s t ru c tu re s c ou ld b e o bserved o n many p i eces , i nd i ca t ing ac hem ica l e nv ironmen ta t t he s i te c aus ing d i sso lu t ion o f q uar tz f rac ture s ur f aces . R andom ly o r ienta ted m echan ica l w ear s t ru c tu res , s u ch a s s t r ia t ions a nd r up tu red f l ake e dg e s , d emons t ra t e w i thou t d oub t t he e ro s ive n a tu re o ft he s ed imen tary c on t ex t a t t he B ju r se let s i t e . T he d ef in it e e f ec t s o ft hese p os t -depos i t iona l p r oce sses o n u se -wea rf e a tures h ave t od a t e n o t b een s t ud ied e mp ir i ca l ly ( Knu t sson i np rep . ) . I t mus tb ea ssumed ,h owever ,t ha tp roc es se s o ft h is k ind w ou ld h ave c hang ed t he s ur f a ce t e x tu re s o fb o th t he f l in t a nd t he q ua r t z a s semb lag es . E xper imen ta l i nves t iga t ions o fp os t -depos i t iona l p ro cesses h ave b een c arr ied o u t e l sewhere ( P l is son 1 986 , L ev i -Sa la 1 986 ) , b u t t he i d en t if i ca t ion o ft he s pe c if i c p ro cess es r e spons ib le f o r a l tera t ions o ft he B jur se le t a ssemb lag e i si mpos s ib le w i thou t t he a i d o f e xper imenta l i nves t iga t ions d es igned t o c ope w i th t he s pec if ic s ed imen tary c on t ex t p r es en ta tt h es i te . T he c onc lus ions wh ich c an b e d rawn f r om t hese o bservat ions a re t ha t t he i d ent if ica t ion o f w orked ma ter ia l c annot b e a ccomp l ished o n t he q uar t z a ssemb lag e e i ther . T h is i sn o t t o s ay t ha t t h is i n f o rma t ion i sn o t p re sen t . N onethe less , g iven t he p r esen ts t a t eo fr e sea r ch ,w o rked ma t er ia lc anno tb ei n f er r ed .

CONCLUSIONS OF 7 'HE MICRO WEAR ANALYS IS PART I A n a t t emp th as b een made t oc o r re la te manua l c l as s if i ca t ion o fp o l ish t e x tures w i th ac ompu ter ised i mag e a na lys is b ased o n d ig i t ised i mag es o f «w ear » .T he i mag e ma t er ia l f r om s i x d if eren t e xper imen ta l ly p rodu ced w ea r t ex tures was u sed a s ad e s ign s e tf o r as uperv ised l e arn ing p ro cedu re . T he i mpress ion is t ic c l ass if i ca t ion o f d if eren t e xper imen ta l ly i ndu ced «p o l i sh » t ypes , c hara c ter is t i c o fd if eren t w orked r aw ma ter ia ls , h as t hü s b een p ar t ly v er if i ed . O v er laps b e tween p o l i sh t ype sa r e ,h owev er ,n ot ed .

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As e t o ff l in t s ur f a ce t e x tu re s o fu nknown t ype f r om t he B ju r se le t a s semb lag e w as s ub sequent ly c l ass if ied a s t o w ea r t ype b y u s ing b o th a manua l i n spe c t ion a nd a c ompu ter ised t e x tur e a na ly s is . Ac ompar is on b e tween t hese t wo a pproa che s d emon s t ra t ed t ha t: F ive o u t o ff our teen ( 3 5 % ) c l a s s if i ca t ions w ere s im i la r . O n t he o ther p i e ces o ft he t e s t s e t c on trad ic to ry r e su l ts n ot ed f o r t he t wo d if eren t a pproa ches a re t hough t t ob e a t t r ibu tab le t o s evera l f a c tors . S urfa ce f ea tu res c ha rac ter is t ic o f d i f f eren t p os t d epo s i t iona l p ro cesses w ere n o tp a r to ft he l e a rned d es ign s e t . S u ch s ur f a ce t e x tu res c ou ld o n ly b e long a nd w ere t hus c l a s s if ied a s b e long ing t oo ne o ft he l e a rned u se -wear g roups . T he manua l c l a ss if i ca t ion , o n t he o ther h and , c ou ld a c coun t f o r t hese s ur fa ce t e x tu res , b e cau se t hey a re w e l le s tab l ished . T he e f ec t s o n p o l ish f o rma t ion o fv a r ia t ions i n u se t ime f o r e xper imen ta l t o o ls w er e n ot t aken i n to a c count . E xper imenta l t o o ls u sed o n d if erent r aw ma ter ia ls f o r d if e ren tp er iod so ft ime m ay e xh ib i ts im i la rs u r f a ce t e x tu res . T he s i ze o ft he c u to u td ig i t is ed a r ea o ft he a na lysed i mag ep ho t og raphed a t4 00x i s , w i th p resen t o bserva t iona l t e chn iques t o o «l a rge » t o t ake i n to a ccoun t «s ma l ler » p a t ches o f w ear , o bservab le b y manua l i n spec t ion . B ecau se o f. t h is , t he s ur round ing s u r f a c et ex tu r e ,n o tt he «w ea rf e a tu r e »i sc l a s s if i ed . T he i d en t if i ca t ion a nd i n terpre ta t ion o f ma ter ia l -spec if i cp o l ish s ur f a ces b y v i sua l i n spe c t ion i sd emons t rab ly b ia sed b y a l lowances made f o r o ther f e a tu res o ft he a na ly sed p i e ce ,f ea tu res s u ch a se dg e a ng le , t o o l s i ze e t c .T he t e x tua l i n f orma t ion i su sed t o make a «r ea sonab le »i n f erence . I n c ompu ter ised i mag e a na lys is o n ly t ex tu res a re e va lua ted a nd c l ass if i ed . B ecause o f t he u nc er ta in c hara c t er o f t he manua l p o l ish i d en t if i ca t ion u sed t o e va lua t e t he p reh is to r i c a s semb lag e a nd t he o bserved p resence a nd u nknown i mpa c t o f p o s t -depos i t iona l s ur f a c e a l t era t ions o n t he f l in tt ex tu re o ff l akes a tt he B ju r se le t s i te , n o i d en t if i cat ion o fw orked m a ter ia l w i l l b e made . O bserva t ions o ft he q uar t z a ssemb lag e r e inf or ce t h is p ropo sed l e v e lo fi n f e ren ce .

PART TWO:

PATTERNS OF TOOL USE . SELECT ION OF EDGES FOR USE AS I LLUSTRATED BY MICRO WEAR ANALYSIS OF THE FLAKED QUARTZ AND FLINT ASSEMBLAGE

S ELECT ION OF EDGES FOR U SE T he b as ic a s sump t i on g ov ern ing t he a bove p resent ed i n t erpre ta t ion o ft he r e su l t so f t he m i crowea r a na ly s is o fq uar t z a nd f l in t f l akes i st ha t t he c hara c ter o ft o o l u se i s g ov e rned b y «s o c ie ta l »n o rm s ,b e ing p a t t erned w i th in t he b ounda r ies o f as o c ie ty . T h is i sc l ear ly ah i gh ly s imp l if i ed p o in t o fd epar tu re f o r i n terp re ta t ion , a nd many o b je c t ions c an c er ta in ly b e r a ised a ga ins t i t . O ne o n ly n eeds t om en t ion t he p os s ib i l i ty o f i n t ra -soc ie ta l v ar ia t ion d ue t o a dap ta t ions t o s pe c if ic c ond i t ions s u ch a s r aw ma t er ia l a va i lab i l i ty , s i te f un c t i on e t c . I ti si n t ere s t ing t on o te ,h owev er ,t ha tH ayden 1 977 ( p . 1 79 ) , d e s cr ib ing s t one t oo l u se among t he Wes tern D eser t A bor ig ines o fA u s t ra l ia , e xpres ses t h ough ts i n t he s ame «n o rma t ive »d i re c t ion: « . .the t r ad i t iona l a t t r ibu te s o fi mpor tanc e 2 75

i nt he West ern D eser t w ere e f ec t ive e dg es a nd as u i tab le s i ze f o rh o ld ing i nt he h and a nd e xer t ing p ressure . T hes e a t tr ibu tes m igh t b ecome m or ep a t terned b y h ab i t a nd t rad i t ion t han o ne w ou ld e xpec t . . . »( our u nder l in ing ) . T ha t i s , g roups o f «p eop les »w ith f a ce t o f a ce c on ta c t w i l l d eve lop s im i lar h ab i ts , among o th er t h ings i n t he u se o ff l aked s t one t o o l s ,h ere t hough tt ob ea t t es ted t ob yp a t t erned m i cr owear t r a ces f ound o n s e t so ft oo ls . B y c ompar ing s e lec t ion o ff l akes s u i tab le f o r u se a mong 5 D una -speak ing g roup s o f H igh land N ew Gu inea , Wh it e e ta l . ( 1977 ) h ave t r i ed t o e va lua te t h is i d ea emp ir ica l ly . A f ter s ub jec t ing 6 3 men f r om t hese d if eren t g roup s t o t he s ame a ssemb lage o ff l akes , Wh i te r eaches t he c onc lus ion t hat: «. there i s c l ear ly , w ith in e ach p ar ish e x cep t Hareke , ag enera l a g reement o n t he i d ea l f o rm d es igna ted b y t hem a re k on e . . . » (Wh i te e ta l . 1 977 , p .3 85 ) . A lso b e tween g roups , ag enera l a g reement o fh ow a n i d ea l f l ake s hou ld b e w as o bserved d ef ined b y s i ze a nd e dge a ng le p a rame ters . B a s ica l ly , r e la t ive ly l o ng a nd n a rrow p i eces , w i th med ium r ang e e dge a ng les , w e re s e lec ted . T he o pera t iona l c r i ter ion f o r s e lec t ing o ne f l ak e r a ther t han a nother i s , a ccord ing t o Wh i te e ta l , t he s u i tab i l i ty o ft he f l ake f o rh af t ing . I no t her w ords t hen , t he «em ic »t y pe r ef ers t o o n ly o ne l e ve l o fd i s t inc t ion , s i ze s u i tab le f o r h a f t ing ( Wh it e e ta l . 1 977 p .3 85 ) . T he r ea son f o r t h is p a t terned s e lec t ion o ff l akes f o r u se i s , a c cord ing t o Wh i te e ta l . , t h e r es ident ia l p a t tern o bserved among t he g roup member s . T h is p a tt ern i nvo lves s evera l a nd l ong r es ident ia l moves t hroughou t t he l i f et ime o f a man . Th is p revents t he d eve lopment o fl o ca l ly d if eren ta rt ef a c tt r ad i t ions . Mod jeska i n t he s ame p aper t akes a s l ight ly m od if ied v i ew , a l though d raw ing s uppor tf r om t he s ame s e to fd a ta . H e r eb e l ls a ga ins tt h e t h ought t ha t «men ta lt emp lat es » a re t he s ame w ith in «c u ltura l g roups » . «Menta l t emp la te »i sd ef ined a s «t he i dea o f t he p roper f o rm o ft he o b je c t» .T h is h as b een d es cr ibed a st he r epea t ed c lus ter so fs e le c ted a nd c orre lated a t tr ibu tes c ons t itu t ing a metamorph ised message wh ich s t i l l c onvey s i n f orma t ion a bou tt he i n t en t ions o ft he f abr i cat or ( h ere t h eu ser , C la rke 1 972 p .1 35 ) . A ccord ing t o Mod jeska , t hese i deas may v ary a mong i nd iv idua ls :«. there i sn o n ecessary c onnec t ion b etween i deas i n a n i nd iv idua l maker 's m ind a nd t he n orm c ommon ly a ccepted w i th in a c u lture . . . » (Wh i te e t a l . 1 977 p .3 86 ) . F ur thermore , t h e p os tu la te p resented b y J .P . Wh ite t ha t t he o bserved e x tens ive r es ident ia l m oves i n t he s tudy g roups t end t o h omogen ise t he t e chno logy o f t h e Duna -speakers i sc onfuted b y Mod jeska , w ho d emons trat es t ha t t hese moves a re a c tua l ly l im ited among m en i nt he a g e g roups t ha t may b e e xpected t of l ake s t one . H e n o tes , h owever , t ha t moves b etween t w o n e ighbour ing p ar ishes o r «g roups »a re c ommon , p os s ib ly «.crea t ing a n e ncha inmen t o fl o ca l t r ad i t ions . » .I n o ther w ords , d esp ite t he l ow f r equency o fl o ng r es iden t ia l move s o bserved , t he h omog ene i ty o ft he s e lec t ion o ff l aked s t one f o r u se among Duna s peaker s c ou ld s t i l lb ee xp la ined b yr epeat ed , a lb e i ti nd irec t , c ont ac t sb etween g roups o fp eop le . «A l l o f t he a bove r eason ing i s , h owever , b ased o n t he a ssump t ion t ha t menta l t emp la tes q ua l o ca l t rad it ions s omehow f o rm t hemse lve s a u tonomous ly i n t h e m inds o f m en w ho a re i n f a ce t of a ce c onta c t w i th e a ch o ther . »( Wh it e e ta l . 1 977 , p .3 87 ) . Th is i s o bv iou s i n t h is p ar t icu lar c a se b ecause «c opy ing a nd t r ia l a nd e r ror , r a ther t han e xp l ic i t t ea ch ing , a re c er ta in ly t he methods b y w h ich y oung D una men l earn a bou t f l aked s t one . »( p . 3 81 ) . Mod jeska c onc ludes h is d i scuss ion b y s ay ing t ha t t he s im i lar ity n o ted among a r t ef a c t sf r om t he d if e rent g roups i sc au sed b yt he f a ct t ha tt he p urpo se o fs e lec t ion a nd t h e g enera l a b i l i ty t of l ak e s t one a re t he s ame i nt he g roup s . H owever , t he r aw ma t er ia ls u sed b y d if erent g roups a re d if erent , t he Hareke u s ing a s l igh t ly c oar se t ype o fs t one . T he 2 76

d emons t ra ted d if erence i n s i ze o fa r ek one b e tween t he Hareke a nd t he o ther g roups i s i nteres t ing i n t h is r espect , b ecause , a ccord ing t o Mod jeska , t h is d if erence i st he r eason b eh ind t he «l a rger »f l akes p rodu ced b yt he Ha reke . T hus , t he ir s e lec t ion , a l though c ondu cted o n t he s ame a ssemb lage a nd w ith t he s ame g oa ls i n m ind , d if er ed a ccord ing t o t he ir p reconce ived i dea o fh ow a u sab le f l ake «s hou ld »l o ok . T h is i d ea w as b a sed o nt he ir e xper ience o fc oar se -g ra ined ma t er ia l . H owever , t he «s im i lar ity »b e tween t he g roups A lun i , Ha iuw i , Nawa a nd H ora i le c au ses Mod jeska t o c onc lude :«Iw ou ld s ugges t t ha t e ven i ft he men o f al o ca l g roup o pera t ed t he ir s t one t e chno logy i n t o ta l i s o la t ion f r om o ne o ther t here w ou ld s t i l l b e a s t r ong t endency f o rt hem t oa r r ive a t s im i lar menta l t emp la tes , s i nce b o th t he ir mat er ia ls a nd t he ir p urpose a re c on stant . »( p . 3 89 ) . T ha t i st o s ay , t he s e lec t ion o ff l ake «t ypes » wa sg overned p u re ly b yu t il i tar ian c r it er ia ( t he a nt ic ipa ted u se o ft he p iece a nd t he t ype o f r aw ma ter ia l u sed ) . T h is i s ap ropos i t ion t ha t , i n o ur v i ew , c ontrad ic ts t he o bserva t ion made o n t he s e lec t ion o ff l akes among t he Hareke . T he ir s e lect ion «n orm » c er ta in ly d if ered f r om t ha t o fo ther g roups . T he r eason f o r t h is may h ave b een ad if erent h af t ing mode o rt he f a c tt ha tt he H areke w ere a c cu s tomed t o ad i f f erent t ype o fr aw ma ter ia l . T he r esu lt s o bta ined i n t h is s tudy may b e c omment ed u pon i n af ew p o int s . I n o u r o p in ion i ti sp oss ib le t or e f u te t he p ropos it ion b y Wh ite t ha th af t ing w as t he ma in c r it er ion f o r s e lect ion b y r ef err ing t oo bs erva t iohs made d ur ing t he a c tua l s e lec t ion o ff l akes . «I n s or t ing " good a re k ou" o u r s ub jec ts p roceeded i n tu it ive ly a nd a pparent ly w ithou t a ny o pera t iona l l eve l c on cep t s r e la t ing t o s i ze , e dge a ng le , mat er ia l o r l eng th -breadth r a t io . T ha t o ur s ub ject 's s or t ing p rocedures w ere i n f a c t i n terna l ised motor ic r esponses w as s ugg es ted b y t he s or t ing b ehav iour o f s evera l men , who p i cked u p e ach s t one i n t urn , f ound a n a ppropr ia te e dg e a nd t hen g es tured i n t he a i r w ith t he s t one t o i nd i ca te t he d i rec t ion t hey w ou ld u se i ti n c u t t ing . »( Wh i te e ta l . 1 977 p .3 86 ) . A s f a r a s w e c an s e e , t h i s d oes n ot i na ny w ay p o int i nt he d i rec t ion p roposed . O n t he c on trary , t he p i eces s e em t o h ave b een s e lec ted a cc ord ing t o s pec if ic , a l though n o t e xp l ic i t ly d ef ined , p r inc ip les o f f unc t iona l i ty r e la t ing t ot he s pec if i c t ask f o r wh ich t hey w ere t ob e u sed . T hus a par tf r om s u i tab i l ity f o r h af t ing , t he p ieces w ere c er ta in ly a l so s e lec ted f o r e dge q ua l i t ies . I ti so f c ou r se n ot p oss ib le t ot e st t h is p ropos i t ion b ecause t he a u thor s d id n o tp ub l ish t he s i ze a nd e dg e a ng le r a t ios f o r f l ak es n ot s e lect ed . F ur ther , t he p ieces s ubsequent ly u sed s hou ld h ave b een mea sured a nd e va luated f o r t he men o n ly s or ted o u tp oss ib le u sab le p ieces . F rom a n a rchaeo log ica l p o int o fv iew , t h is i sc ru c ia l b ecause o n ly t he u sed f l akes w i l l e ver b e o bservab le b y am icrowear a na lys is . Any p a t tern ing i n t hat s amp le w ou ld t heref ore , o f c ourse , b e o f i n terest h ere . T hus , f r om a n a na ly t ica l p erspect ive , t he s im i lar ity i n s e lec t ion c r i ter ia o b served d epends o n t he o bserva t iona l l anguage u sed t o measure t h is s im i lar i ty . We a re n o t c onv inced t ha t l eng th -bread th r a t ios a nd e dge a ng les , wh ich c rea te a k ind o f morpho log ica l «t ype » , c ap ture t he r e levant «em ic » c r i t er ia g overn ing s e lect ion b y Duna -speaker s . T hus t he s im i lar i t ies n o ted m ight b e e rroneous , o n ly d emonst ra t ing s im i lar i ty w i th in t he b oundar ies o ft he d ef ined «t ype » , wh i ch m ight n ot r evea lt h et rue «menta lt emp lat e» . T he c onc lus ions t ha t c an b e d rawn f r om t h is e thnog raph ic s tudy a re t hus l im i ted . A f ew r e su lts c an b e r e t r ieved . Among men i n f a ce t o f ace c ontac t c ommon n orms f o r t he s e lec t ion o fu sab le p i ec es d o e x ist . H owever , t h is c ommon c ode i sn o tn ecessar i ly b a sed o n e xp l i c i t a greements w i th in a g roup o n h ow a p i e ce s hou ld l o ok , b u t may , a ccord ing t o Mod jeska , a l so b e g rounded o n t he e x is tence o f as im i lar p urpose a nd s im i lar t o o l r aw ma t er ia ls . T h is c er ta in ly m ight a pp ly t o B jurse le t , where t he e xp lo ita t ion o ft he n a tura l r esou r ces a round t he s i t ei su n if orm ( a s s hown b ya n ima lb ones )b u t where an ew t o o lr aw ma ter ia l w ith d if eren t p roper t ies i s i n troduced . Moreover t he l a t ter n o t ion s eems t o 2 77

i nd icat e t ha t u t i l i tar ian mo t ives r a ther t han c u ltura l p ref erences l i e b eh ind t he s e lec t ion o fe dges f o r u se . T h is i sp ar t ly s uppor ted b y o bserva t ions made among r e cen t s tone t o o l u s ing g roups i n N ew Gu inea , Austra l ia a nd A f r ica ( Knu t sson i n p ress ) . T hese r ecen t e thnoa r chaeo log ica l s tud ies s e em t o i nd icat e t ha t i ti sp r imar i ly e dge c hara c ter ist ics t ha t g overn t he c ho ice o fp i eces f o ru se . N on the less , i ti sn ot ed t ha to ne a nd t he s ame p iece may b e u sed i n av ar ie ty o fo pera t ions . T he g rea t s im i lar it i es o b served i n t oo l a ss emb lages o f d if eren t g roups , e ven t hough t he a ssemb lages may b e f ound i n d if erent c ont inen t s , s eem t o i nd ica te a c ommon «h uman » c ode , r a ther t han «c u l tura l »c odes , f or t he s e lec t ion o fu sab le e dg es o n f l akes . S in ce t he f unc t iona l e dge i so n ly ap ar to f as ystem o f s e lec t ion c r i ter ia , as ys tem wh i ch r epresent s t he who le f o rma t ive h istory o ft he s tones , a c omb ina t ion o f t e chno log ica l a nd f unc t iona l c r iter ia m ight p rov ide a b et ter c l ue t o t he p a t tern o f p roduct ion a nd u se o f f l aked s t one . Tha t i s , w e may o bserve d if eren t t echno log ica l s t ra teg ies u sed t o a t ta in s im i lar f unc t iona l g oa ls . A l though more o p t im is t ic t han r ea l is t ic ,t h is a ssump t ion i st he p o in to fd epar ture f o rt h is s tudy . T h is v i ew c an p erhaps b e s uppor ted b yt he p urpos eo ft h is p aper wh ich i st oe va lua te t he p oss ib le i ntrodu c t ion o f an ew s e t o f «n orms » .I ft he h ypothes is i sc o rrec t , t hese n orms w ere i n troduced b y p eop le who h ad moved w e l l o ver 15 00 km f r om t he ir o r ig ina l s e t t lement a reas , a nd t hus d ef in ite ly r epresent a d if e ren t s o c ia l n etwork a nd t heref ore p robab ly an ew t o o l u s ing t rad i t ion . E ven i ft he p urpose o ft o o l p roduct ion i si d ent ica l i n b o th g roups , r aw ma ter ia l a nd h af t ing modes may b e d if erent . These a re v ar iab les h av ing e f f ects o n s e lect ion h ab its , a s was o bserved among .t he Hareke . Fur ther , d if eren ces mus tb ee xpect ed i nt he t e chno logy u sed t or ea ch t he d es ired f unc t iona l g oa l . T hese i ntroduc tory r e marks , a l though n ot p rodu c ing a ny c onc lus ive r esu l t s r egard ing t he p rob lem , c u l ture v sf unc t iona l i ty o fs e lec t ion o fe dges f o r u se , l e ad u s o n t o t he e va lua t ion o ft he f l aked ma t er ia lf r om t he B jurse let s i te .

EVALUAT ION OF THE I 3JURSELET ASSEMBLAGE At o ta l o f 2 24 u nmod if ied f l akes o f q uar tz a nd 7 8 p ieces o f f l int w ere r andom ly s e lected f r om t he t o ta l a ssemb lage o f f l aked q uar tz a nd f l int f ound i n t he d if eren t «r efuse h eaps »a tt he s i t e , a nd s ubsequent ly a na lysed f o rt r a ces o fw ear . T h is i se qua l t o 5% o fa l l q uar t z f l akes a nd 1 0 %o ft he f l in t f l akes . I th as b een d emonstra t ed a bove t ha t p ost -depos it iona l p rocesses h ave s er ious ly a l tered t he f l int a nd q ua r tz s urfaces , d i s tor t ing a nd o b l itera t ing t r aces o fw ear c aused b y u s e . T hus f o r t he c ompa r ison o ft he a ssemb lages , t he i den t if i ca t ion o f u sed e dge a nd t oo l m o t ion o n ly h as b een s e t a s t he i nf erent ia l l eve l . T he a na lys is , wh ich w as c arr ied o u t a ccord ing t o t he p r inc ip les o u t l ined a bove ( c ompa re K nu ts son 1 982 a nd 1 986 ) , r ev ea led t ha t 2 9 f l int a nd 2 1 q uar tz f l akes e xh ib ited c l ear ly d i s cern ib le t ra ces o fw ea r . T h i s c or responds t o 2 4 %o f a l l f l in t f l akes a nd 1 0 % o f t he q uar tz f l akes f r om t he s amp led g roups . Most o f t he a na lysed «s c rapers » d i sp layed t races o f u se ( f ig . 1 0a , b ) . T he r e la t ionsh ip b e tween w ear p reserva t ion o n t o o ls o ft he t wo r aw ma ter ia ls h as n ot a s y e t b een emp ir ica l ly e va lua t ed a nd i st hus u ncer ta in . T h is makes a ny w ear f r equency c ompar ison l e ss f r u i t fu l a t t h is s tage o f r esear ch a nd , a t w ors t , m is lead ing . T hus i n t he e va lua t ion o f w ear t ra ces p resen ted b e low , n od i scuss ion o ft h is t op ic w i l lb ee ntered i n t o . I n r e cent s t one t oo l -us ing g roups , e dge c hara c ter is t i cs h ave p roved t ob e t he ma in c r i ter ion f o r t he s e lec t ion o ff unct iona l f l akes . W ith t h i s i n m ind , i n t h is s t udy we h ave r ough ly g rouped t he u sed e dges a ccord ing t o t he ir «e dge a ng les » a nd g enera l e dg e o ut l ine i nto f our ma in e thnograph ica l ly o bserved «f unc t iona l »c ategor ies . «T h in 2 78

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2 79

e dg es »r epresen t f l akes w i th e dg e a ng le s v a ry ing b e tw een c a 2 0 a nd 5 5 d eg r ees . I n t h e s e cond g roup , «s t u rdy e dg es » ,a ng les r ange b e tween 5 5a nd 9 0 d eg rees , c o r r e spond ing t o t he «e m ic » T j imar i - a nd P u rpunpa - t ype t o o ls o f t he A us tra l ian Wes t ern D eser t A bor ig ines ( G ou ld e ta l . 1 971 ) . T he t h ird g roup , o b tuse ly a ng led e dg es a nd r i gh t a ng led e dg es , i sn o t c l ea r ly d ef ined i n e thnog raph ic c on tex t s , e x cept f o r i n an o t e b y Hayden ( 1977 , p .1 850 . I t i s , o n t he o ther h and , a n e xper imen ta l ly a pprec ia t ed e dge g roup , e spe c ia l ly s u i tab le f o r p lan ing r e s i l ien t ma ter ia ls ( Crab tr ee 1 977 ) . T h is e dg e t ype i sa l s o f ound i nc onne c t ion w i th e dg es u sed f o rg roov ing i ne thnog raph i c a c coun t s . A l though n o t «f un c t iona l ly »d i s t inc t , t hese e dg e t ypes a re , w i th o ver lap s , r ough ly c orre la t ed t o c er ta in f un c t iona l a c t iv i t ies . C u t t ing a nd s l i c ing a re t yp ica l o fg roup o ne , s c rap ing a nd p lan ing o fg roup t wo ,p lan ing a nd g roov ing f o rg roup t h ree . As pec ia l g roup o ff l akes , c ons t i tu t ing t he f our th g r oup , i sp o in ted f l ak e s , ac a teg o ry t yp i ca l o f many e thnog raph ic c on tex t s . T hese p i ece s a re u sed h and -he ld f o r p ier c ing o r h a f t ed f o r g roov ing a nd d r i l l ing . D e ta i l s o ft o o l m orpho logy a re d ec is ive f o r t he p urpo se o ft hese p i e ces . T he c ompar i son o ft hese c a teg or ies w i th in t he q ua r t z a nd f l in ta ssemb lag e f r om t he B ju r se le ts i t ei so fc our se r edu ced i nv a lue b yt h ef a c tt ha ti ti s , a sm en t ioned ,n o t p o ss ib le t od e t erm ine w ork ed ma t er ia l .I tw a sa n t i c ipa ted a tt he o u t se to ft h i sr e s ear ch t ha t w orked r aw ma ter ia l w ou ld f o rm a n i mpor tant f unc t i ona l v ar iab le i n t he c ompara t iv e a na lys is . H owever , b y c orre la t ing t he f unc t iona l i n terpre tat ion w i th a nother t e chno log ica l v ar iab le , i t i s a n t ic ipa ted t ha t ap oss ib le d i s t inc t iveness n orma l p rodu c t ion — u s ep a t t ern w i l l e merg e , s epa ra t ing o r c onne c t ing t he d if er en t , p rev iou s ly d ef ined c l us ters o fd eb i tag e i n t he s i te a rea . F r om a s t a t is t ica l p o in t o fv i ew , t he l ow f r equen cy o fo b served e dg es w i th u se t r a ce s make s a ny c ompar ison b e tween c l u sters v e ry d if i cu l t . S in ce t he p r imary a im o ft h i s s t udy i st od i s cu s st he e f ec t so ft he i n t roduc t ion o f f l in t i n to t he a rea , i tw a s d ec ided t ha t c l us ters c on ta in ing f l in t a nd q ua r t z wou ld b e c ompa red w i th c l us ters c on ta in ing o n ly q uar tz d eb i tag e . A l though s imp l if ied , t h is a pproa ch i s a t p resen t t he o n ly o ne p oss ib le a nd w i l l a ccord ing ly f o rm a b as is f o r d i s cus s ion . T he f r equency o f u sed e dg es i n t he d if er en t «f unc t iona l »g r oups a nd o n s c raper s i si lu s t ra ted i n f i g . 1 0 . T he f o l low ing c onc lu s ions c an b e d rawn f r om t hese d i ag rams . A l though n o t a s y e t s t a t is t i ca l ly t e s ted , f l akes o fq uar tz a nd f l in t s how a s im i la r p a t t e rn ing a nd f r equ ency o fu sed e dg es .T h i si st r ue b o th o ft he t ypes o fu sed e dg es a nd t h e r e la t iv e p ropor t ions b e tween t hese t ypes . I n c l u s t er s e n c ompa ss ing f l in t a nd q uar t z , f l in t f l akes a re u sed t o ac ons iderab ly h igher d eg ree t han a r e q uar tz f l akes . I n c on c entra t ions c on ta in ing f l in t s e condar i ly mod if ied q uar tz f l akes a re more c o mmon ly u sed a s s c raper st han a re u nmod if i ed q uar t zf l ak es . O n t he t e chno log ica l l e ve l , t he s e le c t ion o ff unc t iona l ly i n teres t ing p i e ces c an b e d i s cu s sed u s ing t he c omp i led d i ag ram si nf i g . 1 a fa s ag u ide .T hey s how t ha tt he p i e ce s s e le c t ed f o ru se i nt he t wo «a s semb lag es »b ear as t rong r e semb lance t oe a ch o t her . T hey a re i nb o th a ssemb lag es b a sed o n p la t f orm a nd b i po lar type f l akes , a nd s how e v iden ce o f t he s y s tema t ic u se o fa c c iden ta l b reak s a s u sab le e dg e s . P o in ted f l akes , w he re a r i gh t a ng led b reak m ee t s al a tera l e dg e t o f o rm a p o in t , a re f ound i n b oth a ssemb lag e s . A c c iden ta l b reak s a re u sed f o r p lan ing p u rposes . T hus , f r om b o th at e chno log ica l a nd a f un c t iona lp o in to fv i ew t he a ssemb lag es a r e s u rpr i s ing ly s im i lar . Ac l oser l o ok a t t e chno log ica l c r i ter ia r evea l s t ha tf l in t f l akes f r om b i po lar f l ak ing a re i n g enera l u sed l e ss f r equen t ly t han f l int p la t f orm f l akes ( f ig . 1 1 ) . T he s i tua t ion s e en i nt he q uar t z a ssemb lag e i sm ore d if i cu l tt oi n terp re t , b ecause o ft he l ow f r equen cy o fo bserva t ions . H owever , t he t endency s e ems t ob e t ha t p l a tf orm f l akes a nd «b ipo la r» f l akes a r e u sed a t r ough ly t he s ame r a t e . H owev er , i t mu s t b e r emember ed t ha t , when 2 80

QUARTZ

QUARTZ

b ipo la r f l akes

P lat fo rm f l akes

t h in e dge

t h in e dge

A

s tu rdy e dge

s tu rdy e dge

o b tuse a ng le

o b tuse a ng le

p o in t

p o in t 1 0

0

QUARTZ

F L INT

f l ake f rag men ts

b ipo lar f l akes

t h in e dge

t h in e dge

s turdy e dge

s tu rdy e dge

o b tuse a ng le

o b tuse a ng le

p o in t

p o in t 0

5

5

1 0

F L INT

F L INT

f l ake f ragments

P la t fo rm f l akes

t h in e dge

11 0

1 1 0

t h in e dge

s tu rdy e dge o b tuse a ng le

5

s tu rdy e dge tu

o b tuse a ng le p o in t

p o int 0

5

1 0

0

5

1 0

1 5

F ig 1 : F requency o ff l akes w i th u se -wear t r aces i nt he f our morpho log ica lg roups . a — Quartz b ipo lar f l akes ; b — Quar tz p latform f l akes ; c— Quartz f l ake f ragments ; d— F l int b ipo lar f l akes ; e— F l int p latf orm f l akes ; f— F l int f l ake f ragment s 2 81

q uar tz i sf l aked , f l akes w ith «b ipo lar » c haracter ist ics a re a l so p roduced d ur ing a nv i l f l ak ing f rom p latf orm c ores ( Knu tsson , i n p rep . ) . T hus t he a ctua l t e chno log ica l d i st inct ion b etween t he f l ake t ypes i s e xaggerated b y t h is s imp le p ar t it ion i nto t wo s upposed ly d if erent t echno log ica l g roups . U sed f l akes w ith n o r es idua l s t r ik ing a rea a re much more c ommon i n t he q uar tz a ssemb lag e . T h is i sc l ear ly more d ependent o n t he f r equent o ccurrence o f a cc identa l f r agmentat ion o f q uartz d ur ing k napp ing t han o n s pec if i c s e lect ion c r iter ia u sed . F lakes w ere o bv ious ly n ot c hosen o n t he b as is o f s pec if i c t e chno log ica l t r a its . F lakes d etached b y d if erent me thods may o n ly h ave b een more o r l e ss s u ited f o r as pec if ic p urpose ( f ig . 1 2 ) .

F ig 1 2:

E xamp les o ff l int f l akes w i th u se -wear t r aces . a— T h in e dge g roup ;b— S turdy e dge g roup ;c— Ob tuse ly a ng led g roup ; d—P o inted f l ake g roup .

I ti sn ot p oss ib le , f r om t he e v idence p resented h ere , t o s ee a ny d e f in ite c orre la t ion b etween t he p rodu cts o f as pec ia l r educt ion s t ra tegy a nd t he s pec if ic u se f l akes a re p u t t o . 2 82

H owever , t h is s i tua t ion m ight v ery w e l l h ave b een d if erent , i fi th ad b een p oss ib le t o d e te rm ine w orked ma t er ia lb ym ic rowear a na lys is . Obv ious d epar tu re s f r om t h is g enera l p a t tern h ave b een o bserved a nd d i scussed e a r l ier i n t he t ex t , w here a t t ent ion w as d rawn t ot he o c cur rence o fp a t ina t ion s ugg es t ing t he p resence o fp oss ib le «s ou th S cand inav ian »a rt efa c ts . T h is g roup o ft o o ls i sp ar t o fa d if erent t e chno log i ca l s y stem , o f wh i ch t here i sa l so e v idence i n o ther s i tes w i th f l int i V ä s t erbo t ten ( Knu t sson 1 986 a ,b ) . An a dd it iona l c omment c an b e made o n t he r e su lts o ft he m icrowea r a na lys is . I t w as o bserved t ha t p la t f o rm c ores u sed a s s c raper p lanes , ac harac ter is t ic t oo l t ype i n t he q ua r tz a ssemb lage ( Knu t sson , i n p ress ) , w ere n o t p resent i n t he f l int a ssemb lage . T he o bv ious r eason f o r t h is i st ha t n o r es idua l p la tf orm c ores i n f l in t e x ist a t t he s i te . O ne p i e ce o ff l in t ( C 9 ) , h owever , w as a c tua l ly d e f ined a s as c raper p lane f o r w ood . T h is o ne p i e ce was p a r t o ft he t ex ture a na lys is e xper iment a nd was a l so b y t h is t e chn ique d ef ined a s amember o ft he w ood g roup ( f ig . 1 3 ) . The c onc lus ion o ne m ight d raw f r om t he e v iden ce p resen ted a bove i st ha tt here d oes n o ts e em t ob e a ny v i s ib l ec hange i nt he u se o ff l akes a f t er t he i n troduc t ion o ff l in ti n t o t he a r ea , a t l eas t n ot a t t he B jurse le t s i te . O n t he c on trary , ar emarkab le u n if orm i ty o ft o o l u se a s w e l l a s t echno log ica l s t rategy f o r t he p roduct ion o f f unct iona l t oo ls i s d emonst ra ted . T h is s peaks i n f avour o f ac on t inuous u se o f t he s i t e b y p eop le s har ing s im i lar «s o c ieta l) ) n o rm s . T ha t i st o s ay , e i ther t he f l int wa s i n trodu ced b y a «n ew » p eop le , b u t s ubsequen t ly u sed b y t he l o ca l i nhab itan ts , o r i tw as i n t roduced b y a «n ew » p eop le , who v ery q u i ck ly a dop t ed l o ca l p rac t i ces o ft o o lp rodu c t ion a nd u se .

THE TECHNOLOGY OF SECONDARY MODIF ICAT ION «S crapers » , i . e . p i eces w i th s econdary mod if icat ion , f ound d epos ited i n t he d if erent c l usters u sua l ly s how d i s t inct u se w ear t r aces a l ong t he s econdar i ly mod if ied f l ake marg ins . F l int s c rapers e xh ib it a l ower u se f r equency , b u t t h is may v ery w e l l b e d ue t o p os t -depos i t iona l p rocesses t ha t h ave o bscured o r o b l i terat ed t ra ces o f u se . F or r ea sons ment ioned e ar l i er , i ti si mposs ib le t o make a ny c orre la t ion b etween t he q ua r tz a nd f l int s c rapers a sf a ra st he w orked r aw ma t er ia ls a re c oncerned . The s e condar i ly m od if ied p i eces h ave a f ew c harac ter ist ic t e chno log ica l t ra i ts , w h i ch r e inf orces t he a b ove p resented c ont inu ity h ypothes is . I tw i l l b e a rgued t ha t t he f r a c ture p a t tern o fs e condary mod if ica t ion i ss im i lar o n q uar t z a nd f l int s c rapers f ound i nt he d if er en tc oncen tra t ions . I t w as o bserved d ur ing t he t e chno log ica l s or t ing o f q uar tz s c rapers f r om t he a s semb lag e t ha t 5 0 %o ft hese d i sp layed r i ght a ng led b reaks , p robab ly t runca t ions . T hese b reaks a re o ft wo b as ic t ypes —c en t ra l s p l i t t ing a l ong t he m id l ine o ft he s c raper ( f ig . 1 4a ) a nd t ransverse b reak s , o f ten w ith v ar iab le o r ientat ions ( f ig . 1 4b ) . I t h as b een d emonst ra ted b y m icrowear a na lys is t ha t t hese b reaks p robab ly h ave d if erent o r ig ins ( Knutsson i n p rep ) . T he c ent ra l b reak i sh igh ly c o rre la ted t ou nused s pec imens , whereas i n most c ases t he t r ansverse b r eak i sf ound o n u sed s pec imens ( Knu tsson i n p rep . ) . T he c en t ra l b reak i st hus p r obab ly t he r e su lt o fa cc iden ta l b reakage d ur ing p roduc t ion . T he t r ansverse b reak i si n te rpre ted a s ad e l ibera te ly manuf ac tured b reak , made t of a c i l itat e h af t ing .

2 83

F ig 1 3:

Quar tz f l akes w ith u se -wear t ra ces a— T h in e dge g roup ; b — S turdy e dge g roup . D 4 92 u sed a s s craper; c— Obtuse ly a ng led g roup ;d— P o inted f l ake g roup ;e— «P la tf orm c ore » s c raper p lanes 2 84

F ig 1 4:

Quar t z s c raper f r a c ture p a t terns . a—S craper sw i th «c en t ra lb reaks »;b—S crapers w i th «t r ansverse b reaks »

2 85

E va lua t ion o f f rac ture p a t terns f ound o n f l in t s c rapers f r om B ju rse let s eems t o i nd ica te t ha t as im i lar p rac t ice w as a pp l ied d ur ing t he ir p rodu ct ion . B y e xper imen ta l i nves t iga t ions i th as b een p oss ib le t od emons trat e t ha tb reaks c au sed b y d if erent f r a c ture p rocesses s how d if erent f r a c ture p a t terns ( Hahn 1 973 , R o che a nd T ix ier 1 982 , Oven 1 982 , B ergman e ta l . 1 983 ) . B a s ica l ly , o n ly f r a c tu re f a ce ts w i th ap os it ive a nd n egat ive b u lb o f p er cuss ion o r «b ipo lar »b reaks w i th a s ma l l b u lb o fp er cuss ion o n t wo o ppos ing s i des o f t he b reak a re c haracter ist ic o f i n tent iona l t runca t ions . O ther t ypes o fb reaks ( bend ing f r a c tures ) may b e i n ten t iona l , b u t n eed n ot n ecessar i ly b e s o . T he f ractu res f ound o n t he f l int s c rapers f r om B jurse let a re d ef in i te ly i n tent iona l , s how ing c l ose af in i t ies w ith t he f r acture c harac ter is t ics o f b ipo lar s p l it t ing ( f ig . 1 5 ) . T hese f r ac tures a re f ound o n 1 2 s c rapers f r om t he s i t e ,t ha ti s3 7 .5 % o ft he t o ta l a ssemb lag e o ff l int s c raper s .

F ig 1 5 :F l int s c rapers s how ing t ransverse b reaks . F rac ture p a t terns w i th Her tz ian c one f r a c tu res i nd ica t et ha tt hese b reaks w ere p rodu ced i n ten t iona l ly .

T h is p ract ice i sn o t e qua l ly d i s t r ibu ted o ver t he s i t e . N o s c rapers f r om t he f l in t c l ust er i n a rea D e xh ib i t t hese b reaks ( f ig . 1 6 ) . T he d if erence b e tween t he f l int scraper s i na rea D a nd t he s pec imens f r om t he r e s t o ft he s i te i sf ur ther u nder l ined b yt he f a c tt ha t a l l f l int s c rapers i n a rea D a re d amaged b y f i re . O n ly a f ew p ieces f r om t he o ther c oncent ra t ions h ave b een s ub jec ted t of i re ( f ig . 1 7 ) . T h is more o r l e ss c or r esponds t o t he r e la t ive f r equency o fb urned f l int p i eces i n t he d if er en t c l us ters ( f ig . 1 8 ) . T he s c raper s f ound i n a rea D a re f ur ther g enera l ly «s ma l ler »t han t he s c raper s f r om t he r est o ft he s i te ( f ig . 1 9 ) . T h is i sn o t a t tr ibu tab le t o d amage b y f i re . T he h igh f r equency o fb urned f l akes i n a rea D s eems t ob e c aused b y t he f r agmenta t ion o f ab urned , u npo l ished t h i ck b u t t ed a dze , ab ehav ioura l t ra i tf ound o n a l lf l int s ites i nt h is a rea ( Knu tsson 1 986 p .2 64 ) . I t may f u r ther b e o bserved t ha t 1 3 f r agmentary t r ansver se a rrowheads a l l d amaged b y f i re a re f ound i n c onnec t ion w ith t he f l in t c l uster i n a rea D . On t he b a s is o f t hese o bserva t ions t he f o l low ing h ypothes is c an b e p roposed . A tt he s i te t here i se v idence f o rt wo d if erent methods o f s c raper p rodu c t ion o ne w ith a nd o ne w ithou t t he u se o fd e l ibera t e t runca t ion . T he h ab it o f t runca t ing f l int s c rapers s h ows c l ose t e chno log i ca l af in i t ie s w i th t he p roduc t ion o f q uar tz s c rapers a t t he s i te . T he b urn ing o f s crapers w ith n o t runca t ion f ur ther s hows a f f i l ia t ion w i th b urned , f i re -cracked , t h ick -bu t ted a dzes a nd b urned t r ansver se a rrowheads i nt he f l in t c l us ter o fa r ea D :e . T he p resence o fB a t t le A xe C u l tu re J ceram ics i n t h is f l int c l us ter makes i tr easonab le t o a ssume t ha t t h e d e l ibera t e b urn ing o f t ransverse a rrowheads , t h ick -bu t ted a dzes a nd s ma l l s crapers w ith n o t runca t ion i s p ar t o f t he s ame c u ltura l t rad it ion , r epresen t ing p eop le o f s ou th S cand inav ian o r ig in u s ing BAC -ceram ics . T h is o bservat ion i s r e inf orced b y o bserva t ions a t o ther f l int s i t es i n V äs terbo tt en ;s ee K nu tsson 1 986 , where f i re -cracked 2 86

FL INT SCRAPERS W ITH DEL IBERATELY MADE TRUNCAT ION USED EDGES

1 00 %

_ 50 %

II

I

!I I I ' 0% A B Ca Cb Cc Da Db Dc Dd De D fF E a t b .Ga Gb Gc Gd I AREA F ig 1 6a :

D istr ibu t ion o f s c rapers w ith t ransverse b reaks i n t he d if erent c lusters c onta in ing f l int .

QUARTZ SCRAPERS W ITH DEL IBERATELY MADE TRUNCAT ION U SED E DGES

1 00 %

5 0%

0% I I A B Ca C b Cc D a D bDc D d D e D f F E a E b Ga GbGc Gd I AREA F ig 1 6b :

D istr ibut ion o f q uar tz s c rapers w ith t r ansverse b reaks i n t he d if erent s i te c l us ters .

2 87

BURNED AND NOT BURNED SCRAPERS

F ig 1 7 : D is tr ibu t ion o fb urned a nd u nburned f l int s c rapers i nc l us ters c onta in ing f l int .

BURNED-N ON-BURNED FLAKES I N CONCENTRAT IONS WITH FL INT

1 00 %

50 %

0%

B

U

Ca F ig 1 8 :D istr ibut ion o f b urned a nd u nburned f l int p i eces i n c lus ters c onta in ing f l int . Hat ched b ars :b urned p i eces .

2 88

L

L ENGTH- W IDTH OF F L INT S CRAPERS • Who le p ieces

6 0-

0

Bu rned p ieces

A

P ieces w i th d e l iberate ly made t r uncat ions

•

1

5 0 -

A A 4 6-

A 3 0-

0 A

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A .

A

•

oo

•

• A

A

o 0

° • o.

0 0

0

0 1 1

0

A

M

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2 0-

1 0-

0

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I 1 0

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01 I

1 2 0

I 3 0

! 4 0

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F ig 1 9 :L eng th -w id th c o r re la t ion o fa l l f l int s c rapers i n t he a ssemb lage . Note t he sma l l s i ze o ff i re -damag ed p i eces , mos to f wh ich a re f ound i nc l uster D :e .

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t h ick -bu t ted a dzes a nd t ransverse a rrowheads a re a l so f ound . T he f l int s c rapers w i th d e l ibera te t runca t ions may b e t he r e su lt o fc on t inu ity i nt he u se o ft he B ju r se let s i te b y n or th Swed ish «c u l tura l »g roups a f t er t he i n t rodu c t ion o ff l int t ot he a rea . I t mus t b e s t ressed , h owever , t ha t t h is a na ly s is h as b een c arr ied o u t o n at yp ica l ly e xped ient t ype o f a ssemb lage wh ich c onta ins ma ter ia l n o t n ecessar i ly c ha ra c ter ist ic o f «c u l tura l »g roups . F ur ther i tc an b e o bserved t ha t t he c l a ss i f ica t ion o ft he a na ly sed d eb i tag ei n to f ou r «e dge t ype » g roups may s c reen r a ther t han h igh l ight d if erences i n t o o l u se . T he d ef in i t ions o f t he f unct iona l c l asses may v ery w e l l c u t a cross t rue «e m ic » g roups . F ur thermore , t he f ew e thnog raph ic o bserva t ions s eem t o i nd icate t hat t he se g roups r epresent a g enera l « human »n orm r a ther t han s pe c if ic c u ltura l n orms ( Wh i te 1 968 , S t ra thern 1 968 , G ou ld e ta /. 1 971 , H ayden 1 977 ) . T hus t he t e chno log ica l a nd f unc t iona l a f f in i t ies f ound b etween t he t wo t y pes o fr aw ma ter ia ls c an p erhaps b e e xp la ined b y u n iversa l ly «h uman »i deas o f t o o l p roduct ion a nd u se r a ther t han i deas t yp ica l o f «n or th S cand inav ian » g roups . A no ther ma jor i n terpre ta t ive b ias i st he u nknown t ime d ep th r epresen ted b y t he c ompared «c l usters » . T he r epea ted u se o ft he s i te , i n c lud ing t he f l ak ing a nd u se o ff l in t a f ter t he d epos i t ion o f f l int i n t he l a t e MN , m igh t v ery w e l l h ave o bs cured t he p oss ib ly s pec if ic c hara c ter o fa «s ou th S cand inav ian » t oo l -us ing b ehav iour .The r ef it t ing o f t he f l int a s se mb lag e i nd i ca tes t h is ( Knu t sson , i n p rep . ) , a s w e l l a s t he f a c t t ha tf l int s c rapers w i th t r unca t ions s upposed ly o f n or th S cand inav ian t rad it ion a re f ound i n a l l b u t o ne o f t he f l int c on cen t ra t ions a tt he s i te . Whatever t he c ase may b e , t he p resent p aper c an p erhaps a t l eas t s e rve a s a methodo log ica l e xamp le , a l though t he u se o f t he f unc t iona l i nf orma t ion may b e r a ther n a ive , a nd t he r e su l t sf a rf r om p reh is tor ic r ea l i ty .

CONCLUSIONS OF THE MICRO WEAR ANALYSIS PART H T he i n trodu c t ion o ff l in t t on or thern Sweden i nt he l a t e m idd le N eo l i th ic , f o r wh i ch «c aches »o f ma in ly t h ick -but ted , h o l low -edged f l int a dzes i n t he c oasta l r eg ion o f t he p rov ince o fV äs terbo t ten a re e v idence , i st hought t o h ave b een a ccomp l ished b y p eop les b e long ing t o t he s ou th S cand inav ian B at t le A xe t r ad it i on . I fo ne a s sumes t ha t g roups o f «p eop les »d i s t ingu ish t hemse lves f r om e ach o ther b y b ehav ioura l n orms f o r s u ch t h ing s a s t o o l p rodu c t ion a nd u se , t hen t he i n trodu c t ion o fn ew p eop le ( s ee Knutsson 1 986 ) i n t o V äs terbot ten w ou ld a l so e n ta i l n ew n orms f o r t o o l p rodu c t ion a nd u se . I t i s ma in ly t he l a t ter a spec t o ft h is p ropos i t ion t ha t i sd i scussed i n t h i s p aper . T oo l u se i sc ompared b y a na lys ing m icroscop ic t races o fw ear f ound o n f l akes o ft he t wo t ypes o fr aw mater ia l , q uar t z a nd f l in t ,f ound a tt he B jurse le ts i te . C lu sters c on ta in ing f l in t a nd q uar t z a re t hen c ompared t o c l us ters / con centrat ions c onta in ing o n ly q uartz d eb i tage . I t i s t hen a ssumed t ha t t he c oncentrat ions e ncompass ing f l in t a t l e as t p ar t ly r epresent t he r es idua l p roduc ts o f manuf a c tu red t oo ls a nd u sed t oo ls d epos ited b y a s ou th S cand inav ian «g roup » , w hereas t he q uar t z a ssemb lages r epresent t he o r ig ina l i nhab i tan ts . T he r e su lt o f t he a na lys is c a rr ied o u t i nd ica tes as t rong s im i la r ity b e tween t he t wo g roups o fd eb i tage c oncentra t ions ,b o th f r om at e chno log ica l a nd af unc t iona lp o int o fv i ew .

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A c o mpar ison o f s e condar i ly mod if ied p ieces i n b oth r aw ma ter ia ls f ur ther r e inf or ces t h is h ypothes is . S im i lar d ec is ion s e t s s eem t o b e r espons ib le f o r s c rapers o f b o th q uar tz a nd f l int , where t runca t ion o ft he b lank i sc ommon p rac t ice . T h is i st rue o fa l l c oncen t ra t ions e xcept f o r o ne , D :e , where a d i f f erent manuf actu r ing n orm s eems t o b e p res en t . T h is s epa ra t ion o fc l us ter D :e f r om t he r es t o ft he s i te i sf u r ther e nhanced b y t he f a ct t ha t a l l s c rapers i n D :e a re d amaged b y f i re . I n a dd it ion , f r agment s o fh ea t -damag ed t ransver se a rrowheads o c cu r i n a rea D :e t oge ther w ith w ere o ver 7 00 p i eces o f af i re c racked , t h ick -bu t ted a dze . O n t he b as is o f t h is e v idence i ti st hus c onc luded t ha t t he sma l ler s c rapers w i thou t t runca t ion i n a rea D :e c an b e s een a s t he r esu lt o ft he s ou th S cand inav ian t e chno log i ca lt r ad i t ion . T he f i na l c onc lus ion o ft h is s tudy i st hus t ha t as ou th S cand inav ian t r ad it ion d oes e x is t a tt he s i te ;i tt akes t he f o rm o ff i re -cra cked f l in t a r tef ac t s i n a rea D . N ever the less , t he g enera l i mpress ion i so ne o fc ont inu ity , t o o l -us ing b ehav iour o n mos tp ar t s o ft he s i t e b e ing s urpr is ing ly s im i lar .

ACKNO WLEDGE MENTS A g rant f r om t he B er it Wa l lenberg f ounda t ion f o r a rchaeo log ica l r esearch f i nanced t he c ompu ter ised t ex ture a na lys is c arr ied o u t i n c onnect ion w ith t he p repa ra t ion o ft h is p aper . F inanc ia l s uppor t w as a l so g i ven b y t he N ordarkeo log i p ro jec t , d i re c t ed b y D r Hans C hr ist iansson , Uppsa la . We a l so w ant t oe xpress o ur a pprec ia t ion t o t he i n d iv idua ls t ha t a ided i n t he c omp let ion o ft h is s tudy . P au l S inc la ir , Uppsa la , made mos t o ft he w ork i n c onne c t ion w i th t he p rodu c t ion o ft he c ontour maps . R oger G race , I ns t i tu te o fA r chaeo logy , L ondon , p rov ided u s w ith a d ra f t o f t he i n sp ir ing p aper o n a mu l t ivar iate a pproa ch t of unc t iona l a na lys is o fs t one t o o ls . J a ck ie T af f inder , I ns t itu te o f A rchaeo logy , Uppsa la , c on t ro l led t he E ng l ish l anguage o f t he o r ig ina l manuscr ipt a nd a l so m ade v a luab le c ommen t s o n t he c onten t .

B IBL IOGRAPHY ANDERSON -GERFAUD , ( P . ) , 1 981 .— C ont r ibu t ion M ahodo log ique a l ' Ana lyse d es M icrotraces d 'Ut i l isat ion s ur l e s Ou t i ls P reh istor iques , T h se d e 3 e c yc le , U n ivers i te d e B ordeaux I ,T a lence . BERGMAN , ( C . ) , BARTON , ( R .N .E . ) , COLCUTT , ( S .N . ) , MORR IS , ( G . ) , 1 983 .— I n tent iona l B reakag e i n aL a te P a leo l ith ic A ssemb lage f r om S ou thern E ng land . F ou rth I nterna t iona l S ympos ium o n F l int . B r igh ton . BERTWALL , ( C . ) , 1 985 .— E n s tud ie a v f l intdepäerna iV ästerbot ten . BA d i sser ta t ion . I n s t . f o ra rkeo log i .Umeä u n ivers i te t . BROADBENT , ( N .D . ) , 1 982 .— S ke l lef tebygdens h is tor ia . D e l 3 . D en f ö rh istor iska u tveck l ing en u nder 7 000 ä r . S ke l lef teä . CHR IST IANSSON , ( H .) , 1 965 .— F l intf inds i n V ästerbot ten . A g r icu ltu re . Hun t ing a nd F ish ing . L u leäsympos ium . CLARKE , ( D .L . )1 972 .— A na ly t ica lA r chaeo logy . L ondon : Me thuen . 2 9 1

Hunt ing ,

T rade ,

CRABTREE , ( D . ) 1 977 .— T he o btuse A ng le a s a F unct iona l E dge . E xper imenta l A rchaeo logy ( e d . I nger so l l , D . ,Y e l len ,J .E . , Mac D ona ld ,W . ) , N ew Y ork . DAHLQV IST , ( B . ) KNUTSSON , ( K . ) , 1 985 .— I mage c l ass if ica t ion a nd d es cr ipt ion o f f l int t oo l u sage . P roceed ings o f t he 4 th S cand inav ian c onf erence o n i mag e a na lys is . T rondhe im . ER IKSSON , ( 0 . ) e t a l . I L IAD .— A H igh L eve l D ia logu e S ys tem f o r P icture A na lys is i n Na tu ra lL anguag e C ommun ica t ion ( e d . L .B o le ) ,S p r inge rV er lag , B er l in . GOULD , ( R .A . ) KOSTER , ( D .A . ) SONTZ , ( A .H .L . ) , 1 971 .— T he l i th ic A ssemb lage o f t he Wes tern D eser tA bor ig ines o fA us t ra l ia . Amer ican A n t iqu i ty 3 6( 2 ) . GRACE , ( R . ) , ATAMAN , ( R . ) , FABREGAS , ( R . ) a nd HAGGREN , ( C .M .B . ) , i n p rep .— A mu l t ivar iat ea pproa ch t ot he f unc t iona l a na lys is o fS t one T oo ls . GRACE , ( R . ) , GRAHAM , ( I .D .G . ) , NE WCO MER , ( M . ) 1 985 .— T he q uant if icat ion o f m icrowear p o l ishes . Wor ld A r chaeo logy 1 7 . O xf o rd . HAHN , ( J . ) , 1 973 .—Zusammengeset zte A r tefakte u nd t yp ische B ruchf ormen . i nB os insk i G . Hahn J . D er Magda len ien -F undp la tz A nde rnach ( Mar t insberg ) . R he in ische A usg rabung en 1 . HARAL ICK , ( R .M . ) , SHANMUGAM , ( K . ) , D INSTE IN , ( I . ) , 1 973 .— T ex tura l f e a tures f o r i mag ec l a ss if i ca t ion . I EEE t r ansa c t ions o n s ys tems , man a nd c yberne t ic s . SMC -6 . HAYDEN , ( B . ) 1 977 .— S tone t o o l f unc t ion i n t he Wes te rn D eser t . S tone t o o l s a s c u ltura l markers : c hange e vo lu t ion a nd c omp lex i ty ( e d . Wr ight ,R .W .S . ) . Me lbou rne . HOLLEY , ( G .A . ) DEL BENE , ( T .A . ) 1 981 .— An E va luat ion o f K ee ley 's M icrowear A pproa ch .J ourna l o fA r chaeo log i ca lS c ience 8 .L ondon . KEELEY , ( L .H . )1 980 .— E xper imenta l d et erm ina t ion o fs t one t o o lu ses . C h icag o . KNUTSSON , ( H . ) 1 982 .— S k ivyxor . E xper imente l l a na lys a v e n r edskaps typ f r än d en s ena t lant iska b osät tn ingen i S o lda t torpet . BA d i sser ta t ion . I nst itu t ionen f ö r a rkeo log i . U ppsa la Un iver s i te t . KNUTSSON , ( K . ) 1 985a .— Y t topograf iska s tud ier a v f ö rh istor iska s t enredskap 3 . S vepe lektronm ikroskop i a v e xper imente l la k vartsredskap . E xempe l p ä u r lakn ing ,u tf ä l ln ing , d ef ormer ing o ch m ekan isk n ö tn ing . TOR XX . Uppsa la . KNUTSSON , ( K . ) 1 985b .— S EMana lys is o f Wear F ea tures o n e xper imen ta l Quar tz T oo ls . E ar ly Man N ews 9 / 10 / 11 .T üb ing en . KNUTSSON , ( K . ) 1 986 .— Nägra a rbets ideer i s amband med b earbe tn ingen a v B jurse le tf ynden . S tr idsoxe t id iS ydskand inav ien . B eretn ing f ra e t s ympos ium 2 8 . -30 .X .1985 iV e j le ( r ed .A damsen , C h . E bbesen , K )K öpenhamn . KNUTSSON , ( K .) 1 986b .— S ammanf ogn ing a v f l intorna i Kusmarksdepän K ombewametoden b e lagd p ä d e n ordsvenska f l intf yndp la tserna . F j ö ln ir , 8 6 :2 p p . 3 -20 , U ppsa la .

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KNUTSSON , ( K . ) i n p rep .— P a t terns o f t o o l p roduc t ion a nd u se . T he a na lys is o f t he f l aked q uar tz a nd f l in t a ssemb lage f r om t he l a te m idd le n eo l ith ic s i te B jurse let , V ä st erbo tt en . KNUTSSON , ( K . ) i n p ress b .— C hem ica l E t ch ing o f Wear F ea tures o n e xper imenta l Q uar tz T oo ls . KNUTSSON , ( K . ) i n p ress .— M icrowear A na lys is o f Q uar tz A ssemb lages : E xper iences f r om t he l a te m idd le n eo l i th ic S i te o fB jur se let , n or thern Sweden . L 'Anthropo log ie . P a r is . LEV I -SALA , ( I . ) 1986a .— E xper imenta l R ep l ica t ion o f P ost -Depos it iona l S urface Mod if ica t ion o nF l in t . E ar ly Man N ews 9 / 10 / 11 .T üb ing en . LEV I -SALA , ( I . ) 1 986b . — Surface Mod if icat ion : A Word o f C au t ion . J ourna l o f A r chaeo log ica l S c ience 1 3 . L ondon . MALMER , ( M .P . )1 975 .— S tr idsyxeku l turen iS ver ige o ch N org e . L und . MOSS , ( E . )1983 .— T he F un c t iona l A na lys is o f F l int I mp lements . P incevent a nd P on t d 'Ambon : t wo c ase s tud ies f r om t he F rench F ina l P a leo l i th ic . BAR I nt erna t iona l S e r ies 1 77 . NE WCOMER , ( M .H . ) , GRACE , ( R . ) , UNGER -HAM ILTON , ( R . ) 1 986 .— I nves t iga t ing m i crowear p o l ishes w i th b l ind t e s t s .J ourna l o fA r chaeo log ica lS c ience 1 3 :203 -217 . OWEN , ( L . ) 1 982 .— A na lys is o fE xper imen ta l B reaks o n F l int b lades a nd F lakes . S tud ia P raeh is tor i ca B e lg i ca I . P L ISSON , ( H . ) 1 983 .— D e l a c onserva t ion d e m icropo l is d 'u t i l isa t ion . B u l le t in d e l a S o c ie t e P re h is t or iqu e F ra ma ise T ome 8 0 (3 ) . PLISSON , ( H .) 1 986 .— A l terat ion d es m icropo l is d 'usage : q ue lques e xper iences c omp lemen ta ires . E ar ly Man N ews 9 / 10 / 11 .T üb ing en . ROCHE , ( H . ) , T IX IER , ( J . ) 1 982 .— L es A cc idents d e T a i l le . S tud ia P raeh istor ica B e lg ica I . RUDEBECK , ( E . ) 1 986 .— E ngda la f l intg ruvor f r än y ng re s t enä lder is .S a l lerup s o cken . R appor tn r1 . Ma lmö museer . Ma lmö . SAMPSON , ( R .J . ) 1 978 .— S urf ace I G raf ic S ys tem ( Rev ised 1 978 ) . S u rvey . C ompu ter C on tr ibu t ions . L aw rence ,T exa s .

K ansas G eo log ica l

STRATHERN , ( M . ) 1 968 .— S tone A xes a nd F lake T oo ls : E va luat ions f r om N ew G u inea . P roceed ing so ft he P reh is tor i cS o c ie ty f o r1 969 -v o l . X XXV . C ambr idg e . VAUGHAN , ( P . ) 1 986 . —Use -wea rA na lys is o fF laked S tone T oo ls .T us con .

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WH ITE , ( J .P . ) 1 968 .— S ton Na ip B i long T umbuna : T he l i v ing S tone A ge i n N ew Gu inea . L a P rA isto ire , p robMmes e t t endences . 6 c l R . V auf rey . E d i t ion CNRS . P ar is . WH ITE , ( J .P . ) MODJESKA , ( N . ) H IPUYA , ( I . ) 1 977 .— G roup d ef in it ions a nd men ta l t emp la tes : a n e thnog raph ic e xper iment . S tone t o o ls a s c u ltura l ma rkers : c hang e , e vo lu t ion a nd c omp lex i ty ( e d Wr ight ,R .W .S . ) . Me lbourne .

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EXPERIMENTS ON BORING -DRILLING TECHNOLOGY : WEAR CHA NGES IN TOOL SHAPE AND MICRO - WEAR

G iorg io CHELIDON IO *

ABSTRACT:

B o r ing t e chno log ies , a l though t hey a re u sua l ly r ef er red t o Upper P a leo l i th ic a nd H o locene t oo ls , m ight h ave b een much o l der , a s b r ie f ly s ugges ted b y r ev iew ing b ib l iog raphy i n L ower a nd M idd le P a leo l ith ic . L ook ing f o r t he f unct ions o f a «p i c l ike »t oo l , w ith h eav i ly w orn a nd s moo thed t i p , f ound i n aL a te Neo l ith ic b ur ia l a t B ersag l io d i Mor i 's s i te ( Rovereto , n or thern I t a ly ) , s o me p re l im ina ry a pproa ches a nd o b serva t ions a re g iven s uch a s: —e xper imenta l mode ls i n «w ear a nd r etouch » c hanges d ur ing h and b or ing a nd «r od -dr i l l ing » works; —ma cro -ana lys is o f s er ies o f b or ing t oo ls f rom e xper imenta l a r chaeo log ica l f i e lds w ith s choo l c h i ld ren ; —s ho r tr ev iew o fb or ing t oo ls f r om «R iparo Gaban » , a ma in c h ief s i te f o r Meso l ith ic -Low N eo l ith ic i n n or thern I ta ly; —l ow magn if ica t ion m icro -wea r a na lys is f r om a s er ies o f s im i lar w orn b ear ing t oo ls f r om L a te N eo l i th i c s i tes o fn or th -eas tern I t a ly . E xper i men ta l a nd b ib l iog raph ica l c ompar isons o n «s t r ike -a l igh t »u se a nd w ear t ra ces a re a l so g iven , w ith t he a im o f o bta in ing w ider i nf o rma t ions a nd d i scuss ions o n t hese p ar t icu lar t e chno log ies a nd t he ir t yp ica l h eavy w ear t ra ces . R ESUM E: B ien q ue l e f a it d e p er c er a l a ma in s o it u sue l lemen t a t tr ibue a ux o ut i ls d u P a leo l ith ique s uper ieur e t p os t -g lac iaux , is e mb le , b ib l iog raph iquement , q ue I on p u isse r e monter j usqu 'au P a ldo l i th ique i nf er ieur . En e tud ian t u n «p i c » , äl a p o inte t r äs u see e t a r rond ie , t rouve d ans u ne s 6pu lture d u Neo l ith ique f i na l aB ersag l io d i Mor i ( Rovereto , I t a l ie d u n ord ) , o n d onne q ue lques r e ma rques p re l im ina ires s ur : —d es modä les e xper imen taux d e c hangements d ' ou t i ls a p er cer , d us a l a c ha ine o pera to ire «u sure r e tou ches d 'af f ütages » ,a vec 2 t e chn iques d e p erf ora t ion , al a ma in e t a u f o re t «a t i ge » ; —l a ma cro -ana lyse dune n ombreuse s er ie d e p er o irs e xper i mentaux u ses d ans d es c hamps d id a c t iq ue s; —u ne r ev is ion s yn the t ique d es p er p irs d u R iparo Gaban ( T ren to ) , g isemen t f ondamenta l p our l e Meso l i th ique -Neo l ith ique a nc ien d e l ' I ta l ie d u n ord ; —l a m i cro -ana lyse a p et i ts g ro ss issemen ts dune s gr ie d e« p e rvo irs »p are i l lemen t u see , p rovenan t d es d if erents g i semen ts d u N eo l ith ique f i na l d e l ' I ta l ie d u n ord -es t . . A f in d ' obt en ir b eau coup p lus d ' inf orma t ions e td e d eba ts a u s u je t d e c e t ype d ' ou t i l , o n e ssa ie d e t r ouver d es c ompara isons e xper imenta les e t b i l iograph iques m ' eme s ur l ' hypo thäse dun u sage c omme l e «b r iquet » .

U sua l ly b or ing t o o ls a re r ef er red t o Upper P a leo l i th ic a nd H o locene i ndus tr ies , b u t t he f unc t ion o ft o o ls c hosen o r t ransf ormed , b y f l ak ing , i n to b or ing «s ymme tr ies »m ight h av e b een v ery much o l der i nh om in ids , a t t itudes .

* V ia F . Caro to 1 /C , 3 7131 V e r ona , I t a l ie

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I ts eems mean ing fu l t o c onnec t t he h ypothe t ica l o r ig ins o ft hese f un c t ions w ith t h e p resent c h impanzees ' u se o f s ma l l s t icks t o p ier ce t e rm itar ies ;moreover i t s eems i n teres t ing t o empha s ize t ha t t he c h impanzee g roups o f Okorob iko ( R io Mun i ) p i ck o u t s ma l l s t icks s u itab le f o r p ierc ing c o l lec ted a s f ar a s 2 4 meters f rom t he t erm i tary ( average 7me ters ) ( B . B eck 1 980 ) . «C u l tura l »d if erences i n t he s ame a c t iv i ty h ave b een o b served i n o t her g roups ( a t A ss ir ik a ns G ombe Senega l ) :t hey «f i sh »f o r t e rm i tes i nser t ing s ma l l f l ex ib le t w ig s o r b lades o fg rass i n t he t e rm i tar ies ' g a l ler ies . Moreover t he h ypo thes is o fu se o f «d igg ing s t icks »p u tf o rward b y s ome s cho lar s a s a ma in s t ra tegy i n a dapta t ion t o s avannah 's p a leo -env ironment i nvo lve s t he i d ea o f «h idden f o od » a l ong w ith t he f unc t ion o f «d igg ing -bor ing » i n h ard ma ter ia l s u ch a s t he g round ( I saa c 1 983 ) . A s r egards l i th ic t oo ls , n a tura l ly b roken p iec es o f p ebb les i n f orms s u itab le f o r b or ing a re t o b e f ound i n g rave ls r i ch i n f l in t o r o ther v i t reous r o cks , a s w e l l a s o n h i l l s l opes r i ch i n f r ac tured masses o ff l int ( pr isma t ic o r t r ihedra l f r ac tures ) . I n t he a va i lab le b ib l iog raphy L ower P a leo l i th i c b or ing t oo ls s ee m r are , a nd o f t en t he ir f unc t ion i sh a rd t od e tec ti n d raw ing s . Av ery a nc ient e xamp le m ight h ave b een a s ma l l t r iangu lar f l ake s u i tab le t o b e u sed f o r b or ing f ound i n KBS s i t e a t K oob i F ora ( 1 ,8 mya ) , a s p ar t o f «a n o ppor tun is t i c s harp e dg ed k i t o ff l akes a nd c o res »( I saa c 1 983 ) . More r e cen t ly i n t he d eve lopment o f s pe c ia l ized f o rms o ft o o ls t he s ame f unc t ion c ou ld b e a ssumed f o r s ome t oo ls f r om L a P ine tas ( I sern ia , I t a l ia ) , as i te d a t ed 0 ,7 mya ( a rea I ° , l e ve l 3 a ) ;t hey a re a l l r ef er red t oa s d ent icu la ted t o o ls . T echno -funct iona l n eeds f o r t h is k ind o ft o o ls a r e : —t h ick t r ihedra l s e c t ion —e l ongated s hape , a ch ieved b y f l ak ing 2 c ont iguous n otches , o r s imp ly d en t icu la ted c onvergent r e touches . O f c ourse t hey s hou ld b ear w orn e dges , i n c a se o f r ota tory u se , a s h and -dr i l l , a ga inst h ard ma ter ia l ( wood ? ) , b u t , u nf or tuna te ly , u p t oday w e h ave n o a r cheo log ica l e v idence f o r t h is u se n or , a s f a r a s Ik now , m icro -wear d o cumenta t ion . A s f r om A cheu l ian i ndustr ies , s pec ia l ised f o rms o f b or ing t oo ls s e em t o b e i n creas ing: s ome b orers a re r ef er red t of r om L ower a nd M idd le A cheu l ian o fC agny a nd f r om t he f amous «A te l ier C ommont » ( F . B ordes 1 965 ) . I n f i na l A cheu l ian e ven s ome b i f a c ia l ly f l aked t oo ls s how f o rms t ha t m ight h ave b een c onnec ted t ob or ing f unc t ion: a s «t ypo log ica l ly »s urpr is ing a s i tm ight s eem , w e must r emember t ha t t he o l dest b or ing t o o l k nown i s ap o inted c ore -too l ( c hopper ) f r om C lac t on -on -sea s i te , d etec t ed b y m icro w ear a na lys is ( Kee ley 1 978 ) . A s f a r a s V erona 's L ow er P a leo l ith ic i ndus t r ies t he o n ly f unct iona l b or ing t o o l Ik now h as b een c o l lec ted a t C ä P a lu i s i te ( Mezzane ) , t he b igg es t L ower P a leo l ith ic s i te i n n or thern I t a ly ;t h is t o o l , a cc ord ing t o i t s «r ed -g los sy »p a t ina , i sr e la ted t o al a te M inde l o r M inde l -R iss a ge i ndus try , w hose t o o ls h oweve r b ear o f t en h eavy p seudo -re touches .

2 96

% z ' W3

2 97

T he p rogress ive i ncreas ing o f d if f erent s pec ia l ised t oo ls i n M idd le a nd , p art icu lar ly , Upper P a leo l ith ic , s t r ict ly c onnected w ith c u lture a nd t err itor ia l d ivers if icat ion , i nvo lv ing b one u se , i n c ludes b or ing a nd h and -dr i l l ing t o o ls . A ccord ing t o S .A . S emenov t he s o -ca l led b ow d r i l l t e chno logy b eg ins f r om ma tu re N eo l i th ic t imes , a l low ing t o o bta in h o les i nh ard mate r ia ls , r ocks o rb ones . I ti sp la in t o s ee t ha t , w ith t hese p re l im inary r emarks , r unn ing o ver b or ing t o o ls e vo lu t ion a ga in i nvo lves a l a rge r esearch p rog ram b ased o n e xper i men ta l t e chno logy , f unc t iono logy , m icro -ana lys is a nd t ypo log y . O fc ou rse t h is c anno tb et he p urpose o ft h is p ape r , mos t ly b ased o n t e chno -func t iona l e xper ience a nd m icro -wear a na lys is a t l ow magn if ica t ion . Is imp ly h ope t o g i ve a f i r s t a pproach t o as e r ies o ft yp ica l ma cro -wear t r aces a nd , a bove a l l , p r omote aw ider i n ter es t i n t e chno -func t iona l a nd m icro -wear a na lys is , p ar t icu la r ly l a ck ing i n I t a ly .

TOOL a s a «FLASH -BACK» i n p a leo -work ing :wear c hanges and r esharpen ing r e touch E ach t oo l , a t e very c u l tura l l e ve l , i st he e xa c t s yn thes is o ft he r e la t ions b e tween c u lture , e conomy a nd t er r it ory o ft he p eop le t ha t mad e i t , b u t a l so a «f l a sh -ba ck »o ft h e m omen ti n wh ich i t s w ork s t opped a nd t he t o o l w as a bandoned . L ikew ise t he t e chno log ica l s tudy o f c o res r evea ls , w i th s t ages o f p repara t ion a nd e xp lo ita t ion , t he h istory a nd r oads o f t he g roups t hat manuf ac tured t hem , t he s ame p r inc ip le i sv a l id f o r t o o ls n ay i ti s amp l if ied b y t wo ma in f a c tors: —t he t e rr itor ia l e conomy o fv i treous r ocks u sed ( f l int , j asper , q ua r t z , o bs id ian ) ; a bandon ing o r r e -us ing t oo ls a ccord ing t o a va i lab i l i ty i n ma ter ia ls ( d is tance o f r aw ma ter ia l s ources ) ; —t he r e la t ions b etween f unc t ion a nd w ear o f as pec if ic mater ia l ( f or i ns tan ce , o bs id ian i s v ery s u itab le f o r c u t t ing t oo ls b u t c rumb les e as i ly when b or ing h ard mater ia l ) . B or ing a nd d r i l l ing t e chno logy d eve lops , p ar t icu lar ly u nder h igh s peed d ev ices , a v ery h igh d eg ree o fw ear , i n creas ing f r om h and d r i l l t ob ow d r i l l t e chno log ies . I n o rder t o p romo te w ider d i scuss ions a nd c on tro ls o n t hese ma t ters I s tar ted p lann ing s evera l b or ing a nd d r i l l ing e xper iments , b eg inn ing f r om h and d r i l l a nd r od d r i l l . Two e xamp les:

HAND DR ILL I n o rder t o b ore a s ma l l f l a t l imes tone p ebb le , t he p rox ima l p art o fa n e l onga ted f l ake h as b een r e touched i n t he f o rm o f n arrow t r iangu lar p o int ( f ig . l a ) u sed f o r s c ra t ch ing a nd p i er c ing ap re -ho le ;f i gure l b , cs hows c hanges i n s e ct ion a nd f i rs t w ear , o w ing t o h and r o ta t ion . F igure i d s hows t he p o int c omp let e ly w orn , f i gure l e p ressure r e tou ch t or es tore an ew p o int , f i gure l g a no ther w orn s t age , f i gure i h ma in s hapes f r om 2 98

w ork ing p o int t ow orn , f i gur e i at h ird r es tor ing an ew p o int a nd i t s f i na l w orn f o rm . I n t hese s t ages t he t o o l s hor t ened f r om c m 3 , 8 t oc m 2 , 7 , a nd c omp le te b or ing o ft he h o le w as d one u s ing a s ma l l r e tou ched r esharpen ing s pa l l . A f ter t h is w ork , t he w orn b orer ( f ig . lm ) , a ccord ing t o f l int e conomy , c ou ld h ave b een s imp ly a bandoned o r , a f t erwa rds , r e -used i n t he f o rm o fs ma l l e nd -s craper o r b o th d oub le i n s trument s , i t s u se , w ear , r esharpen ing , e t c .

«ROD »DR ILL T he a im o ft h is e xper iment w as t o manuf a cture f our r egu lar h o les a tt he c orner o fa p o l ished r ectangu lar l imestone s l ab , t ha t i s as o -ca l led «b rassard » . Ma in d ev ices f o r a «r od »d r i l l a re : —a s t ra ight , s t rong r od , b es t w ith r ound , s moothed s urf aces t o a vo id f r ict ion o n h ands —'amethod t of i x al i th ic t i p , i n aw ay e asy t ob e r ep la ced s w if t ly , p ar t icu la r ly when t he p o in tb ecames q u ick ly w orn . Iu sed f l akes a nd b lade le ts o f r ed A ppen ine j asper , al o ca l r aw ma ter ia l , ag ood s ubs t i tu te o ff l int where l a ck ing .

1 2

6

F ig . 2 : «R od » dr i l l e xper iment s how ing c hanges i n ab lade le t ( 7 ) r e tou ched i n to b orer ( 8 ) , o w ing t ow ear ( 9 -12 ) a nd r e sharpen ing ( 10 ) .

2 99

F ir st t o o l u sed t op i er ce t he s ea t o ft he h o le i s at h i ck f l ake r e touched i nr i ght s i ded b orer ( f ig . 2 , 5 ) , t hen f o l lows a n umerous s er ies o fb l ade let s , r e tou ched b y p res sure i n to a x ia l b orers , w ith t rapezo ida l s e ct ion p o ints t ha t w ear q u ick ly i n to «t ang » r ounded s e c t ion , s hor tens , ( f ig . 2 , 9 ) , i sr e s tored t op o in t , b reaks , e t c . As er ies o fa bou t 1 00 h and -dr i l lers u sed a ga in s t s of t o r s em i -hard ma ter ia l ( b one a nd w ooden n eed les , s he l ls a nd t h ick s k ins ) i n s om e a r cheo log ica l e xper imen ta l f i e lds w ith s choo lch i ldren g ave a l l s im i lar w ear . N one o ft h ese s pec imens was h eav i ly w orn o n t i ps o re dges .

