Exzerpte und Notizen Juli bis September 1851 3320001507, 3320001590

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KARL MARX FRIEDRICH ENGELS GESAMTAUSGABE (MEGA) VIERTE ABTEILUNG EXZERPTE · NOTIZEN · MARGINALIEN BAND 9

HERAUSGEGEBEN VON DER INTERNATIONALEN MARX-ENGELS-STIFTUNG

KARL MARX EXZERPTE UND NOTIZEN JULI BIS SEPTEMBER 1851 TEXT

Bearbeitet von einer Forschungsgruppe der Martin-Luther-Universität Halle-Wittenberg: Ehrenfried Galander (Leiter), Wolfgang Jahn, Klaus Fricke, Sonja Hausmann, Otto Schattenberg, Klaus Stüde und Gisela Winkler

DIETZ VERLAG BERLIN 1991

Internationale Marx-Engels-Stiftung A m s t e r d a m : Begründet von dem Internationaal Instituut voor Sociale Geschiedenis Amsterdam, dem Institut für Marxismus-Leninismus beim ZK der KPdSU Moskau, der Akademie der Wissenschaften Berlin und dem Karl-Marx-Haus Trier

Der vorliegende Band wurde noch unter der früheren Redaktionskommission erarbeitet.

Marx, Karl: Gesamtausgabe : (MEGA) / Karl Marx ; Friedrich Engels. Hrsg. von der Internationalen Marx-Engels-Stiftung. - Berlin : Dietz Verl. GmbH [Sammlung]. Abt. 4, Exzerpte, Notizen, Marginalien Bd. 9. Exzerpte und Notizen, Juli bis September 1851 / Karl Marx Text. - 1991. - 54, 552 S.: 10 Abb. Apparat. - 1991. - S. 553-808: 10 Abb. IV. Abt. ISBN 3-320-00150-7 Bd. IV/9 ISBN 3-320-00159-0 Text und Apparat Mit 20 Abbildungen © Dietz Verlag Berlin GmbH 1991 LSV 0046 Technische Redaktion: Jutta Knopp und Heinz Ruschinski Korrektur: Hanna Behrendt, Barbara Boehnke, Renate Kröhnert und Eva Mendl Einband: Albert Kapr Typografie: Albert Kapr/Horst Kinkel Schrift: Timeless-Antiqua und Maxima Printed in Germany Satz und Druck: Interdruck GmbH Leipzig Buchbinderische Verarbeitung: Leipziger Großbuchbinderei GmbH

Inhalt Text Apparat 13*

Einleitung Editorische Hinweise

49*

Verzeichnis der Abkürzungen, Siglen und Zeichen

559

L o n d o n e r Hefte 1 8 5 0 - 1 8 5 3 . Heft XI-XIV

3

563

Heft XI

5

563

Inhaltsverzeichnis Exzerpte aus Thomas Hodgskin: against the claims of capital ...

5 Labour defended 9

Exzerpte aus Robert Owen: Observations on the effect of the manufacturing system

13

Exzerpte aus: The oppressed labourers ...

14

Exzerpte aus William Copland: A letter to the Rev. C. D. Brereton ... Exzerpte aus Nassau William Senior: Three lectures on the rate of wages

16

Exzerpte aus James H. Renny: Hints on wages ...

18

Exzerpte aus Robert Torrens: On wages and combination

20

Exzerpte aus Nassau William Senior: Letters on the factory a c t . . .

22

Exzerpte aus Charles David Brereton: A practical inquiry ...

25

15

5*

Inhalt Text Exzerpte aus Edward Carleton Tufnell: Character, object, and effects of Trades' Unions

29

Exzerpte aus Thomas Henry Stirling: The question propounded

40

Exzerpte aus James Howard: The evils of England

41

Exzerpte aus William Logan: An exposure, from personal observation, of female prostitution

42

Exzerpte aus John Fielden: The curse of the factory system

43

Exzerpte aus Samuel Laing (jun.): National distress

48

Exzerpte aus: The Edinburgh Review. Vol. 67. 1838

51

Exzerpte aus: The Westminster Review. Vol. 37. 1842

57

Exzerpte aus: The Westminster Review. Vol. 38. 1842

59

Exzerpte aus Samuel Laing (jun.): National distress (Fortsetzung)

61

Exzerpte aus Thomas Hopkins: Great Britain for the last forty years

77

Exzerpte aus Jelinger Cookson Symons: Outlines of popular economy

80

Exzerpte aus Jelinger Cookson Symons: Arts und artisans at home and abroad

82

Exzerpte aus Samuel Laing (jun.): National distress (Nachtrag)

93

Exzerpte aus Thomas Hopkins: Great Britain for the last forty years (Nachtrag)

94

Exzerpte aus Charles Wing: Evils of the factory system ...

96

Exzerpte aus Samuel Laing (sen.): Notes of a traveller...

100

Exzerpte aus Peter Gaskell: Artisans and machinery

104

Heft XII

6*

110

Inhaltsverzeichnis

110

Exzerpte aus Peter Gaskell: Artisans and machinery (Fortsetzung)

113

Apparat

604

Inhalt Text Exzerpte aus James Anderson: An inquiry into the causes ...

119

Exzerpte aus James Anderson: Essays. Relating to agriculture and rural affairs

120

Exzerpte aus Christophe-Joseph-Alexandre Mathieu de Dombasle: Annales agricoles de Roville

124

Exzerpte aus: An inquiry into those principles, respecting the nature of demand ...

132

Exzerpte aus Samuel Turner: Considerations upon the agriculture ...

135

Exzerpte aus John Stuckey Reynolds: Practical observations on Mr. Ricardo's Principles of political economy

136

Exzerpte aus Thomas Hopkins: Economical enquiries ...

137

Exzerpte aus Thomas Perronet Thompson: The true theory of rent

144

Exzerpte aus Thomas Perronet Thompson: Corn-law fallacies ...

146

Apparat

Exzerpte aus Edward West: Price of corn and wages of labour

147

Exzerpte aus Thomas Hopkins: On rent of land ...

153

Exzerpte aus David Ricardo: An essay on the influence of a low price of corn ... Exzerpte aus David Ricardo: On protection to agriculture

159 161

Exzerpte aus Charles Wentworth Dilke: The source and remedy of the national difficulties ...

163

Exzerpte aus Robert Somers: Letters from the Highlands

166

Exzerpte aus Justus Liebig: Die organische Chemie ...

172

Heft XIII

199

Exzerpte aus Justus Liebig: Die organische Chemie ... (Fortsetzung)

199

Exzerpte aus John Claudius Loudon: An encyclopaedia of agriculture

214

635

7*

Inhalt Text Exzerpte aus Joseph Townsend: A dissertation on the poor laws

215

Exzerpte aus Joseph Townsend: A journey through Spain ...

219

Exzerpte aus Joseph Townsend: A dissertation on the poor laws (Nachtrag)

220

Exzerpte aus Robert Wallace: A dissertation on the number of mankind ...

221

Exzerpte aus David Hume: Political discourses

224

Exzerpte aus Thomas Robert Malthus: An essay on the principle of population

226

Exzerpte aus George Purves: Gray versus Malthus

230

Exzerpte aus William Thomas Thornton: Over-population and its remedy

235

Exzerpte aus Robert Vaughan: The age of great cities

248

Exzerpte aus Thomas Doubleday: The true law of population

250

Exzerpte aus William Pulteney Alison: Observations on the management of the poor in Scotland

253

Exzerpte aus Archibald Alison: The principles of population

256

Exzerpte aus James Finlay Weir Johnston: Lectures on agricultural chemistry and geology

276

Exzerpte aus Archibald Alison: The principles of population (Nachtrag)

318

Exzerpte aus: The Economist. Juni 1851

321

Exzerpte aus: The Economist. Juli 1851

323

Heft XIV

8*

325

Exzerpte aus Adolphe-Jules-César-Auguste Dureau de La Malle: Économie politique des Romains

325

Exzerpte aus Arnold Hermann Ludwig Heeren: Ideen über die Politik, den Verkehr und den Handel der vornehmsten Völker der alten Welt

365

Apparat

669

Inhalt Text Exzerpte aus James Finlay Weir Johnston: Catechism of agricultural chemistry and geology

372

Exzerpte aus William Johnston: England as it is, political, social, and industrial

387

Exzerpte aus: The Economist. Juni bis August 1851

394

Exzerpte aus: The Times. August 1851

402

Exzerpte aus William Hickling Prescott: History of the conquest of Mexico

403

Exzerpte aus William Hickling Prescott: History of the conquest of Peru

416

Exzerpte aus Herman Merivale: Lectures on colonization and colonies

435

Exzerpte aus Arnold Hermann Ludwig Heeren: Ideen über die Politik ... (Fortsetzung)

454

Exzerpte aus Herman Merivale: Lectures on colonization and colonies (Fortsetzung)

461

Exzerpte aus Felix Wakefield: Colonial surveying ...

482

Exzerpte aus Edward Gibbon Wakefield: A view of the art of colonization

486

Exzerpte aus Thomas Hodgkin: An inquiry into the merits of the American Colonization Society

492

Exzerpte aus Thomas Hodgkin: On the British African Colonization Society

493

Exzerpte aus Thomas Fowell Buxton: The African slave trade

494

Exzerpte aus Thomas Fowell Buxton: The remedy; being a sequel to the African slave trade

499

Exzerpte aus Arnold Hermann Ludwig Heeren: Handbuch der Geschichte ...

502

Exzerpte aus William Howitt: Colonization and Christianity

516

Exzerpte aus Juan Sempere y Guarinos: Considérations sur les causes de la grandeur ...

527

Exzerpte aus Henry Brougham: An inquiry into the colonial policy of the European powers

542

Apparat

9*

Inhalt Text

Apparat

REGISTER Literaturregister I.Werke und Artikel II. Periodica

755 755 773

Namenregister

775

Sachregister

796

Verzeichnis der Abbildungen Londoner Hefte 1850-1853. Heft XI. Inhaltsverzeichnis

7

Exzerpte aus Samuel Laing {jun.): National distress. Heft XI. Seite 21

63

Exzerpte aus Charles Wing: Evils of the factory system ... Heft XI. Seite 37

97

Londoner Hefte 1850-1853. Heft XII. Inhaltsverzeichnis

111

Exzerpte aus James Anderson: An inquiry into the causes ... Heft XII. Seite 4

117

Exzerpte aus Justus Liebig: Die organische Chemie in ihrer Anwendung auf Agricultur und Physiologie. Heft XII. Seite 32

173

Exzerpte aus James Finlay Weir Johnston: Lectures on agricultural chemistry and geology. Heft XIII. Seite 39

289

Exzerpte aus James Finlay Weir Johnston: Lectures on agricultural chemistry and geology. Heft XIII. Seite 40

290

Exzerpte aus James Finlay Weir Johnston: Lectures on agricultural chemistry and geology. Heft XIII. Seite 52

313

Exzerpte aus Felix Wakefield: Colonial surveying, with a view to the disposal of waste land. Heft XIV. Seite 68 Londoner Hefte 1850-1853. Heft XI. Titelblatt

483 581

Exzerpte aus Thomas Hopkins: Great Britain for the last forty years. Heft XI. Seite 30

582

Londoner Hefte 1850-1853. Heft XII. Titelblatt

621

Exzerpte aus James Finlay Weir Johnston: Lectures on agricultural chemistry and geology. Heft XIII. Seite 48

647

10*

Inhalt Text

Apparat

Exzerpte aus James Finlay Weir Johnston: Lectures on agricultural chemistry and geology. Heft XIII. Seite 49 Exzerpte aus Adolphe-Jules-César-Auguste Dureau de La Malle: Économie politique des Romains. Heft XIV. Seite 1 Exzerpte aus James Finlay Weir Johnston: Catechism of agricultural chemistry and geology. Heft XIV. Seite 23

648 671 677

Exzerpte aus James Finlay Weir Johnston: Catechism of agricultural chemistry and geology. Heft XIV. Seite 24

678

Exzerpte aus William Johnston: England as it is, political, social, and industrial und Exzerpte aus dem „Economist" von 1851. Heft XIV. Seite 30

695

Exzerpte aus dem „Economist" von 1851. Heft XIV. Seite 31

696

11*

KARL M A R X EXZERPTE UND JULI

NOTIZEN

BIS S E P T E M B E R 1851

Londoner

Hefte

Heft

1850-1853

XI-XIV

H e f t XI

| Heft XI. London. 1851. Juli.

| Inhalt. I) Labour defended against the claims of capital. London. 1825. 2) Robert Owen. Effects of the Manufacturing System. London. 1817. 3) The oppressed Labourers. London. 1819. 4) W. Copland. A letter to the Reverend etc Brereton. Norwich. 1824. 5) N. W. Senior. Three Lectures on the Rate of Wages. London. 1830 6) Hints on Wages etc London. 1832. 7) Torr ens. R. On Wages and Combination. London. 1834 10 8) N. W. Senior. Letters on the Factory Act. Lond. 1837. 9) Brereton. A practical Enquiry into Number, Means of Employment of Agricultural Lab. London. 1825 (?) 10) Character, Object and Effects of Trades' Unions. London 1834. I I ) Stirling. The Question propounded: How will Great Britain ameliorate 15 the Distress of its Workmen. London. 1849. 12) The Evils of England. Social and Economical. By a London Physician. London. 1848. 13) W. Logan. An Exposure etc of female Prostitution. Glasgow. 1843. 14) J. Fielden. The Curse of the Factory System. London 1836 20 15) S. Laing. National Distress, its Causes and its Remedies. London 1844 16) Edinburgh Review. (No. 67) Trades' Unions and Strikes. 1838. 17) Hopkins. Great Britain for the last 40 Years. London. 1834 18) J. C. Symons. Outlines of Popular Economy. London. 1840. 5

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Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 · Heft XI 19) J. C. Symons. Arts and Artisans. At Home and Abroad. Edinburgh. 1839. 20) Westminster Review. (1842) Industry and its Reward in Great Britain and Ireland. 21) Charles Wing. Evils of the Factory System. London. 1836. 22) Laing (Samuel) Notes of a Traveller on the Social and Political State of France etc London. 1842. 23) Gaskell (P.) Artisans and Machinery. London. 1836. |

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Londoner Hefte 1850-1853. Heft XI. Inhaltsverzeichnis

Aus Thomas Hodgskin: Labour defended against the claims of capital

Iii Labour defended against the claims of Capital; or the Unproductiveness of capital proved. By a Labourer. 5

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L o n d o n . 1825. (with reference to t h e Present C o m b i n a t i o n s amongst Journeymen.) (Hodgskin?) Theilung der Arbeit, sagt m a n , ist u n m ö g l i c h o h n e vorläufige A c c u m u l a tion von Capital. [8] A b e r »the Effects attributed to a stock of c o m m o d i t i e s , u n d e r the n a m e of circulating capital, are caused by co-existing labour«. (9.) Do all the capitalists of E u r o p e possess at this m o m e n t o n e week's food and clothing for all the labourers they employ? Let us first e x a m i n e t h e question as to food. O n e portion of the food of t h e people is Bread, which is never prepared till within a few h o u r s of t h e t i m e when it is eaten. ... T h e p r o d u c e des baker c a n n o t be stored u p . In no case can the m a t e r i a l of bread, whether it exist as corn or flour, be preserved without continual labour. Die conviction des Arbeiters des c o t t o n s p i n n e r that he will o b t a i n b r e a d when he requires it, a n d his master's conviction that the m o n e y he pays h i m will enable h i m to o b t a i n it, arise simply from the fact that t h e b r e a d has always b e e n o b t a i n e d w h e n required. (10) A n o t h e r article of the labourer's food is milk, a n d milk is m a n u f a c t u r e d ... twice a day. If it be said t h a t the cattle to supply it are already there;—why the answer is, they require constant attention and constant labour, and their food, through the greater part of the year, is of daily growth. T h e fields in which they pasture, require the h a n d of m a n ... E b e n s o m i t d e m m e a t ; it c a n n o t be stored u p , for it begins instantly to deteriorate after it is brought to market. (10) Selbst Kleidungszeuge wegen der M o t t e n »only a very small stock is ever prepared,

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Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 • Heft XI compared to the general c o n s u m p t i o n s (11) the only thing w h i c h c a n be said to be stored up or previously prepared, is the s k i l l of t h e l a b o u r e r . (12) Mill sagt m i t R e c h t "what is annually p r o d u c e d is annually cons u m e d " , so that, in fact, to enable m e n to carry on all those operations which extend b e y o n d a year, there c a n n o t be any stock of c o m m o d i t i e s stored u p . Those who u n d e r t a k e t h e m m u s t rely, therefore, n o t on any commodities already created, b u t that other m e n will l a b o u r a n d p r o d u c e what they are to subsist on till their own products are completed. T h u s , should t h e labourer a d m i t that some a c c u m u l a t i o n of circulating capital is necessary for operations t e r m i n a t e d within t h e year ... it is plain, t h a t in all o p erations w h i c h extend b e y o n d a year, t h e labourer does not, a n d he cannot, rely on accumulated capital. (I.e.) all the effects usually attributed to accum u l a t i o n of circulating capital are derived from the accumulation and storing up of skilled labour u n d this m o s t i m p o r t a n t o p e r a t i o n is performed, as far as the great mass of the labourers is c o n c e r n e d without any circulating capital whatever. (13) If we duly consider the n u m b e r a n d i m p o r t a n c e of those wealth-producing operations which are n o t completed within t h e year, and the n u m b e r l e s s products of daily labour, necessary to subsistence, which are c o n s u m e d as soon as produced, we shall be sensible t h a t t h e success a n d productive power of every different species of labour is at all times more dependant on the coexisting productive labour of other men than on any accumulation of circulating capital. (I.e.) It is by the c o m m a n d the capitalist possesses over the labour of some men n o t by his possessing a stock of c o m m o d i t i e s , that He is enabled to support a n d consequently employ other labourers. (14) W a s nun das fixe Capital angeht, so: all i n s t r u m e n t s a n d m a chines t h e produce of labour. (14) As long as they are merely t h e result of previous labour, a n d are n o t applied to their respective uses by labourers, they do n o t repay the expense of m a k i n g t h e m . ... m o s t of t h e m d i m i n i s h in value from being kept. ... Fixed capital does not derive its utility from previous, but present labour; a n d does n o t bring its owner a profit because it has b e e n stored u p , b u t b e c a u s e it is a means of obtaining a command over labour. ([14,] 15) After any i n s t r u m e n t s have b e e n m a d e , what do they effect? N o t h i n g . On the contrary they begin to rust or decay unless u s e d or applied by labour. (I.e.) W h e t h e r an i n s t r u m e n t shall be regarded as productive capital or not, depends entirely on its being used, or not, by s o m e p r o d u c tive labourer. (15, 16) O n e easily c o m p r e h e n d s why ... the r o a d - m a k e r should receive some of the benefits, accruing only to the road user; b u t I do n o t c o m p r e h e n d why all these benefits should go to the road itself, a n d be appropriated by a set of persons who n e i t h e r m a k e n o r use it, u n d e r the n a m e of profit for their capital. (16) Capital is a sort of cabalistic word, like c h u r c h or state, or any other of those general t e r m s which are invented by

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Aus Thomas Hodgskin: Labour defended against the claims of capital

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those who fleece t h e rest of m a n k i n d to conceal t h e h a n d t h a t shears t h e m . (17) s t e a m engine ... its vast utility does n o t d e p e n d on stored up iron a n d wood, b u t on t h a t practical a n d living knowledge of t h e powers of n a t u r e which enables s o m e m e n to construct it, a n d others to guide it. (I.c.) W i t h out knowledge they (die M a s c h i n e n ) could n o t be invented; without m a n u a l skill a n d dexterity they could n o t be m a d e , a n d without skill a n d labour, they could n o t be productively used. But there is n o t h i n g m o r e t h a n knowledge, skill, a n d l a b o u r requisite, on which t h e capitalist can found a claim to any share of the p r o d u c e . (18) After he (the m a n ) h a s inherited t h e knowledge of several generations, a n d w h e n he lives congregated i n t o great masses, he is e n a b l e d by h i s m e n t a l faculties to complete t h e work of n a ture etc. (I.e.) circulating C a p i t a l . . . is created only for c o n s u m p t i o n ; while fixed capital ... is m a d e , n o t to be c o n s u m e d , b u t to aid the l a b o u r e r in producing those things w h i c h are to be c o n s u m e d . (19) it is n o t t h e quantity b u t the quality of t h e fixed capital on which t h e productive industry of a country depends. . . . A l t h o u g h t h e n u m b e r of labourers m u s t at all t i m e s d e p e n d on the quantity of circulating Capital, or, as I should say, on t h e quantity of the products of coexisting labour, which labourers are allowed to c o n s u m e ; the quantity of c o m m o d i t i e s they p r o d u c e , will d e p e n d on t h e efficiency of their fixed capital. Circulating capital n o u r i s h e s a n d supports m e n as its quantity is increased; fixed capital as a m e a n s of n o u r i s h i n g a n d supporting m e n , d e p e n d s for its efficiency, altogether on the skill of the labourer, a n d consequently t h e productive industry of a country, as far as fixed capital is c o n c e r n e d , is in proportion to knowledge a n d skill of t h e people. (19, 20) A m e r e glance m u s t satisfy every m i n d t h a t simple profit does n o t decrease b u t increase in the progress of society, i.e., t h e s a m e quantity of labour w h i c h at any former period p r o d u c e d 100 qrs of wheat, and 100 steamengines, will now p r o d u c e somewhat m[ore,] ||2| or t h e value of somewhat m o r e : or where is the utility of all o u r boasted i m p r o v e m e n t s ? In fact, also, we find t h a t a m u c h greater n u m b e r of persons now live in o p u l e n c e on profit in this country t h a n formerly. It is clear, however, that no labour, no productive power, no ingenuity, a n d no art, can answer t h e overwhelming d e m a n d s of c o m p o u n d interest. But all saving is m a d e from t h e revenue of t h e capitalist, so t h a t actually these d e m a n d s are constantly m a d e , a n d as constantly the productive power of labour refuses to satisfy t h e m . A sort of b a l a n c e is, therefore, constantly struck. (23) A l m o s t every p r o d u c t of art a n d skill is t h e result of j o i n t a n d c o m b i n e d labour. So dep e n d e n t i s m a n o n m a n , a n d s o m u c h does this d e p e n d e n c e increase a s society advances, that hardly any l a b o u r of any single individual ... is of t h e least value b u t as forming a part of the great social task. ... W h e r e v e r t h e division of labour is introduced, therefore, t h e j u d g m e n t of other m e n in-

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Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 · Heft XI tervenes before the labourer can realise his earnings, a n d there is no longer any thing which we can call the n a t u r a l reward of individual labour. E a c h labourer produces only some part of a whole, a n d e a c h part, having no value or utility of itself, there is n o t h i n g on which t h e labourer can seize, a n d say: this is my product, this I will keep to myself. Between the c o m m e n c e m e n t of any j o i n t operation, s u c h as that of m a k i n g cloth, a n d the division of its product a m o n g the different persons whose c o m b i n e d exertions have p r o d u c e d it, the j u d g m e n t of m e n m u s t intervene several times, a n d the question is, how m u c h of this j o i n t p r o d u c t should go to e a c h of the i n d i viduals whose u n i t e d labours p r o d u c e it? (25.) I know no way of deciding this b u t by leaving it to be settled by the unfettered j u d g m e n t s of the labourers themselves. (I.e.) I m u s t add that it is doubtful whether o n e species of l a b o u r is m o r e valuable t h a n another; certainly it is n o t m o r e necessary. (26) Masters are labourers as well as their j o u r n e y m e n . In this character their interest is precisely the same as that of their m e n . But they are also either capitalists or the agents of the capitalist, a n d in this respect their interest is decidedly opposed to the interest of their workmen. (27) T h e wide spread of e d u c a t i o n a m o n g the j o u r n e y m e n m e c h a n i c s of this country, dim i n i s h e s daily the value of the labour a n d skill of almost all masters a n d employers, by increasing the n u m b e r of persons who possess their peculiar knowledge. (30) D e r Capitalist ist der oppressive middleman zwischen d e n verschiednen labourers. Schmeißt m a n ihn beiseite so »it is plain t h a t capital or the Power to employ labour a n d Co-existing Labour are One; u n d Productive Capital u n d Skilled Labour are also One; consequently capital a n d a labouring population are precisely synonymous. In the system of n a t u r e , m o u t h s are u n i t e d with h a n d s a n d with i n t e l l i g e n c e s (33)

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Aus Robert Owen: Observations on the effect of the manufacturing system

Robert Owen. Observations on the Effect of the Manufacturing System. 2. ed. L o n d o n . 1817.

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Vor 30 oder 40 J a h r e n war G r o ß b r i t a n n i e n wesentlich agricultural. ... W e c h s e l seit d e n cotton trade inventions u n d der Cultur des cotton tree in America. (3, 4) N o t m o r e t h a n 30 years since, t h e poorest parents t h o u g h t the age of 14 sufficiently early for their children to c o m m e n c e regular labour: a n d they j u d g e d well. (8) Since the general i n t r o d u c t i o n of expensive machinery, h u m a n n a t u r e has b e e n forced far b e y o n d its average strength. (16)

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Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 • Heft XI

The Oppressed Labourers, the means for their relief, as well as for the reduction of their number and of the Poorrates. L o n d o n . 1819. N a c h d e m Schluß des Kriegs 1814 die labourers in agriculture b e c a m e t h e b u t t of oppression. ... I h r removal from places where they wished to dwell, to a poorhouse, a n d there being viewed as the pest a n d b u r d e n of t h e state, r e n d e r e d t h e m objects subject to t h e c o m m a n d of the overseers, to let o u t for labour, as horses are let to hire, n o t having a choice of master, work, or wages. (Preface.)

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Aus William Copland: A letter to the Rev. C. D. Brereton

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W. Copland: A Letter to the Rev. C. D. Brereton, in Reply to his "Observations on the Administration of the Poor Laws in Agricultural Districts." Norwich. 1824. Das country is morally a n d o u g h t to be legally, b o u n d to afford t h e m (the poor) a subsistence. (9) Packt d e n Pfaffen Brereton, der alles P e c h auf die Armenunterstützung schiebt.

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Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 · Heft XI

Nassau William Senior. Three Lectures on the Rate of Wages. L o n d o n . 1830. My principal object has b e e n to draw attention to the elementary proposition, that the rate of wages d e p e n d s on the extent of t h e fund for the m a i n 5 t e n a n c e of labourers, c o m p a r e d with the n u m b e r of labourers to be m a i n tained. (Preface. [Ill, IV]) As marriage (des Arbeiters) has no t e n d e n c y to increase the value of his labour, it has no t e n d e n c y to increase his r e m u neration. (I.e. IX) Pauper ... the m a n whose labour is n o t worth his subsistence, who c o n s u m e s m o r e t h a n he produces. (XIX) (Die ganze Vorrede 10 räth Emigration auf Staatskosten. Jammer über die Riots der labourers etc.) the labourer's situation does n o t d e p e n d on the a m o u n t which he receives [at any] one t i m e , but on his average receipts during a given period ... the longer the period taken, t h e m o r e accurate will be the estimate. (7)I 15 | 3 | Das Jahr am besten als Periode. Umfaßt die S o m m e r u n d W i n t e r l ö h n e . (7) Few things are less u n i f o r m t h a n the n u m b e r of working days during the year, or of working h o u r s during the day, or the degree of exertion u n d e r g o n e during those hours. (10) T h e average a n n u a l wages of lab o u r in England are 3 x as high as in Ireland; but, as the labourer in Ire- 20 land is said n o t to do m o r e t h a n % of what is d o n e by the labourer in England, the price of labour may, in b o t h countries, be a b o u t equal. (13) T h e employer is interested in keeping down the price of labour; b u t while that price r e m a i n s the same, while at a given expense he gets a given a m o u n t of work d o n e , his situation r e m a i n s unaltered. If a farmer can get a 25 field trenched for 12 /. it is indifferent to h i m whether he pays the whole of that s u m to three capital workmen, or to 4 ordinary ones. ... If the three could be hired at 3 I. 10 s. a piece, while the 4 required 3 I. a piece, t h o u g h

16

Aus Nassau William Senior: Three Lectures on the rate of wages t h e wages of t h e 3 would be higher, t h e price of t h e work d o n e by t h e m would be lower. It is t r u e t h a t t h e causes which raise t h e a m o u n t of the la­ b o u r e r ' s wages often raise t h e rate of t h e capitalist's profits. If, by i n c r e a s e d industry, o n e m a n performs t h e work o f two, b o t h t h e a m o u n t o f wages a n d 5 t h e rate of profits will generally be raised. But t h e rate of profits will be raised, n o t by t h e rise of wages, b u t in c o n s e q u e n c e of t h e additional supply of labour having diminished its price, or having d i m i n i s h e d t h e p e r i o d for which it h a d previously b e e n necessary to a d v a n c e that price. T h e labourer, on the other h a n d , is principally interested in t h e a m o u n t of wages. T h e 10 a m o u n t of his wages b e i n g given, it is certainly his interest t h a t t h e price of his labour should be high, for on t h a t d e p e n d s t h e degree of exertion i m p o s e d on h i m . (14, 15) D i e Revenue of a large p o r t i o n of a country k a n n w a c h s e n u n d die wages fallen. Ζ . B . w e n n I r l a n d n u r K o r n n a c h E n g l a n d ausführte u n d plötzlich würde die d e m a n d n a c h cattle etc so groß, d a ß die irischen 15

landlords u n d t e n a n t s ihr arable l a n d in p a s t u r e verwandeln. Statt 10 families d a n n vielleicht 2 h i n r e i c h e n d für je 200 acres: one to raise t h e subsistence of t h e two, a n d the other to t e n d t h e cattle a n d sheep. A large p o r t i o n der Arbeiter so aus Beschäftigung geworfen. D e r fund for t h e m a i n t e n a n c e of Irish labour would fall, n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g t h e increase of t h e r e v e n u e of

20

t h e landlords and farmers. ( 2 1 , 22) N u r in 2 F ä l l e n k a n n der general rate of wages vermindert w e r d e n d u r c h E i n f ü h r u n g von M a s c h i n e r i e . Erstens: when labour is employed in t h e construction of m a c h i n e r y , w h i c h l a b o u r would otherwise have b e e n e m p l o y e d in t h e p r o d u c t i o n of c o m m o d i t i e s for the u s e of labourers; a n d Zweitens w h e n t h e m a c h i n e itself c o n s u m e s c o m -

25

modities which would otherwise have b e e n c o n s u m e d by labourers a n d that to a greater e x t e n t t h a n it produces t h e m . (40) U n s r e j ä h r l i c h e C o n s u m t i o n von Baumwolle vor E i n f ü h r u n g der spinning j e n n y a b o u t to 100,000 lbs, jezt 190,000,000 lbs. Seit E i n f ü h r u n g des powerloom, die quantity of cotton cloth m a n u f a c t u r e d for h o m e c o n s u m p t i o n gewachsen 30 von 227,000,000 of yards (average a n n u a l a m o u n t von 1 8 1 6 - 1 8 2 0 ) zu 400,000,000 of yards ( a n n u a l average von 1 8 2 4 - 1 8 2 8 ) . (43, 44) D e r 2 F a l l paßt n u r auf horses u n d working cattle. (44) Behauptet d a ß M a s c h i n e n , angewandt für W a a r e die in d e n B e r e i c h \ C o n s u m des Arbeiters k ö m m t , seinen Arbeitslohn e r h ö h n m ü s s e n . [48] t e

17

Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 • Heft XI

Hints on Wages, the Corn Laws, High and Low Prices, Paper Money and Banking arising from a consideration of 3 Lectures on the cost of obtaining Money etc by N. W. Senior.