PREL I MINARY OBSERVAT IONS ON A SERIES OF TOOLS t ypo log icaly s a id t ob e BORERS -DRILLERS ( nor th -eas te rn I t a ly Ho locene s i te s ) . Dur ing ar esear ch o n «F rana d e l B ersag l io »s i te , l a te N eo l i th ic a g e ( 2 000 B .C . ) , I h ad t he c hance t on ot e o n as ma l l b i fa c ia l t o o l ( p i c s t y le ) ( f ig . 4 , 1 ) f ound i n ag rave t ha t o ne o fi t s t i ps w a s h eav i ly w orn a nd s moothed . L ook ing f o r t he f un c t ions o ft h is t o o l , a nd c ompar ing i tb ib l iog raph ica l ly , In oted t he r ef erence o f as ma l l «p i c -ret ou cho ir »f ound c l ose t o ap yr ite n odu le i n aF rench g rave c a l led «Hypogde d e l 'Homme Mor t » , T inqueux /Marne ( Ba i l loud -Brez i l lon 1 968 ) a nd s a id t o b e , p erhaps , al i ghter o r a «s t r ike -a l ight »i n s t rumen t , o w ing t o i t s h eavy w orn , p o l ished e x trem it ies . T he c l ose r e semb lance b etween t he t wo i n s trumen ts , b oth f ound i n ag rave , d rov e me t o s t ar t t h is p re l im inary r e sear ch , a imed a t t o o ls r e f erred t oa s b orer -dr i l ler s i n s ome i ndus t r ies o fn or th -eas tern I t a ly a s f r om N eo l ith ic t imes . It r ied f i r s tt os e t u p t he p resence o fb orer s , a nd t he ir b e ing o rn ot h eav i ly w orn , b y b r ief ly r ev iew ing l i th ic i nst ruments f r om R iparo G aban ( Trento ) , t he c h ief s i te f o r t he Meso l i th ic -Neo l ith ic t rans i t ion i n t h is a rea . T he f ew b or ing i ns truments i n t h is s e r ies s eem t o b e u sed a s h and -dr i l l . P ar t o f t hem w orked a ga ins t h a rd mater ia l , may b e f o r p i erc ing s ea -she l ls; i n s ome s pec imens ma cro -wear t r a ces l i e o n b o th f aces , t he t i p b e ing b roken b y t o r s ion ,b u tn one o ft he e dges n or t he t i ps l o ok h eav i ly w orn . U p t on ow t he p lanned r e sear ch h as c ons idered ag roup o fs pec if i c t o o ls c o l lected a t L a te N eo l i th ic s i tes i n V erona 's h i l ls ( La Nasa , M . C ucco , C aste l lo d e l la F ra t ta , C o lombara B arbes i , Montecch io , Mo l ina , M . Nuvo lä , C ä N ova d i S ta l lavena ) , t ogethe r w ith af ew o thers c om ing f r om B orgo S . Mar co d i Mon tagnana ( PD ) , eC iv ida le ( GO ) a nd a n E ar ly B ronze a ge s i te c a l led C a N ova d i C ava ion ( VR ) . T h is c hrono cu l tura l l e ve l a g rees w ith S emenov ' h ypo thes is . T hey c an b e t ypo log ica l ly d iv ided i n to: —e l onga ted r egu lar p i es ( i n I t a l ian «a s t if orm i » )( 2 ) —t h ick t r ihedra l f l akes a nd b lades , s t eep ly r e tou ched i np o int s o r e nd -s crapers ( 6 ) —r e tou ched p o in t s ( on b lades ) ( 2 ) —e l onga ted s quared s e c t ion b orer ( 1 ) —c r es ted b lades ( 2 ) —a rrow -po int f r agment s ( 2 ) —f l akes ( 2 ) —t h in b i f ac ia l ly f l aked «d agger > '( 1 ) a nd s em i -manufac tured ( 1 ) —f l int -s ick ly b lade ( 1 ) — large b lade ( 1 ) 3 00

T hree m orpho log ica l d i s t inc t ive f ea tures l e ad t o s e t t le t hem a s b orer -dr i l lers : —t he s hape o ft he t o o l mus td eve lop s t ra igh ta l ong i t s ma in a x is —t he o ppos i te e nd ( t o t he o ne w orn ) mus tb e s omehow s u i tab le t ob e h and led i n t he r od , i nc a se o fd r i l lers ( r od o rb ow ) —t he w orn a rea mus tb e s i tua ted o n at i p , a nd i t s s hape mus t s how a l l a round t he w ork ing e dges ar egu lar d i s t r ibu t ion , c omp lementary t ot he s hape o f ap ier ced h o le .

I n v i ew o fp lann ing amu ch w ider a nd c omp lete s er ies o fm i crowear a na lys is a nd e xper imenta l w ork ing , t o d ef ine ma in w ear p a t terns , Is ub jec ted mos t o f t he a bove men t ioned s pec imens t o macro -techno log ica l o bserva t ions a nd l ow magn if icat ion a na lys is ( x8 -x16 -x40 , w ith L e it z L aber L ux 1 2 a nd L e i t z L abor L ux I P o l . I n Museo C iv i co a t R overeto ) . A ccord ing t o S emenov 's h ypo thes is Ia ssumed t ha t o n ly h eav i ly w orn , s moo thed e nds a re b ow -dr i l l t i ps a nd t r ied t o d i s t ingu ish , o n t he g round o f t hese o rders o f c ha ra c ter is t ics , t he g roup o fb orer -dr i l lers f r om t he o ther , a ssumed a s «s t r ike -a l igh t» . B es ides , u nf or tuna te ly o n ly f ew d ays b ef ore t h is R ound T ab le , Ic arr ied a s hor t e xper ience w ith a f l int p i e o n ap yr it e n odu le a nd Ih ad t he c hance t o o bserve t hat t he n odu le mus tb e s w if t ly r ubbed r a ther t han s t ruck , a nd s parks f l ash b et ter when t he s t r iker h its g raz ing t he p yr ite w ith t he t i p o r a l ong ma in i s od iame tr ic f l aked e dge . I nb oth c ases t he w orn a rea i ss i tua ted a l ong ar i dge a nd d oes n o td eve lop b eyond t he a rea w here t he p i e i sh and led .

SOME NOTES ON THE ANALYSED TOOLS P ies ( 2 ) I n s p ite o fi t s r egu lar s t ra ight s hape , t he o ne f r om « L a Nasa »( f ig . 4 , 4 ) s hows s ma l l w orn a r eas o n b o th e nds , w h ich g enera l s hape d oes n o tf i t t o ac on i ca l s e c t ion . T he o ther o ne f r om «La F ra t ta »s how s s quare f l a t e nd a nd n o w ear .

T r ihedra lf l akes a nd b lades ( 6 ) T he t i p o f t he l a rg est o ne i s f r ac tured b y t o rs ion a nd i t s s i de -edges , s t eep ly r etou ched , d o n ot s how h eavy w ear ( La Nasa ) ( f ig . 3 , 1) . Io b ta ined s im i lar f r ac tu re e xper imenta l ly b y h and -bor ing o n at h ick d r ied b eech -wood p i ece , w ith s im i lar t o o l . Ano ther p o in ted o ne s hows s moo thed t i p a nd l i t t le h eavy w ear o n i t s u pper r i dg e ;i tc ou ld h ave b een f unc t iona l ly h a f ted i n ar od ( Va jo Mar c iora ) . O u t o ft he t hree o t he rs w i th o ppos it e s t eep e nd -s crapers , t wo s how v ery h eavy w orn t i p , o ne o f wh ich i ss moo thed o n t he s i de e dges t o o . T hese t o o ls c ou ld h ave b een s u i tab le f o r b oth f unct ions , p erhaps a s ar eamer a nd a f terwa rds ( c omp le te ly w orn ? )a s a «s t r iker > ' ( t ha t i st o s ay w ith «s t r ike -a l ight »f unc t ions ) ( Mon te C u cco ) ( f ig . 3 , 2 ) . T he l a st o ne ( Mo l ina ) s hows ac urved a x is , a nd i ti ss o t h ick t ha t i tc ou ld h ard ly b e h af t ed i n ar od ( f ig . 3 , 4 ) . N o tw i ths tand ing i t sb o th e nds a re h eav i ly w orn a nd s moo thed a s

3 0 1

F ig . 3 : 1 :f r om «L a Masa » , 2 :Monte C occo , 3 :S . Marco d i Montagnana ( PD ) , 4 :Mo l ina , 5 :Monte N ovo lä , 6 :C iv ida le ( GO ) , 7 :S . Marco Mont .

3 02

i ft hey w ere s w if t ly r o tated i n ac on ica l s hape . T he o ne f r om B orgo S . Mar co s hows r ounded h eav i ly w orn t i p , w ith v ery i n teres t ing i ncrus ta t ions ( py r i te ?me ta l l ic r o ck ? ) ( f ig . 3 , 3 ) .

B lades r e touched i n to p o in t s( 2 ) O ne s hows f r a ctured e nd b y t o r s ion ( M . C u c co ) , wh i ls tt he o ther b ear s t he t i p s t eep ly w orn b y p erpend icu lar r o ta t ion ( Mo l ina ) .

E longa ted s quare s ec t ion b orer ( 1 ) B o th e nds o ft h is t o o l a re f r a c tu red b yt o r s ion , s ot ha ti tc anno ts how t i pw ear . It h ink i ti so ne o f t he mos t s pec ia l ised d r i l l ing s hapes . A ccord ing t o D r B . B ago l in i 's o p in ion , s im i lar d r i l l ing p o ints a ppear i n n or th -eas tern I t a l ian N eo l ith ic f r om S qua re Mou thed P o t t e ry c u lture , t h ird p ha se .( 2500 B .C . ) .

C res ted b lades ( Ca Nova d iS ta l lavena ) ( 2 ) T he t r ihedra l s ec t ion o f ac r es ted b lade i sv ery s u itab le a s ab orer , a nd e ven f o r a r eamer , p ar t icu lar ly a ga ins t s of t ma ter ia l ( f resh w ood o r b one ) ;u pper r i dges o fc r es ted b lades a re s t reng thened b y c r es t -re tou ch a nd s i de e dg es d o n ot s how l i gh t w ear , a l though t he p o in t was f r a c tured b yt o rs ion .

«Arrow -po int »-l ike f ragments A t h ick o ne ( b ifac ia l ly f l aked b y h ard p ercuss ion ) s hows n o c harac ter is t ics o f b or ing s hape , b u ti ti sh eav i ly w orn , w ith ar ounded s i de t i p . I t sf unc t ion i sn o tc l ear b u tI am r a ther t h ink ing o fi ta s as hor t «s t r iker »( C iv ida le -GO ) ( f ig . 3 , 6 ) . T he s econd o ne s eems t oh ave mos t o ft he c hara ct er is t ics o fb ow -dr i l l t i p , p rev ious ly p res sure f l aked t o t ang s hape , may b e r e -us ing a b roken a rrow -po int . T he w ho le t i p i s h eav i ly w orn a nd s moo thed t o ah em ispher ica l s hape . T he w ork ing a rea s ur fa ce c anno t b e d e t ect ed , t he who le t o o l b e ing d eep ly b u rnt , b u tl ow magn if i ca t ion p ho tos s how r o ta t ion t races i n s ide a f l ake s car ( s and o r r ock g ra ins ? ) . T he w ho le s urf ace l o oks d arker , a s b urn tb y f r ict ion ( Co lom . B arbes i , f i g . 5 , 1 ,2 ,3 ) .

F lakes ( 2 ) Sma l l h eavy w orn a r eas , a l ong w i th t he f l ake -shape , e xc lude d r i l l ing u se; t hey m igh t h ave b een «s t r ikers »b y c hance ( Cä N ova d i C ava ion eMo l ina ) .

«F laked d agger s »( 2 ) T he f i rs t o ne f r om B orgo S . Marco ( f ig . 3 ,7 ) s eems t o b e ar esharpened t oo l ( nar rower b roken a nd b r ief ly u sed f o r f unc t ions s u ch a s «r eamer » o r «s t r iker » b y c hance ) . The l a rger o ne f r om C a N ova d i C ava ion s hows w ider a nd v ery i n teres t ing w orn a reas , b u t u nf or tunat e ly Ic ou ld n o t a na lyse i tu nder m icros cope . A ssum ing i ta s a 3 03

b road «r eamer » ,f o r i n stance i n a mechan ica l d ev ice l i ke t he o ne r e cons tructed b y M . Z urbu chen , w e o ught t of i nd i n i t s s i te l a rg e p i e rced o b jec ts , s uch a s p o l ished b a t t le a xes; w e k now o ne b roken s pec imen f r om t h is s i te .

F l in ts i ck le ( 1 ) ( Ber sag l io D i Mor i ) ( f ig .4 , 3 ) T h is t o o l l o oks l i ke a w orn «s i ck le »u sed a s «s t r iker »b y c hance , a c cord ing t ot he p os i t ion o fi t s w orn -smoo thed s ma l l a rea ( Bersag l io Mor i ) .

L arge b lade ( 1 ) ( M . Nuvo lä ) ( f ig .3 , 5 ) On a l a rge b lade , w ith a l t erned r etou ched e dg es , o ppos ite t o ab r oad w orn a nd c rumb led «r eamer » , s tands a w orn «s hou lder » r etouched e nd . O ne s ide l o oks c rumb led a nd d ent icu lat ed , wh i ls t t he o ther i sh eav i ly w orn a nd s moo thed , e ven i n s ide t he «s hou lder » .I n t he p resent c ond i t ion t here i sn o e v idence t os ay t ha tt hese h eavy w orn s i ded a rea s w ere p rodu ced b y o ne -way r o ta t ing f r ic t ion ( l ef tt or i ght ) , may b e a s ab road «r eamer » ,i n s p i te o ft he s ma l l r ounded a nd s moothed t i p . A «s t r iker »u se s eems h ard ly t o b e a ssumed t o o , s i nce t he w orn -smoo thed a r eas i n c luded t he i nner s i de o ft he s hou lder .

I ts e ems t ha tt he p rob lem o fb or ing -dr i l l ing t e chno logy c annot b e s e t t led w ith in t h is w ork , w hose a im i so n ly t op romot e w ider c on tr ibu t ions o n t h is s ub jec t . A lthough b orers a nd d r i l lers r ema in d i srega rded , p ar t icu lar ly i n I t a l ian s tud ies , t hey r e f lec tn o t o n ly at e chno logy t oo b ta in p er f ora ted s he l ls o r o ther o rnament s , b u tm os t l i ke ly t he i ncreas ing r o le o f s pec ia l ized s k i l l a nd i t s e vo lut ion i n to h and icraf t , p roceed ing f r om t he l a tes t h unter -ga therers ' t ime s t o t he r i s ing o f c omp lex Neo l i th ic s oc iet ies . T h is f i rs t a pproa ch o n as ma l l s amp le f r om n o r th -eas tern I t a l ian i ndu str ies p o in ts o u t i n L a te N eo l ith ic l e ve l t he s i gns o fb ow -dr i l l t e chno log ies s t a r t ing . B u ta l so f r om t h is l im i ted r e search s t ands o u tt he n eed f o r ab e tter u nders tand ing o f f i re t e chno log ies , t he ir r o le i n e very d ay l i f e , a nd , a bove a l l , ap ar t icu lar s ense i n N eo l i th ic b ur ia l r i tes . T he f i nd ing o f t he a bove -ment ioned « p i c »i n t he b ur ia l o f B ersag l io d i Mor i s hows , a s p re l im inary d etec ted f r om w ear t races , i t s p oss ib le u se a s «d r i l l -reamer » ( f ig . 4 ,2 ) b u t a l so a s «s t r ike -a l ight »f l int s t ick ( «s t r iker » ) . At h ird h ypo thes is o fb ow d r i l l ing a ga ins t p yr i te n odu les h as n o t b een e xper imen ta l ly t e s ted , a nd It h ink i tw ou ld i nvo lve t he p resence o fp ar t icu lar h o le l ike w ear t ra c es o n t he n odu le i t se lf . T he e x cavat ions o ft he L a te N eo l i th i c b ur ia l a t B ersag l io d i Mor i w ere d one u nder «r e scue »c ond it ions , a nd M . A vanz in i d id n o t r ef er t ot hem i n h is f i rs t p aper o fp yr i te p resence . A nyway m ore d eta i led i n f orma t ion i sr equ ired o n p yr ite n odu les a s w e l l a s f l in t s t icks f r om o ther s i tes , a nd Ib e l ieve t ha t t hey w i l l g ive s ome c ontr ibu t ions t o n ew h ypo theses o fs o c ia l f i gures , u p t oday s car ce ly e mphas ized i n N eo l ith ic c u l tures ' s tud ies , 3 0 4

. . 1 C 9- - -

M -1

2

F ig . 4 : 1 :P ic l ike t oo l f r om B ersag l io d i Mor i ( Late Neo l ith ic b ur ia l ) 2 :R otatory t races o n t he s moo thed -rounded t i p . 3 :F l int -s ick le f r agment f r om t he s ame b ur ia l , s how ing w orn a rea . 4 :P ic ( a s t if orme ) f r om «L a Masa »s i te VR , s how ing s mot thed t i ps .

3 05

l cm

F ig . 5: A rrow -po int l ike , w ith h eav i ly w orn -em ispher ica l s moothed t i p . P hoto 5 , 2 s hows t he w ear p a t terns i n s ide o f as c ar . P hoto 5 , 3 , t he s ame t races t w ice magn if ied . ( f rom C o lombare -Barbes i /VR ) .

3 06

a l though t hey may b e mean ing fu l , s uch a s b ur ia ls o f s pec ia l ized f l int m ine -workers o r k nappers . E ven i n t h is s ense t he s i te o f «B ersag l io d i Mor i) ) s eems t o b e i n terest ing , b e ing u p t oday t he n or thes t l a te N eo l ith ic s i t e k nown , i n o ur c ountry , b ear ing f l aked -axes ( «c amp igny » t echno logy ) a nd i nc lud ing t he ir u se , r esharpen ing a nd , p erhaps , manufacture f ar f r om V erona 's mounta ins a nd t he ir p lent ifu l o ut crops o fv i treous f l int , p robab ly t he ma in m in ing d istr ict f or Neo l ith ic n orthern I ta ly . Understand ing manufactur ing p rocesses a s w e l l a s t he t ransf orma t ion o f t oo l f orms a nd f unct ions d ur ing t he ir u se a nd r esharpen ing s tages c ou ld g ive a n ew c ontr ibut ion t o t he c o mprehens ion o f N eo l ith ic e conom ies a nd t e rr itor ia l r e lat ions . I n p ress , If ound s ome i nterest ing n otes b y J ohn W it thof t ( A h istory o f Gunf l ints P ennsy lvan ia A rchaeo log ist , v o l . 3 6 , N os . 1 / 2 , J une 1 966 , p . 1 3 , 4 2 -47 ) o n N eo l ith ic a nd B ronze Age f i re -mak ing s e ts o f s t one i n E urope , p ar t icu lar ly o n o ne s pec imen f r om a B ronze Age b ur ia l a t Rudstone ( Yorksh ite - GB ) . H e b e l ieves t hat most o f a l l a rchaeo log ica l p yr ite p ieces a re , i n r ea l ity , marcas ite . He s ays t oo t hat f i re -stones ( quar tz ite ) s how w orn s urfaces s moothed b y t he s t roke o f marcas ite , av ery p er ishab le m inera l .

ACKNO WLEDGE MENTS Iw ish e spec ia l ly t o t hank D r F . F inott i ( Museo C iv ico d i R overeto ) a nd P r G . Z anot to ( Banca P opo lare d i V erona ) f o r h e lp ing a nd s uppor t ing i n l aboratory r esearch a nd R ound T ab le p ar t ic ipat ion , a s w e l l a s D r L . S a lzan i ( Sopr intendenza A rcheo log ica V enetoVR ) f o r a l low ing s tudy o ft oo ls . Iw ish t o t hank a l so D r . B . B ago l in i , D r P . Me l , D r G . Z af f ane l la , D r L . F are l lo , D rA . Me l l in i , Mr R . P ar tesot t i , Mr G . B ast ian i a nd Mr L . B runet to f o r t he ir h e lpfu l s uggest ions .

B IBLIOGRAPHY A r cheo log ie S u isse . 1 981 .— 4 /2 L es P emo irs d u t ype «p o in te d e D ickenbänn i» . AVANZ IN I ,

( M . ) ,

1 984 .— Nuov i r i trovament i

a rcheo log ic i

a l B ersag l io d i Mor i .

4V icar ia t i n .5 6 . AVANZINI ,

(M .) ,

BAGOLINI ,

( B .) ,

CAPITAN IO ,

( G .) ,

CHELIDON IO ,

( G .) ,

PASQUAL I , ( T . ) , PROSSER , ( G . ) , ROBOL , ( R . ) , 1 985 .— B ersag l io d i Mor i -da t i e r i cerche , Ann . Muse° C iv . R over e to v o l . I . BA ILLOUD , ( G . ) , BREZ ILLON , ( M . ) . 1 9

—L 'Hypogee d e l 'Homme Mort ä T inquex

( Marne ) . Bu l le t in d e l a S oc ié té P rA is tor ique F rança ise t . LXV E tud es e t t r avaux , LXV , 2 ,p .4 79 -504 . BECK , ( B ) , 1 980 .— An ima l t o o l b ehav iour . G ar land P ub l ish ing , N ew Y ork . BOGUK I , ( P . ) , GRYG IEL , ( R . ) , 1 983 .-1 p r im i a g r ico ltor i d e l la p ianura b a lt ica . L e S c ienze 6 .

3 07

BORDES ,

( F .) ,

1 961 . —Typo log ie d u Pa leo l i th ique a nc ien e t moyen , d d . D e lmas ,

Un ivers itd d e B ordeaux . BORDES , ( F . ) , 1 984 .— L e mns s ur l eP a leo l i th ique . T ome I , d d . C .N .R .S . , P ar is . BOS INKY , ( G . ) , 1 985 .— D er N eander tha ler u nd s e ine Z e i t . R he in isches L andesmuseum B onn . BRÜZ ILLON , ( M . ) , 1 968 .— L a d enom ina t ion d es o b j e ts d e p ierr e t a i l lee . I Vesupp l . Ga l l ia P rdh isto ire , CNRS . CHEL IDON IO , ( G . ) , 1 982 .— C ostruz ione e d a na l is i s per imenta le d i u na l ampada i n p ietra d e l t i po «L aq caux -La Mou the » .i n P r e is tor ia A lp ina v o l . 1 8 , T rento . CHEL IDONIO , ( G . ) ,1986 .— Appunt i s u l le p resenze «c amp ignane » e tc . i n P r e is tor ia A lp ma . CLASON , ( A .T . ) , 1 979 .— T he F l intm iner a s af armer , h unter a nd a nt ler c o l lec tor . T h ird I n terna t iona l S ympos ium o n F l in t . Maas tr ich t . I SAAC , ( G . ) , 1 983 .— Ear ly s tag es i n t he e vo lu t ion o fh uman b ehav iour: t he a dap ta t ive s ign if icance o fs t one t o o ls . N ether lands Museum Amsterdam . 1 983 .— I s ern ia l a P ine ta , u n a ccampamen to p iü a n t ico d i 7 00 .000 a nn i . , e d . C a lder in i B o logna . KEELEY , ( L .H . ) , 1 978 .— L e f unz ion i d eg l i u tens i l i d i s e lce n e l P a leo l it ico . L e S c ienze , Mi lano . LECK , ( J . ) , 1 979 .— F l int M in ing among t he E ar ly c ommun it ies o f P o land . Th ird i n terna t iona l S ympos ium o n F l in t , Maas tr ich t . PATTE , ( E . ) , 1 960 .— L es b r iquets d ans l e s s dpu ltures a u Ndo l ith ique e t a u B ronze . Bu l le t in d e l a S oc ie te P reh is tor ique F ranca ise , t .5 7 . P IEL DESRU ISSEAUX , ( J .L . ) , 1 984 .—L 'ou t i l d ep ierr ep reh is tor ique , d d . Masson , P ar is . SE MENOV , ( S .A . ) , 1 964 .— Pr eh is tor ic T echno logy . C ory A dam & Mackay L ondon . SE MENOV , ( S .A . ) , 1 970 .—The f o rms a nd f unct ions o ft he o ldest t oo ls . Quar tar 2 1 :1 -20 . S IEGEL , ( P .E . ) , 1 985 .— E dge A ng le a s af unct iona l i nd ica tor :a t e st . L i th ic T echno logy , v o l . 1 4 /2 , S an Anton io T exas . T IX IER , ( J . ) , I N IZAN , ( M .L . ) , ROCHE , ( H . ) , 1 980 .— P reh is to ire d e l a p ierr e t a i l lee . CREP , Va lbonne . VENUT I , ( G . ) , G IUST I , ( F . ) , 1 984 .— E vo luz ione e s t or ia d e l l 'uomo . Z an iche l l i . B o logna . ZURBUCHEN , ( M . ) , 1 981 .— J ungs te inze i t Werk e zueg t echno log ie . Z ur ich .

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Industries Lithiques Traceologie et Technologie Volume 2: aspects méthodologiques

edite par

Sylvie Beyries ·

Centre de Recherche Archeologique du C.N.R.S.

BAR International Series 411(i)

1988

B.A.R. 5, Centremead, Osney Mead, Oxford OX2 ODQ, England.

GENERAL EDITORS A.R. Hands, B.Sc., M.A., D.Phil. D.R. Walker, M.A.

BAR S411 (II), 1988: 'Industries Lithiques: Trac eologie et Technologie' Volume II © The Individual Authors, 1988 The authors’ moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9781407389950 (Volume I) paperback ISBN 9781407389967 (Volume II) paperback ISBN 9780860545286 (Volume set) paperback ISBN 9781407346922 (Volume set) e-format DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860545286 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

SO M M AIR E TOME I A SPECTS T ECHNOLOG IQUES

SUSSMAN C a ro le .A spec t so fm icrowear a s a pp l ied t oq uar tz

3

MANSUR -FRANCHO MME Mar ia E s te la . T raceo log i e e tt e chno log i e : q ue lques d onne es s ur l ' obs id i enne

2 9

PROST D om in ique C hr is t ian . E ssa i d ' e tud e s ur l e s m dcan i smes d ' en l evemen t p rodu i ts p ar l e s ff lns a gr ico l es e tl ep ie t inemen t h uma in s ur d es s i lex e xper imen taux

4 9

SHEA J ohn J . Me thodo log ica l c ons id era t ions af ec t ing t h e c ho ic e o fa na ly t ica l t e chn iques i n l i th ic u s e -wear a na ly s is: t e s ts , r e su l ts a nd a pp l ica t ion

6 5

LEV I SALA I Ane . P ro c ess es o fp o l ish f o rma t ion o nf l in t t o o l s urf ac e

8 3

TO MENCHUK J ohn . Ef ec ts o fl o ad ing r a te o n t h e r e l iab i l i ty o ft h e e ng ineer ing u se -wear models

9 9

BEYR IES S y lv ie , DELAMARE F ra mo is , QUANT IN J eanChr istophe . T racdo log ie e t r ugos img tr ie t r id imens ionne l le

15

FULLAGAR R ichard . R ec en t d eve lopmen ts i n A us tra l ian u s e -wear a nd r es idue s tud ies

1 33

P L ISSON Hugues . A per çu s ur l a t r acdo log ie s ov id t ique c on t empora ine

1 47

P L ISSON Hugues , G IR YA E ugen i i i ourev in , TCH IST YAKOV D im itr i i A rkadev i th . Q ue lques t e rmes r us ses d e t e chno log ie , t r ac eo log i e e tt y po log i e l i th ique

1 69

M ise äj our d e l ' annua ir e d es t r aceo logu es

1 73

V ILA A ssumpc iö . F ormu la t ion a na ly t ique d es c arac ter es f onc t ionne l s

1 89

D 'ERR ICO F reder ico , REDURON M ichge . T raceo log ie e tt e chno log i e : u n d ess in s c i en t if ique ä i nven ter

2 07

GRACE R . , ATAMAN K , FABREBAS R . , HAGGREN C .M .B . A mu l t i -var ia te a pproach t ot h ef unc t iona l a na lys is o fs t one t o o ls

2 17

OTTE Marce l . T ypo log ie e t f onc t ions :c e q u i ac hang e

2 3 1

1

ASPECTS OF MICROWEAR AS APPLIED TO QUARTZ C aro le SUSS MAN *

ABSTRACT:

Quar tz c ompr ises a f a ir p ercentage o ft he l i th ic a ssemb lages a t many a rchaeo log ica l s i tes . Unt i l r e cent ly , h owever ,i tw a s n o t w e l l s tud ied m icroscop ica l ly f o rt ra ces o fu se d ue t oi t s i r regu la r f r a c ture p a t terns a nd v ar iab le s urfa ce t ex ture . T he e xpans ion o f m ic rowear a na lys is t o i nc lude q uar tz t oo ls o f ers t he p o t en t ia l f o r movement a way f r om t he s omet imes a wkwa rd c ons tra in ts o f c onven t iona l t ypo logy b ased o n t oo l morpho logy , t oward s a more f unc t iona l a pproa ch . T h is p aper p resen ts r esu lts o f am icrowear s tudy b a sed o n e xper imenta l q uar tz t o o ls a nd t he a pp l ica t ion o ft h is t e chn ique t o as e lec t s amp le o ft o o ls f r om O lduva i G orge , T anzan ia . R üsumt : L e q uar tz f o rme u n b on p ourcentage d es a ssemb lages l i thiques d e n ombreux s i tes a rch6o log iques . J usqu 'ä u ne p ör iode r dcente , n ösnmo ins , o n n e l ' a p as b ien C tud id m icros cop iquemen t ac ause d et r a ces d ' usure d ues as ee s chöma s d ef r a c ture i r rögu l iers e ts at ex ture d e s ur face v ar iab le . L ' extens ion d e l ' ana lyse d e m icro -usure a ux o u t i ls d e q uar tz o f f re l a p oss ib i l itö d e s ' Ccar ter d es c on tra in tes q ue lquef o is f ä cheuses d e l a t ypo log ie c onvent ionne l le f ondCe s ur l a morpho log ie d es o u t i ls , p our u ne a ppro che p lus f on ct ionne l le . C e ta r t ic le p rösen te l e sr ö su lta ts d ' une C tude d e m icro -usure f ond6e s ur d es o u t i ls d e q uar tz e xpör imen taux e t l ' app l ica t ion d e c e tte t e chn ique a u n ö chan t i l lonnage d ' out i ls d e O lduv ia G orge , T anzan ie .

Dur ing t he p as t t en y ears s i nce i t s d i scovery b y D r L awrence K ee ley ( 1 980 ) i n t he m id 1 970 's , m icrowear a na lys is h as a lmost b ecome a h ouseho ld w ord amongst a r chaeo log is ts a nd e spec ia l ly i n E urope where f l int i s ap reva lent r aw ma ter ia l , a n e s tab l ished mode o f i nqu iry when a na lyz ing l i th ic a ssemb lages f r om a ppropr iate ly p reserved a r chaeo log ica l s i tes . F l in t ,h owever , wa s n o tt he o n ly r aw ma t er ia l t ob e emp loyed i nt he mak ing o fs t one t oo ls . Quar tz c ompr ises a l a rge p er centage o ft he l i th ic a ssemb lages a t many s i tes , b u t h ad b een c ons idered b y mos t t o b e u nsu i tab le f o r m icrowear s tud ies d ue t oi t s i r regu lar f r ac tur ing p a t terns , s ur face t ex ture ,and h igh d eg ree o fr ef lec t iv ity m icroscop ica l ly . F or my d oct ora l d i sser ta t ion ( Su ssman 1 986 ) , Ia t t empted t oa dap tt he t e chn ique o fm ic rowear a na lys is t o e ncompass s t one t oo ls made o f q uar tz . T ypo log ica l c l ass if i ca t ion o f q uar tz a r tefacts h as a lways b een s omewha t u np leasant , d ue t o t he d if i cu lty o f s queez ing i r regu lar ly s haped p ieces i n t o n ea t ly a rranged t ypo log ica l c a tegor ies . Wh i le t here a re s i tes h av ing many f i ne ly s haped q ua r tz a r tef ac ts , o vera l l , t hey a re i n t he m inor ity . I t w as h oped t ha t e xpand ing m icrowear s tud ies t o i n c lude q uar tz w ou ld h e lp c l ear i t s «b ad n ame » a nd a l low t ypo log ica l c l ass if icat ion t o p roceed more e as i ly a l ong f unct iona l l i nes . H ere Iw i l l d i scuss s ome o ft he f i nd ing s o f my r esear ch a nd t he r esu lts o b ta ined when Ia pp l ied t h is t e chn ique t o as e lec t g roup o fa r tef a c t s f r om t he s i te o fO lduva i G org e i n T anzan ia .

*UC S an D iego ,D ep t . An thropo logy C -001 , L aJ o l la , C a l if orn ia 9 2093 , U .S .A .

3

Iu sed c ry s ta l q uar tz f o rt he ma jor i ty o f my e xper iment s , e ven t hough v e in q ua r t z i s more a bundant a rchaeo log ica l ly a nd was more f r equent ly u sed t o manuf a cture s t one t oo ls . M icroscop ica l ly , v e in a nd c rys ta l q uar tz a re e x treme ly r ef lec t ive a nd v ar iab le , b o th i n t he ir s ur fa ce t opog raphy a nd s urf ace t ex ture . V e in q uar t z , h owever , i sc ompr ised o fn umerous s ma l l c ry s ta ls a nd l i ght r ef lec t ion u nder t he o pt ica l m icroscope i st heref ore i ncreased t r emendous ly , mak ing i dent if ica t ion o f f eatures , s uch a s w ear p a tterns , e x treme ly d iff icu lt ( P la tes 1 -2 ) . T he m icrotopog raphy o f af l ake o f v e in q uar tz i s g enera l ly more i r regu lar t han t ha t s een o n c rys ta l q uar tz , a nd i t was f o r t hese r easons I c hose t ou se c ry s ta l q uar tz i n my e xper iment s —f e e l ing t ha t o nce Iwas a b le t o r e cogn ize a nd s t andard ize r egu la r w ear a t t r ibu tes , a pp l ica t ion o ft he t e chn ique t ot o o ls made o fv e in q uar t z w ou ld b e f a c i l itat ed .

P la te 1:Unused c rys ta l q uar tz s ur fa ce 2 00X

P la te 2 : Unused v e in q uar t z s ur face 2 00X 4

F lakes f r om v ar ious a xes o n t he s ame c rysta l w ere i n c luded i n s ome o f t he e xper imen ts t o mon i tor a ny d if erences i nw ear a t t r ibu t es wh ich c ou ld b e a scr ibed t ot he ir o r ien ta t ion . E xam ina t ion o f t hese f l akes a f ter u se w i th t he l i ght m icroscope a nd t he s c ann ing e l ec tron m icroscope s howed p o l ish a nd w ear a t tr ibu tes t o b e t he s ame f o r a l l t o o ls u sed i n t he s ame manner o n t he s ame ma ter ia ls r egard less o f t he ir o r ienta t ion . H owever , v ar ia t ion i n e t ch ing r a tes o f c rys ta l a xes u s ing a c id h as b een d i scussed b y K nu tsson i n ar e cent p aper ( 1986 ) . P erhaps d if erent ia l w ear p a t terns , i fp resent , a re d i s cernab le o n ly a t h igher magn if i ca t ions u s ing t he S EM a nd p oss ib ly d o n o t a f ec t t he o p t ica l q ua l i t ies o f p o l ishes a t l ower magn if ica t ions . F ur ther r esearch i n t h is a rea c ompar ing h igh a nd l ow p ower r e su l t s c ou ld p rove q u i te i n teres t ing . Ii n corpora ted f l akes made o fB randon f l int i n to t he e ar ly e xper imen ts a l ongs ide t he q uar tz f l akes i n o rder t o c ons t ru ct a r epresenta t ive c o l lec t ion o fk nown p o l ishes f o r c ompar ison ( K ee ley 1 980 ) . A l l f l akes w ere made b y d i rec t h ard h ammer p er cuss ion , h e ld i n t he h and d ur ing u se a nd , f o r t he mos t p ar t , t he w ork ing e dges o ft he f l akes w ere l ef t u nretou ched . T he f l akes w ere r andom ly e xam ined a nd p hotog raphed p r ior t o u se t o d ocument a ) a ny s urf ace i r regu lar it ies wh ich m igh t b e m is taken f o r u se w ear a nd b ) t he p resence o f m icrosca rr ing s us ta ined d ur ing manufa c ture . T ime w a s mon i tored i n s egments o f o ne , f i ve , t en , t wenty a nd s i x ty m inu tes a nd , whenever p oss ib le , a l l a c t iv it ies w ere p erf ormed i n an a tura l s e t t ing . Af t er u se , t he t o o ls w ere s oaked i n a n ammon ia ted d e terg en tf o r t en m inu tes a tt he b eg inn ing a nd t he e nd o ft he c l ean ing p rocess a s w e l l a s u ndergo ing a t en m inu te s oak i n a1 0 % s o lu t ion o f HC 1 a nd t hen a 1 0 % s o lu t ion o f KOH . Ao ne m inu te r i nse u nder r unn ing w a ter c ame b e tween e a ch s t ep o ft he c l ean ing p rocess . C hem ica l c l ean ing h as b een c r it ic ised f o r i t s p o ten t ia l a l tera t ion o fp o l ish f ea tures a nd r emova l o fo rgan ic r es idues . Imon i tored t he e f ec ts o fc hem ica l s oaks o n f l int a nd q uar t z s aws ,b o th h av ing w e l l d eve loped b one p o l ishes ,b u tw a s u nab le t od et ec tt he p i t t ing d escr ibed b y K ee ley a s r emova l o fb one a pa t i te b yh ydroch lor ic a c id ( i b id :4 3 ) . Id o t h ink i ti sl i ke ly ,h owever , t ha tp ar t o ft he r eason Ic ou ld n o td et ec to rgan ic ma ter ia l w hen u s ing t he m icroprobe f o r e xamp le , w as d ue t or emova l o rd i sso lu t ion o ft he o rgan ics b y c hem ica l c l ean ing . C er ta in ly t he c l ean ing m ethods w h ich a re l e as t d es tru c t ive a re t ob e f avored . Quar tz i t se lf i s c hem ica l ly v ery s tab le , a nd i t was i n terest ing t o n ote i n t he a ssemb lage o f a r tefac ts f r om O lduva i G orge t hat t he c her t p ieces w ere e xtreme ly w ea thered whereas , a s ide f r om a bras ion , t he q uar tz a r tef a c t s a ppeared t ob e u na l tered . I t h as b een n o ted b y Moss ( 1 983 :1 44 ) t ha tp os t -depos i t iona l p rocesses a f ect p o l ish f ea tures , a nd t hese d i f f er f r om a rea t o a rea . Wh i le t here may n o t b e a ny a pparent c hange o n t he s ur fa ce o ft he q uar t zi t se lf ,t he f a c tt ha tp o l ish a t tr ibu tes may b e a l t ered o ver t ime s hou ld b e c ons idered . T es t ing t he e f f ects o fp os t -depos i t iona l p rocesses a nd c hem ica l a l tera t ions i s a n i mpor tan t a rea w h ich w ou ld b enef i t f r om c on t inued i nves t iga t ion . A l l o f t he e xper imenta l t oo ls w ere e xam ined u s ing a n O lympus BH M m eta l lurg ica l m icroscope a t magn if ica t ions r ang ing f r om 5 0 -500X , w ith 2 00X b e ing t he m os t c ommon ly u sed magn if ica t ion t o l o ca te a reas o fd amage a nd p o l ish f o r d escr ip t ion , p hotography a nd q uant ita t ive a na lys is . P hotos w ere t aken u s ing a n O lympus 0M -2 c amera a nd Ag fpan 1 00 b lack a nd wh ite f i lm . S e lec ted p i eces w ere e xam ined u s ing a J EOL -35 a nd a n I S I DS -130 s cann ing e l ec t ron m icroscope a t magn if ica t ions r ang ing f r om 1 0X -2000X . T he m os t u sefu l r ange when u s ing t he S EM p roved t ob e b e tween 2 00X 8 00X , wh ich p rov ided a n i ce c ompar ison w ith t he i nf orma t ion g a ined f r om t he o p t ica l 5

m icroscope . A l l SE M p ho tos w ere t aken u s ing P o laro id t ype 5 5 f i lm . If ound b oth t ypes o f m icroscopes t ob e i nva luab le , p rov id ing d if erent , y et c omp lementary , p erspect ives o n t he s a me f eatures ( P lates 3 -4 ) . The SE M was u sefu l i n i s o la t ing c hanges i n s urface t extures a f ter u se a s w e l l a s d ocument ing e dge d amage a nd a bras ive a ct ion wh ich o ccas iona l ly b ecame o bscured b y t he r ef lected l i ght a nd i r regu lar s urface c on f igura t ion o ft he q uartz .

P la te 3 : T oo lu sed t oc ut g rass ( Poa p ra tens is ) 2 00X

P la te 4 : EM p ho to o fs ame p iece f o rc ompar ison 2 00X 6

Dur ing my r esearch , Id id n ot f o cus c l ose ly o n t he mechan ics o f w ear , r ather I c oncentrated o n d etect ing m icroscop ic t races o f u se o n q uar tz t oo ls a nd d ocument ing t hose t ra its If ound t o b e d iagnost ic a nd c ons istent ly i dent if iab le . S t i l l , o ne c annot s tudy u se -wear w ithou to bserv ing wha th appens t ot he s urface o ft he t oo l . Mu ch o f wha th appens t o aq uartz t oo l d ur ing u se a ppears t o b e a bras ive i n n ature a nd i sd i scussed b y v ar ious p eop le ( D iamond 1 979 ;Kamm inga 1 979 ;Meeks e t a l 1 982 ) , a nd i s s im i lar , i n s o me r espects , t o g lac ia l movements . G lac iers e rode b y a bras ion c aused b y t he s c rap ing a ct ion o fd ebr is laden i c e a ga inst t he u nder ly ing r ock ( F ig . 1 ) . T h is s erves t o smooth a nd p o l ish t he s urface o f t he r ock b y a l ter ing i ti n to g ent ly r ounded f o rms . T hese mounds , r i dden

MOVEMENT OF I CE .0 ' SMOOTHED B Y ABRAS ION

0

•

•P LUCKED B Y ABRAS ION

0 0 .

GLACIAL

MOVEMENT

( a dap ted f r om M ea rs 1 978 :3 00 )

F igure 1

o ver b y t he i c e , b ecome s t ream l ined a nd s moothed o n t he s i de f a c ing t he s ource o ft he i c e a nd a re r oughened o n t he d owng lac ier , o r l e e s i de o ft he mound b ecom ing s t eep -faced b y q uarry ing ( P la te 5 ) . I fl oaded w ith f i ne d ebr is , t he i c e may p o l ish t he h ard r ock b enea th i t t hereby i nd ica te ing t he d i rect ion o fg lac ia l f l ow ( Andrews 1 975 ;P a tterson 1 969 ) . T hese a symmetr ica l k nobs o r «r oches mountonees »a s t hey a re c a l led , c o mmon ly a ppear , o n a much sma l ler s ca le , o n q uartz t oo ls u sed f o r g rav ing .

P la te 5 : SE M p hoto o f «r oches mou tonees »5 00X 7

I ti sa l so d if i cu lt t o s tudy m icrowear a nd n ot b e d rawn i n to t he d eba te o ver p o l ish f o rmat ion . Ic ame u pon a n i nterest ing d iscovery when I s p l it a n a rchaeo log ica l f l int b lade h av ing a n e xtreme ly w e l l d eve loped s i l ica g l oss f r om K ebara C ave i n I srae l ( P lates 6 -8 ) i n a n a t tempt t o r ecrea te t he e xper iment c onducted b y Meeks e ta l . ( 1982 ) . P la te 6 s hows wha t a ppears t ob e a n amorphous l ayer o n t op o fa pparent ly u na ltered f l int wh i le p la tes 7 a nd 8 a re p hotos t aken , u s ing t he S EM , o f ac r oss s ec t ion o fa n u nused f l int b lade f or c o mpar ison a nd a n e n largement o f t he a l tered «l ayer » o n t he K ebara b lade . Whether t h is l ayer i sc aused b y ad i sso lut ion o ft he s urface o ft he f l int , s uch a s a dvoca ted b y Anderson -Gerfaud ( 1980 ) a nd Mansur -Franchomme ( 1983 ) , o r c aused b y a bras ive a ct ion a s d i scussed b y Kamm inga ( 1979 ) , D iamond ( 1979 ) a nd Meeks e ta l . ( 1982 ) , o r a c omb inat ion o f t he t wo p rocesses a s p roposed b y Unger -Ham i lton ( 1984 ) , h as y et t o b e d ef in it ive ly c onf irmed . N onethe less , i tc l ear ly i lustrates a c hange wh ich r esu lted f r om u se o n s of t p lant mater ia l . N ow , Iw ou ld l i ke t o d i scuss t he r esu lts Io bta ined f r om s ome o f my e xper iments .

P la te 6 : SE M p hoto o fc r oss s e ct ion o fK ebara b lade s how ing s i l ica l ayer 1 000X

8

P late 7 : S EM p hoto o fc r oss s e ct ion o fu nused f l in tb lade 1 000X

P la te 8 : SEM e n largement o fs i l ica l ayer o n K ebara b lade 1 0 ,000X

9

Grass: When e xam in ing t oo ls u sed f o r c utt ing g rasses , If ound t ha t t he l ong stemmed f i brous g rass ( Amoph i la a venar ia ) wh ich g rows among t he s and d unes a l ong t he c oas t i n N or thern C a l if orn ia c reated more e dge d amage , p i t t ing a nd s t r iae o n t he q uartz t oo ls t han c ut t ing c u lt ivated «l awn »g rass ( Poa p ra tens is , A vena s p . , F ranc is 1 912; G ou ld 1 968 ) . Iw ou ld e xpect g rass g row ing i n s and d unes t o c on ta in more a bras ives wh ich w ou ld p resumab ly a ccount f o r ag reat n umber o fs t r ia t ions ( P la tes 9 10 ) . T he s t em o f Amoph i la i sa l so q u ite t ough a nd b r itt le wh ich c ou ld c ause g rea ter e dge d amage a s w e l l . A nother

P la te 9 : T oo l u sed t o c u t «l awn »g rass ( Poa p ra tens is ) 2 00X

P la te 1 0: T oo l u sed t o c u t «b each »g rass ( Amoph i la a venar ia ) 2 00X 1 0

p oss ib i l ity t o c ons ider i st ha t t he d if erence i n a ppearance o ft he t wo p o l ishes c orresponds t ot hat d escr ibed b y Unger -Ham i lton ( 1983 :2 44 ) when s he r ef erred t o d if erent a t tr ibutes o ft wo s i l ica p o l ishes p oten t ia l ly b e ing d iagnost ic o fs eparate s pec ies . T he l e sser n umbers o fs t r iat ions o n t he t oo ls u sed t o c u t «l awn »g rass a s c o mpared w ith «b each »g rass c ou ld r esu lt f r om t he i n teract ion b etween t he s i l ica i n t he p lant a nd t he s ur face o ft he q uar tz c r ea t ing a «g e l l i ke » s ta te a nd i nf i l l ing t he s t r iae a s t hey f o rm . Th is p rocess was d escr ibed b y Mansur -Franchomme ( 1983 ) f o r f l int t oo ls u sed t o w ork f r esh h ide a nd s eems t o b e ar easonab le e xp lana t ion i n l i ght o ft he amorphous l ayer s een o n t he c ross s e ct ion o ft he K ebara s i ck le b lade . P o l ish a nd e dge r ound ing w ere p resent o n a l l o ft he t oo ls u sed t o w ork s of t p lant ma ter ia l , g enera l ly a f ter a bou t t en m inu tes o fu se . T he p o l ish was s im i lar t o t hat s een o n f l int t oo ls , b e ing r e lat ive ly s mooth , u ndu lat ing a nd r ef lec t ive , w i th a meta l l ic l uster . The p o l ish f o rmed c ont inuous ly d own t he u sed e dge a nd i nf i l led t he d amage s cars when i t was w e l l d eve loped .

Meat: I si tp oss ib le t o s ee d iagnos t ic t races o f meat p o l ish o n q uar tz t oo ls? Knutsson ( 1986 ) d es cr ibes f i nd ing b road , s ha l low s t r iae o r a bras ion t racks wh ich may c urve s l ight ly o n t o o ls u sed f o r c u t t ing mea t . Ih ave d ocumented e dge r ound ing , b ut h ave n ot c ons istent ly l o cated t hese b road t ra cks o n a ny o ft he t oo ls Ih ave u sed e i ther f o rb u t chery o r d e f lesh ing . We b oth h ave , h owever , d ocumented s urface r oughness a nd h ere p late 1 1 s hows what a ppears t ob e ma ter ia l a dher ing t ot he s urface .

P la te 1 :T oo l u sed f o r c u t t ing meat 5 00X . A rrow p o ints t o p oss ib le o rgan ic ma ter ia l a dher ing t o s ur face .

1

H ide: P it t ing i s ad iagnost ic f ea ture o fh ide s c rap ing; t he a verage n umber o fp i ts v ary ing w ith t he t ype o f h ide b e ing s craped . S crap ing s un -dr ied h ide p roduced t he g reatest q uant i ty o fp i ts f o l lowed b yf r esh ( wet ) h ide a nd t anned h ide ( P la tes 1 2 -13 ) . A t tr it ion o ft he r i dges a nd s crap ing e dge was p resent o n a l l s pec imens , t o v ary ing d eg rees . L inear g rooves a nd s t r iat ions w ere f ound i n l e sser n umbers , r unn ing p erpend icu lar t o t he d i rect ion o f u se . L inear g rooves d if er f r om s t r iat ions i n t hat t hey a re r ough -bot tomed t r oughs ( P la tes 1 4 -15 ) a s o pposed t ot he smoo th -bot toms s e en i n s t r iat ions . The p resence o f t hese g rooves may b e c aused b y m icroch ips o f q uar tz b eco m ing c aught a nd p ressed o b l ique ly i n to t he t oo l s urface d ur ing u se . T hese ma inta in a f o rce p ara l le l t o t he q uar tz s urface a nd o vercome c ontact f r ict ion . Th is i s p erhaps b est d escr ibed b y L awn a nd Marsha l l ( 1979 :7 0 ) , «. .A t t he t ra i l ing e dge o ft he c ontac t , t he s pec imen e xper iences a n e nhanced t ens ion d ue t o t he d rag , a nd a t t he l ead ing e dge t he s pec imen l i ke w ise e xper iences a n e nhanced c o mpress ion » . Th is c auses c ra cks t o b eg in i n t he wake o ft he q uartz f ragment a nd t o f o rm p ar t ia l r ings a round t he c ontact z one . The s t resses i n t he i mmed iate a rea a re r e laxed a nd a s e cond r i ng o r p ar t ia l c one f o rms when t he f ragment h as moved f ar e nough t o b u i ld u p s uf i c ient s t ress o nce more . A s t he p art ic le i sd ragged a cross t he s urfa ce , as er ies o fr acks r esu lt a l ong t he i nden ta t ion p a th . T h is a ga in a ppears s im i lar t o t hat s een o n ag rander s ca le i n g lac ia l movement where g round r ocks embedded i n t he g lac ier a re f o rced a l ong b y t he f orward movement o f t he mass . T hese l i near g rooves a re r asped o ut o ft he u nder ly ing r ock a nd r un p ara l le l t o t he g la c ier 's f l ow ( V ia l 1 952 ) . Unf or tuna te ly , If ound n o d i scernab le p o l ish , e ven a f ter s c rap ing f r esh h ide , wh ich c ou ld a id i n d if erent iat ing a h ide p o l ish f r om o ther p o l ishes whose a ttr ibu tes m ight o ver lap d ur ing c er ta in s tages o fd eve lopment . Once ,j ust o n a wh im , Ia dded v o lcan ic a sh a n a bras ive a gent t o af r esh h ide Iwas s c rap ing u nsuccessfu l ly . T he Mount S t . H e lens v o lcano h ad r ecent ly e rupted a nd a sh was l y ing e verywhere .

Wh i le t h is method i s u n l ike ly t o h ave b een p ract ised

p reh istor ica l ly , t he a dd it ion o ft he a sh p roduced s t r ik ing w ear p a t terns o n t he s ur face o f t he q uar tz ( P la tes 1 6 -17 ) . I tw as v ery s im i lar t o ad ry h ide p o l ish o n f l int , b e ing e x treme ly d u l l w ith a ma t tt ex ture , p ronounced e dge r ound ing a nd s ubs tant ia l p i t t ing .

Wood: Wood p o l ish , i lustrated i n p lates 1 8 a nd 1 9 , p roved t o b e more e lus ive t o r ecogn ize c ons istent ly . I t was n ever a s w e l l d eve loped o r e xtens ive a s as of t p lant p o l ish , a nd t he p o l ish i t se lf was n ot a lways p resent , a t t imes r equ ir ing i dent if ica t ion b ased s o le ly o n e dge d amage , r ound ing a nd o ther f ea tures s uch a s p i t t ing a nd l i near g rooves . Wood p o l ish i s v ar iab le i n i t s d eve lopment d ue , i n p ar t , t o t he h ardness o f t he w ood a nd , c orrespond ing ly , t he amount o fs i l ica p resent . T he more s i l iceous t he w ood , t he b et ter t he p o l ish d eve lopment . N ote t he g rea t n umbers o f l i near g rooves a nd t he r ough s urface t ex ture wh ich t ends t ob e s moother i ft he p o l ish i sw e l ld eve loped .

1 2

P late 1 2: T oo l e dge u sed f o r s c rap ing s un -dr ied h ide 2 00X

P la te 1 3: SEM p hoto o fe dg eo ft he s ame t o o l5 00X

1 3

P la te 1 4: SE M p ho to o fl i near g rooves 1 000X

V

I .

P la te 1 5: SE M p ho to o fs t r ia t ion 3 900X

1 4

P la te 1 6: T oo l e dge u sed f o r s c rap ing f r esh h ide w ith v o lcan ic a sh a dded 2 00X

P la te 1 7: SEM p ho to o fs ame t o o l2 00X

1 5

P late 1 8: T oo l u sed f o r s aw ing w ood 1 00X

P late 1 9: S ame t o o l2 00X

1 6

Ant ler: T he w ork ing o f s oaked a nt ler p rodu ced t wo d i s t ingu ish ing c hara c ter is t icscomet t a i led p i ts a nd t he «me l ted s now »e f ect d escr ibed f o r f l int t oo ls a l so u sed o n s oaked a n t ler ( Kee ley 1 980 :5 6 ) . T hese c omet ta i led p i ts d if er f r om p i t s a s t hey h ave a s ha l low g roove o r s ma l l «t a i l »t r a i l ing a f t er t he p i t a nd a re f ound o n ly o n t hose q uar tz t o o ls u sed f o r w ork ing s oaked a n t ler o r f r esh b one ( P la tes 2 0 -22 ) . P it t ing o ft he t o o l 's s urf ace w as m ore c ommon ly s een o n a nt ler t o o ls t han o n b one t o o ls . T oo ls u sed t o w ork a nt ler a l so s us ta ined a bou t t hree t imes t he a verage n umber o fl i near g rooves c ompared w ith b one t o o ls . S tr ia t ions w ere a r are o c currence o n b o th b one a nd a nt ler w ork ing t o o ls . A nt ler p o l ish i sb r ight a nd s l igh t ly m eta l l ic i n i t s r ef lec t iv ity , a l though d ura t ion o fu se , a l ong w i th t he t ype o fa c t iv ity , a ppeared t o i nf luence w hen p o l ish a t t r ibu tes ( su ch a s «me lted s now » )b ecame d i s t inc t . Ar ough s u rfa ce t e x ture w as p resent i n term it tent ly o n a l l t o o ls d ur ing t he f i rst 5 10 m inu tes o fu se b u t , b ecame s moo ther a s t ime o fu se i n crea sed . A s mooth t ex ture , h owever , b ecame a p rom inen t f ea ture o n ly o n t hose q uar t z t o o ls w h ich

P la te 2 0: C omet ta i led p i t s2 00X

1 7

P la te 2 1 :SE M p ho to o fc ome t -ta i led p i ts ( t i lted 6 0d eg rees )5 00X

P la te 2 2: «Me lted s now »2 00X

1 8

w ere u sed f o r a n h our o fs c rap ing o r g rav ing a c t iv ity . F rom my e xper iments i ta ppears t ha t t he d eve lopment o fa n a nt ler «p o l ish »p asses t hrough p ar t icu lar s t ages :a n e ar ly s t age where a t tr it ion a nd a bras ion a re p rom inent f ea tures f o l lowed b y as ubsequent s t ab i l i l iza t ion o ft he e dge i n c on junct ion w ith e dge r oud ing , s mooth ing , p o l ish f o rma t ion a nd t he «me lted s now » e f f ect ( F ig . 2 ) . T h is p rocess a pparent ly c ont inues u p t o a nd i n c lud ing o ne h our o fu se w here , when t o o l u se e x ceeds a bou t a n h our , t he p o l ish s eems t o b e l i tera l ly w orn a way , r e su l t ing a ga in i n a n i n crease o fa t tr it ion a nd p i t t ing o ft he t oo l 's s urface . U nused q uartz f lake

+

P its L inear G rooves ielP P its L inear G rooves A ttrition

K e e

A ttrition

9 6 m inutes o f u se

R ounding S moothing " Melted S now"

1 0 m inutes o f u se 4 4

0

R ounding S moothing 2 0 m in. o f u se " Melted S now"

J w dr

6 0 m inutes o f u se

F igu re 2

B one: P o l ish o n q uar tz f r om w ork ing f r esh b one f o rms q u ick ly w ith r ound ing a nd s moo th ing o ft he w ork ing e dges b ecom ing p rom inent f ea tures o f aw e l l -deve loped p o l ish a l ong w ith t he d iagnos t ic c omet -ta i led p i ts . Two t ypes o ft ex tura l c hanges a re f ound i n a dd it ion :o ne i s as moo th , s i lky p o l ish a nd t he o ther h as a r ough , s and -papery t exture , p resumab ly f r om t i ny c h ips o fq uar t z a nd /or b one b e ing c aught i n t he d eve lop ing p o l ish . S ome c omb ina t ion o ft he t wo t ex tures w as p resent o n a l l t o o ls u sed t ow ork f r esh b one f o r t wen ty m inu tes o r more ( P la tes 2 3 -24 ) . B ef ore t ha tt ime ,t he p o l ish i so f t en r ough i nt ex tu re ( bu t d oes n ot n ecessar i ly b ecome s mooth ) . M icroprobe a na lys is , h owever , d id n o t r evea l t he p resence o fa ny o rgan ic t r a ces a nd , a s Iment ioned , i ti sp oss ib le t ha t c l ean ing w ith HC l a nd KOH may h ave d est royed a ny o rgan ic r es idues . P its , s t r ia t ions a nd d epress ions o n t he t oo l 's s ur face a cqu ire a «f i l led in » a ppearance a f ter a pprox ima te ly f i ve m inutes o f u se . C racks t oo a ppear a nd r un i r regu lar ly t hrough t he p o l ish s oon a f ter i td eve lops ( P la te 2 5 ) . If ound t hese c racks t o o c cur r egu lar ly when w ork ing b one a nd t h is p henomenon h as b een d ocumen ted b y o thers a s w e l l ( K ee ley , p ers . c omm ;Moss , p ers . c omm ) . K ee ley s ugg es t s t ha t t he c ra cks c ou ld b ec au sed b yh ea tg enera t ed t hrough f r ic t ion b e tween t he b one a nd t he q uar tz .A s Ih ave n o t s e en t hem a f t er w ork ing a ny o ther ma ter ia l , i ts ugg es t s t o me t ha t t he c ompos it ion o ft he b one p o l ish may d i f f er s l ight ly f r om o ther p o l ishes , p erhaps i n i t s mo is ture a nd /or c hem ica l c ontent . 1 9

P la te 2 3: R ough s urf ace t ex ture o n t o o lu sed f o r s c rap ing b one 2 00X

P la te 2 4: Smooth s urface t ex ture o n t o o lu sed f o rs aw ing b one 2 00X

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P la te 2 5: C racks i nb one p o l ish o n t oo l u sed f o r s c rap ing 2 00X

One p iece o fq uar tz u sed t o s aw b o i led b one was e xam ined a s p ar t o f ab l ind t est . I nterest ing ly , i tr esemb led more c l ose ly a w ood p o l ish o n f l int t han a b one p o l ish . T h is was p robab ly d ue t o t he d ecrease i n f at a nd g rease c ontent i n t he b one a s ar esu lt o f b o i l ing . I n my f i rst a t tempt a t a pp ly ing t h is t e chn ique t o a n a rchaeo log ica l a ssemb lage , I c hose t o e xam ine a s amp le o f mater ia l f r om s o me o f t he L ower P a laeo l ith ic s i tes a t O lduva i G orge . As ma l l amount o fw ork o ft h is n a ture was d one s uccessfu l ly a t t he e ar ly s i te o fK oob i F ora b y K ee ley a nd T oth ( 1981 ) , a nd i t was my i n tent ion t o e xpand t h is t o i n c lude a no ther i mpor tant e ar ly s i te . A t o ta l o f 1 05 a r tefacts w ere e xam ined f r om B eds I a nd I o n t he b as is o f t he f o l low ing a t tr ibutes : 1 ) a rtefacts e xcavated f r om f i ne -g ra ined s ed iments 2 )a b i l ity t of i tu nder t he m icroscope 3 ) «f r eshness »o fa ppearance a nd l a ck o fo bv ious p a t inat ion 4 )p resence o fr e touch . ( A s a mp le o fu nmod if ied was te was e xam ined a s w e l l . ) Ou to f as e lec ted s amp le s i ze o f1 05 p i eces , If ound f our t oh ave p oss ib le t races o fu se . P late 2 6 s hows al i ght -du ty u t i l ized f l ake w ith ac oncave e dge , wh ich If ound t oh ave l i near g rooves a nd p i ts r unn ing p ara l le l a nd a t l ow a ng les t o t he e dge o n o ne s ma l l a rea o ft he f l ake s im i lar t o t he f eatures s een a f ter s aw ing w ood u s ing q uar tz , b u t l a ck ing a ny d iagnost ic p o l ish . P la te 2 7 i so fa n e xper imenta l q uar tz t o o l u sed t o s aw w ood - s hown h ere f o r c o mpar ison .

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P la te 2 6: L ight -duty u t i l ized q uar tz f l ake f r om O lduva i G orge s how ing l i near g rooves a nd p i ts 2 00X

P la te 2 7: T oo l u sed f o r s aw ing w ood 2 00X

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T he n ex t a r tefa c t w as a l so a l i ght -du ty u t i l ized f l ake whose s urf ace a ppeared v ery s moo th a nd b r ight , s im i lar t o as of tp lant p o l ish , b u t l a ck ing t he c harac ter is t ic p i ts a nd l i near g rooves f ound o n e xper imenta l p i eces . T he s urfa ce f ea tures c orrespond ing mos t c l ose ly t o t h is w ere p rodu ced w hen t he p u lpy i n s ide o ft r ee b ark w a s s c raped a s s een i n P la tes 2 8 -29 . S t i l l , t he o ther d iagnost ic t races a re m iss ing o n t he a rchaeo log ica l s pec imen .

P la te 2 8: L ight -du ty u t i l ized f l ake f r om O lduva i G orge s how ing s moo th s urface f r om p oss ib le u se 2 00X

P la te 2 9: T oo l u sed f o r s c rap ing i ns ide o ft r ee b ark 2 00X

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T he t h ird s pec imen was a l i ght -duty s craper . N o p o l ish was p resent , b u t e dge d amage a nd a bras ion , c ons istent w ith a s c rap ing a c t ion a re v i s ib le i n P lates 3 0 -31 w ith a n e xamp le o fa n e xper imenta l t oo l u sed f o r s c rap ing s undr ied h ide .

P la te 3 0: L ight -du ty s c raper f r om O lduva i G orge s how ing a t tr it ion o fe dge f r om p oss ib le u se 2 00XZ

P la te 3 1 :T oo l u sed f o r s c rap ing s un -dr ied h ide 2 00X T he l a st s pec imen was a q uartz aw l . S urface r e f lect ion made p hotog raph ing t he d amage i mposs ib le , b ut i ts us ta ined c rush ing a nd s t ep f ractures a t i t s t i p . T h is d amage e as i ly c ou ld b e i nduced b yb or ing h ard ma ter ia l s uch a s s he l l o rb one , b u t c ou ld h ave b een i nf l icted b y p ost -depos it iona l p rocesses a s w e l l . T here a lso w ere n o d iagnost ic w ear t races o r s t r ia t ions v i s ib le a nywhere o n t he t oo l . 2 4

A bras ion was p resent , t o v ary ing d eg rees , o n a l l t he a r tef ac ts Ie xam ined a nd I w as , t heref ore , u nab le t od et erm ine i fs ome o ft he f ea tu res Ih ave d es cr ibed r esu lted f r om d e l ibera te u se , p ost -depos it iona l a bras ion o r «b ag d amage »:t he a bras ion a nd e dge d amage t ha t o c cu r f r om s t or ing a rt efa c ts c ommuna l ly , a s t he O lduva i ma ter ia l i ss t ored . Where t here i s wha t Id escr ibe a s p o l ish , a bras ion o n t he t oo l made i ti mposs ib le t o a s cer ta in t he e x ten ta nd , t os ome d eg ree , t he i n t ens i ty o ft he p o l ish . Ih ave t oa g ree w i th Moss i nh er a r t ic le ( 1983 :1 44 ) where s he w rote t ha t as amp le s i ze o fa tl ea st 5 0 -100 p i eces i sn eeded t of am i l iar ize o nese lf w i th t he r aw ma ter ia l b e ing s tud ied . T he c her t a r tefa c ts f r om O lduva i w ere e x treme ly w ea thered; o r ig ina l ly b e ing a m i lky o r p a le y e l low /g rey a nd h av ing a s ugary s urfa ce t ex ture , t hey h ad w ea thered t o a l i ght , i n tense ly r ef lec t ive c o lor w i th ag rea sy l u st er . C hem ica l c l ean ing d id n o t a ppear t o a l ter o rr emove a ny o ft h is p a t ina . T he q uar tz a r t ef ac t s s uf f ered f r om a bras ion . My f o rma t ion o fh ypo theses a s t o why Id id n o tf i nd more d i scernab le t races o fu se o n t h is mat er ia l a re l i s ted b e low . O fc ourse , s ome a re more f eas ib le t han o thers , b u t a l l a re p o ten t ia l ly c ont r ibu t ory . 1 )N one o ft he a r tef a c ts w ere u sed . 2 )An umber o fa r tef ac ts w ere u sed b u tt hese w ere n o t among s tt hose e xam ined . 3 )T he t o o ls w ere n o tu sed l ong e nough f o rt r a ces o fu se t ob ecome man if es t . 4 )C o l lec t ive s t orag e o ft he a ssemb lag e a braded a way t ra ces o fu se . 5 )P o l ish a t tr ibut es b ecome a l tered a f ter l ong p er iods . 6 )P o l ish i sp resent b u t Iwa su nab le t oi d en t if yi t . I n t h is p ar t icu lar s i tua t ion , Iw ou ld s ugges t t ha t a bras ion h as r emoved t races o f w ear wh ich may h ave b een p resent . I t wa s c ommonp la ce i n t he 1 960 's , when O lduva i was e x cava ted , a nd p r ior t o t ha t t o s t ore a l l t he s t one t o o ls f r om a n e x cava t ion t ogether . T he i mp l ica t ions o ft h is may b e t ha t t he a r tef ac ts b e long ing t o s i tes e xcava ted p r ior t o t he r e cogn i t ion o fm icrowear s tud ies , s u ch a s O lduva i G orge a nd C houkou t ien , f o r e xamp le , w i l l p rove i mperv ious t o me thods s u ch a s t hese , a nd a rchaeo log ists w i l l h ave t o r e ly o n a r tefac t f o rm t o d educe f unc t ion a s w e l l a s a na log ies d raw f r om m icrowear s tud ies o n m ore r ecen t ly e xcava ted ma ter ia l . I ti s my o p in ion , t ha t a pp ly ing t he t e chn ique o fm icrowear t oi nc lude a ssemb lages o fq uar tz a s w e l l a s o ther c oarse -g ra ined r aw ma ter ia ls i sb oth a f eas ib le a nd v a luab le e ndeavor , p rov id ing t he a ssemb lage h as b een c arefu l ly e xcava ted a nd c ura ted w ith m icrowea r s tud ies i n m ind .

ACKNO WLEDGEMENTS T h is r esearch w as c arr ied o u t w ith g enerous g rants f r om t he L SB L eakey F ounda t ion , t he B o ise F und , aUC B erke ley Human i t ies R esea rch G rant a nd S igma X i , a S c ient if ic R esear ch O rgan iza t ion . Iw ou ld l i ke t o t hank J . D esmond C lark , Maur ice Duma is , R ichard L . Hay , P e ter J ones , D ave L ange , J im Moore a nd A nn ie V incent f o r t he ir a dv ice a nd t echn ica l a ss istance . T he l a te G lynn L I . I saac s uperv ised a nd e ncouraged a l l f ace ts o ft h is r esear ch . S tudy a t t he museums o f K enya was f a c i l i ta ted t hrough t he e f orts o f R ichard L eakey , D irec tor , Mary L eakey , Harry Merr ick a nd S im iyu Wand ibba . T he T anzan ian C ounc i l f o r S c ience a nd T echno logy a nd t he D epar tmen t o fA nt iqu i t ies k ind ly made t he O lduva i mat er ia l a va i lab le t o me f o r s tudy .

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B IBLIOGRAPHY ANDERSON , ( P . ) , 1 980 .— A T est imony o fp reh is tor ic t asks: d iagnost ic r es idues o n s t one t oo l w ork ing e dges . Wor ld A rchaeo logy 1 2 ( 2 ) :1 81 -194 . ANDERSON -GERFAUD , ( P . ) , 1 983 .— A c ons idera t ion o ft he u ses o fc er ta in b a cked a nd «l ustred » s t one t oo ls f r om L ate Meso l ith ic a nd Natuf ian l eve ls a t Abu H ereyra a nd Mureybet ( Syr ia ) . I n T races d 'U t i l isa t ion s ur l e s Ou t i ls M o l i th iques d u P roche -Or ient . ( M -C C auv in , e d .) . L yon: Ma ison d e l ' Or ient M6d i terran6en . p p 7 7 -106 . ANDRE WS , ( J .T .) , 1 975 .— An Approach Massachuset ts: Duxbury P ress .

t o G lac iers a nd t he ir Env ironments .

D IAMOND , ( G . ) , 1 975 .— The n ature o fs o -ca l led p o l ished s urfaces o n s t one a r tefacts . I n L i th ic U se -W ear Ana lys is . ( B . Hayden , e d . ) . New Y ork: A cadem ic P ress . FRANCIS , ( M .E . ) , 1 912 .— T he Book o fG rasses . New Y ork: D oub leday , P age a nd C o . GOULD , ( F .W . ) , 1 968 .— G rass S ys tema t ics . New Y ork: Mc G raw -H i l l B ook C o . p p 1 69 . KAM M INGA , ( J .) , 1 979 .— T he n ature o fu se -po l ish o n p reh istor ic s t one t oo ls . I n L i th ic U se -W ear Ana lys is . ( B . Hayden . e d . ) . New Y ork :A cadem ic P ress . p p . 1 43 -157 . KEELEY , ( L .) , 1 980 .— E xper imen ta l D e term ina t ion o f S tone T oo l U ses . A Microwear Ana lys is . C h icago: T he Un ivers ity o f C h icago P ress . KEELEY , ( L . ) , 1 981 .— M icrowear p o l ishes o n e ar ly s t one t oo ls f r om K oob i F ora , K enya . S c ience 2 93 :4 64 -465 . KNUTSSON , ( K . ) , 1 986 .— SE MAna lys is o fw ear f eatures o n e xper imenta l q uar tz t oo ls . Ear ly Man News P ar ts Ia nd I . 9 / 10 /11 :p p . 3 5 -46 ;6 -16 ( p la tes ) . LA WN , ( B .R . ) , a nd MARSHALL , ( D .B . ) , 1 979 .— Mechan isms o f m icrocontact f racture i n b r itt le s o l ids . I n L i th ic U se -W ear Ana lys is . ( B . Hayden , e d . ) New Y ork : A cadem ic P ress . LEAKEY , ( M .D . ) , 1 971 .— O lduva i G org e V o lume 3 :E xcava t ions i n B eds Ia nd I , 1 960 1 963 . C ambr idge: Cambr idge Un ivers ity P ress . MANSUR -FRANCHO M ME , ( M .E . ) , 1 983 .— S cann ing e l ectron m icroscopy o f d ry h ide w ork ing t oo ls: t he r o le o fa bras ives a nd h um id ity i n m icrowear p o l ish . J ourna l o f A rchaeo log ica l S c ience 1 0 ( 3 ) :2 23 -230 . MEEKS , ( N .D . ) , S IEVEK ING , ( G . ) , T ITE , ( M .S . ) , AND COOK , ( J .) , 1 982 .— G loss a nd u se -wear t races o n f l int s i ck les a nd s im i lar p henomena . J ournal o f A rchaeo log ica l S c ience 9 :3 17 -340 .

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MOSS , ( E . ) , 1 983 .— The f unct iona l b ur ins a nd t anged p o ints f r om T e l l A bu Hureyra ( Syr ia ) . I n T races d 'U t i l isa t ion s ur l e s Ou t i ls Ndo l i th iques d u P roche -Or ien t ( M . -C . C auv in , e d ) . L yon: Ma ison d e l ' Or ient Mdd iterranden , p p . 1 43 -61 . PATTERSON , (W .S .B . ) , 1 969 .— T he Phys ics o f G lac ier s . L ondon: The P ergamon P ress . SUSS MAN , ( C . ) , 1 986 .— Func t iona l S tud ies o f E xper imen ta l Quar tz A r tef ac ts u s ing Microscop ic Ana lys is o f U se -W ear a nd P o l ish F orma t ion . P h . D . D issertat ion , UC B erke ley , D epar tmen t o f Anthropo logy . UNGER -HAM ILTON , ( R . ) , 1 984 .— T he f orma t ion o fu se -wear p o l ish o n f l int: b eyond t he «d epos it v ersus a bras ion » c ontroversy . J ourna l o fA rcha eo log ica l S c ience 1 1 :9 1 9 8 . UNGER -HAMILTON , ( R . ) , 1 983 .— An i nvest igat ion i nto t he v ar iab les af ect ing t he d eve lopment a nd a ppearance o fp lant p o l ish o n f l int b lades . I n T races d 'U t i l isa t ion s ur l e s Ou t i ls M o l i th iques d u P roche -Or ien t . ( M . -C . C auv in , e d . ) . L yon: Ma ison d e l ' Or ient Mdd iterranden . p p . 2 43 -250 . V IAL , ( A .E .L . ) , 1 952 .— A lp ine G lac ier s . L ondon: T he B a tchworth P ress .

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TRACEO . LOG IE ET TECHNOLOGIE: QUELQUES DONNtES SUR L 'OBSEDIENNE

Mar ta E s te la MANSUR -FRANCHO M ME *

ABSTRACT:

Mos t f unct ionna l a na lys is o f o bs id ian t oo ls a re c en tered i n t he o bserva t ion o f t ra ces w i th s t ereom icroscopes a t l ow magn i f icat ion . But m icropo l ishes a re i dent if ied w ith h igh p ower me ta l lograph ic m icroscopes . Obs id ian e dges b e ing v ery f rag i le , t hey s uf f er d if eren t a l tera t ions p rodu ced b y a cc idents d ur ing manufa c ture a nd u se , o r b y p os t -depos it iona l n a tura l p henomena , o r e ven b y e xcava t ion a nd h and l ing b y a rcheo log is ts , wh ich c an d estroy m icrowear t ra ces . C onsequent ly , i n p resen t c ond it ions , f unc t iona l a na lys is o n o bs id ian t oo ls i s o n ly p o ss ib le i n t he c a se o ft oo ls i n e x ce l len t e x cava t ion a nd c onserva t ion c ond i t ions . RESU ME M :

L a mayor fa d e l o s a nä l is is f unc t ionz les d e i ns trumentos e n o bs id iana s e c entran e n l a o bserva c i6n d e r as tros a b a jos a umentos e n l upa b ino cu lar . P ero e x is ten m icropu l idos q ue p ueden s er i dent i f icado s ag ran a umento c on m icroscop ios meta log rä f icos . L os f i bs d e o bs id iana , muy f räg i les , e stän s oma t idos a a l terac iones p roduc ides p or a cc identes d urante l a f abr ica t iön y u t i l izac i6n , o p or f enömenos n a tura les p os t -depos ic iona les , o i nc luso p or l a e xcavac iön a rqueo l6g ica , e l t ranspor te y l a man ipu lac iön e n l abora t ior io , q ue p ueden d es tru ir l o s r as tros d e u so . En c onsecuenc ia , e n l as c ond ic iones a ctua les , e l a nä l is is f unc iona l d e i ns trumentos e n o bs id iana e s a bordab le s o lo e n e l c aso d e c on juntos e n e xce lente e stado d e r ecuper c iön y d e c onservac iön .

R E SUME : L a p lupa r t d es e tudes f onc t ionne l les d ' ou t i ls e n o bs id ienne s on t c onsa crees a l ' observa t ion d e t ra ces a f a ib le g ross issemen t al al oupe b ino cu la ir e . C ependan t d es m icropo l is t yp iques p euven t e t re i den t if ies ä f o r t g ross issemen t a u m icro scope meta l log raph ique . L es t ranchan ts e n o bs id ienne , t r es f rag i les , s on t s oum is ä d es a l tera t ions p rodu ites s o i t p a r d es a cc iden ts p endant l a f abr ica t ion e t l ' u t i l isa t ion , s o it p ar d es p henomenes n a ture ls a pres d epö ts , s o it p a r l a f ou i l le a r cheo log ique e l le meme , l et ranspor t d es p ieces e tl eur man ipu la t ion e n l abora to ire , q u i d e tru isen t l e s t ra ces d 'usage . P a r c onsequen t , d ans l e s c ond it ions a c tue l les , l ' ana lyse f onc t ionne l le d e p ieces e n o bs id ienne n ' est e nv isageab le q ue p our d es e nsemb les e n e x ce l len t Ra t d er ecupera t ion e td e c ons erva t ion .

L a p oss ib i l i td d ' ef f e ctuer d es d eterm ina t ions f onct ionne l les s ur d es e nsemb les e n o bs id ienne a idera i t am ieux c omprendre c er ta ins a spec t s d u p assé amdr ica in , c ar c e t te ma t iäre p rem i &e d om ine d ans c er ta ines r eg ions . T e l e st l e c as d u Mex ique , p ar e xemp le , o ü l ' obs id ienne aad u n ma tdr iau d e c ho ix c ond it ionnan t l ed dve loppement d ' un r dseau c omp lexe d e c ompor tements d conom iques e t s o c iaux ( c f . S oto d e A rechava leta M .D . 1 986 e tb ib l . ) . L a p lupar t d es e tudes f onc t ionne l les s ur l ' obs id ienne p ub l ides j usqu 'ä n os j ours s on t c onsacrdes a l ' observa t ion d es d ca i l lu res d es t r anchan ts e t p arf o is d es s t r ies , t and is * C en tro Au s tra l d e I nue s t igac ione s C ien t if icas ( CADIC ) C .C . 9 2 , 9 410 U shua ia , T ierra d e l Fuego , A rgen t ine .

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q ue l e s r ef erences a ux m i cropo l is r es ten t t r es r ares . C et te s pec if ic ite d ' approche v ers l ' observa t ion d 'un s eu l t ype d e t r ace n ' est p a s d ue , c omme o n af r equemmen t t endance ä l e c ro ire , au ne c aracter is t ique i n tr inseque d es t r aces d 'usage ( v .g . q u ' i l n e s e f o rme p o int d e m icropo l i e n o bs id ienne ) ma is p lu töt a l ' or ienta t ion d es c hercheurs q u i e n treprennent l e s e tudes e t äl ' equ ipemen t o p t ique d ont i l s d i sposent .L a p lupar t d es a na ly ses e n o bs id ienne o nt e t e r ea l isees i y aq ue lqu es a nnees a ux E ta t s -Un i s , a u moyen d e l oupes b inocu la ires , s u ivant l ' approche c ommencee p ar R . T r ingham e ta l . ( 1974 ) . C ependant l e s e tudes r ecentes ä f o rt g ross issement m icroscop ique c ommencent ä montrer q ue d es t races m icroscop iques ( t e l les q ue m icropo l is ) a ppara issent a uss i s ur l ' obs id ienne ( Vaughan P . 1 981 ae tb ,A nder son -G erf aud P .C . 1 981 , S er izawa e ta l . 1 982 ) . L es t races m icroscop iques q ue l ' on p eu t o bserver s ur l e s t ranchan ts d es p ikes a rcheo log iques , n otamment l o rsqu 'e l les o nt e te f a ites d ans d es ma ter iaux f r ag i les c omme l ' obs id ienne , s ont l e r esu ltat d 'une Ark d e mod if ica t ions a ccumu la t ives p rodu ites d ' abord p endan t l a f abr ica t ion d e l a p i ke , p u is p endant l ' u t i l isa t ion , e nsu i te p ar l ' ef et d e p henomänes n a ture ls p endant l eur s e jour e n s ur f ace o u e n ter rees e t e n f in p endant l a f ou i l le a rcheo log ique e l le -möme , l e t ranspor t e t l a man ipu la t ion e n l aborato ire . L es o bserva t ions p resen tees i c i s ont l e r esu l ta t d e l ' ana lyse d e p lus ieurs s or tes d ' obs id ienne p rovenant d es E tat s Un is , d u Mex ique e td 'Arg en t ine , d ans l eb u t d ' e tud ier t r o is t ypes d e t races :n a ture l les o u a cc idente l les , t e chno log iques e t d 'u t i l isa t ion . E l les o n t e t e e f f ec tuees s ur l et e rra in a vec :a )d es ma ter iaux a r cheo log iques , p endan tu n s e jour d e q ua tre mo is a u Mex ique e n 1 985 , e tb )d es e chant i l lons e xper imen taux o b tenu s p endan t l aF l in t -Knapp ing S ummer S choo l d i r igee p ar J ef f rey F lenn iken a u S aw too th Na t iona l F or es t , d ans l ' Idaho , e n 1 981 , e t a u Mex ique e n 1 985 e t e n A rgent ine e n 1 986 . L es o bserva t ions a f o r t g ross issement a u m icroscope me ta l log raph ique o nt e t e e f e ctudes a u LE M IT ( La P la ta , A rgent ine ) e t q ue lques -unes a u D I ME d e l ' UNAM ( Mex ico D .F . , Mex ique ) ( 1) .