5

London.1832. (By a British Merchant.)

Part I.

On

Wages.

In every n a t i o n , the q u a n t u m of wages received by the labourer is according to the a m o u n t of the p r o d u c e of its soil; a n d his m o n e y wages, t h e 10 equivalent for such q u a n t u m , is according to t h e sale price of t h a t p r o d u c e on the spot. (2) the cost of u n c u l t i v a t e d l a n d in A m e r i c a is % of t h e whole s u m expended in clearing it. (5) Senior b e h a u p t e t „that the wages o b t a i n e d by the labourers, in return for whose labours the precious m e t a l s are i m ported, regulate the wages of all other labourers in t h e s a m e country". ... 15 N u n n a c h d e n parliamentary papers der session 1825 folgt, d a ß das G e wicht von Gold u n d Silber gegangen d u r c h das Bullionoffice in d e n 11 J a h ren von 1 8 1 4 - 1 8 2 4 war = 58,726,000 /. D a v o n exported in derselben Periode 34,963,000 /., leaving im L a n d 23,763,000 /. D i e quantity of b o t h imported, beyond what is t a k e n to the bullion office, n i c h t % der hier 20 eingebrachten ... we require to supply n e w plate, the wear of the old, a n d of m o n e y , or to be used in o u r manufactories the old plate being r e m e l t e d auf 1 million. ( 4 8 - 5 0 ) In denselben 11 J a h r e n von british p r o d u c e u n d m a n u factures exported jährlich im D u r c h s c h n i t t 39,360,000/. Sollen n a c h Senior

18

Aus James H. Renny: Hints on wages der 1/39 Theil der wages o b t a i n e d für wages der labourers, in r e t u r n for whose labour this o n e m i l l i o n was imported, die wages aller a n d r e n reguliren? (50)

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Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 · Heft XI

Torrens. (R.) On Wages and Combination. L o n d o n . 1834. Maximum der wages: that, which r e m a i n s after the capitalist's other advances have b e e n replaced, with the lowest rate of increase, for the sake of 5 which he will carry on his business. (8) M a c h i n e s work b u t do n o t eat. W h e n they displace labour, a n d render it disposable, they at the s a m e t i m e displace a n d render disposable the real wages, t h e food a n d clothing, which m a i n t a i n e d it. T h e aggregate fund for the support of labour is n o t d i m i n ished. (39) In a country n o t d e p e n d i n g u p o n foreign markets, c o m b i n a t i o n s 10 m a y raise wages to their M a x i m u m , provided the supply of labour do not increase. (57) ||4| W h e n wages are at their m a x i m u m , profits are at their m i n i m u m . But when profits are at their m i n i m u m , an increase of wages m u s t check production, d i m i n i s h the fund for the m a i n t e n a n c e of labour etc. (58) In a country d e p e n d i n g u p o n foreign markets, c o m b i n a t i o n s for 15 raising wages beyond the limit d e t e r m i n e d by foreign competition, ultimately occasion, not an advance, b u t a r e d u c t i o n of wages. (60) T h e m a r k e t is occasionally understocked a n d occasionally overstocked, with m a n u f a c tured goods. W h e n the supply of s u c h goods is deficient their p r o d u c t i o n is increased; a n d w h e n their supply is in excess, their p r o d u c t i o n is d i m i n - 20 ished. But when the production of m a n u f a c t u r e d goods diminishes, the fixed capital of the manufacturer ceases to be fully employed. It is selfevident, therefore, that, a m i d the ebbings a n d flowings of the market, a n d the alternate contractions a n d expansions of d e m a n d , occasions will constantly recur, in which the manufacturer m a y employ additional floating capital, 25 without employing additional fixed capital. ... if additional quantities of raw material can be worked up without incurring an additional expense for buildings a n d machinery, t h e manufacturers of the country in which the

20

Aus Robert Torrens: On wages and combination rate of profit is comparatively h i g h (d. h. wo der Arbeitslohn absolut niedriger), will have an interest in lowering their prices in the foreign m a r k e t , so as to b e a t out t h e fabrics of the country in which the rate of profit is comparatively low. (d. h. der Arbeitslohn h o c h , wo also der Preiß nicht 5 weiter herabgedrückt werden k a n n , es sei d e n n daß der L o h n herabgedrückt würde.) (63, 4) So long as buildings a n d m a c h i n e r y , w h e n n o t in work exist as dead stock, realizing no profit at all, so long will it be the interest of producers to employ, at the customary rate of profit, as m u c h of their floating capital as possible, without reference to the consideration 10 whether, by so employing it, they realize the customary profit u p o n their fixed capital also. Diese consideration wird b e s t i m m e n ob new a n d a d d i tional buildings a n d m a c h i n e s shall be erected; b u t when o n c e they are erected, it will be t h e decided interest of the manufacturer, to keep t h e m in full work, provided he can thereby secure the customary profit u p o n t h e 15 floating capital employed in paying wages, a n d in p u r c h a s i n g raw m a t e r i als. H e n c e , when t h e foreign m a r k e t is overstocked, it will be the interest of the manufacturer of the h i g h profit country to c o n t i n u e to supply it at prices greatly below those ordinary prices w h i c h gave the customary r e t u r n u p o n his whole capital, fixed a n d floating. (68) In a country possessing su20 periority in m a n u f a c t u r i n g for foreign m a r k e t s , wages m a y be raised within the limits of such superiority. (73) T h e Cornlaws deprive t h e operatives of England of the high comparative wages d u e to the superiority w h i c h E n g land possesses in m a n u f a c t u r i n g for the foreign market. (81)

21

Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 • Heft XI

Nassau W. Senior. Letters on the Factory Act, as it affects the Cotton Manufacture, addressed to the right Honourable The President of The Board of Trade. To which are appended A Letter to Mr. Senior from Leonhard Horner, Esq. and Minutes of a Conversation between Mr. Edmund Ashworth, Mr. Thomson and Mr. Senior.

5

L o n d o n . 1837.

10

D i e difference between the h o u r s of work u s u a l over t h e whole world in cott o n factories u n d a n d e r n e m p l o y m e n t s rührt aus 2 G r ü n d e n her: 1) t h e great proportion of fixed to circulating capital, which m a k e s long h o u r s of work desirable; u n d 2) the extraordinary lightness of the labour. (11) Das fixe Capital gewöhnlich = 4:1 z u m circulirenden, so daß w e n n a m a n u f a c - 15 turer 50,000 l. hat, er 40,000 l. verausgabt in Errichtung seiner mill u n d filling it with m a c h i n e r y u n d n u r 10,000 I. to the purchase of raw m a t e r i a l (cotton, flour a n d coals) u n d the p a y m e n t of wages. ( 1 1 , 12) the fixed capital is subject to incessant deterioration, n i c h t allein von wear u n d tear, sondern a u c h von constant m e c h a n i c a l i m p r o v e m e n t s , w h i c h in 8 oder 20 9 J a h r e n r e n d e r obsolete, m a c h i n e r y which when first used was the best of its kind. D a h e r um netprofit von 10 % zu m a c h e n , ist a gross profit von m e h r als 15 % nöthig. (12) U n t e r d e m gegenwärtigen Gesetz no mill, worin persons u n t e r 18 J a h r e n angewandt, can be worked m o r e t h a n 1 1 ½ h o u r s

22

Aus Nassau William Senior: Letters on the factory act

5

10

d e n Tag, d. h. 12 S t u n d e n für 5 Tage u n d 9 am Samstag. N u n die folgende Analyse zeigt, d a ß in a m i l l so worked, t h e whole net profit is derived from the last hour. E i n m a n u f a c t u r e r investirt 100,000 1.: - 80,000 I. in his m i l l u n d machinery, u n d 20,000 i n raw m a t e r i a l u n d wages. D e r a n n u a l r e t u r n der mill, supposing t h e capital to be t u r n e d o n c e a year, a n d gross profits to be 15 %, m u ß sein goods worth 115,000 1., p r o d u c e d by the c o n s t a n t conversion a n d reconversion of the 20,000 1., circulating capital, from m o n e y i n t o goods a n d from goods into m o n e y , in periods of rather m o r e t h a n two m o n t h s . V o n diesen 115,000 I. e a c h of t h e 23 half h o u r s of work p r o d u c e s / oder %. V o n d e n % (constituting the whole 115,000 I.) %, d. h. 100,0001, von d e n 115,000 ersetzen n u r das Capital; % (oder 5,000 I. o u t of the 115,000) m a k e s up for t h e deterioration der mill u n d m a c h i n e r y . D i e r e m a i n i n g % d. h. die last two of t h e 23 half h o u r s of every day, p r o d u c e the n e t profit of 10 %. W e n n d a h e r (prices r e m a i n i n g the same) die factory 13 S t u n d e n at work g e h a l t e n w e r d e n k ö n n t e statt 11¾, by an a d d i t i o n of about 2,600 I. to t h e circulating capital, t h e n e t profit would be m o r e t h a n doubled. Anderseits, w e n n die A r b e i t s s t u n d e n täglich um 1 S t u n d e per day reducirt (prices r e m a i n i n g the same) net profit would be destroyed, w e n n reducirt um 1 ]/ S t u n d e n a u c h gross profits destroyed, das circulating capital would be replaced, b u t there would be no fund to c o m p e n s a t e the progressive deterioration of the fixed capital. (12, 13) ||5| Das Verhältniß des fixed capital z u m circulating wächst beständig aus 2 G r ü n d e n . 1) D i e t e n d ency of m e c h a n i c a l i m p r o v e m e n t to throw on m a c h i n e r y m o r e a n d m o r e of the work of p r o d u c t i o n . 2) D a s i m p r o v e m e n t der m e a n s of transport, u n d die c o n s e q u e n t d i m i n u t i o n of t h e stock of raw material in the m a n u f a c turer's h a n d s waiting for u s e . Formerly, w h e n coals a n d cotton c a m e by water, the u n c e r t a i n t y a n d irregularity of supply forced h i m to keep on h a n d 2 oder 3 m o n t h s ' c o n s u m p t i o n . Now, a railway brings it to h i m week by week, or rather day by day, from the port or the m i n e . U n d e r s u c h c i r c u m stances, I fully anticipate that, in a very few years, the fixed capital, instead of its present proportion, will be as 6 or 7 or even 10 to 1 to the circulating; and, consequently, t h a t the motives to long h o u r s of work will b e c o m e greater, as the only m e a n s by w h i c h a large proportion of fixed capital can be m a d e profitable. " W h e n a labourer," said Mr. Ashworth to me "lays d o w n his spade, he renders useless, for t h a t period, a capital worth 18 d. W h e n o n e of our people leaves the mill, he renders useless a capital t h a t has cost 100,000 /." (13, 14) U n s r e cotton factories, at their c o m m e n c e m e n t , were kept going the whole 24 h o u r s . T h e difficulty of cleaning a n d repairing t h e machinery, a n d the divided responsibility, arising from the necessity of e m ploying a double staff of overlookers, bookkeepers etc have nearly p u t an end to this practice; b u t u n t i l H o b h o u s e ' s A c t r e d u c e d t h e m to 69, our fac5

115

}

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20

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Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 • Heft XI tories generally worked from 70 to 80 h o u r s per week. (15) D a s G a r n , das 40 Sh. ein Pfund kostete, w h e n we c o n s u m e d only 10,000,000 of p o u n d s of cotton, now, when we c o n s u m e 280,000,000, costs 2 sh. Increase of price, a n d d i m i n u t i o n of c o n s u m p t i o n , will therefore act a n d react on o n e a n other. Every increase of price will further d i m i n i s h c o n s u m p t i o n ; a n d every further d i m i n u t i o n of c o n s u m p t i o n will occasion an increased relative cost of production, a n d consequently a further increase of price. (16)

A us

dem

Brief von

Horner

(Leonard)

an

5

Senior.

Behauptet, d a ß in any period of 5 years, since the cotton trade rose into c o n s e q u e n c e , der profit in well m a n a g e d factories m u s t have greatly ex- 10 ceeded 10 %. (31) Zeigt Herrn Senior überall, d a ß er sich v o n d e n Fabrikanten hat belügen lassen.

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Aus Charles David Brereton: A practical inquiry

5

Brereton. (Α. M.) (Rev.) Rector of Little Massingham, Norfolk. A Practical Inquiry into the Number, Means of Employment, and Wages of the Agricultural Labourers. L o n d o n . (1825?)

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15

Am Schluß des 14* Jh. W a t Tyler, J a c k Straw, H o b Carter u n d T o m Miller, n a m e s a s s u m e d by these spirited leaders of t h e peasantry, to d e n o t e t h e i r origin a n d e m p l o y m e n t s , c o m m i t t e d with a m u t i n o u s p o p u l a c e great violence on t h e gentry a n d nobility. . . . Ihre insurrection war das grosse M i t t e l of shaking off t h e servitude a n d oppression of t h e N o r m a n a n d feudal tyranny. (11) V o n 1 6 9 0 - 1 7 9 4 sehr great decrease der p o p u l a t i o n der villages ... D u r i n g t h e last century grosser c h a n g e im woollen trade des L a n d e s . Das c o m b i n g u n d s p i n n i n g von wool, w h i c h were during t h a t p e riod performed entirely by h a n d , are now d o n e by m a c h i n e r y u n d dieser trade transferred a l m o s t entirely von Norfolk u n d d e n eastern districts n a c h Lancashire, Yorkshire, N o t t i n g h a m s h i r e u n d Leicestershire. T h o u g h t h e earnings from the s p i n n i n g of yarn a n d knitting of stockings were very small, yet a great part of t h e female p o p u l a t i o n in diesen arts e m p l o y e d .

20

But I shall shew t h a t u n l e s s t h e female p o p u l a t i o n h a d b e e n disengaged from these e m p l o y m e n t s , a n d b e e n t u r n e d to t h e labours of t h e field, t h e l a n d of this c o u n t y could n o t have b e e n cultivated as it h a s b e e n , by t h e male p o p u l a t i o n of t h e last 30 years. (26, 7) Norfolk ist n i c h t n u r b e r ü h m t (die county) für ihre Agricultur u n d i m p r o v e m e n t s in that art, b u t also for

25

its p a u p e r i s m . U n t e r s u c h e n wir, at different periods, die quantity of l a n d in cultivation, t h e m o d e of tillage, u n d t h e p r o d u c e of t h e soil. (38) D i e Graf-

25

Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 • Heft XI t e

schaft Norfolk enthält 1,338,880 statute acres u n d ist die 5 county in extent, u n d die 8 in E n g l a n d as to p o p u l a t i o n . E n t h ä l t 33 h u n d r e d s , 20 m a r ket towns u n d 702 parishes u n d h a m l e t s . Norfolk e n t h ä l t 100 parishes m e h r als Yorkshire oder any other county in E n g l a n d u n d m e h r als das whole of Scotland. These divisions are of very a n c i e n t date, a n d h a v e perh a p s rather decreased t h a n increased during t h e last century. ... Nearly 10,000 I. h a v e b e e n spent in some years in law expences, (in this county) respecting removals a n d settlements. (38) In Norfolk m e h r als % der Bevölker u n g u n t e r d e m workhouse system. (39) W h i l e the n u m b e r of parishes a n d even the n u m b e r of i n h a b i t a n t s in villages decreased w ä h r e n d des last century, the quantity of land in cultivation greatly increased. W i t h i n the last 50 years m e h r als % der parishes inclosed d u r c h P a r l a m e n t s a k t e u n d brought into a high state of cultivation. M a n y of the parishes of Norfolk are t h e exclusive property of individuals, a n d in m o s t of these inclosures of h e a t h a n d waste lands have t a k e n place to a great extent w i t h o u t the sanet i o n of P a r l i a m e n t . Since the Revolution the greater part of this western district of the c o u n t y has b e e n converted from sheep's walk, of trifling valu e , to t h e highest pitch of cultivation. (I.e.) Also m u ß gewesen sein a great increase of d e m a n d for labour. Jezt m e h r cattle genährt in d e m Distrikt u p o n t h e fallows, als früher supported u p o n the whole in a state of pasturage a n d waste. Solches L a n d erheischte weder draining n o r fencing. A u ß e r diesen h i g h u n d light soils in Norfolk a great d e a l of fen u n d marshland, das wurde e m b a n k e d u n d drained during this period u n d dessen Cultivation d a h e r a great increase of e m p l o y m e n t bewirken m u ß t e . A considerable quantity of saltmarsh also h a s b e e n e m b a n k e d a n d r e d e e m e d from the sea. T h e great i m p r o v e m e n t der c o u n t y a u c h b e m e r k b a r von der erection of all the principal m a n s i o n s during this period, - H o l k h a m , H o u g h t o n , Wolterton, G u n t o n etc. D e r c l a m o u r of t h e dearth of e m p l o y m e n t , u n d von der overflowing supply of labourers fand Statt, while these i m p r o v e m e n t s in the country ||6| have b e e n in progress. N o t only has there b e e n a great increase in the m e a n s of e m p l o y m e n t by the increased quantity of l a n d in cultivation, b u t the process of bringing it into a cultivated state, fencing, draining, a n d improving, which require in m a n y cases l a b o u r to the a m o u n t of m o r e t h a n y t h e value of the land, m u s t have enormously increased the fund which supplies the wages of labour. (40, 41) T h e quantity of e m p l o y m e n t supplied by agriculture has b e e n still further a u g m e n t e d by t h e changes which have t a k e n place in the mode of tillage. W a h r s c h e i n l i c h d a ß die proportion des arable l a n d to pasture grösser war als einige Zeit n a c h der R e formation. U n t e r der Herrschaft der Elisabeth u n d for s o m e t i m e after, the inclosure of pasture was discouraged. Arable land was in fact converted into pasture, a n d the p r o d u c e of corn increased by an improved h u s b a n d r y . l

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Aus Charles David Brereton: A practical inquiry .. A greater supply of m e a t , dessen C o n s u m sehr wuchs n a c h der Reformation, wurde afforded by a t t e n t i o n to pastures. ( 4 1 , 2) Blomefield giebt d e n following a c c o u n t der several estates at different periods:

5

1324 a messuage, in Norfolk, c o n t a i n e d

1370. ditto

ditto

140 6 30 30

arable meadow pasture heath

ditto

200 100 300 10

arable meadow pasture wood

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1567

15 1569

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131 arable 7 meadow 1% p a s t u r e

ditto

60 arable 20 m e a d o w 40 p a s t u r e 300 furze & h e a t h . (42.)

So at u n d after t h e R e f o r m a t i o n , die quantity des arable land in Proportion z u h e a t h u n d p a s t u r e decreased. W u c h s erst b e d e u t e n d n a c h d e r R e v o lution. Z u r Revolutionszeit die Pfarre, d i e B[lomefield] b e w o h n t , n i c h t ü b e r Υ 2 o d e r % cultivated as arable land. J e z t von 2238 acres n u r 152 pas­ t u r e u n d 2086 arable. D i e ß m u ß die quantity of labour, erheischt seit der Revolution, v e r m e h r t h a b e n . E b e n s o das E i n f ü h r e n des fourcourse u n d sixcourse system. In d e m fourcourse % des L a n d e s besät m i t K o r n u n d in d e m sixcourse % oder %. D e r leztre course n u r a n w e n d b a r w h e n the l a n d is of the finest quality, a n d a d m i t s t h e growth of b e a n s , aber der erstre n u n allgemein in d e n m i d d l i n g u n d inferior soils. Zwei V e r b e s s e r u n g e n b e s o n ders zu diesen courses geführt, n ä h m l i c h Das M a r l i n g of t h e l a n d u n d die field culture of t u r n i p s . T h e m a r l i n g of l a n d erheischt viel m a n u a l labour, a n d that of t h e highest value. Besonders aber die field culture of t u r n i p s . T h e general culture of t u r n i p s i n t r o d u c e d t h e u s e of t h e h o e in agriculture, which h a d till t h e n b e e n confined to gardening ... Das L a n d worauf die turnips wachsen ist h o e d over 2 u n d oft 3 x im Jahr. By t h e system of drilling also the hoe is very generally u s e d ; u n d so a n u m b e r of acres, = perhaps nearly % dieser extensive county, is h o e d over by h a n d , like a garden, in t h e course of t h e year. ( 4 2 - 4 5 ) D i e s e i m p r o v e m e n t s h a t t e n a u c h a great effect in distributing t h e m e a n s of e m p l o y m e n t t h r o u g h t h e year. (45) Vor

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Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 • Heft XI der Reformation die average p r o d u c t i o n per acre, of all k i n d s of grain, n i c h t ü b e r 12 bushels. V o n der R e f o r m a t i o n zur Revolution h u s b a n d r y i m proved, a n d t h e produce greatly increased. By m o d e r n i m p r o v e m e n t t h e p r o d u c t i o n in m a n y parts d o u b l e d seit der Revolution. (47, 8) D e m I n s p e c tor der Cornreturns für Norwich w u r d e n r e t u r n e d 1 8 0 1 : 17,159 qrs, 1814: 5 34,007, also doppelt die quantity u n d 1 8 2 1 : 78,219 oder m e h r als 4x die n u m b e r of qrs. (49) In this village at this t i m e there are probably as m a n y w o m e n a n d girls as m e n a n d boys employed. This change in the employm e n t of the female population is of great m o m e n t in ascertaining the earnings of labourers' families. (51) N i c h t zu beweisen, daß der rural p a u p e r i s m 10 gegenwärtig is u p h e l d weder by a superfluity of workmen, n o c h a d e a r t h of e m p l o y m e n t , n o c h i n a d e q u a t e wages, sondern n u n die poorlaws, ihre Verwaltung etc. (96)

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|7| Character, Object and Effects of Trades' Unions; with some remarks of the Law concerning them. L o n d o n 1834. 5

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Die mächtigste, extensivste u n d bestorganisirte U n i o n in d e m U n i t e d K i n g d o m scheint die der working cotton spinners. Alle oder fast alle workm e n dieser class in E n g l a n d , Schottland u n d Irland v e r b u n d e n in i h r e n respective districts für 30 J a h r e oder mehr. 1829 der erste V e r s u c h to form one „ G r a n d G e n e r a l U n i o n " of all t h e spinners of the 3 k i n g d o m s . V o n da an m e h r systematischen Plan. J e d e Stadt oder Dorf, e n t s p r e c h e n d d e n n u m b e r s ihrer spinning p o p u l a t i o n , wählte representatives, die Parliaments abhielten, levied taxes on their constituents, passed laws, p r i n t e d their speeches a n d proceedings, a n d performed all the functions of a legislative body m i t so viel F ö r m l i c h k e i t wie das h o u s e of c o m m o n s . D i e I n s t i t u t i o n dieser assembly o h n e m a r k e d effect on the trade. Die strikes u n d a n d r e offensive business der U n i o n were still for the m o s t part decided on by t h e local committees, a n d the expense of sending delegates to some central spot, such as the Isle of M a n or M a n c h e s t e r , the u s u a l place of M e e t i n g , h a s prevented the holding of a general congress m o r e t h a n o n c e or at m o s t 2 x a year, a n d t h e n the Session has n o t c o n t i n u e d longer t h a n 4 or 5 days. (2, 3) Die spinners bilden n u r y der in d e n cotton mills Beschäftigten, b u t their labour is absolutely necessary to t h e working des establishment; folglich, by refusing to work themselves, they force all their fellow-labourers out of e m p l o y m e n t at the s a m e t i m e . ... diese Abhängigkeit of s o m e w o r k m e n on others existirt überall, wo T h e i l u n g der Arbeit, b u t in no m a n u f a c t u r e where the same quantity of fixed capital is employed (a c i r c u m s t a n c e which will be shewn hereafter materially to aid the objects of a c o m b i n a w

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Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 • Heft XI tion) is t h e disproportion equally great. (12, 13) D e r m o s t extensive u n d persevering strike der v o n 1810, w h e n all t h e spinners in all t h e mills in der Nachbarschaft von Manchester, eingeschlossen Stockport, Macclesfield, Stayley Bridge, A s h t o n , H y d e , O l d h a m , Bolton u n d so weit wie Preston, sim u l t a n e o u s l y left their work, a n d h a d t h e strike c o n t i n u e d a little longer, t h e whole of Scotland would have j o i n e d it. 30,000 persons thrown o u t of e m p l o y m e n t , m a n y of t h e m p a r a d e d t h e streets der obigen Städte during t h e day, s h o u t i n g u n d h o o t i n g at the residences der ihrer S a c h e feindlichen Personen. Attacks oft g e m a c h t auf die factories, trotz der Polizei, die z u m S c h u t z n i c h t h i n r e i c h t e ; m a n y masters u n a b l e ihre mills zu verlassen, for fear of their lives u n d s u c h w o r k m e n as were got to supply t h e place of t h e seceders, were held prisoners, in a state of almost c o n t i n u a l siege, in t h e es­ t a b l i s h m e n t s where they worked. D a s Government dieses strike carried on by a congress at M a n c h e s t e r , gebildet von Delegates sent from all t h e prin­ cipal mills. An der Spitze Joseph Shipley, e i n vollständiger M a s a n i e l l o , aber » a respectable m e c h a n i c « . W ä h r e n d dieses t u r n o u t , t h e m e n who h a d struck, were supported by the c o n t r i b u t i o n s of those who were in work u n d die s u m s so collected beliefen sich für eine beträchtliche Periode zu fast 1500 /. weekly, wovon M a n c h e s t e r allein an £ 600 zahlte. Dieser fund e i n e Zeitlang h i n r e i c h e n d large, d e n Congress zu befähigen a weekly p a y m e n t of 12 sh. d e n spinners, who h a d struck, zu m a c h e n , aber die c o n t r i b u t i o n s u n d folglich die allowances t h a t flowed from t h e m , gradually fell off, till they at length ceased altogether, a n d those who d e p e n d e d on t h e m , were consigned to utter destitution. D a s H a u p t o b j e k t der w o r k m e n war to raise t h e wages in country districts to a level with those in M a n c h e s t e r . . . . A b e r die country masters, o h n e die advantages der M a n c h e s t e r m a s t e r s , are obliged to r e d u c e t h e wages of their w o r k m e n to a lower rate, as otherwise they would be u n a b l e to get the s a m e profit on their capital with t h e i r M a n chester rivals ... Zu j e n e r Zeit 4 d. gezahlt in d e n countryparts for s p i n n i n g a p o u n d of cotton, N o . 40 u n d 4 / d. in M a n c h e s t e r , u n d to raise die c o u n try wages um % d. war das a i m der U n i o n . ... m o s t signal failure . . . Sobald die contributions d e r e n in work failed, s u c h of t h e m e n as h a d laid by m o n ey in d e n T a g e n ihrer prosperity, resorted to it for support u n d so die h a r d earned savings von J a h r e n c o n s u m i r t in d i e s e m hopeless warfare. F u r n i ture, clothes, every article of comfort or c o n v e n i e n c e that their cottages c o n t a i n e d , was t h e n disposed of u n d diese u n h a p p y victims of their own folly u n d e r w e n t a series of privations, w h i c h would appear incredible to those who do not know t h e force of pride u n d die e n d u r i n g pertinacity, womit die english working classes will n o t unfrequently r e m a i n , w h a t they call, „true to e a c h other". N a c h 4 m o n t h s of misery k e h r t e n die m e n zu ihrer Arbeit zurück, s o m e even accepting e m p l o y m e n t zu 2 d. per p o u n d statt 1