TRACES D 'UTIL ISAT ION L 'aspect n ature l d ' une s urfa ce e n f r ac ture f ra i che v ane s e lon l et ype d ' obs id ienne . D ans l a s er ie d ' echant i l lons e xam ines , l e s t ypes q u i d if eren t l ep lus s ont l ' obs id ienne v er te t rans luc ide d e S i er ra d e l a s Nava jas e tl av ar ie te o paque d eZ acua l t ipan . L a p rem iäre mon tre u ne m icrosurf ace t r äs r e f lech issan te , l i sse e t h omogäne . L es t r aces t e chno log iques p rodu i tes p ar l a p ropaga t ion d e l ' onde d e c hoc d ans l e ma ter iau , b i en q ue p eu a bondantes , s on t t r äs v i s ib les e tf a c i lemen t r econna issab les : —s t r ies g randes e tp rof ondes c onvergean tv ers l ep o int d e p er cuss ion ; —s t r ies e n f o rme d e c omäte d eve loppees a p ar t ir d 'une i mpurete o u d 'une b u l le p rox ima le , f o rmant l a «t ö te » ,c ompor tant u ne «q ueue » d i s ta le q u i p eu t a dopter u ne f o rme t r iangu la ire s il ' impu rete e s t p lus g rande ; —t ra its « e n a i le d ' o iseau « f o rmes ä p ar t ir d ' une i mpurete , d ' oü u s d ivergent f o rmant d eux a rcs d e c e rc le ac onvex i te d i s ta le ( l a «t ö te »e s t t ou jou rs p rox ima le ) . L ' obs id ienne n o ire d e Z acua l t ipan p resente e n f r a c ture f r a iche d es m icrosurf aces d ont l a t ex ture e st p lus i r regu l iäre , p lus r ugueu se . L es t races t e chno log iques s ont b eau coup p lus a bondan tes q ue d ans l ec as p receden te tc ontr ibuent ad onner al as urf a ce u n a spec t g ranu la ire . 3 0

M icropo l is Un m icropo l i e s t u n a spec t d e l a s urface d 'un t ranchan t u t i l ise q u i r ef le te l a l um iere i nc idente d if eremmen t d es s ur fa ces n on u t i l isees d u möme o u t i l . P our l e s i lex , l e s m icropo l is o n t e t e d e f in is e n f onct ion d e t r o is p a ires d e c ara c teres :b r i l lance /opa c i te , r egu lar it e / ir regu la r it e e tp resence /absence d e c er ta ins t ra it s d e l am icrotopog raph ie , t e ls q ue l e s d epress ions h em ispher iques ( Kee ley L .H . 1 977 b ) . L e f a isceau l um ineux d u m icroscope , i nc idan t p erpend i cu la irement ä l a s ur face , r end l e s m icropo l is v i s ib les c ar u s f o rment u ne c ou che l i sse e t r e f lech issante s ur l a s urface n a ture l lement f oncee o u s ombre d u s i lex . S ur l ' obs id ienne , a u c ontra ire , l a s urfa ce n a ture l le e s t b r i l lante e tp ar c onsequent l e s m icropo l is s ont t r es p eu v i s ib les . P our c e t te r a ison o n al ong temps c ru q u ' i l n e s ' y f o rma it p o int d e m icropo l i . C ependant P . V aughan ( 1981 b ) , d ' apres l ' etude d e l a p lus g rande s er ie e xper imen ta le r ea l isee j usqu 'ä p resent , c onc lu t q ue l e s m icropo l is e x ist ent a uss i s ur l e s o u t i ls e n o bs id ienne . Mo ins d iagnos t iques q ue s ur l e s i lex , i l s p ermett ent c ependant d ans c er ta ins c as d ' ident if ier l e ma ter iau t rava i l le :m icropo l i d e p lantes b ien d eve loppe e t s i ck le g los s l o rs d u t rava i l ( c oupe ) d e c e rea les , p ar e xemp le ( Vaughan , P . , 1 981 b ) . S u ivant l e s a spect d e s urface d es o bs id iennes e xam inees , l e s m icropo l is d ' u t i l isa t ion s e p resent en t d e man iere d if eren te : —s ur l ' obs id ienne d e S ierra d e l a s Nava jas , d ont l a s ur fa ce e s t l i sse e th omogene , l ' a lterat ion p rodu ite p ar i ' usage c ommence p ar l ' appar it ion d e s t r ies e t d e p lages d ' abras ion , q u i s ont d es d ech irures d e l a s urface ( en m icroscop ie o pt ique e l les a ppara issent c omme d es z ones r e la t ivement d epr imees , f oncees ä c ont our i r regu l ier ) ; —s ur l ' obs id ienne d e Z acual tipan , äl ' aspect g ranu la ire e t a vec d es t races t e chno log iques a bondantes e t b ien marquees , a u c ontra ire , l ' a l tera t ion c ommence p ar l ' e mousse d e l a s urface e t d es t races t e chno log iques ( j usqu 'ä l e s e facer p resque c omp lätement ) , c e q u i d onne c omme r esu l ta t u ne s ur fa ce p resque l i sse ; Ma lheureusement l e s b ords f rag i les d e l ' obs id ienne s ' ab iment r ap idement p endant l ' u t i l isa t ion , d e ta chant d es &a l l ies e tm icrodca i l les q u i e mpor tent d es p ar t ies d e l a s urfa ce d u t ranchan t . P a r c onsequent , l em icropo l i e s t e n leve a u f ur e t ämesure q u ' i l s e f o rme . S eu lement a q ue lques e ndro i ts d 'un t ranchant u t i l ise , c eux q u i n ' ont p as e t e &a l l ies , i le s t p oss ib le d ' observer e x cept ionne l lement , a u -de lä d e 2 50 x ,d e p e t i tes p lages d e m icropo l i b i en d eve lop )* Is ' ag it d e z ones t r es b r i l lantes , o ü l e s t ra ces t e chno log iques o nt c omp letement d i spa ru . L eur s urf ace l i sse e st t ruf f ee d e d epress ions f oncees q u i p euvent c orrespondre a d es a nc iennes z ones d ' abras ion p ar t ie l lement c omb lees p ar l e m icropo l i .

S tr ies L es s t r ies m icroscop iques s ont d e p et i ts s i l lons c r euses ä l a s urf ace d u t ranchant , p rodu ites p ar l e mouvement s ous p ress ion d e p ar t icu les a bras ives p endant l ' u t i l isa t ion . E l les p euven t a uss i a ppa ra i tre äc ause d e p henomenes n a ture ls e td ' a cc ident s , o u p endan t l a f abr ica t ion d es p ieces ( t a i l le , emmanchement , e t c . ) . L es d i f f erences p r inc ipa les e ntre l e s s t r ies m icroscop iques p rodu ites p ar d es p henomenes n a ture ls e t t e chno log iques e t l e s s t r ies d 'u t i l isa t ion s ont l eur s i tua t ion e t l eur o r ienta t ion . L es s t r ies d 'u t i l isa t ion s e s i tuent t ou jours p res d es t ranchants e t e l les 3 1

s ont o r ientees g enera lement d ans u ne meme d i rec t ion q u i i nd ique l ' or ienta t ion d u mouvement p endant l e t rava i l . L es s t r ies p rodu ites p ar d es p henomenes n ature ls , a u c ontra ire , a ppara issent a n ' impor te q ue l e ndro it s ur u ne o u p lus ieurs f a ces , r eun ies e n g roupes d e p lus ieurs s t r ies p ara l le les q u i c ro isent d 'autres g roupes o r ientes d if eremment . E l les s ont g enera lement a ccompagnees d e p lages d ' abras ion e t d ' au t res t races d ' a ltera t ion . S ur l e s i lex , l e s s t r ies n a ture l les e t t e chno log iques s ont g enera lement f a c i les a d i s t inguer d es s t r ies d 'u t i l isa t ion c ar , e n p lus d es d if erences d é jà p resentees , e l les d if erent s ouvent d ans l eur morpho log ie ( Mansur -Franchomme , 1 980 e t 1 986 ) . Ma is e l les c ont r ibuen t ä masquer l e s v ra ies t r aces d 'u t i l isa t ion . L a f o rma t ion d e s t r ies p aras ites c onst itue u n p rob leme d e p lus d ans l ' etude m icroscop ique d es s ur faces d ' obs id ienne . S ur c es s ur fa ces l i sses e t r e f lech issantes , d es s t r ies a ccompagnees d e p lages d 'abras ion a ppara issent r ap idement a c ause d es a l terat ions n a ture l les , d ' acc idents e t meme d e l a man ipu la t ion . Au cune d if erence morpho log ique n 'a e te o bservee e ntre c es s t r ies p aras ites e t l e s s t r ies d 'u t i l isa t ion . L orsqu 'e l les s on t a bondan tes , e l les p euven t masquer o u meme d e tru ire l e s m icropo l is .

M icrodca i l lures L es n ega t if s d ' en levement s e t l e s f r ac tures q u i a ppara issen t s ur l e s t ranchan ts d es o u t i ls o nt ad c ons ideres c omme l e s t races l e s p lus i mpor tantes p our l e s a na lyses f onc t ionne l les a f a ib le g ross issement ä l a l oupe b inocu la ire . C e g enre d ' ana lyse e ta i t d es t ine ä i dent if ier l e mode d ' u t i l isat ion d es o u t i ls ä p ar t ir d 'un p r inc ipe d e b ase :l e s a ct ions l ong itud ina les p rodu ira ient d es e ca i l lures e t d es m icrodca i l lures s ur l e s d eux f aces d u t ranchant , c ' est -ä -d ire b if ac ia les , t and is q ue l e s a ct ions t ransversa les p rodu ira ient d es a l tera t ions s ur u ne s eu le f a ce , c e l le o pposee a u ma ter iau t rava i l le . D 'apres P a tr ick V aughan ( 1981 b ) , c e t te p rem isse d e b ase e s t p robab lemen t l e r esu ltat dune g enera l isa t ion f a ite a p art ir d ' observa t ions d 'un n ombre d e c as a ssez r edu it . C et a u teur a e f ec tue l a p lus g rande s er ie d ' exper imenta t ions d i spon ib les , a vec e va lua t ion d e p rocedu res e td es r esu l ta t s e te n t enant c ompte d e d if eren ts c ara c täres d es m icrodca i l lures . I l r e marque q ue l a p lupar t d es o bserva t ions d e t ranchants e n o bs id ienne u t i l ises t ransversa lement o nt montre d es m icroeca i l lures q u i n 'appara is s a ient p as s eu lement , o u d e f a pn n otab le , s ur l a s urface d u t ranchant o pposee a u ma ter iau t rava i l le . P our l e s t ranchants u t i l ises d ans d es a ct ions t ransver sa les , d ans 7 6 %d es o bserva t ions l ap ropor t ion d es m icroeca i l lures e ta i t ap eu p res l am eme s ur l e s d eux f a ces ;d ans l e s a ct ions l ong itud ina les e l les o nt p resque t ou jours e t e b i fac ia les ( 92 % ) . L es a u tres c arac teres e tud ies , p ar e xemp le l a s e ct ion p rox ima le e t l a s e c t ion d i s ta le d es n ega t if s , o nt d onne d es r esu l ta t s s emb lab les . L 'au teur e n ac onc lu q ue l e s m icro -eca i l lures n e p euvent j ama is e tre c ons iderees i s o lement c omme i nd ice d 'u t i l isa t ion e t mo ms e ncore c omme c r i tere d e d iagnose d es ma ter iaux t rava i l les e t d es modes d 'u t i l isa t ion . E l les n e d o iven t e t re e tud iees q u 'en a ssoc ia t ion a vec l e s a u tres t ypes d e t r a ces ,t e ls q ue s t r ies e tm icropo l is ( c f . a uss iA nderson -G er faud 1 981 ;Moss 1 983 ae tb ; Mansur -Franchomme 1 983 , 1 986 e tm .s .) .

TRACES TECHNOLOG IQUES P eu d ' etudes s ystemat iques o nt e t e e f f ectudes c oncernant l e s a l tera t ions d es t ranchants p rodu ites p endant l a f abr ica t ion d 'un o u t i l e n p ierre . L es o bserva t ions 3 2

d i spon ib les i nd iquent c ependant q ue l e s g estes t e chn iques e t l e s a cc idents , p endant l a t a i l le , p rodu isent d es d ca i l lures e t d es m icrodca i l lures s ur l e s t ranchants , p arf o is s emb lab les ä l a r e touche i n tent ionne l le e t s ouvent i dent iques a ux m icrodca i l lures d ' u t i l isat ion . N ous n e c i terons i c i q ue q ue lques c as , ät i t re d ' exemp le .

R e touche L a c omposante l ap lus p e t i te d e l ar e tou che d ca i l leuse n e montre a ucune d i f f erence a vec l e s d ca i l lures e t l e s m icrodca i l lures d 'u t i l isa t ion , c e q u i r end p rat iquement i mposs ib le l eur i dent if ica t ion s ur u n t ranchant r e touchd ( Kee ley 1 977 b , A nderson G erf aud 1 981 , V aughan 1 981 b ) . L a p ercuss ion p eu t p rodu ire a uss i d es m icrodca i l lures s u rl af a ce o pposde äl ar e tou che ( Vaughan 1 981 b ) .

P repara t ion t e chn ique D es ä ca i l lures e t d es m icrodca i l lures s e p rodu isent p endan t l a t a i l le , p ar e xemp le l o rs d e l a p repara t ion d ' un p lan d e f r appe o u d e p ress ion , d e l ' abras ion d e l a c o rn iche l a issäe p ar l e s c ontre -bu lbes d es e n lävements p rdcdden ts , l ' abras ion d es b ords d es p ikes b i fac ia les p our l a r etou che p ar p ress ion , o u d e l ' abras ion d u s ecteur p rox ima l d es t r anchant s p our f a c i l i ter l ' emmanchement .

R e touche s pon tande L a r e touche s pontanäe e s t l ' ensemb le d ' dca i l lures e t d e m icrodca i l lures f o rmdes a ux e x trdm itds d i s ta les d es l ames o u d es ä c la ts l o rsqu ' i ls s e d d tachent d u n u c leus e n p ivo tant s ur l eur a xe ( New comer 1 976 ) . G dndra lemen t p et i tes , c es d ca i l lures e t m icro d ca i l lures s ont i d ent iques ä c e l les p rodu i tes p ar l ' u t i l isa t ion . Ma is e l les p euven t a uss i a t te indre l e s d imens ions d e l a r e touche i n tent ionne l le , d onnant d e p e t i ts g ra t t o ir s , d es e ncoches , d es d ent icu lds , d es b ur ins e td es t r onca tu res «s pontands » .

Me thodes d ef i xa t ion d un uc leus L ors d e l ' ob tent ion d e l ames p r isma t iques e n o bs id ienne p ar p ress ion p ec tora le a vec d i spos i t if e n b o is p our l a f i xat ion d u n uc leus , s u ivant l a t e chn ique u t i l isde p ar D . C rab tree ( 1968 ) , l e c ontac t d e l a l ame a vec l e d i spos it if d e f i xa t ion p rodu it d es m icrodca i l lures s ur l e s b ords . D . H ea lan e tJ . K er ley ( 1984 ) , q u i o n t o bserve p our l ap rem iäre f o is c e p hänomäne s ur d es p iäces e xper imenta les a ins i q ue s ur d ix l ames d 'un a te l ier d e T u la ( d tat d 'H ida lgo , Mex ique , p os t c lass ique i n it ia l ) r egret ten t q ue c es t races n 'a ient p as d td s i gna ldes p ar d ' au tres a u teurs p our d es a te l iers d e t a i l le . C ependan t c e f a it n e d o i t p as r äpondre a u n p rob läme d ' observa t ion , ma is p lu töt a ux r äsu ltats d es t e chn iques d e f ou i l les e t d e man ipu la t ion « v io lentes » e ncore m ises e n p ra t ique e n Amär ique , p rodu isan t d es a l tera t ions s ur l e s t ranchant s d ' un d eg rd t e l q u 'e l les f on t d i spara i t re t ou te a u t re t ra ce p rda lab le .

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C hu te s L a c hu te d u p rodu it q u i s e d d tache d u n u c leus , s u r l es o l o u s ur l ' a ccumu la t ion d u d eb i tage , p rodu it d es f r ac tures , d es d ca i l lures e t d es e n lövements d ont l e s d imens ions s ont s emb lab les ac e l les d e l ar e tou che .

TRACES NATURELLES C omme d ans l e c as d es t r aces d ' usage , l e s a l tera t ions n a ture l les e t a c c idente l les s ont mo ms c onnues p ou r l ' obs id ienne q ue p ou r l es i lex . L es o bserva t ions s u r l e s mod if ica t ions n a ture l les d es t ranchants e n s i lex , e n f o rme d ' eca i l lures e t s t r ies , d a tent d e l am o it id d u s i èc le d ern ier , l o r squ 'e l les o nt e t e a u c en tre d e l ap o lem ique s ur l e s «d o l i thes » .L es a u teu rs s ou t enant l at hose d es d o l ithes p ar ta ient d u p r inc ipe q ue l e s a c t ions n a ture l les p rodu isa ient d es d ca i l lures d i scont inues d ont l a d i s tr ibu t ion d ta it i r regu l iore e t l e s d imens ions v ar iab les , d i f f erentes d e l a r e touche i n tent ionne l le . C ependant u ne s dr ie d e p ub l ica t ions a pparues j usqu 'aux a nnees 1 950 , c oncernant l e s o bserva t ions e tl e s r esu lta t s e xper imen taux s ur c e s u je t , o n t c onf irme q ue d es p hdnomones n a ture ls t e ls q ue l a s o l i f lux ion , l a c r yo turba t ion e t mome l ac ompac t ion n a tu re l le d es s ed iments p ouva ient p rodu ire d es e ca i l lures r egu l iöres e t c ont inues s ur l e s t ranchants , i dent iques ä l ar e touche i n ten t ionne l le ( c f r ef . i n V aughan 1 981 b ) . P endant l e s d ern iöres a nnees , p lus ieurs c hercheurs o nt e tud ie l e s e f f ets d es p henomones n ature ls d ans l a f o rmat ion d ' eca i l lures e t m icrodca i l lures s ur l e s t ranchants , a f in d e s avo ir s ' i l y a va it d es d i f f erences a vec c e l les p rodu ites p ar l ' u t i l isa t ion . F . B ordes ( 1 961 ) as i gna ld q ue l ep i e t inement , d es mouvements d e s o l e t l a c ompa c t ion d es c ouches p rodu isa ient d es d ca i l lures d i f f i c i les ä d i s t inguer d e l ar e tou che i n tent ionne l le e tp our c e t te r a ison i l aa ppe le l e s p i oces a ins i p rodu i tes «p seudo -ou t i ls » . I as i gna le a uss i l ' appar it ion d e m icrodca i l lures s emb lab les ä c e l les q u i s e p rodu isent p endant l ' u t i l isa t ion ( Bordes 1 970 ) . M icrodca i l lures e t s t r ies n a ture l les a ppara issent a uss i s ur l e ma ter ie l a rchdo log ique q u i as e journe l ong temps e n s urface o u e n c ouche . D ans l e c as d e l ' obs id ienne , i le s t i mposs ib le d e s dparer c e q u i e s t d ü äl at e chno log ie ( f abr icat ion d e l a p i oce ) d es a cc ident sp rodu i t s p endant e ta pros d epo te td es e f et s d es p henomones n a ture ls . L es p i kes p rovenant d e c arr iöres e t d ' a te l iers d e t a i l le c ons t i tuent u n b on e xemp le d e c et te a ccumu lat ion d ' a lterat ions s ur l e s f a ces e t l e s t ranchants ( c f . Man s ur F ranchomme 1 983 e t1 986 ) . L es a te l iers d e t a i l le d ' obs id ienne q ue n ous a vons v i s ites s ont f o rmes p ar d es a ccumu la t ions d e p rodu it s d e d db itage s ans r e tou che i n tent ionne l le . D ans l ap lupar t d es c as c es p ikes , a ins i q ue l e ma ter ie l e nterrd , montrent d es s t r ies , d es d ca i l lures e t d es m icrodca i l lures s ur l e s t r anchants . E l les p euvent a re g randes o u p e t ites , u n if a c ia les o u a l ternantes s ur u n möme b ord , c ont inues o u d i scont inues . S ouvent t r ös r egu l iares , e l les n e mon trent a ucune d i f f erence a vec l a r e tou che i n tent ionne l le , f o rmant d e v er itab les p seudo -ou t i ls . C e p henomone e s t f r equemment i gnore p ar l e s a r cheo logues t r ava i l lant e n Amdr ique , q u i c ons idörent c es e ca i l lures c omme d es r etouches o u d es t races d 'u t i l isa t ion . I p retendent c l asser t ypo log iquement o u f onc t ionne l lement l e s p seudo o u t i ls p rovenant d e c arr iöres , d ' ate l iers d e t a i l le o u d e s urf ace , r e la t iv isant m öme t ou t e c ons idera t ion c ontex tue l le .

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P lanche I( photos 1ä4 ) :R ac lo ir e xper imenta l e n o bs id ienne , n on u t i l ise . G ross issement 4 50X . 1e t3 : L ancet tes ( s tr ies p rof ondes c onvergeant v ers l ep o int d e p ercuss ion ) , s t r ies e n f o rme d e c om Ue e tt ra its e n a i le d ' o iseau . 2 :Abras ion e tr upture a cc idente l les d e l a s ur face . 4 :ü ca i l lures s ur l et r anchant , s ur l af a ce o pposee al ar etouche . 3 5

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P ie t ine ment e ts ed i men ts Une d es e tudes l e s p lus c o mp letes s ur l e s t races n ature l les e t a cc idente l les e n o bs id ienne e st c e l le d e J .J . F lenn iken e t J . Haggar ty ( 1979 ) , q u i o nt e tud ie d es e c lats e nterres e t p iet ines d ans q uatre t ypes d e s ed iment :l o ess , s ab le a l luv ia l moyen ä g ross ier , a rg i le ä g rav iers , e t g rav iers d e b asa lte d ont l a g ranu lometr ie v ar ia it d e 4ä 6 4 mm . S eu les l e s p ieces e nterrees d ans l e s l o ess o nt e te e tud ides e n d eta i l , ma is l ' examen r ap ide d es a utres g roupes a r eve le q ue b eaucoup d e t ranchants p rdsenta ient d es d ca i l lures e t d es m icrodca i l lures d ont l ' abondance e t l e s d i mens ions e ta ient p ropor t ionne l les ä l a g ranu lometr ie d u s ed iment . P our l e s 4 28 d c la ts d u l o ess , 2 71 ( 63 % ) n e p resenta ient a ucune mod if ica t ion , t and is q ue 1 75 ( 37 % ) montra ient d es e ca i l lures e t d es m icrodca i l lures s ur l e s t ranchants : g randes e t r egu l ieres s ur 5 6 p i eces ( 13 % ) q u i s ont d evenues d es «o u t i ls r e touches » ,t e ls q ue r ac lo irs , g ra t to irs , p erp irs ;e tp et ites e tr dgu l ieres s ur l e s a u tres p ieces , i d ent iques ä c e l les p rodu ites p ar l et rava i l d e ma ter iaux r es is tants t e ls q ue b o is e tb o is d e c erv ide . D es r dsu ltats s emb lab les o nt e te o btenus p ar d ' autres c hercheurs ( c f . Vaughan 1 981 b ) . Nous l ' avons c onstatd a uss i d ans l ' ana lyse d u ma ter ie l d 'un a te l ier d e t a i l le e xper imenta le o ü l ' on a va it f a i l le d e l ' obs id ienne e t p iet ind p endant u n mo is .

F ou il le P endant l e s f ou i l les , l ec ontact a vec l e s t rue l les e tl e s s patu les p rodu i tf r equemment d es f ra ctures , d es ka i l lures e t d es m icrodca i l lures s ur l e s t ranchants , s ur tout s ur d es p i kes p resentant u ne a röte o r ientde v ers l eh au t . Apres , l ' emp lo i d e t am is p eut p rodu ire d es s t r ies d orsa les e t v entra les e t d es e ca i l lures s ur l e s t ranchant s ( Gero 1 978 , Vaughan 1 981 b ) . F ina lement , l e t ransport d es p i kes , e nsemb le d ans u n meme s ac , a ugmente l ' inc idence d e c es a l tera t ions . I l e st i nd ispensab le d one d ' enve lopper c haque p iece i nd iv idue l lement e t d e l e s man ipu ler s o igneusement ( Schousboe 1 977 , G ero 1 978 , V aughan 1 981 b ) .

Man ipu lat ion L a man ipu lat ion d e p ieces e n o bs id ienne p rodu it d ga lement d es a l terat ions s ur l e s t ranchants :m icroeca i l lures e t s t r ies m icroscop iques . L es m icrodca i l lures p euvent e t re c ont inues , u n ifac ia les o u b ifac ia les , p rof ondes , g endra lement r dgu l ieres , n otamment s ur d es t ranchants s inueux . E l les s ont a ccom p agndes d e s t r ies p erpend icu la ires , p ara l le les o u o b l iques a ux t ranchants s ur l e s d eux f aces , n otamment s ur l e s a rötes d orsa les e tl ac onvex ite d ub u lbe d e p er cuss ion . Dans l e c as d es p ieces e xper imenta les u t i l isees e t e tud iees e n m icroscop ie o pt ique , l e s

e xper iences

d e

p iet inement ,

e nterrement

e t man ipu lat ion

p oster ieure

c omp letement d dtru it l az one d u t ranchant o ü l e s m icropo l is p ouva ient ö t re i dent i f ies .

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P lanche I ( phot os 5a8 ) . 5e t6 : E c la t d ' obs id ienne u t i l ise p our e n lever l ap eau e td epecer u n l ap in . P lages d em icropo l ir edu i tes , c ar l ap lupar td ut r anchan t ae t e d e tru i te p endant l e t rava i l . G ross issement 4 50X . 7e t8 : É c la t d ' obs id ienne u t i l ise p our d eg ra isser u ne p eau d ' otar ie . P lages r es idue l les d e m icropo l i d ans l e s c oncav i tes d ' eca i l lures s ur l et ranchant . G ross issement 4 50X .

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OBSERVAT IONS ET POSSIB 1LrFÜS D 'ANALYSE L es o bserva t ions e f f ec tuees j usqu 'ä p resen t s ur d es p ieces e xper imenta les e t a r cheo log iques e n o bs id ienne mont rent d é jà d eux r e su lta ts i mpor tant s :

F orma t ion d es t races d 'u t i l isat ion L es p ieces e n o bs id ienne d eve loppent p endant l ' u t i l isa t ion d es t ra ces m icro t opog raph iques e t macrotopograph iques c omparab les a c e l les d es a u t res ma t ieres p rem ieres , c o mpor tant c erta ines c aracter ist iques s pec if iques . L a f o rma t ion d e m icroeca i l lures p endant l ' u t i l isa t ion d epend d e n omb reuses v ar iab les , t e l les q ue l ' ang le e t l a s ec t ion l ong itud ina le d u t ranchant , l ' ang le d e t rava i l , l a p ress ion e xer cee , l e ma ter iau t rava i l le , l et ype d e mouvement e t m eme l a r egu lar ite d u mouvemen t , q u i n e p euvent p as e t re i s o lees . L es m icropo l is s on t l e s s eu les t r a ces r e su l tan t e xc lus ivement d e l ' u t i l isa t ion , c ' es t a -d ire q u i n e p euvent p as e t re p rodu i ts s eu lement p ar d ' au tres f ac teurs . Ma is u s s on t r ares ( us s e p resentent s ur d es z ones t r es l o ca l isees d u t ranchant ) e t p eu d eve loppes c omme c onsequence d e l ' abondance d es m icrodca i l lures . P ar c onsequent a ucun t ype d e t r ace ( s t r ies , m icrodca i l lures , m icropo l is ) n e p eu t ö t re u t i l ise i s o lement c omme c ara c tere d i agnos t ique p our i d ent if ier l e ma ter iau t r ava i l le p ar l ' ou t i l ( meme l e s m icropo l is , q u i s on t s pec if iques s ur d ' au t res ma t ieres p rem ieres c omme l e s i lex ) . S eu lement d ans c er ta ins c as d 'u t i l isa t ion s ur d es s ubs tances v ege ta les , l ' ana lyse d e r es idus a u m icroscope e l ec tron ique ä b a layag e p eu t d onner d es r esu lta ts p rec is p a r l ' ident if ica t ion d e s i l icophy to l ithes a dherant a ux t r anchant s ( Anderson -Gerf aud 1 982 ) . L er ésumé d es r e su lta t so b tenus e s tl es u ivan t : a )P eaux ( g ra t ter ) —s t r ies :a bondantes , e t ro ites , s uperf i c ie l les , a c compagnees d e p lages d ' abra s ion e t d ' eg ra t ignures . P erpend icu la ires o u o b l iques a u t ranchant ; —m icropo l is :b ien d eve loppes s ur d es p o int s i s o les , n o tamment d ans l e s a re tes d es m icroeca i l lures ; —m icrodca i l lures : a bondance moyenne , d imens ions v ar iab les , i r regu l ieres , u n ifa c ia les o u b i fa c ia les , a brup tes as em ia brupt es ; —a rrond i d u t ranchant e t d es a retes d es n ega t if s :u s s ' arrond issent a vec l a p rog ress ion d u t rava i l . b )P eaux ( c ouper ) e tv iand e ( c ouper ) —s t r ies :i d em s upra , mo ms a bondan tes . P ara l le les o u o b l iques a u t r anchant , a vec q ue lques s t r ies p erpend icu la ires ; —m icropo l is :i d em s upra , p ar f o is m o ms d eve loppes ; —m icroeca i l lures :i d em s upra , s ouvent b i fa c ia les , mo ms a brup tes . E n d epepage , m icroeca i l lures t r es a bondantes , g randes , i r regu l ieres , b i f ac ia les , s ur tou ts ur d es t ranchan ts s i nueux . —a rrond i d u t ranchant e t d es a re tes d es n ega t if s :u s s ' emoussent l o rsqu ' i l s ' ag i t d ec ouper d es p eaux .

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c )B o is d e c e rv idg e to s h um ide s ( g raf t er e tc ouper ) —s t r ies :n on i d en t i f iab les , c ar t ou te l a s u rface d u t ranchan t ae te d e tru i te p ar d es e ca i l lures p rof ondes ; —m icropo l is :n on i d ent if iab les , p our l a mäme r a ison ; —m icrodca i l lures :t r es a ccentuees d ans l e s a ct ions l ong i tud ina les , n otamment d ans l e c as d e t ranchan t s a igus a l a s e c t ion l o ng itud ina le s i nueuse , e t e ga lement d ans l e s a c t ions t ransversa les l o rsque V ang le d e t rava i l e s t i nf er ieur ä 3 5° . M icroeca i l lures t r äs a bondantes , p rof ondes , a bruptes a s em iabruptes , d imens ions v ar iab les e t d e morpho log ie i r regu l iere . E l les p euven t e t re b i fac ia les o u a l ternantes d ans l e s d eux mouvements . C es e ca i l lu res e t m icroeca i l lures d etru isent t ou t l e t ranchant , empor tant l e s a u tres t races . L es t r anchants u t i l ises p our c ouper montrent d es f ractures e n d em i l une a bondantes; —a r rond i d u t ranchant e td es a ret es d es n ega t if s :a bsen t . d )B o is ( c ouper e tg raf t er ) —s t r ies :a bondantes , a ccompagndes d e p lages d ' abras ion , n o tamment d ans l e s c as d e t ranchants u t i l ises p our c ouper ( l e t ranchant s e b r ise e t l e s e ca i l les q u i r es tent empr isonnees d ans l eb o is a g issent c omme a bras if ) ; —m icropo l is :e x cep t ionne ls , s ur c e r ta ins p o ints c onserves d u t ranchan t , s ur tou t a l ' in tersec t ion d es a rö tes d es n ega t if s . I le s t t yp ique , b r i l lant , b ien d eve loppe l o rsque V on t r ava i l le d ub o is h um ide ; —m icroeca i l lures :i d em s upra; —a rrond i d u t r an chant e td es a r ' e tes d es n ega te s :p eu f r equent . e )P lan t es h um ides ( c oup er ) —s t r ies :a bondance moyenne , c ourtes , e t ro ites , s uperf ic ie l les , p ara l le les a u t ranchant , a vec q ue lques s t r ies p erpend icu la ires . B ifac ia les . P resentes s eu lement d ans l e s z ones l i b res d e m icrodca i l lures ; —m icropo l i :marg ina l , h omogäne , p eu d eve loppe . I emousse l e s a cc idents m icrotopog raph iques e t a l tere l e s t races t e chno log iques ( j usqu 'a l e s d l im iner ) . I e s t p resent s eu lement s ur l e s s e cteurs d u t r anchant l i b res d e m icrodca i l lures . A bsent d ans l e s c oncav i tes d es n ega t if s ; —m icroeca i l lures : b ifac ia les , d iscont inues , d i mens ions e t morpho log ie v ar iab les . A bondantes s ur tou t s ur l e s t ranchants s i nueux . F ractures e n d em i lune f r equen tes ; —a rrond i d ut ranchant e td es a re tes d es n ega t if s :p eu f r equent; —t ra i t s m icro topog raph iques p ropres :s t r ies «e n p o int i l le » ,t r es p et ites , p ara l le les o u p erpend icu la ires a ut r anchant , t r es p roches d e l ' are te .

A l tera t ions L orsque l e s p ieces e xper imen ta les u t i l isees s ont s oum ises a d es e xper iences d e s imu lat ion d ' a lterat ions n ature l les o u a cc idente l les ( enf ou issement , p iet inement , man ipu la t ion , e t c . ) , l e s t r aces d ' usage d i spara issen t p resque c omp le tement , ac ause d e l ' inc idence d e d eux f a c teurs : a )f o rma t ion d e s t r ies p aras ites e t d e p lages d ' abras ion q u i d e tru isent l as urf a ce d e l ' obs id ienne . E n m icroscop ie o pt ique e l les s e p resentent c omme d es z ones f oncees , d epr imees , r ayees , äf ond i r regu l ier . b )f o rma t ion d ' eca i l lures e t m icroeca i l lures s ur l e s t ranchants , q u i e n levent l e s t races d 'ut i l isat ion p recedentes e t q u i p euvent r arement e tre d ist inguees d es m icroeca i l lures p rodu i tes p ar l ' u t i l isa t ion , c ar l e mdcan isme d e f r ac ture e s t l e meme . 4 1

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P lanche I I ( photos 9a 1 2 ) :É c la t d ' obs id ienne u t i l isd p our de ra isser u ne p eau d ' or iat ie . G ross issement 4 50X . 9 :P lage d e m icropo l i e t s t r ies d 'ut i l isa t ion s ur l at ranchant . 1 0 :M icropo l i s ur l eb ord d ro it dune s t r ie . 1 1 :M icropo l i äl ' intdr ieur d 'une 6 ca i l lure . 1 2 :M icropo l i s ur u ne s urface c onserve 'e d u t ranchant .

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L es t emps s ont d é jà r evo lus o ü V on p ensa it q u 'un s eu l t ype d e t races ( m icroeca i l lures , s t r ies , m icropo l is ) s uf f isa it p our u ne d eterm ina t ion f onc t ionne l le . L a p lupar t d es s pec ia l istes s ' a ccordent äp resent s ur l es eu l t ype d ' ana lyse p oss ib le :l ' e tude d e l ' ensemb le d es t ra ces , e n t enant c ompte d es d if erents f a cteurs q u i a f f ectent l eur f o rma t ion e t mod if ient l eur a spect . D e c e p o in t d e v ue , n otamment d ans l e c as d e l ' obs id ienne , l ' oppos it ion e ntre u ne t e chn ique d ' ana lyse d es t races d 'usage a f a ib le g ross issemen t ( l eL ow P ower A pproach ) e tu ne a u tre af o r tg ross issemen t ( l e H igh P ow er Approach ) e s t u ne f ausse p o lem ique . S i l ' oppos it ion e x ista i t , e i le d ev ra i t e t re e n tre l ' emp lo i d e l oupes b inocu la ires ( s tereom icroscopes ) e t d e m icroscopes d e r e f lex ion , n on e ntre f a ib les e t f o r ts g ross issements . Une l oupe b inocu la ire p eu t p ermet tre d es o bserva t ions a l lant j u squ 'a 2 00 x e tu n m icroscope me ta l log raph ique a vec d es o b jec t if s e t d es o c cu la ires äf a ib le g ross issemen t p eu t a t te indre 3 5 x .L a d if erence s e t r ouve d ans l e s p oss ib i l ites o pt iques d e c haque i ns trument , c ar u s p ermet tent d ' ob ten ir d es i mages d i f f erentes e t d one d ' apprec ier l e s memes p henomenes d 'une a u tre man iere ( Mansur F ranchomme , 1 986 ) . On n e p eu t p as r econna itre d es m icropo l is a vec u ne l oupe b inocu la ire , meme ä 2 00 x , c ar p our c e la i f au t u n e c la irage i nc ident p erpen d i cu la irement s ur l a s ur face d e l a p iece o bservee , at ravers l ' ob jec t if . D e l a meme man iere , u n m i croscope meta l log raph ique , meme a 4 0 x , n e p ermet p as d ' apprec ier l e v o lume d es m icrodca i l lures c omme u ne l oupe b inocu la ire , q u i a ccepte d es l um ieres o b l iques e t memes r asan tes . L es r echer ches r e cen tes a u m icroscope e l ec tron ique ä b a layage q u i o nt p erm is d e c onna itre l e s mecan ismes d e f ormat ion d es t races d 'ut i l isat ion q u i p rodu isent u ne d ef ormat ion d e l a s urface s i l iceuse ( s tr ies e t m icropo l is ) , a ins i q ue l e s mecan ismes d e c onserva t ion d es r es idus m icroscop iques , o n t u t i l ise d es g ross issement sv ar ian t d e 4 0 xä4 0 0 00 x .P ou r l at ran che c ompr ise e nt re 4 0 x e t 5 00 x ,p lus i mpor tant q ue l eg ross issement d ans l ec ho ix d u m icroscope e l ec tron ique e ta it l e f a it q ue c e lu i -c i p ermet u n t ype d 'ana lyse t o ta lemen t d if erent d e l a l oupe b inocu la ire o u d u m icroscope o pt ique d e r ef lex ion ( c f . r ef . i n Mansur -Franchomme 1 986 e ts . p .) . P ar c onsequent l ' oppos it ion , p osee d e c e t te man iere , n ' ex iste p as :i s ' ag i t d 'u t i l iser l e s d eux i ns truments e nsemb le , c ar l e s r esu lta ts d es d eux a na lyses s ont c omp lemen ta ires , l ' un d onnant l e s b ases p our l a c omprehens ion d e l ' au tre . C e la e s t e ncore p lus marque d ans l ec as d ' un ma ter iau f r ag i le c omme l ' obs id ienne , o u l e s m icro e ca i l lures s ont t r es a bondan tes e tl es eu l c r i tere d iagnos t ique d ' u t i l isa t ion e s tl ap resence d e m icropo l is . E n c e q u i c oncerne l e s p oss ib i l ites d 'ana lyses d e s er ies a rcheo log iques e n o bs id ienne , i lf au t t en ir c ompte d e l ' inc idence d es f a cteurs n a ture ls q u i a f ectent l e s s urfaces e t q u i mod if ient l e s t ra ces p rodu ites p ar l a t a i l le e t l a r e tou che e t p ar l ' u t i l isa t ion . P ar c onsequen t , l e s c o l lec t ions d e s u r fa ce s ont e n d ehors d es p oss ib i l i tes d e l ' ana lyse f onct ionne l le . P our l e s ma ter iaux p rovenan t d e c ou ches , s ur tou t l o rsque l e s ed imen t e s t f i n e t h omogene , l ' ana lyse f onc t ionne l le p eu t d onner d e b ons r esu l ta t s s eu lement s ic e r ta ines r eg les s ont r espec tees : —f ou i l le , man ipu la t ion e tt r anspor t s o igneux d u mat er ie l a r cheo log ique ; —e tude d e s e r ies i mpor tantes e n n ombre d ' e lemen ts ( non u ne s eu le p i ece o uu np e t i t e chant i l lonnage d 'un e nsemb le ) ; —e tude d es c aracter ist iques g eomorpho log iques e t s ed imento log iques d es g i sements ;

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—a na lyse m inu t ieuse d e t outes l e s t races d e f abr ica t ion e td 'usage e t d es a l tera t ions d 'un e nsemb le , e n r e lat ion p ermanente a vec l e t rava i l e xper imenta l .

NOTE ( 1 ) Nous t enons ä r e merc ier l e I ns t i tuto d e I nves t igac iones An tropo l6g icas ( HA ) d e l 'Un ivers idad Nac iona l Au t6noma d e Mex ico ( UNAM ) , q u i ar endu p oss ib le n otre s e jour a u Mex ique . N ous r emer c ions a uss i l e s c her cheurs q u i n ous o nt i nv itee s ur l e t e rra in :D om in ique M iche le t e t V eron ique Daras , d u C en tro d e E s tud ios Mex icanos yC en troamer icanos ( CEMCA ) e tD o lores S oto d e A rechava leta , d u HA -UNAM .

B IBL IOGRAPH IE ANDERSON , ( P .C . ) , 1 980 .— A t est imony o f p reh istor ic t asks :d iagnost ic r es idues o n s t one t oo l w ork ing e dges . Wor ld A rchaeo logy , 1 2 :2 :1 81-194 . ANDERSON -GERFAUD , ( P .C . ) , 1 981 .— C on tr ibu t ion me thodo log ique ä l ' ana lyse d es m icro -traces d 'u t i l isa t ion s ur l e s o u t i ls p reh is tor iques . T hese d e 3 1n e c yc le , Un ivers ite d e B ordeaux I ,n ° 1 607 , B ordeaux . BORDES , ( F . ) , 1 961 .— T ypo log ie d u P a leo l i th ique a nc ien e t moyen . P ub l icat ions d e l ' Inst itut d e P reh isto ire , Un ivers ite d e B ordeaux , Memo ire n ° 1 , D e lmas e d . B ordeaux . BORDES ,

( F . ) , 1 970 .— R ef lex ions s ur l ' out i l a u P a leo l ith ique . Bullet in S oc ie te '

p reh is tor ique f ra f l ise 6 7 :1 99 -202 . CRABTREE , ( D . ) , 1 968 .— Mesoamer ican P o lyhedra l C ores a nd P r ismat ic B lades . Amer ican An t iqu i ty 3 3 :4 46 -478 . FLENNIKEN , ( J .J . ) e t HAGGARTY , ( J . ) , 1 979 .— T ramp l ing a s a n a gency i n t he f o rmat ion o f e dge d amage : a n e xper iment i n l i th ic t echno logy . Nor thwest An th ropo l . R esear ch No tes 1 3 :2 08 -214 . GER0 , (J .M . ) , 1 978 .— S ummary o fe xper iments t o d up l ica te p ost -excava t iona l d amage t o t o o l e dges . L i th ic T echno logy 7( 2 ) :3 4 . HEALAN , ( D .M .) e t KERLEY , ( J .M .) , 1 984 .— E dge Damage I nduced b y C ore I mmob i l iza t ion i n P r ismat ic B lade Manufacture . L i th ic T echno logy 1 3 ( 1 ) :1 10 . KEELEY , ( L .H . ) , 1 977 a .— An e xper imen ta l s tudy o fm icrowear t races o n s e lec ted B r i t ish P a laeo l i th ic i mp lemen ts . P h . D . , Un ivers ity o f Oxf ord . KEELEY , ( L .H . ) , 1 977 b .— T he F unct ions o fP a leo l ith ic F l int T oo ls . S c ien t if ic Amer ican 2 37 ( 5 ) : 1 08 -126 . KEELEY , ( L .H . ) , 1 980 .— E xper imen ta l D e term ina t ion o fS tone T oo l U ses :A Microwear Analys is . Un ivers ity o f C h icago P ress , Ch icago .

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LE WENSTEIN , ( S .M . ) , 1 981 .— Mesoamer ican o bs id ian b lades : a n e xper imenta l a pproach t of unct ion .J ourna lo fF ie ld A rchaeo logy 8( 2 ) :1 75 -188 . MANSUR -FRANCHO M ME , ( M .E .) , 1 980 .— L as e str ias c o mo m icrorrastros d e u t i l izac ien : c las if icac iön y mecan is mos d e f ormac iön . Antropo logta y P a leoeco log ta Humana 2 , :2 1 -41 , G ranada , E spaüa ( 1982 ) . MANSUR -FRANCHO M ME , ( M .E . ) , 1 983 .— T races d 'u t i l isa t ion e t t e chno log ie l i th ique : E xemp les d e l a P a tagon ie . T hese d e g me c yc le , Un ivers ite d e B ordeaux I ,n ° 1 860 , B ordeaux . MANSUR -FRANCHO M ME , p reh is tor ique

(M .E .) ,

1 986 .—

:t races d 'ut i l isa t ion ,

Microscop ie

a l tera t ions

d u

mater ie l

n a ture l les ,

l i th ique

a cc iden te l les e t

t e chno log iques , C ah iers d u Qua terna ire n ° 9 , CNRS , B ordeaux . MANSUR -FRANCHO M ME , ( M .E . ) , ( s .p . ) .— E l a nä l is is f unc iona l d e a r tefactos l i t icos : Obs id iana . An tropo log ta y T ecn ica , I nst ituto d e I nvest igac iones Antropo leg icas . UNAM , Mex ico . MANSUR -FRANCHO M ME , ( M .E . ) , ( s .p . ) .— E l a nä l is is f unc iona l d e a r tefactos l i t icos : S i lex . Cuadernos , s er ie T ecn ica , I nst itu to Nac iona l d e Antropo log ia , Buenos A ires . MANSUR -FRANCHO M 14E , ( M .E . ) , ( s .p . ) .— E l a nä l is is f unc o na l d e a r tefactos l i t icos : L a e xper i menta fion . Cuadernos , s erte T ecn ic c, I nst itu to Nac iona l d e Antropo log ia , Bue i o s A ires . MANSUR -FRANCHO M ME , (M .E .) ,

( m .s . ) .— E l a nä l is is f unct iona l d e a rtefactos

I f t icos :M icroesqu ir lam iento . MOSS , ( E .H ) , 1 983 a .— S ome c o mments o n e dge d amage a s af actor i n f unct iona l a na lys is o fs t one a t i fac ts . J ourna l o fA rchaeo log ica l S c ience . 1 0 ( 3 ) :2 31-242 . MOSS , ( E .H ) , 1 983 b .— d 'Ambon

:t wo

h e f unc t iona l a na lys is o ff l in t i mp l .men ts . P inceven t a nd P on t c ase

s tud ies f rom

t he F rench

1 m a l Pa laeo l i thic .

B .A .R .

I nternat iona l S er ies 1 77 , Oxf ord . NE WCO MER ,

( M .-H . ) ,

1 976 .— S pontaneous

r etouch .

I n :S econd

I nternat iona l

S ympos ium o fF l int . S tar ing ia 3 , :6 2 -64 . OWEN , ( L .R . ) e t UNRATH , ( G . ) , e ds . , 1 986 .— T echn ica l a spec ts o fm icrowear s tud ies o n s tone t oo ls . Ear ly Man News 9 /10 /11 , News letter f or Human P a leoeco logy , Tüb ingen . PL ISSON , ( H . ) , 1 983 .— D e l a c onserva t ion d es m icro -po l is d 'ut i l isa t ion . Bu l le t in S oc ie te p reh is tor ique f rang t ise , 8 0 , :7 4 -77 . SCHOUSBOE , ( R . ) , 1 977 .— M icroscop ic e dge s t ructures a nd m icrof ractures o n o bs id ian . L i th ic T echno logy 6( 1 -2 ) :1 4 -21 . SER IZA WA , ( C . ) , KAJI WARA , ( H . ) e t AKOSHI MA , ( K . ) , 1 982 .— E xper imenta l s tudy o f m icrowear t races a nd i t s p otent ia l ity . A rcheo log ie e tS c ienc es n a tur e l les 1 4 , J apon .

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SOTO DE ARECHAVALETA , ( M .D .) , 1 986 .— A reas d e a ct iv idad y t a l leres d e p iedra t a l lada . I n :Manzan i l la , L . ( Ed . ) , Un idades h ab i tac iona les mesoamer icanas y s us a r eas d e a c t iv idad , IA -UNAM , S er ie Antropo leg ica 7 6 , Mex ico :5 9 -73 . TR INGHAM , ( R .) , COOPER , ( G . ) , ODELL , ( G . ) , VOYTEK , ( B .) e t WITH MAN , ( A . ) , 1 974 .— E xper imenta t ion i n t he f o rmat ion o f E dge Damage :A New A pproach t o L ith ic Ana lys is . J ourna l o fF ie ld A rchaeo logy 1 :1 71-196 . VAUGHAN , ( P . ) , 1 981 a .— M icrowear Ana lys is o f E xper imenta l F l int a nd Obs id ian T oo ls . I n :T h ird I nterna t iona l S ympos ium o n F l int . S tar ing ia 6 :9 0 -91 . VAUGHAN , ( P . ) , 1 981b .— L i th ic Microwear E xper imen tat ion a nd t he f unc t iona l a na lys is o f aL ower Magda len ian s t one t oo l a ssemb lag e . P h . D . , Un ivers ity o f P ennsy lvan ia , P h i lade lph ia . WYL IE , ( H .G . ) , 1 975 .— A r t ifact p rocess ing a nd s t orage p rocedures :a n ote o f c au t ion . L i th ic T echno logy 4 ( 1 -2 ) : 1 7 -19 .

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ESSAI D 'ETUDE SUR LES MECA N IS MES D 'ENLEVE MENT PROD U ITS PAR LES FAQONS AGRICOLES ET LE P IET INE ME 1VT HUMAIN SUR DES S ILEX EXPER I MENTAUX

D om in ique C hr is t ian PROST *

R ESUME: L es f avons a gr ico les e t l e p idt inemen t o nt d epu is l ong temps s usc itd l ' a t ten t ion d es p re h is tor iens p ar l ef a it q u ' i ls s era ient s uscep t ib les d e p rodu ire d es e n levements s e mb lab les a d e l a r etouche o u äd es t ra ces d ' u t i l isa t ion . Ma is j usqu 'a p resent , p eu d e t ravaux o n t e td f a its p our e n c omprendre l e s mdcan ismes . Min d e m ieux l e s c onna i tre , d es s i lex e xpdr imen taux o n t e te s oum is ad eux s e ma ines d e p ie t inement h uma in e t ad eux a ns d e f a vons a g r ico les . L es r esu lta ts i nd iquen t q ue l e s mecan ismes d ' en levernent p ar p i dt inement e t p ar l e s f avons a g r ico les s on t t r es s e mb lab les . L a g ranu lomg tr ie e tl as t ru c ture d u s o l a ura ient u n r o le f ondamen ta l aj ouer . ABSTRACT:

F or a l ong t ime a c t ion o f a gr icu ltura l w orks a nd s tamp ing h ave a t tracted t he a t ten t ion o f a rchaeo log is ts , may b e t hey c ou ld d o a cc identa l d amages o n f l aked s tone t oo ls l i ke d e l iberate r e touch o r u se m icro f lakes . B u t u nt i l n ow , o n ly f ew w orks h ave b een d one t o u nders tand t hese mechan isms . T hen t o k now t hem , e xper imenta l f l int f l akes h ave b een d amaged b y h uman s tamp ing d ur ing t wo w eek s , a nd b y a g r icu ltura l w orks d ur ing t wo y ears . T he r esu l ts s how u s t ha t e dge d amage mechan isms f r om s tamp ing a nd f r om a gr icu ltura l w ork s a re n ea r ly t he s ame . G ranu lomet ry a nd s t ruc ture o fs o i l w ou ld t ake a p rom inen t p ar ti n t h is .

I—I NTRODUCTION Un g rand n ombre d e s i lex e t a u tres r oches d ures t af i es p ar l ' homme p reh istor ique s ont d ecouver ts d ans d es z ones p erturbees p ar d es a ct ions h uma ines a cc idente l les . I le s t r econnu q ue l e s s i lex p euvent s ub ir d es d ommages q u i r endent d if f ic i le l eur l e cture p ar l ef a it q ue l e s p henom nes a cc idente ls p euvent c auser d es e nMvements s emb lab les a d e l a r etouche o u äd es e n l6vements d 'u t i l isat ion ( Mansur -Franchomme 1 983 ) . E xcept ion f a ite d es t ravaux d e F lenn iken e t Haggar ty ( 1979 ) s ur d es e xper iences d e p iet inement , l e s e n lävements a cc idente ls f ormes e xper imenta lement s ur d es s i lex o u a u tres r oches d ures n ' ont j a ma is f a it l ' ob jet d ' etudes method iques e t a pprof ond ies e n f onct ion d e v ar iab les c ontr ibuant a ux p henom nes o bserves . P our c e la u ne e xper ience d e d eux s ema ines d e p iet inement , e t u ne a u tre d e d eux a ns d e f avons a g r ico les s ur d es s i lex t af ies p ar l ' au teur , o nt e te e ntrepr ises . B ien q ue l e s e xper iences a i ent e te t rs l im itees d ans l e t emps , l e b ut d e c e t rava i l n ' eta it p as d e r eprodu ire d es f ac -s im i les d ' ob jets p reh istor iques q u i o nt P u s ub ir e ux , n ombre d e 1 3P lace S ouham , 7 5013 P ar i s , F ranc e

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d ommages d urant d e l ongues p er iodes , ma is d e c omprendre q ue ls t ypes d ' en lävement s s es ont p rodu i ts , e tc ommen tu s s es on tp rodu i ts .

I— METHODOLOGIE A vant c haque e xper ience l e s s i lex o nt t ous e t e d ess ines , e t l eurs b ords o nt e t e r ecouver ts d 'une p e inture n o ire p our v i tra i l , a f in d ' ê tre a ssure d e n ' observer q ue l e s e n lävemen ts p rodu it s p ar p i e t inement e t p ar l e s f a 9ons a g r ico les . A präs l e s e xper iences , l e s s i lex o nt t ous e t e o bserves a vec u ne l oupe b inocu la ire a c hambre c l a ire . S on g ross issement y ank d e 6a5 0 f o is . C et te l oupe d onne l ap oss ib i l i t e d e d ess iner c e q ue l ' on v o i t , e t a u g ross issement v ou lu . O n p eu t g rä ce a c e t a ppare i l f a ire d es mesures c h if f rees d es e n lävements o bserves a l ' eche l le m icroscop ique .

I I- EXPERIENCE DE P IÜT INE 1 V IENT HUMA IN 2 5 e c la ts d e s i lex b ru t s d e d eb itag e o n t e t e p i et ines d urant d eux s ema ines a r a ison d ' une d i za ine d e f o is p ar j our: u ne s ema ine p ar u ne p ersonne s ur u ne p e louse , e t u ne s ema ine p ar t r o is p ersonnes s ur u n s o l c ompa c t c ompor tant d u s ab le e t d u g rav ier a s a s urface . L es r esu l ta t s i nd iquent q ue l ep i e t inement d es s i lex s ur u ne p e louse n e p rovoque a u cun d ommage . C e s o l e tant t r äs s oup le e t t r äs p la s t ique , l e s s i lex s ' enf ou issent r ap i d ement j usqu 'ä u ne p rof ondeur d ' equ i l ibre o ü p lu s r i en n e s e p rodu i t . P ar c on tre s ur u n s o l c ompa c t a vec äs a s urf a ce , g ra ins d e s ab le e tg rav iers , a ub ou t d 'une s ema ine p lus ieurs e n lävements s e f o rment , e t l e s s i lex n ' ont p as p ene tre d ans l e s o l . D 'apräs l e s r esu lta ts , 8 3 % d es s i lex p ossädent a u mo ms u n e n lävemen t . 4 8 % d es s i lex e ndommages o nt d es e n lävement s e n p os it ion i nver se , 5 2 %e n p os it ion d i rec te . L es e n lävements f o rmes s ur d eux f a ces d 'un möme b ord s ont e n g enera l e n p os it ion a l ternante , r aremen t e n p os i t ion b i f ace . O n c ons ta te a uss i q ue q ue l le q ue s o i t l af a ce s ur l aque l le s e s ont p rodu i ts l e s e n lävement s , 3 7 %d es s i lex e ndommag es o nt u n o u p lus ieu rs e n lävement s s ur u ne s eu le f a ce , a l ors q ue 6 3 %e n o nt s ur l e s d eux . D 'un p o int d e v ue morpho log ique o n d i s t ingue t r o is p r inc ipaux t ypes d ' en lävement q ue n ous n ommons a ,ß ,y .

1 — Les e nMve ments a L es n ega t if s d e c es e n lävements ( pho to 1 ) s e c ara cter isen t p ar l a p resence d 'un c on trebu lbe f o rmant u ne c oncav ite b i en marquee s ur l af a ce ä l aque l le i l s a ppar t iennent . Au d epar t d e c es e n lävement s s e t r ouve u ne p e t ite e nco che s imp le e n f o rme d e Uo u d eV . L a morpho log ie g enera le d e c e s n ega t if s e s t e vasee , e n f o rme d ' eventa i l o u d e g ra ine d e h ar icot . L eur l a rgeur e s t p lus g rande q ue l eur l ongueu r . L eur t e rm ina ison d i sta le e s t l e p lus s ouvent r ef lech ie . L a l ongueur moyenne d es e n lävements e s t d e 0 , 64 mm . C es e n lävements o nt p our o r ig ine u ne f r acture c oncho ida le , c ' es t -ä -d ire u ne f racture h er tz ienne a u mä rne t i tre q ue l e s l ames e te c la ts d es s i lex t af ies . 5 0

P hoto 1 :

N dgat if d ' en l vement a p rodu it p ar p idt inement h uma in .

L es e nMvements h er tz iens o nt d t d d tud ids s ous l eur a spect p hys ique p ar S peth ( 1972 , 7 4 , 7 5 ) , D ibb le e t Wh it taker ( 1981) , F onseca e ta l . ( 1971) , K erkhof e t Mü l lerBeck ( 1969 ) e t F au lkner ( 1972 ) , p our n e c i ter q ue c eux lä .

2— L es e n lkve ments ß Is ' ag it d ' en l vements t rs a brupts , f o rmds s ur d es b ords d ont l ' ang le e st i nf dr ieur ä3 0 -35° . L a morpho log ie d es n dgat if s e st t ou t äf a it p ar t icu l iäre ( photo 2 ) . I l s o nt u ne e ncoche l arge , l a l argeur d dpassant s ouvent c i nq f o is l a p rof ondeur . L eur f o rme f a it p enser ä u n c ro issant d e l une p our r eprendre l ' express ion d e K ee ley ( 1979 ) .

P hoto 2 :

Ndgat if d ' enMvement ß p rodu it p ar p idt inement h uma in . N oter l a p ar t ie i n i t ia le a brupte d e l a f racture , e n f o rme d e c ro issant d e l une , e t u ne p ar t ie i nf ldch ie p la te ä l a f i n . 5 1

L a f racture p ar t t ou jours p erpend icu la irement a u p lan d e c ontra inte . E l le s e t erm ine s o it e n t raversant d irectement l ' epa isseur d u b ord s ans c hanger d e d i rect ion , s o it e i le s ' inf lech it b rusquement , e t t e rm ine s a c ourse e n f i nesse p resque p ara l le lement a l af ace o pposee ac e l le d ' oü e i le e st p ar t ie . L a l ongueur moyenne e s t 0 , 51 mm . L es mecan ismes d e c es e n levements o bserves p our l ap rem iere f o is p ar S ire t ( 1928 ) , o nt ad e tud ies d e f apon t heor ique p ar T s irk ( 1979 ) . C e lu i -c i p ense q ue c es e n levements s ont i s sus d 'une f rac ture e n f l ex ion . I ld emontre q ue c et te f r ac ture a l a p ar t icu lar ite d e p ouvo ir s ' amorcer r e lat ivement l o in d e l ' endro it o ü l af o rce e s t e xercee .

3—Les e n Mve ments y P ar r apport a ux p recedents , l e s e n levements yo nt l a p art icu lar ite d ' être mu lt ip les , c ' est a d i re q u 'un c oup p rovoque l ed epar t d e p lus ieurs e n levements ä l a f o is e ta u m ' eme e ndro it . On d ist ingue d eux s ous -types :l e s e n levements a e ncoche c o mmune , e t l e s e n levements l i nda ires . L es e n levements a e ncoche c o mmune ( photo 3 ) s e c aracter isent p ar l ef a it

q u ' i ls

o nt a l ' or ig ine u ne meme e ncoche r e lat ivement p rof onde , d ' oü p artent p lus ieurs e n levements q u i s e c hevauchent l e s u ns s ur l e s a u tres . C erta ins d e g rande d imens ion , p euvent d onner n a issance a d es c oches , d 'un p o int d e v ue t ypo log ique .

P hoto 3 :

D eux n egat if s d ' en levements y mu lt ip les a vec u ne e ncoche c o mmune , p rodu its p ar p ie t inement h uma in .

L es e n levements l i nea ires p ar d ef in it ion n ' ont p as d ' encoche c o mmune . Ma is u s s ' a l ignent l e s u ns ä c öte d es a u tres e n s e c hevauchant l a tera lement . L orsque u s s ont p resents , l eb ord a ppara it g r ignote ( f ig . 1 ) .

5 2

F ig . 1 :E xemp les d ' en lävements 1 ,p rodu its p ar p ia inement h uma in ( P ) e t p ar l e s f a vons a gr ico les ( F .A . ) 11 ,= e n lävements l i ndra ires ;yE = e n lävements a e ncoche

5 3

L es e n levements l i nda ires e t äe ncoche c o mmune o nt e te r eg roupes e nsemb le c ar o n o bserve d es c as i ntermed ia ires e ntre c es d eux p ö les . L a d imens ion d es e n levements ye s t t r es v ar iab le , l eur l ongueur moyenne e st 0 , 75 mm . D e f agon g enera le s ur l e n ombre t o ta l d ' en levements p rodu its p ar p iet inement h uma in , 5 4 % d ' entre e ux s ont d e t ype a ,3 9 % s ont d e t ype y ,e t 7% s ont d e t ype f 3 .L es e n levements a s ont l e s p lus n ombreux .

I V —EXPERIENCE DES FACONS AGR ICOLES L 'exper ience d es f agons a g r ico les s ' est d erou lee d ans u n c hamp d e l a c o mmune d e B azo l les d ans l a N iäv re ( 58 ) . 4 0 d e is ts d e s i lex b ru t s d e d eb itage o nt e te u t i l ises . L es s i lex o nt e te r epar t is e n q ua tre l o ts d e d ix e chant i l lons . C haque l o t ae te d i spose al as urface d u c hamp a ux q uatre c o ins d 'un c arre d e d eux metres d e c öte . L a p os it ion d u c arre a e t e r eportee d ef agon p rec ise s ur u n p lan . L es s i lex a ins id i sposes o nt e te a bandonnes p endan t d eux a ns a uc ours d esque ls o nt e t ec u l t ives d ub le e n1 983 -84 e td uc o lza e n 1 984 -85 .

1—I thco l te d es s i lex P our r ecuperer l es

s i lex ,

o n

a f ou i l le u ne

s uperf ic ie

d e

2 5 m2 s ur

u ne

p rof ondeur d e2 5 cm c orrespondant a l a p rof ondeur d es l abours . S ur 4 0 s i lex , 2 4 s eu lement o nt e t e r etrouves . 2s i lex o nt e t e r eco ltes al a s urface , 1ä 2 5 cm d e p rof ondeur e t t ous l e s a u tres e ntre 1 0 e t 1 5 cm d e p rof ondeur . 4s i lex o nt e t e r etrouves e nsemb le . T ous l e s a u tres e ta ient d i sperses l e s u ns p ar r apport a ux a ut res . L es s i lex d e c haque l o t q ue l ' on a r eco lt e , s e s ont t ous p lus o u mo ms d ep laces e n s urface a u max imum a 1m , 1 ,50 m d e l eur l i eu d ' or ig ine . L es s i lex d es d if erents l o ts n e s e s ont p as mé langes e ntre e ux .

2— L es e n leve men ts c auses p ar l es f acons a gr ico les S ur 2 4 s i lex r etrouves , 1 0 s eu lement c o mportent u n o u p lus ieurs e n levements . 6 1 e n levements o nt e te r epertor ies . 4 s i lex ( s o it 4 0 % ) p ossedent u n o u p lus ieurs e n levements s ur u ne s eu le f a ce e t 6s i lex ( s o it 6 0 % ) e n o nt s ur l e s d eux f a ces . B ien q ue l e n ombre d e s i lex e ndommages s o i t f a ib le , o nr etrouve l e s mömes p ourcentages q ue p our l e p iet inement , as avo ir 3 7%e t6 3 % . 5 1 % d ' en levements s ont e n p os it ion d irecte , 4 9 % e n p os it ion i nverse . L e p iet inement d onne a uss i d es r esu lta ts t r es s e mb lab les a vec 5 2 % e n p os it ion d irecte e t 4 8 % e n p os it ion i nverse . On r e trouve a uss i l e s memes t ypes morpho log iques a , ß, y ä e ncoche c o mmune e t l i nea ire ( f ig . 1 ,2 ,3 ) . L a d imens ion d es e n levements e n f onct ion d u t ype a uque l i l s a ppar t iennent , e st a uss i s e mb lab le ( f ig . 4 ) . On n otera t outef o is q ue l a l ongueur d es e n levements y f ormes p ar l e s f agons a g r ico les a ppara it e n moyenne l egerement p lus p et ite p ar r appor t a u p iet inement . En f in f a it i mpor tant , l e p ourcentage d es e n levements e n f onct ion d u t ype a uque l i l s a ppar t iennent e st s e mb lab le p ar l e p iet inement e t p ar l e s f agons a g r ico les ( f ig . 5 )

5 4

p ik inemen t ( P ) e tf a £ons

p er cuss ions c ontröMes

a g-r i co les ( F .A )

s ur v er re

( F .A ) 1mm

0 ,5 mm

0 ,5 mm .

0 ,5 mm

( F .A )

1cm

0 ,5 mm

F ig . 2 :E xemp les d ' en lävements a p rodu its p ar p idt inement h uma in e t p ar l e s f a pons a gr ico les . C ompara ison a vec d es e n ldve ments o btenus e n l aborato ire p ar p ercuss ion c ontrö lde s ur v erre . 5 5

1mm

2mm

( P )

=2 6 °

( P )

0= 3 4 *

( FA )

1m m

( FA )

0 =1 1 °

e =3 1 °

F ig . 3 :E xemp les d ' en ldvements ßp rodu its p ar p idt inement h uma in ( P ) e t p ar l e s f apons a g r ico les ( F .A . ) . 8 =a ng le d u b ord .

5 6

P iät inemen t

En lävemen ts a

E n lävemen ts 1 3

En lövements y

l ongueur moy .

0 , 64

0 , 45

0 , 77

a l ongueur max . l ongueur m in .

0 , 33 1 , 42 0 , 24

0 , 5 1 1 , 33 0 , 08

0 , 75 3 , 33 0 , 12

F aeons a g r ico les

En lävemen ts a

En lävemen ts 8

En lävement s y

l ongueur moy .

0 , 61

0 , 53

0 , 55

a l ongueur max . l ongueur m in .

0 , 35 1 , 66 0 , 26

0 , 39 1 , 13 0 , 17

0 , 41 1 , 36 0 , 17

F ig . 4: L ongueur moyenne d es d i f f örents t ypes d ' en levement p rodu its p ar

p iöt inement h uma in e t p ar l es f apons e xpör imen taux .Va leurs e n mm .c r =kar tt ype .

A c t ion

a gr ico les

s ur

En lävemen ts a

En lävemen ts 8

En lövements y

p iät inemen t h uma in

5 4

7

3 9

f aeons a gr ico les

5 0

1 5

3 5

s i lex

F ig . 5: P ourcentage d u n ombre d ' en levements a , ß , y , p rodu its p ar p iöt inement h uma ine e tp ar l e s f a pons a g r ico les .

V —D ISCUSSION D ans l eur e nsemb le l e s r ösu ltats i nd iquent d e man iere e xp l ic ite , q ue l e s f apons a g r i co les p our l e sque l les o n u t i l ise d es ma ch ines l ourdes d e p lu s ieur s t onnes , p rodu isent d es d ommages s emb lab les ä c eux p rodu its p ar p ik inement h uma in . C e la s ugg ere d one q ue l e s möcan ismes d ' en levement s ont e ux a uss i s emb lab les . L e p rob leme e s t d e s avo ir d e q ue l möcan isme i ls ' ag i t . I le s t d i f f ic i le d e d onner u ne e xp l ica t ion d i rec temen t p ar l e s f a pons a gr i co les , c ar d ans c e g enre d ' expör ience o n n e p eu t p as v o ir c omment e t p ar q uo i l e s s i lex o nt ö t ö e ndommagös . P ar c ont re a vec l ep i öt inement h uma in c ' es t p lus f a c i le . D e c e f a it n ous dk lu irons u ne e xp l ica t ion d es e n levements f o rmös p ar l e s f a pons a g r ico les a p ar t ir d e c e l le d onn6e p our l ep i ö t inement .

5 7

1 —L es mdean ismes d ' en leve men ts p rodu i ts p ar p id t inemen t L or sque l ' on mar che , o n e xer ce u ne p ress ion P s ur l es o l q u i e s t c on t reba lancee p ar u ne r ea ct ion R d u s o l q u i s ' oppose a l a p enetra t ion d e n otre c orps . Quand o n p ie t ine u n s i lex , c e lu i -c i s e t r ouve a l ' inter face e n tre l e s o l e t l e «p iet ineur » . L e p o ids d u «p iet ineur » v a p rovoquer u ne p ress ion d u s i lex c ontre l e s o l . C e s ont l e s d if erentes c ontra intes q u i s ' opposent al ap ene tra t ion d u s i lex d ans l es o l , q u i s e ront ä l ' or ig ine d es e n lävements o bserves . L ' impor tance e tl en ombre d es d ommages p rodu i t s s ur l e s b ords d u s i lex d ependron t d 'une p ar t d e l a p ress ion d u s i lex q u i s ' exerce s ur l e s o l p ar l ' intermed ia ire d u «p iet ineur » e t d e l a s urface p ressee , ma is s ur tou t d e l a r es is tance d u s o l äl eur p enetra t ion . N os r esu lta ts p rouvent q u 'aucun e n lövement n e s e f o rme l o rsque l ' on p i e t ine l e s s i lex s u r u ne p e lou se . P ar c ontre s u r u n s o l r e s istan t c ompa c t c ompose d e s ab le e td e g rav ier , p lus ieur s e n lövemen ts s e p rodu isent . C es r e su l ta t s s ont e n a ccord a vec c eux d e Knudson ( 1979 ) e t d e F lenn iken e t Haggar ty ( 1 979 ) . C es d ern iers o nt d emont re d e man iäre p lus p rec ise , q ue l e n ombre e t l a d imens ion d es e n lävements s ur d es &has d ' obs id ienne e nf ou is d ans d if erents s o ls , s ont p ropor t ionne ls a l a g ranu lometr ie d u s ed iment . Au c ours d u p i e t inement l e s e n lövemen ts p euven t ö t re p rodu i ts p ar c ontac t a vec l e s g ra ins d e s ab le o u d e g rav ier . D ans c e c as , l ec on ta c t e s t d i t e l a st ique , c ' es t ad i re q ue l e s d eux s o l ides q u i e nt rent e n c on ta c tF un c on tre l ' au tr e o nt u n c omport emen t e l as t ique al a c ontra inte ( Pros t e t C ha te l l ier 1 986 ) . On p eu t r eprodu ire e n l abora to ire u n c onta ct e l as t ique e n f a isan t p er cut er u ne b i l le d ' a c ier s ur d u v erre a u ne h au teur d onnee , c omme l ' on f a i t S peth ( 1974 , 1 975 ) , D ibb le e t Wh it taker ( 1 981 ) . On ae f ec tue u n c e r ta in n ombre d ' exper iences d e c e g enre s ur p y rex . On o b t ient d e c e t t e man ibre d es e n lävemen ts a , ße t y . On c on s ta te a l ors q ue l e t ype d ' en lövement f o rme , d epend e n tre a u tre d e l ' ang le d u b ord , d e l ad i stance d ub ord al aque l le l af o r ce a g it e tl af a pon d on tl af o r ce e s td i r igee s ur l eb ord . O n r ema rque a uss i c omme p our l ep i e t inemen t , q ue c e s ont l e s e n lövement s aq u i s e f o rmen t l ep lu s f r equemment . H s s e p rodu isent s ur d es b ords d ont l ' ang le v ane e n tr e 3 00 e t 9 0 ° i nc lus e t q uand l ab i l le f r appe p erpend i cu la irement o u t angen t ie l lement u ne d es f a ces d u b ord , p ra t iquemen tj ama is l o r sque l ec oup e s t p or te s ur l ' arö te d ub ord . S il a b i l le f r appe l ' aröte , i ls e f o rme d es e n lövements y .C es d ern iers s e p rodu isent f a c i lemen t a uss i l o rsque l a b i l le f r appe n on p as u ne d es f a ces d u b ord , ma is l a f r ö le d ans s a c hu te . C 'est d e c e t te man iöre q ue s ' exp l iquera it l a f a pon d on t l a ma jor ite d es e n lövemen ts ys e f o rment p ar p iet inement , c ' es t ad i re p ar f r ö lemen t d es g ra ins s ur l e s b ord d es s i lex a u moment o ül ep i ed p resse . L es e n lövemen ts ßs ef o rment b eau coup p lu s r arement p ar c onta c te l as t ique . I l s s ont p lus c aract er ist iques d 'un c on tac t i ne las t ique ( e xemp le d 'un c on tac t e ntre b o is e t s i lex ) . P ar c on tac t e l a st ique l e s e n lövemen ts ßn ep euvent a ppara i tre q ue s u r d es b ord sf r ag i les a a ng le f a ib le . N os r esu lta t s mont ren t q u ' i l e n e s t d e m öme . On p eu t d onc c onc lu re q ue l a ma jor it e d es e n lövements p rodu it s p ar p ie t inemen t s on t c arac ter is t iques d 'un c ontac t e l ast ique . I ie x iste u n a u t re c as d e c onta ct e l a s t ique q u ' i l n ef au tp as n eg l ig er e t q u i p eu tö t re a l ' or ig ine d e n ombreux e n lövement s , c ' es t l ec as d 'un c ontac t e nt re s i lex e ux -mömes . D es e xper iences c ontrö lees mont rent q u ' i l p eu t s e p rodu ire p ar e xemp le d e v er i tab les c o ches d ' un p o int d e v ue t ypo log ique ( f ig . 6 ) .

5 8

3mm •

l cm

F ig . 6 :E xemp les d e c oches p rodu ites p ar p idt inement l o rs d 'un c ontact e ntre d eux s i lex . 5 9

2 —L es mdcan is mes d ' en lbve men ts p rodu i ts p ar l e sf avons a gr ico les P endant d eux a ns d ' act iv ites a gr ico les l e s s i lex o nt e te s oum is a d iverses c on tra in tes d ont l e s q ua t res p r inc ipa les p euven t e t re : 1—l ec hoc d e l ac harrue 2—l eb rassage d u s o l 3—l ap ress ion d es mach ines a g r ico les a u c our s d e l eurs p assages 4—l ap ress ion d es r a c ines d e c o lza e td eb i d D 'apres l a s im i lar ite d es r esu lta ts o b tenus p ar p ie t inement e t p ar l e s f a 9ons a g r ico les , o n p eu t d i re q ue l e s e n levemen ts p rodu i ts a u c ours d es a c t iv it es a g r ico les o n t a l ' or ig ine u ne s eu le c ont ra inte . L e p rob leme e s t d e s avo ir l aque l le . D 'apres l e s p r inc ipa les c ontra intes e voquees , s eu le l a p ress ion d es mach ines a g r ico les s e r approche l ep lus d u p i et inement p ar s e s a c t ions mecan iques . L e c a lendr ier d eta i l le d es a c t iv ites a g r ico les e f f ectudes d urant d eux a nnees d ' exper ience ( f ig . 7 ) montrent d e l eur c ö te u n f a it i mpor tant: l e s a c t iv ites c oncernant d es p assag es d e mach ines s ans b rassage d u s o l r epresen tent 8 6 %d u t o ta l d es a c t iv ites . L a p ress ion d es ma ch ines a g r ico les i n terv ient d onc b eau coup p lus f r equemmen t q ue l eb ra ssage d u s o l o u l e c hoc d es c harrues . Ma is l a p ress ion c ons iderab le d es mach ines ( 5 t onnes p our l e t rac teur , 8t onnes p our l a mo issonneuse -ba t teu se ) n e p ermet p as d ' exp l iquer a e i le s eu le p ou rquo i o n o b t ient a uss i p eu d ' en levemen t s e td e s ip e t i te d imens ion c omme c eux o bt enu s p ar p ie t inemen t . L 'ana lyse d u s o l p ermet d e l ' exp l iquer . L 'ana lyse g ranu lome tr ique ( f ig . 8 ) mon tre q ue l e s o l e s t l imoneux a t exture f i ne , a vec u ne c harge e n e l ement s g ross iers f a ib le . L a s t ruc ture d u s o l c u lt ive e s t meub le , a eree e t s a r es is tance a l a p enet ra t ion e s tf a ib le .

A rg i le

L i mon f i n

L i mon g ross ier

S ab le f i n

S ab le g ro ss ier

2 0 ,9

4 7 ,4

2 2 ,6

2 , 1

7 , 0

%

F ig . 8 : Ana lyse g ranu lometr ique d u s o l d ans l eque l l e s s i lex e ta ien t e nf ou is a u c ou rs d es e xper ien ces s ur l e s f a vons a g r ico les .

D 'un p o int d e v ue mecan ique , l a p ress ion c ons iderab le d es ma ch ines a g r ico les s ur l e s s i lex e s t t r es v i te amor t ie , c ar u s s ' enf ou issent t r es r ap idement d ans l e s o l s ans r encontrer d e c ontra intes ma jeures . L a p rof ondeur moyenne d e 1 0 -15 c m al aque l le p resque t hus l e s s i lex o n t e t e r e t rouves , c or respondra i t a l ors a u ne p rof ondeur l im i te d e p enet ra t ion a c ceptee p ar l es o l . S eu le l ap resence d e q ue lques g ra ins d e s ab le o u l ec on tac t e nt re s i lex a u c ours d e l ' enf ou issement , p ermet tra it d ' exp l iquer l ' or ig ine d e l ' ensemb le d es e n levements . P u isque l ' usage d es mach ines l ourdes e n a g r i cu l ture d a te d ' a p e ine u n s i èc le , o n e s t e n mesure d e c r o ire q ue c e s e n levemen ts s ont r e la t ivemen t r ecents . L es t ravaux d e Ma l louf ( 1982 ) mon t rent d e l eu r c ö te q ue l e sf a 9ons a g r ico les p euven t c auser d ' au t res d ommages t r es d i f f erents d e c eux q ue l ' on a o b tenus .

6 0

CULTURE DU BLE ( 83 -84 )

D a te

f a£ons a g r ico les

p a ssage d es o ut i ls s ans b ra ssage a vec b ra ssage d u s o l d u s o l . _ . , . _ .

9e t10 .83 6 . 10 6 . 10 7 . 10 2 0 .10 5 . 11 1 4 .2 .84 1 3 .3 1 7 .4 1 . 5 1 . 6 3 0 .7

l abours h erse 2f o is e ngra is s em is a nt i l imace i nsect ic ide e ng ra is e ngra is f ong ic id e r a ccourc isseur d e p a i l le f ong ic ide mo isson

+ + + + + + + + + + + + +

CULTURE DU COLZA ( 84 -85 )

D a te

1 . 9 .84 7e t8 . 9 1 0 .9 1 1 .9 1 1 .9 1 2 .9 2 8 .9 2 5 .10 2 6 . 10 2 0 .2 .85 2 1 .2 2 . 4 3 . 4 2 2 .4 1 0 .7 2 0 .7

ff lns a g r ico les

p assage d es o u t i ls s ans b rassage a vec b rassage d u s o l d us o l

d g chaumage l abours t a ssage a ur ou leau ( c ross k i l l ) h erse s em is p u lv6r isa t ion e ngra is p u lv6r isa t ion a nt i l i mace e ng ra is a zo te p u lv6r isa t ion e ngra is p u lv6r isa t ion mo i son d 6chaumage

F ig . 7:C a lendr ier d eta i l ld d es a ct iv i tds a g r ico les d urant l e s d eux a nndes d ' exp6r ience . L es p assages s ans b rassage d u s o l r epr6sentent 8 6 %d es a ct iv i tks a g r ico les . L es p assag es a vec b rassage r epr6sen tent 1 4 % .

6 1

C es d ommages s era ient d us s e lon l ' au teur , a ux l abours , a u c hoc d es c harrues , q u i p euvent f o rmer d es e n levements d e p lus g rande d imens ion . N os r esu lta ts n e d o ivent d onc p as e t re g enera l ises a l ' ensemb le d es s i lex e ndommages p a r l e s f a pons a g r ico les .