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d e n 4 d. ( 1 3 - 1 7 ) D i e häufigste U r s a c h e der strikes in d e m cotton trade war die Einführung verbesserter M a s c h i n e r i e u n d speziell das e n l a r g e m e n t of mules, wodurch die Z a h l der spindles a spinner is capable of s u p e r i n t e n d ing, has b e e n continually increasing. ... A m a s t e r on t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n solcher verbesserten M a s c h i n e r i e in sein établissement stipulirt m i t s e i n e n Spinners i h n e n less per piece zu zahlen, aber d o c h zu solcher rate, daß, owing der greater power of t h e m a c h i n e , ihre w ö c h e n t l i c h e n earnings steigen statt zu fallen ... A b e r dieser bargain injurious d e n m a s t e r s u n d m e n in d e n manufactories ||8| where t h e improved m a c h i n e is not i n t r o d u c e d . (17, 18) 1824 alle spinners t u r n e d o u t in H y d e . (18) 1829 a serious t u r n o u t . A little before this t i m e , several masters h a d erected m u l e s , carrying from 4 - 5 0 0 spindles, which e n a b l e d t h e spinners w h o worked at t h e m to receive a less s u m in the proportion of 3 - 5 for a given quantity of work, a n d zu gleicher Zeit to e a r n at least an e q u a l a m o u n t of wages, with those who were employed on t h e old m a c h i n e r y . 21 mills u n d 10,000 persons were thrown idle für 6 m o n t h s d u r c h diesen strike. (19) D e r lezte grosse strike u n t e r d e n S p i n n e r n D e c e m b e r 1830, w h e n 3000 spinners a t A s h t o n u n d Stayley Bridge left their work, w o d u r c h 52 mills u n d 30,000 persons idle gesezt für 10 weeks. (20) In Schottland die strikes der Spinner ebenso häufig u n d d e t e r m i n e d wie in E n g l a n d u n d a t t e n d e d with a greater degree of violence. (21) Sie h a b e n (diese U n i o n der spinners) d e n L o h n h o c h gehalten, z u m D u r c h s c h n i t t w ö c h e n t l i c h von 30 sh., aber n u r nominell, d e n n : »the work n o t being sufficient for all, in order to prevent the s u p e r n u m e r a r i e s from beating down the rate of wages, by working u n d e r t h e c o m b i n a t i o n prices, the U n i o n is compelled to m a k e t h e m a weekly allowance for t h e i r support; a n d the subscriptions for this purpose, as well as the other expenses to which they are p u t in m a i n t a i n i n g their association are so heavy ... daß die s u m distributed a m o n g s t t h e m in wages, is n o t greater t h a n i n other occupations u n d ihre earnings n u r n o m i n a l l y high, u n d really n o t above the ordinary level«. (27) Die Z a h l der zu i h r e m business Z u g e l a ß n e n zu b e s c h r ä n k e n gelingt i h n e n n i e . Im G e g e n t h e i l a strike invariably introduces new w o r k m e n . M o r e t h a n 300 persons were instructed in spinning, owing to the t u r n o u t in A s h t o n in 1825 u n d Mr. Lees states in his evid e n c e that every general t u r n o u t without exception has e n d e d in a r e d u c tion of wages i m m e d i a t e l y after, on a c c o u n t of the influx of fresh h a n d s causing a s u p e r a b u n d a n c e of labour. (27, 8) V o n diesen fresh h a n d s , s o m e c a m e from the country u n d s o m e was big piecers what took to spinning. (28) Schließlich heißt es v o n dieser U n i o n der Spinner: »Surely, if any c o m b i n a t i o n could answer t h e expectations of the working classes, this would be the one. It has brought the m o s t extensive m a n u f a c t u r e in t h e world u n d e r its authority, it has e m b r a c e d in its power three k i n g d o m s , it

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Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 · Heft XI exercises by the peculiar n a t u r e of the trade, control over t e n t i m e s its own n u m b e r of workmen, it has shewn t h e reality of these pretensions, by k e e p ing t h o u s a n d s out of employ for half a year at a t i m e , every favourable circ u m s t a n c e has concurred to establish its efficiency, a n d it has kept up the rate of wages, yet the m e m b e r s fail to draw from this result o n e iota of b e n efit.« (26) E i n e der extensivsten U n i o n s is t h a t formed by t h e Workmen in the Building Trades. Sehr thätig 1833, besonders in den nordwestlichen m a n u f a c t u r ing districts. Im spring 1833 b e g a n n dieser body operations in M a n c h e s t e r , Liverpool u n d d e n b e n a c h b a r t e n Städten, by serving a requisition on t h e masters, which d e m a n d e d an a b a n d o n m e n t of the practice of erecting buildings on the system of contracts. Of late years n ä m l i c h die c u s t o m eingeführt in einigen b r a n c h e s des building d e p a r t m e n t . Contracte e i n z u g e h n m i t m i d d l e m a n or agent, who contracted for the entire building m i t d e n B a u m e i s t e r n ... der contractor b o u n d himself to furnish whatever was required for the construction of the whole edifice ... die masters led in diese Praxis d u r c h d e n W u n s c h ihrer customers, d e n e n er sehr b e q u e m , since it enabled t h e m to obtain the estimate for any work from a single person versed in such calculations, who would be responsible for its complet i o n at the c o m p u t e d price, u n d m a c h t e die deception u n d inaccuracy bei B e r e c h n u n g des Kostenpreisses m i t einer Masse n i c h t m i t e i n a n d e r verknüpfter trades u n m ö g l i c h . D i e m e i s t e n masters i n d e ß complied m i t der request ihrer workmen to lay it aside. (29, 30) Ein Theil der Kerls n a n n t e n sich: »The Operative Societies of Bricklayers.« Das C o m m i t t e e der U n i o n issued a series of regulations, requiring the masters to abide by certain rules respecting the equalization of wages, the n u m b e r of apprentices they were to take, the use of m a c h i n e r y , a n d a variety of other m a t t e r s , all m o r e or less restrictive, a n d consequently injurious to the free transactions of business. D i e masters, die diesen laws n i c h t gehorchten, entweder gezwungen to s u b m i t to t h e fine willkührlich von der U n i o n i h n e n auferlegt, oder ein Edict was issued by t h a t body to the w o r k m e n of any „refractory master", in Folge wovon er verlassen von seinen j o u r n e y m e n u n d u n a b l e to complete the contracts a n d other work t h e n in progress. ( 3 1 , 2) T h e c o m m a n d s to cease working, issued by the C o m m i t t e e s of the U n i o n were in every case implicitly obeyed. (34) U n t e r diesen U m s t ä n d e n beschlossen die masters to employ no workmen, except such as should sign a declaration, t h a t they did n o t belong to a T r a d e s ' U n i o n . ... D a r a u f general t u r n o u t ... 6 M o n a t e fast beständig die grossen B a u t e n in M a n c h e s t e r , ||9| Liverpool etc u n t e r b r o c h e n ... die c o n s u m p t i o n of bricks in Liverpool reducirt sofort von a million weekly to 20,000. (34) D i e masters h a t t e n k e i n e n Versuch zur R e d u c t i o n der wages g e m a c h t ... die earnings der j o u r n e y m e n in d e n

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building trades war nie weniger als 24 sh. w ä h r e n d der lezten 20 J a h r e ; zur very Zeit der strikes, die wages der bricklayers h a d b e e n increased 3 sh. weekly u n d viele von dieser class of m e n were in the habit of earning 35 sh. a week, während der s u m m e r m o n t h s , by working longer h o u r s t h a n u s u a l . Betrachtet m a n die Preisse der provisions zu verschiednen P e r i o d e n - folgende table of prices of provisions at M a n c h e s t e r - so sieht m a n , daß der L o h n erhöht, fast verdoppelt. 1813. 1833. s. d. s. d. Flour (good seconds) per 12 pounds Butcher meat, good, per pound Dto coarse, per pound Bacon per pound Cheese per pound Potatoes, per load of 240 pounds Butter per 112 pounds Soap per pound Coals per pound Salt per pound Candles per pound

4 2 0 8½ 0 6% Oil 0 9 12 0 126 0 0 9 0 8 0 3 1 0

2 2 0 6½ 0. 5 0. 6 0 7 4 6 90 0 0 6 0 5% 0 0¼ 0 6

In clothing diese wages g e m e s s e n ist n o c h grösser.

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1 0 2

0 0 0

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9 4 7.

Die masters versuchten frische Arbeiter aus a n d r e n T h e i l e n E n g l a n d s zu verschaffen, aber in Folge der I n t i m i d a t i o n m i t wenig Erfolg. Die shops der masters beständig bewacht d u r c h Piquets von 3 - 4 m e n , die abgelöst wur30 den at certain intervals, u n d d e n e n es im D u r c h s c h n i t t gelang d u r c h D r o h u n g e n n e u e Arbeiter z u v e r h i n d e r n für e m p l o y m e n t sich z u m e l d e n , u n d wenn any such irgend wie engagirt wurden, the buildings where they worked were s u r r o u n d e d by U n i o n i s t s , who, by hooting u n d a n d r e effectualere m o d e s of a n n o y a n c e , d e n progress der work zu v e r h i n d e r n s u c h t e n . In 35 der Zwischenzeit die w o r k m e n in d e m b u i l d i n g trade von ganz E n g l a n d vom Geist der c o m b i n a t i o n ergriffen u n d beschlossen eine allgemeine U n i o n zu g r ü n d e n , wahrscheinlich instigated by their Lancashire b r e t h r e n . A scheme von R e p r e s e n t a t i w e r f a s s u n g entworfen, m e m b e r s gewählt in d e n verschiednen counties u n d in S e p t e m b e r last (1833 oder 34?) Builders' Par40 Uament sizt in England. 275 delegates, repräsentirend 30,000 wie sie sagten. ( 3 5 - 3 8 ) N a c h 6 M o n a t e n m u ß t e n die Lancashire m e n reuig zu ihren

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Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 · Heft XI masters zurückkehren. D e r U n i o n f u n d s hatte an 18,000 /. in allowances verzehrt u n d as the p a y m e n t s to workmen, who have t u r n e d o u t nie ü b e r % ihres L o h n s , im D u r c h s c h n i t t , 4x diese s u m or 72,000 was the loss, which t h e working builders sustained in pursuit of their i n s a n e project. Die m e i sten erhielten ihre Arbeit nicht zurück. Viele der buildings were discontinu e d ; die gute saison fürs B a u e n war vorbei; m a n c h e ersezt d u r c h fresh labourers brought from distant parts u n d d u r c h die i n t r o d u c t i o n of m a c h i n e r y ... in the false h o p e of attaining their object, they h a d e n d u r e d deprivations only second to actual starvation ... die failure des strike war complet. (40, 41) T h e Derby work people are at this m o m e n t erecting factories by the aid of subscriptions, collected a m o n g themselves, a n d also from brother Unionists in all parts of England, hoping by these m e a n s to draw to their own body the profit, bis jezt von i h r e n masters g e n o m m e n . (45) | 1101 N a c h der Repeal der C o m b i n a t i o n laws in 1824 die Yorkshire workmen, beschäftigt im woollen cloth trade, s u c h t e n eine U n i o n to establish. D i e d a m a l i g e n Versuche m i ß g l ü c k t e n i n d e ß . Die c o m b i n a t i o n s , die lately so viel Schaden gethan in d i e s e m county, n i c h t on foot gesezt vor 3 J a h r e n u n d begriffen im Anfang in sich n u r die w o r k m e n employed in d e m was technically is t e r m e d the „manufacturing" of woollen cloth, n ä m l i c h slubbers, spinners u n d weavers. (46, 7) E i n e der largest F a b r i k e n in Leeds, der H e r r e n Gott was the first to feel the power of the U n i o n . H a t t e e b e n e n o r m e F a b r i k m i t M a s c h i n e r i e etc für W e b e n von fine woollen cloth errichtet, als alle Weber, 210 an der Z a h l t u r n e d out. Sie b e h a u p t e t e n niedrigere wages zu erhalten als die von a n d e r n F a b r i k a n t e n . Unwahr, averaged 17 sh. weekly. V i e l m e h r Versuch ihre n e u e power zu erproben, ob sie n i c h t d e n rate of wages steigen m a c h e n k ö n n t e n ... D i e ß E s t a b l i s h m e n t gewählt wegen des large fixed capital. Einige W o c h e n vergeblicher t u r n o u t , till at length die m e n , die c o n t i n u e d at their work solchen t r e a t m e n t s unterworfen on entering a n d leaving the factory, being hooted, pelted, u n d a n n o y e d in other ways, daß die proprietors, receiving no support or c o u n t e n a n c e from other manufacturers, auf die vorgeschlagnen t e r m s eingingen. A b e r die H e r r e n G o t t n a h m e n n u r die h i n r e i c h e n d e Z a h l von W e b e r n zurück t o work the looms in the old part of their establishment, leaving their newly erected building u n u s e d . They soon after disposed of all the m a c h i n e r y it contained ... Der success dieses contest führte zu einer coalition der U n ion m i t d e n w o r k m e n engaged in d e n various processes of „finishing" as well as „milling or fulling" woollen cloth, a n d since t h a t period, the trade has hardly ever b e e n free from strikes, a n d t h e w o r k m e n have wielded an almost irresistible power over the property of their masters. ( 4 7 - 4 9 ) D e r n e x t step der U n i o n was to draw up a list of wages to be paid for spinning, weaving etc, publicirt in d e n newspapers u n d also on sheets of paper, z u m

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Aus Edward Carleton Tufnell: Character, object, and effects of trades unions purpose of being t r a n s m i t t e d to t h e millowners a n d small m a n u f a c t u r e r s . Das d o c u m e n t was h e a d e d "A scale of prices to be observed by millowners, manufacturers etc" u n d h a t t e als A n h a n g einige regulations ü b e r die admission of boys u n d die p r o p o r t i o n worin sie a n z u w e n d e n relatively to t h e 5 n u m b e r of adults. ... D e r grössere T h e i l der m a s t e r s gab n a c h u n d their n a m e s were carefully set forth in t h e 3 newspapers published at Leeds. D i e w o r k m e n c o n t e n d e d d a ß dieser scale k e i n rise of wages, s o n d e r n n u r eine e q u a l i z a t i o n " derselben, it b e i n g a principal object of their association to c o m p e l the m a s t e r s to pay every operative, good or b a d , an e q u a l s u m for 10 his labour. (49, 50) Trotz dieses advance h a t t e n die w o r k m e n n i c h t d e n erwarteten G e w i n n . Sie either sent their yarn to be woven in t h e n e i g h b o u r ing villages, or stopped part of their works entirely ... Einige m a n u f a c t u r e r s entschlüpften d e n losses by m a k i n g alterations in spinning t h e yarns a n d setting t h e webs, was leztres h e i ß t t h e fixing of the geer or reed in w h i c h 15

t h e cloth is woven, a n d w h i c h varies from 36 to 110 portions of 38 t h r e a d s each. D u r c h diese alterations gewann der m a n u f a c t u r e r dieselbe q u a n t i t y G a r n converted into cloth of t h e s a m e n o m i n a l quality as before, u n d for the s a m e cost per yard. Ζ. B. w e n n er vor d e r P r o m u l g a t i o n d e r scale z a h l t e 2 s. for an 80 geer u n d die scale fixed 2 s. 3 d. as t h e price of weaving per

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string, he would weave t h e s a m e quality of wool in a 76 geer, at 2 s., m a k i n g s u c h alterations in the s p i n n i n g of yarn as were requisite. D i e U n i o n m a c h t e n e u e regulations to m e e t this contrivance, c o u n t e r a c t e d by fresh evasions der m a n u f a c t u r e r s , a n d t h u s a war of c u n n i n g was carried on be­ tween m a s t e r s u n d m e n , worin die leztren m a n c h m a l geschlagen ... T h e 25 worst davon, d a ß die goodness des T u c h s was i m p a i r e d by t h e alteration of the geer and spinning, a n d t h u s t h e p u b l i c h a d to pay in t h e deteriorated quality of t h e cloth they p u r c h a s e d . (50, 1) D i e U n i o n m a c h t e n u n weitre F o r d e r u n g e n . Verlangten von d e n m a n u f a c t u r e r s , in case of a c o n t r a c t i o n of their scale of p r o d u c t i o n , n o t to discharge any of their w o r k m e n , b u t to 30

keep every l o o m a n d j e n n y going, dealing o u t t h e work, however small might be its quantity, in e q u a l proportions to their m e n . Z u m T h e i l h i e r i n i h n e n nachgegeben. N u n verlangten sie, n o t to stop a single o n e of t h e m a chines u s e d in t h e process preparatory to spinning, though, from t h e falling | | 1 1 | off of their orders, it should not be necessary to keep t h e m in work.

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H i e r i n i h n e n vigorously W i d e r s t a n d geleistet u n d die m e n m u ß t e n d a v o n abstehn. (52) N u n d e n m a n u f a c t u r e r s befohlen to get all their weaving a n d spinning d o n e in Leeds a l o n e ; E i n m a s t e r pledged sich schriftlich d a z u , to weave a n d spin all t h e cloth he m a d e on his own prémisse, at t h e prices fixed by t h e U n i o n . D a s R e s u l t a t i h n e n n i c h t günstig. Er r e d u c i r t e sofort 40 seine M a n u f a k t u r um % u n d took in work instead from t h e country m a n u facturers to scribble a n d slubb u n d folglich seiner W e b e r earnings reducirt

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Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 • Heft XI von 17 s. zu 7 s. per week u n d his spinners von 27 s. auf 10 s. N a c h 3 M o n a ten wollten sie, er solle wieder in der alten M a n i e r anfangen, aber vergeblich. (52, 3) Da die U n i o n nie ihre Regulations publicirt hat, k a n n ein m a s ter sie wider W i s s e n brechen. D a n n s u m m a r y p u n i s h m e n t . Vielleicht m i t t e n in der W o c h e a signal is suddenly given by o n e of t h e m e n , every o n e of w h o m , without m e n t i o n i n g the grievances, will instantly leave his work, and in 5 m i n u t e s the factory will be deserted. So E i n F a b r i k a n t gestraft durch a t u r n o u t von 8 Tagen, weil er discharged a w o r k m a n for negligence u n d changed an overlooker from o n e d e p a r t m e n t to another. (55, 6) T h e most effectual m o d e of compelling every w o r k m a n to j o i n the c o m b i n a t i o n , consisted in proscribing any factory where o n e of these "black sheep," as the n o n - U n i o n i s t s were called, was employed. (56) Various rules were laid down m i t Bezug auf die admission von apprentices in any m a n u factory, the n u m b e r being regulated by t h a t of the adults employed u n d n i e m a n d allowed to enter as s u c h above the age of 15. E b e n s o die Z a h l der boys beschränkt u n d if any one of t h e m employed on work usually performed by a m a n , he was to be paid m a n ' s wages. K e i n e m erlaubt to work at any of the trades exercised by their body, unless he h a d served a regular apprenticeship to t h e m , n o r could a w o r k m a n leave one d e p a r t m e n t des business to enter another; a weaver could not b e c o m e a spinner, n o r a gigger a s h e a r m a n etc. T h u s an excess or deficiency of w o r k m e n in any particu l a r e m p l o y m e n t could not be easily r e m e d i e d . (57) T h e regulation of these various matters implies of necessity, t h e a s s u m p t i o n of a j u d i c i a l character, a n d the C o m m i t t e e have t a k e n u p o n themselves to decide in all disputes between the w o r k m e n a n d their employers. ... Ihr einziges Mittel ihre orders zu enforce is by ordering a strike. (58) N u n , da der strike i m m e r populär »the power of the C o m m i t t e e ist confined to m e a s u r e s of active hostility u n d fast useless for purposes of restraint«. (59) Die Organisation der w o r k m e n in d e n stuff und worsted trades, deren m a n u f a c t u r i n g processes ganz distinct from the woollen, is as perfect u n d präcis auf d e n s e l b e n Principien begründet. (59) D e r strike (1833) bei Messrs. H i n d e s u n d D e r h a m , der dieser U n i o n (die Distrikte in Leeds, Halifax, Bradford etc) an 4000 £ kostete verursachte die invention of a wool-combing machine, which wholly superseded the labour of t h a t class of m e n , who were the chief ringleaders in this affair, and which has struck a blow at their c o m b i n a t i o n , that it can never recover. (61, 2) W h e n a strike takes place, a n d any of those who j o i n in it are m u c h in arrear with their subscriptions, they are disabled by the rules from receiving any assistance from the general funds. T h e enforcing of this regulation is obviously necessary to prevent bankruptcy, a n d yet it never can be enforced, for the manifest reason, that a refusal to support those who are in arrear, would c o m p e l t h e m to accept e m p l o y m e n t at any

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Aus Edward Carleton Tufnell: Character, object, and effects of trades unions price, a n d the object of a t u r n o u t would be defeated. (64, 5) F ü r c h t e r l i c h e Eide etc i m m e r geschworen bei d e m Eintritt in diese U n i o n s . (74 u n d alias) Im Lauf von 3 J a h r e n , 10 lives were lost in D u b l i n in Folge von c o m binations, u n d in no instance were the m u r d e r e r s brought to justice. (76) 5 Die hatters in L o n d o n struck in 1820, d e m a n d i n g an increase of 1 sh. per 12 h a t s ; a n d after staying o u t for 15 weeks, they accepted e m p l o y m e n t from their masters at a decrease of 1 sh., instead of a rise of t h a t s u m . (77) Wo die L o h n e r h ö h u n g erreicht, sie n u r n o m i n e l l e n Vortheil davon; sei es d a ß die high wages m o r e labourers in diesen trade zogen als can be supplied m i t 10 work u n d die folglich m u s t be supported von d e n e n die get work, else the competition of their n u m b e r s will beat down the advance t h a t has b e e n o b tained; oder von der expense of m a i n t a i n i n g t h e various b u r d e n s w h i c h a c o m b i n a t i o n entails, wie clerks, secretaries, delegates, m e e t i n g r o o m s , von d e m falling off of c o n s u m p t i o n in Folge des Steigens des Preisses, v o m 15 Wegtreiben der M a n u f a c t u r etc. (77, 78) | |12| Die U n i o n in d e n W o r s t e d M a n u f a c t u r e s von der e b e n gesprochen u n d die sich n a n n t e »The N a t i o n a l Friendly Society of operative worsted manufacturers« (die ü b r i g e n U n i o n s in d e n clothing districts n a c h denselb e n Prinzipien established) war folgendermaassen eingerichtet: das c o u n 20 try divided in „districts", j e d e deren c o n t a i n s a certain n u m b e r of „lodges" or separate clubs of workmen. J e d e r District wählt a governing c o m m i t t e e u n d sendet Delegaten (deren Z a h l proportionirt der quantity of „lodges" it c o m prises) zu der „grandlodge", h e l d twice a year. In d i e s e m grandlodge m e e t ing ist das „grand c o m m i t t e e " or council of direction gewählt, das allein 25 das R e c h t hat of deciding u p o n strikes, w h e n the object is to raise wages; to prevent reductions the district authorities are empowered to order strikes. Der place of M e e t i n g der grandlodge jährlich gewechselt; die Delegates, die it bilden, bezahlt n a c h der distance they have to travel. M o n a t l i c h e r Bericht jeder lodge, w h i c h c o n t a i n s an a c c o u n t of all its receipts a n d disburse30 m e n t s , a n d also of its general condition. Diese reports c o m m u n i c a t e d d e m Sekretär der „grandlodge", der sie d e n several districts vertheilt. F u l l m e m bers h a b e n zu zahlen 1 s. e n t r a n c e money, u n d 3 d. weekly u n d are entitled to receive, when they have struck work, a weekly allowance of 7 s. ausser 1 s. for a wife u n d 1 sh. for each child u n d e r 10, that is u n e m p l o y e d . (62, 35 3) Herr Jackson, a m a n u f a c t u r e r von Sheffield, sagt vor d e m C o m m i t t e e des H o u s e of C o m m o n s : "if t r a d e has b e e n remarkably brisk, a n d the dem a n d m a d e by the w o r k m e n has mostly b e e n for an exorbitant price, this price has been m a i n t a i n e d for a very short t i m e , for a m o n t h , perhaps, to 40 execute the orders on h a n d , b u t t h e price of goods was in c o n s e q u e n c e so far a u g m e n t e d , as to stop the d e m a n d in our foreign markets, a n d a subse-

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Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 • Heft XI q u e n t reaction taking place, it has b e e n ascertained, that after a t u r n o u t of workmen, a n d a c o n s e q u e n t a u g m e n t a t i o n in t h e price of goods, every third season, or every third half year (as t h e A m e r i c a n orders c o m e usually 2x a year) t h e price h a s fallen m u c h below t h e previous level." (78, 9) (Trotz a l l e d e m s a g t er a n d e r s e i t s w i e d e r (p. 78) d a ß die c o m b i n a t i o n s d e n rate of wages aufrecht h a l t e n , w e n n das a u c h n i c h t d e m e i n z e l n e n Arbeiter zu G u t k o m m e ) Paisley u n d Macclesfield owe their rise to t h e high wages d e m a n d e d i n Spitalfields; u n d Macclesfield i n t u r n h a t aus d e n s e l b e n G r ü n d e n e i n e n Theil seines silk trade an M a n c h e s t e r verloren, ( ü b e r h a u p t in der Nachbarschaft von Leeds etc etc oft die n e i g h b o u r i n g villages in dieser Art in die H ö h e gebracht.) ... Irland h a t vielleicht am m e i s t e n in dieser Art verloren. Owing der U n i o n in D u b l i n , planks c a n be cut into boards 35 % wohlfeiler in Liverpool als in that town; d a d u r c h der Schiffbau i m m e r m e h r i n Irland a b n e h m e n d etc etc. (80) Z ä h l t d a n n (83 sqq F ä l l e auf, z . B . N ä g e l m a c h e n in Sheffield etc wo in Folge der c o m b i n a t i o n s die M a n u f a c t u r e s n a c h fremden L ä n d e r n ausgewandert u n d der h o m e trade decayed.) Zwei curious facts bewiesen d u r c h die history of t u r n o u t s : 1) that they are hardly ever resorted to, except by those, who habitually receive high wages, u n d 2) t h a t t h e t i m e of their o c c u r r e n c e is almost invariably w h e n trade is prosperous. Ζ. B. in c o t t o n s p i n n i n g mills i m m e r die S a c h e v o n d e n spinners a u s g e h e n d . Als 1829 die fine spinners in M a n c h e s t e r an 1000 t u r n e d out, they refused work, w o d u r c h sie v o n 3 0 - 3 5 sh. clear e i n e W o c h e m a c h e n k o n n t e n . Als 52 mills u n d 30,000 persons were t h r o w n idle w ä h r e n d 10 W o c h e n 1830, zu A s h t o n u n d U m g e g e n d , by t h e t u r n i n g out of 3000 coarse spinners, these m e n could earn weekly von 28 s. bis 31 sh. clear. Im woollen trade die weavers u n d im worsted die C o m b e r s , die von 1 6 - 2 0 s. weekly, sind die ringleaders. (86, 7) Jackson sagt vor d e m C o m m i t tee of M a n u f a c t u r e s a n d C o m m e r c e , 1833, von d e n c o m b i n a t i o n s in Sheffield: „ S o m e of these c o m b i n a t i o n s have lasted o h n e U n t e r l a ß seit 1810; b u t others have b e e n b r o k e n up every r e t u r n i n g period of b a d t r a d e ; b u t as soon as trade b e c o m e s better, t h e c o m b i n a t i o n s spring up afresh." Mr. Dunlop sagt vor d e m C o m b i n a t i o n C o m m i t t e e 1824: "they never t u r n out w h e n t h e trade is b a d . " (87[, 88]) E i n e der »worst features« dieser Societies ist ihre »hostility to piece or task work« a n d t h e c o n s e q u e n t d i s c o u r a g e m e n t they give to t h e exercise of superior skill a n d industry. "The m a n who does task-work," sagt das T r a d e s - U n i o n M a g a z i n e "is guilty of less defensible c o n d u c t t h a n a drunkard. T h e worst passions of o u r n a t u r e are enlisted in support of y 131 taskwork. Avarice, m e a n n e s s , c u n n i n g , hypocrisy, all excite a n d feed u p o n the miserable victim of taskwork, while debility a n d destitut i o n look out for the last morsel of their prey. A m a n , who earns by taskwork 40 s. per week, t h e u s u a l wages by day being 20 s., robs his fellow of a

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Aus Edward Carleton Tufnell: Character, object, and effects of trades unions week's e m p l o y m e n t . " Sie wollen e q u a l i z a t i o n of wages". (92, 3) In d e n meisten Statuten d a h e r »the penalty of 2 s. 6 d. or expulsion from the Society, on any m e m b e r , who should "be k n o w n to boast of his superior ability as to either the quantity or quality of work he can do, either in public or 5 private Company"«. (93) In those places where c o m b i n a t i o n s h a v e b e e n most frequent a n d powerful, a c o m p l e t e separation of feeling seems to h a v e taken place between masters a n d m e n . E a c h party looks on the other as an enemy. (97) In some places Benefit Societies, legally enrolled, have b e e n m a d e the 10 cloak for c o m b i n a t i o n s . (103) S o m e of the m o s t valuable a n d i n g e n i o u s m a c h i n e s ... actually owe their existence to t h e operation of T r a d e s ' U n ions.—Selfacting m u l e . (107) D e r T u r n o u t der Lancashire w o r k m e n in d e m building trade (1833) has i n t r o d u c e d a curious application of t h e steamengine. Diese M a s c h i n e n u n i n einigen Städten angewandt, statt 15 m a n u a l labour, in hoisting the various building materials to the top of t h e edifice, where they are i n t e n d e d to be used. (109)

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Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 · Heft XI

Th. H. Stirling. The Question Propounded: or, How will Great Britain ameliorate and remedy the distresses of its workmen etc. L o n d o n 1849. Blödsinn.