V I— CONCLUSION Ap a ler d e c es r esu l ta ts e xper imentaux o np eu tc onc lure q ue : 1 ° L es p assages f r equents d es mach ines a g r ico les s ans b rassage d u s o l s on t r esponsab les d 'un c er ta in n ombre d e d ommages q u i d ev ra ient e t re v i s ib les s ur d es o u t i ls p reh is tor iques e n r oche d ure . 2 ° L es e n levements p rodu i ts d e c e tte man iere p ar l e s f apons a g r i co les s on t s im i la ires p ar l eurs mecan ismes a c eux p rodu it s p ar p i e t inement . 3 ° C et te s im i lar i te e s t l i ee a u f a it q ue d ans l e s d eux c a s , l a t ex ture d u s o l e t s a r es is tance ä l a p enet ra t ion j ouent u n r o le f ondamenta l p our e xp l iquer l e mecan isme d e c es e n levemen ts . 4 ° L es e n levement s a , ße ty ,p rodu it s a u c ours d e n os e xper iences s ont i s sus d ' un c on ta c t e las t ique a vec d es e l emen ts g ross iers d u s o l e t( ou ) a vec d ' au tres s i lex . 5 0 D 'apres l e s c onc lus ions p recedentes i la ppara it i mposs ib le d e d i f f erenc ier l e s d ommages d us a u p ie t inemen t d e c eux d us al ap ress ion d es ma ch ines a g r ico les .

C et te methode e xper imenta le b asee s ur l ' etude d es mecan ismes d ' en levements a cc idente ls p eu t s ' app l iquer a uss i ac e l le d es e n lövements d e r e touche e t d ' u t i l isa t ion . Une me i l leure c omprehens ion d es mecan ismes d es e n levements e n g enera l , p ermet t ra p eut -etre u n j our d e l e s d if erenc ier , e t d e l e s i nterpre ter , c ontr ibuant a ins i au ne me i l leure c onna issance d e l a f abr ica t ion , e t d e l a f onct ion d es o u t i ls p reh istor iques d e p ierre t a i l lee .

REN IERCIEM :ENTS N ous r emer c ions v ivement Mons ieur X av ier C harr ie g race a q u i n ous a vons P u e f f ec tuer n os e xper iences s ur l e s f a pons a g r ico les d ans d ' exce l lentes c ond i t ions e t q u i n ous a f ourn i t ou tes l e s i nf orma t ions n ecessa ires .

B IBL IOGRAPHIE D IBBLE , ( H .L . ) , WH ITTAKER , ( J .C . ) , 1 981 . —N ew e xper imen ta t ion e v idence o n t he r e lat ion b etween p ercuss ion f l ak ing a nd f l ake v ar iat ion . J . A r ch . S c i . ( G .B . ) , v o l . 8( 3 ) , :2 83 -296 . FAULKNER , ( A . ) , 1 972 . — Mechan ica l p r inc ip l es o ff l in t w ork ing . D oc tora l d i sser ta t ion , Wash ing ton S ta te Un iv . 6 2

FLENN IKEN , ( J .J .) , HAGGARTY , ( J . ) , 1 979 . —

T ramp l ing a s a n a gency i n t he

f orma t ion o f e dge d amage : a n e xper iment i n l i th ic t echno logy . Nor thwest An th rop . R esearch No tes , v o l . 1 3 :2 08 -214 . FONSECA , ( J .G . ) , ESHELBY , ( J .D . ) , ATK INSON , ( C . ) 1 971 . — The f racture mechan ics o ff l int -knapp ing a nd a l l ied p rocesses . I n tern . J . o ff rac t . , v o l . 7( 4 ) :4 21-433 . KEELEY , ( L . ) , 1 979 . —E xper imen ta l d e term ina t ion o f s t one t oo l u ses -a m icro -wear a na lys is . T he Un ivers ity o f Ch icago P ress , 2 12 p . KERK I 10F , ( F . ) , MULLER -BECK , ( H . ) , 1 969 . —Z ur b ruchmechan ischen D entung d er S ch lagmorken a n S t ingeräten . G las techn . B er . , v o l . 4 2 :4 39 -448 . KNUDSON , ( R . ) , 1 979 . —I nf erence a nd i mpos it ion i n l i th ic a na lys is . I n :L i th ic u se w ear a na lys is ( ed . B . HAYDEN ) . A cadem ic P ress 1 979 , New -York :2 69 -281 . MALLOUF , ( R . ) , 1 982 . — An a na lys is o f p low -damaged c hert a r t ifacts: t he b rooken C reek C a che , ( 41H I86 ) , H i l l C ountry , T exas . J ourna l o f F ie ld A rchaeo logy , v o l . 9 : 8 1 -98 . MANSUR -FRANCHO M ME ,

( M .E .) ,

1 983 . — T races d 'ut i l isa t ion e n

t e chno log ie

l i th ique :e xemp le d e l a P a tagon ie . T hese d e d octora t d e s pec ia l ite e n g eo log ie d u q ua t . e tp reh . Un ivers ite d e B ordeaux I . PROST , ( D .C . ) , CHATELL IER , ( J .Y . ) , 1 986 . —C ontr ibu t ion methodo log ique a l ' ana lyse q uant ita t ive d es p ropr ietes mecan iques d es r oches f rag i les e last iques . R evue d 'Arc Uome tr ie , v o l . 1 0 :6 9 -74 . S IRET , ( L . ) , 1 928 . —L a t a i l le d es t rapeze t ardeno is iens , 2 e n ote . Bu l l . d e l a S o c ig td d 'An thropo log ie d e B ruxe l les , v o l . 4 3 :1 8 -70 . S PETH , ( J . ) , 1 972 . — Mechan ica l b as is o f p ercuss ion f l ak ing . Amer ican An t iqu i ty , v o l . 3 7 ( 1 ) :3 4 -60 . S PETH , ( J . ) , 1 974 . —E xper imenta l i nvest igat ions o f h ard -hammer p ercuss ion f l ak ing . T eb iwa , v o l . 1 7 :7 -36 . S PETH , ( J . ) , 1 975 . —M isce l laneous s tud ies i n h ard -hammer p ercuss ion f l ak ing: t he e f ects o f o b l ique i mpact . Amer ican An t iqu i ty , v o l . 4 0 ( 2 ) :2 03 -207 . TS IRK , ( A .) , 1 979 . — R egard ing f racture i n it iat ions . I n :L i th ic u se -wear a na lys is ( ed . B . HAYDEN ) . A cadem ic P ress 1 979 , New -York :8 3 -96

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METHODOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIO NS AFFECTING THE CHOICE OF ANALYT ICAL TECHN IQUES IN L ITHIC USE - WEAR ANALYSIS: TESTS , RESULTS AND APPLICATION

J ohn J . SHEA *

ABSTRACT:

A l though m icrowear a na lys is i st he most p opu la r me thod i n t ra ceo logy t oday i tc anno t p ro cess l a rge s amp les o fa rchaeo log ica l a ssemb lages . A ccura cy e st imat es a nd c onf idence i n terva ls a re n o t a va i lab le f o r mos t m icrowea r a na lyses . T hese f a c tors l im it t he r e levance o f f unc t iona l s tud ies t o p a leoan thropo logy . The r esu l ts o ft es ts o f a more r ap id t ra ceo log ica l me thod , t he e dg e -damage / low p ower a pproa ch , a re r epor ted h ere . T he a pp l ica t ion o ft h is t e chn ique t ot he Mous ter ian a ssemb lages f r om K ebara C ave i n I s rae l i sa l so b r ie f ly o u t l ined r t t su i v rA : Quo ique l ' ana lyse d e m icrousure s o it l a p lus p opu la ire d es md thodes d e t rac6o log ie , c e t te md thode n e p eu t p as t ra i ter l e s d chan t i l lons d e g rand s a ss emb lages a r chdo log iques . L es e s t ima t ions d ' exa c t itude e tl e s i nterva l les d e c on f iance n e s on t p a s d i spon ib les p our l a ma jor itd d es a na lyses d e m icro -usure . C es f acteurs l im itent l a p er t inence d es a na lyses f onc t ionne l les d es i ndus tr ies l i th iques a l a p a ldoanthropo log ie . L es r dsu lta ts d e t es ts dune mdthode t ra cdo log ique p lus r ap ide , l ' approche a f a ib le g ross issemen t e t s on a pp l ica t ion a ux a ssemb lages mous tör iens d e K ebara s on t i c i ment ionnds .

I NTRODUCT ION S evera l r ecent u se -wear a na lyses h ave c onc luded w i th a n o pt im is t ic a ppra isa l o f c u rrent m icrowear r esear ch , p o int ing t o t he g rea t n umber o fi nd iv idua ls i nvo lved a nd t o t he o verg row ing s amp le o f a na lyzed a rchaeo log ica l ma ter ia ls ( Moss 1 983 , V aughan 1 985 ) . I ti sd if i cu l t t o c oncur w ith t h is v iew . U se -wear , p ar t icu lar ly m icrowear s tud ies , r ema in e ssent ia l ly c ast i n t wo modes :1 . E xper imenta l s tud ies — wh ich a t tempt t o d e term ine t he e f ect s o fd if erent u ses ( Meeks e ta l . 1 982 , Mansu r -Franchomme 1 983 ) a s w e l l a s n a tura l f o rces ( Sa la 1 986 ) u pon t he f o rma t ion o fw ear . 2 .A r chaeo log ica l s tud ies — w h ich f o cus o n t he f un c t iona l v ar iab i l i ty o fa r tef a c t -types ( K ee ley 1 980 , Moss 1 983 ) o r , i na f ew r are c ases , o f n umer ica l ly s ma l l a ssemb lages ( Vaughan 1 985 , Moss 1 986 ) . T hese s tud ies r ema in methodo log ica l ly i d en t ica l t ot he r esearch p rog ram o fS emenov ( 1964 ) . N or h ave t he r esu lts o f t he l a s t d ecade o f u se -wear a na lys is p rodu ced a ma jor c ontr ibut ion f r om t h is f i e ld t o a rchaeo log ica l method o r t heory . F ew a rchaeo log is ts s hou ld b e s urpr ised t o l e arn t ha t s t one t o o ls o fe very e poch w ere u sed t o p rocess p lant

An thropo logy Dep t . ,P eabody Museum , Harvard Un iver s i ty , 1 1 D iv in i ty A ve . , C ambr idge , MA 0 2138 , USA

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f o ods ,to p rocure e d ib le a n ima l t i ssues a nd t o s hape o ther u sefu l a r tef a c ts f r om r es is tan t ma ter ia ls , s u ch a s w ood , b one o r s t one . A s t he f r equency o f ap ar t icu lar t oo l -us ing a ct iv ity i ncreases , t he e nerge t ic p ayof f f o r at e chno log ica l s pec ia l izat ion i ncreases . T hese a re d educ t ions wh ich f o l low l og ica l ly f r om v er tebra te b ehav iora l e co logy a nd w hose p roof d oes n o t r equ ire t r a ceo log ica l r esea r ch . C er ta in ly t he r esu l ts o fu se -wear r esearch h ave s ome a r chaeo log ica l r e levance , b u t t he n umber o f i nd iv idua ls f o r wh ich t h is i nf orma t ion i so f i mmed ia te u se i sn ot much l a rger t han t hose a c t ive ly e ngaged i n l i th ics a na lyses o fo ne s or t o r a no ther . F unc t iona l i n f orma t ion a bou t s t one t oo ls r ema ins a s mu ch i n d emand a s e ver . T he p rob lem i st ha t t he k ind o fd a ta wh ich a re g enerated b y mos t u se -wear s tud ies a re s imp ly n o t u sefu l i n a ddress ing b roader p a leoanthropo log ica l c oncerns t han t he f unc t iona l c or re la tes o ft o o l f orm . T he r ea son f o r t h is s i tua t ion i s t ha t t he t e chn iques a va i lab le f o r o bserv ing t he a rchaeo log ica l r ecord o fs t one t o o l u se l im i t o u r a na ly t ica l g oa ls . Most u se -wear r esear ch t oday f o l lows t he m icrowear i « h igh p ower » a pproach p ioneered b y L . K ee ley ( 1980 ) , u s ing d i rec t l i gh t ing a nd ab inocu lar m icros cope w i th magn if i ca t ions b e tween 1 00 -300 X ( Owen e ta l . 1 984 ) . T he g rea t amount o ft ime , f r om t wenty m inu tes t o o ver a n h our p er t o o l , n ecessary t o make o bserva t ions a nd f unc t iona l c onc lus ions w ith t h is me thod l im i ts t he n umber o fa r tefa c t s wh ich c an b e p rocessed i n ar easonab le amount o ft ime . T hus , t he a na lys is o f e nt ire a ssemb lages , wh ich w i l l mos t t horough ly i nf orm u s a bou t t he e co log ica l c ontext o f p reh istor ic h uman b ehav ior , i s n ot r out ine ly p oss ib le w ith m icrowear a na lys is . O f c ourse s ubs tant ia l n umbers o fa r tefa c ts c an b e p rocessed w ith a ny method , b y s ystema t ica l ly s amp l ing a l arger a ssemb lage . G iven t ha t u sed a r tef ac ts c ompr ise a m inor ity i n most a ssemb lages , t h is a c tua l ly i ncr eases t he t ime n ecessary t ol o ca te u sed t o o ls . One c ou ld d raw a s amp le wh ich h as a n i n tu i t ive ly h igh p robab i l i ty o fb e ing u sed o r o f r epresent ing t he u se -parameters o f t he a ssemb lage , r etouched a rtefa c ts , o r t oo ls a ssoc iated w ith a p ar t icu lar f ea ture , f o r e xamp le . H owever , t h is s t ra tegy a ssumes p rec ise ly wha to ne i sa t temp t ing t od et erm ine i nt he f i r st p la ce! I ft h is s i tua t ion i st o b e c hanged a nd f unc t iona l i nf orma t ion i st o h ave r e levance b eyond t he s ma l l c i r c le o fl i th ics a na ly s t s , t hen a c hang e i n t he methodo log y o fu se -wear a na lys is w i l l b e r equ ired . E nt ire a ssemb lages must b e s tud ied w ithou t ap r ior i j udgements a bout t he f unc t iona l s i gn if icance o f a r tef act types b e ing a l lowed t o c o lor s amp l ing s t ra teg ies .

BACKGROUND E ven t hough t he s earch -t ime c os t s o f m icrowear a na lys is c ons tra in i t s a b i l ity t o i ncorpora te s i gn if icant a r chaeo log ica l s amp les , i t i s , n everthe less , t he most p opu lar a na ly t ica l a pproa ch i n u se -wear s tud ies . B ecause f unc t iona l d e term ina t ions , e spec ia l ly f o r w orked ma ter ia ls , a re p urport ed t ob e made f r om t he o bserva t ion o f as i ng le v ar iab le , m icropo l ish , t h is t e chn ique i sr e la t ive ly e asy t ol e arn . A no ther f a c tor i st he p ercept ion o fa ccuracy . O ne o ft he mos t v ex ing q uest ions f o r a r chaeo logy ( o r a ny s c ience , f o r t ha t ma t ter ) i s «H ow d o y ou k now ?» .A s af i e ld , a rchaeo logy h as o f t en l a cked t he means n ecessary t op rov ide t he a ccuracy e s t ima tes a nd c onf idence i n terva ls b y wh ich w e c an a t tach p robab i l i t ies t o o ur c onc lus ions . T he u se o f 6 6

«b l ind t ests » i n u se -wear a na lys is ( K ee ley a nd N ewcomer 1 977 , Ode l l a nd Ode l l V ereecken 1 980 , G ende l a nd P irnay 1 982 , V aughan 1 985 ) i sa n a tt empt t o a ddress t h is n eed . Two i n it ia l t es ts c ompar ing t he p erf ormance o f L . K ee ley u s ing m icrowear a pproach a nd t ha t o fG . O de l l u s ing a n a l terna t ive e dge -damage / « l ow p ower »a pproach h ave b een m isu sed a nd m is in terpret ed t ot he p o int t ha tt he m icrowea rt e chn ique i ss een b y many a s t he o n ly a u thor ita t ive means f o rt he r eso lu t ion o fp reh is tor ic s t one t o o l u se . M isuse o ft hese b l ind t e s t r e su l ts i nvo lves t he t a c i t a ssumpt ion t ha t t he r esu lt s o f K ee ley a nd o f Ode l l a re d i rec t ly r ef erab le t oa l l o thers u s ing t he ir r espec t ive a pproaches . T h is d eterm ina t ion o fa c curacy b y p roxy , r e ly ing o n as i ng le t e s t f o r e ach m ethod , d oes n ot a l low t he c a lcu la t ion o f c onf idence l e ve ls f o r t hose a ccuracy e s t ima tes . T hese c an o n ly b e s e t b y r epeat ed t e s t ing o ft he s ame a na lys t a nd a re r e levant t o t he s ubsequent p erf ormance o f t hat a na lyst a l one . Unf or tunate ly , o n ly a f ew o ther b l ind t e s ts o f u se -wear t e chn iques h ave b een a t tempt ed . I n t hese s i ng le t e s ts o fi nd iv idua l a na lys ts o n ly ar e la t ive ly n arrow r ang e o f a ct ions a nd w orked mater ia ls w ere t ested , f ewer t han a re r ecogn ized i n t he a ccompany ing a rchaeo log ica l a na lys is ( Vaughan 1 985 ) , o r «u nknown » was c ons idered ar esponse i nt he b l ind t e s t , r emov ing t h is e l emen to fu ncer ta in ty f r om t he t e s t s c ore ( Gende l a nd P irnay 1 982 , G ende l , p ersona l c ommun ica t ion ) . T he r esu l ts o f t he b a t tery o ft e st s c onduc ted b y N ewcomer e ta l . ( 1986 ) o n as e t o fa nonymous m icrowear a na lys ts a t t he Un ivers i ty o f L ondon p rodu ced s i ngu lar ly u nspec ta cu lar r esu l ts f o r t he f o ca l v ar iab le o f t he m icrowear a pproach , m icropo l ish , a nd i t s a b i l ity t o a ccura te ly d e term ine w orked ma ter ia ls f r om t ra ces o fp o l ish a l one . L ack ing s uch b l ind t e s t s , t here e x is t s n o p rac t ica l means b y wh ich t oi ndependent ly a ssess t he a ccuracy o f mos t f unc t iona l r econstruct ions o f s t one t oo l u se b ased o n m icrowear a na lys is . S ince t he ma jor o bs tac le t o t he a na lys is o f a nthropo log ica l ly s i gn if icant s amp les o f p reh is tor ic a ssemb lages , p roh ib it ive s ear ch -t ime , i s e ssent ia l t o t he m icrowear . / « h igh p ower » a pproach , a nd b ecause t he a b i l ity o f t ha t method 's p rac t it ioners t o r ep l ica te K ee ley 's p erf ormance i n t he r eso lu t ion o f w orked ma ter ia l v ar iat ion r ema ins , a t l east , a n o pen q uest ion , t h is p aper w i l l r epor t t he t e st a nd a pp l ica t ion o fa n a l terna t ive a pproa ch .

METHOD :THE LO W PO WER APPROACH T he e dge -damage / « l ow p ower » a pproach u ses a s t ereoscop ic m icroscope w ith magn if ica t ions b etween 5 160X a nd o b l ique ly -ref lec ted l i ght ing ( s ee R ab inow icz 1 965 : f i g . 3 . 10 ) t o o bserve m icroscop ic t races o f a bras ion a nd m icrof ractur ing ( Ode l l a nd O de l l -Vereecken 1 980 ) . T he m icrof ractur ing t races a re p ar t icu lar ly u sefu l i n t he r eso lu t ion o f w orked ma ter ia l , a s t he d imens ions a nd t e rm ina t ions o f m icrof ra c tures d i rec t ly r ef lect t he ir h ardness a nd d ens ity ( Tomenchuk 1 985 ) . R ecogn iz ing t hat t he mechan ica l p roper t ies a nd o ur v ernacu lar e thno -taxonom ic c l ass if ica t ions o f mater ia ls n eed n ot n ecessar i ly c o inc ide , i nd iv idua l w orked ma ter ia ls a re a ss igned t o c a tegor ies whose c onst ituents c anno t b e d i s t ingu ished f r om o ne a no ther o n t he b a s is o f o bserved w ear t races a l one ( Tab le 1 ) . S ix b l ind t e s ts w ere c ondu c ted u pon t h is a u thor o ver t he p as tt hree y ears , a nd t he ir r esu lts a re r epor ted h ere . T he f i rs t w as s uperv ised b y G . Ode l l a nd t he r ema inder b y s tudents i n l i th ic t e chno logy c ourses a t B os ton Un ivers ity a nd Harvard Un ivers ity . F or t he s ake o fb rev i ty , t he r e levant p arame ters o ft hese t e s ts a re l i s ted i n T ab le 2 a nd t he 6 7

Tab le 1 : Twe lve -part c lass if ica t ion o f worked mater ia ls a nd t he ir wear c onsequences f or t he e dge -damage / « l ow p ower » a pproach .

WORKED MATER IALS

MATER IALS I NCLUDED

WEAR CHARACTER IST ICS

1 .

SOFT AN IMAL

F resh s k in , h a ir , m ea t

E x tens ive ma tp o l ish ing , l i gh t e dge r oughen ing ,s tr ia t ions ( ma in ly w i th h a ir ) , u neven p a t terns o fs ma l l f ea ther - t e rm ina ted f r ac tures .

2 .

SOFT VEGETAL

T ubers , g rasses , n on -woody p lan ts a nd p lan tp ar t s

S i l icat e p o l ish w i th g ra ss es , e x tens ive b r igh t p o l ish .Uneven o rc l umped p a t terns o fs ma l l f ea ther -term ina ted f rac tures .

3 .

MEDIUM ANIMAL

D r ied o r t anned s k in , f i sh b ut chery , s ever ing o fj o in t c apsu les ,f r o zen o rd r ied mea t

R ap id e dge -round ing , ma t p o l ish , o c cas iona l s t r ia t ions , c on t iguous t o c l umped p a t terns o fm ed ium -s ized f ea ther term ina ted f r a ctures .

4 .

MED IUM S OFT VEGETAL

F resh c on if erous w oods

B r ight p o l ish , r are s t r ia t ions , c on t iguous t oc l umped p a t tern o f med ium t ol a rge f ea ther term ina t ed f r a ctures w ith i nd is t in ct i n ter ior b orders .

5 .

MED IUM HARD VEGETAL

F resh d ec iduous w oods

S ame a s MED IUM SOFT VEGETAL , e x cep t f r a c tures a re u sua l ly m ed ium s i zed w i th d i s t inc ti n ter ior b orders .

6 .

MED IUM I NORGANIC

S i lty s o i l , l o am , c l ay , s and

R oughened t or ounded e dges ,b r igh t s i l ica te p o l ish , f r equen t s t r ia t ions , c l umped a nd c ont iguous p a t terns o f med ium -to large f r a ctures w ith f ea ther a nd h inge t e rm inat ions .

7 . HARD AN IMAL

B one , a n t ler , h orn , t o o th ,s he l l

R oughened e dges , ma tp o l ish , c on t iguous p a tt erns o fl a rge f ea ther a nd s t ep - t e rm ina ted f r a c tures .

8 .

HARD VEGETAL

D ense t r op ica l c on if er s ,

R ounded e dges , b r igh tp o l ish , c on t iguous s easoned h a rdwoods . t o u neven p a t terns o fl a rge s t ep a nd h inge f rac tures .

9 .

HARD I NORGANIC

S tone , g rave l , c e ram ics , me ta l

R oughened e dges , f l a t tened p ro jec t ions a nd s urfa ces . C on t iguous p a t terns o f l a rge s t ep -t erm ina ted f r a ctures .

1 0 .

PROJECT ILE

S k in , b one , f l esh , w ood , s o i l , r o ck

C rush ing , u n id irec t iona l s cars , a bras ion .

1 .

HAND

S k in , g r it , l e a ther

Sma l l u n ifa c ia l c l uster o ff ea ther t e rm ina ted s cars , a bras ion o n o ppos i te f ace .

1 2 .

HAFT

Wood , b one , l e a ther , f i ber , mas t ic

B ifa c ia l , a l terna t ing c l umps o fs ma l l s cars , a bras ion o n e dges a nd s ur fa ces .

6 8

a ct iv it ies u nder taken i n T ab le 3 . I n a dd it ion t o t he p er iod ic a ccuracy c heck f o r wh ich t hey w ere i n t ended , t hese t e s t s a l low mea su remen t o ft he s ens i t iv i ty o ft he «l ow p ower » a pproach t o s evera l d i sturbance f a ct ors .

T ab le 2 : P arameters o fb l ind t e s t s # 1 -6 .

VAR IABLES

A RT IFACTS U SED ART IFACTS U SED P OLAR -COORD INATES EMPLOYED UN ITS MOD IF IED EU 'S E XPER IMENTERS R EFERENCE S PEC IMENS S CREEN ING W ITH S O IL A RT IFACT ANALYS IS T IME ( m in . ) A VERAGE S TANDARD D EV IAT ION EU ANALYS IS T IME A VERAGE S TANDARD D EV IAT ION DATE O F T EST ( mo . / y r . )

1

2

3

4

5

6

1 7 1 6 3 7 3 1 0 7 5 0 — 2 91 1 7 .1 4 . 6 2 75 1 4 .5 1 3 .9 3 / 86

1 9 1 8 4 0 4 2 0 6 2 50 — 1 00 5 . 3 2 . 6 1 00 3 . 8 1 . 6 1 / 84

2 0 1 4 5 3 3 5 3 4 3 00 + 1 39 7 . 0 3 . 5 18 4 . 7 1 . 7 1 2 /84

2 7 1 8 4 5 3 8 8 3 3 56 + 1 43 5 . 3 2 . 9 1 08 5 . 4 2 . 4 1 / 85

2 3 1 7 5 7 3 6 4 2 4 50 + 1 26 5 . 5 2 . 5 1 06 4 . 1 1 . 3 1 2 /85

3 8 2 8 8 2 6 1 1 2 2 5 50 + 2 0 1 5 . 3 4 . 2 1 77 4 . 5 2 . 3 1 / 86

T he i mp lements u sed w ere e i ther made b y t he e xper imenters t hemse lves o r w ere p i cked f r om t he f l oor o f af l intknapp ing w orkshop . A l l t oo l u se o ccurred w ithou t my o bserva t ion o r k now ledge a nd t o o ls w ere c l eaned w i th s oap a nd w a ter ( a s w e l l a s m i ld h ydroch lor ic a c id a nd s od ium h ydrox ide s o lut ions i n t es ts # 2 -6 ) t o r emove o rgan ic r e s idues . S cores w ere b a sed o n my a b i l ity t ol o ca te t he w orn p ar ts o ft he t o o l o n a n e ight p o in t p o lar -coord ina te g r id , t oc omb ine t hese i nt o «Emp loyed Un it s »( EU 's ) , t o c orrec t ly i d en t if y t he a c t ion emp loyed ( f rom al i s t o f1 6 p oss ib i l it ies ) a nd t od e term ine t he ma ter ia l w orked o n t he t we lve -par t s ca le o fT ab le 1 . «Unknown »w as n ot c ons idered a c or rec t a nswer i n t hese t e st s . T he r esu l ts o ft hese t e st s a re r epor ted i n T ab le 4 . T he a verag e a na lys is a nd r e cord ing t ime ( f or a n umer ica l c od ing o fe i ght v ar iab les ) w as 7 . 7 m inu tes ( s d =3 . 4 ) , w i th s l ight ly l e s s t ime r equ ired f o r r e tou ched e dges ( average =6 . 5 , s d =3 . 8 ) . I n b l ind t e s ts # 3 -6 , t he a rt ef a c ts w ere m ixed a nd s c reened w ith ab u cket o f mo is t s andy s i l t t o s imu la te t he e f ec ts o fs o i l a bras ion a nd a r chaeo log ica l r ecovery t e chn iques . T he o n ly measurab le e f ec t s o ft h is p rac t ice w ere t o d ecrease t he f r equency w i th wh ich u nworn o r i n c identa l ly -damaged p ar ts o f t he a r tefa cts w ere i dent if ied a s u sed a nd t o s l igh t ly , b u t n o t s i gn if i can t ly , d im in ish a ccu racy i n t he l o ca t ion o fw orn p ar t s o ft he t o o l . T he f o rmer w as p robab ly d ue t o my a wareness o fs c reen ing a s ap oss ib le w ear v ec tor . T he l a t ter was l i ke ly a r esu lt o ft he a c tua l l o ss o fm in ima l ly -damaged marg ins o f emp loyed u n its .

6 9

L OL

. E r r j

' 71

1 4

e c q c o t o o

2

c q

0 C q

/ P R O J E C T I L E

P R E H E N S I O N

2

c q

C • 1

e 1

C "

cq

e t i

C • 1

C Y

I LZ

1 1

1 1

C q

CV

e c o

c r ›

1 1

1 1

c q

c o

t -

c o

A c t i v t i e s ( a c t i o n s a n d w o r k e d m a t e r i a l c o m b i n a t i o n s ) i n b l i n d t e s t # 1 6 .

C r ä

< c i )

i z i>

t24 c i

r I

1 1

0 E 1 C f 5 1 1

▪ r 1

L C S •

C C ; . . I

Tab le 4 : B l ind t est r esu lts ( % c orrect ) .

VAR IABLES

1

BL IND TESTS 2 3 4

5

6

MEAN

SD

LOCAT ION OF WORN POLAR -COORDINATES

1 00 .0

1 00 .0

9 6 .2

9 7 .7

9 4 .8

9 3 .9

9 7 .1

2 .4

LOCAT ION OF EU 'S

1 00 .0

9 7 .7

9 7 .1

9 7 .3

9 7 .3

9 6 .7

9 7 .7

1 . 1

ACT ION ( EU 'S )

9 3 .6

9 7 .7

8 2 .9

9 4 .7

9 1 .7

8 8 .6

9 1 .5

4 . 8

WORKED MATER IALS ( EU 'S ) RESISTANCE

8 7 .1

9 0 .5

8 8 .6

9 2 .1

9 1 .7

9 3 .4

9 0 .6

2 . 1

EXACT

8 3 .8

7 8 .5

8 8 .6

9 4 .7

9 1 .7

9 1 .8

8 8 .2

5 . 3

1 2 -PART

7 7 .4

7 6 .2

8 0 .0

8 6 .8

8 8 .9

8 3 .6

8 2 .2

4 . 7

ENT IRE WORN POLAR COORDINATES

3 2 .4

6 0 .0

6 0 .4

6 8 .9

8 4 .5

7 2 .0

6 3 .0

1 6 .0

ENT IRE EU 'S

6 1 .3

7 6 .2

6 8 .6

8 4 .2

8 6 .1

8 0 .3

7 6 .1

8 . 7

ENT IRE ART IFACTS

1 7 .7

5 2 .6

5 5 .0

7 7 .8

7 8 .3

7 1 .1

5 8 .8

2 1 .0

I n t est # 3 e qua l n umbers o ft o o ls w ere u sed wh i ch w ere made o f ac oarse -g ra ined r hyo l i te ( Cas t le R ock f e ls it e f r om Marb lehead , Massachuset t s ) a nd a f i ne -g ra ined c her t f r om n or thern B e l ize ( Sand H i l l C her t f r om t he L owe R anch ) . N o s i gn if i cant d if erence w as o bserved i n t he d i s tr ibu t ion o fe r rors b e tween t hese ma ter ia ls ( Tab le 5 ) . I n b l ind t e s t # 5 e qua l n umbers o f t o o ls o f S and H i l l c her t a nd B randon F l int f r om E ng land w ere u sed . A lthough t he a u thor /ana lys t h ad n o u sed r ef erences o fB randon F l int a t t he t ime , a ga in n o s i gn if ican t d if erence w as n o ted i n t he d i str ibu t ion o fe rror b etween t hese t wo mater ia ls ( Tab le 6 ) . Wh i le K ee ley ( 1980 :1 68 ) u rges c au t ion f o r t he a pp l icab i l ity o f m icrowear a cross d i f f erent l i th ic r aw ma ter ia ls , f r om t hese r esu lt s i ti s p oss ib le t o s uppor t t he i n it ia l o pt im ism o f T r ingham e t a l . ( 1974 :1 75 ) a nd Ode l l ( 1981 :1 98 ) c oncern ing t he a pp l icab i l ity o f t he e dge -damage a pproach t o a l l b r it t le i s o trop ic m icrocrysta l l ine r ocks .

A t ac ursory g lance s ome r e touch c an b e m istaken f o r u se -wear ( and v i ce v er sa ) . B l ind t e st # 6 c onta ined al a rge p ropor t ion o fe mp loyed u n i ts wh ich h ad b een r e tou ched b ef ore u se . T he d i s tr ibu t ion o f e r ror b e tween mod if ied a nd u nmod if ied EU 's was n ot p ronounced ( Tab le 7 ) . I n f a c t , more e r rors o c cu rred o n u nmod if ied e dg es , w h ich a re more s u scep t ib le t om icrof ra c tu re t han e dg es b u t tressed b yr e tou ch . T he r eso lu t ion o fi nd iv idua l w orked ma ter ia ls o n t he t we lve -par t s ca le i sr epor ted i n T ab le 8 . Two p roper t ies a re k ey i n t he c l ass if i ca t ion o f w orked ma ter ia ls emp loyed h ere , r es istance ( s of t /med ium /hard ) , w h i ch c orresponds r ough ly w ith d ens i ty , a nd e xact ma ter ia ls ( an ima l /vege ta l / inorgan ic ) , wh ich r ef lects v ar iat ion i n t he mo lecu lar c ompos i t ion o ft he w orked ma ter ia ls . T he « low p ower »a pproa ch w as l eas t s u c cessfu l i n t he i d ent if i ca t ion o ft he l e as t r es istant SOFT AN I MAL a nd SOFT VEGTAL c a tegor ies . T he h igh e rror r a te f o r HARD VEGETAL i s ma in ly d ue t o m is ident if ica t ion o f t he

7 1

mater ia l a s MEDIU M -HARD -VEGETAL . I f a l l w oods were c lass if ied t ogether , af ar h igher a ccuracy r a te w ou ld p reva i l .

T ab le 5 : E rrors i nterpret ing w ear o n r hyo l ite a nd c hert f r om b l ind t es t # 3 .

VARIABLES

LOCAT ION OF WORN POLAR -COORD INATES LOCAT ION OF EU 'S ACT ION ( EU 'S ) WORKED MATERIAL ( EU 'S ) : RESISTANCE 3 -PART EXACT 1 2 -PART

TOTAL

T ab le 6 :

CHERT

TOTAL

1 1 5

1

1 1 6

2 2 3

2 2 4

4 4 7

RHYOLITE

1 4

9

2 3

E rrors i nterpret ing w ear o n S and H i l l c her t a nd B randon f l int f r om b l ind t es t # 5 .

VAR IABLES

CHERT

FL INT

1

3 1 3 3 3 4

LOCAT ION OF WORN POLAR -COORD INATES LOCAT ION OF EU 'S ACT ION ( EU 'S ) WORKED MATER IAL: RES ISTANCE 3 -PART EXACT 1 2 -PART EXACT

2

2 1 1

1 2 2

2 1 2

TOTAL

8

9

7 2

TOTAL

1 7

Tab le 7 : E rrors i nterpret ing wear o n r etouched EU 's f ro m b l ind t est # 6 .

VAR IABLES

LOCAT ION OF EU 'S ACT ION WORKED MATERIALS RESISTANCE 3 -PART EXACT 1 2 -PART EXACT

TOTAL

MOD IFIED

UNMOD IF IED

TOTAL

2

2 5

2 7 4 5

2

4 5 8

1 0

2 4

4

2 8

T ab le 8 : A ccuracy r a tes f o r t he i nterpre tat ion o f s pec if ic w orked ma ter ia ls o n t he t we lve -par t s ca le f r om b l ind t e s ts # 1 -6 .

WORKED MATER IAL

1 . 2 . 3 . 4 . 5 . 6 . 7 . 8 . 9 . 1 0 . 1 . 1 2 .

SOFT AN IMAL MEDIUM ANIMAL HARD ANIMAL SOFT VEGETAL MED IUM SOFT VEGETAL MED IUM HARD VEGETAL HARD VEGETAL MEDIUM I NORGAN IC HARD I NORGAN IC PROJECT ILE HAND HAFT

TOTAL

NO . EU 'S

1 4 2 0

NO . CORRECT EU 'S

% CORRECT

9

1 9

6 4 .3 7 5 .0 7 3 .1 5 7 .1 7 5 .0 7 1 .4 6 4 .7 1 00 .0 1 00 .0 1 00 .0 1 00 .0 9 5 .0

2 02

8 3 .1

1 5 1 9 8

2 6 1 4 2 0 1 4

1 5 1 0 1 2 6 2 8 8

1 7 2 6 2 8 8 2 0

2 43

Wha t d oes t h is mean? S ince t he t e s ts w ere c ondu c ted b ef ore a nd a f ter a r chaeo l og ica l a na lyses , t he a ccuracy o f t he a r chaeo log ica l a na lyses c an b e d i rec t ly i nf erred f r om t he b l ind t e st r esu lts . U s ing t h is l i ne o f r eason ing a nd t he 9 5 .45% c onf idence i n terva l ( two s tandard d ev ia t ions ) , o n ag iven a r chaeo log ica l a na lys is b etween 9 3 -100% o f t he w orn p o lar -coord ina tes a nd emp loyed u n its w i l l b e l o ca ted . A ct ion w i l l b e i n terpret ed c orrec t ly o n 8 5 -95% o ft he EU 's . Worked ma ter ia l o n t he t we lve -par t s ca le w i l l b e c orrec t ly i dent if ied o n 7 0 -90% o ft hese EU 's . T he e f ect s o fm inor s o i l a bras ion , r aw ma ter ia l v ar ia t ion ( a t l eas t w i th in t he m icro -crysta l l ine s i l ica tes ) a nd e dge r e tou ch u pon t he a ccuracy o ft hese a ssessmen ts s hou ld n o t b e e xpec ted t o e x ceed t he e f ec ts o f c hance e rror a l one .

7 3

APPL ICAT ION: THE MOUSTERIAN OF KEBARA CAVE L i th i c a r tef ac t s f r om t he 1 982 -4 e x cava t ions o ft he M idd le P a leo l i th ic o c cupa t ions ( Un it s I X -X I I ) o fK ebara C ave , Moun t C arme l , I s rae l w ere u nder taken b etween b l ind t e st s # 5 -6 . R enewed e xcava t ions a t t h is l o ca l ity b y aj o int F rench Israe l i r esea r ch t eam h ave r e covered a bundant t races o f h ear ths , f o od w as te , a nd l i th ic a r tef ac t s , a s w e l l a s t he s ke le ta l r ema ins o fo ne a du l t a nd f our i nf ant s o fN eander tha l /ar cha ic H omo s ap i ens i n s ed imen t sd a t ing b yt hermo lum inescence t o4 7 ,000 -56 ,000 ±3 000 BP ( Bar -Y osef e ta l . 1 985 , V a l ladas , p ersona l c ommun ica t ion 1 986 ) . F l in t w a s p rocured b y t he h om in ids o c cupy ing K ebara C ave f r om o u t crops a l ong t he Mount C arme l r i dge . I n t he c ave i t se lf , n odu les w ere r edu ced b y p er cuss ion , p rodu c ing a r a ther l im ited r ange o fL eva l lo iso -Mous ter ian c ores , f l akes , b lades a nd p o ints . T he c ompos i t ion o ft he K ebara Mou ster ian s amp le ( f ig . 1 )i nd ica tes t ha t o ver 5 000 a r tefa ct s c on ta in 5 42 u sed t o o ls a nd 6 98 EU 's . O n ly av ery s ma l l p ropor t ion o ft he u t i l ized a ssemb lage i s a ctua l ly mod if ied . T he a c t ions r epresented a re c h ief ly c u t t ing , s c rap ing a nd u se a s h af ted p ro ject i le a rma tures . Worked ma ter ia ls w ere ma in ly f r esh w oods ( MED IUM VEGETAL ) a nd t he p rocess ing o fe d ib le a n ima l t i ssue ( S OF Ta nd MED IUM AN I MAL ) ( f ig . 2 ) . F ew t races o f s k in -scrap ing w ere d e tec ted . P ro jec t i le f unct ions w ere p erf ormed w ith h af ted t r iangu lar f l akes /Leva l lo is p o ints . I n t he c ho ice o fa rt ef ac t sf o r p ar t icu lar f unc t ions , t he K eba ra Moust er ians h ad l i t t le r egard f o r t he i n teg r ity o fB ordes ian morpho log ica l t ypo logy . T he e nt ire r ange o fa c t ions a nd w orked ma ter ia ls o ccurs o n e ach B ordes ian t ype , a lbe i t i n v ary ing f r equenc ies . G ross t oo l s hape , whe ther i t w as a c o re , f l ake , b lade o r p o int , s eemed t oh ave a g rea ter d e term ina te v a lue ( f ig . 3 ) . T he moda l p a t tern o fu se f o r p o in ts w as a s h af t ed p ro jec t i le a rma tures a nd /or b u t chery t oo ls . F or b lades , c u t t ing /saw ing w as t he mos t f r equent a ct ion . F lakes , p robab ly o w ing t o t he ir v ar ied e dge c onf igura t ion , w ere u sed t o s c rape a nd t o c u t i n a bou t e qua l p ropor t ions . C ores a nds c o re tr imm ing f l akes w ere r a re ly u sed . Where more t han o ne e mp loyed u n it o c curs o n at o o l ( e x c lud ing p ro jec t i le a nd p rehens i le t r a ces ) t he w orked ma ter ia l i su sua l ly t he s ame f o rb o th . T he L eva l lo is c omponent o ft he K ebara Mous ter ian e n joyed a s i ngu lar ly h igh r at e o f u se ( number o f EU 's /number o f a r tefac ts ) , t hree t imes t ha t f o r t he a verage o f t he a ssemb lag e ( f ig . 4 ) . A l though t hey w ere n o t t he ma jor ity c omponent o fa ny a c t iv i ty o ther t han p ro ject i le p o ints a nd h af t ing , most L eva l lo is a r tefacts w ere i nvo lved i n t he p rocess ing o fa n ima l t i ssues . A lthough t he L eva l lo is a r tef act s w ere a l so more f r equen t ly h af t ed t han n on -Leva l lo is a r t ef ac t s , t hey w ere n o t more f r equen t ly r e touched . R etou ch o r e dg e mod if i ca t ion i nt he K ebara Mous ter ian s eem t oh ave s e rved s evera l p urposes , t o s tab i l ize e dges f o r u se a ga inst ma ter ia ls w h ich i ndu ce r ap id d u l l ing , s u ch a s b one , s k in o r h ard w oods a nd t o b lunt o r r e -shape t he e dge o f at oo l f o r p rehens ion o r h af t ing . Many r e tou ched e dges a re u nused a nd l i e o ppos ite f r om a nd a d ja cent t o u se w orn a reas o ft oo ls . E dge -re touch f l akes b ear ing u se -wear o n t he ir s t r ik ing p la tf orms , t he a rchaeo log ica l «s i gna ture »o ft o o l c ura t ion b y r e tou ch , a re c ur ious ly a bsen t . On ly 3 o ft he 3 000 e dge -ret ouch f l akes b ea r u se -t ra ces . T oo l c ura t ion b y t he K ebara Mous ter ians s eems t o h ave f o l lowed a s t ra tegy o f e x tens ive u se ( l oad ing more EU 's o nto t he s ame a r tef a ct ) r a ther t han i n tens ive u se ( r e -sharpen ing a u se -du l led e dge ) .

7 4

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7 6

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W o r k e d m a t e r i a l s ( E U ' s ) i n t h e K e b a r M o u s t e r i a n a s e m b l a g e s .

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p . , 1 44 a s

C lear ly , much f u r ther e xcava t ion a nd a na lys is o fo ther l i nes o fe v idence must b e d one b ef ore t he e co log ica l c ontex t f o r t oo l u se b y t he K eba ra Mous ter ians c an b e more t horough ly f l eshed o u t . H owever , b y t he u se o fa ccuracy e s t ima tes f r om b l ind t e st s , t he p rec is ion o f t hese f unc t iona l r econs truct ions c an b e a ssessed f r om k nown c onf idence i n terva ls .

CONCLUS ION T he ma jor p rob lem f ac ing u se -wear a na lys is t oday i s methodo log ica l . T he a na lyt ica l g oa ls o f t he f i e ld h ave b een u nnecessar i ly c ons tra ined b y t he t e chn iques e mp loyed b y t he ma jor ity o f a na lys ts . A s ar esu lt , t he a na lys is o f a nthropo log ica l ly r e levant s amp les o f a r chaeo log ica l ma ter ia ls , e n t ire a ssemb lages , i s n ot r ou t ine ly p oss ib le . T h is s i tua t ion h as o c curred b ecause o f am ispercept ion t ha t m icrowear h as a n e xc lus ive f r anch ise o n t he r eso lu t ion o fp reh is tor ic s t one t oo l u se a nd t ha t n o p rac t i ca l a l terna t ive e x is ts . T he r esu l ts o f i nd iv idua ls ' u se o f d if erent u se -wear a pproaches h ave b een e x tended w ithou tj ust if ica t ion t ot he p erf ormance o fa l l i nd iv idua ls u s ing t he ir r espec t ive t e chn iques . T h is h as c r ea ted a n i lus ion o fc er ta inty a bou t m icrowear s tud ies among i t s p rac t it ioners , o ne wh i ch i s n ot s hared b y t he b roader f i e ld o f a rchaeo logy . T he o n ly m eans b y wh ich t o j udge t he a ccura cy o f f unc t iona l r e cons truc t ions d er ived f r om u se w ear a na lys is i sb y r epea ted b l ind t e sts emp loy ing t he s ame r ange o f a c t iv i t ies a nd c ond it ions t ha t a re r ecogn ized a r chaeo log ica l ly . T h is p aper h as d ocumented t he p erf ormance o f o ne a na lys t u s ing t he e dge d amage / « l ow -power » a pproach t o u se -wear . F rom t hese t est r esu lts , i ti s p oss ib le t o e s t ima te a ccuracy l eve ls a nd c onf idence i n terva ls f o r a rchaeo log ica l a na lyses . B y p ursu ing t he a na lys is o f who le a r chaeo log ica l a ssemb lages i t was p oss ib le t o e va luat e a spec ts o ft he e co log ica l s i gn if i cance o fs t one t oo ls t o t he K ebara Mouster ians . T he most l abor -cost ly a r tefacts , u nretouched , h af ted L eva l lo is a r tefac ts , w ere more f r equen t ly a pp l ied t o t hose a c t iv ites wh ich l i ke ly h ad t he g rea tes t e nerge t ic p ayof f , t he p rocurement a nd p rocess ing o f a n ima l t i ssues , t han w ere n on -Leva l lo is a r tefa c ts . T h is o b serva t ion c ou ld o n ly h ave b een made b y t he a na lys is o fe nt ire a ssemb lages . I f l i th ic u se -wear i s t o h ave r e levance t o p a leoanthropo logy , t hen a d if erent c hara ct er o fs amp les w i l l h ave t ob e a na lyzed a nd d if erent k inds o fq ues t ions a nswered . N ew a na ly t ica l g oa ls w i l l r equ ire n ew t e chn iques , o r a t l e as t t he j ud ic ious u se o fe x is t ing o nes . I fo ur g oa l i s t he e co log ica l c ontex t f o r t o o l u se , r equ ir ing t he a na lys is o f who le a ssemb lages , t hen t he e dge -damage / « l ow /power » a pproach i s t he most v ersa t i le o f e x is t ing t e chn iques o fE th ic u se -wear a na lys is .

ACKNO WLEDGE MENTS T h is i sc on tr ibu t ion n o . 1 1 t o t he «O r ig ins o f Modern Humans i n S ou thwes t A s ia » P ro ject . T he a uthor w ishes t o e xpress t hanks t o h is K ebara c o l leagues f o r t he ir s ugges t ions c oncern ing t h is r esear ch .

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B IBLIOGRAPHY BAR -YOSEF , ( 0 .B . ) , VANDERMEERSCH , ( B . ) , ARENSBURG , ( B . ) , GOLDBERG , ( P . ) , LAV ILLE , ( H .) , MEIGNEN , ( L .) , RAK , ( Y .) , TCHERNOV , ( E .) a nd T ILL IER , ( A .M . ) , 1 986 .— N ew Data C oncern ing t he O r ig in o f Modern Man i n t he L evant . C urr en t An thropo logy 2 7 ( 1 ) :6 3 -4 . GENDEL , ( P .) a nd P IRNAY , ( L . ) , 1 982 .— M icrowear Ana lys is o f E xper imenta l S tone T oo ls: F ur ther T es ts o fR esu lts . S tud ia P raeh is tor ica B e lg ica 2 :2 51 -66 . KEELEY , ( L . ) , 1 980 .— E xper imen ta l D e term ina t ion o f S tone T oo l U ses . Ch icago: Un ivers ity o f C h icago P ress . KEELEY , ( L . ) , NE WCO MER , ( M . ) , 1 977 .— M icrowear Ana lys is o f E xper imenta l F l int T oo ls :A T est C ase . J ourna l o fA rchaeo log ica l S c ience 4 ( 2 ) :2 9 -62 . MANSUR -FRANCHO M ME , ( E . ) , 1 983 .— S cann ing E lectron M icroscopy o f D ry H ide Work ing T oo ls : t he R o le o f Abras ives a nd Hum id ity i n M icrowear P o l ish F orma t ion . J ourna l o fA rchaeo log ica l S c ienc e 1 0 ( 3 ) :2 23 -30 . MEEKS , ( N . ) , S IEVEK ING , ( G . ) , T ITE , ( M . ) a nd COOK , ( J . ) , 1 982 .— G loss a nd U se Wear T races o n F l int S ick les a nd S im i lar P henomena . J ourna l o fA rchaeo log ica l S c ience 9( 4 ) :3 17 -340 . MOSS , ( E . ) , 1 983 .— T he Func t iona l Ana lys is o fF l in t I mp lemen ts: P inceven t a nd P o in t d 'Ambon , Two C ase S tud ies f rom t he F rench F ina l Pa leo l i thic . B .A .R . I nterna t iona l S er ies 1 77 . MOSS , ( E . ) , 1 986 .— A spects o f S ite C ompar ison: D eb itage S amp les , T echno logy a nd F unct ion . Wor ld A rchaeo logy 1 8 ( 1 ) :1 16 -133 . NE WCO MER , ( M . ) , GRACE , ( R . ) a nd UNGER -HAM ILTON , ( R . ) , 1 986 .— I nvest igat ing M icrowear P o l ishes w ith B l ind T ests . J ourna l o fA rchaeo log ica l S c ience 1 3 ( 3 ) : 2 03 -12 . ODELL , ( G . ) , 1 981 .—The Mechan ics o f U se -Breakage o f S tone T oo ls: S ome T estab le Hypotheses . J ourna lo fF ie ld A r chaeo logy 8( 2 ) :1 977 -210 . ODELL , ( G . ) a nd ODELL -VEREECKEN , ( F .) , 1 980 .— V er ify ing t he R e l iab i l ity o f L ith ic Use - Wear A ssessments b y «B l ind T es ts »:T he L ow P ower A pproa ch . J ourna l o f F ie ld A rchaeo logy 7( 1 ) :8 7 -120 . OWEN , ( L . ) , UNRATH , ( G . ) a nd VAUGHAN , ( P . ) , 1 984 .— R eg is ter o f Microwear Ana lys ts a nd T he ir R esearch . Tub ingen: A rchaeo log ia V enator ia . RABINO W ICZ , ( E . ) ,1965 .— F r ic t ion a nd Wear o f Ma ter ia ls . N ew Y ork: W i ley . SALA , ( I . ) , 1 986 .— U se - Wear a nd P ost -Depos it iona l S urface Mod if ica t ion: A Word o f Cau t ion . J ourna l o fA r chaeo log ica l S c ience 1 3 ( 3 ) :2 29 -244 . SE MENOV , ( S . ) , 1 964 .— P reh is tor ic T echno logy . L ondon: C orey Adams Mackay .

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TO MENCHUK , ( J .) , 1 985 .— A Func t iona l S tudy o fS e lec ted L evan t ine E p i -Pa leo l i th ic A ssemb lages . P h . D . t hes is , Un ivers ity o fT oronto , T oronto . TR INGHAM , ( R . ) , COOPER , ( G . ) , ODELL , ( G . ) , VOYTEK , ( B . ) a nd W H IT MAN , ( A . ) , 1 974 .— E xper imenta t ion i n t he F ormat ion o f E dge Damage: A New A pproach t o L ith ic Ana lys is . J ourna l o fF ie ld A rchaeo logy 1 ( 1 ) :1 71 -96 . VAUGHAN ,

( P .) ,

1 985 .— U se -W ear Ana lys is

Un ivers ity o f A r izona P ress .

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o f F laked S tone

T oo ls .

Tuscon :

PROCESSES OF POLISH FOR MAT ION ON FLINT TOOL SURFACE

I r ene LEV I SALA *

ABSTRACT:

R ecent e xper imen ts wh ich a ttemp t t o c ontro l t he v ar iab les i nvo lved i n p o l ish f orma t ion , s uggest t ha t t he v ar ie ty i n p o l ishes o bserved b y m icrowear a na lys ts may mere ly r ef lect p rog ress ive s tages i n t he f o rma t ion o f p o l ish , t he max imum e xpress ion o f wh ich , i s t he h eavy s heen u sua l ly r ef er red t oa s «s i ck le g l oss » .T he more u s efu l c lues t ot oo l f unct ion s eem t ob e p o l ish d i s tr ibu t ion o n t he e dge a nd o n t he m icro topography o ft he f l in t s urfa ce t oge ther wh ith . e dge morpho logy a nd e dge d amage r a ther t han t he a ppearance o ft he p o l ish i t s e lf . RRSU MR :

D e r ecen tes e xper iences d ont l eb u t e s t d e c ont rö ler l e s v ar iab les q u i i n f luencen t l af o rma t ion d es m icropo l is s uggerent q ue l a v a r iet e d e p o l is n o tee j usqu ' ic i p ar l e s t ra ceo logues p our ra it e t re s imp lemen t l ' ef f et d ' etapes p rogress ives d ans l a f orma t ion d u m icropo l i , d on t l ' express ion e x treme e st l e l ustre i n tense s ouvent n omme «l ust re d e f auc i l les » .P lu tö t q ue l ' aspec t d u m icropo l i , l e s i nd ica teurs u t i les p our r econs tru ire l a f onc t ion d ' un o u t i l s e mb len t e tre l a d i s tr ibu t ion d u m icropo l i s ur l eb ord e t s ur l a m icro topog raph ie d u s i lex , l a morpho log ie d u b ord meme e t l e s e brechures e t l ' e mousse q u i s ' yt rouven t .

I NTRODUCTION P o l ish o n f l int t o o ls h as a ssumed p r imary i mpor tance i n f unc t iona l a na lys is s i nce t he K ee ley me thod w as a dop ted ( K ee ley a nd N ewcomer 1 977 , K ee ley 1 980 ) . L i t t le h as b een d one h owever , t o i nvest iga te s ystema t ica l ly t he p rocesses i nvo lved i n t he f o rma t ion o f p o l ish o n t he s ur f ace o ff l int . I ti sn o t c l ear y et h ow a nd b y wha tp rocess ma ter ia ls wh ich c ome i n c ontact w i th f l in t a re a b le t op o l ish t he f l in t s ur face . I ti se ven l e ss e v ident f r om t he p hys ica l p roper t ies o fb one , h ide , w ood a nd mea t e t c . why t he m i cropo l ishes p rodu ced b yt he ir u se s hou ld b e d i s t inc t ive a ta l la st he u sers o ft he K ee ley me thod c l a im . N onethe less , t he m icrowear l i t era ture a bounds w i th t e rms s u ch a s «b one p o l ish » , «h ide p o l ish» , «w ood p o l ish » , a nd «mea t p o l ish » , i mp ly ing t ha t e ach o f t hese ma ter ia ls p roduces o ne d iagnos t ic p o l ish wh ich i s v ery d if erent f r om a l l t he o thers . S ome r esear chers h ave r ecen t ly n ot ed t ha tt here i sq u it e a n o ver lap b etween t he v ar iou sp o l ishes a nd t ha t t he s ame mat er ia l c an p rodu ce s evera l t ypes o fp o l ish ( Vaughan 1 981 , Unger Ham i lton 1 984 , Newcomer e t a l i t . 1 986 , L ev i S a la 1 986a , D r iske l l 1 986 ) . T he i dent if icat ion o f t he u sed mater ia l i s s omet imes made b y r e ly ing o n t he v i sua l a ppearance o f t he p o l ish a nd w ithout r esort ing t o t he e xper imenta l r ep l ica t ion o f h ypothes ised u ses . P o l ishes a re d escr ibed a s «mat t » o r «b r ight » , «g reasy » , «s moo th' ) o r «r ough » .

I n s t i tu te o fA r chaeo logy , 3 13 4 G ordon S quar e , L ondon W .C . 1H OPY , G r ea tB r i ta in .

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G ood m icrowear a na ly s t s h ave a lways r e l ied , n o t o n ly o n t he a ppearance o fp o l ish , b u t a l so o n av ar iety o f o ther c l ues t o r econs truc t t o o l u se . T hese a re t o o l a nd e dge morpho logy , e dg e a ng le , mac roscop ic e dge d amage a nd t he d i s t r ibu t ion o fp o l ish o n t he e dg e a nd o n t he m icro topog raphy o ft he f l int s u rf a ce . Unf or tuna te ly , t hey h ave n o t a lways b een e xp l ic it a bou tt he ir r e l iance o n t he s um o ft h is e v idence . T he r esu lt s o f t wo r e cent b l ind t e s ts N ewcomer e ta l i i ( 1986 ) a nd Unra th e ta l i i ( 1986 ) o ught t o h ave c ast s e r ious d oub ts o n t he me thod w h ich r e l ies ma in ly o n t he a ppearance o fp o l ishes t or e cogn ise w orked ma ter ia ls . Dur ing my i nvest iga t ion o f p rocesses w h ich c aused p os t -depos it iona l s urface mod i f ica t ion , In o ted t ha t c ontac t b etween f l int , s and a nd p ebb les p roduced a v ar ie ty o f p o l ishes , ( f ig . 1a nd 2 ) s ome s im i lar t o p o l ishes p roduced b y w ork o n h ard mat er ia ls a nd o ther s s im i lar t ot hose p roduced b ys o f ter ma ter ia ls . ( Lev i S a la 1 986 ) .

F ig . 1 : EXP /27 p o l ish a f ter t umb l ing i n s and a nd p ebb le f o r5 0h our s . x2 00 .

F ig . 2 :EXP /27 a no ther p o l ish a f t er t umb l ing a sf i g . 1 . x2 00 .

EXPER I MENTAL PROGRAM ME Af t er t hree y ears o fa pp ly ing t he K ee ley me thod t oa r te f ac t s f r om s i x t een d if eren t s i tes w i th n ega t ive r esu l ts , my r e sear ch n ow a ims a t t r y ing t ou nderstand t he p rocesses i nvo lved i n p o l ish f o rmat ion w he ther r esu lt ing f r om u se o r f r om p os t -depos it iona l c i rcumstances . T he a rgument s urround ing t he t heor ies o f p o l ish b e ing a n a dd it ive o r s ubs trac t ive p henomenon w i l l n ot b e t he f o cus o ft he r e sear ch . I f my w ork s ucceeds i n u nders tand ing t he p rocesses o f p o l ish f o rmat ion , h owever , i t may i nc iden ta l ly r eso lve t h is a rgumen t . A s t h is w ork r equ ires k now ledge i n t he ma ter ia l s c iences w h ich Il a ck , i t i sb e ing d one w ith t he c o l labora t ion a nd s uperv is ion o fD r D af ydd G r if i ths t o w hom I w ish t oe xpress a l l my g ra t itude . T h is p aper i so n ly a p re l im inary p rog ress r epor t , d escr ib ing e xper iments c arr ied o u t u nder c ontro l led l aboratory c ond it ions . T hese e xper iments d o n ot a im t o r ep l ica te h uman t asks b u t t o u nderstand p hys ica l ly wha t i sh appen ing t o t he f l int s ur face b y c ontro l l ing t he v ar iab les i nvo lved . A n O lympus V anox o pt ica l m icroscope i su sed w i th magn if ica t ions o f x5 0 -x4 00 . A lthough t here i s a t endency n ow among a f ew r esearchers t o u se s cann ing e l ec tron m icroscopes w i th h igher magn if icat ions a nd b et ter d ep th o ff i e ld , If i nd t ha t o p t ica l m icros copes a re m ore w ide ly a ccess ib le mak ing i te as ier t o c ompare r esu lts . F ur thermore , p o l ishes w ere f i rst d escr ibed a nd c haracter ised

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o p t i ca l ly . I n t h is p aper t he t e rm p o l ish i su sed t od es cr ibe a l tered a reas o ft he f l int s urf a ce ( a s o bserved o pt ica l ly a t x2 00 a f ter c l ean ing ) e xh ib it ing h igher r ef lec t iv i ty t han t ha t o f t he a d jo in ing u nused s ur face . I t i s n one the less p lanned t o v er if y t he more i mpor tant r e su l t sb yS EM .

CLEAN ING Un less o therw ise s pec if ied a l l t o o ls w ere c l eaned w i th ammon ia -f ree d e tergen t i n w arm w a ter a nd i mmersed i nd i s t i l led w a ter i na nu l tra son ic t ank . K ee ley ( 1980 p p .1 -12 ) h as p roposed t he c l ean ing o ff l int i mp lemen t s f o r m icrowear b yi mmers ion i n1 0 % HC 1 a nd NaOH 2 0 -30 % f o ru p t o3 0 m inu tes . T he l a t ter i st or emove o rgan ic r es idues f r om e xper imenta l t o o ls a nd t he f o rmer t o r emove l ime d epos i ts f r om a r chaeo log ica l o nes . H e s ub jec ted b oth h is e xper imenta l a nd a rchaeo log ica l i mp lements t o t h is t r ea tment wh ich , h e c l a ims , makes t he p o l ishes o n e xper imen ta l t o o ls r esemb le t hose o n a nc ien t t o o ls . Wh i ls t t h is c l ean ing m e thod i ss t i l l u sed b y s ome r esear chers , If o r o ne h ave a bandoned i t , a nd Iam g lad t on o te t ha t ag row ing n umber o fc o l leagues h ave h ad s econd t houghts t hough n ot a l l h ave e nt ire ly a bandoned c hem ica ls ( Unger H am i lt on 1 984 :7 8 , G race e ta l i i i np r es s , A nderson -G erf aud 1 986 :7 4 , P l isson 1 986 : 114 , Moss 1 983 :1 05 ) . Ih ave n oted t ha t t horough b u t g en t le w ash ing w ith b io log ica l ammon ia -f ree d etergent i n warm wa ter f o l lowed b y i mmers ion i n a n u l trason ic t ank , i n ap las t ic c onta iner f i l led w ith d i s t i l led wat er , r emoves o rgan ic d epos i t s f r om e xper imenta l p i eces i n mos t c ases . S ubsequent c l ean ing b y t he K ee ley p rocedure ( t r ied e xper imen ta l ly i n s evera l c ases a nd d ocumented p hotog raph ica l ly b ef ore a nd a f ter ) d id n ot a ppear t o i mprove t he a ppearance o f t he p o l ish . S od ium h ydrox ide c an p at ina te f l int a nd h ydroch lor ic a c id i s ap owerfu l c hem ica l whose e f ec t o n f l int i sn ot k nown b u t s eems t o b e s uperf luou s when t here a re n oe n crus ta t ions .

POL ISH FORMAT ION EXPER IMENTS I n t he f i rs t s er ies o fe xper imen t s Iv ar ied e a ch o ft he f a c tors c ons idered i mpor tan t i n t he a ppearance o f p o l ish a nd o ther w ear t races i n c lud ing d urat ion , p ressure , e dge a ng le , a bra s ives , w a ter a nd o ther p o l ish ing med ia . Ap lank o fd ry b i r ch was g rooved b y h and w i th f l akes r emoved f r om t he s ame c o re o f I s rae l i b rown f l int . E ach b ack a nd f o r th movement w as c oun ted a s o ne s t roke . T he e dge a ng le o ft he t oo ls w as mon i tored a nd t he a dd i t ives w ere wa ter , h ydrocarbon o i l a nd t a lcum p owder u sed i nd iv idua l ly . Observat ions w ere made a t v ar ious s tages t o d ocument , v i sua l ly a nd p ho tog raph ica l ly , u t i l isa t ion d amage a nd t he d eve lopmen t o ft he p o l ish . T he r esu lt s s ugges t t ha t t he r o le w a ter p lays i n p o l ish f o rma t ion i sp robab ly n ot s o le ly a c hem ica l o ne , s i nce v ery s im i lar r esu l t s a re o b ta ined when u s ing ah ydrocarbon o i l w h ich i sv ery d if erent c hem ica l ly f r om w a ter i n t e rms o fp o lar ity . I n f a ct , t he b as ic d if erence i nt he p o l ish p rodu ced b y 3 000 s t rokes g roov ing d ry w ood a l one o rw ith w a ter o r o i l i si n i t s d i s tr ibu t ion o n t he e dge a nd t he s peed o fi t s f o rma t ion . P o l ish f r om g roov ing d ry w ood f o rmed s l owes t . ( f ig . 3 ) . T h is i mpress ion may p a r t ly b e d ue t ot he f a ct t ha t e dg e 8 5

d amage was r emov ing t he p o l ish b ef ore i tw as w e l l d eve loped . T he p o l ish p roduced b y g roov ing b i r ch w i th a t o o l c ons tant ly w e t ted w i th w a ter w as s l ight ly more i nvas ive t han t ha t o n at o o l w et ted w i th o i l ( f ig . 4a nd 5 ) . A s t he e dge a ng les w ere s im i lar ( a round 3 5 0) a nd t he f l int w as t he s ame , p ene t ra t ion i n to t he w ood m ight b e e xpec ted t ob e c omparab le . T he i nvas iveness o fp o l ish i nt he p resence o fw a ter i st ob ef ur ther i nves t iga ted .

F ig . 4 : EXP /92 3 000 s t rokes o nb i r ch w ith w a ter . P o l ish i nva s ive . x 200 .

F ig . 3 : EXP /91 3 000 s t rokes o n d ry b i r ch . P o l ish s l ow t of o rm . x2 00 .

T he most i n terest ing p o l ish w as t he o ne p rodu ced b y g r oov ing b i rch w ith a f l ake whose e dg e w as 4 5 ° u s ing t a lcum p owder , a s as of ta bra s ive ( f ig . 6 ) . R a ther t han t he p o l ish a ppear ing f i rst o n t he h igh p o int s o ft he m icro topog raphy a nd t hen l i nk ing u p a s h ad o c cur red when g roov ing d ry b i r ch , t he i n t rodu c t ion o ft he s o f t a bras ive p rodu ced a s ur fa ce p o l ished b o th o n t he h igh p o int s a nd t he l ow p o ints o ft he m icro topog raphy . T he o vera l l a ppearance o ft he s urf a ce a f ter t he p o l ish ing w as s moo thed a nd s meared . I n a n a t temp tt o r emove a ny t a lcum p owder t ha t h ad i nvaded t he i n ters t ices o ft he f l int , t he a r tefac t w as i mmersed i n a 1 % HC 1 s o lu t ion f o r 1 0 m inu tes i n a dd it ion t o t he c l ean ing p rocedure d escr ibed a bove , b u t t he p o l ish r ema ined u nchanged . T he a ppearance o f t he p o l ish , i ns tead o fb e ing b et ter d eve loped o n t he h igh p o ints a s i su sua l w i th h ard ma ter ia ls , w a s c ons is tent w ith t ha t wh ich m ight b e e xpec ted f r om w ork ing a s o f t ma ter ia l wh ich , b y mou ld ing i t se lf b e t ter t ot he f l int m icrotopog raphy , p o l ishes t he l ow p o in ts a tt he s ame t ime a s t he h igh p o int s . T here w ere , h owever , s t r ia t ions , l i near f eatures a nd e dge d amage wh ich may b e c ons idered i nd i ca t ive o f ah ard ma ter ia l . T h is e mphas ises t he i mpor tance o f a bras ives i n p o l ish f o rma t ion a bove a nd b eyond t he h ardness o f t he mater ia l b e ing w orked .

F ig . 5 : EXP /92 ( 1 )3 000 s t rokes o nb i rch w ith o i l . S ame p o l ish a s i nf i g . 3& 4 . N o ta si nvas ive a sw i th w a ter . x2 00 . 8 6

F ig . 6 :

EXP /93 3 000 s t rokes o nb i r ch w i th t a lc . Smeared p o l ish a nd s t r ia t ions . x2 00 .

T o a scer ta in whe ther t hese s t r iat ions w ere c aused b y t he m icroch ips f r om t he e dge d amage , t he e xper iment w as r epea ted w ith ab ur in u s ing t he v entra l e dge o ft he f a ce t t o g roove . T h is t o o l 's e dg e a ng le w as 8 00 a nd n o e dge d amage w as p roduced , n or w ere t here s t r ia t ions t hough l i near f ea tures d id o ccur ( f ig . 7 ) . T h is o bserva t ion s ugges ts t ha t m i croch ips f r om e dge d amage a re t he p r in c ipa l c ause o fs t r ia t ions .

F ig . 7 : EXP /96 2 000 s t rokes o nb i r ch w ith t a lc . Smeared p o l ish , n o s t r ia t ions . x2 00 .

F ig . 8 : EXP /85 3 0 s e c . s c rap ing o n r evo lv ing t urn tab le w ith 1 / 4 j i d iamond p as te . P o l ish t o ta l ly l i nked u p . x1 00 .

Ano ther s e t o fe xper iment s w as c arr ied o u t i n w h ich t ime a nd p res sure a s w e l l a s t he p o l ish ing ma ter ia l w ere v ar ied . A 1 / 4 m icron d iamond p ast e w as u sed o n v ar ious mechan ica l p o l ishers . A t urntab le r o tat ing a t 1 50 r pm a nd c overed w ith a B ueh ler M icroc loth ( a s ynthet i c s hor t p i le v e lve t l ike c l oth ) w as c oa ted w i th t he p a s te a nd s prayed w i th h ydroca rbon o i l . E xper imenta l f l int a r tefac ts w ere p o l ished b y h o ld ing t hem a ga ins t t he t urntab le i n as c rap ing mo t ion a t a n a ng le o fa bou t 6 0 ° a t a pprox ima te ly 1 7 c ms f r om t he c ent re . A f ter 3 0 s e conds t he p o l ish w as v ery w e l l d eve loped , a nd t o ta l ly l i nked u p l i ke «s i ck le g l oss »( f ig . 8 ) . C on t inu ing t he e xper iment u p t o 2m inu tes d id n ot s e em t o a l t er t he a ppearance o ft he p o l ish .T he t u rn tab le w as u nf or tuna te ly t o of a s tt oo bserve t he e ar l ier s t ages o fp o l ish f o rma t ion . I tw as n oted ,h owever ,t ha t a )t here w as n o d i f f erence b e tween t he p o l ishes p rodu ced b y s c rap ing w ith c ons iderab le p ressure a nd w ith l e ss p ressu re ; b )t he p o l ish w as more s l eek a nd r ounded t han a r chaeo log ica l «s i ck le g l oss » ,p erhaps d ue t ot he p resence o ft he o i l ; a nd c )o nce t he a rea h ad b een p o l ished t o t he max imum t here w as l i t t le t ha t w as a dded b y i n creas ing t he d u ra t ion o fw ork . O ther t o o ls w ere u sed b y h and t os c rape t he s u rf a ce o ft he s t a t ionary t u rntab le . T he r esu lt ing p o l ish w as v ery w e l l d eve loped l i ke «s i ck le g loss » a f ter o n ly o ne m inu te ( f ig . 9 ) .

8 7

F ig . 9 :EXP /89 6 0 s e c . h and s c rap ing o n s t a t ionary t u rntab le w i th 1 / 4 µd iamond p as te . x1 00 . Due t o t he r i g id i ty o ft he s ur f ace , h owever , t he f l int a rea i nc ontac t w i th i tw as v ery l im i ted a nd c onsequent ly i n a l l c ases p o l ish f o rmed o n ly o n t he v ery p rom inent p a r t s o f t he e dge w he ther t he t urntab le w as r o ta t ing o r s t a t ionary . I tw as d ec ided t heref ore t o c hoose ad if erent means o fp o l ish ing t oo b ta in am ore i nvas ive p o l ish . Ah and -he ld e l ec tr ic motor w as f i t ted s uc ces s ive ly w i th a n y lon b rush a nd a s o f t w oo l len f e l t b uf f ing w hee l . B o th w ere c oa ted w ith 1 / 4 m icron d iamond p a st e . N o o i l w as a dded s i nce t he p a ste i si t se lf h ydrocarbon o n o i l -based . T he f l int w as h e ld i n o ne h and w h i le t he b uf ing w as d one b yt he o ther .T he r e su l ts s howed: 1 .— T ha t t he n y lon b rush d id n ot p roduce a ny p o l ish o n t he f l int i n s p ite o f t he d iamond p as te wh ich w as e ven a pp l ied o n t he f l int i t se lf . P erhaps t he n y lon b r is t les s l ide a cross t he f l in t s urf ace w i thou ts uf f i c ien tc ontac tp res sure t op o l ish i t . I th as b een t hought t hat b rush ing f l int a r tefa c ts o n s i te w i th a n y lon t o oth o rn a i l b ru sh c ou ld d amage t he p o l ish o ra dd n ew p o l ish t ot he f l int s urf a ce , w ith s ed imen t a c t ing a s a n a bras ive . A s t he d iamond p as te i s c e r ta in ly more a bras ive t han s ed iment t h is e xper iment c ou ld s ugges to therw ise . Ic onsequent ly c onduc ted a s im i lar e xper iment b rush ing ap o l ished a r tef a c tf o r t wo m inutes w ith a n y lon t o o th b rush w a ter a nd s ed iment . N e ither t he p o l ish n or t he u npo l ished f l in t s urfa ce w ere a f f e cted b y t h is b rush ing . When t here i s n o p oss ib i l ity o f p reserva t ion o fo rgan ic r e s idues , i tw ou ld t heref ore s e ems q u ite s af e t ob rush a r tef a c t s o n s i te w ith a s o f t n y lon b ru sh w ithou t f ear o fd amag ing t he p o l ish o r t he f l int s u rf ace . O n s i te c l ean ing w i th ab rush i ss ome t imes n ecessary t or emove s ed iment i n o rder t oo bserve r e tou ch . 2 .— T he s of t f e lt b uf f p rodu ced p o l ish a f ter a f ew m inu tes a nd a f ter 3 0 m inu tes b uf f ing ( f ig . 1 0 ) t he e xper imenta l b lade made f r om I s rae l i N egev f l in t w as a s mac roscop ica l ly g l ossy a sa n a r chaeo log ica l s i ck le b lade ( f ig . 1) .

8 8

F ig . 1 0 : EXP /101 3 0m in . s o f tb uf fw ith

F ig . 1 1 :A rchaeo log ica l «s i ck le

1 / 4 µd iamond p aste . P o l ish s im i lar

g loss » . x1 00 .

t o «s i ck le g l oss » . x1 00 .

T he e xper iment w as r epea ted o n as e cond b lade , t he b uf f ,b y n ow q u ite w orn o u t , was h ard r ather t han s of t . T he l i nked -up a ppearance o f t he p o l ish d eve loped much more s l ow ly ( f ig . 1 2 ) . When a n ew s of t b uf f was mounted t he p o l ish s tar ted a ga in t o l i nk u p r ap id ly ( f ig . 1 3 ) . Theref ore c ontact w ith s of t , y ie ld ing w oo l a nd h ard , u ny ie ld ing w oo l p rodu ces v ery d if erent r a tes o fp o l ish d eve lopment .

F ig . 1 2 : EXP /103 4 0 m in . w orn b uf fw ith 1 / 4 µd iamond p as te . P o l ish n ot w e l l l i nked u p . x1 00 .

F ig . 1 3 : EXP /103 P o l ish l i ke «s i ck le g loss » a f ter 7 0 m in . b uf f ing w ith 1 /4 µ d iamond p aste . x1 00 .

Once t he p o l ish h ad c o mp lete ly l i nked u p o n t he m icrotopog raphy a nd h ad b ecome macroscop ica l ly g l ossy , t here was n or ead i ly v i s ib le i n crease i nt he amount o fp o l ish . T hese t wo b lades h ave a p o l ish whose a ppearance was d escr ibed b y R omana Unger Ham i lton a s «s im i lar t o t hat p roduced b y as c raper u sed o n v ery mo is t r eed f o r av ery l ong t ime » ( Unger -Ham i lton p ers . c omm .) . H owever , n e ither o f my e xper imenta l b lades h ad c ome i n c ontac t w ith a ny e xterna l s our ce o fs i l ica , t he d iamond g r it b e ing p ure c arbon . T he h igh s i l ica c ontent o fg rasses w as t hought b y many m icrowear a na lysts t ob e t he ma in c ause f o r t he d eve lopment o ft he macroscop ic g l oss o n n eo l ith ic s i ck les ( Spurre l l 1 892 , Curwen 1 930 -1941 , W it thof t 1 967 , K amm inga 1 979 , Anderson -Ger faud 1 980 -1986 , V aughan 1 981 , e t c . ) .

8 9

I ti sn ot i ntended h ere t o a rgue t ha t a nc ient g loss w as n ot c aused b y s i l ica i n t he mater ia ls c ut ( o r t o s uggest t hat p reh istor ic p eop le w ere u s ing 1 /4 m icron d iamond p aste ! ) ,b ut r ather t o r epor t t hat t he s ame k ind o f macroscop ica l ly g l ossy p o l ish c an a l so b ep roduced b y1 / 4m icron d iamond p aste o n as of tw oo lb uf f . R egard ing t he t heory o ft he s i l ica i n f l int r each ing t he s em i -mo lten s tate o r b e ing t ransf ormed i nto amorphous s i l ica b y t he p resence o f l o ca l ised h igh t emperatures ( Anderson -Gerfaud 1 982 :1 52 -153 , W it thof t 1 967 :3 85 ) , t he f o l low ing o bserva t ions c an b e made: 1 .— I n t he e xper iments w ith d iamond p as te o n t he s i ck le l ike b lades , t he t oo ls w ere h and h e ld w ith t he f l int r est ing o n t he i ndex f i nger . S uch h igh s peed b uf ing , e ven w ith a s of tw oo l b uf f , d oes s eem t ow arm u p t he f l int . T he i ncrease i sp robab ly n o more t han af ew d egrees . Had a h igh t emperature b een r eached , e ven i n v ery l o ca l ised a reas o n t he s urface o f t he f l int , t he w oo l b uf f w ou ld p resumab ly h ave t o h ave r eached t he s ame t emperatures . T here was , h owever ,n oe v idence o fs i nge ing . 2 .— I n t he c ase o ft he w oo l b uf fu sed d ry o n t he f l int , t he s ame h ea t ing p henomenon o c curs b u tn o p o l ish d eve lops a f ter 6 0m inu tes o fw ork . Had t he t empera ture b een a c ruc ia l v ar iab le , p o l ish w ou ld h ave r esu lted . T heref ore , i ts eems u n l ike ly t ha t i ncrease i n t emperature d ur ing u se i se nough t o a l ter t he c harac ter is t ics o ft he f l int f r om ac ryptocrysta l l ine t oa n amorphous s t ruc ture . Th is i sn ot t o s ay , h owever , t hat t h is t ransf ormat ion i sn ot o ccurr ing v ia a nother mechan ism . Wa ter o r a nother l i qu id med ium , o n t he o ther h and , s eems t o b e mak ing a l l c on tact ma ter ia ls more e f ect ive i np o l ish ing f l int . T he l a st s e t o fe xper iments t ob e d escr ibed h ere c oncerns t he e f ect o f wa ter o n p o l ish f o rma t ion . Ab asket made o fr ushes w as c ut i n h a lf . Af l int b lade was u sed t o s hred o ne h a lf o f t he b asket i n to v ery s ma l l b i ts f o r 3 0 m inutes . Hard ly a ny p o l ish d eve loped o n t he t oo l ( f ig . 1 4 ) . T he o ther h a lf o ft he b asket was s oaked i n w ater o vern ight a nd t hen s hredded i n t he s ame way . Af t er 1 5 m inu tes t he p o l ish w as v ery w e l l d eve loped ( f ig . 1 5 ) a nd e ven a f t er i mmers ion i n 2 0 % NaOH t o r e move p oss ib le r es idue ( f ig . 1 6 ) , i t i s o bv ious t hat t he p resence o fw ater h ad g rea t ly e nhanced p o l ish f o rmat ion .

F ig . 1 4:

EXP /1 h ard ly a ny p o l ish f r om

F ig . 1 5 : EXP /1

3 0m in . c ut t ing d ry r ushes . x2 00 .

9 0

w e l l d eve loped p o l ish

f r om 1 5m in . c u t t ing s oaked r ushes . x2 00 .

F ig . 1 6 : EXP /1 w e l l d eve loped p o l ish f r om15 m in . c u t t ing s oaked r ushes a nd 2 0 m in . NaOH 2 0 % . x2 00 .

I n a nother e xper iment , t he t urntab le d escr ibed e ar l ier was c overed w i th a p iece o f c hamo is l ea ther . Wh i le t he t urntab le was r evo lv ing Is c raped i tw ith f l int a rtefac ts . A f ter f i ve m inu tes o n t he d ry l ea ther n o p o l ish whatsoever a ppeared o n t he f l int e dge . On w et t ing t he l eather , q u ite w e l l -deve loped p o l ish was p roduced a f ter s c rap ing f o r f i ve m inutes ( f ig . 1 7 ) .

F ig . 1 7 : EXP /67 5 m in . s c rap ing w et c hamo is i n r evo lv ing t urntab le . We l l d eve loped p o l ish . x2 00 .

I n as ubsequent e xper iment a h ard w oo l f e lt b uf f d ipped a t f r equent i nterva ls i n d i st i l led wa ter was u sed t op o l ish af l int f l ake . A f ter 3 0 m inu tes t he p o l ish was l i nk ing u p i n ar et icu lar p at tern ( f ig . 1 8 ) . F or c o mpar ison t he s ame b uf f was u sed , c overed w ith s evera l l ayers o fc hamo is l ea ther , a nd d ipped i n d is t i l led wa ter t o p o l ish a nother f l ake o f t he s ame f l int . A f ter 3 0 m inu tes t he p o l ish was v ery p oor ly d eve loped b u t a f ter 6 0 m inu tes t he s ame r et icu lar p a t tern emerged ( f ig . 1 9 ) . T here s eems t ob e n o d if erence b etween t h is p o l ish ( f ig . 1 9 ) a nd t he o ne p roduced b y t he w et w oo l b uf fo n i t s o wn ( f ig . 1 8 ) . A lthough w oo l a nd h ide a re v ery d if f erent i n t he ir s t ructure t hey a re q u ite s im i lar i n t he ir c hem ica l c o mpos it ion . O ther e xper iments w i l l t heref ore b e c arr ied o ut w ith a s ynthet ic w oo lb uf f .

9 1

F ig . 1 8:

EXP / 108 3 0m in . h ard w oo l b uf f

F ig . 1 9:

d ipped i n wa ter . P o l ish w ith r e t i c u lar p at tern . x2 00 .

EXP /109 6 0m in . h ard w oo lb uf f c overed i n c hamo is , d ipped i n water . S ame r et icu lar p o l ish p o l ish

EXPERI MENTS FOR POST DEPOSIT IONAL PROCESSES T o u nderstand t he e f ect o fp ost -depos it iona l d i sturbances o n w e l l d eve loped g l ossy p o l ishes , o ne o f t he «s i ck le »b lades d escr ibed a bove was t umb led f o r 3 6 h ours i n w et s ed iment f r om a n e xcavat ion . I n t he 8 c m d iameter p last ic d rum o ne sma l l p ebb le w as i ntroduced w ith t he b lade . T he d rum w as t umb led a ta pprox imate ly 6 0 r pm . T he t oo l was e xam ined a nd p hotog raphed ( f ig . 2 0 -21) a t s evera l i n terva ls . E dge d amage a ppeared b ut a f ter 3 6 h ours t here w ere s t i l l n o s t r iat ions . T h is s upports t he s uggest ion b y Unger Ham i lton ( 1985 ) t hat t he s t r ia t ions s he i ss tudy ing o n Near E astern s i ck les ( f ig . 2 2 ) a re mos t ly f ormed d ur ing u se r a ther t han b yp ost -depos it iona lp rocesses .

F ig . 2 0

EXP /103 «s i ck le g loss »— l i ke p o l ish f r om 7 0 m in . b uff ing w ith

F ig . 2 1 : EXP / 103 a si nf i g . 2 0 a f t er t umb l ing f or 3 4 h ours . x1 00 .

1 /4 p .d iamond p as te . x1 00 .

I n a n a t tempt t o o bserve t he e f f ects o f af l int o r p ebb le s c ratch ing p o l ished a nd u npo l ished f l int s urfaces , Imade 3 s c ra tches w i th t he e dge o fa nother f l int f l ake , t wo d ry a nd o ne w ith water . Observ ing t he r esu lt ing t races m icroscop ica l ly b ef ore a nd a f ter t umb l ing In oted:

9 2

F ig . 2 2 :A rchaeo log ica l «s i ck le g loss »

F ig . 2 3 : EXP /103 d ry s c ra tch f l int o n f l int l i ke as mear . x1 00 .

w ith s t r ia t ions . x1 00 .

1 .— W ithout e xer t ing a g reat d ea l o fp ressure o r w ithou t t he a dd it ion o fw a ter , i ti s d i ff i cu lt t o s c ra tch u npo l ished f l int w ith a nother f l int . T he t races wh ich w ere l e f t , i fa ny , w ere smears ( f ig . 2 3 ) w h ich w ere r emoved d ur ing t umb l ing . When p ressure was b rought t ob ear i n t he p resence o f wa ter , t he u npo l ished p art o ft he b lade was g rooved ( f ig . 2 4 ) a nd t he e dges o ft he g rooves ,b e ing r a ised , w ere p o l ished d ur ing t umb l ing ( f ig . 2 5 ) .

F ig . 2 4:

EXP /103 s c ra t ch f l int o n f l int w ith

F ig . 2 5:

w a ter :g roove o n t he l ef t . x1 00 .

EXP /103 a s i nf i g . 2 4 . T umb l ing h as p o l ished e dges o fg roove . x1 00 .

2 .— On t he h igh ly p o l ished f l int t he d ry s c ra tch w as e as i ly f o rmed a s i ft he s urface h ad b ecome more b r it t le ( f ig . 2 6 ) . Dur ing t umb l ing

t he s c ra tch b ecame w ider ( f ig . 2 7 )

a nd more u npo l ished f l int was r evea led . F igures 2 6 /27 /28 s uggest t hat t he p o l ished a rea s eems t oh ave a v ery t h in , d i screte s ur face l ayer t ha t i sb r it t le a nd may b e d etached f r om t he u nder ly ing f l int b ys c rat ch ing a nd /or c ontac tw ith s and a nd g rave l .

9 3

F ig . 2 6 : EXP / 103 d ry s c ra t ch f l in t o n p o l ished f l int . B r it t le s ur fa ce? x1 00 .

F ig . 2 7 : EXP / 103 s c ra t ch a s i nf i g . 2 6 w idened b y 3 6 h ours t umb l ing . x1 00 .

3 .— W ith w a ter i tw as s l ight ly e as ier t os c ra t ch b o th t he u npo l ished a nd t he p o l ished f l in t . O n t he l a t ter t he s t r ia t ion made w ith w a ter h ad n eater e dges a nd o n o ne o rt wo a rea s i t s eemed t o h ave l e f t ad epress ion ( f ig . 2 9 ) w i thou t b reak ing t he p o l ish . F ur ther i nves t igat ion i so fc ourse n eeded t ou nders tand w hy , i nt he p resence o fw a ter , t he p o l ished s urf ace s eems l e ss v u lnerab le t o mechan ica l a t tack . Many a rchaeo log ists a nd u se -wear a na lys ts h ave n oted e mp ir ica l ly t ha t «s i ck le b lades » s urv ive w ith t he ir g l oss a lmos t i n tac t i n many s i tes where a l l t he o ther p i eces a re e i ther p a t ina ted o r h ave o ther h eavy s urfa ce mod if ica t ions . I tw as t heref ore a t f i r s t s urpr is ing t ha t t h is g l ossy p o l ish wh ich s eems t o p rotect t he f l int s urface d ur ing b ur ia l c ou ld b e b r it t le . H owever , ap oss ib le e xp lana t ion s eems t ob e t ha tw h i le v ery w e l l d eve loped p o l ish c an b e e xpec ted t os h ie ld t he f l int f r om c hem ica l a t ta ck a nd w as n ot a f ec ted b y 3 6 h ou rs o f movement i nt he s ed imen t , i ti sv u lnerab le t os c ra t ch ing b ya sh ard ama ter ia l a sf l in t .

F ig . 2 8 :EXP / 103 d ry s c ra t ch f l int o n p o l ished f l int a f ter t umb l ing . T h in l ayer e as i ly d etached . x1 00 .

F ig . 2 9 : EXP / 103 s c ra t ch f l in t o n p o l ished f l int w i th w at er : d epress ion . x1 00 .

T he h ardness a nd s of tness o f mater ia ls i s o n ly i mpor tant i n a s much a s o ne s c ra t ches o ne ma ter ia l b y a no ther . P o l ish ing may b e a l so d ue t o o ther mechan isms a nd t ha ti s why as o f t ma ter ia lc an p o l ish ah arder ma ter ia lg i ven s uf f i c ien tt ime o fc on ta c t .

9 4

D ISCUSS ION AND CONCLUSIONS T hese e xper iment s s e em t op o int t ot he i mpor tance o fw a ter d ur ing t he f o rma t ion o f p o l ish . F ur ther e xper iments a re p lanned w i th av ar ie ty o fo ther l i qu ids t o s tudy w he ther t he p resence o fw a ter p er s e i sw ha tp romot es p o l ish f o rma t ion o rw hether i ti st he p resen ce o f al i qu id , w ha tever i t s c ompos i t ion , t ha t i st he i mpor tant f a ctor . We may r e ca l l t ha tt he w ood g roov ing e xper imen ts d escr ibed e ar l ier s howed t ha t i n t he p resence o fw a ter a nd o i l t he a ppearance o ft he p o l ish w as t he s ame , t hough t he p o l ish p rodu ced w i th w a ter w as more i nvas ive . A no ther i mpor tant r esu lt i s t ha t w hen a s of t mater ia l s uch a s w et c hamo is i s mounted o n ah ard b uf fo r ah ard t urntab le t he s peed o fp o l ish f o rma t ion i s more s im i lar t ou se o n h ard a nd u ny ie ld ing ma ter ia ls t han t ou se o n s of t ma ter ia ls . C onsequent ly , i f i n p reh is tor ic t imes d eha ired h ide w as b e ing s c raped r es t ing o n a n u ny ie ld ing s urfa ce s u ch a s ab ou lder ,t he r e su l t ing p o l ish w ou ld , mos tp robab ly ,b e r e s t r ic ted t ot he e dge o ft he t oo l . I n t he e ar ly s tages o f w ork p o l ish w ou ld a l so f o rm o n t he h igh p o ints o f t he m icro topog raphy a nd l i nk u p more g radua l ly t han i fh ide w ere s c raped o n af r ame . T hese p re l im inary e xper iments s eem t o i nd ica te t ha t t here i sn o p o l ish wh ich i s e xc lus ive ly p rodu ced b y o ne ma ter ia l a l one . T he d i f f erent p o l ish a ppearances wh ich m icrowear a na lys ts h ave o bserved s o f a r a re mos t p robab ly d ue t o d if er ing s t ages i n t he d eve lopmen to ft he p o l ish o n t he m icro topography a nd av ary ing d i s tr ibu t ion o n t he e dges . T he e xper iments d escr ibed e ar l ier i nd icate t ha t p o l ish f o rma t ion i s ap rogress ive p rocess . I n i t ia l ly , t he t r aces a ppear a s ag ener ic b r ightness r a ther t han ap o l ish w i thou t o bservab le l o ca l isa t ion o n t he m icrotopog raphy . T h is a ppears r egard less o ft he h ardness o ft he ma ter ia l( f ig . 3 0 a nd 3 1) .

F ig . 3 0 : EXP /91 e ar ly s t ag e o fp o l ish g roov ing w ood . x2 00 .

F ig . 3 1 : EXP / 18 e ar ly s t age o fp o l ish c u t t ing mea t . x2 00 .

When u s ing h ard ma ter ia ls o r s of t ma ter ia ls o n ah ard b ack ing , t he h igh p o int s i n t he m icro topog raphy a re p o l ished f i rs t . T he l a ter s t ages c ons is t o f amore o r l e ss g radua l l i nk ing u p o f t he p o l ish d epend ing o n t he amount o f l i qu id /water p resent . W ith s of t ma ter ia ls o rh ard ma ter ia ls i n t he p resence o f as o f t a bras ive , t he p o l ish d eve lops e ven ly o ver t he h igh a nd l ow p o in ts o ft he m icro topog raphy . Ag roup o fm icrowear a na lys t s i n o ur I ns t itu te h ave o bserved t hese s t ages i n p o l ish f o rma t ion a nd d escr ibed t hem i n af o rthcom ing p aper ( Gra ce e t a l i i . i n p rep . ) . My e xper iments h ave a l so s hown t ha t t h is g radua l p rocess t akes p lace . T hese e xper iments s ugges t ,h owever , t ha ti nt he e ar ly s t ag es t he p rocess i si ndependent o ft he h ardness o ft he 9 5

mater ia l u sed . I n t he l a ter s tages o f p o l ish d eve lopment mater ia l h ardness af ects t he d i str ibut ion o f t he p o l ish o n t he m icrotopog raphy wh i le a bras ives , l i qu ids a nd b ack ing c an a l ter i t s s peeds o fd eve lopment a nd i t s i nvas iveness . T he t asks p er f ormed g overn t he d i s tr ibut ion o ft he p o l ish a l ong t he e dge , b y d eterm in ing t he e x tent o fc ontact , p enetra t ion a nd i n teract ion b etween t he f l int e dge a nd t he u sed ma ter ia l . T h is may s eem t ob e ap ess im ist ic r eport o n t he d i s t inc t iveness o fp o l ishes b u ti td oes n ot a im t o d iscourage m icrowear a na lys is . Wh i le i t may n o l onger b e a dv isab le t o e xam ine af l int t oo l u nder t he m icroscope a nd p rompt ly i dent ify t he ma ter ia l i t was u sed o n , much c an s t i l l b e l earned , when p o l ish s urv ives , f r om a na lys is b ased o n p o l ish d istr ibut ion c arefu l ly b acked b y e xper imenta l r ep l icat ion t ogether w ith o bserva t ion o f macroscop ic e dge d amage , e dge p rof i le a nd morpho logy .

B IBLIOGRAPHY ANDERSON , ( P .C ) , 1 980 .— A T est imony o f P reh istor ic T asks: D iagnost ic R es idues o n S tone T oo l Work ing E dges . Wor ld A r chaeo logy V o l1 2N .2 :1 81-194 . ANDERSON -GERFAUD , ( P . ) , 1 981 .— C on tr ibu t ion Mg thodo log ique ä l ' Ana lyse d es Micro traces d 'U t i l isa t ion s ur l e s Un ivers it6 d eB ordeaux I ,T a lence .

Out i ls P rgh is tor iques . Th se d e 3e c yc le ,

ANDERSON -GERFAUD , ( P .) , 1 982 .— C omment p räc iser l ' u t i l isa t ion a g r ico le d es o ut i ls p rdh is tor iques ?C ah iers d el 'Euphra te N .3 :1 49 -164 . ANDERSON -GERFAUD , ( P .) , 1 986 .— A F ew C omments C oncern ing R es idue Ana lys is o f S tone P lant -Process ing T oo ls . Ear ly Man N ews 9 / 10 /11 Owen L .R . a nd Unra th G . ( eds ) :6 9 -81 . CUR WEN , ( E .C ) , 1 930 .— P reh istor ic f l int s i ck les . An t iqu i ty 4:1 79 -86 . CUR WEN , ( E .C ) , 1 935 .— Agr icu lture a nd t he f l int s i ck les i n P a lest ine . An t iqu i ty , 9 : 6 2 -66 . CUR WEN , ( E .C ) , 1 941 .— S ome f ood -gather ing i mp lements: S tudy i n Meso l ith ic t rad it ion . An t iqu i ty 1 5 :3 20 -37 . DR ISKELL , ( B .N ) , 1 986 .— The c h ipped s tone t oo l p roduct ion /use c yc le . B .A .R . I n terna t iona lS er ies N . 3 05 . GRACE , ( R . ) , ATA MAN , ( K . ) , FABREGAS , ( R .) , HAGGREN , C .M .B . ( i n p ress ) A mu l t i -var iate a pproach t ot he f unc t iona l a na lys is o ff l int t oo ls . KAM M INGA , ( J . ) , 1 979 .— T he Nature o f U se -Po l ish a nd Abras ive Smooth ing o n S tone t oo ls , i n B . Hayden e d . , L i th ic U se -W ear Ana lys is A cadem ic P ress , New Y ork: 1 43 -158 . KEELEY , ( L .H . ) , 1 980 .— E xper imen ta l D e term ina t ion o fS tone T oo l U ses :A Microwear Ana lys is , C h icago P ress .

9 6

KEELEY ,

( L .H .) ,

a nd

NE WCO MER ,

( M .H .) ,

1 977 .—

M icrowear

Ana lys is

o f

E xper imenta l F l in t T oo ls: A T est C ase . J ourna l o fA rchaeo log ica l S c ience , 4 : 2 9 6 2 . LEV I SALA , ( I .) , 1 986 .— E xper imenta l R ep l icat ion o f P ost -Depos it iona l S urface Mod if i ca t ions o n F l int . Ear ly Man N ews 9 / 10 /11 Owen L .R . a nd Unra th G . ( eds ) : 1 03 -108 . LEVI SALA , ( I . ) , 1 986a .— Use Wear a nd P ost -Depos it iona l S urface Mod if icat ion :A Word o fC au t ion .J ourna lo fA r chaeo log ica lS c ience V o l . 1 3 N .3 :2 29 -244 . MOSS , ( E .H . ) , 1 983 .— T he Func t iona l Ana lys is o f F l in t

Imp lemen ts . P inceven t a nd

P on t d 'Ambon :t wo c ase s tud ies f rom t he F rench F ina l P a laeo l i th ic . Oxf ord , B . A . R . , I nterna t iona l S er ies 1 77 . NE WCO MER , (M . ) , GRACE , ( R . ) , a nd UNGER -HAM ILTON , ( R . ) , 1 986 .— I nves t igat ing M icrowear P o l ishes w ith B l ind T ests . J ourna l o fA rchaeo log ica l S c ience V o l 1 3 No . 3 :2 03 -217 . PL ISSON ,

( H .) , 1 986 .— A lterat ion d es m icropo l is d 'usage : q ue lques e xper iences

c o mp lementa ires . Ear ly Man N ews 9 / 10 /11 Owen L .R . a nd Unra th G . ( eds ) :1 111 16 . S PURRELL , ( F . ) , 1 982 .—« Notes o nE ar ly S ick les » .A rchaeo log ica lJ ourna l4 9 :5 3 -68 . UNGER -HAM ILTON , ( R .) , 1 984 .— Me thod i n M icrowear Ana lys is: S ick les a nd o ther T oo ls f rom Ar joune , S yr ia . P hD Thes is , Un ivers ity o f L ondon , I nst itute o f A rchaeo logy . UNGER -HAM ILTON , ( R .) , 1 985 .— M icroscop ic S tr iat ions o n f l int s i ck le -b lades a s a n i nd ica t ion

o f p lant c u lt ivat ion :P re l im inary r esu lts . Wor ld A rchaeo logy . V o l . 1 7

No 1:1 21 -126 . UNRATH , ( G .) , OWEN , ( L .R . ) , VAN G IJN , ( A . ) , MOSS , ( E .H . ) , PL ISSON , ( H . ) , a nd VAUGHAN , ( P . ) , 1 986 .— An E va luat ion o f M icrowear S tud ies: A Mu lt i -Ana lyst A pproach . Ear ly Man News 9 / 10 / 11 Owen L .R . a nd Unra th G . ( Eds )1 03 -108 . VAUGHAN ,

( P .) ,

1 981 .— L i th ic Microwear E xper imen ta t ion a nd t he Func t iona l

Ana lys is o f aL ower Magda lan ian S tone T oo l A ssemb lag e . P h . D . d i sser tat ion , Un ivers ity o fP ennsy lvan ia . VAUGHAN , ( P . ) , 1 983 .— L a F onct ion d es Ou t i ls P reh is tor iques La R echerche N . 1 48 o c t . 1 983 :1 226 -1234 . WITTHOFT , ( J . ) , 1 967 .— G lazed P o l ish o n F l int T oo ls . Amer ican An t iqu i ty , 3 2 ( 3 ) :3 83 3 88 .

9 7

EFFECTS OF LOADING RATE ON THE RELIABILITY OF THE ENGINEERING USE - WEAR MODELS

J ohn TO MENCHUK*

ABSTRACT:

Many e ng ineer ing s t ud ies i nd ica te t ha t t he f r a c ture a nd e l as t ic p roper t ies o f ama ter ia l a re a f ec ted b yt he l o ad ing r a te . I ta ppear s t ha tt he l oad ing -ra te -dependen te rror i n t he e s t ima t ion o ft he magn itude o ft he a pp l ied f o rce a nd o ft he t ask ma t er ia l h ardness i si nverse ly p ropor t iona l t o t he h ardness o ft he t ask o r t a rget ma ter ia l . F or tuna te ly , as imp le p rocedure e x is ts b y wh ich o ne c an i den t ify t hose c h ipped s t one t oo ls t ha t w ere u sed u nder o ther t han q uas i s ta t ic l oad ing r a te c ond it ions . T o e nsure a ga ins t i nterpre t ive e rror , s u ch t oo ls mus tb e e x c luded f r om p arametr ic u se w ear a na lyses . RESU ME :

P lus ieurs r echer ches e n l og is t ique i ndus tr ie l le i nd iquent q ue l a f ra cture e t l a p ropr iete e l as t ique d u ma ter ie l s ' on t a f f ec tees p ar l a v i tesse d e l ' ef f or t a pp l ique . I lp ara f t q ue l ' erreur r esu ltan t d e l ' es t ima t ion d ' intens it e d ' ef f or t e t d e l a d urete d u ma ter ie l t rava i l le s ' accro it ä l ' inverse d e l a d urete d u ma ter ie l t rava i l le o u p ene tre . H eur eusemen t , i l yau n p ro cede s imp le p a r l e que l o n d ecä le l e s o u t i ls s i l iceux q u i n ' aura ient p as e t e u t i l ises a l a v i tesse d e l ' ef ort «q uas i s t a t ique » .P our e v iter u ne e r reur d ' int erpreta t ion , i lf au t q ue c e s o u t i ls s o ien t e x c lus d e l ' ana lyse p a rame tr ique d e l at race d ' u t i l isa t ion .

I NTRODUCT ION S ets o ff i rs t -order e ng ineer ing mode ls o r e qua t ions n ow e x is t f o r t he l ong i tud ina l a nd o r thogona l c u t t ing modes ( Tomenchuk 1 983; 1 985; n .d . ) . T he p arameters e s t ima ted b yt he mode ls i n c lude t he magn i tude o ft he a pp l ied f or ce ,t he h ardn es s o ft he t a sk ma ter ia l a nd t he amoun to fw ork p er f ormed w ith t he c h ipped s t one t o o l . T he mode l u sed t oc ompu t e t he l a t ter p arameter r equ ires f ur ther r ef inement a nd t heref ore i s n ot e x tens ive ly i mp lemented . B ecause a l l o f t he mode ls w ere d er ived u nder s o -ca l led q uas i s ta t ic l oad ing r a tes , t he ir a pp l icab i l ity i s r estr icted t o a rchaeo log ica l s pec imens emp loyed w i th in t he s ame l oad ing r a te r eg ime . T h is p aper e xam ines t he e f ec ts o fl o ad ing r ate o n t he f r ac ture a nd c er ta in c ru c ia l e la s t ic p roper t ies o f a mat er ia l . N ex t , t he c omprom is ing i n f luence t hese c hang es h ave o n t he r e l iab i l i ty o ft he e ng ineer ing mode ls a re d i scu ssed . F ina l ly , p rocedures f o r o b jec t ive ly a nd q uant i ta t ive ly a ssess ing p r ior l oad ing r a tes a re e lu c ida ted . T he e ng ineer ing l i tera ture r epor ts t ha t l oad ing r a te c an a pprec iab ly a l ter t he v a lues o f a ma ter ia l 's e l as t ic a nd f rac ture p roper t ies ( s ee , f o r e xamp le , B ir ch 1 937 , P rest on 1 931 , Z i sman 1 933 , I de 1 936 , K o lsky 1 959 , T sa i a nd K o lsky 1 967 , Wuerker 1 959 , R inehar t e ta l . 1 961 , S immons a nd B race 1 965 , Kurfurs t a nd K ing 1 972 , R icke ts a nd *

C en ter f o rS tudy o fE ar ly man , 4 95 C o l l ege a venue , 0R ono , Ma ine 0 4473 USA 9 9

G o ldsm ith 1 972 , S towe a nd A inswor th 1 972 a nd G o ldsm ith a nd S ackman 1 973 ) . T he magn itude o ft he e f ect s c an v ary c ons iderab ly , d epend ing u pon t he p ar t icu lar l oad ing r a te r eg ime p reva i l ing d ur ing i n -serv ice c ontac t . F o l low ing S towe a nd A inswor th ( 1972 ) , t hree l o ad ing r a te r eg imes c an b e d ef ined a ccord ing t o t he a ssoc ia ted s t ress -stra in r a tes . T he f r equent e xpress ion , s t a t ic l oad ing , r e f ers t o t he a pp l ica t ion o f ac ons tant f o r ce o ver a p ro t rac ted p er iod o ft ime , o r t o t he a pp l ica t ion o f as l ow ly i n creas ing f o rce t o a ma ter ia l . T he l a t ter i s more c orrect ly d es igna ted q uas i s t a t i c l oad ing . A ccord ing t o t he s t ress -s tra in r a te c r i ter ia , s t ress r a tes l e ss t han 3 . 5 x1 07 N .m2s 4 a r e c ons ider ed q uas i s ta t ic ( S t owe a nd A inswor th 1 972 :4 ) . E qu iva lent s t ra in r a tes a re l e ss t han 0 . 5 m i l l is tra ins p er s econd ( Wuerker 1 959 :7 , J aeg er a nd C ook 1 976 :1 44 ) . A t t he o ppos i te e x t reme , s t ress r a tes i n e xcess o f 7x 1 01 0 N .m2s 1 a re c ons idered d ynam ic o r s hock l o ad ing r a t es ( S t owe a nd A inswor th , 1 972 :4 ) . S tra in r a te e qu iva lent s e mbra ce a l l r at es i n e xcess o f1 03 m i l l is tra ins p er s e cond ( Wuerker 1 959 :7 ,J aeg er a nd C ook 1 976 :1 44 ) . An i n termed ia te l oad ing r a te e x is ts i n S towe a nd A inswor th 's ( 1972 ) t r ipar t i te s cheme . T h is l o ad ing r at e c an b e d ef ined a s r ap id l o ad ing a nd e ncompasses s t ress r a tes b e tween 3 . 5 x1 0 7N .m 2s 1 a nd 7x1 01 0 N .mm 2 11 a nd s t ra in r a tes b e tween 0 . 5 a nd 1 03 m i l l is tra ins p er s econd .

EFFECTS OF LOAD ING RATE ON ELAST IC PROPERT IES T he p ropor t iona l r e la t ionsh ip b etween t he e l a s t ic d ef orma t ion o f a n e l ast ic s o l id a nd t he magn itude o f a n e x terna l ly a pp l ied s t ress i s k nown a s Y oung 's modu lus o f e l as t ic ity , E . T h is p ar t icu lar e l a s t ic p roper ty i s ac ons t i tu t ive f a c tor o fb o th t he s t ress a t c rack t e rm inat ion a nd t he t ask ma ter ia l 's r es is tance t o p enetra t ion o r h ardness . A lthough o ther e l as t ic p roper t ies a re a l so g ermane , t h is s e c t ion w i l l f o cus p r imar i ly o n t he modu lus o fe l as t ic i ty a nd i t s s ens it iv i ty t ol o ad ing r a t e . Wh i le measurement s o ft he s t a t ic v a lues o fe l as t i c p roper t ies a re u sua l ly p er f ormed d i rec t ly u s ing c onven t iona l s t a t ic t e s t e qu ipmen t a nd p rocedures ( r ef er , f o r e xamp le , t o C hamber la in a nd T andanand 1 974; C hamber la in 1 974a; 1 974b; S u ther land 1 963 :4 77 ) , d ynam ic ( and r ap id ) e l as t ic c ons tants a re d er ived i nd irec t ly f r om measurements o ft he e l ast ic w ave v e loc it ies ( pu lse method ) o r t he r esonance f r equenc ies ( r esonance method ) o f e las t ic b od ies ( S immons a nd B ra ce 1 965 :5 655; T h i l l e ta l . 1 974a; 1 974b ;1 974c; W inqu is t 1 974 ) . Ow ing t o t he f ewer d if i cu lt ies i nvo lved , d ynam ic e l as t ic p roper t ies a re most o f ten measured b y t he r esonance me thod . Unf or tuna te ly , o n ly t he p u lse method y ie lds t est r esu lts t hat c an b e t rans lated i n to s pec if ic s t ress -stra in r ates . N otw iths tand ing , s ome g enera l o bserva t ions c an b e made a bou t l o ad ing r a te t e s t r esu l t s . D iscrepanc ies b etween e l as t ic p roper t ies o f mat er ia ls t est ed u nder s ta t ic a nd r ap id ( o r d ynam ic ) l oad ing r a tes c an b e a t tr ibuted t o s evera l f actors , n ame ly f au lty o r i ncompat ib le l abora tory p rocedures , a d iabat ic p rocesses , b ut e spec ia l ly i ntr ins ic ma ter ia l c hara c ter ist ics ( s ee T omenchuk 1 985 :3 55 -378 f o r ad e ta i led t r ea tment ) . On ly a f ew s tud ies h ave b een c onduc ted o n t he c hang ing v a lue o fEa t d if erent s t ress -s tra in r a tes a nd t hese w i l l n ow b e t he f o cu s o fd i scuss ion . T he n otab le e xcept ions i nc luded t he s tud ies o f S towe a nd A inswor th ( 1972 ) , R icke t ts a nd G o ldsm ith ( 1970 ) , Wuerker ( 1959 ) a nd Wa ts te in ( 1 953 ) . T he f i rs t t wo s tud ies i nvo lved s hock t e sts o n r ock; 1 00

t he l a s t t wo , s hock t e s ts o n c oncre te . N one o ft he t e s t s w ere c ondu c ted o n f l in ts o r c her t s . T he s tudy most p er t inen t t o p arame tr ic u se -wea r w as t he o ne c onduc ted b y S towe a nd A inswor th ( 1 972 ) i n w h ich t hey i nves t iga ted t he c ha ra c ter is t ic r esponse o ft he modu lus o f e l as t ic i ty o fb asa l t t od if erent s t ress r a tes . T hey r epor t t ha t a t t he t rans it ion f r om q ua s i s t a t i c t or ap id l oad ing ( s pec if i ca l ly , 3 . 5 x1 07 N .m 2s 1 )t he v a lue o fEi sa bou t 1 4 p er cent g rea ter t han i t s s ta t ic v a lue a nd t ha t a t t he t rans it ion f r om r ap id t o d ynam ic l oad ing ( name ly , 7x 1 01 0 N .mm 2s 1) ,t he d i spar ity i n creases t o 2 3 p ercen t . S im i lar p a t terns o f i n c rease i n Ew i th l oad ing r a te w ere d e tect ed b y o ther s i n s hock t e s ts p erf ormed o n r o cks s uch a s g ran ite , s pessar t it e , d i or ite , l imes tone , s ands tone a nd a n a ssor tment o fd if erent a gg rega te -base c oncre tes ( c onsu lt Wuerker 1 959: 2 9 -31 , Wa tst e in 1 953 , R icket ts a nd G o ldsm ith 1 970: 3 34 , T ab le 6;S towe a nd A inswor th 1 972 :2 1 , T ab le 4 ) . T he u nf or tuna te l a ck o f c omparab le s tud ies o n c her ts a nd f l in ts r enders a ny g enera l iza t ion p rov is iona l a tb es t . C oncern ing t he e f ect o f l oad ing r a te o n t he e last ic p ropert ies o f t he i mpac ted ma t er ia l , s hock t ube t e s t so nb ov ine f emu rc ompa c tb one h ave d emons tra ted a4 1 .2 p er cen t i n crea se i n t he t ransv erse Y oung 's modu lus a t s t ress r a tes o f 9x1 01 0 N .m 2s 1 ( Bonf i e ld a nd D a t ta 1 974 :1 611 , 1 613 ) . I mpa ct b end ing t e s t so n w ood a ts t ress r at es w i th in t he r ap id a nd d ynam ic l o ad ing r a te r eg imes ( Desch 1 973 :1 68 -170 ) g enera te e nhancements i n E o c cas iona l ly i n e xcess o f 7 0 p ercent ( Jessome 1 977 :2 0 , 2 6 ) . T he d if eren t ia l r at es o f i n crease i n t he v a lue o f E among t he p reced ing ma ter ia ls p ar t ia l ly e xp la ins t he r ea son w hy ap ar t icu la r s pec ies o fw ood may b e s u itab le a s ap ercussor ( r ap id l o ad ing r a te ) , b u t n ot e f f ec t ive a s ap ressure f l aker ( quas i s t a t ic l o ad ing r a te ) . I tc an b e s hown t ha t t he f o rego ing d ocumented c hanges i n Ec on t r ibu te m in ima l ly t ol oad ing -ra te -dependen t e r ror s i n t he p arametr ic e s t imat es o fb o th t he a pp l ied f o rce a nd t he h a rdness o ft he t a sk ma ter ia l ( Tomenchuk 1 985 ) . On t he o ther h and , t he l oad ing r a te r esponse o f Y oung 's modu lus d o es h ave a marked i nf luence o n a ma ter ia l 's d ynam ic s t reng th , a nd t he i n t ens i ty o ft h is e f ec t w i l l b e e xam ined i n t he f o l low ing s e c t ion .

EFFECTS OF LOAD ING RATE ON MATER IAL STRENGTH A tt he o u t se t , i ti si mpor tan tt ou nder s tand t ha tt he s t ra in e nergy a bsorp t ion c apa c i ty o f a ma ter ia l i ncreases w i th l oad ing r a te ( Wuerker 1 959 :1 , T sa i a nd K o lsky 1 967 ) . C onsequen t ly , t here i s a n e nhancement o f t he f r ac ture t oughness a nd h ardness o f a ma ter ia l . U sua l ly , t he v a lues o f t he d ynam ic s t reng th o f a ma ter ia l a re measurab ly g rea ter t han t he c orrespond ing s ta t ic s t reng th v a lues ( Stowe a nd A inswor th 1 972 :2 3 , P rest on 1 931 :4 33 -434 , K o lsky 1 959 :2 86 , Wuerb er 1 959 :9 ,f i gu res 2 ,2 9 -31 ,A ppend ix ) . S tud ies a re s t i l l l a ck ing o n t he e f ec ts o fl o ad ing r a te o n t he f ra c ture p roper t ies o f f l ints a nd c her ts . N o tw iths tand ing , s ome t heore t ica l ly r easonab le e s t ima tes o fp robab le magn i tudes o fe r ror c an b e o bta ined . B ased o n t he ma thema t ica l t heory o fd ynam ic c ra ck p ropaga t ion d eve loped b y S teverd ing a nd L ehn igk ( 1972 ) , i t c an b e s hown t hat t he d ynam ic s t reng th e nhancement c an b e p red ic ted f r om a f unct ion t ha t i nc ludes t he ma ter ia l 's d ynam ic f r ac ture t oughness , d ynam ic Y oung 's modu lus , a nd d ens ity ( s ee T omenchuk 1 985 :3 67 -373 ) . I ft he d ynam ic Y oung 's modu lus i st w ice t he c o rrespond ing s t a t ic v a lue , a s w e o b serv ed i n t he c ase o fo ne o ft he t wo d o lom i t ic c her ts f r om T ennessee r epor ted i n B la ir ( 1965 :5 , t ab le 2 ) , o ne c an c ompu te a 6 0 .2 p ercent i ncrease i n t he c ompress ive f r ac ture s t reng th a t d ynam ic l o ad ing r a tes . Among s im i lar t e s ts o f o ther r o cks , r are ly a re t he d if erences i n t he v a lues o f t he Y oung 's modu lus s o e x treme . I t w ou ld s eem t ha t t he d ynam ic s t reng th e nhancemen ts o fc her ts a nd f l in ts a re l i ke ly t ob e 1 0 1

more i n t he o rder o f4 0 p er cen t . B y e x trapo la t ion , r ap id s t reng th e nhancement i sl i ke ly t o b e a round 2 0 p ercen t . T he l a t ter e s t ima te i s more c ons is tent w i th t he f i nd ing s o fS towe a nd A inswor th ( 1972 :2 2 -23 ) , who r eport c ompress ive s t reng th i n creases f o r g ran i te , b asa l t s , a nd t uf fo f2 7 , 4 8 a nd 7 0p er cent r e spec t ive ly a tr ap id l o ad ing r a tes . I n c onnec t ion w ith t he f o r ce -es t ima t ing mode l , i ts hou ld b e n ot ed t ha t b ecau se t he s t ress a t c rack t e rm ina t ion i sr e la ted t oG r if f ith 's ( 1 921 , 1 924 ) s urf a ce e nergy p arame ter , t he e s t ima ted s t reng th i n crease s hou ld b e ar easonab le i nd ica tor o ft he l o ad ing r a te e f e c t o nt he f o r ce e s t ima te . H ence , a4 0t o6 0p er cen tu nd er es t ima t ion o ft he a c tua l magn i tude o f t he p rev ious ly a pp l ied f o r ce c an b e e xpec ted i ft he p r ior l o ad c ond i t ions w ere d ynam ic i n n a ture . P r ior r ap id l oad ing i se xpec ted t o g enera te s omewha t l ower u nderes t ima t ions o f t he p rev ious ly s u sta ined f o r ce ,r ough ly i nt he o rder o f1 0t o2 0p er cent . P red ic tab ly , l o ad ing r a te s hou ld a l so a f ec t t he c ompu ted v a lue o ft he p ene tra t ion r es is tance o rh ardness o ft he t ask o r t arge t mat er ia l . T he magn itude o ft he e f ec t w i l l , o f c our se , d epend o n t he ma t er ia l . F or i n s tance , S aha a nd H ayes ( 1974 :4 73 , 4 76 ) , r epor tt ha t —r e la t ive t oi t s s t a t ic v a lue — t he c ompac t b one o f af r esh b ov ine f emur e xper iences a2 0 p er cent i ncrease i n t ens i le s t reng th when s t ressed a t ar a te o f2 . 25 MN .m 2s 1 .Ma ter ia l s t reng th c ommon ly i n creases w ith t he l og i0 o f t he s t ress r a te . T heref ore t here i s a p ro jec ted 2 3 .8 p er cent i n crease o ver t he s t at ic t ens i le s t reng th a t s t ress r a t es o f3 . 5 x1 07 N .m 2s 1 a nd 3 4 .6 p ercent i n crease a ts t ress r a te o f 1x1 01 N .m 2s 1. I fr ap id a nd d ynam ic c ompress ive s t reng ths e xh ib it c omparab le d eg rees o f e nhancement o ver t he s ta t ic c ompress ive s t reng th , t hen o ne c an p red ic t r educ t ions o f 2 3 .8 a nd 3 4 .6 p er cent i n t he p ene tra t ion d epths u nder i d ent ica l l o ad magn itudes a t t he t wo d if erent l o ad ing r a tes . F or b oth l oad ing r a tes , when a l lowance i s made f o r t he c or respond ing 1 5 .8 a nd 4 2 .5 p er cent u nderes t ima t ion o ft he magn i tude o ft he a pp l ied f o r ce , t he n et e f ec ti st or eg is ter a mere 3p er cent u nderest ima t ion o ft he s ta t ic v a lue o ft he h ardness o fb one . T he e r ror i n t h is i ns tance i sm in ima l . H owever i n t he c ase o f s of ter ma ter ia ls , s u ch a s w ood , t he magn itude o f l oad d ependent -error i n t he h ardness e s t ima te i s more marked . A l though a n i n crease i n f r ac ture t oughness i s s hown t o o c cur i n w ood w ith i n creas ing l o ad ing r a te ( US F ores t P rodu c t s L abora tory Handbook o n Wood , 1 974 :( 4 )37 ) , t he s ou rces a re mu te o nt he v a lue o f t he s t ress r ates u sed d ur ing d ynam ic t es ts . C onserva t ive ly , w e c an p roceed o n t he a ssump t ion t ha ts t ress r a tes w ere i nt he o rder o f 1x1 01 N .m 2s 1 ; e x t rapo la t ions c an t hen b e made t os t ress r at es o f3 . 5 1 07 N .m 2 11. B ased o n t he i n tens i ty o fs t ress a tp ropor t iona l l im i ts i n b end ing f o r u nseasoned w oods g rown i n C anada ( J essome 1 977 ) , t he i n crease i n t he s t reng th o fc on if erous t imber a tr ap id l o ad ing r a tes i s4 5 ±2 9 p er cent ;a nd a td ynam ic l o ad ing r at es , 6 6 ±3 8 a nd 19 ±3 8p er cen t . I n c ontra s tt ob one , t hese f i gures t r ans la te i n to o ver es t ima t ions o f t he s ta t ic v a lues d ur ing r ap id a nd d ynam ic l o ad ing; f o r c on if erous w oods , 1 6 a nd 1 7 p er cent; a nd f o r d ec iduous w oods , 4 5 a nd 5 4 p er cen t . When c on tras t ing t hese p er cen tage e rror s w ith t hose o fb one , i ta ppear s t ha t t he magn itude o ft he l a od ing r a te -dependent e rror i n h ardness t ends t o i n crease i nver se ly a s t he ma ter ia l h ardness . A lbe it t enta t ive , o ne m igh tr easonab ly e xpect t oe ncount er o ver -es t ima t ions i nt he o rder o f 1 00 p er cen ti np ene tra t ion r es is tance o fs of t ma ter ia ls s u ch a sh ide . T ab le 1 s ummar izes t he e st imated l oad ing -ra te -dependent e rrors i nvo lv ing v ar ious c ontac t ma ter ia ls a nd d if erent s t ress -st ra in r a tes .

1 02

T ab le 1 : Magn i tudes o ft he l o ad ing -ra te -dependent e r rors o ft he t wo p r inc ipa l u se w ear p arame t ers .

T arget Ma ter ia l

Hard ( Bone ) Med ium ( Wood ) S of t ( H ide )*

P er centage e rror i n e s t imat ed f o r ce Dynam ic R ap id l oad ing l oad ing

P ercentage e r ror i n e s t ima ted h a rdness Dynam ic R ap id l oad ing l oad ing

1 0t o2 0 1 0t o2 0 1 0t o2 0

0t o3 + 16 t o+ 45 + 100

4 0t o6 0 4 0t o6 0 4 0t o6 0

0t o1 6 + 17 t o+ 54 + 100

*P ro j e c t ed e r ro r e s t ima t e s .

We h ave y et t o a scer ta in whether t he i n -serv ice l oad ing r ates o f p reh istor ic i mp lements c ou ld h ave r eached c r it ica l l eve ls . T he c haracter ist ic l oad ing r a tes o f p r im it ive t oo ls a nd w eapons h ave u sua l ly r ece ived o n ly s uper f ic ia l t r ea tment i n t he e thnog raph ic l i tera ture . E ven p ub l ished a rcheao log ica l e xper iments r are ly i n c luded t he k ind o fi nf orma t ion t ha t w ou ld e nab le o ne t o e s t ima te t he l oad ing r a tes e ncoun tered b y t he s erv ice e l ements o f many t o o ls a nd w eapons s tud ied . R easonab le e s t ima tes o f p ro jec t i le p o in t l oad ing r a tes , f o r e xamp le , m in ima l ly r equ ire t he r ecord ing o f i mpact v e loc i t ies . T he f ew a va i lab le s tud ies ( notab ly b y K lops teg 1 943 :1 82 , T ab le 1 ,C o le 1 973: 1 25 a nd P ope 1 923 :3 58 ) s t a te t ha t a rrows c an a t ta in v e loc it ies i n t he o rder o f 1 03 t o 1 04 c m .s 1 .O n t he b as is o ft he s t ra in r a tes r epor t ed i n R icket ts a nd G o ldsm ith ( 1970 ) f o r d if erent i mpa ct v e loc i t ies , t hese a r rows w ou ld b e d eemed d ynam ica l ly l oaded i ft hey i mp inged a t max imum v e loc i ty o n ah ard , s t a t ionary t arg et . A ccord ing t o F og eby e ta l . ( 1 969 :1 7 , c i t ed i n S peth 1 972 :4 5 ) , i mpa c tv e loc i t ies o f3 00 c m .s . 1 c an e ven b e a ch ieved manua l ly . Under c erta in c ond i t ions ( s ee R icke t ts a nd G o ldsm ith 1 970 ) , s uch v e loc it ies c an g ive r i se t o t he s o -ca l led r ap id l o ad ing r a tes . I n s hor t , t he q ues t ion o ft he i n -serv ice l oad ing r a tes o f a r chaeo log i ca l p i eces c anno t b e d i sm issed i n t he p arame tr ic u se -wear a pproach . A s i so f t en t he c ase when c onf ront ed w i th a n a c tua l a rchaeo log ica l c h ipped s t one t o o l , i ti su sua l ly i mposs ib le o n a ny ap r ior i g round t oj udge wh ich o ft he t hree p oss ib le l o ad ing r a te r eg imes t yp i f ied t he s e rv ice l i f e o ft he t oo l . B ecause l o ad ing -ra te -dependent e r rors c once ivab ly a s l a rg e a s 1 00 p er cen t a re p oss ib le , o ne c an s car ce ly e qu ivoca te a bou t t he n eed t oa scer ta in t he a n tecedent l o ad ing r a te . Undet ec tab le e r rors o fs uch magn i tude p ose a n u nden iab le c r is is o f c onf idence a nd t hey c an d o n o th ing b u t i mper i l t he c r ed ib i l i ty o ft he e nt ire u se -wear e xerc ise . C lear ly w e a re c onf ronted w ith a l og ica l d i lemma . W i thou t a n i ndependent means o fa ssess ing t he i n -serv ice l o ad ing r a t e o f ac h ipped s t one t o o l , w e a re c ompe l led t oa ppea l t o e thnog raph ic a na log s t oi nf er l o ad ing r a tes . I n d o ing s o , w e r un t he r i sk o f af i rm ing t he c onc lus ion a bou t at o o l 's f unct ion . T he n ext s ec t ion p rov ides a v iab le a nd s imp le r eso lu t ion o ft he d i lemma .

1 03

E id i .ECT OF LOAD ING RATE ON FRACTURE VELOCITY Unt i l i t was c o rrect ed v ery r ecent ly ( s ee C o t tere l l a nd K amm inga , n .d . ) , t he u se w ear l i tera ture c onta ined e r roneous s ta temen ts a bou t t he e f ec t o fl oad ing r a te o n c rack p ropaga t ion v e loc i t ies . I n t he ir a r t ic le o n t he me chan ics o f f l ak ing p ub l ished i n t he p roceed ings o f t he F irs t C onf erence o n L i th ic U se - Wear ( Hayden 1 979 ) , C o t tere l l a nd Kamm inga ( 1979 : 1 07 ) a sser ted t hat «. t he v e loc it ies measured i n f l ak ing e xper iments , whether p er cuss ion ( Goodman 1 944 ) o r p ressure C rabtree 1 968 , F au lkner 1 972 ) , a re i n t he r ange 2 00 -300 m s1 » .T h is i mp l ied t ha t a n i nsuperab le p rob lem e x is ted i n t he p a rame tr ic u se -wear me thodo logy . My o wn p erusa l o ft he s ame s our ces wh ich t hey c i ted r evea led s ome s er ious d ef i c ienc ies i n t he s our ce d a ta f o r w h ich a ny o ne o fs evera l i n terpre ta t ions w ou ld b e e qua l ly v a l id ( s ee T omenchuk 1 985 :4 03 -409 ) . Moreover , C ot tere l l a nd Kamm inga 's g enera l izat ion c ontrad icted t he t heoret ica l ly -based c onc lus ions r ea ched s evera l y ears e ar l ier b y F onseca e ta l . ( 1971 , a l so B i lby , 1 980 ) . T he d if erences b e tween t he e nergy ef i c iency o fp ressure a nd o fp er cuss ion f l ak ing c ompu ted b y F onseca e ta l . ( 1971 ) s ugges ted t ha t c ra ck v e loc i t ies a ssoc ia t ed w i th p er cu ss ion f l ak ing ( r ap id l oad ing ) s hou ld b e a t l eas t t w ice t he c rack v e lo c it ies i ndu ced b y p ressure f l ak ing ( quas i s ta t ic l oad ing ) . B ecause much o f t he p ub l ished e v idence o n c rack v e loc it ies p er ta in ing t o p ercuss ion f l ak ing was e i ther f l awed o r l a ck ing , a dd it iona l e xper imenta l w ork w as r equ ired . W ithout a ccess t o t he p roper l abora tory i ns trumenta t ion t o p erf orm c ra ck v e loc ity measuremen ts d irect ly , I was o b l iged t o r e ly o n v e loc ity -sens it ive f rac ture f ea tures . ( Such a p rocedure i s , o fc ourse , t he o n ly o ne a va i lab le t o p arame tr ic u se -wear a na lys tp er f orm ing ap os tmor t em e va lua t ion o f ap reh is tor ic c h ipped s t one t o o l ) .

CRACK -VELOCITY -SENS MVE FRACTURE FEATURES F or tuna te ly s evera l d if erent v e loc ity -sens it ive f ea tures o ccur o n t he f r ac ture s urfa ces o f aw ide r ange o f b r it t le s o l ids i nc lud ing t he amorphous a nd f i ne -g ra ined s i l ica tes ( s ee T omenchuk 1 985 :4 43 -468 ) . O fi n teres tt ot he p arame t r ic u se -wear a na ly s t a re t he Wa l lner l i nes , f r acture w ing s a nd f ra c ture p a rabo las wh ich a re i lus t ra ted a nd d i scussed i n n umerous e ng ineer ing p ub l ica t ions , i n p ar t icu lar K erkhof ( 1975 ) . Due t ot he n umber o f o f ten i nde term inab le v ar iab les wh ich i n f luence t he ir s hape ( Ledn icky a nd P e lzbauer 1 973 , 1 975 ) , f racture p arabo las a re t he l eas t s u i tab le f or c rack s peed a ssessmen t . On t he o ther h and , f r a c ture w ing s ( f ig . 1 )a nd Wa l lner l i nes ( f ig . 2 ) s hare a s imp le g enes is a nd a re v ery r e l iab le r eg isters o f c rack v e loc ity . T he f o rmer a re e spec ia l ly u b iqu it ous a nd a re d e tec tab le o ver aw ide r ange o fc ra ck s peeds . T he a ngu lar v ar iab i l i ty i n t he c onf igura t ion a nd s hapes o ft hese f ra c ture f ea tures c an b e measured a nd i n ser ted i n to ma thema t ica l e qua t ions wh ich t hen y i e ld t he r a t io o f t he i ns tantaneous c ra ck s peed , C , t o t he ma ter ia l -spec if i c s hear wave v e lo c ity , C2 ( s ee e spec ia l ly K erkhof 1 961 , 1 975 ;P once le t 1 958 ;G reenwood 1 971 ;L edn icky a nd P e lzbauer 1 973 , 1 975; wh ich a re s ummar ized i n T omenchuk 1 985 ) . Mu l t ip ly ing t h is r a t io b y t he s hear wave v e loc ity , w h ich f o r most g lasses a nd o bs id ians i sa round 3 500 m .s .1 ,y i e lds t he i ns tan taneous c ra ck s peed . E qua t ions t oc ompu te t he i ns tantaneous c ra ck s peeds a re g iven i nT omenchuk ( 1985 :4 47 , 4 49 , a nd 4 56 ) a nd n eed n o td eta in u sh ere . T he r esu lt s o f r e cent a nd p rev ious e xper imen ts a re h owever s umma r ized i nf i gures 3t o5 .

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F ig . 1 :V entra l a spec t o f a n o bs id ian b lade man if es t ing f racture w ings a nd t he i n cep t ion o fc l eavag e s t eps a tt he s i t es o fi n terna l f l aws . Magn if ica t ion 1 8 x : w id th o ff i e ld o fv i ew , 3 . 5 mm .

F ig . 2 :V entra l a spec t o f ap ercuss ion i ndu ced o bs id ian b lade e xh ib it ing i n tersect ing Wa l lner l i nes s uper imposed o ver u ndu la t ions . Magn if ica t ion 1 5x: w id th o ff i e ld o fv i ew , 4 . 1 mm .

T hese f i gures g raph ica l ly d i sp lay t he c hang ing v a lues o f c rack s peed ( C /C 2)i n t e rm o f t he p er cent o f t e rm ina l c rack l eng th ( CT ) p roduced u nder d i f f erent l oad ing c ond it ions . E ach s er ies c ompr ised a m in imum o f f our t ests wh ich w ere u sed i n c ompu t ing t he mean ( s o l id l i ne ) a nd s t andard d ev ia t ion ( s t ipp led z one ) . F igure 3 i lus tra tes t he v ar iab i l ity i n c rack s peed g enera ted b y p ressure f l ak ing w i th ac opper t i pped c hes t c ru t ch ( s im i lar t ot he o ne i lu st ra ted i n C rab tree 1 967 ) . I n t wo c ases , t he c rack s peeds w ere e s t ima ted f r om t he h igh -speed p hotog raph ic s equences i n C rabtree ( 1968 ) a nd , i n t he o ther t wo c ases , f r om a c tua l o bs id ian b lades s im i lar ly p r odu ced b y o ne o fC rab t ree 's s tuden ts , T erry A l ldr i t t . F igu re 4 i lus tra tes t he v ar iab i l ity i n c ra ck s peed measured o n f i ve a c tua l o bs id ian b lades p roduced b y J ohn S hea u s ing T ix ier 's «s ous l e p ied » i nd irec t p ercuss ion t e chn ique . T he p unch u sed i n t he f l ak ing e xer c ise w as a s e c t ion o fd eer a n t ler .

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F ig . 3 :P ressure f l ak ing ( quas i -s ta t ic l oad ing r a te ) p rof i le o f c hang ing c rack s peed ( C /C 2 )o ver p er cent t e rm ina l c ra ck l eng th ( % e T) . . 3

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F ig . 4 : I nd irec t p er cuss ion f l ak ing ( r ap id l oad ing r a te ) p rof i le o fc hang ing c ra ck s peed ( C /C 2)o ver p er cent t e rm ina l c ra ck l eng th ( % c T ) .

L as t ly , F igure 5 d i sp lays t he v ar iab i l i ty i n c r ack s peed measured o n f our o bs id ian b lades wh ich t h is a u thor p rodu ced u s ing d i rect p er cu ss ion w ith a s i lt -st one h ammer . B ecause I daho o bs id ian w as u sed i n a l l t hree s e r ies o ff l ak ing e xper iment s , s our ce ma ter ia l c an b e d i scounted a s af a c tor c ontr ibu t ing t o t he a pparent d if erences i n t he p rof i les o f c hang ing c rack s peed . S ome o bserva t ions o n t he p reced ing f i gures c an b e made a bou t t he d i s t ingu ish ing c hara c ter is t ics o ft he d if eren t l o ad ing r at es .

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/o C T F ig . 5 :D irect p er cuss ion f l ak ing ( r ap id l oad ing r a te ) p rof i le o f c hang ing c rack s peed ( C /C 2)o ver p er cen t t e rm ina l c ra ck l eng th ( % c T ) .

1— T he max imum c rack v e loc it ies a t ta ined d ur ing p ressure f l ak ing o ver t he i n t erva l 1 0 t o8 0 p er cent c Ta re l e ss t han h a lf t he max imum c ra ck s peeds a t ta ined d ur ing e i ther d i rect o r i nd irec t p er cuss ion f l ak ing o ver t he s ame s egment o f t e rm ina l c ra ck l eng th . I n f ac t , a part f r om t he c onvergence o f a l l p rof i les t oward b o th c rack l eng th e x t rem i t ies , c rack v e loc i t ies d ur ing p ressure f l ak ing d o n o t o ver lap w i th c ra ck v e loc i t ies p rodu ced b y e i ther o ft he t wo p ercuss ion t e chn iques . I n t e rms o f a bso lu te v e loc ity , t he max imum a t ta ined b y d i re c t a nd i nd irec t p er cuss ion i ss l igh t ly more t han 1 000 ms 4 .I n c ontras t , t he max imum c rack s peed a t ta ined b y p ressure f l ak ing i s a round 2 50 ms 1. T h is o bserva t ion i se nt ire ly c ons is tent w ith t he p red ic t ion o f F onseca e ta l . ( 1971 ) b ut c ontrad ic ts t he a sser t ion b y C o tere l l a nd K amm inga ( 1979 ) . 2—M inor d if erences a re a pparent i n t he c hang ing c rack s peed b e tween i nd irec t a nd d i rect p er cuss ion , mos t n otab ly o ver t he i n terva l 2 0 t o 7 0 p er cent c i r . A s e v iden t i n f i gure 4 , s ome o f t he b lades g enerated b y i nd irec t p er cuss ion r eg is tred a marked d e ce lera t ion i n c rack s peed b e tween 2 0 t o4 0 p er cen t C T . I n t he c ase o fd i re ct p er cuss ion , t here a ppears t ob e amore u n if orm d ecrea se i nc rack s peed o ver t he e nt ire c ra ck l e ng th . I n f a irness t o C ot tere l l a nd K amm inga , i t mus t b e n ot ed t ha t i n t he ir mos t r e cent p aper s la ted f o r p ub l icat ion t hey r eport t he r esu lts o f c ontro l led c ra ck v e loc i ty measurements wh ich a re more c ons is tent w i th my o wn f i nd ing s t han w i th t he ir e ar l ier a sser t ion . B r ief ly , C ot tere l l a nd K amm inga c ondu c ted a s e r ies o fe xper iments i n wh ich t hey «. . dropped a n 8 20 gi ndent er 3 00 mm o nto t he e dge o f a1 2 mm t h ick g lass p la te t o g ive a n i mpa c t v e loc i ty o f a bou t 2 . 4 m / s» .T he g lass p la tes , w i th «p la tf orm a ng les »o f 3 0 ° , w ere mechan ica l ly i mmob i l ized s uch t ha t t he p la tf orm w as p os i t ioned p erpend icu lar t ot he d rop p a th o ft he i ndent er .T hey r epor t: e xcep t n ear a h inge t e rm ina t ion , t he c ra ck v e loc ity i s al i near f unc t ion o f c rack l eng th . E x trapo la t ion o f t he l i near r e la t ionsh ip t o z ero c rack l eng th g ives amax imum c rack v e loc ity o fa bou t 100 m / s .

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O fc oncern h ere i st he mono ton ic d ece lera t ion o fc rack s peed wh ich t hey r epor t . T he d i spar i ty b etween my o wn o bserva t ions a nd t hose o f C o t tere l l a nd K amm inga o n t h is p o int may b e d ue t ot he f a c tt ha tt hey w ere a b le t o measure c rack s peed d i re ct ly a nd more p rec ise ly t han c ou ld I .H owever , u nt i l o ther s e r ies o ft e st s h ave b een c ondu c ted , i t may b e p rema ture t o d i scount t he p oss ib i l ity t ha t o ther f a c tors s uch a s l oad ing g eometry a nd s pec imen s uppor t may a l so i n f luence p a tt erns o fc hang ing c rack s peed . I n a ny e vent , t he d ivergence b e tween o ur r esu l t s d oes n o t n egat e o r d im in ish t he u t i l i ty o ft he c ra ck s peed c r i ter ia wh ich Ih ave o u t l ined f o r d i st ingu ish ing among t he d if eren t f l ak ing t e chn iques a nd u l t ima te ly , l oad ing r at es .

PRE H ISTOR IC LOAD ING RATES: TWO CASE STUDIES Numerous b roken b acked b lade lets w ere r ecovered f r om t he n on -geometr ic K ebaran o c cupa t ion a t Hayon im C ave , I s rae l ( Bar -Yosef 1 970 ) , s evera l o f wh ich p roved t o b e amenab le t o p arametr ic u se -wear a na lys is ( Tomenchuk , 1 985 :564 -568 ) . T hree s pec imens , o ne o f wh ich c ou ld b e i d ent if ied u nequ ivoca l ly a s af r agmen t o fa n o b l ique ly t runcat ed b a cked b lade le t , p ossessed f r ac ture w ing s t ha t r eg is tered u se -re la ted f r ac ture v e loc i t ies o ver t he r ang e 0 . 214 C2 t o0 . 304 C2 . B ased o n t he f r a c ture v e loc i t ies a ssoc ia ted w i th t he d if erent l oad ing r a tes i n f i gures 3 t o 5 , t hese i n -serv ice l oad ing r a tes c an b e s af e ly c ha rac ter ized a s r ap id . C onsequent ly , n ot o n ly i st he r e l iab i l ity o ft he q ua s i -s ta t ic p arametr ic e s t ima tes o ft hese t hree s pec imens s uspec t , b u t t h ep arame tr ic r e su l ts o fa l l o b l ique ly t runca t ed b acked b lade le t s mus tb eh e ld i n s usp ic ion . B es ides a ddress ing f unc t iona l i s sues , c ra ck v e lo c ity e s t ima tes c an a l so b e u sed t o r eso lve c er ta in t e chno log ica l q ues t ions . F or e xamp le , a s p ar t o f ar e cen t p arame tr ic u se w ear s tudy o f af l u ted -po int s i te i n n or theas tern N or th Amer i ca , Ip erf ormed a c rack v e loc ity a na lys is o f t he c hanne l f l u tes o n t wo p ro jec t i le p o ints o f F oss i l H i l l c her t ( Tomenchuk , n .d . ) . T he o bserved p a t tern o fc rack v e lo c ity f l uctua t ions a l ong t he l eng th o ft he c hanne l f l u tes w ere a typ ica l o f e i ther p ressure o r d i rect p er cuss ion . I ns tead t he p at terns most c l ose ly a pprox imated t hose p roduced e xper imenta l ly b y i nd irect p ercuss ion .

CONCLUSIONS L oad ing r ate h as a c omprom is ing i nf luence o n t he r e l iab i l ity o f q uas i -s ta t ic p arametr ic u se -wear e s t ima tes . I t i s u nden iab le t ha t a1 5 t o 2 0 p er cent e rror i n t he e s t ima ted h ardness o f t he w ood p rev ious ly w orked b y ac h ipped s t one t oo l c an l ead t o m is ident if ica t ion ( Tomenchuk 1 985 ;n .d . ) . C onsequent ly , f unct iona l t ypes s uch a s w edges , a dzes , a xes a nd t he l i ke a re n ot amenab le t o a na lys is w ith t he e x ist ing p arametr ic mode ls . T hus wh i le a n u l t imate s o lu t ion t o l oad ing -ra te -dependent e rrors h as y et t o b e d ev ised wh ich w ou ld e ssent ia l ly i nvo lve t he i mp lementa t ion o f e i ther c onspec if ic l oad ing r a te mode ls o r c ompensa tory c a lcu la t ions t o e l im ina te t he e rrors , a c r i ter ion f o r e xc lud ing n on -ana lyzab le p ieces a ver t s t he c r is is o fc onf idence t ha t w ou ld h ave o therw ise p lagued p arame t r ic u se -wear s tud ies . B es ides t he a na ly t ic u t i l ity o f i nf orma t ion o n l oad ing r ate j ust e luc ida ted , i nvest igat ions i n to a w ide r ange o f f unct iona l a nd t e chno log ica l q uest ions c ou ld c once ivab ly b enef i t f r om aj ud ic ious a ssessment o fl o ad ing r a tes . T he p otent ia l e x ist s f o r a scer ta in ing t he l o ad ing r a te r eg ime (s ) o fP a laeo l i th ic h and -axes , o f Mous ter ian p o ints , 1 08

o fl a t e P a le Ind ian p o in t s i n N or th Amer ica , a nd s o o n . S im i lar ly i ts hou ld b e p oss ib le t o i d ent if yt he b lade p rodu c t ion t e chn ique f r om n o th ing more t han t he m id -sec t ion o f ab lade o r b lade let . Bu t f i rs t t he d i s t ingu ish ing c harac ter is t ics o f t he v e loc ity p rof i les o f a l l d if erent t ypes o f i nduced f ractures mus t b e emp ir ica l ly i nves t iga ted . C er ta in ly t he r ecent w ork o f C ot tre l l a nd Kamm inga ( n .d . ) i n t h is a rea r epresents a ma jor c ontr ibu t ion a nd a p t ly a t tes ts t o t he b enef i t s t ha t a rchaeo logy c an d er ive f r om a h ard s c ience a pproach t o t he s o lut ion o f c er ta in p rob lems . T he l ack o f a n e ng ineer ing b ackg round h owever s hou ld n ot d iscourage o ther , more t rad it iona l ly t ra ined l i th ic a na lys t s f r om v en tur ing i n to t he a rena . I mpor tan t w ork c an s t i l l b e d one w ithou t t he a id o fs oph is t ica ted i ns trumenta t ion . I ndeed , a s Ih ave d emonstra ted e l sewhere ( Tomenchuk 1 985 ) , t he t e chn ique f o r c ompu t ing i n stantaneous c rack s peeds f r om t he m icroscop ica l ly measured c onf igura t ion o f d if erent v e loc ity -sens it ive f rac ture f ea tures i s s imp le a nd s t ra ightf orward . Moreover , o ne o f t he s evera l p rocessors i n t he p arametr ic u se -wear s of tware p a ckage Iam c ur ren t ly d eve lop ing a t Havard Un ivers i ty i sd evo ted e xc lus ive ly t ol oad ing r at e d a ta i npu ta nd c ompu ta t ions . T he r e lea se o ft he s ofware i nt he n ear f u ture w i l l o bv iat e t he l og is t ic b urden o f al oad ing r a te a na lys is . Iw ou ld t heref ore e ncourage o ther u se -wear a na lys ts a nd l i th ic t e chno log ists t o b ecome a c t ive ly i nvo lved i n t he e xp lorat ion o f t h is s ub jec t . I t c onst itu tes a p otent ia l ly u sefu l s ource o f c u ltura l i n f orma t ion t ha th as b een n eg lec ted f o rt oo l o ng .

ACKNO WLEDGE MENTS F inanc ia l s uppor tf o r p ar t o ft he p resen t s tudy w as p rov ided b y t he S oc ia l S c iences a nd Human it ies R eseach C ounc i l o fC anada . T o J ohn S hea o f Harvard Un ivers ity a nd t o T erry A l ldr itt f o rmer ly o f t he Un ivers i ty o fT oronto , Iw ish t o e xpress my a pprec ia t ion f o r t he ir c ontr ibu t ion t o t h is s tudy . F or t he ir p erm iss ion t o u se t he Z e iss m icroscop ic e qu ipment i n t he C enter f o r A r chaeo log ica l R esearch a nd D eve lopmen t , P eabody Museum , Harvard Un iver s ity , I w ish t oe xpress my t hanks t oP rof essor R ober t Madd in a nd D r J ohn Merke l . F ina l ly , f o r a ny s hor t com ing s i n t h is r epor t , Ia ssume s o le r esponsab i l ity .

B IBLIOGRAPHY BAR -YOSEF , ( 0 . ) , 1 970 .— T he E p i -Pa laeo l i th ic C u l tur es o fP a l es t ine . Unpub l ished P h . D . d i sser ta t ion , T he H ebrew Un ivers i ty , J erusa lem . B ILBY , ( B .A . ) , 1 980 .— T ewksbury l e c ture: p u t t ing f r a c tu re t ow ork . J ourna l o f Ma t er ia l s S c i enc e , 1 5 :5 35 -559 . B IRCH , ( F . ) , 1 937 .— T he e f ec t o fp ressure o n t he modu lus o fr i g id ity o f s evera l meta ls a nd g lasses . J ourna lo fA pp l ied P hys ics , 8:1 29 -133 . BLA IR , ( B .E . ) , 1 956 .— P hys ica l p roper t ies o f m ine r ock , p ar t I V . Un ited S ta tes D epar tmen to ft he I n t er ior , Bur eau o fM ines ,R epor to fI nve s t iga t ions , n o . 5 244 , 6 9 p .

1 09

BONF IELD , (W . ) a nd DATTA , ( P .K . ) , 1 974 .— I mpac tf racture o fc ompact b one i n as hock t ube .J ourna lo f Ma ter ia ls S c ience , 9 ( 10 ) :1 609 -1614 . CHAMBERLA IN , ( P .G .) , 1 974a .— E last ic b ehav ior u nder u n iax ia l t ens ion . I n U .S . Bureau o f Mines T es t P rocedures f or Rocks , Wa lter E . L ew is a nd S ath it T andanand ( eds ) , Wash ing ton: U .S . Bureau o f M ines , I nf orma t ion C ircu lar n o . 8 628 ,p .1 26 -127 . CHAMBERLA IN , ( P .G . ) , 1 974b .— E last ic b ehav ior i n b end ing .

I n U .S . Bur eau o fM ines

T es t P rocedures f or Rocks , Wa lter E . L ew is a nd S ath it Tandanand ( eds ) , Wash in g ton: U .S . Bureau o fM ines , I nf ormat ion C ircu lar n o . 8 628 , p .1 28 -130 . CHA MBERLA IN , ( P .G .) a nd TANDANAND , ( S . ) , 1 974 .— E last ic b ehav ior u nder u n iax ia l c ompress ion . I n U .S . Bur eau o f Mines T es t P rocedur es f or R ocks , Wa lter E . L ew is a nd S ath it T andanand ( eds ) , Wash ing ton: U .S . Bureau o f M ines , I nf orma t ion C ir cu lar n o . 8 628 , p .1 20 -126 . COLE , ( J . ) , 1 973 .— Archaeo logy b y E xper imen t . N ew Y ork :C har les S cr ibner 's S ons , 1 82 p . COTTERELL , ( B . ) a nd KAM M INGA , ( J . ) , 1 979 .— T he mechan ics o f f l ak ing , I n L i th ic U se -W ear Ana lys is ,

B r ian Hayden ( ed . ) , New Y ork , L ondon :A cadem ic P ress ,

p .9 7 -112 . COTTERELL , (B .) a nd KAM M INGA , ( J . ) , n .d .— T he f o rmat ion o f f l akes . Manuscr ipt i n p ossess ion o fa u thor . CRABTREE , ( D .E . ) , 1 967 . —N otes o n e xper iments i n f l intknapp ing :4 . T oo ls u sed f o r mak ing f l aked s t one a r t ifac ts . T eb iwa , 1 0 ( 1 ) :6 0 -73 . CRABTREE , ( D .E . ) , 1 968 .— Mesoamer ican p o lyhedra l c ores a nd p r ismat ic b lades . Amer ican An t iqu i ty , 3 3 ( 4 ) :4 46 -478 . DESCH , ( H .E . ) , 1 973 .— T imber :I t s S truc tur e a nd P roper t ies . F if th e d it ion , Macm i l lan , 4 24

p .

FAULKNER , ( A .) , 1 972 .— Mechan ica l P r inc ip les o f F l intwork ing . P h . D . d i sser ta t ion , D epar tment o f Anthropo logy , Wash ing ton S ta te Un ivers ity , Un ivers ity M icrof i lms I nternat iona l , Ann A rbor , M ich igan . FONSECA , ( J .G .) , ESHELBY , ( J .D . ) a nd ATK INSON , ( C .) , 1 971 . —The f racture mechan ics o f f l int -knapp ing a nd a l l ied p rocesses . I n terna t iona l J ourna l o f F rac tur e Mechan ics , 7 :4 21 -433 . GOLDS M ITH , (W . ) a nd SACKMAN , ( J .L . ) , 1 973 . —D ynam ic p rocesses i n r ock . I n Rock Mechan ics S ympos ium , D e tro i t Mich igan , 1 973 , D .L . S ikarsk ie ( ed . ) , The Amer ican S oc iety o f Mechan ica l Eng ineers , T he App l ied Mechan ics D iv is ion , New Y ork: Un i ted E ng ineer ing C enter , v o l . 3 ,p .7 3 -128 . GOOD MAN , ( M .E . ) , 1 944 .—The p hys ica l p roper t ies o f s t one t oo l mater ia ls . Amer ican An t iqu i ty , 9( 4 ) :4 15 -433 .

10

GREEN WOOD , ( J .H . ) , 1 971 .—The max imum f racture v e loc ity o f s i l icon . J ourna l o f Ma ter ia ls S c ience , 6( 4 ) :3 90 -394 . GR IFF ITH , ( A .A . ) , 1 921 . —The p henomena o fr upture a nd f l ow i n s o l ids . Ph i losoph ica l T ransac t ions o ft h e Roya l S o c ie ty , L ondon , A 221 ( 4 ) :1 63 -198 . GR IFFITH ,

( A .A .) ,

1 924 .— T he

t heory o f r upture .

I n P roceed ings o f t he F irs t

I n terna t iona l C ongress o f App l ied Mechan ics , C .B . B iezend a nd J .M . Burgers ( eds . ) , D ef t :J . Wa ltman J r P ress , p .5 5 -63 . HAYDEN ,

( B .) ,

1 979 .— L i th ic

U se -W ear Ana lys is .

Ed itor . New Y ork , L ondon:

A cadem ic P ress , 4 13 p . I DE , ( J .M . ) , 1 936 . —C ompar ison o f s tat ica l ly a nd d ynam ica l ly d eterm ined Y oungs modu lus o fr ocks . P ro ceed ing s o ft he Na t iona lA cademy o fS c ience , 2 2 ( 2 ) :8 1-92 . JAEGER , ( J .C . ) a nd COOK , ( N .C .W . ) , 1 976 . —Fundamen ta ls o f Rock Mechan ics . S econd e d it ion . S c ience P aperback , New Y ork: J ohn Wi ley a nd S ons , 5 85 p . J ESSO ME , ( A .P . ) , 1 977 .— S treng th a nd r e lated p ropert ies o f w oods g rown i n C anada . E astern F orest P roducts L abora tory , O t tawa ,F or es t T echn ica lR epor t , n o . 2 1 , 3 7p . KERKHOF , ( F . ) , 1 961 .— Neuere E rgebn isse d er U ltrascha l l -Fraktog raph ie . I n C ompte R endu , S ympos ium I n terna t iona l s ur l a «R gs is tance M &an ique d u V err e e t l e s Moyens d e l ' Ama ior er » ,F lorence , p . 7 99 -831 . KERKHOF , ( F .) , 1 975 .— B ruch mechan ische Ana lyse v on S chaden s fa l len a n G lasern ( Fracture mechan ics a na lys is o f d amage t o g lass ware ) . G las techn ische B er ich te , 4 8( 6 ) : 112 -124 . KLOPSTEG , ( P .E . ) , 1 943 . —P hys ics o fb ows a nd a rrows . Amer ican J ourna l o fP hys ics , 1 1 ( 4 ) : 175 -192 . KOLSKY , ( H . ) , 1 959 .— F ractures p roduced b y s t ress waves . I n F rac ture , B .L . Averbach , D .K . F e lbeck , G .T . Hahn , a nd D .A . T homas ( eds . ) , T echno logy P ress , M .I .T . , a nd W i ley a nd S ons I nc . , p . 2 81 -296 . KURFURST , ( P .J . ) a nd K ING , ( M .S . ) , 1 972 .— S tat ic a nd d ynam ic e last ic p roper t ies o f t wo s andstones a t p ermaf rost t empera tures . J ourna l o f P e tro leum T echno logy , 2 4 :4 95 -504 . LEDN ICKY , ( F . ) a nd PELZBAUER , ( Z . ) , 1 973 .— Curves o n t he f r acture s ur faces o fb r i t t le amorphous ma ter ia ls . I n terna t iona l J ourna l o fP o lymer ic Ma ter ia ls , 2( 2 ) :1 49 1 65 . LEDNICKY , ( F . ) a nd PELZBAUER , ( Z . ) , 1 975 .— D eterm ina t ion o f c hanges i n f racture p ropaga t ion f r om f racture c urves . I n terna t iona l J ourna l o fP o lymer ic Ma ter ia ls , 3 ( 4 ) :3 01-310 . PONCELET , ( E .F . ) , 1 958 . —The mark ings o n f racture s urfaces . J ourna l o ft he S oc ie ty o f G lass T echno logy , 4 2 :2 79 -288 .

11

POPE , ( S .T . ) , 1 923 .— A s tudy o fb ows a nd a rrows . Un ivers i ty o fC a l if orn ia P ub l ica t ions i n Amer ican A rchaeo logy a nd E thno logy 1 3 ( 9 ) :3 29 -414 . PRESTON ( F .W . ) , 1 931 .— A b r ief a na lys is o fs o me r ecent d a ta o n t he i mpact s t reng th o f g lass . J ourna l o ft he Amer ican C eram ic S oc ie ty , 1 4 :4 32 -434 . R ICKETTS , ( T .E . ) a nd GOLDS MITH , (W . ) , 1 970 .— Dynam ic p roper t ies o f r ocks a nd c o mpos ite s t ructura l mater ia ls . I nterna t iona l J ourna l o f Rock Mechan ics a nd Min ing S c ience , 7( 3 ) :3 15 -335 . R INEHART , ( J .S . ) , FORT IN , ( J . -P . ) a nd BURG IN , ( L . ) , 1 961 .— P ropagat ion v e loc ity o f l ong itud ina l waves i n r ocks . Ef ect o fs ta te o fs t ress , s t ress l eve l o ft he wave , wa ter c ontent , p oros ity , t empera ture , s t rat if icat ion a nd t exture . P ro ceed ing o ft he F our th S ympos iu m

o n

Rock

Mechanics ,

P ennsy lvan ia

S tate

Un ivers ity ,

1 961 ,

P ennsy lvan ia S tate M inera l I ndustr ies E xper iment S tat ion , M in ing E ng ineer ing S er ies , Bu l let in n o . 7 6 , p .1 20 -135 . SAHA , ( S .) a nd HAYES , (W .C . ) , 1 974 .— I nstrument t ens i le impact t ests o f b one . Exper imen ta l Mechan ics , 1 4 ( 12 ) :4 73 -478 . S I M MONS , ( G .) a nd BRACE , (W .F . ) , 1 965 .— Compar ison o f s tat ic a nd d ynam ic measurements o f c o mpress ib i l ity o f r ocks . J ourna l o f G eophys ica l R esearch , 7 0 ( 22 ) :5 649 -5656 . S PETH , ( J .D . ) , 1 972 . — Mechan ica l b as is o f p ercuss ion f l ak ing . Amer ican An t iqu i ty , 3 7 ( 1 ) :3 4 -66 . STEVERDING , ( B . ) a nd LEHNIGK , ( S .H .) , 1 972 .— Dynam ics o f b r it t le f racture . I n terna t iona l J ourna l o fF rac tur e Mechan ics , 8( 1 ) :5 9 -73 . S TO WE , ( R .L . ) a nd A INS WORTH , ( D .L . ) , 1 972 .— Ef ect o f r ate o f l oad ing o n s t reng th a nd Y oung 's modu lus o fe last ic ity o fr ock . I n Bas ic a nd App l ied Rock Mechan ics , P roceed ing s o f t he T en th S ympos ium o n Rock Mechan ics , Un iver s i ty o f T exas , May 1 968 , K .E . G ray ( ed ) , N ew Y ork: S oc iety o fM in ing E ng ineers , A IME , p . 3 -34 . SUTHERLAND , (RB . ) , 1 963 .— S ome d ynam ic a nd s tat ic p ropert ies o f r ock . I n Rock Mechan ics , P roceed ings o f t he F if th Rock Mechan ics C ongress , Un ivers i ty o f Minneso ta , Minneapo l is , C . F a irhurst ( ed . ) , O xf ord: P ergamon P ress , p .4 73 -491 . THILL , ( R .E .) , BUR ( T .R .) a nd HJEL MSTAD , ( K .E . ) , 1 974a .— E last ic r esponse t o u ltrason ic p u lse . I n U .S . Bur eau o f Mines T es t P rocedures f or Rocks , Wa lter E . L ew is a nd S ath it Tandanand ( eds .) , Wash ing ton: U .S . Bureau o f Mines I nf orma t ion C ircu lar , n o . 8 628 , p .1 32 -139 . THILL , ( R .E . ) , BUR , ( T .R . ) a nd HJEL MSTAD , (RE . ) , 1 974b .— E last ic r esponse o f i nduced v ibrat ion . I n U .S . Bur eau o f Mines T es t P rocedur es f or Rocks , Wa lter E . L ew is a nd S ath it Tandanand ( eds . ) , Wash ing ton : U .S . Bureau o f Mines I nf orma t ion C ircu lar , n o . 8 628 , p .1 39 -143 . TH ILL , ( R .E . ) , BUR , ( T .R . ) a nd HJEL MSTAD , (K .E . ) , 1 974c .— I n U .S . Bur eau o f Mines T es t P rocedures f or Rocks , Wa lter E . L ew is a nd S ath it Tandanand ( eds .) , Wash in g ton: U .S . Bureau o fM ines I nf ormat ion C ircu lar , n o . 8 628 , p . 1 43 -145 .

12

TO MENCHUK , ( J . ) , 1 983 .— P red ic t ing t he p ast: e xamp les f r om t he u se -wear s tudy o f s e lected c h ipped s t one t oo ls f r om t wo e p i -pa laeo l ith ic o ccupat ions i n I srae l . I n T races d 'U t i l isa t ion s ur l e s Ou t i ls M o l i th iques d u P roche -Or ien t , M . -C . C auv in ( ed . ) , T ravaux d e l a Ma ison d e l ' Or ient , n o . 5 ,p . 5 7 -76 . TO MENCHUK ,

( J .) ,

1 985 .— T he d eve lopmen t o f a Who l ly P arame tr ic U se -W ear

Me thodo logy a nd I t s App l ica t ion t o Two S e lec ted S amp les o f Ep ipa leo l i th ic Ch ipped S tone T oo ls f rom Hayon im C ave , I srae l . Unpub l ished P h . D . d issertat ion , D epartment o f Anthropo logy , Un ivers i ty o fT oronto , 4v o lumes . TO MENCHUK , ( J . ) , n .d .— A p arametr ic u se -wear s tudy o f A reas C a nd C -East o f t he F isher S ite . I n T he F isher S i te: a n Ear ly P a leo -Ind ian S i te i n S ou thern On tar io , P eter S tor ck ( ed ) , ( i n p ress ) . T SA I , ( Y .M . ) a nd KOLSKY , ( H . ) , 1 967 .— A s tudy o ft he f racture p rodu ced i n g lass b locks b yi mpact . J ourna lo ft he Mechan ics a nd P hys ics o fS o l id s , 1 5 :2 63 -267 . U .S .

FOREST PRODUCTS LABORATORY , 1 974 .— Wood Handbook: Wood a s a n Eng ineer ing Ma ter ia l . USDA Ag r icu lture Handbook , 7 2 ( r ev ised ) .

WATSTEIN , ( D . ) , 1 953 .— Ef ect o fs t ra in ing r a te o n t he c ompress ive s t reng th a nd e last ic p roper t ies o fc oncrete .J ourna lo ft he Amer ican C oncr e te I ns t i tu te , 2 4 ( 8 ) :7 29 -744 . WINGQUIST ,

( C .F . ) ,

1 974 .— E last ic r esponse

t o i nduced v ibrat ion

a t e levated

t emperatures . I n U .S . Bur eau o f Mines T es t P ro cedures f or Rocks , Wa lter E . L ew is a nd S ath it T andanand ( eds ) , Wash ing ton: U .S . Bureau o f M ines I nf ormat ion C ircu lar , n o . 8 628 ,p .1 45 -150 . WUERKER , ( R .G . ) , 1 959 .— I nf luence o f s t ress r a te a nd o ther f a ctors o n t he s t reng th a nd e las t ic p roper t ies o fr ocks . Quar ter ly o ft he C o lorado S choo l o f Mines , 5 4 ( 3 ) :3 -32 . Z IS MAN , (W .A . ) , 1 933 .— C ompar ison o f t he s tat ica l ly a nd s e ismo log ica l ly d eterm ined e last ic c onstants o f r ocks . P roceed ings o f t he Na t iona l A cademy o f S c iences , 1 9 ( 7 ) :6 80 -686 .