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Aus James Howard: The evils of England

The Evils of England. Social and Economical. By a London Physician. L o n d o n . 1848. In der Vorrede heißts: »The object of the a u t h o r in these pages is, to enter 5 a strong a n d earnest protest against M e n d i c a n c y , u n d e r all its disguises; against Charities, in m a n y of their forms; against Poor Laws, in every possible or conceivable s h a p e ; a n d against all kinds of waste.« Weiser D a n i e l s ! Waste is the great cause of n a t i o n a l as of individual i m p o v e r i s h m e n t ... T h e m o s t m o n s t r o u s waste of m a t e r i a l yet c o m m i t t e d i s — t h e waste of the 10 refuse of our large towns, a n d of the liquid matters which drain away from our farmsteads. D a s ist waste of manure. (107) waste of smoke. (108) waste land, by millions of acres ... sturdy emigrants, by tens of t h o u s a n d s , leaving our shores; a n d t h e best of all m a n u r e s , in the best a n d m o s t available of forms, to the value of several millions a year, flowing into the sea,—what 15 a picture of n a t i o n a l extravagance! (109) Emigration = waste of m e n . (120) In England, at the present t i m e , we have n o t half the population we want to m a k e things cheap. E m i g r a t i o n is an i n d e x of the pressure of idleness on industry. (120) T h e aristocracy takes typhus fever u n d e r its peculiar patronage; the trading a n d m a n u f a c t u r i n g interest adopts c o n s u m p t i o n . (132)

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Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 · Heft XI

William Logan (City Missionary) An Exposure, from Personal Observation, of Female Prostitution. In London, Leeds, and Rochdale, and especially in the City of Glasgow.

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Glasgow. 1843. F e m a l e s h a u p t s ä c h l i c h der Prostitution geliefert % from being servants in taverns a n d public houses. % from the i n t e r m i x t u r e of the sexes in factories, and those employed in warehouses, shops etc, % by procuresses, or females who visit country towns, m a r k e t s a n d places of worship, for t h e pur- 10 pose of decoying goodlooking girls, % endlich die von I n d o l e n z u n d b a d t e m p e r leave their situations, d a n n von y o u n g m e n Betrogne, endlich children who have b e e n urged by their m o t h e r s to b e c o m e prostitutes for a livelihood. (13, 14) 80,000 H u r e n in L o n d o n , 4000 in Liverpool, 3000 in Glasgow. [27] 15

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Aus John Fielden: The curse of the factory system

John Fielden. (Manufacturer at Todmorden in Lancashire) The Curse of the Factory System. L o n d o n . 1836. 5

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Arkwrights inventions took m a n u f a c t u r e s o u t of the cottages a n d farmhouses of England, where they h a d b e e n carried on by m o t h e r s , or by daughters u n d e r t h e m o t h e r s eye, a n d assembled t h e m in the c o u n t i e s of Derbyshire, N o t t i n g h a m s h i r e u n d besonders Lancashire, where t h e newly invented m a c h i n e r y was u s e d in large factories built on the sides of streams capable of turning the waterwheel. T h o u s a n d s of h a n d s were suddenly required in these places, r e m o t e from towns; a n d Lancashire, in particular, being till t h e n b u t comparatively thinly p o p u l a t e d a n d barren, a p o p u l a t i o n was all she ||14| now wanted. T h e small a n d n i m b l e fingers of little children being by very far t h e m o s t in request, the c u s t o m instantly sprang up of procuring apprentices from the different parish workhouses of L o n d o n , Bir- m i n g h a m and elsewhere. M a n y t h o u s a n d s of these little hapless creatures were sent down into t h e N o r t h , being from the age of 7 - 1 3 or 14 years old. T h e c u s t o m was for the m a s t e r to clothe his apprentices, a n d to feed a n d lodge t h e m in an "apprentice h o u s e " n e a r the factory; overseers were a p pointed to see to the works, whose interest it was to work the children to the utmost, because their pay was in proportion to the quantity of work t h a t they could exact. Cruelty was, of course, the c o n s e q u e n c e ... in m a n y of the manufacturing districts, besonders aber in Lancashire ... cruelties t h e most heart-rending were practised u p o n the unoffending a n d friendless creatures who were t h u s consigned to the charge of m a s t e r m a n u f a c t u r e r s ; they were harassed to the brink of d e a t h by excess of labour; they were flogged, fettered, and tortured in the most exquisite refinement of cruelty; they

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Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 • Heft XI were, in m a n y cases, starved to the b o n e while flogged to their work, a n d even in some instances, they were driven to c o m m i t suicide ... T h e b e a u t i ful and r o m a n t i c valleys of Derbyshire, N o t t i n g h a m s h i r e , a n d Lancashire, secluded from the public eye, b e c a m e the d i s m a l solitudes of torture, a n d of m a n y a m u r d e r . (5, 6) D i e Profits der manufacturers waren enorm; das weite nur ihren Appetit; sie begannen die Praxis of „night working", i.e. having tired o u t one set of h a n d s , by working t h e m t h r o u g h o u t t h e day, they h a d another set ready to go on working t h r o u g h o u t the night; the day-set getting into the beds that the nightset h a d j u s t quitted u n d vice versa. It is a comm o n tradition in Lancashire, that the beds never got cold! T h e s e outrages on n a t u r e N a t u r e herself took in h a n d ; contagious m a l i g n a n t fevers broke out a n d began to spread their ravages a r o u n d ; n e i g h b o u r h o o d s b e c a m e alarmed; correspondences appeared in the newspapers, a n d a feeling of general horror was excited when t h e atrocities c o m m i t t e d in those r e m o t e glens b e c a m e even partially known. D i e masters selbst wurden von d e n m a l i g n a n t fevers ergriffen, a u s s e r d e m die public voice u n d therefore they instituted a board of H e a l t h in M a n c h e s t e r , der 1796 e i n e n R e p o r t m a c h t e , worin es unter anderm heißt: 1) It appears that the children a n d others who work in the large cotton factories are peculiarly disposed to be affected by the contagion of fever u n d es rasch zu propagiren. 2) the large factories are generally injurious to the constitution of those employed in t h e m , even where no particular diseases prevail, from the close c o n f i n e m e n t which is enjoined, from the debilitating effects of hot or i m p u r e air, a n d from want of the active exercises which n a t u r e points out as essential in childhood a n d youth, to invigorate t h e system, a n d to fit our species for t h e employm e n t a n d for the duties of m a n h o o d . 3) T h e u n t i m e l y l a b o u r of the night, a n d the protracted labour of the day, with respect to children, n o t only t e n d s to d i m i n i s h future expectations as to the general s u m of life a n d industry, by impairing the strength a n d destroying the vital s t a m i n a of the rising generation, b u t it too often gives e n c o u r a g e m e n t to idleness, extravagance, and profligacy in parents, who, contrary to the order of n a t u r e , subsist by the oppression of their offspring. It appears t h a t children e m ployed in factories are generally debarred from all opportunities of education, a n d from m o r a l and religious instruction. (6, 7) G e s c h a h i n d e ß nichts bis 1802, wo Sir R. Peel procured an Act (42 G e o . 3. c. 73) to regulate the l a b o u r of apprentice children worked in factories. (7) D e r A p p r e n t i c e Akt, b u t gradually, wore out the newly-adopted m o d e of taking factory apprentices; for, as the masters would work the long hours, they now h a d recourse to the children of parents on the spot; which it b e c a m e easier for t h e m to do, as, about this time, the application of steam power to cottonfactories, by Watt, was getting into vogue; so that the moving power, which before h a d

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b e e n waterfalls, a n d which, of course, could only be h a d by building t h e factory on the stream, was now, an engine, that could be p u t up in t h e m i d s t of ||15| the people wherever they could be found; u n d da sich auf diese Kinder der vorige A k t n i c h t bezog, 1816 Sir R. Peel procured a C o m mittee of the H o u s e of C o m m o n s to e x a m i n e into the expediency of a Bill to apply the provisions of the Act above n a m e d to all children worked in factories. (8, 9) A u s der E v i d e n c e des Sir R. Peel selbst geht hervor that, after the passing of the Factory A p p r e n t i c e Act, the children of very poor people were brought into t h e mills, and, n o t being apprenticed, were worked during the long h o u r s prohibited to apprentices. (10) N a c h der Evid e n c e von J o h n Moss, overseer of Backbarrow Mill, bei Preston, der A p prentice Akt constantly set at n o u g h t . T h e witness did n o t even know of it. Die children in der mill waren fast alle apprentices von L o n d o n parishes; they were worked von 5 Morgens bis 8 in der N a c h t , das ganze J a h r durch, mit n u r 1 S t u n d e für die 2 m e a l s ... invariably they worked von 6 am S o n n tag M o r g e n bis 12, in cleaning the m a c h i n e r y for the week. D a b e i m u ß t e n sie w ä h r e n d der g a n z e n Zeit s t e h n ; keine seats in der mill. D i e K i n d e r fielen oft h i n u p o n the mill floor u n d schliefen dort ein. (10) It is evident that the long h o u r s of work were brought a b o u t by t h e c i r c u m s t a n c e of so great a n u m b e r of destitute children being supplied from the different parts of the country, that the masters were i n d e p e n d e n t of the h a n d s ; a n d that, having once established t h e c u s t o m by m e a n s of the miserable materials which they procured in this way, they could i m p o s e it on their n e i g h b o u r s with the greater facility. (11) Am 6 J u n e 1815 Sir R. Peel (der Vater des B e r ü h m t e n ) first m o v e d to bring in his bill. An d i e s e m Tag sagte Mr. Horner: "It h a d b e e n k n o w n t h a t with a b a n k r u p t ' s effects, a gang, if he might use the term, of these children h a d b e e n p u t up to sale, a n d were advertised publicly, as a part of the property. A m o s t atrocious instance h a d c o m e before the King's B e n c h 2 years ago, in which a n u m b e r of t h e s e boys, apprenticed by a parish in L o n d o n to o n e manufacturer, h a d b e e n transferred to another, a n d h a d b e e n found by s o m e benevolent persons in a state of absolute famine. A n o t h e r case, m o r e horrible, h a d c o m e to his knowledge, while on a c o m m i t t e e upstairs; that, n o t m a n y years ago, an agreement h a d b e e n m a d e between a L o n d o n parish a n d a L a n c a s h i r e manufacturer, by which it was stipulated t h a t with every 20 sound children, one idiot should be taken." (11, 12) Obgleich die M o t i o n Peel's carried, 1815, die Bill erst passed 1819. Aufgeschoben d u r c h das appointing of t h e c o m m i t t e e to inquire. T h e provisions des Act were: 1) that no child u n t e r 9 Jahren in einer cotton s p i n n i n g factory angewandt werden solle; 2) d a ß kein Kind u n t e r 16 J a h r e n in einer solchen Fabrik m e h r als 12 S t u n d e n während des Tages, exclusive of the m e a l t i m e s , angewandt w e r d e n solle.

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Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 • Heft XI (12) universal is the c o m p l a i n t of "sair tired," a n d of swelled legs, ankles, feet, h a n d s , a n d arms, t h a t it almost seems as if o n e voice spoke t h e facts. (21) it is t h e factory system of overworking, which, in its purest state, t e n d s to corrupt t h e m o r a l s of y o u n g people, a n d in its t o o general state, is t h e cause of languor so excessive, that exciting drink and o p i u m e a t i n g are b u t too of5 ten resorted to for relief. (28) T h e labour now u n d e r g o n e in t h e factories is m u c h greater t h a n it used to be, owing to t h e greater a t t e n t i o n a n d activity required by t h e greatly increased speed which is given to t h e m a c h i n e r y t h a t t h e children have to a t t e n d to, w h e n we c o m p a r e it with what it was 30 or 40 years ago. (32) as i m p r o v e m e n t s in m a c h i n e r y have g o n e on, t h e "ava- 10 rice of m a s t e r s " h a s p r o m p t e d m a n y to exact m o r e labour from their h a n d s t h a n they were fitted by n a t u r e to perform. (34) 1832, wo Dr Kay sein B u c h schrieb, Cholera b r a c h t e die F a b r i k a t e n in M a n c h e s t e r wie in 1796 wieder in grosse Angst u n d zu e i n e m »Special Board of H e a l t h « . (38) E i n K i n d in einer factory hat täglich to walk, in following t h e s p i n n i n g m a c h i n e , 15 20 miles in 12 hours, u n d w e n n d i e M a s c h i n e n rascher g e h n 2 5 - 3 0 . (40) W e n n 3 N a t i o n e n , ζ. B. England, F r a n k r e i c h , ||16| N o r d a m e r i k a in M e x i c o c o n c u r r i r e n , so m ü s s e n sie zu denselben Preissen verkaufen. W h a t these m a n u f a c t u r e r s take in r e t u r n from M e x i c o , m u s t be sold at such a price in their respective countries, as will e n a b l e t h e m to go on m a n u f a c t u r i n g . A n d 20 t h u s , t h e a p p a r e n t dearness of m a n u f a c t u r i n g in one country, as c o m p a r e d with another, falls on t h e c o n s u m e r s in that country, a n d is paid in t h e price charged on the returns that t h e m a n u f a c t u r e r brings back. (55) Dr Bowring statuirt: » C o n s u m t i o n von cotton in E u r o p a u n d A m e r i c a 1,500,000 bales, jährlich, die bales, von 300 lbs im D u r c h s c h n i t t . D a v o n c o n s u m i r t fast %, 940,000 bales, in G r e a t Britain, % 280,000 bales in F r a n c e , 216,000 bales oder nearly % in A m e r i c a , 64,000 bales, nearly / in other parts. A d d i t i o n a l cost of french cotton goods above those of E n g l a n d , average 3 0 - 4 0 % . Inferiority of french m a c h i n e r y , 2 5 % . Ditto of french lab o u r 20 %.« (57)

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Die A m e r i c a n s , w ä h r e n d a period von 18 J a h r e n vor 1833 could purchase in England, m i t d e n proceeds of 300 lbs of U p l a n d cotton, on an average of these years, n u r 24 pieces of 74-cloth; aber 1833 k o n n t e n sie m i t d e n s e l b e n proceeds 30 pieces kaufen. 1834 k o n n t e n sie 29 pieces kaufen u n d 1835 - 32 pieces. An increase of 33¾%. W ä h r e n d der 18 J a h r e vor 35 1833 k o n n t e n die A m e r i c a n s m i t d e n proceeds of 300 lbs cotton n u r 131 lbs of 30 h a n k s water twist kaufen; 1833, 177 lbs; 1834, 178 lbs, 1835, 190 lbs. Increase of 45 %. W ä h r e n d der 18 J a h r e vor 1833 k o n n t e n die A m e ricans m i t d e n proceeds von 300 lbs of cotton n u r 86 lbs'of half-ell velveteens kaufen, 1835, 136 lbs. An increase of 58 %. W ä h r e n d der 18 J a h r e vor 40 1833 k o n n t e n sie, m i t d e n 300 lbs cotton kaufen n u r 15% pieces of 2 8 - i n c h

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Aus John Fielden: The curse of the factory system 72 powerloom cloth. D e r average, 1836, war 24 pieces for the s a m e . I n crease of 53 %. 1826 u n d 7, die A m e r i c a n s , m i t d e n 300 lbs, could p u r c h a s e n u r 344 yards of domestic, or stout cloth.

5

1828-9 1830-1 1832-3 1834-5

365 yards, an increase of 6 per cent 388 12 464 34 564 64.