13

TRACEOLOGIE ET RUGOS I METRIE TRIDIMENSIO 1VNELLE

S y lvie BEYRIES , *F ranQo is DELA MARE" ,J ean Chr is tophe QUA NTIN **

ABSTRACT:

T he v ery d ef in it ion o f u t i l isa t ion p o l ishes i s s o f ar q u i te p ragma t ic . T ransm iss ion o f i nf orma t ion b y d escr ip t ion o r p ho tog raphy i sj us t n ow c ompa ra t ive ly l im ited . A s t he v ar iab i l ity o bserved b e tween t he d if eren t p o l ishes h as n o t b een measured , t he d escr ibed d i f f eren ces h ave a s ub jec t ive a spect wh ich w i l l d i sappea r o n ly a f ter w ork ing o ut o f a r epresenta t ive f r a c t ion a l low ing t oc ompare e a ch p ol ish w i th t he o thers o n c oncre te b ases . We t heref ore e ndeavoured w ith t he h e lp o f ar oughome ter , o n t he o ne h and , t o c harac ter ise t hese o bserva t ions more p rec ise ly , o n t he o ther h and , t ou nders tand t he d if eren t w ear ing s y s tems i nheren ti n e a ch u t i l isa t ion a sb e low p resen ted . RESU ME:

L a d ef in i t ion meme d es p o l is d ' u t i l isa t ion e s tj usqu 'ä p resent p ar fa itemen t p ragma t ique . L a t ransm iss ion d es i nf orma t ions p ar d escr ip t ion o u p ar l ap ho tog raph ie e s t a c tue l lement r e la t ivemen t l im itee . C omme l a v ar iab i l ite o bservee e n tre l e s d if eren ts p o l is na p as e te mesuree , l e s d i f f erences d ecr i tes o n tu na spec ts ub je c t if . Nous a vons d onc c herche a l ' a ide d ' un r ugos im kre dune p ar t äc ara cter iser d e f a vn p lus p rec ise c es o bserva t ions , d ' au tre p a r t äc omprendre l e s d if eren ts mecan ismes d ' usure i nheren ts ä c ha cune d es u t i l isa t ions p resen tees i c i .

INTRO D UCTIO N L 'etude f onct ionne l le d 'out i ls l i th iques s e f a it c lass ique ment e n e xa m inant l a s urface d es o ut i ls ä l ' a ide d e b inocu la ires o u d e microscopes ä d es g ross isse ments q u i v ar ient d e x5 0 äx5 00 . S e lon l e g ross isse ment i le st p oss ib le d e met tre e n e v idence: —l a f or mat ion d e microeca i l lures , —d es s tr ies , — un emousse d u f i l d u t ranchant , —l ' ex istence

d e p o l is

d ont l ' organ isat ion ,

l ' or ientat ion ,

l a microtopograph ie

d onnent d es i nd icat ions s ur l a ( ou l es ) mat iere (s ) t rava i l lee (s ) .

U .R .A . 2 8 d u C .R .A . d u C .N .R .S . , S oph ia An t ipo l is , 0 6565 V a lbonne c ed ex , F rance . **

E co le d es m ines d e P ar is , CE MEF ( Cen tre d 'E tudes d e m ise e n f orme d es ma tgr iaux ) , V a lbonn e c ed ex , F rance .

***

E co le d e s m ine s d 'A lk s , 6r ue d e C lav i&e , 3 0107 AM s c ed ex , F rance .

1 15

E n c r o isant l ' ensemb le d e c es d onndes e t e n e f f ec tuant d es c ompara isons a vec d es e xper imenta t ions , i le s t s ouvent p oss ib le d e d e term iner al af o is l a c i ndma t ique d u g es te e tl an a ture d u ma tdr iau t rava i l ld . L a md thode f ondde s ur l e s a na log ies e nt re p i eces e xper imen ta les e t a r chdo log iques e s t p arf a itement e mp ir ique . A uss i , b ien q u 'e l le s o it r e connue e ta c cep tde p ar u ne ma jor i t d d e c her cheurs , e s t -e l le r dgu l ierement m ise e n d ou te . N ous a vons d onc e ssayd d ' ana lyser n os d chant i l lons e n n ous a idant d 'une mdthode u t i l isde d ans l e s a utres d oma ines d e l ' usure , c e la a f in d e c aractdr iser d e f a pon p lus p rec ise l e s o bservat ions e n r da l isant l e p assage d u q ua l itat if a u q uant ita t if d es p arametres q u i n ous o n t s emb ld p er t inents l o rs d e n os o bserva t ions a u m icroscope . Une a na lyse a d one d t d t entde ä l ' a ide dun r ugos imät re d ont n ous d dcouvrons l e s p erf ormances c i -dessous . L a p r inc ipa le d if f icu l td ä l aque l le n ous n ous s ommes h eur tds f u tl ep os i t ionnement d es d chan t i l lons . E n e f e t , c eux c i d o ivent e t re l ep lu s p la ts p oss ib le . L es f o rmes t ou rmentdes n e s ep retent d one p as t ou jou rs äc et ype d 'aude .

LA METHODE D 'INVEST IGAT ION L a mdthode c ho is ie e s t c e l le d é jà u t i l isde a u C .E .M .E .F . p our l ' d tude d e l a m icro topog raph ie d es s urf aces d ures e t d e l eur u sure . E l le c ons iste a r da l iser u ne s dr ie d ' imag es n umdr iques d e l at opog raph ie d u ma tdr iau ad ivers s t ades d e s on u sure , i mages o b tenues p ar l ep a lpage d e l ' ob jet a vec u ne p o in te d e d i amant . S chdma t iquement , l ' ob jet a d tud ier e s t p lace s ur u n e nsemb le d e d eux p la t ines m icromdtr iques h or izonta les e t p erpend icu la ires l ' une a l ' autre . C ommanddes p ar u n moteur p as ä p as , e l les p erme t tent l e d dp lacement r e la t if d u p a lpeur p ar r appor t äl a s urf ace d ans d eux d i rec t ions p erpend icu la ires ( x e t y ) . L e p a lpeur e n d iamant ( c a lo t te s phdr ique d e 5m icrometres ) e st s o l ida ire d 'un s ys teme q u i mesure s on a l t itude ( Z ) ( pho tos 1-2 ) . Un m icro -ord inateur g bre l ' ensemb le . Une f o is l ' ob jet p os i t ionnd e t a pres a vo ir d dterm ind l ' emp lacement e t l a p os it ion d e l ' a ire ä d tud ier , o n c ho is it l e p as d ' dchant i l lonnage l e l ong d 'une l i gne , p u is l e n ombre d e c e l les -c i . L e m icro -ord ina teur d dc lenche l e p a lpage e t l e b a layage d e l ' a ire c ho is ie . In umdr ise l e s s i gnaux r epus e t s t ocke s ur l ed i sque s u ccess ivement l e s t r o is c oordonndes d es p o in t s r e tenus ( f ig . 1 ) . L es i mages s tandard c ompor tent 2 56 l i gnes d e 2 56 p o in ts ( f ig . 4 ) . L 'acqu is it ion d es d onndes e s t f onc t ion d e l a v i tesse d e d dp lacement d u p a lpeur . E l le e s t c ho is ie t r es l ente a f in d ' obten ir l e s t races l e s p lus p réc is . L 'acqu is it ion d 'une t e i le i mage d ure e n moyenne 1 0 m inu tes . L a r eso lu t ion max ima le e s t d e 1m icron s e lon xe t ye td e 0 , 06 m icron s e lon z .L a f i gure 2 mont re l ' arch i tec ture d u s ysteme . L ' image n umdr ique o b tenue e st t r id imens ionne l le , e l le c ons t itue u n v er itab le s ubs t itu t d e l ' ob jet e t s e p rete r emarquab lement b ien a ux e xp l ica t ions u l tdr ieures . L es d onndes q u 'e l le c ont ient p euvent e t re u t i l isdes d ans l e d dsordre p our d es d escr ip t ions s t a t ist iques d e l a m icrotopog raph ie ( f ig . 3 ) . Ma is e l les p euvent a uss i , e t c ' est l ä q ue l a mdthode montre t ou t s on i ntdret , ' e t re t ra itdes d ans l ' ordre p our l e t race d es r epresenta t ions d e l ' a ire d tud ide p ar e xemp le e n p er spect ive i s omdtr ique o u b ien p ar l i gnes d e n iveau . D es d onndes p art ie l les p euvent d ga lement e t re e x t ra i tes c omme d es c oupes o u d es d eta i ls c ompr is d ans u ne f our che t te d ' a l t i tude d onnde . L es i mages p euvent a uss i e t re r edressdes d e f a pon ä d l im iner l e s d car ts d e f o rme . Ap r ior i , i ln ' y ag uere d e

16

P hoto 1 :E nsemb le d u s ysteme u t i l ise .

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17

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l im ites ä l ' exp lo itat ion d e c e t ype d e d ocuments q u i s e r evä le b eaucoup p lus r i che d ' inf ormat ion q u 'une s imp le i mage b id imens ionne l le e xp lo itee e n a na lyse d ' image . L es p r inc ipaux i nconven ients d e c et te t e chn ique s ont d 'une p art l e c oüt d e l ' appare i l lage , d ' autre p art l a d if f icu lte q u ' i l p eu t y a vo ir ä p os it ionner l a p art ie i nteressante d e l ' ob jet . Une e tude p rea lab le d e c e lu i -c i a u m icroscope o pt ique r es te d one i nd ispensab le p our d eterm iner l e s z ones i n teressantes . Ie st c l a ir q u 'un t e l p rocede f ourn it d es i mages d e t r äs h aute q ua l i td . S on i n teröt p our l a t raceo log ie e st d one i nden iab le . R este ä u t i l iser l e p otent ie l d e d onnees q uant itat ives d i spon ib les . C 'est e v idemment d ans c e d oma ine q ue l e s c hoses s eront l e p lus d if f ic i le .

L 'ANALYSE DES DONNÜES Ic onv ient t ou t d ' abord d ' exam iner s ur u ne v ue i s omdtr ique l ' aspect g enera l d e l a s urface a f in d ' y d ece ler l ' eventue l le p resence d e z ones d 'usure n et tement d if erenc ides . A ins i , l ' examen d e l a f i gure 1 3 , q u i r epresente l a p ar t ie a ct ive d 'un o u t i l a yant t rava i l le , montre e n f a it 3 r eg ions : —u ne z one e t ro ite p ara l lä le a u t ranchant , —u n b ourre let e ga lement p ara l lä le a u t ranchant , —u ne z one d e r accordement ä l a s ur face i n it ia le . D 'autres s urfaces p euvent e ga lement p resenter d es a cc idents s i ngu l iers d ont i l c onv ient d e t en ir c ompte . C 'est l e c as d e l a r eg ion i lus tree p ar l a f i gure 6 d ans l aque l le s e v o ient d es «c omätes »d ont l ' axe p r inc ipa l e s t p ara l lä le a u t ranchant d e l ' out i l . L e d eux iäme t emps d e l a d emarche c ons iste ä e ssayer d ' ident if ier l e o u l e s mecan ismes d 'usure d u ma ter iau p ar c ompara ison a vec l e s d onnees d i spon ib les d ans l a l i t tdrature s pec ia l isee . On s a it q ue l e s g rands modes d 'usure d es ma ter iaux s ont l ' usure p ar a bras ion , p ar r eact ion c h im ique , p ar a dhes ion ( ou t ransf er t d e ma ter iau ) e tp ar f a t igue . L a p resence d e r ayures s uggärera l ' usure a bras ive ;c e l le d ' eca i l les d e «c omätes » l ' usure p ar f a t igue ;l e s m icropo l is l ' usure p ar r eac t ion c h im ique e t l e s b ourre lets l ' usure p ar t ransf ert . On n otera q ue t r äs s ouvent d ivers t ypes d 'usure s e p rodu isent s imu ltandment . C 'es t l a r a ison p our l aque l le i lv au t m ieux n e p as d tud ier l ' usure d e t e l les s urfaces u n iquement s ous l ' ang le q uant itat if . L e t r o is iäme t emps d e l a d emarche c ons is te ä u t i l iser l e s d onnees q uant ita t ives c ontenues d ans l ' image n umer ique . On p eu t , p ar e xemp le , c aracter iser u n m icropo l i p ar u n p aramätre s ta t ist ique t e l q ue l e R a t r id imens ionne l ( rugos ite moyenne ) o u b ien p ar t out p aramätre t radu isant l a r epar t it ion s tat ist ique d es h au teurs ( Z ) a u -dessus dun p lan moyen ( x , y ) . A ins i , u n R a d e 0 , 1 gm t radu ira u n p o l i «s a t ine »;u n R a d e 0 ,01 gm c aracter isera u n p o l i «m iro ir » . 1 20

On p eut d ga lement , äl ' a ide d e p lans d e r df drence b ien c ho is is , mesurer V dvo lu t ion d u p rof i l dune s urface dun o u t i l äd if drentes d tapes d e s on t rava i l ( f ig . 9 -1 0 ) . On a a l ors d irectement a ccös a ux mod if icat ions d es c o tes l o ca les t radu isant l e s p er tes o u l e s g a ins d e ma t iäres . T oute l a d i f f icu ltd d e l a t e chn ique r es ide e n f a it d ans l a r ea l isat ion d 'un p lan d e r df drence q u i d o it — s ans s ' user l u i möme — ö tre p roche d es s urfaces t rava i l lantes .

LES PRE MIERS RESULTATS P our l 'aude p rd l im ina ire p rdsentde i c i , n ous a vons t este l a mdthode s ur q uatre t ypes d e p iöces : —d es s i lex n 'ayant p as t rava i l ld , —d es l ames d e f auc i l les n do l ith iques , —d es b ur ins e xp a imentaux a yant s erv i äl a f abr icat ion d ' a igu i l les ä c has e n o s , —d es g ra t to irs e xp a imentaux a yant ad u t i l isds s ur d es p eaux d e mou tons ( s ans a bras if s ) . L es

s i lex

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d ta ient t ous

d e

mö me

o r ig ine

ä g ra in f i n .

L es

o ut i ls

e xpdr i mentaux o nt ad u t i l isds j usqu 'ä c e q u ' i ls n e s o ient p lus e f f icaces e t q u 'un r dav ivage d ev ienne i nd ispensab le p our o bten ir u n b on f onct ionnement ( c ependant d es r e levds i n termdd ia ires o nt a d e f ectuds t ou t a ul ong d u t rava i l ) .

L e s i lex b ru t L e

r e levd

p rdsentd i c i

( f ig . 4 )

e st d e

2 56 l i gnes

d e

2 56

p o ints .

L e

p as

d ' dchant i l lonnage e st d e 1gm . L a r ugos itd e st h omogöne , p lutöt a n isotrope , c omposde d e n ervures d ouces e t a l longdes d ans l a d irect ion d e l ' axe d e d db itage . L eur amp l itude moyenne e st d e 3gm . L a r ugos itd moyenne e st R a .2 ,4 gm . L a f onct ion d e r dpar t it ion d es h au teurs f a i t l ' ob jet d e l af i g . 5 a .

L es d ld men ts d e f aue iles a yant t rava ild d es e drda les D eux r e levds s ont p rdsentds i c i . L e p rem ier ( f ig . 5 ) p ermet d e c o mparer l e t ranchant , l e m icropo l i e t l a p ar t ie b rute d e l ' ou t i l 6 4 l i gnes d e 1 024 p o ints a vec u n p as d ' dchant i l lonnage d e 5m icrons d ans l e s d i rect ions x e t y . L e s econd ( f ig . 6 ) , p lus p réc is , d dta i l le l a z one a ct ive d e l ' ou t i l . Ie st d e 2 20 l i gnes d e 2 56 p o ints a vec u n p as d ' dchant i l lonnage d e 1m icron d ans l e s d i rect ions x e ty . L a f i gure 7 montre c l a irement l ' dvo lu t ion d e l a m icrotopograph ie a ux a bords d u t ranchant :u n m icropo l i e xcept ionne l lement d dve loppd s ' est f o rme s ur e nv iron 3 00 gm d e l argeur .

1 21

1 22

Z o n e d e s i l e x b r u t r e l v 6 e d e 2 5 6 l i g n e s d e 2 5 6 p o i n t s a v e c u n p a s d ' c h a n t i l o n a g e d e 1 i . t r n e n x e t y .

1 23

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1 24

F ONCTION D ES

D E R E :PARTITION H AUTEURS

1 00.00

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0. 00 20.00

10.00

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F ig . 7 :F onct ion d e r epar t it ion d es h au teurs ( c ourbe d 'Abbot t ) : a-dun s i lex b ru t , b -dun s i lex a yant t rava i l le d es c erea les ( hors c o mätes ) , c-dun s i lex a yant t rava i l le d es c erea les ( c ometes c o mpr ises ) .

l ine z one i ntermed ia ire s ' etend s ur 6 00 gm . L a f i gure 7 montre l a z one d u m icropo l i . S on R a ( hors c ometes ) e s t 0 ,05 gm , c e q u i e xp l ique s a r ef lect iv ite . C et te z one e st p arsemee d e c ometes d ont l ' axe p r inc ipa l e s t p ara l le le a u t ranchant , e t , d ans c e c as p réc is , äl a d i rec t ion d u t rava i l . L a f i gure montre c l a irement l a p arente d e f o rme d e c es c ometes a ins i q ue l eurs d i f f erences d e t a i l les . L eur c oncav ite e tant e l les Tame m icropo l ie , i le st p robab le q u 'e l les s e s ont f o rmees e n d ebu t d e t rava i l . L a f i gure 7 p ermet d e c omparer l e s f onct ions d e r epar t it ion c umu lee d es h auteurs ( c ourbes d 'Abbot t ) p our l a s urface b ru te ( a ) e t l e m icropo l i d e l a z one h ors t r ous ( b ) . L e r edressement s pectacu la ire d e l a c ourbe t radu it l e p o l issage d e l a s urface . L a c ourbe C montre ä q ue l p o int i ls era it t r ompeur d e r ea l iser c e t te c ourbe ä p art ir d e l ' ensemb le d es d onnees e ng lobant l e s c ometes . Dans l ' eta t a c tue l d es c hoses , o n p eut a vancer l ' hypothese d 'une u sure p ar f a t igue s u iv ie dun p rocessus c omp lexe q u i a l l ie p robab lement t ransf er t e t p er te d e mat iere p rem iere ( Thomas 1 982 ) .

1 25

1 26

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t s D

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1 27

r i

L e g ra f tage d es p eaux L es f i gures 8 e t 9 montrent d i f f drentes d tapes d e l ' usure d es g ratto irs a u c ours d u t rava i l . L es r e levds s ont d e 2 56 1gm e n xe ty .

l i gnes d e 2 56 p o ints a vec u n p as d ' dchant i l lonnage d e

On o bserve l a f ormat ion d u p o l i . L a m icrotopog raph ie s ' adouc it r dgu l ierement j usqu 'ä l ' obtent ion dune s urface p rat iquement l i sse . C ontra irement a ux p o l is q u i s e f o rment s ur l e s s urf aces d es f auc i l les , a ucune «c o mete »n e s e f orme p endant l ' 6vo lu t ion d e l ' usure . C e f a it mdr ite q u 'on s ' y a rröte . L e s i lex u t i l isd d tant l e mdme q ue p rdcddemment , l ' absence d e «c o mete » e st -e l le d ue a u c hangement d e mat iere t rava i l lde o u a u c hange ment d e s ens d u mouve ment ( de p ara l le le a u t ranchant i e st d evenu p erpend icu la ire ) ? Un s u iv i d e l a f ormat ion d u m icropo l i d ans l e s mörnes c ond it ions ma is a vec u n g este p ara l le le a u t ranchant montre q ue l ep o l i r este i d ent ique s ans a u cune f o rma t ion d e c o metes . L e t rava i l d ' aucun a utre ma tdr iau n e f a it a ppara itre d es c ometes i den t iques ä c e l les p rdcddemment d dcr ites . L 'appar it ion d e c e l les -c i s e mb le d one l i de ä l a n ature möme d u ma tdr iau t rava i l ld . L a f igure 1 0 montre l a d im inu t ion d u Ra e n f onc t ion d u t emps d e t rava i l d es g rat to irs ;e n 6 0 m inu tes l ' ou t i l e s t c o mp letement dmoussd . Ra

2 -

1 -

3 0 F ig . 1 0:

6 0

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t emps d e t r ava i l e n m in .

E vo lu t ion d u Ra e n f onct ion d ut emps d e g ra ttage d es p eaux .

1 28

L a f i gure 1 1 montre r evo lu t ion c orrespondante d es c ourbes d 'Abbot t . E l le v i sua l ise b ien l e r edressement d e l a f ourchet te d es a l t itudes d ues a u p o l issage . C e c as s emb le r e lever dune u sure p ar r eact ion c h im ique a vec u ne l egere c o mposante a bras ive ( Thomas , 1 982 ) .

F UNCTION D ES

D E R EFRRTITION H PUTEURS

1 00.00 _

dc

7 5. 0 0 ad ebu t d u t r ava i l b3 0 m inu tes c 6 0 m inu tes

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F ig . 1 1 : E vo lu t ion d es c ourbes d 'Abbot te n f onct ion d ut emps d e g raf tage d es p eaux .

L a f abr ica t ion d 'une a igu ile ä c has e n o s L af i gure 1 2 mont re l ap ar t ie d e r ou t i l q u i at rava i l le . Ie s t e f ectue s ur 2 5 l i gnes d e 1 00 p o ints c hacune a vec u n p as d ' echant i l lonnage d e 1 gm e n xe ty . C es i mages met tent e n e v idence 3 z ones d i s t inc tes : -u ne b ande e t ro i te p ara l le le a u t ranchant e tp o l ie ( Ra = 0 , 24 gm ) , -u n b ourre let p ara l le le a u t r anchant t r es d eve loppe ( l argeur d e 8 0 ä1 20 gm ) ,I 1 e s t p o l i s ur l af a ce d e r accordement äl ab ande p recedente , -l a s urface b ru te . L ' examen d es p rof i ls montre q ue l e s a l t itudes moyennes d es 3z ones s ont n et tement d i f f erentes . C e l le d e l a p rem iere s e s i tue s ystemat iquement e n d essous d e c e l le d e l a s urface b ru te . On p ense äu n d epar t d e mat iere . C e l le d u b ourre let e s t t ou jours a u -dessus d el as urface b ru te moyenne :o n p ense äu n a ppor td e ma t iere . Is emb le q ue c e ta pport s o i t p lus i mpor tant q ue l e d epar t . Du f a it d es i ncer t itudes e x is tant s ur l a d eterm inat ion d u p lan d e r ef erence , c e d ern ier r esu ltat a ura it b eso in d ' êt re c onf irme . D es m icroana lyses e l ementa ires EDS ( Energy D ispers ive S pectrometry ) o nt é té p rat iquees s ur l e ma ter iau s uperf ic ie l , ( epa isseur a na lysee :2 gm ) . S eu l l e s i l ic ium ( S i

1 29

1 30

P a r t i e

a c t i v e d ' u n o u t i l q u i a t r a v a i l e " d e l ' o s .

m e t r e n v a l e u r l e s d i T f g r e n t e s z o n e s

L ' g c h e l e d e s Z a d t a m p l i f g a f i n d e m i e u x

U )

02)ad t d d dtec td s ur l az one b rute . S ur l eb ourre let , o n d dtecte d u s i l ic ium ( S i 02)a vec d es t races d e c a lc ium . S ur l az one u sde , o n d d tecte d e 4 5 ä6 4 %d e c a lc ium e tl ec o mp lement e n s i l ic ium . L e t rava i l d e l ' os s ' ef f ectue d one a vec t ransf ert d e mat iäre o sseuse , ma is i s ' accompagne d 'un c ons iderab le d dp lacement d e s i l ice q u i f o rme b ourre let e t d ont n ous i gnorons l e mdcan isme e xact .

CONCLUSION L a mdthode ( c omme l e montrent l e s p rem iers r dsu ltats q ue n ous a vons e xposés i c i ) s e mb le t out ä f a it c o mp ldmenta ire d e c e l le u t i l isde t rad it ionne l lement ( m icroscop ie o pt ique ) . E n e f et , l eb ut d e n otre d dmarche n ' est p as d e r emp lacer l e s e tudes f a ites a u m icroscope p ar d ' autres , mo ms r ap ides ( e t p lus c oüteuses e n i nvest issement ! ) . Nous a vons c herchd u n moyen q u i p ermet tra it d e p a l l ier c erta ins d es i nconvdn ients e t d es l im i tes d e l a m icroscop ie o pt ique . L es a cqu is it ions o btenues g räce ä l ' appare i l lage q ue n ous a vons u t i l isd n ous o nt p erm is d e p rog resser d ans p lus ieurs d i rect ions : —t out d ' abord , l a v i s ion t r id imens ionne l le d es s urfaces a na lys6es n ous a p erm is d e met tre e n e v idence d es p rocessus d 'usure d if drents . E n e f et l e s t r o is c as p rdsentds i c i i nd iquent q ue p our c hacun d ' eux p lus ieurs p rocessus d 'usure d ont c erta ins s ont t rs c omp lexes s e c omb inent . L a v ar iab i l i te d es p o l is d 'usur e e s t d one b i en u ne r ea l i te , e l le s ' exp l ique t rs p robab lement p ar l a d ivers itd d es mdcan ismes d 'usure o bserves . —l e s d if f erences e ntre l e s p o l is a ppara issent a uss i l o rs d es d ivers c a lcu ls n umdr iques d 'Abbot t ) . . . .

e f f ectuds : r ugos itd moyenne ( Ra ) , f onct ions d e r dpart it ion

( c ourbe

L a q uant if i cat ion d es d if drents t ypes d 'usure e s t d one p oss ib le . S i l a d i st inct ion e ntre l e s mat iäres p rdsentdes i c i e st i nddn iab le , i ln ous r este e ncore ä t e ster p lus ieurs matdr iaux :c oqu i l lage , b o is , c o me , b o is d e c erv idd . . . P our

c e

d ern ier

l e s

p rem i res

a na lyses

n ous

montrent

l ' ex istence

d e

c aractdr ist iques p ropres ä c e matdr iau , r endant d i f f ic i le a p r ior i l a c onfus ion a vec l e s a ut res ma t i res t e stdes . C es p rem iers r dsu lta ts n ous s e mb lent e ncourageants , n ous p ensons d one c ont inuer n os i nvest igat ions a f in dune p art d e t e rm iner , s i c ' est p oss ib le , u ne c aractdr isat ion q uant itat ive d es p o l is e t d ' aut re p art d e c o mprendre l e s mdcan ismes p ropres ä c hacune d es f o rmat ions d es u sures o bservdes .

1 3 1

BIBL IOGRAPHIE

BAUCHE , ( R . ) 1 986 . - D ie Anwendung v on Rauhe itsmessungen b e i d er Untersuchung v on

n eo l it ischen

Mah l -und

S ch le if ste inen .

Ear ly Man News , n ° 9 -10-11,

News let ter f o r Human p a leco logy , Tub ingen 1 984 -85 . BEYR IES , ( S .) , DELAMARE , ( F . ) , QUANT IN , ( J . -C . ) , 1 987 .— E tude q uant itat ive d es t races d 'ut i l isat ion s ur o ut i ls l i th iques p ar r ugos i metr ie t r id i mens ionne l le . Archgo logues e t o rd ina teur n ° 1 0 , L et tres d ' inf orma t ion d u C .R .A . n ° 3 2 , CNRS , p .3 -8 . MANSUR -FRANCHO M ME ,

( M .E .) ,

1 986 .— Microscop ie d u ma ter ie l l i th ique p rü " -

h is tor ique :t races d 'u t i l isa t ion , a l t &a t ions n a ture l les , a cc iden te l les e t t e chno l og iques . C ah iers d u Qua terna ire n ° 9 , CNRS , 2 86 p . QUANT IN , ( J . -C . ) , 1 986 .— App l ica t ion d e l a r ugos imar ie t r id imens ionne l le ä l ' e tude d es s urf aces .These , E co le d es m ines d e P ar is . QUANT IN , ( J . -C .) , DARQUE -CERETT I , ( E . ) , CO MBAR IEU , ( R . ) , DELA MARE , ( F . ) , 1 986 — S urface a nd I nter face a na lys is , v o l . 9 ,p .1 25 -128 . SCOTT , ( D . ) , 1 979 — Wear , A cade m ic P ress , 5 28 p . THO MAS , ( T . -R . ) , 1 982 — Roughsurf aces , L onL i t an e d , L ondon , 2 61 p .

1 32

RECENT DEVELOP MENTS IN AUSTRALIA N USE - WEAR AND RESIDUE STUDIES

R ichard FULLAGAR *

ABSTRACT:

U se -wear a nd r es idue s tud ies i n A us tra l ia h ave c oncen tra ted o n a na lys ing t ype a r tefac ts a nd f o rma t ion p ro cesses o fu se -wear . R ecen t d eve lopmen ts h ave i nvo lved me ta l log raph ic m icroscopes t o e xam ine e nt ire a ssemb lages o f s t one a r tefacts . R es idues , s uch a s b lood , c o l lagen , r es in , c e l lu lose a nd s tarch , w ere f ound t o b e much more c ommon t han t hough t p rev ious ly . But p rob lems i n t he i n terpreta t ion o fb o th u se -wear a nd r es idues s ugges t t ha t a n i n tegra t ion o f «u se -wear a nd r es idue a na lys is« i sc urren t ly t he mos t p roduc t ive a pproa ch . R ESUME : L es e tudes d ' usure e t d e r es idus s e s on t c on cent rees e n Aus tra l ie s ur l ' ana ly se d es a r tefa c t s t ypes e t d es p ro cessus d e f o rma t ion d e l ' usure . L es d eve loppement s r ecents c ompor ten t d es m icroscopes meta l log raph iques p our e xam iner d es a ssemb lages c omp let s d ' ar tefa c ts d e p ierre . On at r ouve q ue l e s r es idus t e ls q ue s ang , c o l lagäne , r es ine , c e l lu lose e t am idon e ta ient b eaucoup p lus c ommuns q ue c e q u 'on p revoya i t . Ma is d es p rob l mes d ' in terpre ta t ion d e l ' usure e t d es r es idus ä l a f o is s uggeren t q u 'une i nteg ra t ion d e l ' « a na lyse d 'usure e t d e r es idus » e st g enera lement l ' appro che l ap lus p roduc t ive .

I NTRODUCTION S ince t he p ub l icat ion o f S tone T oo ls a s C u l tura l Markers . . . (Wr ight 1 977 ) , Austra l ian s t one t oo l s tud ies h ave b egun t o a ddress s evera l i s sues i n a dd it ion t o t hose f ramed i n t erms o f c u lture h istory . T hese i s sues , a l though s l ow t o d eve lop , c oncern i mproved u nderstand ing o f l i th ic t e chno logy , i nterpreta t ive p r inc ip les a nd t heoret ica l f rameworks ( H iscock 1 983 ) . On t he o ther h and , t he c u lture -h istor ica l f ramework c ont inues t o b e p roduct ive a nd i si mp l ic it i n t he c l ass if ica t ion o f a ssemb lages i nto t he Austra l ian C ore T oo l a nd S craper T rad it ion ( Bow ler e ta l . 1 970 ) , t he Austra l ian Sma l l T oo l T rad it ion ( Gou ld 1 969 ) a nd t he r ecent ly p roposed Austra l ian L esser R etouched T rad it ion ( Campbe l l 1 984 ) . Mu lvaney ( 1977 ) h as b road ly r ev iewed s t one t oo l c l ass if icat ions i n Austra l ian p reh is tory a nd a rgued t ha t f unct ion h as p layed a v a luab le r o le i n t he 3 40 y ears s i nce t he e ar l iest European e thnog raph ic o bservat ions . He f urther s uggested t hat emphas is o n s t one t oo l f unct ion t o t he e xc lus ion o f t ypo logy u ndu ly r estr icted a rchaeo log ica l r econstruct ion a nd i nterpretat ion o f h ow p eop le l i ved ( Mu lvaney 1 977 :2 67 , s ee a l so S ackett 1 982 ) . But i n Austra l ia , a s e l sewhere ,t here h as b een as h if ti nf o cus a way f r om t he i n teract ion o fc u lture t ra i ts t o a c t iv i t ies i n as ys tem ic c ontex t ( I saa c 1 977 :5 ) . I ti si n t h is

* Un iver s i ty o fS ydney , An thropo logy , D ep t . S ydney , N .S .W . 2 006 , Aus tra l ie .

1 33

c ontext o f r econstruct ing a nd e xp la in ing a ct iv it ies t hat f unct iona l a na lys is i s o f p ar t icu lar v a lue . Wh ite a nd O 'Conne l l ( 1982 :8 5 -88 ) o u t l ined f our r ecent a pproaches t o f l aked s t one t e chno logy wh ich , t hey s uggest , o f f er more p rom ise t han f o rma l c l ass i f icat ion . I n t he f i rst a pproa ch u se -wear a na lys is i sv i ewed a s av iab le method f o r d eterm in ing s t one t oo l f unct ions . I n t he s econd , Wh ite a nd O 'Conne l l a dvocated s tudy o f t he r e lat ionsh ips b e tween r aw mater ia l a nd t he s pa t ia l a nd t empora l d i str ibut ion o fs t one t oo ls . T he t h ird a pproach a dvocated i s s tudy o f t he t e chno logy o f t oo l manufacture wh ich c oncerns p roduct ion o ff o rma l t oo l t ypes . F our th ly , Wh ite a nd O 'Conne l l a dvocated t he s tudy o f l ong t erm t rends i n wh ich s t one t oo ls a re v iewed o n ac ont inenta l s ca le . T hey a lso emphas ised t he r esu lts o f r ecent e thnoarchaeo log ica l r esearch i n Austra l ia a nd P apua N ew Gu inea f o r s t one t oo l s tud ies . G enera l ly , Wh ite a nd O 'Conne l l ( 1982 ) s eem t o i mp ly t ha t t he most p roduct ive d irect ions f o r s t one t oo l r esearch i n Austra l ia l i e i n r ef in ing methodo log ica l p rob lems . T he o b ject ives o f t h is p aper a re t o o u t l ine methodo log ica l a spects o f p rev ious Austra l ian r esearch i n u se -wear a nd r es idue a na lys is a nd t o s ummar ise s ome r ecent a pp l icat ions .

PREV IOUS RESEARCH M icroscopes h ave b een u sed b y a rchaeo log ists a lmost s i nce t he e ar ly s c ient if ic a pp l icat ions b y H ooke ( 1665 ) i n t he s eventeenth c entury ( e .g . S tuke ly 1 740 :5 , c i ted i n C ann e ta l . 1 971 :5 78 , N i lsson 1 868 :1 04 ) . T he f i rst s ystemat ic , m icroscop ic u se -wear a na lyses o f a rchaeo log ica l t oo ls i n Austra l ia o ccurred i n t he 1 960 's . J ones ( 1971 :4 73 4 86 ) , f o l low ing S emenov ( 1964 ) a nd Mc Burney ( 1967: P lates I V a nd I X , 1 968: 4 03 ) , e xam ined s t one t oo ls w ith t he a id o f as t ereom icroscope u nder o b l ique l i ght w ith a magn if ica t ion r ange o fb etween X 7 a nd X 30 . Wh ite ( 1969: 2 6 -27 ) e xam ined s t one t oo ls u nder a X 10 h and l ens . Mc B ryde ( s ee Mu lvaney 1 969 :8 3 ) a l so c onducted t oo l -use e xper iments w ith s k ins a nd p lants i n o rder t o r ep l icate a p art icu lar u se -po l ish . Haf t ing t races i n t he f o rm o f r es in h ave b een n ot iced o n c erta in Austra l ian s t one t oo ls s ince t he n ineteenth c entury ( e .g . E ther idge 1 987 :2 ) . Mc B ryde ( 1978 ) e xam ined t races o fh af t ing r es in o n b acked b lades u nder f l uorescent l i ght . F lood ( 1983 :2 03 -204 ) e xam ined , u nder f l uorescent l i gh t , t oo ls t hough t t ob e mo th -crush ing p es t les . F lood ( 1983: 1 41) a l so r epor ted o rgan ic r es idues o n s ome 1 0 ,000 y ear o l d s t one t oo ls f r om Wyr ie Swamp i n S ou th Aust ra l ia . I ti so fp ar t icu lar i n terest t ha t a rchaeo log ica l t oo ls may h ave b een h af ted ,b ecause o f t he i mpor tance o ft h is c oncept t o p reh istor ic s tud ies i n Austra l ia ( Mu lvaney a nd J oyce 1 965 , Mu lvaney 1 969 , 1 971 :3 74 -376 ,J ones 1 977 ) . T he s ma l l s i ze o fs ome i mp lements may s uggest h af t ing ( Semenov 1 964 :1 13 -115 ) . Morphofunct iona l e v idence h as a l so b een o f i mpor tance i n Austra l ian p reh istory ( M itche l l 1 949 , Mu lvaney a nd J oyce 1 965 , C . Wh ite 1 971 , J ones 1 977 , 1 979 ) . I n s ome c ases s uch e v idence i s s upported b y e thnog raphy a nd c i rcums tant ia l e v idence ( e .g . J .P . Wh ite 1 971 :1 91 , G ou ld 1 977 ) . Haf ted i mp lements i nc lude s pear p o ints , b arbs , a xes , a dzes , h atchets , g ravers a nd p robab ly b acked b lades ( a s b arbs o r p o ints ) . Kamm inga ( 1971) a nd Mu lvaney ( 1971 :3 74 ) b oth s uggested t ha t u se -wear a na lys is m ight r eso lve whether o r n ot p ar t icu lar p reh istor ic i mp lements w ere h af ted . R ecent r esearch h as e xam ined e v idence o f h af t ing g um o n

1 34

Austra l ian s t one t oo ls ( e .g . Wr ight 1 971 :1 38 , Mc B ryde 1 978 , K amm inga 1 980 , 1 982 , R eyno lds a nd B owden 1 980 , B owden a nd R eyno lds 1 982 , C osg rove 1 983 ) . J ones ( 1971 :4 81) s ubm it ted p hotog raphs o fu se -wear t o Mc B urney who c o mpared J ones ' p hotog raphs w ith t he e dges o fe xper imenta l t o o ls u sed t ow ork w ood . A f ter i n it ia l ly e xam in ing many o f t he t oo ls m icroscop ica l ly , J ones s e lected t oo ls o f t he most s u itab le mater ia l , maroon c hert a nd a rg i l l ite , f o r more d eta i led m icroscop ic a na lys is . U t i l ised f l akes w ere r ecogn ised a s ad i st inct c ategory , t he ma in c oncern b e ing t o d eterm ine t he f unc t ions o ft he ma jor t o o l t ypes . Wh ite 's ( 1967 , 1 969 , 1 972 ) a na lyses o f s t one t oo ls f r om P apua New Gu inea emphas ised

e dge -scarr ing

o n

i r regu lar ly

s haped

f l akes .

Theref ore ,

f o l low ing

Mu lvaney a nd J oyce ( 1 965 ) , h e w as more c oncerned w ith t he e dge t han t he i mp lement a s a who le when i n terpret ing whether o r n ot a n a rtefact was a t oo l . T h is e dge morpho logy a pproa ch h as r ecent ly b een c r it ic ised b y A l len who c l a imed t ha t i ts uf f ers f r om t he s ame w eaknesses a s t he f o rma l t ypo log ica l a pproa ch i tw as d es igned t or ep lace ( A l len 1 985 :2 4 2 5 , s ee a l so Dunne 1 1 1 978 ) . R ecent r esearch h as d emons tra ted t he n ecess ity o fm icroscop ic a na lys is , o f ten a t h igh magn if i cat ion i n o rder t o e x tra ct d e ta i ls a bout t oo l f unct ion . S t i l l , t here i sl i t t le d oubt t ha t e dge morpho logy a nd t oo l d es ign a re u sefu l f o r c o mpar ing a nd c haracter is ing c hanges i n s ome a spects o ft e chno logy ( Wh ite a nd O 'Conne l l 1 982 : 8 4 ) . T he w ork b y Mu lvaney a nd J oyce ( 1965 ) a nd Wh ite ( 1967 , 1 969 , 1 972 ) w as i mpor tant f o r u se -wear a na lys is i n Austra l ia b ecause i t d emonstra ted t hat t oo ls i n Austra l ian p reh istory c ou ld o f ten o n ly b e i d ent if ied b y a na lys ing t he e dges . C ontrary t ot he s i tua t ion i n Europe , where f o rma l t oo l t ypes w ere f ound t o b e a bundant , Austra l ian a ssemb lages s eemed t o b e l arge ly c ompr ised o f s l ight ly mod if ied p r imary f l akes . T he c ontr ibut ion b y u se -wear a na lysts h as n ot o n ly b een t o g ive more d eta i ls a bou t t oo l f unct ion b ut t o d i st ingu ish b etween d amage c aused b y u se a nd d amage c aused b y o ther a genc ies , s uch a s a cc identa l b reakage a nd p os t -depos it iona l d amage ( Kamm inga 1 982 :1 04 -105 ) . Dur ing t he 1 970 's s evera l u se -wear p ro jects w ere u ndertaken i n Austra l ian a rchaeo lo g y: G ou ld e ta l . 1 971) , K amm inga ( 1971 , 1 978 ) , Hayden a nd Kamm inga ( 1973 ) , O 'Conne l l ( 1974 ) , B ronste in ( 1977 ) , B rown ( 1978 ) , a nd Hayden ( 1979a ) . A l l i nvo lved e thnograph ic o bserva t ions o r u se o f e thnograph ic i nf orma t ion . Kamm inga ( 1971 , 1 978 , 1 982 ) h as c o mp leted t he l argest c orpus o f t oo l -use e xper iments ( 444 ) y et r epor ted . H e a t tempted t o s ys tema t ica l ly d eterm ine t he f unct ions o f s e lected Austra l ian s t one t oo l t ypes . T h is a pproach d id n ot a ddress t he p rob lems f a ced b y Mu lvaney a nd J oyce ( 1965 ) a nd Wh ite ( 1967 , 1 969 , 1 972 ) , who w ere c oncerned w ith t hose a r tefacts wh ich d id n ot f i t i nto a ny f o rma l t ypo logy , b ut Kamm inga 's r esearch d id e s tab l ish t he b as is f o r , a nd a nt ic ipa ted , s tud ies o f t h is k ind . I n a dd it ion t o t hese t ype s pec if ic s tud ies Kamm inga 's ma in c ontr ibut ion t o u se -wear a na lys is h as b een h is r esearch i nto f ormat ion p rocesses o f u se -po l ish ( Kamm inga 1 979 ) a nd f ractur ing ( Cot tere l l a nd Kamm inga 1 979 , 1 986 ;C ot tere l le ta l . 1 986 ) . O ther r ecent u se -wear r esearch i n Austra l ia h as c ont inued t he t rad it ion o f t ype s pec if ic s tud ies :Mc B ryde ( 1978 ) o n m icro l i ths a nd p ro ject i le p o ints , G i l l ieson a nd Ha l l ( 1982 ) , o n b eve l led p ound ing t oo ls , C osg rove ( 1983 ) o n «oyurkas »( s ee Mc C ar thy 1 976: 8 2 ) , J ones a nd B rockwe l l ( s ee J ones 1 985 ) o n b r ight ly p o l ished f l akes f r om t he A l l iga tor R ivers R eg ion i n n or thern Austra l ia ;a nd Kamm inga ( 1985 ) o n «P irr i »g ravers , a nd B oot ( 1986 ) o n b acked m icro l ith ic b lades .

1 35

I n t e rms o f methods , u se -wear a na lys is i n Austra l ia h as n ot f o l lowed t he a pproach o f most r esearchers who h ave r e if ied t he n ot ion o f p o l ish t ypes ( e .g . Vaughan 1 985 ) . N e ither h as r esearch b een r estr icted t o t he l ow p ower , s t ereoscop ic a pproach ( e .g . Ode l l a nd Ode l l -Vereecken 1 980 ) , a l though t h is h as b een t he most c o m mon method i n Austra l ian u se -wear s tud ies . B oth Kamm inga ( 1978 ) a nd C osg rove ( 1983 ) emp loyed e l ectron m icroscopes a nd e xam ined t he p oss ib le d iagnost ic v a lue o f c er ta in k inds o f p o l ish . T he ma jor d if erence b etween most u se -wear r esearch c onducted h ere a nd t hat c onducted o verseas i s t hat , i n Austra l ia , meta l log raph ic m icroscopes w ith v ert ica l i nc ident i lum inat ion h ave o n ly b een u sed r are ly . T he u se o ft h is k ing o fm icroscope f o r u se -wear s tud ies was p ioneered b y S emenov ( 1964 ) a nd h is a ssoc iates ( s ee L ev it t 1 979 ) , R osenf e ld ( 1971 ) a nd K ee ley ( 1980 ) . I n b r ief , meta l log raph ic m icroscopes a l low e xce l lent , h igh r eso lut ion h igh magn if icat ion c o lour i mages . T he v ar ious o pt ica l c ontro ls a l low t he i lum inat ion t o b e c hanged i n o rder t o e nhance , h igh l ight o r e l im inate c er ta in f eatures . These m icroscopes a re p art icu lar ly u sefu l f or e xam in ing u se -po l ishes a nd , w ith d arkf ie ld a t tachments , a re e ssent ia l f o r e xam in ing d eta i led s t ructures o fr es idues . I th as b een a rgued t ha tt here i s an eed t oi n teg ra te u se -wear a nd r es idue a na lys is a nd t o d eve lop more r i gorous e xper imenta l methods ( Kamm inga 1 983 , K amm inga a nd F u l lagar 1 984 ) . There

h ave

b een

t hree

f unct iona l

a na lyses

i n

Austra l ia

i ncorporat ing

meta l lograph ic m icroscope e xam ina t ion o f e nt ire s t one a ssemb lages . T hese a na lysed a ssemb lages a re f r om t he s i tes o fA ire S he lter I ( Fu l lagar 1 982 , 1 983 ) a nd t he c ave o n G reat G lenn ie I s land ( Fu l lagar 1 986a: 2 28 -264 ) i n c oasta l s ou theastern Austra l ia , a nd B irr iga i r ockshe lter i n t he s outheastern Austra l ian h igh lands ( Fu l lagar 1 987 ) . A s s eems t o

b e

c o mmon

w ith

f unct iona l

a na lyses

wh ich

i nc lude

h igher

magn if icat ion

e xam inat ions ( Ode l l 1 983 ) , t he p rocedure i s t ime c onsum ing a nd u sua l ly a ssemb lages h ave b een s amp led .

RECENT APPLICAT IONS S t imu lated b y B ru ier ( 1976 ) , S haf er a nd H o l loway ( 1979 ) , Anderson ( 1980 ) a nd p art icu lar ly b y L oy ( 1983 , N e lson e ta l . 1 986 ) , a ma jor d eve lopment i n Aus tra l ian s t one t oo l s tud ies s ince 1 982 h as b een t he i nvest igat ion o f r es idues ( e .g . B oot 1 986 , F u l lagar 1 986 ) . A lthough r es idues h ave b een

r ecogn ised a nd i dent if ied o n s tone t oo ls f or a

c ons iderab le t ime , t he ir p reservat ion h as b een t hought t o b e r a ther e xcept iona l a nd a p roduct o f u ncommon p reservat iona l c ond it ions s uch a s a naerob ic s wamps ( e .g . Morr is 1 984 ) o r d ry c aves ( e .g . Wy l ie 1 975 ) . I tn ow a ppears t hat r es idues , s uch a s b lood , c o l lagen a nd p lant mater ia ls , s urv ive much more o f ten a nd t ha t t he ir s tudy i sa n e ssent ia l s tage i n s t one t oo l a na lys is ( Loy 1 983 , F reder ickson 1 985 , F u l lagar 1 986a ) . A s econd d eve lopment s ince 1 982 h as b een t hrough t he u se o f meta l lograph ic m icroscopes , ac l earer i dea o ft he r ange a nd d i s t inc t iveness o fu se -po l ishes o n av ar iety o f s t one t ypes f r om Austra l ia a nd P apua New Gu inea , i nc lud ing c her t , f l int , h ornf e ls , i mpact ite ( Darw in G lass ) , o bsd id ian q uartz , q uar tz ite s andstone a nd s i lcrete . I n g ene r a l , e xper imenta l ly p roduced p o l ishes , e ven o n f l int , w ere f ound t o b e l e ss d i st inc t ive when t he t oo ls w ere u sed t o w ork av ar iety o fp lant a nd a n ima l ma ter ia ls f r om Austra l ia a nd P apua N ew Gu inea ( Fu l lagar 1 986a , 1 986b: 1 20 -165 ) t han s eemed t o b e t he c ase f o r Europe ( e .g . Moss 1 983 ) a nd Nor th Amer ica ( e .g . K ee ley 1 980 ) .

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These d eve lopments i n r es idue i dent if icat ion a nd p o l ish c haracter isat ion r a ise i n terest ing i s sues c oncern ing t he f uture d i rect ion o f f unct iona l a na lys is . T he r esu lts f r om t wo u se -wear a nd r es idue s tud ies a re b r ief ly d escr ibed i n o rder t o e xam ine t hree o f t hese i s sues . D eta i ls o ft hese a na lyses h ave b een r epor ted e l sewhere ( Fu l lagar 1 982 , 1 983 ; i np ress ) a nd w i l lb e p ub l ished a t al a ter d a te . I n b oth a na lyses s ummar ised h ere , c l ean ing o f s t one a rtefacts was k ept t o a m in imum , b oth s t ereoscop ic a nd meta l lograph ic m icroscopes w ere u sed a nd s im i lar k inds o ft e chn iques w ere emp loyed . A ire S he lter I i s as ma l l r ockshe lter i n ac a lcaren ite f o rmat ion o n t he i n land s i de o fc oas ta l d une s ystems . I to ver looks a l a rge f r eshwater w et land e nv ironment o n t he e dge o fd ense f o rest i n t he s ou thwestern t i p o f C ape O tway , s outheas tern Austra l ia . As i ng le r ad iocarbon d a te i nd icates t ha t t he t hree metres o fd epos it p robab ly a ccumu lated i n l e ss t han a bout t he l a s t 6 00 y ears ( Mu lvaney 1 962 ) . M icroscop ic a na lys is ( Fu l lagar 1 982 ) o f 1 814 p ieces o f s t one f r om A ire S he lter I r evea led 3 24 u t i l ised e dges a nd s urfaces o n 2 42 t oo ls o ff l int , q uar tz , q uar tz ite , s andstone , t rachyte a nd l imestone . T h is was i n c ontrast t o p rev ious r esearch ( Mu lvaney 1 962 ) i n wh ich o n ly 8 t oo ls w ere i dent if ied . B one ( c o l lagen ) r es idues w ere i dent if ied o n t he e dges o fs o me t oo ls . Ana lyses o fs t one , b one a nd o ther ma ter ia l w ere i nteg rated t o s uggest t he r ange o fa ct iv it ies c arr ied o ut a t t he s i te . F ive t oo lk its w ere i dent if ied , f o r w ork ing s t one , b one , s he l l , w ood a nd s of t p lants . T he a na lys is a t A ire S he lter I c oncentra ted o n t he mode o fu se , a l though mater ia l w orked was i dent if ied i n many c ases . The mode o fu se f o r 1 10 t oo ls was n ot d eterm ined a nd r es idues w ere o n ly f ound o n 1 3 t oo ls . S ixty -f our p ieces o f mod if ied b one w ere i dent if ied a nd 4 9

o f t hese w ere

manufactured i nto b one p o ints . The u se -wear a nd r es idue a na lys is d id n ot f i nd a d i st inct ive «b one p o l ish » o n a ny s t one t oo ls , a l though s evera l o f t he f l int f l akes h ad b een f l aked t o f orm s imp le b ur ins wh ich d id h ave p o l ish a nd b one r es idues i mpac ted a l ong t he s t eep -ang led b ur in e dge . E xper iments i nd icated t hat p o l ish o n f l int t oo ls may f o rm f r om b one w ork ing w ith in a f ew h undred s t rokes . I n c ontrast t o t he t oo ls u sed t o w ork b one , s evera l t oo ls h ad a s mooth , d eve loped p o l ish , wh ich w as v ery s im i lar t ot ha tp roduced o n t oo ls u sed t ow ork p lants . H owever , n o d i st inct ive r es idues w ere f ound o n t hese t oo ls . T he s econd s i te , QBB , i s ar ockshe lter p robab ly o ccup ied d ur ing t he l ast f ew t housand y ears i n t he Upper Yuat R iver v a l ley , P apua N ew Gu inea ( Goreck i i n p ress ) . A s amp le o f1 61 s t one a r tefac ts was s e lected f r om at o ta l o f2 681 a nd i n c luded p ieces o fc her t , h ornf e ls a nd q uar tz ite . T he s amp le i nc luded 4 5 b lades wh ich s eemed t o f o rm a d i st inct f unct iona l g roup f o r s aw ing s i l iceous p lant mater ia ls . I nterest ing ly , o rgan ic p lant r es idues ( poss ib ly p a lm w ood ) a nd b r ight s i l ica p o l ish w ere p resent o n many o ft hese t oo ls ( Fu l lagar , i n p ress ) . N one o ft he t oo ls e xam ined h ad p os it ive t ests f o r b lood , whereas r es idues p resent o n s evera l t oo ls r eacted p os it ive ly t o l i gn in a nd g enera l p lant s ta ins . T he f i rs t i s sue t ob e r a ised h ere i s :H ow c an r es idue s tud ies a nd u se -wear a na lys is b e i n teg ra ted ? H ow c ommon a re r es idues? I fr es idues s uch a s b lood , s tarch , c o l lagen , p lant f i bres a nd r es in a re c ommon , s hou ld a t tent ion f o cus e nt ire ly o n r es idues ? 1 37

T he A ire S he lter I s i te d a ta s uggest t ha t r e s idues a re n ot n ecessar i ly more c ommon t han u se -wea r a nd a l so i nd ica te t ha t , t o ac e r ta in e x ten t , t he t e chn iques o fu se w ear a nd r es idue a na lys is a re i n c onf l ict . K ee ley ( 1980 ) a dvoca ted s t r ic t c l ean ing t e chn iques i n o rder t o e xam ine p o l ish t ypes . A lthough i ti s d oub tfu l t ha t h i s c l ean ing p rocedures w i l l d estroy a l l o rgan ic r es idues , t he p os s ib i l i ty o fi d ent if y ing r e s idues s u ch a s b l ood w ith i mproved t e chn iques ( Loy 1 983 ) mus t c au t ion a ga ins t a ny u nnecessary t r ea tment o r h and l ing o f s t one t o o ls . A t t h is s t age , h owever , s i nce s omet imes r e s idues s e em t ob e a bsent f r om t o o ls o ra re p oor i nd ica tors o fm ode o fu se , i tw ou ld b e f o o lhardy t o i gnore t he f unc t iona l e v idence f r om u se -wear . As e cond i s sue r a ised b y t he d if erent ia l p reserva t ion o fp lant r es idues a t t he t wo s i tes c oncerns h ow r es idues c an b e r e la ted t o t o o l u se . S ome t imes r e s idues s e em t o b e p resent a nd p o l ish a bsent a nd v i c e v e r sa s ugg es t ing t ha tt he t aphonom ic p rocesses o fh ow p ar t icu lar k inds o fr es idues a re p reserved a re n o t w e l l u nders tood . T o w ha t d eg ree c an o rgan ic f r agmen ts i n t he a rchaeo log ica l s ed imen ts c ont r ibu te t o r e s idues o n t he e dges o f t o o ls ?R es idues may s how c l ear i nd ica t ions t ha t t hey a rose f r om u se , b y v i r tue o ft he ir d i s t r ibu t ion a nd o r ienta t ion , b u th ow a re t hese m od if i ed b y p ost -depos i t iona l d i sturbance , e xcava t ion , s i ev ing a nd h and l ing? A t p resent t here a re n o c ont ro l led s tud ies o ft hese p rocesses a nd o bv ious ly t hey a re u rgent ly r equ ired . A t h ird i s sue c oncerns t he o f ten l a rge p ropor t ion o f s t one t o o ls w h ich c an b e i d ent if ied a s h av ing b een u sed , b u t f o r wh ich f unc t iona l d eterm ina t ions c annot b e v ery p rec ise . A re t hese h igh l e ve ls o f i naccuracy mere ly t he r esu lt o f i nadequa te s k i l ls? W i thou t o ther c o rrobora t ing e v idence Iw ou ld a rgue t ha t i ti so n ly p oss ib le t od e term ine w ith c onf idence t he r ange o f a ct iv it ies u nder taken a t as i te b ut n ot t he ir r e la t ive p ropor t ions . T h is i s sue a l so b eg s t he q ues t ion o fw he ther l a rge n umber s o fc e r ta in c l asses o ft o o ls c an b e e qua ted w i th t he ir r e la t ive i mpor tance a t as i te . S hou ld af ew c u ra ted w ood s c rapers b e c ons idered o f e qua l i mpor tance t o many s l ight ly m od if ied p r imary f l akes u sed t og rave b one? P resumab ly t he l e ss mod if ied t o o ls r e la te m ore t o o n -s it e a c t iv it ies , b u th ow r e l iab le a re e s t ima tes o ft o o lp ropor t ions? A l l t hree i s sues r a ised h ere h ark b ack t o t he f undamenta l p rob lem t ha t t he t aphonom ic p rocesses o fo rgan ic a nd i norgan ic r e s idue a ccret ion o n s t one t o o ls a re n o t w e l l u nderstood .

CONCLUSIONS U se -wear a nd r es idue a na lyses i n Aus tra l ia d o n ot f a l l n ea t ly i n to t he h igh p ower / low p ower d i chotomy w h ich c harac ter ises a pproaches i n s ome c oun tr ies . T he r e la t ive ly r are u se o fm eta l log raph ic m icroscopes h as p robab ly i nh ib ited a d eve lopment o fd ependence u pon p o l ish t ypes . F ur ther , a tt he s ame t ime t ha ti n tere st d id a r ise i nt he u se o f m eta l log raph ic m icroscopy f o r e xam in ing p o l ishes o n A us tra l ian s t one t o o ls , s evera l r e sear chers h ad a l so b ecome i n teres t ed i n r es idues . T o s ome e x ten tt he r e cen ti n teres ti nr e s idues d eve loped o u to ft he d eba te among u se w ear a nd m icrowear a na lys ts w ho a t tempted t o i d en t if y t he n a ture o fp o l ish f o rmat ion . C entra l i s sues h ave b een w he ther o r n ot p o l ishes a re t he s ame a nd whe ther t hey a re a dd i t ive o r r educt ive . A re s ome p o l ishes i nf a c t r e s idues , p erhaps e ven o rgan ic r e s idues ? T he r esear ch o f L oy ( 1 983 ) h as a l so b een i nf luent ia l i n c aus ing r e -assessment o f t he s urv iva l o f r es idues a nd t he i nf luence t hey m ight h ave o n m icroscop ic i mages ,

1 38

p art icu lar ly i n s imu la t ing p o l ish . D esp ite d i s i l lus ionment a bout s carr ing p at terns ( Vaughan 1 985 ) , p o l ish t ypes ( Newcomer e ta l . 1 986 , v an G i jn1986 ) a nd t he d if icu lt ies i n i dent ify ing r es idues p rec ise ly ( Fu l lagar 1 986 ) , a n i n teg ra t ion o ft hese t e chn iques s eems t oo f er t he mos tp rodu c t ive a pproach . I t may b e e xpec ted t hat a dvances w i l l b e made i n r es idue s tud ies b y a n i n teg rat ion w ith b iochem ica l a na lyses ( Loy 1 983 , s ee a l so B eck 1 985 ) . A ppropr iate p rocedures f o r e xcava t ing , h and l ing a nd s t or ing s t one a r tefacts a re a l so i n n eed o f r ev iew ( Lampert a nd S im 1 986 ) .

B IBLIOGRAPHY ALLEN , ( H . ) , 1 985 .— A r e -exam inat ion o f t he u sefu lness o f e dge a na lys is f o r c l ass if y ing s t one i mp lement s . Aus tra l ian A rchaeo logy 2 0 :1 6 -27 . ANDERSON , ( P .C . ) , 1 980 .— A t est imony o f p reh istor ic t asks :d iagnost ic r es idues o n s t one t o o l w ork ing e dges . Wor ld A rchaeo logy 1 2 ( 1 ) :1 81-194 . BECK , (W . ) , 1 985 .—Techno logy , t ox ic ity a nd s ubs istence : a s tudy o f Austra l ian A bor ig ina l p lant f o od p rocess ing . Unpub l ished P hD t hes is , D iv is ion o f P reh istory , L a T robe Un ivers i ty . BOOT , ( P . ) , 1 986 .— B lades , b lood a nd b arbs: a f unct iona l a na lys is o f b acked b lades f r om l eve l I IA , B endemeer 1 . Unpub l ished BA ( Hons ) t hes is , D epar tment o f P reh istory a nd Anthropo logy , Austra l ian Nat iona l Un ivers ity , C anberra . BO WDEN , ( B .F . ) a nd REYNOLDS , ( B . ) , 1 982 .— The c hromatograph ic a na lys is o f e thnog raph ic r es ins . Aus tra l ian I ns t i tu te o fA bor ig ina l S tud ies N ews le t ter 1 7 :4 1 4 3 . BO WDERY , ( D . ) , 1 984 .— P hyto l iths :a mu lt itude o f s hapes . Unpub l ished BA ( Hons ) t hes is , D epartment o f P reh istory a nd Anthropo logy , Austra l ian Nat iona l Un ivers ity , C anberra . BO WLER , ( J .M . ) , JONES , ( R . ) , ALLEN , ( H . ) a nd THORNE , ( A .G . ) , 1 970 .— P le istocene h uman r e ma ins f r om Austra l ia :a l i v ing s i te a nd h uman c remat ion f r om L ake Mungo , w es tern N ew S ou th Wa les . Wor ld A rchaeo logy 2 : 3 9 -60 . BR IUER , ( F .L ) , 1 976 .— N ew c lues t o s t one t oo l f unct ion: p lant a nd a n ima l r es idues . Amer ican An t iqu i ty 4 1 ( 4 ) :4 78 -484 . BRONSTEIN , ( N . ) , 1 977 .— R epor t o n ar ep l icat ive e xper iment i n t he manufac ture a nd u se o f Western D esert m icro -adzes . An thropo log ica l P apers o f t he Amer ican Museum o f Na tura lH is tory , N ew Y ork . 5 4 ( 1 ) :1 54 -158 . [ s ee G ou ld 1 977 ] . BRO WN , ( T .A . ) , 1 978 .— E xper iments o n t he p oss ib le f unct ions o f t he p i rr i o f Austra l ia . Unpub l ished Un ivers ity .

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CAMPBELL , ( J . -B ) .— E xtend ing t he a rchaeo log ica l f r ont ier: a r ev iew o f w ork o n t he p reh istory o fN or th Queens land . Queens land A rchaeo log ica l R esearch 1 :1 73 -184 . 1 39

CANN , ( J .R . ) , D IXON , ( J .E .) a nd RENFRE W , ( C . ) , 1 971 .— O bs id ian a na lys is a nd t he o bs id ian t rade . I n D . B rothwe l l a nd E . H iggs ( eds ) S c ience i n A rchaeo logy , a R ev iew o fP rogr ess a nd R esearch . T hames a nd Hudson , s econd e d it ion , p .5 79 -591 . COSGROVE , ( R .F . ) , 1 983 .— A s ty l ist ic a nd u se -wear Unpub l ished MA t hes is , Un ivers ity o f Queens land . COTTERELL , ( B .) a nd KAM MINGA ,

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COTTERELL , ( B .) , KAM MINGA , ( J . ) a nd D ICKSON , ( F .P . ) , 1 985 .— The e ssent ia l mechan ics o fc oncho ida l f l ak ing . I n terna t iona l J ourna l o fF rac ture 2 9 :2 05 -221 . COTTERELL , ( B . ) a nd KAM M INGA , ( J . ) , 1 986 .— F in ia ls o n s t one f l akes . J ourna l o f A rchaeo log ica l S c ience 1 3 :4 51-461 . COTTERELL ,

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Amer ican An t iqu i ty . DUNNELL , ( R .C . ) , 1 978 .— A rchaeo log ica l p otent ia l o f a nthropo log ica l a nd s c ient if ic mode ls o f f unct ion . I n R .C . Dunne l l a nd E .S . Ha l l J nr . ( Eds ) A rchaeo log ica l E ssays i n Honour o fI rv ing B . R ouse , Mou ton , T he Hague :p .4 1-73 . ETHER IDGE , ( R . ) , 1 897 .— On c i rcu lar o r s p ira l i nc ised o rnaments o n Austra l ian Abor ig ina l i mp lements a nd w eapons . R ecords o f t he Aus tra l ian Museum I I ( 1 ) : 1 -6 . FLOOD , ( J . ) , 1 983 .— Archaeo logy o ft he D ream t ime . C o l l ins , S ydney . FREDER ICKSON , ( C . ) , 1 985 .—The d etect ion o f b lood o n p reh istor ic f l ake t oo ls . New Z ea land A rchaeo log ica l A ssoc ia t ion N ews le t ter 2 8 (3 ) :1 55 -164 . FULLAGAR , ( R . ) , 1 982 .— What 's t he U se? An a na lys is o f A ire S he lter I , G lena ire , V ictor ia . Unpub l ished MA ( Pre l im ) T hes is , D iv is ion o f P reh istory , L a T robe Un ivers ity , Me lbourne . FULLAGAR , ( R . ) , 1 983 .— A f unc t iona l a na lys is o f a n amorphous f l int i ndus try . P aper p resented t o t he 1 1 th I nternat iona l C ong ress o fA nthropo log ica l a nd E thno log ica l S c iences , P hase I , Vancouver , Augus t2 0 -25 . FULLAGAR , ( R .) , 1 986 .— U se -wear a nd r es idues o n s t one t oo ls . F unct iona l a na lys is a nd i t s a pp l icat ion t o t wo s ou theastern Austra l ian a rchaeo log ica l a ssemb lages . Unpub l ished P hD t hes is D epartment o f A rchaeo logy , L a T robe Un ivers ity , Me lbourne . FULLAGAR , ( R .) , 1 986 .— Use -wear o n q uartz . I n G . Ward ( ed .) Archaeo logy

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ANZAAS , C anberra A rchaeo log ica l S oc iety , C anberra . p .1 91 -197 . FULLAGAR , ( R . ) , 1 987 .— U se -wear a nd r es idue a na lys is o f B irr iga i s t one t oo ls . I n J . F lood , B . Dav id , J . Magee a nd B . E ng l ish B irr iga i :a P le istocene s i te i n t he s ou th -eastern H igh lands . A rchaeo logy i n O cean ia , 2 2 ( 1 ) :9 -26 , p .2 5 -26 .

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FULLAGAR , ( R . ) , i n p ress .— L ith ic u se -wear a nd r es idue s tud ies . I n P . -P . G oreck i ( ed . ) AC rack i n t he S p ine: P reh is tory o ft he Upper Yuat a nd L ower J im i R eg ion , P apua New Gu inea . D epar tment o f P reh istory , R esearch S choo l o f P ac if ic S tud ies , Austra l ian Nat iona l Un ivers ity , T erra Aus tra l is . G ILL IESON , ( D .S . ) a nd HALL , ( J . ) 1 982 .— B eve l l ing Bungwa l l b ashers: a u se -wear s tudy f r om s outheas t Queens land . Aus tra l ian A rchaeo logy 1 4: 4 3 -61 . GORECK I , ( P .P . ) ( ed . ) i n p ress .— A C rack i n t he S p ine: P reh istory o ft he Upper Yua t a nd L ower J im i R eg ion , P apua N ew Gu inea . D epartment o f P reh istory , R esearch S choo l o f P ac if i c S tud ies , Austra l ian Na t iona l Un ivers ity , T erra Aus tra l is . GOULD , ( R .A . ) , 1 969 .— P untut jarpa R ockshe lter : a R ep ly t o Messrs . G lover a nd L amper t . A rchaeo logy a nd P hys ica l An thropo logy i n O cean ia 3 ( 3 ) :1 62 -185 . GOULD , ( R .A . ) , 1 977 .— P untu t jarpa r ockshe lter a nd t he Austra l ian d esert c u lture . An thropo log ica l P aper s o ft he Amer ican Museum o f Na tura l H is tory 5 4 ( 1 ) . GOULD , ( R . ) , KOSTER , ( D . ) a nd SONTZ , ( A . ) , 1 971 .— The l i th ic a ssemb lage o f t he Wes tern D esert a bor ig ines o f Aus tra l ia . Amer ican An t iqu i ty 3 6 ( 2 ) :1 49 -169 . HAYDEN , ( B .) , ( ed .) 1 979a .— P a laeol ith ic Abor ig ina l S tud ies , C anberra .

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«m icrowear »:a c r it ica l r ev iew . N ews le t ter o fL i th ic T echno logy 1 1 ( 1 -2 ) :3 -14 . H ISCOCK , ( P . ) , 1 983 — S tone t oo ls a s c u ltura l markers? The l ast t wo d ecades o f Aus tra l ian s t one a r tefact a na lys is . Aus tra l ian A rchaeo logy 1 6 :4 8 -56 . HOOKE , ( R . ) , 1 665 .— M icrograph ia , o r s o me P hys io log ica l D escr ipt ions o f M inute B od ies made b y Magn if y ing G lasses , w ith O bservat ions a nd I nqu ir ies t hereupon . R oya l S oc iety , L ondon . [ Facs im i le r epr int :D over P ub l ica t ions , N ew Y ork , 1 9611 . I SAAC , ( G . ) , 1 977 .— S queez ing b lood f r om s t ones . I n R .V .S . Wr ight ( ed . ) S tone T oo ls a s C u l tura l Markers: C hang e , E vo lu t ion a nd C omp lex i ty . Austra l ian I nst itute o f Abor ig ina l S tud ies , C anberra . p .5 12 . J ONES , ( R . ) , 1 971 .— R ocky C ape a nd t he p rob lem o ft he T asman ians . Unpub l ished P hD t hes is , Un ivers ity o fS ydney , S ydney . J ONES , ( R . ) , 1 977 .— The T asman ian p aradox . I n R .V .S . Wr ight ( ed . ) S tone T oo ls a s C u l tura l Markers: C hange , E vo lu t ion a nd C omp lex i ty . Austra l ian I nst itute o f Abor ig ina l S tud ies , C anberra . p .1 89 -204 . J ONES , ( R . ) , 1 979 .— The f i f th c ont inent: p rob lems c oncern ing t he h uman c o lon isat ion o f Aus tra l ia . Annua l R ev iew o f An thropo logy 8 :4 45 -466 . NES , ( R . ) , ( ed . ) , 1 985 .—Ar chaeo log ica l R esearch i n Kakadu Na t iona l P ark . Austra l ian Na t iona l P arks a nd W i ld l if e S erv ice S pec ia l Pub l icat ion 1 3 , C anberra .

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KAM M INGA , ( J . ) , 1 971 .— M icroscop ic a nd e xper imenta l s tudy o f Austra l ian A bor ig ina l s t one t oo ls . Unpub l ished BA ( Hons ) t hes is , Un ivers ity o fS ydney , S ydney . KAM M INGA , ( J . ) , 1 977 .— A f unct iona l s tudy o f u se -po l ished e l ouras . I n R .V .S . Wr ight ( ed . ) S tone T oo ls a s C u l tura l Markers: C hange , E vo lu t ion a nd C omp lex i ty . Austra l ian I nst itu te o fA bor ig ina l S tud ies , C anberra . p .2 05 -212 . KAM M INGA , ( J . ) , 1 978 .—Journey i nto t he m icrocosms :a f unct iona l a na lys is o f c er ta in c l asses o f p reh is tor ic s t one t oo ls . Unpub l ished P hD t hes is , Un ivers ity o f S ydney , S ydney . KAM M INGA , ( J . ) , 1 979 .— The n ature o f u se -po l ish a nd a bras ive s mooth ing o n s t one t oo ls . I n B . Hayden ( ed . ) L i th ic U se -wear Ana lys is . A cadem ic P ress , L ondon . p .1 43 -157 . KA M MINGA , ( J .) , 1 980 .— A f unct iona l i nvest igat ion o f Austra l ian m icro l iths . T he A r tef ac t 5( 1a nd 2 ) :1 18 . KAM M INGA , ( J . ) , 1 981 .— The b eve l led p ounder: a n A bor ig ina l s tone t oo l t ype f r om s ou theas t Queens land . P roceed ing s o ft he R oya l S oc ie ty o f Queens land 9 2 :3 1 -35 . KA M M INGA , ( J . ) , 1 982 .— O ver t he E dge . O ccas iona l P apers i n An thropo logy 1 2 . Anthropo log ica l Museum , Un ivers ity o f Queens land . KAMMINGA , ( J . ) , 1 983 .— T he f uture o fi n teg ra ted u se -wear a na lys is . P aper p resented t o t he 1 1th I nternat iona l C ong ress o f Anthropo log ica l a nd E thno log ica l S c iences , P hase I , V ancouver , August 2 0 -25 . KAM M INGA , ( J . ) , 1 985 .— T he P irr i g raver . Aus tra l ian Abor ig ina l S tud ies 2 : 2 -25 . KA M MINGA , ( J . ) , a nd FULLAGAR , (R . ) , 1 984 .— Use -wear a na lys is i n Austra l ia . P aper p resented t ot he 1 984 ANZAAS C ong ress , C anberra . KEELEY , ( L .H . ) , 1 980 .— E xper imen ta l D e term ina t ion o fS tone T oo l U ses :A Microwear Ana lys is . Un ivers ity o f Ch icago P ress , C h icago . LAMPERT , ( R . ) a nd S IM , ( R . ) , 1 986 .— R es idues o n a r tefacts: i mp l icat ions f o r h and l ing a nd s or t ing . Aus tra l ian A r chaeo logy 2 2 :1 57 -159 . LEV ITT , ( J . ) , 1 979 .— A r ev iew o f e xper imenta l r esearch i n t he U .S .S .R . I n B . Hayden ( ed ) L i th ic U se -wear Ana lys is . A cadem ic P ress , L ondon . p .2 7 -38 . LOY ,

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i dent if ica t ion o fs pec ies o fo r ig in . S c ience 2 20: 1 269 -1271 . Mc BRYDE , ( I . ) , 1 978 .— B acked b lade i ndustr ies f r om G raman R ock S he lters , N ew S ou th Wa les :s ome e v idence o n f unct ion . I n V .N . M isra a nd P . B e l lwood ( eds ) R ecent Advances i n I ndo -Pac if ic P r eh is tory . P roceed ing s o f t he I nterna t iona l S ympos ium h e ld a tP oona , D ecember 1 9 -21 ,1978 , O xf ord a nd I BH , N ew D e lh i . p .2 31 -249 . Mc BURNEY , ( C .B .M . ) , 1 967 .— T he Hau l. 'F teah ( Cyrena ica ) a nd t he S tone Ag e o f t he S ou th Eas t Med i terranean . C ambr idge Un ivers i ty P ress , C ambr idge .

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Museum , S ydney . MITCHELL , ( S .R .) , 1 949 .—S tone -Ag e C raf tsmen . T a it , Me lbourne . MORR IS , ( G . ) , 1 984 .— M icrowear a nd o rgan ic r es idue s tud ies o n Sweet T ra ck f l ints . I n J .M . C o les , J . B . O rme a nd S . E . R ou i l lard ( eds ) S omer se t L eve ls P aper s 1 0 :9 7 1 06 . MOSS , ( E .H . ) , 1 983 .—The f unct iona l a na lys is o f f l int i mp lements . BAR I n terna t iona l S er ies 1 77 . MULVANEY , ( D .J . ) , 1 962 .— A rchaeo log ica l e xcavat ions o n t he A ire R iver , O tway P en insu la , V ictor ia . P roc eed ings o ft he R oya l S oc ie ty o fV ic tor ia 7 5 :1 15 . MULVANEY , ( D .J . ) , 1 969 .— T he P r eh is tory o f Aus tra l ia . T hames a nd Hudson , L ondon . iF irst E d it ion . MULVANEY , ( D .J . ) , 1 971 .— Abor ig ina l s oc ia l e vo lut ion : a r etrospect ive v iew . I n D .J . Mu lvaney

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ODELL , ( G . -H . ) a nd ODELL -VEREEC KEN , ( F . ) , 1 980 .— Ver ify ing t he r e l iab i l ity o f l i th ic u se -wear d eterm ina t ions b y «b l ind t e sts »:l ow p ower a pproa ch . J ourna l o f F ie ld A rchaeo logy 7 : 8 7 -120 . REYNOLDS , ( B . ) a nd BO WDEN , ( B .F . ) , 1 980 .— T he c hromatograph ic a na lys is o f g ums a nd waxes u sed i n A bor ig ina l a r tefac ts . CO MA B u l le t in 6 : 2 3 -27 . ROSENFELD , ( A . ) , 1 971 .— The e xam inat ion o f u se marks o n s o me Magda len ian e ndscrapers . T he B r i t ish Museum Quar ter ly 3 5: 1 76 -182 . SACKETT , ( J . ) , 1 982 .— Approaches t o s ty le An thropo log ica l A rchaeo logy 1 ( 1 ) :5 9 -112 .

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WR IGHT ( R .V .S . ) ( ed . ) , 1 977 .— S tone T oo ls a s C u l tura l Markers: Change , E vo lu t ion a nd C omp lex i ty . Aus tra l ian I nst itu te o fA bor ig ina l S tud ies , C anberra . WYL IE , ( H .G . ) , 1 975a .— A r t ifact p rocess ing a nd s t orage p rocedures :a n ote o f c au t ion . News le t ter o fL i th ic T echno logy I V ( 1 -2 ) :1 7 -19 . WYL IE , ( H .G . ) , 1 975b .— T oo l , m icrowear a nd f unct iona l t ypes f r om H ogup C ave , U tah . T eb iwa 1 7 ( 2 ) :1 -31 .

1 45

APERCU SUR LA TRACEOLOGIE SOVIET IQUE CONTE MPORAINE

Hugues PLISSON*

ABSTRACT:

A f ter as urvey o ft h em i c row ea ra na ly s is r e sea r ch a sc ar r ied o u ti nS SSR u p t ot h e 1 970s a nd t h e ir e s sen t ia l c on t r ibu t ion t ot h e d i s c ip l ine , t here a re g i ven t he p resent t r ends a nd s pec if i c i ty o f s ov ie t m icrowea r a na ly s is t h rough a n a c coun t o fi t s ma in r e sea r chers ' t e chn iques , m e thod s a nd w orks . R tsu v r t : A prs u n r appe l d es r e cher ches t r a ceo log iques m enees e n URSS j usqu 'au d ebu t d e s a nnees s o ixan te -d ix e t d e l e ur c on tr ibu t ion e s sen t ie l le a l ac r ea t ion d e l a d i sc ip l ine , s on t p r esen tees l e s o r ien ta t ions a c tue l les e tl as p e c if ic i te d el at r a ceo log ie s ov ie t ique ät r av er s u ne xpo se d es t e chn iques , d e sm 6 thode se td e st r avaux d es e sp r in c ipaux c her cheu rs .

Dans l e c adre d es e changes s c ient if iques e ntre l a F rance e t l 'Un ion S ov iet ique , i m 'a d te d onne d e p asser c i nq mo is ( j anv ier ä j u in 1 986 ) al ' Inst itu t d 'Archeo log ie d e L en ing rad d e l ' A cadem ie d es S c iences S ov iet ique , d ans l e l aborato ire d e T raceo log ie E xper imenta le f onde p ar S .A . S emenov e t d inge a u jourd 'hu i p ar G .F . K orobkova . C e s e jour m 'a p erm is , g räce a l a g endros ite e t al a c onf iance d e G .F . K orobkova e t d es membres d e s on e qu ipe , d e me f am i l iar iser a vec u n p an d e l a r echer che t ra ceo log ique q u i d emeure p eu c onnu , ma lg re l e tAs u t i le a r t ic le d eJ .L ev it t( 1979 ) . L eb ut d e c es p ages n ' es t p as d e r etracer u n h istor ique d e l a t raceo log ie s ov iet ique , ma is d 'apporter d es i nf ormat ions c o mp le menta ires p our a ider a l a c onna itre . Outre u ne b ib l iog raph ie d es t ravaux r ecents , e s tp resentee u ne s u ite al ' annua ire d e Tüb ingen ( Owen e ta l . 1 982 -1983 ) ( v o ir p .1 73 d u p resent v o lume ) . S i l ' on r econna it h ab i tue l lement q ue l a p ub l icat ion d e «P reh istor ic T echno logy » ( 1964 ) , t raduct ion a ng la ise d ' un o uvrage d e 1 957 d u c hercheur r usse S .A . S emenov , e st ä l ' or ig ine d u d eve loppement d e l a r echerche t raceo log ique d ans l ' archeo log ie o cc identa le , o n t end c ependant a c ons iderer q ue l ' or ientat ion a ctue l le d e l a t raceo log ie e st r edevab le e ssent ie l lement a ux t ravaux d e L .H . K ee ley ( 1980 ) . L .H . K ee ley e st l e p rem ier p reh istor ien o cc identa l aa vo ir d emontre q u ' i l e ta it p oss ib le d e d eterm iner d 'une f apon s ystemat ique l a n ature d es mat i res t rava i l lees p ar l e s o ut i ls d e s i lex a p art ir d e l ' ana lyse a u m icroscope o pt ique ä r e f lex ion d e l eurs s urf aces u sees , r econna issab les a l a p resence d e «m icro -po l is » c aracter ist iques . L es e tudes a nter ieures ä l a s i enne , mendes e n Europe o u a ux E tats -Un is , s ' eta ient l im itees , o u tre l a r econst itut ion d e l a c i nemat ique , au ne e st imat ion d e l a d urete r e lat ive d es

L abora to ir e d 'E thno log ie P r gh i s tor iqu e , 5 5r ue d el ' am ira l Mouchez , F -75014 P ar i s . 1 47

ma t ieres p enetrees p ar l e s p ar t ies a c t ives , s ur l ab ase d ' examens af a ib le g ross issemen t . E t d ans l a p ub l icat ion möme d e S .A . S emenov , e n l angue a ng la ise ( 1964 ) , l e s c omb ina isons d e c arac teres p ermet tant d e p arven ir a l ' ident if ica t ion d e c e s ma t ieres t rava i l lees n 'ava ient p as 6 t6 p resentees n i i lustrees d e f a9on e xhaust ive n i s ystema t ique :p rec ises d ans c er ta ins c as , e l les e t a ient p eu c l a ires d ans d ' au tres . C ec i e xp l ique l e s d if f icu l tes r encon trees a l ' epoque p ar l e s a rcheo logues o c c identaux p our r eprodu ire l e s o bservat ions d u c hercheur s ov ie t ique . L a t raceo log ie «p ost -K ee ley » s ' etant c oncentr6e s ur l ' ana lyse d es m icropo l is d 'usage , n on s ans u ne c er ta ine d emesure , c es l a cunes d e «P reh is tor ic T echno logy »n ous a ppara issent s ens ib les . C ' es t p our tant ma l c omprendre c e q u 'es t f ondamenta lement l a t ra ceo log ie . Aucun d es e l ements d e l a d emar che methodo log ique p resentee p ar L .H . K ee ley n ' es t a bsent d e l ' approche d e S .A . S emenov , p as m ö rne l e s o bserva t ions a u m icroscope o p t ique ä f o r t g ross issement , s ynonymes a u jourd 'hu i p our b eaucoup d e t raceo log ie . S .A . S emenov a d es l e d ebu t d e s a r echerche s ou l igne l a n ecess it6 d e l ' i l lus tra t ion p hotog raph ique d es c arac teres d ' usure , o bserves ( 6mousses , 6 brechures , s t r ies , p o l is ) , e t , b i en q ue l im it e p ar l e s e spa ces d e p ub l ica t ion e tp a r l at r es med iocre q ua l i t 6 d es p rocedes d ' impress ion , i l ap ub l ie n ombre d e v ues , t ant macros cop iques q ue m icroscop iques , q u i d emeurent i n te l l ig ib les a ux s pec ia l is tes a c tue ls . T ou t a u l ong d e s a r echerche e t d e s on e nse ignement , i laa uss i b eaucoup i ns is te s ur l a n ecess it6 f ondamenta le d e l ' exper i menta t ion ;i l ae ncourage s es e tud iants ae n f a ire e tl e s aa ides d ans c e t te v o ie . Ap ar t ir d e 1 967 o nt 6 t 6 menees d es e xped it ions c o l lec t ives d ' exper imen ta t ion , c ondu ites s ur d es t hemes p rec is e tb enef ic iant d e t au te l ' inf ra struc ture l og is t ique •hab itue l lement r eservee a ux f ou i l les ( v eh icu les , t entes , c r ed i ts ) . C ependant , i l f aut a t tendre 1 969 p our q u 'une r echerche e xhaust ive s ur l ' ident if ica t ion d es mat ieres t rava i l lees s o it m ise e n c euvre p ar S .A . S emenov , a vec l ' a ide d e s es e tud ian ts . B ien q u 'ex is tan t a uparavant , c t ype d e r e cher che a va it e t 6 m end d e f avon p lus i nf orme l le e n r a ison d ' ob ject if s i n it iaux d if erents d e c eux q u i s eront u l ter ieurement v i ses p ar l e s t raceo logues o cc identaux . L a t raceo log ie i n it iee p ar S .A . S emenov s ' es t d eve loppee d ans u n c ontex te s c ient if ique d i s t inc t d u n ö tre , o r ien te s c ion l e s c oncept ions marx is tes . E l le e u tp our b u t «l 'e tude d es t e chn iques d e p rodu c t ion » d es s oc ietes h uma ines l e s p lus a nc iennes .E l le e ng loba d ans s on a pproche , n on s eu lement l a f onc t ion d es o u t i ls d e t ou tes f o rmes e t d e t ous ma ter iaux ( s i lex , b asa l te , q uar tz ite , o bs id ienne , . , c eram ique , a s , b o is d e c erv ide , i v o ire , e t c . ) , ma is a uss i l e s p rocedes d e l eur f abr ica t ion ; d es t hemes d e r echerche q u i s eront s epares d ans l ' archeo log ie o cc identa le . L es d i f f erents v es t iges d e l 'a ct iv i te h uma ine e tan t p r is e n u n t ou t , d ans u ne o p t ique v er i tab lement t e chno log ique , l ' a t tent ion f u t p or tee s ur f evo lu t ion d es t e chn iques d e t rava i l d epu is l eP a leo l ith ique a nc ien , e tl e s o u t i ls c ons ideres l ef u rent d ' apres l eur a c t ion p hys ique s ur l a ma t iere , c ' es t ad ire s c ion l eur c i nemat ique . I l i mpor ta it a l ors d e d ef in ir l e s d if eren tes c l asses d ' ins truments a yant e x is te , d es p lus r ud imenta ires a ux p lus 6 1 abores , e t d e s u ivre l eur d ivers if i ca t ion a t r aver s l et emps e t l ' espace . L ' ident if ica t ion p rec ise d es ma t ieres t r ava i l lees e ta it s econda ire p our c e t te a rcheo log ie d u g este . E n o u tre e i le n ' e ta i t p as t ou jou rs p erm ise , e n r a ison d e l a d iver s i te d es ma ter iaux d ' ou t i l p r is e n c omp te e td e l eur e ta t d e c onserva t ion t r es v ar iab le ( 1 ) . C ec i e xp l ique l ' impor tance d es s t r ies ( t ra ces l i nea ires , e n r usse ) p arm i l e s c arac teres d 'usure c ons ideres , p u isqu 'e l les s ont d ece lab les s ur v ar ietes d e ma ter iaux , p ar t icu l ierement e n e xamen s t ereoscop ique , e t q ue d ans c er ta ins c as e l les a ppara issent möme s ou l ignees p ar l 'a l tera t ion ( d if f rac t ion e t s ur creusemen t ) . L 'approche t raceo log ique s ov ie t ique f u t äs on o r ig ine p lus g loba le , e t d ans u n s ens p lus c omp le te , q ue c e l le d eve loppee u l ter ieurement e n O cc ident .

1 48

S .A S emenov e st mor t l e 6d ecembre 1 978 , al ' äge d e 8 0 a ns , ma is d 'au tres c hercheurs , i s sus d u l aborato ire d e T raceo log ie E xper imenta le q u ' i l f onda , o nt p oursu iv i d ans l a v o ie q u ' i l a va it o uver te . L ' image q ue n ous n ous f a isons d e l a t raceo log ie s ov iet ique c ontempora ine e st a ssez r estr ict ive ;f aute d ' avo ir a ccäs a ux p ub l icat ions e t d e l i re l e r usse , l ' ukra in ien o u l ' armen ien , n ous e n i gnorons l e s t ravaux l e s p lus r ecents . D eux c ourants s e s ont d eve loppes d ans l a t raceo log ie s ov iet ique :l ' un p r iv i leg iant l e s a na lyses a f a ib le g ross issement , l ' autre i ntegrant l e s d eterm inat ions a f ort g ross issement o pt ique . L e p rem ier e s t l em ieux c onnu g räce a ux r e marquab les t ravaux d e G .F . K orobkova ( v o ir r ef erences a nter ieures a 1 974 d ans L ev itt 1 979 ) ( 1974 e t s u iv .) , q u i d inge a u jourd 'hu i l e l abora to ire d e T raceo log ie E xper imenta le d e L en ingrad . P re m ier c hercheur a s ' engager a u c öte d e S .A . S emenov d ans l a r echer che t raceo log ique , e i le f u t d ' abord l a c ont inua tr ice d e s on a pproche methodo log ique ( vo ir e n p ar t icu l ier K orobkova 1 969 ) , p u is a p art ir d e 1 967 e l le a p r iv i leg ie l a macrotraceo log ie . A c e la d eux r a isons: d 'une p art l ' amp leur d e s on p rog ramme d e r echerche , p or tant s ur l ' econom ie d es p rem ieres s oc ietes a g r ico les d u s ud d e l 'URSS , e t l e s d imens ions d es s er ies e tud ides ;e t d ' au tre p ar t l a v o lonte d e r endre l a t raceo log ie p lus a ccess ib le a ux a utres a rcheo logues s ov iet iques , p aradoxa lement mo ms f am i l iers a vec c ette v o ie d e r echerche q ue l eurs c onf räres o cc identaux . G .F . K orobkova a m is e n o euvre l ' e laborat ion d 'un a t las t raceo log ique ( 2) ,a ppuye s ur u n v aste p rog ramme e xper imenta l , d est ine ä r endre l e s c aractäres f ondamentaux d ' ident if icat ion i nte l l ig ib les p ar l ' ensemb le d es t ypo logues . C e t te o pt ion e s tp erm ise p ar l an e t tet e d es u sures q ue p or tent l e so u t i ls d ' epoque n eo l ith ique o u p oster ieure , g enera lement p lus l onguement emp loyes e t d one p lus marques q ue l e s p i kes p a leo l ith iques . Un a u tre membre d u g roupe d e c hercheurs r eun i a u tour d e S .A . S emenov s ' est o r iente v ers l a macrot ra ceo log ie . Is ' ag it d e Na ta l ia S kakun ( 1972 e t s u iv . ) q u i e tud ie l ' econom ie d es g roupes n eo l ith iques e t c ha lco l ith iques b a lkan iques d epu is 1 969 . E l le met ap rof i t p our s es r echerches e xper imenta les l e s e xemp les e thnog raph iques q ue l u i o f rent l e s t echn iques a g r ico les e t a rt isana les l o ca les a ux o r ig ines t räs a nc iennes . B ien q ue t rava i l lant e ssent ie l lement a l a b inocu la ire , s a t r äs g rande e xper ience l u i p ermet d e p arven ir , s ur l e s i lex , ad es n iveaux d e d eterm inat ion p roches d e c eux h ab itue l lement o b tenus a u m icroscope . L es

e tud iants

( equ iva lent d u 3

1 1

s ov iet iques , e

q u i

s ' inscr ivent

a u jourd 'hu i

c o m me

a sp irants

c yc le u n ivers ita ire f ranpa is ) a u l aborato ire d e T raceo log ie

E xper i menta le , c o mmencent l eur a pprent issage p ar l a macrotraceo log ie s ous l a d i rect ion d e G .F . K orobkova , ma is g enera lement u s n 'at tendent p as l e s a nnees d e t häse p our s ' in it ier ä c ette d i c ip l ine , p u isque d es s em ina ires s ont o rgan ises a l eur i n tent ion a u c ours d u c yc le p recedent . Durant mon s e jour a L en ing rad , j ' a i P u r encontrer q ue lques u ns d e c es t raceo logues d e l a n ouve l le g enerat ion . G . S oposhn ikova a chäve s a t häse s ur u ne s er ie d e s i tes d u P a leo l ith ique f i na l e t d u Meso l i th ique d u s ud d e l 'Ukra ine , d ont e i le t ente d e c aracter iser l a f onct ion ä p ar t ir d es a ct iv ites q u i s ' y s ont d erou ldes ( 1982 -86 ) . D . Nuzshn iy ( 1984 ) ac ho is i p our s u jet d e memo ire l e s a rmatures m icro l ith iques d e p ro ject i le d u Meso l ith ique Ukra in ien . T ro is t heses v i ennent r ecemment d ' être s ou tenues äl ' Inst itu t d e L en ing rad , p ar V .V . K i le inkov ( 1985 ) s ur «L 'econom ie d e l a p opu la t ion d e l a c u lture f oresto -stepp ique d u D on ( par l e s d onnees d e l ' ana lyse t raceo log ico e xper imenta le d es o u t i ls d e t rava i l ) » ,p ar A .K . A v izova ( 1986 ) s ur «L e Neo l ith ique d e l ' Oust iour t ( ä l a l um iäre d e l ' examen t raceo log ico -exper imenta l d es o ut i ls d e t rava i l ) » , 1 49

e t p ar N .A . A lesksashenko ( 1986 ) s ur «Leconom ie d u P r itobo l i nf er ieur a r epoque n eo l ith ique e t d u B ronze a nc ien ( s e lon l e s d onnees d e l ' ana lyse d es o ut i ls d e t rava i l ) » . L e d eux iäme c ourant , c o mb inant macro e t m icrotraceo log ie , c oncerne p r inc i p a lement l e s o u t i l lages l i th iques d u P a leo l ith ique . I d o it b eaucoup a ux t ravaux d e V .E . S hche l insk i i ( 1974 e t s u iv . ) q u i o nt c oncret ise l e s r echerches c ondu ites , ap ar t ir d e 1 969 , s ur l ' ident if ica t ion d es ma t iäres t rava i l lees p ar l e s o ut i ls . Dans s a t häse d e 1 974 , c onsacree a r etude d e l a f abr ica t ion e t d e l a f onct ion d es o ut i ls mouster iens p ar r exper imentat ion e t l e s a na lyses t raceo log iques , V .E . S hche l insk i i ap resente , e n r e lat ion a vec l e mater ie l a rcheo log ique , l a p rem iäre d escr ipt ion s ystemat isee d es d if f erentes c o mb ina isons d e c aractäres d 'usure macro e t m icroscop iques d eterm inees p ar l e t rava i l d es ma t iäres a n ima les e t v egeta les e xp lo itees p ar l ' Homme p reh istor ique . I yaa uss i p ropose l e si lus tra t ions l e sm ieux c ons tru it es ac ej our o ü s ont mon trees c ö te ä c öte , p hotog raph iees e t d ess inees a d if erentes e che l les , l e s t races d 'usage p a leo l ith iques e t l eurs e qu iva lents e xper imentaux ( f ig .

I a ) . A l a d if f erence d es t raceo logues

o cc identaux d e l a d ern iäre g enerat ion , i ln 'a p as d i ssoc ie l e s m icropo l is d es a utres t races , ma is l e s ac ons ideres d ans l a mesure d es i nf ormat ions s upp le menta ires q u ' i ls a pporta ient ( v o ir c i tat ion d ans P l isson , s ouspresse ) . L es i nstruments d ' observat ion d ont s e s ert V .E . S hche l insk i i s ont c eux a vec l e sque ls t rava i l la S .A . S emenov ( 1964 ) :u ne b inocu la ire a l lant j usqu 'a 1 20X ( MBS -2 ) , d 'une t räs b onne q ua l ite o pt ique , e t u n m icroscope d e meta l log raph ie a p lat ine i nversee ( MI M 6 ) p ermettant d es g ross issements j usqu 'a 5 00X e t p ourvu d ' ob ject if s d e q ua l ite c o mparab le ( f ig I b ) ac e l le d es W i ld e p is , n on p lans , d es m icroscopes Wi ld M20 e t M50 u t i l ises p ar l e s t ra ceo logues o cc identaux l e s p lus c onnus ( Owen e t a l . 1 982 -83 ) . Un s ta t if p lus r ecent ( M MY -3C2 ) e t p lus man iab le , ap lat ine n orma le , e st d ispon ib le a uss i a u l abora to ire . B ien q ue p ourvu d e b onnes o pt iques , i le s t p eu emp loye , f au te d e d i spos it if p hotograph ique , c ar V .E . S hche l insk i i p hotog raph ie s ystemat iquement , ät outes l e s e che l les ( 3)l e s u sures d es p iäces a rcheo log iques q u ' i l e tud ie e t l eurs e qu iva lents e xper i mentaux . En f in , i lu t i l ise u n p ro f i log raphe o pt ique p our d eterm iner l ed eg re d ' a ltera t ion d es s pec iment p reh istor iques . I a va it , a vec S .A . S emenov ( Semenov e t S hche l insk i i 1 971 ) , t ente d e c aracter iser l e s m icropo l is d 'usage a u moyen d e c e t i ns trument , ma is c e t te i nvest igat ion a e t e l im it& p ar l ep ouvo ir d e r eso lu t ion i nsuf f isant d u s ystäme . L es r echerches a c tue l les d e V .E . S hche l insk i i p or tent s ur l af onct ion d es o u t i l lages mouster iens e t s ur r emergence e t l ' interact ion d es g roupes c u lture ls a u P a leo l ith ique moyen . L ars d e mon s tage a u l aborato ire d e T raceo log ie E xper imenta le , j ' a i f a it l a c onna issance d e t ro is a u tres t raceo logues u t i l isant l e s f or ts g ross issements o pt iques . N . H id jrat i ( 1980 ) , d e l ' Inst itu t d 'Archeo log ie d 'Ordzon ik idze , ap ar t ir d es d onnees t raceo log iques ,

t ypo log iques

e t t echno log iques , t ente

d 'apprehender r evo lut ion

p sycho log ique d e l 'Homme , d u P a leo l ith ique moyen a l ' Age d u B ronze , t e i le q u 'e l le p eu t s ' entrevo ir d ans l e s t emo ins d e s es a ct iv it es . Ac öte d es i nstruments o pt iques q u i s ervent äs es d eterm inat ions , ip oursu it u ne r echerche methodo log ique a vec u n r ugos imätre ä a igu i l le c apab le d 'une r eso lu t ion d e d eux m icrons . S es e tudes s ont mendes s ur l e mater ie l

d es

s i tes

q u ' i l

f ou i l le .

H . Kazar ian ,

d e

l ' Inst itut

d 'Archeo log ie

e t

d 'Ethnograph ie d 'Erevan , e tud ie d 'un p o int d e v ue morpho log ique , t echno log ique e t t raceo log ique , l e s i ndustr ies a cheu ldennes e t mouster iennes d 'Armen ie s ov iet ique . E nf in , P . V o lkov , d e l ' Inst itu t d 'H isto ire d e Novos ib irsk , ae ntrepr is r e laborat ion d 'une c lass if icat ion morpho log ico -f onct ionne l le d es i ndustr ies p a leo l ith iques s uper ieur , meso l ith iques e t n eo l ith iques d e l ' Exträme -Or ient s ov iet ique , ap ar t ir d esque l les i t ente

1 50

d es r econstruct ions e conom iques . I ae te c onf ronte a u n o u t i l i nhab itue l :l e p ic ä g la ce ( 1968a ) . C omme n ous l ' avons v u p lus h au t , l a n ot ion d e «t raceo log ie » r ecouvre u n s ens p lus l arge d ans l ' archeo log ie s ov iet ique q ue d ans l ' archeo log ie e uropeenne . C 'est

a ins i

q ue p arm i s es membres , l e l abora to ire d e L en ing rad c o mpte d eux c hercheurs q u i n e c onsacrent q u 'une p et ite p art ie d e l eur t emps ä l ' ana lyse d es t races d 'u t i l isa t ion . A .E . Mat iouh in e tud ie l e s o u t i ls d u P a leo l ith ique a nc ien , ma is f au te l e p lus s ouvent d 'usure c onservee , i le ssa ie d e c o mprendre l eur f i na l ite ä p ar t ir d e l eurs c aracteres morpho log iques e t d e l ' exper imentat ion ( 1973 e t s u iv . ) . A .K . F i l ippov s ' est s pec ia l ise d ans l a t e chno log ie d es mater iaux d urs o rgan iques . S on i n terät s e p or te e n p ar t icu l ier s ur l e s modes d e f abr icat ion d es o b jets e n o s , i v o ire e tb o is d e c erv ide . Ap ar t ir d es t races d e f a onnage p or tees p ar l e s o b jets p reh is tor iques , d es t races d 'usage d es o u t i ls l i th iques e t d ' exper iences i lt ente d e r etrouver l e s g estes e t l e s i nstruments u t i l ises p our l eur t rava i l ( 1977 e t s u iv . ) . L o in d ' être f i gee , l a r echerche t raceo log ique s ov iet ique , äl a v e i l le d e s on c i nquan t ena ire , p oursu it s on e vo lut ion . E l le s ' est o r ientee d ans u ne d irect ion l e ürement d i f f erente d e c e l le c ho is ie e n Europe , p r iv i leg iant u ne a pproche g loba le a u s erv ice d e p rob lemat iques s ouvent p lus l a rges . E l le b enef ic ie p our c e la , o utre d es p rogrammes d e t rava i l äl ong t erme , d e l ' assoc iat ion e t ro ite d es e tudes t e chno log iques e t f onct ionne l les , q u i e ta ient i nd issoc iab les d ans l ' espr it d e S .A . S emenov . I s e mb le p arf o is ä n os c o l legues s ov iet iques q ue n ous e tud ions p lus l e s m icropo l is q ue l e s o ut i ls e ux -mömes , e n p art icu l ier p arce q u 'une c o mprehens ion t echn ique d e l a f onct ion d es o u t i ls n ous f a it s ouvent &Taut . I l s s on t e t onnes p ar l e s d eba ts q u i o nt , e n O cc iden t , o ppose l a macro e tl a m icrotraceo log ie , p u isqu 'a l eur p o int d e v ue t ous l e s c aracteres s ont c o mp lementa ires d ans l ' interpretat ion f onct ionne l le e t d o ivent ö t re c ons ideres s e lon l e ma ter ie l a borde e t l e s q uest ions p osees :a ins i , l ' approche c onvenant ä l ' etude r eg iona le e xhaust ive d e v astes e nsemb les n eo l ith iques n ' est p as n ecessa irement c e l le a ppropr ide ä l ' ana lyse d ' ou t i l lages p lus a nc iens . L a r echerche d e n ouve l les t echn iques d ' examen n ' est p as n eg l igee p ar n os c onf reres , c o mme e n t emo ignent l e s e ssa is d e p ro f i log raphe o pt ique o u t act i le , ma is i l s n 'u t i l isent p as l e m icroscope e l ectron ique ä b a layage q u ' i ls j ugent p eu u t i le p our l a d eterm ina t ion d es c aracteres d 'usure p roprement d i ts , e n r a ison d e s es i nconven ients p art icu l iers . T ou tef o is , i l s n ' en n ient p as l e s p erf ormances p our l ' etude d es r es idus , e t i l s c ons iderent q ue l a r echerche d e P . Anderson -Gerfaud ( eg . 1 981) e n c e d oma ine e st l a p rem iere c ontr ibut ion t raceo log ique o r ig ina le d epu is l e s t ravaux d e S .A . S emenov . I l s a pprec ient p art icu l ierement l a f a9on d ont c e c hercheur i ntegre l ' ensemb le d es d onnees morpho log iques , t raceo log iques e t b otan iques p our p arven ir ä d es r econs truct ions d ' ordre e conom ique . I l y aa u jourd 'hu i e n URSS , i nden iab lement , u n n oyau d e t raceo logues t r es c ompetents menant u ne r echerche q u i na g uere a e nv ier a l a n ötre . P ara l le lement e t i ndependamment , l a methodo log ie i n it iee p ar S .A . S emenov a c onnu u n d eve loppement c omparab le e n Un ion S ov iet ique e t e n Europe , e ti ln e s era it p as f onde d e v ou lo ir o pposer s ur c e p lan l e s t ravaux r ea l ises d e p ar t e t d ' au tre . L a c o mmunau te s c ient if ique g agnera it a u c ontra ire äd es c ontac ts r ec iproques p lus e t ro its , c ar , s il e s t e chn iques s ont s e mb lab les , l e s a cqu is a rcheo log iques e n r evanche s ont o r ig inaux e t n os c o l legues s ov ie t iques o nt e n c e d oma ine d es d onnees s uscept ib les d e n ous e nr ich ir .

1 51

6

E NE

I a

F ig . I: a .

P lanche e x tra ite d e l a t hese d e V .E . S hche l insk i i ( 1974 ) , p ub l iee e n 1 977 , c o mparant a d if erentes e che l les l ' usure d 'un r ac lo ir mouster ien e n s i lex ( 1 ) , d u s i te d e Nosovo I , ac e l le d 'une p iece e xper imenta le ( 2 ) u t i l isee p our e charner u ne p eau s em i -sechee . L es t ra its c arac ter ist iques d e l ' usure

b .

s ont s chema t ises a u -dessous d e c haque v ue . D eta i l d es v ues m icroscop iques d e I a , l o ca l isees p ar l e s f l eches .

1 52

I

2 l b

I le s t v ra isemb lab le q ue l e s n ombr eux H su l ta ts t r acgo log iques p ub l i& a u jourd 'hu i a ppara i tra ien t p lus c Hd ib l es e tp lus c ompr Mens ib les a ux a u tr es a r c Uo logues s i u n t e l s t andard —F igur es Ie t I —d ' i l lus tra t ion aa i t a dop tg p ar l ' ensemb le d es t r ado logues . 1 53

F ig . I : Montage met tant e n r e la t ion l ' usure e t l a morpho log ie d es b ords a c t if s d 'un o u t i l d ' obs id ienne mous t6r ien af onc t ions mu l t ip les , d u s i t e d e E revan . P lanche i ndd it e e x t ra i t , e d e l at hese d e V .E . S hche l insk i i ( 1974 ) . 1 54

RE 1 VIERC IEMENTS I lm 'est t r es a grdab le d e r e merc ier l e M in istere f ranga is d es A f fa ires E xt6r ieures p our l a b ourse d 'aude e n U .R .S .S . q u ' i l m 'a o ctroyde , l ' Acad6m ie d es S c iences S ov ia ique p our m 'avo ir af ectd a l ' Inst itu t d 'Arch6o log ie d e L en ingrad o ü j e s ouha ita is t rava i l ler , a ins i q ue Madame l e P rof esseur G .F . K orobkova , D irectr ice d u L abora to ire d e T racdo log ie E xp6r imenta le , e t l e s membres d e s on 6 qu ipe p our l a c ha leur e t l a g dn6ros it6 d e l eur a ccue i l . J e t i ens a uss i at d mo igner ma r econna issance a Madame C . C laudon , P rof esseur a g r ed d e Russe a l 'Un ivers it6 d e P ar is I ,s ans q u i j e n 'aura is p as c oncr6t isä mon p ro jet , a ins i q u 'a Mess ieurs S . F isch ler e t J . -L . C havarot , A t taché C u lture l e t V ice -Consu l d u C onsu lat d e F rance a L en ing rad , p our t oute f a ide p ra t ique q u ' i ls m 'ont a ppor tde , s ans o ub l ier mon am i G 6n ia ä q u i j e d o is d ' avo ir P u t i rer t out l e b dn6f ice d e c e s 6 jour .

NOTES ( 1 )

A ins i , p ar e xemp le , u ne p ar t ie d e l a s dr ie l i th ique d e K ostenk i a na lys6e p ar S .A . S emenov d ta it t r op p at in6e p our a u tor iser d es i dent if ica t ions m icroscop iques p rdc ises .

( 2 )

L e p rem ier t ome , c onsacrd a ux p ieces b ru tes d e d 6b itage , p ara i tra p rocha inement .

( 3 )

L es d chant i l lons s ont ündra lement o pac if i6s a l a f um6e d e magnes ium p our l e s p r ises a f a ib le g ross issement , ma is c e t ra itement t res f ac i lement e t t o ta lement r evers ib le n 'af f ecte p as l ' examen m icroscop ique d e l eur s urfa ce .

BIBL IOGRAPHIE L a b ib l iog raph ie p r6sent6e c i -dessous n ' est p as e xhaust ive ;e i le e st c onst itu6e d es r df drences c o mmun iqudes p ar l e s a uteurs e t d es t i tres d 'ar t ic les e t d ' ouv rages c onsu ltds s ur p lace . ABRAMOVA ,

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o strokonetchnyh o roud i i p a leo l it itchesko i s to iank i K okorevo I n a E n icee . » ( Typo log ie e t f onct ion d es o ut i ls p o intus d e l a s ta t ion p a l6o l ith ique d e K okorevo I s ur l ' En is . ) , K ra tk ie S oobs tchen i ia I ns t i tou ta A rheo log i i AN SSSR 1 36 :3 10 . ALEKSASHENKO , ( N .A . ) , 1 984 .— «P romys lovye s to iank i L eoush i I .» ( La s ta t ion a rt isana le d e L eouch ia I . ) i n D revn ie p ose len iia Oura la i Z apadno i S ib ir i , S verd lovsk ,

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ALEKSASHENKO , ( N .A . ) , 1 986 .— «Hozia is tvo i n jnego P r i tobo lla e poh i n eo l i ta i r annei b ronzy ( po d annym a na l isa o roud ii t rouda ) . »( lAconom ie d u P r itobo l i nf 6r ieur a 1 . 6 poque d u N6o l ith ique e t d u B ronze a nc ien , s e lon l e s d onndes d e l ' ana lyse d es o u t i ls d e t rava i l . ) , D is . n a s onsk . o utch . s tep . k and . i s t . n aouk ( These d octora le ) , L en ing rad . ALEKSASHENKO , ( N .A . ) , V IKTOROVA , ( V .D . ) , PAN INA , ( S .N . ) , 1 982 .— «K omp leks j i l ishtch n a I X o utchaske Andreevskogo o zera ( harakter ist ika k amennyh i zde l i i ) . »( Comp lexe d ' hab itat ions d ans l e s ecteur I X d u l a c s a le d 'Andreevska 1 55

( caracter ist ique d es p rodu its l i th iques .) , i n A rheo log itchesk ie i s s ledovan i ia s evera E vraz i i , S verd lovsk , p .2 8-38 . ANDERSON—GERFAUD , ( P .) 1 981 .—« C on tr ibut ion mg thodo log ique ä l ' ana lyse d es m icro traces d 'u t i l isa t ion s ur l e s o u t i ls p rgh is tor iques . » ,T hese d e t r o is ieme c yc le p resentee ä l ' Un ivers i te d e B ordeaux I . AV IZOVA , ( A .K .) 1 985 .— «K omp leksnoe i z outchen ie k amenno i i ndoustr i i s t o iank i A idabo l 2 0 ( Severo -Zapadn i i Oust iour t ) . »( Etude c o mp lexe d e l ' industr ie l i th ique d e A idabo l 2 0 ( Nord -Ouest d e l 'Oust iourt .) , i n T ez isy d ok ladov v seso iouzno i k onf erents i «D os t i jen i ia s ovetsko i a rheo log i i vX I p ia t i letke » ,B akou , p .4 0-42 . AVIZOVA ,

( A .K .) 1 986 .— «Neo l i t

Ous trour ta

( b s ve te

e ksper imenta l 'no traso lo -

g i tchesk ih i s s ledovan ira o roud ir t r ouda ) . »( Le N eo l ith ique d e l ' Oust iourt , al a l um iere d e l ' ana lyse e xper imenta lo -traceo log ique d es o u t i ls d e t rava i l . ) , D is . n a s onsk . o u tch . s t ep . k and . i s t . n aouk ( t hese d octora le ) , L en ing rad . F ILIPPOV , ( A .K . ) , 1 969 .— «0 v ozn iknoven i i e stet itchesk igo o tnoshen i ia i p ervyh o us lovnyh s redstv i z obra jen i ia v

p a leo l ite . »( Sur l a n a issance d u s ent i ment

e sthet ique e t s ur l e s p rem iers p rocedes d e r epresentat ion c onvent ionne l le a u P a leo l ith ique . ) V oprosy Antropo log i i 3 1 . Moskva . F ILIPPOV , ( A .K . ) , 1 972 .— «0 d vouh t i pah i zobraz iternoi d e iaternost i v erhne p a leo l it itcheskogo t che loveka v s v iaz i s k r it iko i «mar itchesko i » p r ipody p ro isho jden i ia i skousstva . »( Sur d eux t ypes d ' act iv ites i nvent ives d e l ' Homme p a leo l ith ique s uper ieur e n r apport a vec l a c r it ique d e l a n ature «mag ique » d e l ' or ig ine d e l ' art . ) . Mater ia ly i I ss ledovan i iä p o A rheo log i i SSSR 1 85 . Moskva L en ingrad . F IL IPPOV , ( A .K .) , 1 977a .— «T raso log itchesk i i a na l iz k amennogo i k ost ianogo i nventar ia i z v erhnepa leo l it itchesko i s to iank i Moura lovka .» ( Ana lyse t raceo l og ique d e l ' inventa ire l i th ique e t o sseux d e l a s ta t ion p a leo l ith ique s uper ieur d e Moura lovka .) i n P rob lemy p a leo l ita V ostotchno i iT sentra l eno i E vropy , Naouka , L en ing rad , p .1 67-81 . F IL IPPOV , ( A .K . ) , 1 977b .— «S viaz ' f ormy if ounk ts i i i zde l iI t che loveka v p a leo l i te . » ( Rappor t d e l a f o rme e t d e l a f onct ion d es p rodu its d e l 'Homme a u P a leo l ith ique . ) , D is . n a s onsk . o ut ch . s t ep . k and . i s t . n aouk ( These d octora le ) , L en ing rad . F IL IPPOV , ( A .K .) , 1 978 .— «T ehno log i ia i zgotov Ien i ia k ost ianyh n akonetchn ikov v v erhne m p a leo l ite . » ( Techno log ie d e f abr icat ion d es s aga ies P a leo l ith ique s uper ieur . ) , S ove tska iä A rheo log i iä ( 2 ) . Moskva .

o sseuses

a u

F ILIPPOV , ( A .K .) , 1 981 .— «Opyt o b"emnoi r ez 'by p o d erevou k amennym i o roud i iam i . »( Exper ience d e s cu lpture s ur b o is a vec d es o ut i ls l i th iques . ) , Kra tk ie S oobsh tchen i iä I ns t i tou ta A rheo log i i 1 65 ( 6 ) :8 3-88 . F ILIPPOV ,

( A .K .) ,

1 983a .— «Antropo morfnye

s tatouetk i

i z

Mez ina

( t ehn iko -

morf o log itchesk i i a spekt ) . »( Sta tuet te a nthropomorphe d e Mez ine — a spect morpho l og ico— techno log ique .) i n P last ika i r i sounk i d revn ih k ou l 'tour . P ervobytnoe i s skousstvo , Naouka , N ovos ib irsk , p .3 4 -38 .

1 56

F IL IPPOV , ( A .K . ) , 1 983b .— «P rob lemy t ehn itcheskogo f o rmoobrazovan i ia o roud i i t r ouda v p a leo l ite . »( Prob lemes d e l a c r ea t ion d e n ouve l les f o rmes t e chn iques d ' ou t i ls d e t rava i l a u P a leo l i th ique . ) i n T ehno log i ia p ro izvodstva v e pohou p a leo l ita , Naouka , L en ing rad , p . 9 -71 . H IDJRAT I , ( N .I . ) , 1 980 .— «O b o dnom i z v ozmo jn ih p ou te i k onkretno is tor it cheskogo p odhoda v p ervoby tno i a rheo log i i . »( Sur u ne d es v o ies p oss ib les d 'une a pproche h i stor ique c oncrete e n a r cheo log ie p reh is tor ique . ) i n P rob lemy a rheo log i i , C everno i O se t i i , O rd jon ik idze . p .5 -18 . KEELEY , ( L .H . ) , 1 980 .— «E xper imen ta l d e term ina t ion o fs t one t o o l u s es; a m icrowear a na lys is . » , Un ivers ity o fC h icago P ress , C h icago e t L ondon . 2 12 p . K ILEYNKOV , ( V .V . ) , 1 985a .— «E ksper imenta l 'no -traso log itchesk i i a na l iz o roud i i t r ouda e poh i p osdne i b ronzy ( po ma ter ia lam Moso lovskovo p ose len i ia ) . »( Ana lyse e xper imenta lo tra ceo log ique d ' ou t i ls d e t rava i l d u B ronze t ard if , d u ma ter ie l d u s i t e d e Moso lov ska . ) , P rogramma l abora tornogo p rak t ikouma :1 17 . V orone j . K ILE YNKOV , ( V .V . ) , 1 985b .— «E ksper imenta l 'no -traso log it cheskoe i z ou tchen ie o roud i i t r ouda e poh i b ronzy l e sos tepnog o P odon ' ia . »( E tude e xper imenta lo tra ceo log ique d es o u t i ls d e t rava i l d e l ' epoque d u B ronze d u D on f o res to -s tepp ique . ) A rheo log ischesk ie O t l e ry t i ia 1 983 g oda , Naouka , Moskva , p .6 0 . K ILEiNKOV , ( V .V . ) , 1 985c .— «Hoz i c ti s tvo n asen iia d onsko f l e sos tepnoi s roubnof k ou l ' toury ( po d annym e ksper imen ta l 'no traso log i techeskogo a na l iza o roud i i • t r ouda ) . »( L 'econom ie d e l ap opu la t ion d e l a c u l ture f o rest o -st epp ique «ä s t ru c tures d e b o is »d u D on , p ar l e s d onnees d e l ' ana lyse e xper imen ta lo -t raceo log ique d es o u t i ls d e t rava i l . ) , D is . n a s onsk . o ut ch . s t ep . k and . i s t . n aouk ( These d octora le ) , L en ingrad . KOROBKOVA , ( G .F . ) , 1 969 .— «O roud i ia t r ouda ih or iz ia is tovo n eo l it it chesk ih p l emen s r edne i a z i i . »( Out i ls e t e conom ies d es p eup lades n eo l ith iques d 'A s ie C ent ra le . ) Ma ter ia ly iI s s l edovan i ia p oA rheo log i i SSSR n ° 1 58 , 2 16 p . , L en ing rad . KOROBKOVA , ( G .F . ) , 1 975a .— «R abo ta l omonosovsko i o pytno i e ksped its i i . »( Trava i l d e l ' exped it ion d ' exper imenta t ion d e L omonosov . ) , A rheo log i tchesk ie O tkpy t iia 1 975 :2 3 -24 . KOROBKOVA , ( G .F . ) , 1 975b .— «K ou l 'toury i l oka l 'nye v ar ianty mezo l ita i n eo l ita S redne i A z i l i ( p o ma ter ia lam k amennyh i ndous t r ia »( Cu ltures e t v ar iantes l o ca les d u Meso l ith ique e t d u N eo l ith ique d 'A s ie C entra le — d ' apres l ' industr ie l i th ique . ) , S ove t ska ia A rheo log i ia ( 3 ) :8 -28 . KOROBKOVA , ( G .F . ) , 1 975c .— «P ose len ie n eo l it i t chesk ih z em lede l 'tsev G ievd j ik -depe v Y ou jnom T ourkmen istane . »( E tab l issement d es a g r icu lteurs n eo l ith iques d e G ievd j ik -depe d ans l e T urkmen istan mer id iona l . ) i n I speh i s redneaz iatsko i a rheo log i i , Naouka , L en ing rad , p .7 1 -73 . KOROBKOVA , ( G .F . ) , 1 975d .— «E ksper imentarny i metod v p rotsedoure a rheo l og it cheskogo i s s ledovan i ia . »( La methode e xper imenta le d ans l a p rocedure d e l a r echerche a rcheo log ique . ) , i n P redmet io b " e k t a rheo log i i iv oprosy metod ik i a rheo log itchesk ih i s s ledovan ii . K ratk ie t ez icy d ok ladov n a c impoz ioume me todo log i t cheskogo s em inara LONA AN S SSR , Naouka , L en ing rad , p .4 4 -49 . 1 57

KOROBKOVA , ( G .F . ) , 1 975e .— «P r intz ipy s ravn ite l 'nogo t ehn iko -mor f o lor i tcheskog o a na l iza p last int cha tyh i ndous tr i i . »( P r inc ipes d e l ' ana lyse t e chn ico -morpho log ique c ompara t ive d es i ndus tr ies l am ina ires . ) i n N ove i sh ie o tkpy t ia s ove tsk ih a rheo logov . T ez isy d ok ladov k onf erent s i i , Naoukova d oumka , K iev , p .4 0 -42 . KOROBKOVA , ( G .F . ) , 1 975f .— «T r ipo l 'sk ie motyg i i p robe lma t r ipo l 'skogo z em lede l i ia . »( Les h oues t r ipo l iennes e t l ep rob lame d e l ' ag r icu l ture t r ipo l ienne . ) i n 1 50 l e t Odesskomou a rheo log i tcheskomou mouze iou AN OuSSR , T ez isy d ok ladov i oub i le ino i k onf erent s i i , Naoukova d oumka , K iev , p .3 7 -38 . KOROBKOVA , ( G .F . ) , 1 976a .— «T ourkmen i ia v e pohou mezo l ita . »( Le T urkmen is tan al ' epoque meso l i th ique . ) i n P ervoby tny i T ourkmen is tan , Y lym , A shhabad , p .7 13 . KOROBKOVA , ( G .F . ) , 1 976b .— «E ksper imenta l 'no -traso log i tchesk ie i s s ledovan i ia i p ozhava te l 'nye v ozmo jnos t i a rheo log i i . »( Recher che e xper imenta lo -tra ceo log ique e t p oss ib i l ites c ogn it ives d e l ' archeo log ie . ) i n I s tor izm a rheo log i i :me todo log it chesk ie p rob lemy . T ez isy d ok ladov , Nauka , Moskva , p .5 7 -59 . KOROBKOVA , ( G .F . ) , 1 977a .— «Mezo l it S redne i A z i i ie go , o sobennost i . » ( Le meso l ith ique d 'As ie C entra le e t s es p ar t icu lar ites . ) , K ra tk ie S oobshtchen iia I ns t i tou ta A rheo log i i 1 49 :108 -114 . KOROBKOVA , ( G .F .) , 1 977b .— «E ksper imenta l 'no -traso log itcheskoe i z ou tchen ie d revn ih s erpov imezo l i t it chesk ih o roud i i . »( E tude e xper imen ta lo traceo log ique d es f au c i l les a nc iennes e t d es o u t i ls meso l i th iques . ) , A rheo log i tchesk ie O tkry t iia 1 976: 4 55 -56 . Moskva . KOROBKOVA , ( G .F . ) , 1 978a .— «P on ia t ie n eo l it iv oprosy h rono log i i n eo l i ta S redne i A z i i . »( La n o t ion d e n eo l i th ique e t l e s q ues t ions d e c hrono log ie d u N eo l ith ique d 'As ie C entra le . ) , K ra tk ie S oobsh tchen iia I ns t i tu ta A rheo log i i 1 53 :1 03108 . Moskva . KOROBKOVA , ( G .F . ) , 1 978b .— «D revne i sh ie j a tvennye o roud i ia ii h p ro izvod ite l 'nost ' ( v s vete e ksper imenta l 'no traso log it cheskogo i z ou t chn i ia ) » .( Les p lus a nc iens o u t i ls a mo issonner e t l eur r endement ä l a l um iäre d es e tudes e xper imenta lo t ra ceo log iques ) , S ove tska ra A rheo log i ia ( 4 ) :3 6 -52 . Moskva . KOROBKOVA , ( G .F . ) , 1 978c .— «T raso log itcheskoe i zoutchen ie mezo l i t itchesk ih o roud i i ir azrabotka e ksper imen ta l 'n ih e ta lonov . »( Etude t ra ceo log ique d ' ou t i ls meso l ith iques e t e laborat ion d ' eta lons e xper imentaux . ) , A rheo log i tchesk ie O tkr y t i ia 1 977 :4 65 -466 . Moskva . KOROBKOVA , ( G .F . ) , 1 978d .— «E ksper imentarny i a na l iz i e go mesto v metod ike i t eor i i a rheo log i i . »( L 'ana lyse e xper imenta le e t s a p lace d ans l a me thode e t l e s t heor ies d e l ' ar cheo log ie . ) , K ra tk i e S oobsh tchen i ia I ns t i tu ta A rheo log i i 1 52 :5 5 -61 . Moskva . KOROBKOVA , ( G .F . ) , 1 979a .— «S korn iak i k amenngo v eka . »( Pe l let iers d e l ' Age d e l a p ier re . ) , P amia tn ik i T ourkmen is tana 2 4 ( 2 ) :9 11 . A shhabad . KOROBKOVA , ( G .F .) , 1 979b .— «E ksper imenta l 'no -traso log itchesk ie i z outchen ie meso l it i t chesk ih in eo l it it chesk ih o roud i i . »( Etude e xper imenta lo -traceo log ique d es

1 58

o ut i ls meso l ith iques e t n eo l ith iques . ) , Arheo log i tcheskie

O tkry t ifa 1 978 :3 47 .

Moskva . KOROBKOVA , ( G .F .) , 1 980a .— «Eksper imenta l 'no -traso log itchesk ie i s s ledovan ia meso l it itchesk ih k omp leksov . »( Etude e xper imenta lo -traceo log ique d es c o mp lexes meso l ith iques . ) , A rheo log i tchesk ie O tkry t i ia 1 979 :2 87 -288 . Moskva . KOROBKOVA ,

( G .F . ) , 1 980b .— «P a leoekonom itchesk ie r azrabotk i v a rheo log i i i

e ksper imenta l 'no -traso log itchesk ie i s s ledovan i ia . »( Etudes p a leo -econom iques e n a rcheo log ie e t l a r echerche e xper i menta lo -traceo log ique .) i n P ervobytna ia a rheo log i ia :P o isk i in ahodk i , K iev , p .2 12 -25 . KOROBKOVA , ( G .F .) , 1 981a .— «O rod i ia t rouda v s i ste me p ro izvod ite l 'nyh s i l p ervoby tnogo o bsht chestva . »( Les i nstruments d e t rava i l d ans l e s ys teme d es f o r ces p roduct ives d e l a s oc iete p r im it ive . ) i n V opr . t eor i i a rheo log i i id revne i i s tor i i , A shhabad , p .5 2 -71 . KOROBKOVA , ( G .F .) , 1 981b .— «Hoziai s tvennye k omp leksy r ann ih z em lede l ' tchesko s ko tovod tchesk ih o bsh tches tv i ouga SSR . »( Comp lexes e conom iques d es p rem ieres s oc ietes a gr ico les d u s ud d e l 'URSS . ) , D is . n a s onsk . o u tch . s t em . k and . i s t . n aouk ( These p rof essora le ) , L en ingrad . KOROBKOVA , ( G .F . ) , 1 981c .— «Obshtchee io sobennoe v h oz ia istve r ann ih z em lede l ' t chesko -skotovodtchesk ih o bshtchestv I oga S SSR ( po mater ia lam Kavkaza , S redne i A z i i iS evero -Zapadnogo P r itchernomor ' ia ) . »( L 'econom ie d es p rem ieres s oc ietes a gr ico les d e l 'URSS e n g enera l e t e n p ar t icu l ier , d ' apres d u ma ter ie l d u C aucase , d e l ' As ie C entra le e t d e l a r ive s eptentr ionna le o cc identa le d e l a Mer No ire . ) i n V seso iouz n aoutchna ia k onf . p osv iasht chenn i ia n ove ish im o tkryt iiam v o b last i a rheo log i i k1 00— let i iou V a rheo logo s " ezda . T ez isy d ok ladov p lenarnyh z asedan i i , Metsn iereba , T b i l is i , p .3 1-37 . KOROBKOVA ,

( G .F .) ,

1 981d .— «Marks istsko len inskoe

o utchen ie

o t roude

i

i s s ledovan i i d revn ih o roud i i . »( La d octr ine marx iste len in iste s ur l e t rava i l e t l e s a na lyses d ' ou t i ls a nc iens . ) , I zv . AN T ourkm . SSR , s er i ia o bsh tch . n aou t ( 3 ) :3 3 -42 . A shhabad . KOROBKOVA ,

( G .F . ) ,

1 981e .— «D revn ie

p ro izvodstva

k ak

s ovokoupnost '

t ehnotsenozov . Marks istsko len inska ia f i losof i ia i v oprosy metodo log i i i s tor i i i a rheo log i i . »( Les p lus a nc iennes p roduct ions c o mme t ota l ite d es t echno . L a p h i losoph ie marx iste len in iste e t l e s q ues t ions d e l a methodo log ie d e l ' h isto ire e t d e l ' archeo log ie .) , T ez isy n aou tchn . k onf :5 6 -61 . A shhabad . KOROBKOVA , ( G .F . ) , 1 981f .— «K p rob leme o bshtchestvennogo s t ro ia k ertom inarsh ih p le men . » ( Vers

l e p rob le me

d e

l ' organ isat ion

d es

s tructures

d es

t r ibus

c e ltom inares .) , K ra tk ie S oobsh tchen iia I ns t i tou ta A rheo log i i AN SSSR 1 67 :3 5 -39 . Moskva . KOROBKOVA , ( G .F . ) , 1 981g .— «Meso l it itchesk ie t rad its i i ii h t ransf ormats i ia v n eo l it itcheskou iou e pohou ( na p re mere s redneaz iatsk ih mater ia lov ) . » ( Les t rad it ions meso l ith iques e t l eurs t ransf ormat ions a l ' epoque n eo l ith ique ( sur l ' exemp le d u ma ter ie l d 'As ie c entra le ) . ) i n P reemstvennost ' ii nnovats i i vr azv it i i d revn ih k ou l 'tour . Ma ter ia ly metod . S em inara LO IA , p .6 9 -73 . L en ing rad .

1 59

KOROBKOVA , ( G .F . ) , 1 981h .— «O sht chee io sobennoe v h oz ia iastve k e l 'tom inarsk ih p lemen . »( Gändra l itds e t p ar t icu lar itds d ans l ' dconom ie d es t r ibus c e ltom inares . ) , K ra tk i e S oobsk tchen i ra I ns t i tou ta A rheo log i i AN SSSR 1 65 :2 8 -32 . Moskva . KOROBKOVA , ( G .F . ) , 1 981 i .— «A nc ient r eap ing t oo ls a nd t he ir p roduc t iv i ty i nt he l i gh t o f e xper imenta l t racewear a na lys is . »i n T he b ronze a ge c i v i l iza t ion o fc en tra l A s ia , p .3 25 -49 . N ew -York . KOROBKOVA , ( G .F . ) , 1 982a .— «R azv it ie p ro izvods tv v e pohou p a leometa l la ( v s vete e ksper imenta l 'no tarso log it chesk ih i s ledovan i i k amennyh o roud i i ) . »( Le d eve lop p ement d e l a p roduc t ion a l ' 6poque p a ldomäta l l ique ( a l a l um iare d e l ' ana lyse e xpär imenta lo -trac6o log ique d es o u t i ls l i th iques ) . ) i n K ounourny i p rog ress v e pohou b ronzy ir annego j e leza . TD V seso iouz -nogo s impoz iouma , p .8 9 -94 . E revan . KOROBKOVA , ( G .F . ) , 1 982b .— «T rad its i i ii nnova ts i i vk ou l 'tourah meso l ita in eo l i ta B aktr i i . »( Trad it ions e t i nnova t ions d ans l e s c u ltures d u Mdso l ith ique e t d u N äo l ith ique d e B aktr iane . ) i n D revne ich ie k ou l 'toury B ak tr i i :s reda , r azv it ie , s v iaz i . T ez isy s impoz iouma , p .1 4 -18 . D ouchanbe . KOROBKOVA , ( G .F . ) , 1 983a .— «D eve lopment o f t he p roduc t ive f o rces a nd o f w ork ing t o o ls a s ap rerequ is it o ft he e vo lu t ion o fn ew t ypes o f e conomy . » ,J ourna l o fC en tra l A z ia 6( 1 ) :7 3 -80 . KOROBKOVA , ( G .F .) , 1 983b .— «R aboty e ksper imen ta l 'no -traso log itchesko i e kspe d its i i . » ( Les t ravaux d e l ' exp6d it ion d e t rac6o log ie e xp6r imenta le .) , A rheo log i tchesk ie O tkry t i ia :3 72 . Moskva . KOROBKOVA , ( G .F . ) , 1 983c .— «E ksper imenta l 'no -traso log itchesk ie i s s ledovan i ia i s ozdan ie s voda e ta lonov d revn ih o roud i i t r ouda . »( Les a na ly ses e xpdr imenta lo t ra cdo log iques e tl ac ons t i tu t ion d ' un c orps d 'Ua lons d es a nc iens o u t i ls d e t r ava i l . ) i n Novye e ksped its ionnye i s s ledovan i ia a rheo logov l en ingrada . T ez isy D ok ladov , L en ing rad , p .3 7 -39 . KOROBKOVA , ( G .F . ) , 1 983d .— «E ksper imentarno -traso log itchesk i i a na l iz i i z ou t chen ie e konom ik i d revn ih o bsht ches tv . »( L 'ana lyse e xp6r imenta lo -tracdo log ique e t l 'aude d e hconom ie d es a nc iennes s o c i eds . ) i n A rheo log i ia S redne i A z i i iB l i jneg o V os toka . T ez isy D ok ladov 2 -go s ovetsko -amer ikanskogo s impoz iouma , T ashkent , p .6 5 -70 . KOROBKOVA , ( G .F . ) , 1 984a .— «K omp leksnoe i z out chen ie k amenno i i ndoustr i i r ennezem lede l 'tchesk ih p ose len i i A rouh lo I iI I . »( Etude c omp lexe d e l ' indus tr ie l i th ique d es d tab l issemen t s p ro to -ag r ico les d e A roux lo I e tI I . ) , M .A .G . K 9:3 8 -67 . KOROBKOVA , ( G .F . ) , 1 984b .— «T raso log it cheskoe i z ou t chen ie o roud i i t r ouda d revn ih k ou l 'tour I nd i i . »( E tude t r ac6o log ique d es o u t i ls d e t r ava i l d es a nc iennes c u l tur es d e l ' Indus . ) i n R anne je lezny i v ek S redne i A z i i iI nd i i . T ez isy D ok ladov , A shhabad , p .3 9 -43 . KOROBKOVA , ( G .F . ) , 1 985a .— «K amennye ik os t ianye o roud i ia v b ronzovom v eke . » ( Les o u t i ls l i th iques e t o sseux a l ' äge d u b ronze . ) i n V seso iouzn . a rheo log it cheska ia k onf . «D os t i jen i ia s ove tsko i a rheo log i i vX I p ia t i letk ie » ,B akou , p .1 88 -90 .

1 60

KOROBKOVA ,

( G .F . ) ,

1 985b .— «P o levye

i s s ledovan i ia

e ksper i menta l 'no -traso lo -

g i tchesko i e ksped its i i . »( Les r echerches c hampestres d e l ' exped it ion d e t raceo log ie e xper imenta le . ) , A rheo log i tchesk ie O tkry t i ia 1 983 :4 25 -26 . Moskva . KOROBKOVA , ( G .F . ) , 1 985c .— «T raso log it cheskoe i z outchen ie k remn ievyh o roud i i i z A fgan istana , P ak istana i I nd i i . » ( Etude t raceo log ique d es o ut i ls l i th iques d 'Afghan istan , d u P ak istan e t d e l ' Indus .) i n A rheo log i ia z aroube jno i A z i i . Ma t . k s impoz . s oveta mo lodyh o ut chenyh LO IA , L en ingrad , p .2 3 -26 . KOROBKOVA , ( G .F . ) , E SAK I iA , (K M . ) , 1 979 .— «Obs idanova ia i ndoustr i ia T sop i . » ( L ' industr ie e n o bs id ienne d e T sop ia . ) i n Mater ia ly p o a rheo log i i G rouz i i iKavkaza , V I I , Ma tsne , T b i l is i , p .4 5 -60 . KOROBKOVA , ( G .F . ) , GADJ IEV , ( M .G . ) , 1 983 .— «0 k ou l 'tournyh i h oz ia istvennyh o sobennost iah p ose len i ia g intch i ( Dagestan ) . »( Sur l e s p ar t icu lar ites c u lture l les e t e conom iques d es e tab l issements d e Gu intch i ( Daghes tan ) . ) , S ove tska ia A rheo log i ia ( 1 ): 1 30 -143 . KOROBKOVA ,

( G .F .) ,

i OUSOUPOV ,

( H .) ,

1 976 .— «O tkryt ie

n ovyh

s to ianok

k amennogo b eka n a V erhnem Ouzboe . »( Decouver te d 'une n ouve l le s ta t ion d e l ' Age d e l a p ierre d ans l eh au t Ouzbo i . ) , I zv . AN T ourkm . SSR , s er ik t o bsh tch . n aouk ( 5 ) : 1 9 -27 . A shhabad . KOROBKOVA , ( G .F . ) , i OUSOUPOV , ( H . ) , 1 977 .—« Hoz ia istvo n eo l it itchesk ih p lemen V erhnego Ouzbo ia . »( L 'econom ie d es p eup lades n eo l ith iques d ans l e h au t Ouzbo i . ) , I zv . AN T ourkm . SSR , s er i ra o bsh tch , n aouk ( 5 ) :8 2 -86 . A shhabad . KOROBKOVA , ( G .F .) , i OUSOUPOV , ( H . ) , 1 979 .—« N ova ia k ou l 'toura n a Mourgabe . » ( Nouve l le c u lture d ans l e Mourgab . ) i n Ouspeh i s redneaz iatsko i a rheo log i i , I V , Naouka , L en ing rad , p .8 0 -81 . KOROBKOVA , ( G .F . ) , SHCHEL INSK II , ( V .E . ) , 1 970 .— «R aboty O rede jskogo o py tnogo a rheo log itcheskogo o tr iada . »( Les t ravaux d u d etachement d 'archeo log ie e xper i menta le d e O rede j . ) , A rheo log i tchesk ie O tkpy t i ia 1 970 g oda 3 31-332 . I zdvo Naouka , Moskva . KOROB KOVA , ( G .F .) , F ILIPPOV , ( A .K .) , SHCHELINSK II , ( V .E .) , 1 979 .— «Eksper i menta l 'no -traso log itchesk ie i ss ledovan iia v a rheo log i i . » ( L 'ana lyse e xper imenta lo -traceo log ique e n a rcheo log ie .) i n S ovetska ia a rheo log i ia v 1 0 1 p ia t i letke :T ez . V seso iouz . k onf . L en ing . , p .1 3 -17 . KOROB KOVA ,

( G .F . ) ,

SKAKUN ,

( N .N .) ,

SHAROVS KA iA ,

( T .A .) ,

1 982 .—

«Oprede len ie f ounk ts i i k amennyh o roud i i p o makropr iznakam . »( Def in it ion d e l a f onct ion d es o ut i ls l i th iques p ar l e s macro ind ices . ) i n X I K ong ress I nkva , T ez isy d ok ladov t .I I , p .1 73 -74 . Moskva . KOROBKOVA ,

( G .F .) ,

SMOL 'NIKOVA ,

( S .P .) ,

SOPOSHNIKOVA ,

( G .) ,

1 981 .—

«P ozdnepa leo l it itcheska ia s t o ianka S red inny i G orb . »( La s ta t ion p a leo l ith ique f ina l

d e

S red inn i

G orb . )

i n

S evero

z apadnoe

P r itchernomor 'e

v e pohou

p ervobytnoobshtch innogo s t ro ia , Naoukova D oumka , K iev . KOROBKOVA , ( G .F . ) , SHAROVSKA iA , ( T .A . ) , 1 983 .— «F ounkts ionaTny i a na l iz k amennyh i k ost ianyh i zde l i i i z k ourganov e poh i r anne i b ronzy o u s tan its 1 61

N ovosvobodno i iB a tour insko i . »( Ana lyse f onc t ionne l le d es i ns t ruments l i th iques e t o sseux d es t umu lus d e l ' 6poque d u b ronze a nc ien p räs d es v i l lag es d e N ovosvobodno i e t B a tour insko i . ) i n D revn i k ou l 'toury e vroaz i isk ih s t epe i , L en ing rad , p .8 8 -94 . LEV ITT , ( J . ) , 1 979 .— «A r ev iew o f e xper imenta l t raceo log ica l r esearch i n t he USSR . » i n L i th ic u se w ear a na lys is , B .Hayden 6 d . , A cadem ic P ress , N ew -Y ork , p .2 7 -38 . MAT iOUH IN , ( A .B . ) , 1 972a .— «O tkry t i ia p os ledn ih l e t ip rob lema n a idrevne ish ih o roudh i i . K r it it chesk i i o bzor l i teratoury . »( D6couver tes d es d ern iäres a nn6es e t p rob lämes d es p lus a nc iens o u t i ls . R evue c r it ique d e l a l i t t6ra ture . ) , S ove tska ia A rheo log i ia ( 3 ) . Moskva . MAT iOUH IN , ( A .E . ) , 1 972b .— «0 s v iaz i a bs tra lop itekov ih s d revne ish im i k amennym i o roud i iam i . »( Sur l a r e la t ion e ntre l e s a us tra lop ith6c in6s e t l e s p lus a nc iens o u t i ls l i th iques . ) , V oprosy An thopo log i i 4 1 . Moskva . MAT YOUH IN , ( A .B . ) , 1 973a .— «S trouktoura , f ounk ts i ia i t se l i a rheo log i tcheskogo e ksper imenta p r i i z ou t chen i i d revne i sh ih o roud i i . »( Stru c ture , f onc t ion e t b u ts d e l ' exp6r imenta t ion a r ch6o log ique p our l ' 6 tude d es p lus a nc iens o u t i ls . ) i n T ez .dok l . s ess i i p osv iashtch . i t ogam p o levyh a rheo log i t cheskyh i s s ledovän i i 1 972 g . vS SSR . T ashkent . MATYOUHIN , ( A .E .) , 1 973b .— «0 d v i joushtch ih s i lah n a r ann ih e tapah a ntropogeneza . » ( Sur l e s f orces motr ices d ans l es p rem ieres 6 tapes d e l ' anthropog6nese . ) i n P ervoby tny i t che lovek , e go mater iarna ia k ou noura i p r ipodna ia s r eda v p l e i s to tsene ig o lo tsene ( pa leo l it in eo l i t ) , Moskva . MAT iOUH IN , ( A .B . ) , 1 973c .— «P aradoksy p r i r eshen i i p rob lemy a ntropogeneza . » ( Paradoxes d ans l a r eso lu t ion d es p rob lämes d e l ' anthropogenäse . ) , V oprosy I s tor i i ( 5 ) . Moskva . MAT iOUHIN , ( A .B . ) , 1 975 .— «D . C lark . T he P reh istory o f A f r ica . » , S ove tska ia A rheo log i ia ( 1 ) . Moskva . MAT iOUHIN , ( A .B . ) , 1 976a .— «0 s t rouktoure , g noseo log itchesko m i metodo l og itcheskom s tatouse p ervobtno i a rheo log i i . »( Sur l a s t ructure e t l e s tatu t g noseo log ique e t m6thodo log ique d e l ' archäo log ie p r im it ive . ) i n I s tor i i : metodo log itchesk ie p rob lemy , Moskva . MAT iOUH IN , ( A .B . ) , 1 976b .— «E ksper imenta l 'noe i z out chen ie t ehn ik i i zg otov Ien i ia g a le t chnyh o roud i i . »( Etude e xp6r imenta le d e l a t e chn ique d e f abr ica t ion d es o u t i ls s ur g a l le t . ) , S ove tska ia A rheo log i ia ( 3 ) . Moskva . MAT YOUH IN , ( A .B . ) , 1 977a .— «O py ty p o i s po l 'zovan i iou t chopperov i t chopp igov v k a tchestve r oub iashtch ih o roud i i . »( Exper iences d 'u t i l isa t ion d es c hopper e t d es c hopp ing t oo ls e n q ua l it6 d ' ou t i ls a h acher . ) , S ove tska ia A rheo log i ia :2 58 -63 . Moskva . MATiOUHIN , ( A .E .) , 1 977b .— « T ehno log i ia i zgotovleni ia i f ounktsi i r annepa leo l i t i tchesk ih o roud ii . »( Techno log ie d e f abr ica t ion e t f onc t ion d es o u t i ls d u P a l6o l ith ique a nc ien . ) , D is . n a s onsk . o u tch . s t ep . k and . i s t . n aouk ( These d octora le ) , L en ingrad .

1 62

MAT TOUHIN , ( A .E . ) , 1 981 .— «T ehno log i ia i zgotov Ien i ia i t i po log i ia b ifasof S a tan i Dara . »( Techno log ie d e f abr icat ion e t t ypo log ie d es b ifa ces d e S a tan i -Dar . ) , K ra tk ie S oobsh tchen i i i i I ns t i tou ta A rheo log i i AN SSSR 1 65 . Moskva . MATiOUHIN ,

( A .E .) ,

1 983 .—« O roud i ia

r annego

p a leo l ita . » ( Les

o ut i ls

d u

P a leo l ith ique a nc ien . ) i n T ehno log i ia p ro izvodstva v e pohou p a leo l ita , Naouka , L en ing rad , p .1 34 -187 . MAT iOUHIN , ( A .E . ) , 1 984 .— «Opy ty p o r azde lke t oush k roupnyh j i votn ih o roud ia iam i p a leo l it itcheskogo o bshtchestva . »( Exper iences d e d ecarn isat ion d e g ros a n imaux a vec d es o u t i ls p a leo l ith iques . ) S ove tsckafa A rheo log i ia ( 4 ) :5 -25 . MATiOUHIN ,

( A .E . ) ,

GRIGOR 'EVA ,

( G .V .) ,

1 981 .— «T ehno log i ia

i zgotov Ien i ia

n akonetchn ikov i z p oznepa leo l it itchesko i s to iank i K orpatch . »( Techno log ie d e f abr icat ion d es h arpons d e l a s ta t ion d e K orpa tch .) , S ovetskaia A rheo log iia ( 2 ) . Moskva . NUZSHNIY , ( D . ) , 1 984 .— «Ob i spo l 'zovan i i o str i i ig eometr itchesk ih m ikro l itov . »( Sur l ' ut i l isa t ion d es p o intes e t d es m icro l ithes g eometr iques . ) , Ma ter ia ly k amennogo v eka n a t e rr i torr i Oukra ing : 2 3 -36 . Naoukova D oumka , K iev . OWEN , ( L . ) , UNRATH , ( G . ) , VAUGHAN , ( P .) , 1 982-83 .— «D irectory o f m icrowear a na lysts . » , Ear ly Man News 7 / 8 :3 3 -46 . P LISSON , ( H .) s ous p resse .— «T echno log ie e t t raceo log ie d es o ut i ls l i th iques mouster iens e n Un ion S ov iet ique :l e s t ravaux d e V .E . S hche l insk i i . »i n A ctes d u c o l loque L 'Homme d e N eander ta l , L iege , d ecembre 1 986 . S E MENOV , ( S .A . ) , 1 957 .— «P ervobytna ia t ehn ika . Opyt d reve ish ih o roud i i ii zde l i i p o s l edam r aboty . »( La t e chn ique p r im i t ive . E tude e xper imenta le d es o b jets e t d es o u t i ls l e s p lus a nc iens d ' apr s l eurs t races d e t rava i l .) , Ma ter ia ly i I ss ledovan iia p o A rheo log i i SSSR n ° 5 4 ,240 p . , Moskva e t L en ing rad . S E MENOV , ( S .A . ) , 1 964 .— «P r eh is tor ic t e chno logy ( an e xper imen ta l s tudy o ft he o ldes t t oo ls a nd a r tefac ts f rom t races o f manufac ture a nd w ear ) . » , C ory , Adams a nd Mackay ,L ondon , 2 12 p . S E MENOV , ( S .A . ) , 1 974 .— «G eog raf itcheska ia s reda io roud i ia k amennogo v eka . »( Le m i l ieu g eog raph ique e tl e s o u t i ls d e l ' Age d e l a p ierre . ) i n P ervobytny i t che lovek , e go mater ia l 'na ia k ou l 'toura ip r irodna ia s reda v p le istotsene ig o lotsene , Moskva , p .4 1 4 8 . SE MENOV ,

( S .A .) ,

1 975a .— «M ikroskop itchesk ie

(M ikroarheo log iia ) . » ( Ana lyses

i ss ledovan iia

m icroscop iques

e n

v a rheo log i i

a rcheo log ie

(M icro -

a rcheo log ie ) .) , Novei sh ie o tkry t iia s ove tsk ih a rheo logov T ez isy d ok ladov ( 1 ) :3 -7 . K iev . S E MENOV , ( S .A . ) , 1 975b .— «Ob o ldouva isk ih g om in idah . »( A p ropos d es k uom intangs o ldowayens . ) , V oprosy An tropo log i i 4 9 :3 -14 . Moskva . SE MENOV ,

( S .A .) ,

1 975c .— «S istemny i p odhod i « Ana l it itcheska ia a rheo log i ia »

D . K larka . »( L 'approche s ystem ique e t « l 'archeo log ie a na ly t ique » d e D . C lark . ) i n P redmet i o b "ekt a rheo log i i iv oprosy metod ik i a rheo log itchesk ih i s s ledovan i i . 1 63

Ma ter . s impoz . metodo log itcheskogo s em inara LONA AN S SSR , L en ingrad , p .2 3 2 9 . SE MENOV , ( S .A .) , 1 976a .— «Kamennye s erpy t chou tsko i k ourtoury . »( Les f auc i l les l i th iques d e l a c u lture T chouska . ) , O bshes tvennye Naouk i v Ouzbek is tane 1 0: 7 3 -77 . Tashkent . SE MENOV , ( S .A .) , 1 976b .— «F oundamenta l 'nye p rob lemy i s tor itechesk ih n aouk . » ( Prob lä mes f ondamentaux d es s c iences h istor iques .) i n I s tor izm a rheo log i i : metodo log itchesk ie p rob lemy . T ez isy d ok ladov , Moskva , p . 1-21 . SE MENOV ,

( S .A .) ,

1 978a .— «Nove ish ie

metody i zoutchen i ia

d revne i t ehn ik i

i

h oz ia l stva . »( Les p lus r ecentes methodes d ' etude d e l a t echn ique e t d e F econom ie a nc ienne . ) , V es tn ik AN SSSR 9 :6 2 -78 . Moskva . SE MENOV , ( S .A . ) , 1 978b .— «S iste mny i p odhod i «Ana l it itcheska la a rheo log ia » D . K larka . »( L 'approche s ystem ique e t «l ' archeo log ie a na lyt ique » d e D . C lark . ) , S oobsh tchen i fa I ns t i tou ta A rheo log i i AN SSSR 1 52 :4 3 -48 . Moskva . SE MENOV ,

( S .A .) ,

1 978c .— «K once n ic i

c zy l i

l ekc ja p okory .

R ozmowa z p rof .

S iem ionowem . » ,Zo t ch lan i w iek6w 4 4 ( 2 ) :1 26 -38 . R ozmaw ia l O s ia tynsk i . SE MENOV , ( S .A . ) , 1 981 .— «T echno log ia p r eh is tor ica :E s tud io d e l as h erram i en tas y o b j e tos a n t iguos a t rav A d e l a s h ue las d e u so . » ,A ka l , Madr id , 3 76 p . SE MENOV , ( S .A . ) , KOROBKOVA , ( G .F .) , 1 979 .— «I ss ledovan ia L itovsko i e ksper i menta l 'no -traceo log itchesko i e ksped its i i . »( Les r echerches d e l ' exped it ion e xper i menta lo -traceo log ique d e L ituan ie . ) , A rheo log i tcheskie O tkry t iia 1 978 :4 60 -61 . Moskva . SE MENOV , ( S .A .) , KOROBKOVA , ( G .F .) , 1 980 .— «R ets . n a k h . :L is itsyna G .N .Stanov len ie i r azv it ie o roshaemogo z em lede l ia v i o jno i T ourkmen i i . Opyt i s tor itcheskogo a na l iza mater ia lov k o mp leksnyh i s s ledovan i i n a l oge S SSR i B l i jne m V ostoke . (Moskva , 1 978 , 2 39 s . ) . » ( Compte r endu s ur : L is itsyna G .N . D even ir e t d eve loppement d e l ' irr igat ion a gra ire d ans l e Turkmen istan mer id iona l . E xper ience d e l ' ana lyse h is tor ique d es e tudes d u ma ter ie l d es c omp lexes d u s ud d e l 'URSS e t d u P roche -Or ient . ( Moscou , 1 978 , 2 39 p . ) . ) , V oprosy I s tor i i ( 1 ) : 1 33 -136 . Moskva . SE MENOV , ( S .A .) , KOROBKOVA , ( G .F .) , 1 981 .— «T ehno log ifa d revneishih p ro izvods tv ;Meso l i t -Eneo l i t . »( La t e chno log ie d es p roduct ions l e s p lus a nc iennes ; Meso l ith iques -Endo l ith ique . ) , Naouka , L en ingrad , 2 55 p . SE MENOV ,

( S .A .) ,

PETROV , ( V .S . ) , RYBAKOV , ( R .B .) , 1 977 .— «0 d revneishe m

p er iode t che lovetchescko l i s tor i i . »( Sur l a p lus a nc ienne p er iode d e l ' h isto ire h uma ine . ) , V oprosy F i losof i i 7 :1 26 -136 . Moskva . SE MENOV ,

( S .A .) , SHIR INOV , ( T .) , 1 978 .— «M ikroskop itchesk ie i s s ledovan i la v

a rheo log i i ( M ikroarheo log i la ) . » ( Ana lyses m icroscop iques e n a rcheo log ie ( M icro a rcheo log ie ) . ) , O bsh tches tvennye Haouk i v Ouzbek is tane 1 2 :3 1-33 . T ashkent .

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S E MENOV , ( S .A . ) , SHCHEL INSK Ii , ( V .E .) , 1 971 .— «M ikrometr itcheskoe i z ou tchen ie s l edov r aboty n a p a leo l it it chesk ih o roud i iah . »( Ana lyse m icrometr ique d es t races d e t rava i l s ur l e s o u t i ls p a leo l ith iques . ) , S ove tskaia A rheo log iia ( 1 ) :1 9 -30 . Moskva . SHCHEL INSK Ii , ( V .E . ) , 1 972 .— « I zoutchen ie p ro izvodstvennyh f ounkts i i g a letchnyh o roud i i i z p ozdnepa leo l it itchesk ih s to ianok En ice ia . » ( ütude d e l a f onct ion p roduct ive d es o ut i ls s ur g a lets d es s i tes p a leo l ith iques f i naux d u Y enese i . ) , Ma ter ia ly iI s s ledovan i ia p oA rheo log i i SSSR 1 85 :1 42 -49 . Moskva . SHCHEL INSK Ii , ( V .E .) , 1 974 .— «P ro izvods tvo if ounkts i i mouseerskih o roud i i * ( po d annym e ksper imen ta l 'nogo i t raso log i tcheskogo i zou tchen iia ) . »F abr icat ion e t f onct ion d es o ut i ls mouster iens ( d 'apres l e s d onnees d e l ' ana lyse e xper imenta le e t t raceo log ique ) . ) , D is . n a s onsk . o utch . s tep . k and . i s t . n aouk ( These d octora le ) , L en ingrad . SHCHEL INSK Ii , ( V .E .) , 1 975 .— «T raso log itcheskoe i z outchen ie f ounkts i i k amennyh o roud i i G oubsko i moust 'ersko i s t o iank i vP r ikouban 'e . »( Ana lyse t raceo log ique d e l a f onct ion d es o u t i ls l i th iques d u s i te mouster ien d e l a G ouba d ans l e P rekouban . ) , K ra tk ie S oobsh tchen i ia I ns t i tou ta A rheo log i i AN SSSR 1 41 :5 1 -57 . Moskva . SHCHEL INSK IY , ( V .E . ) , 1 976a .— «T rasso log ische Untersuchung . »i n D ie a l tste in z e it l iche F undste l le i n B rno -Bohun ice , K . Va loch e d . , S tud ie a rcheo log ickeho Ustavu C eskos lovenske Akadem ie V e d vB rne , R ocn ik I V , B rno , p .1 09 -112 . SHCHEL INSK Ii , ( V .E . ) , 1 976b .— « Kamenny i t opor p od m icroskopom . »( Hache d e p ierre s ous l em icroscope . ) , P r ipoda ( 1 ) :4 4 -45 . SHCHEL INSK IY ,

( V .E . ) , 1 977 .— «Eksper i menta l 'no -traso log itcheskoe i zoutchen ie

f ounkts i i n i jnepa leo l it itchek ih o roud i i . »( Ana lyse e xper imenta lo -traceo log ique d e l a f onct ion d es o u t i ls d u P a leo l ith ique i nf er ieur . ) i n P rob lemy p a leo l ita v ostotchno i i t sentra l 'no i Evropy , Naouka , L en ing rad , p .1 82 -96 . SHCHEL INSK IY , ( V .E . ) , 1 981a .— «S ledy o t r aboty n a k remnevyh o roud i iah i z mesta n aho jden i i Hr iasht ch i iM iha i lovskoe

S everk i i D onets . »( Traces d e t rava i l s ur

l e s o u t i ls d e s i lex d es s tat ions d e X r iasht ch ia e t d e M ixa i lov — D on s eptentr iona l . ) , K ra tk ie S oobsh tchen i ia I ns t i tou ta A rheo log i i AN SSSR 1 65 :6 3 -67 . Moskva . SHCHELINSK Ii ,

( V .E .) ,

1 981b .— «V idy

i sporzovan iia

k amennyh

o roud ii

i z

moust 'ersko i s to iank i K etrocy . »( Aspects d e l ' ana lyse d es o u t i ls l i th iques d e l a s tat ion mouster ienne d e K etrosa . ) i n K etrosy . Moust 'erska ia s t o ianka n a S rednem Dnestre , Nauka , Moskva , p .5 3 -58 . SHCHEL INSK IT , ( V .E . ) , 1 983 .— «K i z outchen i iou t ehn ik i , t ehno log i i i zgotov Ien i ia i f ounkts i i o roud i i moust 'e rsko i e pohou . »( Vers u ne e tude d e l a t e chn ique , d e l a t echno log ie d e f abr i ca t ion e t d e l a f onct ion d es o u t i ls d e r epoque mouster ienne . ) i n T ehno log i ia p ro izvodstva v e pohy p a leo l ita , Naouka , L en ing rad , p .7 2 -133 . SHCHEL INSK It ,

( V .E .) ,

1 984 .— «Nekotorye

o sobennost i i zgotov Ien ia i e f f ekt iv -

n ost 'rannepa leo l it it chesk ih o roud i i i z r azn iy p orod k amn ia . »( Que lques p art icu l ar ites d u f aponnage e t d e l ' ef f icac ite d ' ou t i ls d e d if erentes r oches d u P a leo l ith ique a nc ien . ) i n S em inar i n P etroarchaeo logy . I I . R epor ts . P lovd iv , p .1 85 -91 .

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S IRAKOV , ( N .) , SKAKUN , ( N .N . ) , 1 983 .— «S tone a rtefacts c onnected w ith c h ipp ing t echn ique . »i n T he l ower s t rumesn ica v a l ley i n p reh istor ic , a nc ient a nd e ar ly med ieva l t imes . K rakow . SKAKUN , ( N .N . ) , 1 972 .—« F ounkts iona l 'noe i s s ledovan ie k amennyh n akonetchn ikov s tre l e poh i b ronzy . »( Ana lyse f onct ionne l le d e p o intes d e f l Oches l i th iques d e l ' epoque d u B ronze . ) , Karakoumsk ie D revnos t i 4 :1 61-66 . A shhabad . SKAKUN , ( N .N .) , 1 975 .— «F ounts iona l 'no -t ipo log itcheskoe i z outchen ie ma ter ia lov i z t r ipo l 'skogo p ose len iia A leksandrovka . » ( Etude t ypo log ico -f onct ionne l le d u mater ie l d u s i te t r ipo l ien d 'A lexandrovska . ) i n 1 50 l e t Odesskomou a rheo lo g i t cheskomou mouze iou , AN OuSSR , K iev . SKAKUN , ( N .N . ) , 1 977a .— «Kamennye o roud i ia e pohou b ronzy ( po mater ia lam A ltyn— D epe 1 970 -1972 r . ) . »( Out i ls l i th iques d e l ' epoque d u B ronze — d ' aprOs l e ma ter ie l d 'A lt in -Depe 1 970 -1972 . ) , Karakoumsk ie Dr evnos t i 6 :9 8 -101 . A shhabad . SKAKUN , ( N .N .) , 1 977b .— «Eksper imenta l 'no -traso log itchesk ie i s s ledovan i ia k era m itchesk ih o roud i i t rouda e poh i p a leo meta l la ( po mater ia lam A ltyn—Depe i T ekke m—Depe ) . » ( Etude e xper imenta lo -traceo log ique d ' out i ls c eram iques d e l ' epoque P a leometa l l ique — s ur d u mater ie l d 'A lt in -Depe e t d e T ekkem -Depe . ) , S ove tska i ia A rheo log i ra , ( 1 ) :2 64 -68 . SKAKUN , ( N .N .) , 1 978 .— «O roud i ia t rouda r annetr ipo l 'skogo p oce len i ia A leksan d rovka ( b s vete e ksper imenta l 'no -traso log itcheskogo i s s ledovan i ia ) . »( Les o ut i ls d u s i te t r ipo l ien a nc ien d 'A lexandrovska — a l a l um iäre d e l ' ana lyse e xper i -menta lo t raceo log ique . ) , S ove tskaia A rheo log iia ( 1 ) :1 5 -23 . SKAKUN , ( N .N . ) ,

1 980 .— «P ro izvodstvenny i i nventar ' k ak i s totchn ik v yde len i ia

a rheo log itchesk ih k ou l 'tour i l oka l 'nyh v ar iantov — p o mater ia lam e poh i r ann ih meta l lov — . »( L ' inventa ire d e l a p roduct ion c omme s ource d e d ist inct ion d es c u ltures a rcheo log iques e t d es v ar iantes l o ca les — d ' aprOs l e ma ter ie l d e r epoque d u Meta l a nc ien — . ) , T ez isy S oveshtchan iia . Metod ika a rheo log itcheskogo i s s le d ovan i ia . Metod ika a rheo log itcheskogo i s s ledovan i ia i z akonomernost i r auv it i ia d revn ih o bsht ches tv :3 4 -36 . A shhabad . SKAKUN , ( N .N .) , 1 981a .— «T chto t akoe t raso log i ia v a rheo log i i ?» ( Qu 'est -ce q ue l a t raceo log ie d ans f archeo log ie ? ) , I n terd is ts ip l inarn i I zs ledvan iia 7 -8 :3 3 -40 . S of ia . SKAKUN , ( N .N . ) , 1 981b .— «Eksper imenty v e ksped its i i D obroud ja 7 9 .« ( Exper iences d e l ' exped it ion D obroud ja 7 9 . ) , I n terd is ts ip l inarn i I z s ledvan ira 7 -8 :5 9 -64 . S of ia . SKAKUN ,

( N .N .) ,

1 982a .— «O r"d iiata n a t rouda o t n eo l itnoto s e l ishtche p r i s .

D ourankou lak , T o lbouh insk i o kr "g ( t ipo log itchno -traso log itchesk i a na l iz ) . »( Les o u t i ls d e t rava i l d u s i te n eo l ith ique p rOs d u v i l lage d e Duranku lak , d epar tement d e T o lboux ine — a na lyse t ypo log ico -traceo log ique ) , A rheo log iia 7 ( 1 ) :4 9 -53 . S of ia . SKAKUN ,

( N .N .) ,

1 982b .— «P rogress ivnye

i a len i ia

v e kon im ike

r anneze m le -

d e l 'tchesk ih k ou l 'tour B o lgar i i . »( Phenombnes p rog ress if s d ans l ' econom ie d es c u ltures p roto -ag r ico les d e Bu lgar ie . ) i n K ourtourny i p rog ress v e pohou b ronzy i r annego j e leza . T ez isy D ok ladov , E revan , p .9 4 -96 .

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SKAKUN , ( N .N .) , 1 984 .— «K remneobraba tyva ioushtchee p ro izvodstvo v e pohou p a leometa l la v B o lga r i i . »( La p roduct ion l i th ique a l ' epoque P a leometa l e n B u lgar ie . ) i n I I S em inar i n p e troar chaeo logy . P lovd iv . SKAKL TN , ( N .N . ) , 1 985 .— «N ovye d annye o r azv it i i p ro izvods tva v e pohou e neo l i ta n a t e r itorr i B o lgar i i . »( Nouve l les d onnees s ur l e d eve loppement d e l a p roduct ion ä r epoque t neo l i th ique s ur l et e rr it o ire d e l a B u lgar ie . ) ,A rheo log i fa 5 2 . K iev . S OPOSHN IKOVA , ( G . ) , 1 982 .— «O brabotk ie merk ih ma ter ia lov n a mezo l i t it cheskom p ose len i i B e lo leske . »( T ra itemen t d es ma t ibres t endres s ur l e s i t e meso l ith ique d e B e lo leske . ) , T ez isy K onf er en ts i i Mo lod ih Ou tchenyh , K iev . SOPOSHN IKOVA , ( G . ) , 1 984 .— «0 n aznatchen i i g rouppy k remnebyh p las t inok i z Ametovk i I . »( Fonct ion d u g roupe d es l ame l les d u s i te d e Ametovka I . ) i n A rheo log it chesk ie i s s ledovan i ia n a O des t ch ine , K iev . SOPOSHN IKOVA , ( G . ) , 1 986 .— «0 f ounkts i iah g eometr itchesk ih m ikro l itov ( po ma ter ia lam mezo l it it chesko i s t oehk i G ir jevo . »( Les f onc t ions d es m icro l ithes g eome tr iques , d ' apAs l e ma ter ie l d e l a s t a t ion meso l i th ique d e G ir jevo . ) , r ef erences n on p rec isees , K iev . VOLKOV , ( P .V . ) , 1 986a .— «E ksper imentarno traso log itcheskoe i s s ledovan ie " t oporov so ushkam i " . »( Ana lyse e xper imenta lo -traceo log ique d es «h a ches a o re i l les » . ) i n I zvest i ia S ib irskogo O tde len i ia A kadem i i Naouk S SSR ;S er i ia i s tor i i , f i lo log i i i f o losof i i . F asc icu le I ,N ovos ib irsk , p .4 5 -49 . VOLKOV , ( P .V . ) , 1 986b .— «H oz ia i stvo g roma touh insko i k ou l 'toury . »( L 'econom ie d e l a c u lture G roma toux insk ienne . ) i n I s tor i tchesk i i O py t O svoen i ia S ib ir i . F asc icu le I . N ovos ib irsk . VOLKOV , ( P .V .) , 1 986c .— «T es lov idno -skreb lov idnye o roud i ia g romatouh insko i k ou ltoury . » ( Les o ut i ls e n f orme d e r ac lo ir -herm inet te d e l a c u lture G romatoux insk ienne . ) i n D revnos t i S ib ir i iD a l 'nego V os toka , N ovos ib irsk . VOLKOV , ( P .V . ) , GLADYSHEV , ( S .A . ) , 1 986 .— «Harakter is t ika k amennyh o roud i i s o s t o iank i S ouborovo I I » . ( La c aracter ist ique d es o ut i ls l i th iques d e l a s tat ion S ouborovo I I . ) i n D r evnost i S ib ir i iDa l 'nego V os toka , N ovos ib irsk .

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QUELQUES TER MES RUSSES DE TECHNOLOGIE , TRAC .tOLOGIE ET TYPOLOGIE L ITHIQUE

Hugues PLISSO N *a vec l a c o l labora t ion d e Evgen i ii ourev in GIRIA

AHKOL L I B k 1HOKY A5 IPHI , I2 M HKPOCK0 1 1 B I / 14AC BAECK B P IOI L IKO C KO AA

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1 69

HAKOHE T IHMK C BOKOB02 B I D IE MKOP I HAKOHEI IHMK C 11 EPEL I IKO M HEFAT I4B CHF ITP IY I HO X C IPNTY I I AEHH0 11 C I I I • IHK0 11 bHYK AEYC ZW ICKOBHZ IHL I II HYK AEYC O CTATO T IHL I II HYK AEYC I PH3 MATML IECK I42 HYK AEYC Z IBYI I AOLgAZO I I M IP I IPM3 MAT I / 1 YECK 142 H YK AEYC Y l I AOLgEHH 11 11 HYK AEYC 2 I A5 1 IAACTHH t l EPE I IAXOBP IZH I a l l > " I HYK AEYC HYK AEYCA IAOLUAZ (KA OB AO MOK OEPABATL IBAE MOr0 MATEPHA A .A OE Y L L IOK OP YZW IE KO MBMHP IPOBAHHOE O P YZ IHE O CTATOK O CTP 1,1 2 C IPHTYI I AEHHO C IHHKOc I O CTPOKOHE t IHMK MYCT I APCK I / I ll O CTPOKOHE T 11 1 14K OTEOP IHMK P ET Y I L IgP 0TB0 1 > " IH I / IK MAPK I,131OTEO2HP IK XECTK I,1 ; 1 ( TBEP ,Z IL I II) OTBO I ; IHMK OT XH MAHME OT X 1,1MATb OT)KM MH I4K ( PETYL L I2P-) OT)K I4 MH 1,1 K ( Z I AY I IO AY I IEHMA 1AACT 141 1) OTKOZ IN ( PACIgE l l AEHM5 1) (MB E ' IATHHA I EPBOEL ITHAY I APXEO AOrk IF I 1AACTZHA P EEEPI IATA2 1 IAACTZHA IAACT I / IHKA IAACTHHKA C I PMTY I I AEHHO2 C r IHHKOc I IAOLgAZ IKA C KO AA IOBEPXHOCT I D C KA AL IBAHMY I IO X ISCKA I0CPE2 IHMK IPEHYK AEYC I POKO AKA I POKCH MA A M I D I II YCII IHH II I1 3A I-AP PAC IgE l l AEHHA P EEP°

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1 70

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s pa l l/ b lank c or t ica lf l ake I f i r s t f lake s em i -cor t ica lf l ake c or et ab le t

c hu te d eb ur in r a c lo ir g ra t to ir 6moussä r evers / fa ce s upär ieur e / f a ce d or sa le t ra ce t ra ces n a ture l les t ra ces d ' usage t ra ces d ' usage t ra ces d ' emmanchemen t s t r ies / rayures t ra ces d ef a 9onnage t ab le t te d er av ivage

b ur in s pa l l s id es craper e nd scraper e dg e -round ing d or sa ls urf ace

t ra itemen tt herm ique t e chn ique t e chno log ie t ypo log ie ä tau t ra c6o log ie t r onca ture p lan d ef rappe ma i l let a ng le d et a i l lan t a ng le d e p ercuss ion

t r ac e n a tura lt r ace s u se -wear t r ac e s u se -wear t r ac e s h af t ing t r ac e s s t r ia t ion s Is c ra t che s t r ac e so f manuf ac tur e c or et ab le t/cor e r e juvena t ion f l ake t herma l t r ea tmen t t e chn ic t e chno logy t ypo logy c or ec lamp u se -wear a na ly s is t runca t ion s t r ik ing p la tf orm s t r iker e dge -ang l e f l ak ing a ng l e

t r onca ture f r agmen t f r a cture e squ i l le p i ä ce e squ i l läe

t runca t ion f ragmen t f rac tur e c h ip s p l in tered p iec e

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11 0 1 1 1 1EP 11 0 1 1 1 1 1,1 Hr

I BE MM AKA S izpz igE

g a l let a r n6nagö g a l let t a i l l6 g tau n uc leus

c hopper c hopp ing too l c or ec lamp c ore

RE MERCIE MENTS : D r . P . Anderson -Gerfaud e tM .H . N ew comer o nt e ul ag ent i l lesse d e r e l ire c el ex ique e n c ours d ' achövement ; j e t i ens äl e s e n r e merc ier . L es i nexact itudes q u i s ubs istera ient n e p euvent ö t re q ue l ef a i td el ' au teur .

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M1SE A JOUR DE L 'ANNUA 1RE DES TRACÜOLOGUES ( nouveaux n oms e ta dresses )

F IC HE TYPE

NA ME: —I ns t i tu t ion : —P re fe red ma i l ing a ddre ss: ABBREV IAT IONS: 1=Microwear me thod e mp loyed ( phenomena o bserved , magn i f ica t ion r ange ) L ow p owe r =l ow magn i f ica t ion a na lys is u p t o 8 0 ma in ly w i th s t e reom icroscope , t ak ing i n to a ccoun tp r inc ipa l ly e dge s ca r r ing . H igh p o wer = h igher magn i f ica t ion a na lys is n orma l ly b e tween 1 00X a nd 5 00X w i th me ta l lurg ica l m icroscope , i nves t iga t ing ma in ly m icropo l ishes a nd s t r ia t ions . S EM = a na lys is a t v ar iab le magn if ica t ion ( e .g . , 1 0X -2 0 .000X ) u s ing a s cann ing e l ec tron m ic roscope . ( o cc . ) =o ccas iona l ly u sed . 2= Microscop ic e qu ipemen tu sed ( manu fac tu re r , mode ln umbe r ) 3=Microwear e xper imentat ion: 3 a =R aw ma ter ia ls 3 b = Worked ma te r ia ls C lass A = ma te r ia ls c ommon ly emp loyed i nu se -wear e xpe r imen ts: wood , p lan ts ,b one , a n t ler , mea t , f i sh , h ide , l e a ther i n v ar ious c ond i t ions . 3 c =Mo t ions C lass B =c ommon ly emp loyed u se mo t ions :t r ansve rsa l ( s crap ing , p lan ing ) , Iong i tud ina l ( cu t t ing , s l ic ing , s aw ing ) ,b o r ing , p ie rc ing ,c hopp ing , g roov ing ,w i t t l ing . 4=Ana lyzed p r eh istor ic c o l lect ions: 4 . 1 =P er iod , s i te ( l oca t ion ) , r aw ma ter ia l , t oo l t ypes . 4 . 2 , 4 . 3 , e t c . =a s a bove . 5=Method s o fc l ean ing: 5 a =E xper imen ta l p ieces . 5 b =A rchaeo log ica l p ieces . 6=I nter est i n e xchang ing p last ic -tape r ep l icas o fe xper imenta l a nd /or a r chaeo log ica l m icrowear t r aces . 7= U lt imate g oals o f f unc t iona l s tud ies =q uest ions t o b e a pproached b y t r aceo log ica l a na lyses

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NA ME: H ID JRAT I , Naz im —I ns t i tu t ion: I ns t i tu te o fA rchaeo logy o fA cade my o fS c iences o fU SSR ,3 62040 O rdzon ik idze . —P re fe red ma i l ing a ddre ss:

Naberezna ja 1 6 , k v . 6 5 , 3 62040 O rdzon ik idze , Nor th O se t ia , USSR .

ABBREV IATIONS: 1=Mic rowear me thod e mp loyed ( phenomena o bserved , magn i f ica t ion r ange ) : L ow p owe r ,h igh p owe r 2=Mic roscop ic e qu ipement u sed ( manu fac ture r , mode ln u mbe r ): MBS -2 & MBS -9 s t e reo m icroscope , M I M7 me ta l lurg ica lm ic roscope 3=Microwear e xper imentat ion: a:F l in t , o bs id ian , b asa l t , d o lo m i t b : C lass A c:C las s B ,r ea l work a nd t oo ls ' manu fac ture 4=Ana lyzed p reh i stor ic c o l lect ions: 1 : K am menna l B a lka ( Upper P a leo l i th ic ) 2:K o ma robo ( Meso l i th ic ) 3:L asok C ave ( Mous ter ian t oB ronze Age ) 4:X ysxo - Ma ixya 1 4 ( Neo l i th ic -Eneo l i th ic ) 5=Method s o fc l ean ing: a . :D e tergen t +a l coho l , HC 1 b . :S a me 6= I nt er e st i n e xchang ing p last ic -tape r ep l icas o fe xpe r imenta l a nd /or a rchaeo log ica l m ic rowear t r ac es . Y es 7= U l t imate g oa l s o ff unct iona ls tud ie s =q ue st ions t ob ea pp roached b yt r aceo l og ica l a na ly se s: C onnec t ion o ft ypo log ica l , t e chno log ica l a nd t r aceo log ica ld a te a nd u nde rs tand ing o f p sycho logy o f p a laeo l i th ic Man i n h i s work .

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NA ME: KAZAR IAN , H ra t ch ia

-I n s t i tu t ion: I ns t i tu te o f A r chaeo logy a nd E thnog raphy ,A cademy o fS c iences o fA rmen ia , T cha ren ts 1 5 ,2 5 E revan , A rmen ian S SR

-P re fe red ma i l ing a ddress:

ABBREV IAT IONS: /=Mic rowear m ethod e mp loyed ( pheno mena o bserved , magn i f ica t ion r ange ) : L ow p owe r ,h igh p owe r 2=Mic roscop ic e qu ipement u sed ( manu fac tu re r , mode ln umbe r ): MBS 1 , MBS 2& MBS 9s t e reom iscroscope ,M I M6 me ta l lu rg ica lm icroscope 3=Mic rowear e xper imentat ion: a:Obs id ian , c he r t , a ndes i te b asa l t b :C lass A c:C lass B 4=Ana lyz ed p reh i stor ic c o l lect ions: 1:C a tan i -Dar , Ha t is ( A rmen ia , L owe r P a laeo l i th ic ) . Hand -axes; o bs id ian , b asa l t , a nde s i te . 2 : E revan 1& 2 ,L usake r t 1& 2 ( A rmen ia , M idd le P a laeo l i th ic ) . A l l a s semb lage; o bs id ian . 5=Me thod s o fc l ean ing: a:S oap a nd wa te r , a l coho l a nd a ce tone . b :S a me 6=I nter est i n e xchang ing p last ic -tape r ep l icas o fe xpe r imenta l a nd /or a rchaeo log ica l m icrowear t r ace s . :Y es . 7 = U lt imate g oa l s o ff unc t iona ls tud ie s =q ue st ions t o b ea pproached b yt r aceo l og ica l a na ly se s: S tudy o f morpho logy ,t e chno logy a nd f unc t ion o f mous te r ian a nd a cheu lean t oo ls .

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NA ME :KOROBKOVA , G a l l ina F ede rovna : —I ns t i tu t ion :I ns t i tu te o fA rchaeo logy o fA cademy o fS c iences o f USSR , Dvor tzova ja n ab . 1 8 , 1 91065 L en ing rad , USSR . —P re fe red ma i l ing a ddress:

ABBREV IAT IONS: 1=Mic rowear me thod e mp loyed ( phenomena o bserved , magn i f ica t ion r ange ) : L ow p ower ,h igh p ower 2=Mic roscop ic e qu ipement u sed ( manu fa c ture r , mode ln u mber ): MBS s t e reom iscroscopes ,M I M6 me ta l lurg ica lm ic roscope 3=Microwear e xper imentat ion: a :F l in t , o bs id ian , b asa l t , s ands tone , c her t , q uar tz , q uar tz i te , j a sper , n ephr i te , s t ea t i te , d o lo m i te , q uar tz c rys ta l , p orphery te , ma lach i te , c eram ic . b : C lass A , s he l ls , c era m ic , c l ay , e ar th , s t one s , me ta l , c l o th , e t c . C : C lass B 4=Ana lyzed p reh i stor ic c o l lec t ions: 1:P a laeo l i th ic :7s i tes i n S ibe r ia , C en t ra l A s ia a nd Ukra ine 2 : Meso l i th ic :1 6

s i tes

i n Ukra ine ,

B ie lo -Russ ia , C aucasus , C en tra l

A s ia ,

Mo ldav ia , I nd ia 3 : Neo l i th ic: more t han 2 00 s i tes i n Ukra ine , S iber ia , C aucasus , C en t ra l A s ia , F ar E as t , B lack S ea , K orsk i p en insu la , I r ak , C uba , I nd ia 4 : E neo l i th ic :more t han 1 00 s i tes i n Uk ra ine , Mo ldav ia , C aucasus , K azachs tan 5 : B ronze Age: more t han 1 00 s i tes i n Uk ra ine , C aucasus , Mo ldav ia , U ra l , C en t ra l A s ia , K azachs tan , F ar E as t . 5=Me thod s o fc l ean ing: a : D e te rgen t +a l coho l b : S ame 6=I nter e st i n e xchang ing p last ic -tape r ep l icas o fe xpe r imenta l a nd /or a rchaeo log ica l m ic rowear t r ace s . No a nswe r 7= U l t imate g oa l s o ff unc t iona ls tud ie s =q uest ions t ob ea pproached b yt r aceo l og ica l a na lyse s: Unde rs tand ing a nd r e cons truc t ion o f a c t iv i t ies a nd e cono my o f o ld s oc ie t ies o n t he c oncre te b as is o f t oo ls ' f unc t ions . S tudy o f f unc t ion a nd manu fac ture o f t oo ls a nd o b jec ts . Ana ly s is o ft oo ls k i ts i nt he ir e cono m ic c on tex ts .

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NA ME: NUZSHN IY , D im i try : —I n s t i tu t ion :I ns t i tu te o fA rchaeo logy ,S tone Age D epar tmen t ,A cademy o fS c iences o f Ukra ine , V idubecka jau l . 4 0 , 2 52014 K iev , USSR . —P re fe red ma i l ing a ddres s: ABBREV IAT IONS: I=Mic rowear m ethod e mp loyed ( phenomena o bs erved , magn i f ica t ion r ange ) : L ow p owe r 2=Mic roscop ic e qu ipement u sed ( manu fac tu re r , mode ln umbe r ): MBS s t e reo m isc ros cope 3=Microwear e xper imentat ion: a :F l in t b :C lass A c:C lass B ,a r rows w i th m icro l i ths a nd b acked p o in ts . 4=Ana lyzed p reh i stor ic c o l lect ions: M ic ro l i th ic c omp lexes o f f l in t a ssemb lages i n t he Uk ra in ian Meso l i th ic . 5=Me thod s o fc l ean ing: a:S oap a nd w a te r , c o t ton w i th a l coho l b :s ame 6=I nter est i ne xchang ing p last ic -tape r ep l icas o fe xpe r imenta l a nd /or a rchaeo log ica l m ic rowear t r ace s . No a nswer 7 = U lt imate g oa l s o ff unc t iona ls tud ie s =q ue st ion s t ob ea pproached b yt r aceo log ica l a na ly se s: S tudy o f t he e f f ic iency o f t he v ar ious way o f m icro l i th ic b arb h af t ing b y e xper imen ts a nd t r aceo log ica l a na lys is o f e xper i men ta l a nd a rchaeo log ica l a r te fac ts . S tudy o f t he e vo lu t ion o f g eo me t r ica l m icro l i ths a nd b acked p o in ts i n r e la t ion w i th t h e ir u se a sa r row p o in ts .

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NA ME: SHCHEL INSK I I , V iaches lav E vgenev ich —I ns t i tu t ion :I ns t i tu te o fA rchaeo logy o fA cademy o fS c iences o f USSR , Dvo r tzova ja n ab . 1 8 , 1 91065 L en ing rad , USSR . —P re fe red ma i l ing a ddress:

ABBREV IAT IONS: 1=Mic rowear me thod e mp loyed ( phenomena o bserved , magn i f ica t ion r ange ) : L ow p owe r ,h igh p owe r 2=Mic roscop ic e qu ipement u sed ( manu fac ture r , mode ln umbe r ): MBS 2s t e reom is croscope , M I M6 & M MY -3C .2 me ta l lurg ica lm icroscope , M IS -11 p ro f i lograph 3=Microwear e xper imentat ion: a:F l in t , c he r t , o bs id ian , d o lo m i te . b : C lass A c:C lass B ( e xcep tb one g roov ing ) . 4=Ana lyzed p reh i stor ic c o l lect ions: 1 : Mous te r ian s i tes o fE as tE u ropean P la in ,C r imea a nd C aucasus . 2:K os tenk i 1 , Moura lov ia , mon t Ch irok i i ( Upper P a laeo l i th ic ) 5=Me thod s o fc l ean ing: a:B o i led i n wa ter , d e te rgen ta nd s o f tb rush , d e te rgen t +a l coho l . b :S o f t b rush , h o t wa te r , d e te rgen t +a l coho l . 6=I ntere st i ne xchang ing p last ic -tape r ep l icas o fe xpe r imenta l a nd /or a rchaeo log ica l m icrowear t r ace s .: Y es , a l l k inds 7= U lt imat eg oa l s o ff unc t iona ls tud ie s =q ue st ions t o b ea pproached b yt r aceo l og ica l a na lyse s: R econs t ruc t ion o f t e chn iques a nd modes o f p roduc t ion t h rough a more p rec ise a pproach o f d o mes t ic a c t iv i t ies i n mous ter ian a nd l ower p a laeo l i th ic c o m mun i t ies . S tudy o fd eve lopmen ta nd i n te rac t ion o fc u l ture s .

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NA ME :S KAKUN , Na ta l ia N ico laevna : —I ns t i tu t ion :I ns t i tu te o fA rchaeo logy o fA cademy o fS c iences o f USSR , Dvor tzova ja n ab . 1 8 , 1 91065 L en ing rad ,U SSR . —P re fe red ma i l ing a ddres s:

ABBREV IAT IONS: I=Mic rowear m ethod e mp loyed ( phenomena o bserved , magn i f ica t ion r ange ) : L ow p owe r 2=M ic roscop ic e qu ipement u sed ( manu fac ture r , mode ln umbe r ): MBS -1 s t ereom is c roscope 3=Microwear e xper imentat ion: a:F l in t , o bs id ian , q uar tz , d ior i te , p o rphery te , b one , i vory . b :C lass A c : C lass B 4=Ana lyzed p reh istor ic c o l lec t ions: Neo l i th ic a nd E neo l i th ic s i tes o f S ou th E as t r eg ion o f USSR a nd o f B u lgar ia: a l exandrovka , O zernoe , B o lg rad , Go l iamo D e lg ivo , Douronkou lak , P o len i tsa , Kh i rdpea i , e t c . F l in t , s t ones , b one , i vory; a l l t ypes o f t o l ls . 5=Me thod s o fc l ean ing: a : A lcoho l +d e te rgen t b :S ame 6=I ntere st i ne xchang ing p last ic -tape r ep l icas o fe xpe r imenta l a nd /or a rchaeo log ica l m icrowear t r aces :Y es . 7= U lt imat eg oa ls o ff unc t iona ls t ud ie s =q ue st ions t ob ea pproached b yt r aceo log ica l a na ly se s: I n terpre ta t ion o f t oo ls f unc t ions , t o i mprove o ur k now ledge o n Neo l i th ic a nd E neo l i th ic e conomy i nt he B a lkan r eg ion a nd i t s p er iphery .

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NA ME: SOPOSHN IKOVA , G a l l ina : —I ns t i tu t ion :I ns t i tu te o f A rchaeo logy , A cademy o fS c iences o f Ukra in ian S SR , P ushk inskaya u l . 3 7 , 2 700 11 Odessa , U SSR . —P re fe red ma i l ing a ddress:

ABBREV IAT IONS: 1=Mic rowear me thod e mp loyed ( pheno mena o bserved , magn i f ica t ion r ange ) : L ow p owe r 2=Mic roscop ic e qu ipement u sed ( manu fac turer , mode ln umbe r ): MBS 1& MBS 9s t ereo m is croscope 3=Mic rowear e xper imentat ion: a:Ma in ly f l in t , b u t a l so s ands tone , q uar tz a nd q uar tz i te b : C lass A c : C lass B 4=Ana lyzed p reh i stor ic c o l lect ions: 1 : Uppe r P a laeo l i th ic s i tes o f S ou the rn Uk ra ine; f l in t 2 : Meso l i th ic s i tes o f S ou the rn Ukra ine; f l in t . 5=Me thod s o fc l ean ing: a : wa ter , a l coho l b : wa ter , HC 1 , wa te r , a l coho l 6=I nter e st i n e xchang ing p last ic -tape r ep l ica s o fe xpe r imenta l a nd /or a rchaeo log ica l m icrowear t r aces: Y es . 7= U lt imate g oa l s o ff unct iona ls tud ie s =q ue st ion s t ob ea pproached b yt r aceo l og ica l a na ly se s: C o mp le te s tudy o f a l l a rchaeo log ica l d a ta . Ana lys is o f k napp ing t e chn iques . C onc re te d e te rm ina t ion o f t oo ls f unc t ions a nd o f worked ma te r ia ls . C arac ter isa t ion o f p reh is tor ic a c t iv i t ies a nd o f s i tes f unc t ions . E xcava t ion o f B o lchayaAkkar ja s t a t ion a nd e xper i men ta t ion o n t he s i te o n t he b as is o f t r aceo log ica l a nd t e chno log ica l d a ta .

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NA ME: VOLKOV , P ave l: —I ns t i tu t ion: I ns t i tu te o f H is tory , P h i lo logy a nd P h i losophy , S ib i r ien B rench o f A cade my o f S c ience s o f USSR , Novos ib i rsk , USSR . —P re fe red ma i l ing a ddress:

ABBREV IATIONS: 1=Mic rowear m ethod e mp loyed ( phenomena o bserved , magn i f ica t ion r ange ) : L ow p owe r ,h igh p owe r 2=Mic roscop ic e qu ipement u sed ( manu fa c ture r , mode ln umber ): MBS 2& MBS 9s t e reo m is croscope , M MY -3YC .2 3=Microwear e xper imentat ion: a:F l in t , c her t , t u fa , l i par i te , a gha t b : C lass A c:C lass B 4=Ana lyzed p reh i stor ic c o l lect ions: Upper P a laeo l i th ic , Meso l i th ic a nd Neo l i th ic o f F ar E as t a nd Amur r i ve r r eg ion . 5=Me thod s o fc l ean ing: a:s oap a nd wa ter , c o t ton w i th a l coho l b : s a me 6=I nt ere st i n e xchang ing p last ic -tape r ep l icas o fe xpe r imenta l a nd /or a rchaeo log ica l m ic rowear t r ace s: Y e s ,o fc our se . 7= U l t imat eg oa l s o ff unc t iona ls tud ie s =q ue st ions t o b ea pp roached b yt r aceo log ica l a na lyse s: R econs t ruc t ion o fe cono my . D e term ina t ion o ft oo l 's t ypes . E labora t ion o ff unc t iona l morpho log ica l c l a ss i f ica t ion f o r t he F ar E as t a ssemb lage s .

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NA ME: GASS IN B e rnard —I ns t i tu t ion :U .R .A . 3 6 d u C en t re d e R eche rches A rch Mog iques d u C .N .R .S . , S oph ia An t ipo l is ,0 6565 V a lbonne c edex . —P re fe red ma i l ing a ddress:

ABBREV IAT IONS: 1=Mic rowear m ethod e mp loyed ( pheno mena o bserved , magn i f ica t ion r ange ) : h igh p ower 2=Microscop ic e qu ipement u sed ( manu fac ture r , mode ln umbe r ) : N ikon L abopho t R e icher t 3=Microwear e xper imentat ion: a :R aw

ma te r ia ls: c r e taceous f l in t f r o m wes tern P roven ce ( Chä teauneu f les - Mar t igues , Mu rs , Ma lauc & ie ) ; f l in t f r om l a cus tr ian O l igocene l ayer s , l a rgue v a l ley ( A lpes d e Hau te P rovence , F rance ); o ccas ionna l ly o ther f l in t; f l in t f l aked a f ter h ea t t r ea tmen t ( honey f l in t f r o m wes tern P rovence ) .

b :C lass A c:C lass B 4=A na lyzed p reh istor ic c o l lec t ions: 1 : E ar ly

n eo l i th ic ( ep icard ia l ) ;G ro t te L ombard , S a in t -Va l l ier -de -Th iey , a lpes

Mar i t i mes , F rance; v ar ious f l in t; b lades , s c rape rs , t r unca t ions , g eome t r ic p ieces , b acked e dges . 2 :M idd le n eo l i th ic ( chass &n ) , G ro t te d e l ' Eg l ise s up & ieure , B aud inard , V ar , F rance; h oney f l in t f r o m wes tern P rovence , s o me t i mes h ea t t r ea ted; l a cus t rean f l in t ;b lades , s c rape r s , t r unca t ions ,b ore rs ,g eome tr ic p i eces . 5=Me thod s o fc l ean ing: a:a l coho l , d e te rgen t , u l t ra s on ic c l ean ing t ank , s o me t imes HC 1 o r KOH b : a l coho l a nd a ce ton , d e tergen t , u l tra s on ic c l ean ing t ank , s o me t i mes HC l 6=I nt ere st i ne xchang ing p last ic -tape r ep l icas o fe xpe r imenta l a nd /or a rchaeo log ica l m ic rowear t r ace s :No ty e t . 7 = U lt imate g oa l s o ff unc t iona ls tud ie s =q ue st ions t o b ea pproached b yt r aceo log ica l a na ly se s: C ho ices i nr aw ma te r ia ls , b e tween d i f fe ren tt ypes o fb lanks ,b e tween d i f feren tt ypes o f t oo ls , f o r d i f fe ren t t a sks; i n ters i tes v ar iab i l i ty a nd e cono m ic o rgan isa t ion o f a t e r r i tory; dwe l l ing o rgan isa t ion .

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NA ME: COLL IN , F ernard : —I n s t i tu t ion :S e rv ice d e P rdh is to ire d e l ' Un ivers i td d e L 4e , 7p lace d u XX a oü t , B ä t A l , 4 000 L iege ( Be lg ique ) —P re fe red ma i l ing a ddress:

ABBREV IAT IONS: 1=Mic rowear me thod e mp loyed ( phenomena o bserved , magn i f ica t ion r ange ) : h igh p ower 2=Mic roscop ic e qu ipement u sed ( manu fac tu re r , mode ln umbe r ) : O lympus BH M me ta l lurg ica l m ic roscope 3=Mic rowear e xper imentat ion: a :F l in t b :C lass A c:C lass B 4=Ana lyzed p reh i stor ic c o l lect ions: 1:S i te P a ldo l i th ique moyen d e Mesv in I V ( Be lg ique ) 2:S i te P a ldo l i th ique s updr ieu r f i na l d e R ekem ( Be lg ique ) 3:S i te Ndo l i th ique moyen d u Cud d u P lan t in ( Be lg ique ) S i te P a ldo l i th ique s upd r ieur d eF l ixecour t( So mme ,F rance ) 5=Me thod s o fc l ean ing: a:Wa ter , d e te rgen t , worm HC 1 ( 1 0 % ) , a ce tone b :s a me 6=I nt ere st i n e xchang ing p last ic -tape r ep l icas o fe xpe r imenta l a nd /or a rchaeo log ica l m ic rowear t r ace s

:Y e s .

7= U l t imat eg oa l s o ff unc t iona ls tud ie s =q ue st ion s t o b ea pproached b yt r aceo log ica l a na lyse s: Mdmo ire d ef i nd ' d tude ( U lg , 1 986 ) Ana lyse f onc t ionne l le d eq ue lques o u t i ls e ns i lex p rovenan td es s i tes d e Mesv in I V ,d u g ud d u P lan t in , d eR ekem ( RE -6 ) .

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NA ME: P ROST Do m in ique Ch r is t ian: —I ns t i tu t ion : —P re fe red ma i l ing a ddress: 1 3 p lace S ouham 7 50 13 P a r is

ABBREV IAT IONS: 1=Mic rowear m ethod e mp loyed ( phenomena o bserved , magn i f ica t ion r ange ) : M icrowear me thod emp loyed i sl ow p owe rw i th l ow magn i f ica t ion a na lys is u p t o5 0 , t ak ing i n to a ccoun t , p r inc ipa l ly e dge s c ar r ing . 2=Mic roscop ic e qu ipement u sed ( manu fac tu re r , mode ln umber ): U t i l isa t ion o f a l ow p owered b inocu lar m icroscope w i th a d raw ing t ube . Ma rk :Wi ld t ype h ee rbrugg ( Sw iss ) w i th magn i f ica t ions 6 ,1 2 ,2 5 a nd 5 0 . 3=Microwear e xper imentat ion: a:r aw ma ter ia ls f l in t a nd g lass b :worked ma te r ia ls C lass A : ma te r ia ls c o mmon ly emp loyed i nu se -wea re xpe r imen ts a re wood , b one , mea t , l e a the r c:mo t ions C lass B :c o mmon ly emp loyed u se mo t ions a re t r ansve r sa l ( s crap ing ,p lan ing ) , l ong i tud ina l ( cu t t ing , s l ic ing , s aw ing ) , c hopp ing , wh i t t l ing . 4=Ana lyzed p reh i stor ic c o l lect ions: 1 : f o r my t hes is , Is t udy n eo l i th ic f l in t ma ter ia l f r o m Har lo t ( N i6 7re , F rance ) n ear Neve rs , made u p o ff l in t ma te r ia l a nd t oo ls l i ke s c rape rs , f l akes , g rave r s . . . 2:Is tudy a l so f l in t ma te r ia l f r om T or fou p la teau ( Essonne , F rance ) a nd wh ich p robab ly b e long t on eo l i th ic o r c ha lco l i th ic p er iod . T he ma te r ia l s t ud ied i s made u p o f f l in t ma te r ia l a nd t oo ls l i ke s c raper s , f l akes , g raver s a nd h a tche ts . 5=Me thod s o fc l ean ing: a:n o th ing f o r e xpe r imen ta l p ieces b :a rchaeo log ica l p ieces: l i gh t wash ing w i th warm wa ter . 6=I nt ere st i n e xchang ing p last ic -tape r ep l icas o fe xpe r imenta l a nd /or a rchaeo log ica l m icrowear t r aces : Iam n o t a ga in i n teres t ing i ne xchang ing p las t ic tape r ep l icas o fe xpe r imen ta la nd/or a rchaeo log ica l m icrowea t t r aces . 7 = U lt imate g oa l s o ff unct iona ls tud ie s =q ue st ion s t ob ea pproached b yt r aceo l og ica l a na lyse s: F unc t iona l s t ud ies c an b eu sed f o re s tab l ish ing r e la t ionsh ip b e tween t oo lf unc t ion a nd h is s hape , e f f ic iency , n a ture , manu fac tur ing t e chn ic , r e la t ionsh ip a l so b e tween a c t ive p ar t a nd p rehen s i le p a r t , e t c . t ot r yt oa nswe rt hese q ues t ions: —wha t i st oo l f o r ap reh is tor ic man? —h ow d id p reh is tor ic men i mag ine t oo ld ur ing e vo lu t ion?

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-d id Neende r tha l man t ake t he t oo l i n h i s h and i n t he s ame way l i ke T au tave l o r C ro -magnon men ?a nd why? -wha t a re r e la t ionsh ips b e tween b ra in , h and a nd t oo l , i n h is a c t ion , o r h is movemen t ,d ur ing h uman e vo lu t ion? -h ow a im was t h e p reh is tor ic t oo l? af unc t iona l a im o n ly? -wha t a re l i th ic t oo l a dvan tages a nd d i sadvan tages f o r ag iven f unc t ion? I f we k now t ha t , d ur ing h is e vo lu t ion h ow

was p reh is tor ic man aware o f t hese

a dvan tages a nd d i sadvan tages? a nd wha t was h i sb ehav iour a bou t t hese?

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NA ME :SHEA J ohn J . : —I n s t i tu t ion :An thropo logy D ep t . P eabody Museum , Ha rvard Un ive rs i ty , 1 D iv in i ty Ave . , C amb r idge , MA 0 2138 ( USA ) —P re fe red ma i l ing a ddress:

ABBREV IAT IONS: 1=Mic rowear method e mp loyed ( phenomena o bserved , magn i f ica t ion r ange ) : Iemp loy t he «l ow p ower »a pp roach , b u t u se magn i f ica t ions i ne xcess o f wha t y ou s t a te , i . e . 5 160X . A lso , Id o o bse rve t r aces o fa b ras ion a sw e l la s m icro f rac tur ing . 2=Mic roscop ic e qu ipement u sed ( manu fac tu re r , mode ln umbe r ) : N ikon SM2 -2 o r Amer ican Op t ica l C orpora t ion Cyc lop t ic S tereo m icroscope ( mod i f ied b y me t oi ncrease magn i f ica t ion ) . 3=Microwear e xper imentat ion: a :R aw ma ter ia ls i nc luded: S and H i l l Che r t f r om t he L owe R anch , B e l ize ( n =3 56 ) , B randon ( Un i ted Kngdo m ) F l in t ( n =3 05 ) , M idd le C enoman ian F l in t f ro m

T ira t

C ar me l ,

I s rae l

( n =2 68 ) ,

C as t le

Rock ,

F e ls i te/Rhgyo l i te

( Ma rb lehead , Massachuse t ts , USA ) ( n =8 5 ) , C onk l in Quar ry J a sper ( L i me R ock , R hode I s land , USA ) ( n =3 0 ) . B ur l ing ton F l in t ( Ca lhoun C oun ty , I l ino is , U SA ) ( n =3 5 ) , P icacho Rhyo l i te ( Las C ruces , New Mex ico , USA ) ( n =3 0 ) , G lass B u t te Obs id ian ( O regon , USA ) ( n =2 7 ) . b : A l l o f t he ma te r ia ls y ou l i s t , mea t ( d r ied , f r e sh a nd f r ozen ) , s k in/ lea the r , b one i n av ar ie ty o f c ond i t ions , a n t ler , g rasses , b racken , t ubers , r eeds , woods ( dec iduous a nd c on i fe rous ,i nb o th f r esh a nd s easoned c ond i t ions ) , s o i l ( c lay , s i l t , s and , g rave l ) , r ock ( l i mes tone , a l abas ter , s t ea t i te ) . Ia l so ma in ta in a c o l lec t ion o f n a tura l ly ( s trea m ro l led , b each -wo rn ) a nd a r t i f ic ia l ly ( t ramp led , r e touched ) d a maged s pec i mens . Ana ly t ica l ly , Ir ecogn ize t we lve c a tegor ies o f worked ma ter ia ls . c : Ir ecogn ize s i x teen d is t inc t mo t ions ( cu t/saw , s have , s c rape , p lane , s h red , a dze/hoe , c hop , wedge , p ro jec t i le , g rave , aw l , d r i l l , a brade , p ound , h and p rehens ion , h a f t p rehens ion ) . 4=Ana lyzed p reh istor ic c o l lect ions: Ana lyzed P reh is tor ic c o l lec t ions ( mos t o f t hese a re i n p repara t ion , h av ing b een d e layed b y my e n ro l l ing i ng radua te s choo l ): — P recera m ic a ssemb lages f r om B e l ize ( n =1 0 ) w i th G .H . Ode l l . — Wa ter town (Massachuse t ts ) Amp i thea te r S i te , aL a te A rcha ic F i sh ing S ta t ion o n t he Cha r les R iver .— i n p repara t ion w i th R .B arber . — Whee lers S i te :A Mu l t ico mponen t ( La te A rcha ic a nd M idd le Wood land ) o ccupa t ion o n t he Merr i mack R iver E s tuary o f Nor thern Massachuse t ts .— i n p repara t ion w i th R . B arber . — A t t leboro Kno l l C S i te ( M idd le A rcha ic ) :t he L i th ic I ndus try .— i n p repara t ion w i th R . J . E l ia a nd T . Mah ls ted t . — T he A rcha ic Co l lec t ions f r om T odsen C ave , L as C ruces , New Mex ico .— i n p repara t ion w i th R .S MacNe ish . — T he Mous te r ian A ssemb lages o fK eba ra C ave , Mt . C arme l , I s rae l .— i np re ss . — T he Mous ter ian A ssemb lage f r om Q afzeh C azve ( I srae l ) Un i t XV I I .— i n p repara t ion . 1 86

5= Me thod so fc l ean ing: F or e xpe r imen ta l p iece s: r epea ted wash ing w i th s oap a nd wa ter ,r ub w i th p aper o rs o f tc l o th . F or p iece su sed i nb l ind t e s ts: s i f t w i th o the r d eb i tage i ns andy s i l t , wash w i th s oap a nd wa te r , u se a ce tone a nd/or m i ld s o lu t ion o fh ydroch lor ic a c id i fv i s ib le o rgan ic r e s idues r ema in . F or a rchaeo log ica l p ie ces: g ene ra l ly s oap a nd wa ter . 6=I nt er est i ne xchang ing p last ic -tape r ep l icas o fe xpe r imenta l a nd /or a rchaeo log ica l m ic rowear t r ace s . No ti n te re s ted ,n o tr e levan tf o r my t e chn ique . 7= U l t imate g oa l so ff unct iona ls tud ie s =q ue st ion st ob ea pproached b yt r aceo log ica l a na ly se s: U l t ima te g oa l: t o u nders tand t he s i gn i f icance o f v ar ia t ion i n t he b ehav iora l c on tex ts f o rt oo lu se i nh om in id e vo lu t ion .

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FOR MULAT IO N ANALYT IQUE DES CARACTERES FONCT IO IVNELS

A ssumpc i6 V ILA *

ABSTRACT :

Ip ropo se h ere a m e thod f o r t h e t r a i tmen t o fm orpho t echn ica l a nd f unc t iona l c ha ra c ter a na ly s is . Ia l so p r esen t v ery s imp le p rog rams i nB AS IC f o r m icro compu t er s . R tsumt : J e p ropo se i c u ne m 6 thod o log ie q u i p erme td ' ana ly ser al af o is l e s d onnäes m orpho t e chn iques e t f o n c t ionne l les d es p i e ces l i th iques . J e p r4sent e 6 ga lemen t d es p rog rammes d ' o rd ina teur e n B AS IC t r es s imp les .

I NTRODUCTION L es a rcheo logues p reh istor iens , s ur tout f ranpa is e t e spagno ls , o nt o r iente l eur r echerche s ur l e s c o mp lexes l i th iques a f in d e r e trouver d es e nsemb les r egroupab les d ans d es l i stes t ypes , p our a bou t ir f i na lement a l a c onna issance d es f abr icants d e c es o b jets . P our f a ire c e la o n s ' est s ur tou t f i xe s ur l e s c aracteres morpho log iques o u t e chn iques q ue I on p eu t o bserver d i rectement s ur l e s p ieces l i th iques , e t e n r egardant p ar t icu l ierement q ue lques o b jets «p lus e labores » ( l es p ieces l i th iques r etouchees , l e s f o ss i les d i rec teurs ) c omme p orteurs d 'une p lus g rande v a leur d e d iagnose c hrono -cu lture l le . Dans c e s chema l ' ana lyse t ra ceo log ique a u n b ut p urement a ccesso ire , i lus tra t if . Dans u ne a u tre d i rect ion d e r echerche , l e s a rcheo logues , c ons iderant l e s i ndustr ies l i th iques c o mme l a p ar t ie l a p lus i mpor tante d e l a b ase mater ie l le d es p reh istor iques , o bservent c e mat er ie l äl af o is c o mme l ep rodu it d 'un t rava i l e tu n i ns trumen t d e t rava i l . Dans l e s econd c as , l ' ana lyse t raceo log ique e st i nd ispensab le p arce q ue c ' est l a s eu le me thode q u i p ermett e d e t i rer d es c onc lus ions s ur l af onc t ion d es o ut i ls . L a t echno log ie d ans s on s ens l e p lus v aste s ign if ie n on s eu lement l a f abr icat ion ma is a uss i l ' ut i l isa t ion d es i ns truments . L eur f o rme e t l eur f onct ion e n s ont l er e f let . On a d onc b eso in d ' ana lyser ä l a f o is l e s c aracteres morpho -techn iques e t l e s c arac teres f onct ionne ls ( l es p rem iers d er ives d u p rocessus d e f abr icat ion , l e s d ern iers d e l ' usage ) e n u t i l isant l a möme methodo log ie . A ins i o n p ourra c o mparer e t t rava i l ler

*I n s t i tu t «J . A lmera » C .S .I .C . , H Mar t i iF ranquC s SIn , Z ona U n iver s i tar iä P edra lbe s , B ar c e lona 0 8028 ,E spagn e .

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e nsemb le l e s r 6su l tat s e tf i na lement p a r ier , p ar e xemp le , d 'un p rog räs d ans l e s p ro cessus g ön6raux t e chno log iques . C e p o int d e v ue n ous f a it c l ass if ier a uss i l e s o b je ts l i th iques dune f a pon d if örent e : l e s i n s trumen ts u t i l is6s ( ou n on ) e td es d d je ts d e f abr i ca t ion . On d o it d one p ouvo i r dkr ir e 6 ga lement l e s p ikes , q u 'e l les s o ien t r e tou ch6es o u n on .

PROPOSIT ION C ' es t p our c e la q ue j e p ropose i c i u ne mö thodo log ie q u i n ous p erme t te d 'aud ier l e s c arac täres morphotechn iques e t l e s c aractäres f onc t ionne ls e n u t i l isant l e s mömes p aramätres . D 'abord i f au t c ho is ir u n s y s täme h omogene d ' ana lyse v a lab le p our l e s d eux t ypes d e c ara ctäres ;e nsu ite , c r 6er u ne f a pon d e t ra iter c e s d onn6es p our v er if ier l e s l i a isons s i gn if ica t ives . L e m icro -ord ina teur e st l ' instrument q u i n ous s er t l e m ieux p our s ou lager c e t te r e cher che .

SYSTE ME D 'ANALYSE An o tre a v is l a me i l leure f a pon d e d 6cr ire l a morphotechn ique d es p i äces r e tou ch6es e s t l a möthode a na ly t ique d e G . L ap la ce ( Lap la ce 1 974 ) . C ' es t u ne möthode d ia lec t ique , s oup le e t al af o is p u issan te q u ip eu tä t re a dapt 6e äd es p rob lämes p ra t iques c onc re t s , s e lon l e s b eso ins d u c her cheur . C e t te c arac t 6r is t ique m 'a p erm is d e l ' adap ter a l a d es cr ip t ion d es 6 c la t s n on r e touchös e te n mäme t emps d e l ad 6ve lopper p our p ouvo ir d 6cr ir e a u ss i l e s c arac täres f onc t ionne ls . I yad es t r a it sf ondamentaux d ans s a p h i losoph ie q u 'on n e p eu tp a s o ub l ier : a ) On e ssa ie d e d ö f in ir l e s c a rac täres d 'une f a pon u n ivoque . b )L es c a rac täres s on t c ho is is e th i6rar ch is6s s e lon l a p er t inence q ue l ec her cheur l eur aa t t r ibu6e . c )O n p eu t d escendre d ans d i f f ören ts n iveaux d ' ana lyse .

DESCRIPT ION DES CARACTERES MORPHOTECBN IQUES J e d onne i c i b r iävement u n r ésumé d e l a mö thode a na ly t ique d e L ap la ce ( 1974 ) e t f a is r emarquer l e s mod if ica t ions q ue j ' y a i i n trodu ites p our dkr ire e t t ra iter l e s c aractäres . I le s t p r ior i ta ire d ' or ien t , er l ' 6c la t . O n l ef a i t s e lon l ee ntere d u r ec tang le m in ima l ( Lap lace 1 977 ) . On d i st ingue q ua t re b ords d ans l es en s d e l ad escr ip t ion ( gau che , d i sta l , d ro i t e tp rox ima l ) e td eux f a ces ( s up6r ieur e ti n f ör ieur ) , l e sque l les v on t ä t re l e s v ar iab les d ' en t r6e p our l ' ord ina teur . L es o rd ina teurs d ' au jourd 'hu i n ous p erme t ten t d e t r ava i l ler d i rec tement a vec d es mo ts , i ln e n ous f au t p as u n r e codage d e l ad es cr ipt ion e n c h if f res . C e la f a i t l et r ava i l p lus s ür , a g r6ab le , l ep rog ramme p lus c our t e tn ous p erme t u n a ccäs

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r Amd r t p er e sg

a S r t p erdre

r Smd c vg d i s t a S r t d iv d i s t

F ir a S s in p er p rox -med

r Spd s in d iv m ed

a S r t d iv p rox a A c x p er

+ +++

C i s c R i o a g D b m m e d

C i tr- L im e sq

F ig . 1 :E xemp le d ' ana lyse e t d escr ipt ion morphotechn ique e t f onct ionne l le s ur u ne

1 9 1

d i rec t a ux d escr ipt ions . E v idemment o n p eu t a breger l e s mots d es d escr ip t ions a c ond it ion q u ' i ls s o ient s t andard ises e t l e s a brev ia t ions u n ivoques . On a pp l ique l e s ys teme d ' abrev ia t ions d e G . L ap lace ( 1974 ) p our f o rmu ler l a d escr ipt ion a na ly t ique , c e lu i -c i e s t u n p eu a dapte a u t ra itement d es d onnees p ar l ' ord ina teur :p . e . p our n o tre p rog ramme i le s t i nd ispensab le d e n e p as r epeter l e s mömes l e t tres p our d es c r it eres d i f f eren ts . On ( Mer it e n p rem ier l i eu : 1—Le MODE d e l a RETOUCHE o u l 'ANGLE d es b ord s n on r e touchgs :C e c r itere e s t t r es i mpor tan t d u p o int d e v ue morphotechn ique ma is a uss i d u p o int d e v ue d e l ' u t i l isa t ion d u t ranchant . On p ourra it e n f a it mesurer l ' ang le f o rme p a r l e s d eux f a ces d ' un b ord ma is c e la n e n ous s emb le p as p er t inent f a ce ä l a d i f f icu l te r encontree p our mesurer c e t a ng le d ' une man iere u n ivoque e t p rec ise , a uque l s ' a jou te l ' inexa c t itude d es p rodu it s d e l a t a i l le e t l e s v ar ia t ions c ont inues a u l ong d u möme b ord . L a d iv is ion e nt re d es a ng les d es b ords n on r e tou ches ( s u ivan t l e s modes d e r e tou che ) e n:

e t

p la tes ( aP ) s imp les ( a igus ) ( aS ) a brup tes ( r ect es ) ( aA ) = e ca i l les ( aE ) =

äl al im i te d ef in is p ar < 15 2 < 45 2 b ord n on t ranchan t b ord d e t ru i t p ar e n levemen t s e ca i l les a nt er ieurs a u d eb itage ,

n ous s emb le d é jà s uf f isan te e tp er t inen te . N ous p ouvons e tab l ir d eux c r i teres p ar t icu l iers : —a ng le e n p o in te ( aP t ) e x treme f o rme p ar l ac onverg ence d es d eux c ö tes o pposes ( e t u n a u mo ms a vec a ng le S o u P ) e t —a ng le e n b ur in ( aB ) e x treme f o rme p ar l ac onvergence e n u n d i edre d e d eux c ö tes o pposes . On s u i t d onc l e s c r i teres d ' abrev ia t ions d es c r it eres d e r et ou che d e L ap la ce ( 1974 : 1 08 ) ma is e n a j ou tant d evan t u n ap our b ord ( ang le ) n on r e touche e t u n rp our b ord r e tou che : a S o ur S , a Ao ur A , a Po ur P ,a Bo ur B , a Eo ur E , a P t . On al a isse t omber l ar et ou che S E .

2—L 'A MPLEUR p our l ap rof ondeur d e l ar e tou che ( m Marg ina le e t pp rof onde ) . 3—L a D IRECT ION DE LA RETOUCHE ( d d i re c te , ii nverse , aa l terne , bb i fa c ia le e t nn orma le ) . 4— L a DELINEAT ION p ou rl ar e touche ( cc on t inuee , dd en t icu lee , ee ncoche ) .

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5— L a LOCALISAT ION d e l ap a r t ie d ecr i te d ans c haque b ord . Un meme c ö te p eu t e t re d iv ise e n t r o is p ar t ies ;l e s c ö tes g au che e td ro i t e n p rox ima l , med ia l e td ista l e tl e s c ö tes d i s ta l e tp rox ima l e n e sq g au che , med ia l e td re d ro it . ( Les a brev ia t ions p resen tees i c iv i ennent d u c a ta lan e tp euvent f a c i lemen t e t re a dapt ees a ux b eso ins d e c haque l angue ac ond i t ion d ' ê tre n on e qu ivoques e n t re e l les ) . 6—L a FOR ME DU BORD :c oncave c c ,c onvexe e x ,r e c t , er t , 7 —L a D IRECT ION DU BORD :d iverg en t d iv e tc onverg ent c vg , p ara l lb le p ar o u p erpend i cu la ire p er s e lon s on r appor t äl ' axe c ent ra l d e l ap i ece . 8— L 'ART ICULATION p our l e s c hangemen ts e n: " " c on t inu ite , " " d i scont inu ite , " . " s ur impos i t ion e t " I " c omp lemen t . N 'ont d é jà p lus d e s ens l e s s i gnes d e " . " o ppos it ion e t " +" d e c hangement d e c ö te a d jacen t p ar ce q ue c haque c ö td v a ö t re d ecr i te ti n trodu it s epa rement . L es c ara c teres d ' amp leur , l a d i rect ion , l ' or ienta t ion , l a l o ca l isa t ion e t l ' ar t icu l a t ion v ont n ous s e rv ir a uss i p our l e s c ara c teres m icros cop iques . L es u ns e tl e s a u tres s e ron t d ecr i ts s e lon l af o rmu le a na ly t ique .

DESCR IPT ION DES CARACTtRES FONCT IONNELS L es c arac teres f onct ionne ls q ue n ous c ons iderons f ondamentaux p ar l eur p er t i n ence l o r sque n ous l e s met t ons e n r appor ta vec l e s morphote chn iques s ont : 1—T rac e d 'usur e : M icrodca i l lures ( C ) S t r ies ( R ) L us t re ( L ) Emousse ( D ) 2—L 'or ien ta t ion :l af a ce s ur l aque l le o n l o ca l ise l at ra ce d ' usu re : " d"dorsa l , " i " v entra le , " b " b ifac ia le , " a " a l terne , " = " s ur impos i t ion ( d e d eux t ra ces s ur l a meme f a ce ) e t " / " c omp lemen te ( d eux t ra ces d if erent es s ur l e s f a ces a u meme e ndro i t ) . 3—L e c a ra c tere s u ivant e s td if eren t s e lon l et ype d e t r a ce : L a FORME ( " tz" t rapezo ida le , " tr" t r iangu la ire , " re" r ectangu la ire , " Sc" s em ic ir cu la ire e t " es " s ca lar if ormes ) p our l e s m icroeca i l lures . L a D IRECT ION p ou r l e s s t r ies : p a ra l le les a u b ord " par " , c r o isees " ere " , " oag " o b l iques e n a ng le a igu ( par r appor t a u b ord g au che ) e t " oob" e n a ng le o b tus ( par r appor t a uss i a u b ord g auche ) e t " per " p erpend icu la ires .

1 93

L a PROFONDEUR ( "m " marg ina le e t" p " p rof onde ) p our l el u st re e tl ' emouss6 . P our c e s d eux d ern iers e ta uss i p ou r l e s s t r ies i le s t i mpor tant d ' a jout er u n a u t re c r itere : l eur LOCAL ISAT ION d ans l ec entre d e l af a ce d orsa le o uv en t ra le . J e s u is c er ta ine q ue d ' au tres a u teurs p euven t c ho is ir s e lon l eu rs b eso ins d ' au tres s pec if ica t ions o u c aracteres . ( J e p ense s pdc ia lement a ux l us tres d e K ee ley o u a ux d i f f e ' ren ts t ypes d e s t r ies q u 'on p ourra d i s t inguer ) . L a mahode e s t o uver te p ou r c ha cun . I s uf f it q u 'on d ec ide d e l a h ierar ch ie d es c arac teres u t i les p our c haque c her cheur e t q ue l ' on a r t icu le l a d escr ip t ion s ans amb igu i tes . On p eu t a uss i t r ava i l ler äd i f f eren ts n iveaux d e d escr ip t ion . D e l a meme f aon q u 'on p eu t r esumer l a f o rmu le a na ly t ique p our l e s c ara ct eres morpho techn iques : u n a S d iv r t[ gau che ] +r Spd c x p er [ d is ta l ] +r Bnp d iv [ d ro i t ] +a Bn [ p rox ima l ] p eu t e t re d ecr i ts imp lemen tc omme G lld is ta l .B llprox i ma l, u n e c la t ar Apd p ar r t [ g au che ] +a P t [ d ista l ] +a S c vg r t [ d ro ite ] +a A [prox ima l ] c omme u ne PD23 On p ourra a uss i r esumer l af o rmu le f onc t ionne l le c omme s u it : TT= c ouper ma ter iaux d oux , TD=couper ma ter iaux d ur s . . . RT= r ac ier ma ter iaux d oux , RD=ra c ler ma ter iaux d urs . . . PD ,e t c . A ins i p eu t -on f o rmu ler l ad escr ipt ion d es d eux c l asses d e c a rac teres a v ec l e meme t ype d ef o rmu le p ou rc haque p i ece . D ans l af i g . 1o n as ur l ed ess in d ' une p i ece l e s d eux t ypes d e d es cr ip t ion q u i v ont r ent rer d ans l ' ord ina teur c omme s u it : P our l e s c arac teres morphot e chn iques : ( p our l a d emande " Gau che " ) - a S s i n p ar p rox -med -r Smd c vg d i s t ( p ou r l ad emande " D i s ta l " ) - r Amd r tp er e s c -a Sre c t p er d re ( p our l ad emande " Dro i t , e " ) - a S r td iv d i s t - r Spd s i n d iv med - a S r td iv p rox ( pour l a d emande " Prox ima l " ) - a A c x p er P our l e s c ara c teres f onc t ionne ls : ( p our l a d emande " Gau che " ) - C i s c -R i o ag -Dbm med ( p our l a d emande " D is ta l " ) - C i t r -L im e sq ( pour l a d emande " Dro it e " ) - D dp -Ddm=Cd t r ( pour l a d emande " Prox ima l " ) I is u f f it d ' un p rog ramme t r es s imp le c omme c e lu i q ue j ep ropose i c i ( p rog ramme 1 ) p our c ons tru ire l eb anque d es d onnees . C e d o i t e t re u n f i ch ier a a cces s equent ie l p our d onner l af i ex ib i l i te d emandee p ar l al ongueur v ar iab le d es d escr ip t ions a na ly t iques .

f i ie

E d it

S e i .w (h

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W indo ws

L L ISTRT MORFOFUNC IO a S s in p ar

E SOUERRA

C ir t-C itz med--D im d ist

r Spd c x-cc p er

D I STAL

D im e sq--D im=C itz-C isc d re

r Amd c c p ar d ist-aA m ed-prox

D RETA a 5

P ROX IMAL ( 3 3 11- K 1

P -m

F ig . 2: E xemp le d e s or t ie d es f ormu les d escr ipt ives d es p i kes s ur F ecran d 'un o rd ina teur Mac intosh a vec l ep rog ramme 2 .

P our l e s c ontraster e te n t i rer d es c onc lus ions , n ous a vons d eve loppe u n p rogramme s imp le ( p rog ramme 3 ) q u i n ous p ermet d e t ra iter c es d onnees :c hercher l a l o ca l isat ion , l a f r equence d ' appar it ion d 'un c aractäre ( morpho log ique o u f onct ionne l ) , l a l o ca l isa t ion e t l a f r equence d 'assoc ia t ion d e d eux o u t r o is c aracteres ( sur u ne p i ke , s ur l e möme b ord ) , e t c . , c e q u i n ous p ermet e n mäme t emps e t d ans l e mgme p rogramme d e t e ster l a s i gn if icat ion d es a ssoc ia t ions e ntre l e s c ara ctäres f onct ionne ls e t morphotechn iques o u e ntre e ux -mämes .

Avec 1 7 p i kes d u C ing le V erme l l ( V i la , 1 985 ) p r ises c o mme e xemp le o n f a it l a d emarche s u ivante : D emandons l a p resence d e «r etouche s imp le p rof onde d i recte e t c onvexe » ( rSpd c x ) . On o bt ient : L ISTE D ES P IECES E T P OSIT ION D U C RRACTERE 1t r 2t r 7 e s ,tr ,dr 1 5 d r 1 6 t r 1 7 t r

1 95

( l ep r em ier c h if f r e e s t l en umäro d e l ap ik e ) R ECHERCHE D E r Spd CH NU MERO D ES P RESENCES e s

t r

d r

1

5

2

p r 0

P OUR U N T OTAL D E 1 7 P IECES , 6O NT r Spd

CH

( Le n umäro 7a l ec arac tär e t r o is f o is ) A SSOCIAT ION S IGN IF ICRT IUE E NTRE r Spd

E T t r

CH

On d e mande ma intenant l a p resence d e " rSpd c x " e t " D im " ( emousse marg ina l s ur l a f ace v entra le ) . On o b t ient : 1— S i l ' on v eut , l a l i ste d es c o inc idences e t l eur p os it ion , o u d es a bsences ( dun o u d es d eux c aracteres ) s ur l e s p ieces .

2— R ECHERCHE D E r Spd

CH

R UEC D im

N O MBRE D ES C OINCIDENCES S UR 1 7 P IECES D im 1

1

1

0

e s

2

4

2

0

t r

1

2

2

0

d r

0

0

0

0

p r

e s

t r

d r

p r

r Spd

CH

( ä l a d iagona le d u t ab leau d e c ont ingence o n t r ouvera l e s c ornc idences d es d eux c arac täres s ur l e lame b ord ) . N O MBRE D 'APPRRIT IONS D E r Spd N O MBRE D 'APPRRIT IONS D E D im

1

5

2

= 6

8

6

0 S UR 1 2 P IECES A UEC D im

e s

t r

d r

p r

CH=

T OTAL P IECES R UEC C O INCIDANCE D E r Spd

CH

0 S UR 6 P IECES R UEC r Spd c r i

E T D i m=

6

P RESENCE S IGNIFICAT IVE D ES C ARACTERES S UR L ES P IECES ( en ef e t , t ou tes l e sp iäces a vec r Spd c xo n t D im ) . C OINCIDENCE S IGNIFICF IT IUE D ES C ARF ICTERES S UR L ES B ORDS (7 f o is l e s d eux c arac tär es s on t e nsemb le , l e s d eux s on t t ou jours a bsen ts s ur l e b ord p rox ima l ) .

1 96

On p eu td one c onc lu re q ue l ar e tou che s imp le p rof onde e td i rec te au ne t endance , i c i , a ppa ra itre s ur l eb ord d i s ta l . L es b ords a vec c e t te r e touche o n e t e s i gn if ica t ivement u t i l ises e n l a issant u n e mousse marg ina l i nverse . A ins i e spre -t -on v o ir d es r edondances s i gn i f ica t ives s o it e ntre d es a ssoc ia t ions d e t r aces d 'usure q u i n ous a ssureront l ' interpre ta t ion f onct ionne l le , s o it e ntre l a mor p ho log ie ( l a t e chn ique d e f abr ica t ion ) e t l ' u t i l isa t ion q u i n ous p ermet tra d e d edu ire l e s c auses d e l a p rem iäre . . .

DESCR IPT ION D 'AUTRES CARACT RES F ina lemen t c es c a ra c tres p euven t e n p lus ö t re m is e n r appor t a vec d es c r i tbres d e l an a ture p hy s ique d u ma t er ie l o u l e s d imens ions d e l ap i bce .

EXEN IPLES DE PROGRAM :MAT ION POUR MICRO -ORD INATEUR

L es p rog rammes s ont & zits s ur Mac intosh ma is o n ae n leve l e s c ommandes s pec if iques p our q u ' i ls s o ient a daptab les a ux l angages BAS IC 'S mo ms d eve loppes . L es n umeros d es c ommandes e mi ts s on t l e s s eu les a dresses n ecessä ires . L is te d es c ommandes d u p rog ramme 1p our l ac r ea t ion d 'un f i ch ier d es c a ra c tbres : R EM E NTREE D U N OM E T F OR MAT D U F ICHIER I NPUT " NO M D EL R RHIU"; 1 1 1 11 1$ O PEN R 1 1 1 1$ F OR A PPEND A S#1 I NPUT " TE T IPUS P R I MRR IS IF UNCIONS D ETER MINE IDES";R1$ R 1S=UCASES(LEFTS (R1S ,1)) F OR n = 1T O 4 : R EAD L D$(n ) : N EHT n 1 0 R EM E NTREE D ES C ARACTERES MORFOTECHNIQUES F OR n =1 T O 4 P RINT " costat " ; LDS (n ) ;" c aracters morfo log ics" I NPUT a S(n ) : IF U CASES (aS(n) )-"STOP" T HEN G OTO 1 10 N EHT n 2 0 R EM E NTREE D ES C RRACTERES F ONCT IONNELS F OR n -1 T O 4 P RINT " costat " ; LDS (n) ;" c aracters f unc iona ls" I NPUT a S (n+4 ) N EHT n I F R 1S"S" T HEN G OTO 1 00 5 0 R EM E NTREE D E L A P RE MIERE O PT ION R UEC R ESU MEES MORFOTECHNIQUES D E T YPES E T F ONCT IONS I NPUT " T IPUS P RI MARI";TPS I NPUT " FUNCIO : p e . T I , Rd e tc .";F$ WRITE#1,0$ (1) ;a$(2 ) ;a$ (3) ;a$ (4 ) ;a$(5) ;a$(6 ) ;a$ (7 ) ;a$ (8) ;TPS ;F$

G OTO 1 05 1 00 R EM E NTREE R UEC L A D EUHIE ME O PT ION S EULE MENT D ESCRIPT IVE

1 97

WRITE#1,a$(1) ;a$(2) ;a$(3 ) ;a$ (4 ) ;a$(5 ) ;a$ (6 ) ;a$ (7 ) ;a$(8) 1 05 G OTO 1 0 1 10 C LOSE#1 E ND D ATA " esquerre" ,"d ista l","dret","prou i ma l" L e f i ch ier c rdd p ar c e p rog ramme p rend l ef o rma t: [ opt ion :"rdf drence "J "Carac Ures morphotechn iques d u c ötd g auche " ," C .m -t .du c ötd d is ta l " ," C .m -t . d u c ötd d ro it " ," c .m -t . d u c ötd p rox ima l " ," Caract . f onct ionne ls d u c öt d g auche" ," d ista l " ," dro it " ," prox i ma l " ,[ opt ion : " t ype p r ima ire " ,"f onct ionl . P ar e xemp le : " aS s in p ar " , "rSpd c x -cc p er " ,"rAmd c p ar d i st -aA med -prox " , "aB " , " C ir t -C itz med -D im d i st " ,"D im e sq—D i m=C itz -C isc d re " ," ," , " G311 -BC1" , "R -m "

[ morf t .] [ f onc t ion .]

[ T ype p r ima ir e ,f onc t ion ]

L is te d es c o mmandes d u p rog ramme 2 p our l i s ter l e s d onndes d u f i ch ier e rdd R EM E NTREE D U N OM E T F OR MAT D U F ICHIER I NPUT " NO M D E L ' 1 1 1 1HIU";RRH$ I NPUT " TE T IPUS MORFOTECNICS IF UNCIONS D ETER MINRDES" ;Rl$ R 1$=UCRSES(LEFT$ (R 1$ ‚ 1) ) F OR N=0 T O 3 R EAD L 1 3$(4 1) N EHT N R EM L ECTURE D U F ICHIER O PEN 1 1 1 1 4$ F OR I NPUT R S#1 WHILE NOT E O M)

C LS F OR n =0 T O 3 I NPUT#1,R$( 0 L PRINT T R 1 3(25*n ) ; 1 1$ (0 ;" " ; N EHT n L PRINT T 1 1 1 3(0) ;"

I

F OR n =0 T O 3 1 NPUT#1,R$(n+5 ) P RINT IM O P RINT 1 $(n+5 ) , P RINT T RB(35 ) ;LD$ (n) P RINT"

. ,

L PRINTTRD(25*n) ;R$ (n+5 ) ;" " ; N EHT n I F R 1$="S" T HEN 1 NPUT#1,TP$ ,F$ :LPRINT L PRINT " T ipus p r i mar i " ; TP$ ," U t i l itzac io " ; F$ P RINT T P$ ,F$ L PR INT"

I

R EM 6 0 e t 6 1=DISPOSIT IF D 'ARRET D E L 'ECRRN [ Que lques o rd inateurs ont l a c o m mande ' NO SCROLL ' ] 6 0 H $=1NKEY$ 6 1 I F H $="" T HEN 6 010 6 0 1 98

WEND C LOSE E ND D ATA " ESQUERRA","DISTRL","DRETA","PROHI MAL"

On p eut v o ir l ef ormat d ' issue ( avec q ue lques f ormats d e Mac intosh ) al a f i gure 2 .

L iste

d es c o m mandes d u p rogra mme

3 p our l ' exp lo itat ion

d es f i ch iers e n

r echerchant d es a ssoc iat ions . 1 RE M E NTREE D U NO M D E L 'ARCHIUE E T F OR MAT D E L A R ECHERCHE WIDTH " SCRN :",60 I NPUT " NO M D E L 'ARHIU";F IRHS I NPUT " TE R ESU M D E T IPUS P RI MARIS " ; 1 11$ I F U CRSE MEFTS(R1S ,1))="S" T HEN N I=10 E LSE N I=8 F OR N= 0 T O 3 : R EAD L DS (N) : N EHT N O PEN R I MS F OR I NPUT A S # 1 5 0 E LECT ION D U NO MBRE D ES C ARACTERES R C HERCHER P RINT " QUANTS C RRACTERS U OLS C O MBINF IR" P RINT " 1.- UN C AI :METER" P RINT " 2 .- D OS C F IRACTERS" P RINT " 3 .- T RES C ARRCTERS" P RINT " 4 .- D OS C RRACTERS AMA A LTRES D OS" I NPUT O P R EM D E MF INDE P OUR L 'O PT ION P OUR F AIRE L E C RLCUL D U H 2 I NPUT " UOLS U ERIFICACIO D EL L ' 1 12";RH2S :R 1 12$=LEFTS(UCHSES(R 1 12$) ,1) O N O P G OTO 1 00 ,200 ,300 ,400 I F O P>4 O R O P8 T HEN NO=0 E LSE NO=3 I NPUT " UOLS L LISTRT D E P ECES AMA E L C RRRCTER " ; L1STF 1$ L ISTRS=LEFTS(UCRSES(LISTRS) ,1) I F L ISTRS="S" T HEN L PRINT " LLISTF IT D E P ECES IP OSICIO D EL C RRRCTER" WHILE NOT E OF(1)

1 40 R EM 1 NPUT#1,REF$ : ' POUR A RCHIVES R UEC R EFERENCE R C HF IQUE P IECE T =T+1 F OR N= 1 T O N I I NPUT#1, F I S(N) N EHT N F OR N=0 T O NO I F I NSTR(R$(N+0) ,CS)>0 T HEN H (N)= 1 1(N)+1:PH=1:1F L IST 1 1$="S" L PRINT L DS(N) ;" " ; N EHT

1 99

AND 0 3 .841 T HEN L PRINT " ASSOCIACIO S IGNIF . E NTRE " ;CS ;" I" ; LDS (N) ; : I F

D +R3 .841 T HEN L PRINT N EHT N G OTO 1 000 E ND 2 00 R EM R ECHERCHE D ' A SSOCIAT IONS D E 2C RRRCTERES I NPUT " FICA E LS C ARACTERS";CS ,DS I NPUT "Morfotecn ics ( 1) ,Func iona ls ( 5 ) , T ipus morfot .(9) o f unc ions ( 10) " ;P ,S I F P >8 T HEN N O=0 E LSE NO=3 I F S >8 T HEN NP=0 E LSE N P=3 I NPUT

" UOLS

L LISTRT

D E

P ECES

1 4 . 11 3

C OINCIDENCIR

E N

E L

MATEII I

C OSTAT";LISTAS :L ISTF IS=LEFTS(UCASES(LISTRS ) ,1) WHILE NOT E OF(1) 2 10 R EM 1 NPUT#1,REF$ : ' POUR A RCHIVES F WEC R EFERENCE A C HRQUE P IECE T =T+1 F OR N=1 T O N I I NPUT#1, A S(N) N EHT F OR N= 0 T O NO F OR M= 0 T O N P I F I NSTR(RS(N+P) ,CS)>0 A ND I NSTR(RS( M+S) ,0S)>0 T HEN 1 Y(N , M)=1 1Y(N , M)+1 _ : 1 1VA=1: I F L ISTRS="S" A ND M=N T HEN L PRINT L DS(N ) ;" " ; :PC=1 I F N=P A ND

I NSTR ( AS( M+S ) ,DS)>0 T HEN V ( M)=Y( M)+1:1 1DR=1

I F NP=0 A ND NO=0 A ND I NSTR ( AS( M+S ) ,DS )>0 T HEN V ( M)=Y ( M)+1: 1 1DR-1 N EHT M

2 00

I F I NSTR(R$(N+P) ,C$)>0 T HEN H (N)= 1 1(N)+1: 1 1CR=1 N EHT N I F P C=1 A ND L 1STR$="S" T HEN L PRINT T :PC=0 I F I CR=0 AND H DR=0 A ND L 1STR$="S" T HEN L PRINT T ;"

NO T E C RP D ELS D OS

C ARF ICTERS" I F L ISTR$="S"

A ND

H YR=0 T HEN L PRINT T ; " N O TE U N D ELS C ARRCTERS"

1 E1 101 1=1 T HEN 1 D= 1 1D+1: 1 1DR=0 I F I CA=1 T HEN 1 C= 1 1C+1:1 1CA=0 I F H YR=1 T HEN H YT=HYT+1: 1 1YR=0 WEND L PRINT " RECERCR D E " ;C$ ; " AMA ' ;D $ L PRINT " NU MERO D E C OINCIDENCIES S OBRE UN T OTAL D E " ; T ;" P ECES" L PRINT T RB(34 ) ;0$ F OR M= 0 T O NO F OR N=0 T O N P L PRINT T AB ( 29+N*4 ) ; 1 1Y( M ,N) ; N EHT N I F NO>0 T HEN L PRINT " " ;LDS( M) ; E LSE L PRINT " " ;C$ I F M=2 T HEN L PRINT " " ;C$ ; L PRINT T HY=THY+ 1 1Y( M , M) N EHT M I F NO>0 T HEN L PRINT T AB ( 29) ;"ES .";TRB(33) ;"TR ."; 14 16(37) ;"DR .";TRB(41) ;"PR ." L PRINT " NU MERO D ' R PRRICIONS D E " ;C$ ;"="; F OR N=0 T O N O L PRINT T AB ( 29+N*4 ) ; 1 1(N) ; T H=TH+ 1 1(N) N EHT N

L PRINT T F IB(48) ;" S OBRE " ;HC ; " PECES AMA " ;C$ L PRINT " NU MERO D ' A PARICIONS D E " ;D$ ;"="; F OR N= 0 T O NP L PRINT T AB ( 29+N*4 ) ;Y(N) ; :TY=TY+Y(N) N EHT N L PRINT T RB(48) ;" S OBRE " ;HD ; " PECES AMB " ;DS L PRINT " TOTAL D E P ECES RME I C OINCIDENCIR D E " ;C$ ;"-";D$ ;"=";1 1YT R EM B UCLE 1 12 P OUR C RLCUL D U 1 2 I F R 1 12$"S" T HEN G OTO 1 000 R =HYT I F 0 =0 T HEN L PRINT " NO H I H A C RP C OINCIDENCIA" B = 1 1C-HYT C = 1 10-HYT D =T-R-B-C I F 0 =0 T HEN L PRINT " NO H I H A C RP R BSENCIA T OTAL" T OT=T G OSUB 1 700 I F R +D>C+B AND 1 I 2>3 .841

T HEN L PRINT " PRESENCIR S IGNIF . D ELS C ARACTERS

S OBRE L ES P ECES" I F F l +D3 .841 T HEN L PRINT " EHCLUSIO S IGNIF . D ELS C ARRCTERS" I F 0 >8 O R P >8 T HEN G OTO 1 000 2 01

F I =THY I F R =0 T HEN L PRINT " NO H I 1 1 1 C AP C OINCIDENCIR" B =TH-THY C =TY-THY D -T*41 1-B-C I F 0 =0 T HEN L PRINT " NO H I H A C RP A BSENCIA T OTAL" T OT-T*4

G OSUB 1 700 I F

H 2>3.841

T HEN

L PRINT

" COINCIDENCIF I

S IGNIFICAT IUR

D ELS

C HRF ICTERS

S URRE E LS C OSTATS" G OTO 1 000 E ND 3 00 R EM P OUR C HERCHER [ 'ASSOCIAT ION D E T ROIS C ARACTERES D IM H YZ(10 ,10 ,10) I NPUT " FIER E LS C RRACTERS";CS ,DS ,FS I NPUT "Morfotecn ics ( 1) ,Func iona ls ( 5 ) , T ipus morfot .(9) o f unc io ( 10) " ;0 ,P ,S I F 0 >8 T HEN NO=0 E LSE NO=3 I F P >8 T HEN NP=0 E LSE NP=3 I F S >8 T HEN N S=0 E LSE N S=3 I NPUT

" UOLS

L LISTAT

D E

P ECES

AMB

C OINCIDENCIF I

E N

UN

MATE11 1

C OSTF IT ";LISTf l$ :LISTE IS-LEFTS(UCASES(LISTAS) ,1) WHILE NOT E OF(1) 3 10 R EM I NPUT#1,REFS : ' POUR A RCHIVES F I VEC R EFERENCE R C HRQUE P IECE T =T+1 F OR N=1 T O N I I NPUT#1, A S(N) N EH T F OR L = 0T O NO F OR M=

0T O NP

F OR N= 0 T O N S I F I NSTR( 1 1$(L+0) ,C$)>0 AND I NSTR(

M M+P) ,D$)>0 AND I NSTR( 1 1$(N+S) ,FS)>0 T HEN

H YZ(L+0, M+P,N+S)=HYZ(L+0, M+P,N+S)+1:HYZR=1:IF

L =M

AND

N=L

T HEN

H YZP=1:IF NO=0 O R NP=0 O R N S=0 T HEN G OTO 3 35 :IF L ISTF IS="S" T HEN L PRINT L OS(N) ;"

N EXT N N EXT M I F NO=0 O R NP=0 O R N S=0 T HEN I F

I NSTR(

ML+0) ,CS)>0

O R

G OTO 3 35

I NSTR(RS(L+P) ,DS)>0 O R

I NSTR(f 1S(L+S) ,FS)>0 T HEN

P SC=1 E LSE T CSC=TCSC+1 335 N EXT L 340 I F H YZA=1 T HEN H YZT=HYZT+1:IF L ISTF IS="S"AND ( NO=0 O R NP=0 O R N S=0) T HEN L PRINTT :RE M L PRINT R EFS I F NO=0 O R NP=0 O R N S=0 T HEN G OTO 3 55 I F H YZP=1 T HEN T HYZP=THYZP+1:IF L ISTAS="S" T HEN L PRINTT : RE M [ PRINT R EFS I F P SC=0 T HEN T PSC=TPSC+1: I F L IST I 1S="S" T HEN L PRINT T ;" c aracters":GOTO 3 55 : R EM L PRINT R EFS 2 02

NO t e c ap d e ls

I F

L ISTRS="S"

AND

F l YZP=0

T HEN

L PRINT"

e n

" ; T ;"

no

c o inc ideiuen

e is

c aracters s obre u n mate iu c ostat": R EM L PRINT R EFS 3 55 H YZP=0 H YZR=0 P SC=0 WEND L PRINT " RECERCR D E " ;CS ; " RMB " ; D S ; " I" ; F$ L PRINT " NU MERO D E C OINCIDENCIES" I F NO=0 O R NP=0 O R N S=0 T HEN [ PRINT T AB ( 4 ) ;DS :GOTO 3 75 I F

NP>0

T HEN

L PRINT

T RB(4 );DS;"

e sq";TRB(17);D$ ;"

t rans";TRB(30) ;D$ ;"

d ret";TRB(43) ;DS ;" p rou" 3 75 F OR L = 0T O N O F OR f 4 , 1 = 0T O NP F OR N=0 T O N S

L PRINT U SING " ###"; 1 1YZ(L+0 , M+P ,N+S) ; N EHT N L PRINT " N EHT M I F NO>0 T HEN L PRINT " I F L =2 T HEN L PRINT " L PRINT N EHT L Q =0 I F N S=0 T HEN G OTO 4 00 F OR N=0 T O 3 F OR M= 0 T O 3 L PRINT T RB(Q+2) ;LD WA) ; Q =Q+3 N EHT Q =Q+1 N EHT N L PRINT " ---";F$ 400 F OR Q = 0T O 3 I F 0