Die 5 hier gewählten Artikel sind leading articles, into which a very great proportion of the cotton i m p o r t e d in E n g l a n d is worked up ... H a d t h e 10 manufacturers a n d the cottongrowers c o m e in close contact with e a c h other, a n d exchanged a n d t a k e n away e a c h of t h e m their c o m m o d i t i e s in bulk, the eyes of the british m a n u f a c t u r e r s would long ago h a v e b e e n opened, a n d a stop would have b e e n p u t to the losing g a m e we h a v e pursued. (60)

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Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 • Heft XI

Samuel Laing: National Distress. Its Causes and Remedies. Atlas Prize Essay. L o n d o n . 1844. ( A u s der V o r r e d e g e h t hervor, d a ß d a s B u c h g e s c h r i e b e n 1842, O c t o b e r u n d N o v e m b e r , towards t h e e n d of a crisis of u n e x a m p l e d severity et duration.) [V, VI]

Part

I.

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Extent

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Existing

Distress.

Declared value of exports of british produce a n d m a n u f a c t u r e s to the British West I n d i e s : Years of Slavery. 1830 £2,838,448 1831 2,581,949 1832 2,439,808

10

Years of freedom 1838 £3,393,441 1839 3,986,598 1840 3,574,970. (4 Note)

Der a m o u n t of i n c o m e actually assessed to the property tax in 1 8 1 4 - 1 5 belief sich auf 166,222,128 I. exclusive of all i n c o m e s below 50 I. a year. D i e returns of Sir R. Peel's property tax show that in 1842 das i n c o m e des c o u n try, exclusive of i n c o m e s below 150 1., exceeded 180,000,000 I. (5 N o t e ) D a s jährliche E i n k o m m e n Englands m i n d e s t e n s 350 Millionen. N u n die N a tionalschuld = 760 Mill., also k a u m two years' purchase of the n a t i o n a l inc o m e ; u n d der jährliche Zins darauf = 29,000,000 m a c h t n u r 8 - 9 % u p o n this i n c o m e . N i m m t m a n die ganze Steuerlast zu 50 Mill., so überschreitet sie nicht 15 % on the n a t i o n a l i n c o m e . (6)

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1841 - u n t e r der strengen A n w e n d u n g des n e u e n A r m e n g e s e t z e s , offizieller Pauperismus in E n g l a n d u n d W a l e s 1,300,928 persons, 1 auf 12 in einer Bevölkerung von 15,911,725 oder 8¼%. (9) Captain Miller, s u p e r i n t e n d e n t of police, 11171 sagt von d e m Hauptlumpenproletarierviertel von Glasgow: »There is concentrated every thing t h a t is wretched, dissolute, l o a t h s o m e , and pestilential.« (11) In Glasgow v o m T y p h u s attacked: 1836 1837 1838 1839 1840 Total

10,092 21,800 9,792 8,085 15,290 62,051.

(12)

In Liverpool auf 25 Arbeiter 1 Typhuskranker; 8000 bewohnte Keller, deren occupants geschäzt werden auf 3 5 - 4 0 , 0 0 0 . N a c h Dr D u n c a n % der working classes in Liverpool leben in courts. (13) (175,000 Arbeiter in Liverpool. [13]) Zieht m a n d u r c h das C e n t r u m v o n Leeds eine Linie v o m N o r d e n z u m S ü d e n , so sind die deaths on the east side of the line = 1:24 (wo die ä r m r e n Klassen wohnen), in d e m a n d r e n Theil = 1:36. Beide ratios high, the average mortality of E n g l a n d being only about 1:48. (15) In Birm i n g h a m leben 49,016 persons in courts narrow, filthy, illventilated u n d badly drained. D i e police returns show 122 m e n d i c a n t s ' lodging houses, 252 Irish lodging houses, 314 i n h a b i t e d by c o m m o n prostitutes, 81 h o u s e s noted als D i e b s w a a r e n h e h l e r r ä u m e u n d 228 als Resort für thieves. (I.e.) Scotch destitution has g o n e a step b e y o n d english, a n d arrived, like that of Ireland, at a point at which all other evils are swallowed up in t h e u r g e n t a n d everpresent danger of literal d e a t h from starvation. (17 Note) in W h i t e chapel, m i t a p o p u l a t i o n von 71,758 die average a n n u a l mortality is = 1:26, a ratio as h i g h as t h a t of the m o s t u n g e s u n d e n Fabrikstadt. D i e Durchschnittsmortality in d e n 4 districts von W h i t e c h a p e l , Bethnalgreen, St. Giles, St. George, Southwark u n d Bermondsey, die z u s a m m e n eine p o p ulation von 281,264 der labouring, m a n u f a c t u r i n g u n d poorer classes enthalten, ist = 1:30 u n d in allen diesen Distrikts das typhus fever, t h e u n e r ring sign of social misery and degradation, is firmly established, a n d m a k e s periodical ravages ... In d e m aristocratic parish of St. George's, H a n o v e r square die Sterblichkeitsrate = 1:51, u n d in d e n respectable districts of M a rylebone u n d St. Paneras = 1:49. (17)

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Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 • Heft XI

Extent of Destitution in large towns etc. Condition of Handloom weavers and other classes of unskilled manufacturing operatives. In Liverpool, Glasgow, Manchester, Leeds u n d eastern parts von L o n d o n a large proportion, in m a n y instances % der c o m m o n labouring population, 5 are compelled to live u n d e r circumstances w h i c h necessarily imply an ext r e m e degree of suffering a n d degradation. ... In d e n agricultural districts von Yorkshire, D u r h a m , N o r t h u m b e r l a n d , C u m b e r l a n d u n d W e s t m o r e land, die average n u m b e r of i n h a b i t a n t s von je 1000 who arrive at t h e age of 70, is 204, in L o n d o n 104, in B i r m i n g h a m 8 1 , in Leeds 79, in Liverpool 10 u n d M a n c h e s t e r 63. I n L o n d o n u n d d e n Fabrikdistrikts die D u r c h s c h n i t t s sterblichkeit der K i n d e r u n t e r 5 J a h r e n fast doppelt als in d e n healthy rural districts. (19, 20) Folgende analysis der p o p u l a t i o n of Leeds, given von R o bert Baker, Esq., in the Sanitary Reports, zeigt folgendes: Persons having sedentary occupations Persons having perambulatory occupations Professions Merchants Persons working in mines General outdoor labour and handicraft Indoorlabour and handicraft Dyers In trade Not in business Persons under 15 years without occupations Other persons without occupations Persons employed in manufacture Total ( c o n t i n u a t i o p. 21) |

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1,586 967 292 427 130 3,988 13,455 665 2,799 1,905 31,056 21,990 8,363 87,613.

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Aus Edinburgh Review. Vol. 67. 1838

Ii8| Edinburgh Review, (vol. 67 April 1838) Trades' Unions and Strikes. The G o t h i c ages b e q u e a t h e d to m o d e r n E u r o p e a very peculiar organization of the industrious ranks. T h e y were arranged over the whole of E u r o p e , into incorporations or G u i l d s , which were erected into legal incorporations by Royal Charters, a n d were invested with a large proportion of t h e political power, conceded in those t i m e s to t h e Burghs of the K i n g d o m . (211) But with the gradual decay of the incorporated trades, the progressive curtailing of their exclusive privileges, a n d the total merging of their political influence sprangen auf die T r a d e s ' U n i o n s ... Mr H u m e ' s Act, passed in 1824, first gave t h e m t h e sanction of law. (212) Vor d e m C o m m i t t e e ü b e r die c o m b i n a t i o n laws (1824) h e i ß t es von der evidence u. a.: "the evidence a d d u c e d before this C o m m i t t e e proved that the C o m b i n a t i o n laws h a d b e e n inefficient in repressing those associations of workmen, which h a d so often dictated to their masters the rate of wages, t h e h o u r s a n d m a n n e r of working. There was hardly a t r a d e in the three k i n g d o m s (the typefounders in L o n d o n excepted) in which t h e j o u r n e y m e n were n o t regularly organized a n d were n o t prepared to assist with m o n e y , to a great extent, any body of workmen, who chose to stand o u t against their employers. Of these, the tailors were the best organized. It appeared that the whole body of j o u r n e y m e n tailors is divided into two classes, d e n o m i n a t e d flints a n d dungs; the former work by the day, and receive all equal wages; t h e latter work generally by the piece. T h e r e are a n u m b e r of houses of call for the flints, each of which elects a delegate; the delegates again elect five of their n u m b e r s , called t h e town, who rule the whole trade with u n l i m i t e d power. T h e whisper is spread a m o n g t h e b o d y that there is to be a strike; a n d , without discussing the subject, they strike whenever they are ordered to do so." (212, 13) T h e old Corporations were defensive Associations, by t h e masters

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Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 · Heft XI a n d w o r k m e n in particular trades, t a k e n as a whole, against the violence a n d injustice of the feudal lords, or t h e arbitrary exactions of t h e Sovereign; die C o m b i n a t i o n s sind »Union, or C o m b i n a t i o n of the w o r k m e n against their masters«. (213) (defensive c o m b i n a t i o n s , of the w o r k m e n against their own employers. 214) »they are p e r m a n e n t l y in operation, a n d the fetters they impose, especially on the working class i m m e d i a t e l y below the skilled operatives, are often galling a n d oppressive in the highest degree.« (214) Will der m a s t e r e i n e n w o r k m a n a n w e n d e n , der n i c h t zur Association gehört, the whole c o m b i n e d w o r k m e n in his e m p l o y m e n t i m m e d i ately strike; a n d he is left with his new h a n d , in the m i d s t perhaps of s o m e important operation. Till the obnoxious w o r k m a n is dismissed, no other m e m b e r of the c o m b i n a t i o n is permitted to enter the master's e m p l o y m e n t . (215) There are different gradations in these Associations, a m o u n t i n g sometimes to 2, sometimes to 3 classes. There are the skilled workmen, a n d the apprentices or beginners. In order to secure the m o n o p o l y of the skilled part of trade, it is usually enacted by t h e ruling c o m m i t t e e , that no m a s t e r shall employ m o r e t h a n a small proportion of apprentices to t h e skilled workmen. In some trades, he is only p e r m i t t e d to employ o n e for 3 skilled workmen, in some, one for four; in others, one for five. In all however, the proportion of skilled to unskilled m u s t be very large. Will er nicht, so strike verordnet. E b e n s o w e n n er d e n Trades' U n i o n s mißliebige overseer oder m a n a g e r anstellt. (215) Die ruling c o m m i t t e e s m a a s s e n sich a u c h an die Z a h l der A r b e i t s s t u n d e n u n d die wages zu b e s t i m m e n . ... die colliers von Lanarkshire, b e n u t z e n d die great d e m a n d for iron während der E i s e n b a h n m a n i e von 1835 u n d 1836, issued a m a n d a t e , t h a t no collier should work m o r e t h a n 3 days, or 4, in the week, a n d at the u t m o s t 5 h o u r s in t h e day. This order was implicitly obeyed by the whole of the c o m b i n e d colliers a r o u n d Glasgow u n d n i c h t n u r von i h n e n , sondern von allen colliers in Renfrewshire, D u m b a r t o n s h i r e u n d Stirlingshire, z u s a m m e n 2 - 3 0 0 0 . T h e wages which the m e n were to get for working 1 2 - 1 5 S t u n d e n a week, wechselten von 30 zu 35 sh., according to the quantity of coals they p u t out. Die coalmasters begünstigten das. Die coals von Glasgow stiegen von 8 s. 6 d. zu 16 oder 17 sh. each t o n u n d dieser extravagante Preiß d a u e r t e an 18 M o n t h s , die lezten 9 wovon, von J a n u a r - October 1837, was a period of u n e x a m p l e d commercial and m a n u f a c t u r i n g distress. T r o t z d e m die w o r k m e n stood out for the old rate of wages; u n d da die ironmasters auf | |19| einer R e d u c t i o n bestanden, als der Preiß ihres Products fiel M ä r z 1837 von £ 7 10 sh. auf £ 4 a ton, the greater part of t h e m struck work u n d cont i n u e d idle for about 5 m o n t h s , bis ihre funds erschöpft u n d the whole t u r n e d out coal in the country, even of the worst kinds having b e e n consumed, m u ß t e n sie zu d e n rates der ironmasters arbeiten, which was,

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8 hours a day for 5 days a week, wozu a u c h die inferior h a n d s 5 u n d die bessern 6 sh. täglich earn k o n n t e n . (216, 17) D i e u n i f o r m practice der c o m bined workmen, is, to fix a rate below which, n o t only no m e m b e r of t h e u n i o n , b u t no person whatever, shall work to any m a s t e r ... the scale which they generally adopt, is n o t so m u c h for every day, b u t in proportion to t h e a m o u n t of work d o n e by the m e n . (217) „ n o b " heißt der deserter, der U n gehorsame Arbeiter der U n i o n . (I.e.) A n o t h e r principle which is very generally acted u p o n by these U n i o n s , is, t h a t t h e m a s t e r is n o t allowed a choice of workmen, if he requires to take in additional h a n d s . He is n o t permitted to choose those w h o m he would prefer, b u t m u s t go to a certain office, called a m o n g the tailors "a h o u s e of call," a n d there take t h e first m a n who stands u p o n the list for e m p l o y m e n t . This principle is established i n L o n d o n , Dublin, E d i n b u r g h a n d Glasgow, b o t h a m o n g tailors a n d m a n y other trades. Its levelling a n d injurious effect etc ... T h e majority in all trades almost always will be gainers by the i n t r o d u c t i o n of s u c h a system of rotation in e m p l o y m e n t . (217, 18) Um sich gegen d e n influx von new h a n d s in ihren trades zu sichern »very effectual m e t h o d s « n ä m l i c h of »heavy restrictions u p o n the admission of any persons to the benefits of their associations« werden g e n o m m e n . (218) Lange apprenticeship gewohnlich verlangt; w ä h r e n d der g a n z e n Zeit m u ß der apprentice pay a stated contribution to t h e funds of the association. In vielen a u c h entrym o n e y zu zahlen by every apprentice or skilled h a n d , for admission, from any distant quarter. Die Glasgow Spinners verlangten von entrants der latter description 5 I. Several trades h a b e n a u s s e r d e m a p e r m a n e n t system of offering bounties to s u c h persons as will leave t h e trade and the country altogether. T h e associated cottonspinners in the W e s t of Scotland h a v e a perm a n e n t b o u n t y of £ 10, which is offered to every person in the trade who will emigrate to A m e r i c a ; a n d a standing reward of £ 5 payable to every idle h a n d who will get o n e of the skilled h a n d s , any how, to leave his employm e n t , or to " u n s h o p " h i m . ([218,] 219 Da sie d e n L o h n h ö h e r halten, ström e n natürlich h a n d s aus allen E c k e n in die privilegirten trades) W i r d m i t N i e m a n d e m gearbeitet, der n i c h t seinen regulären Beitrag zahlt oder refractory gegen die C o m m a n d s des C o m m i t t e e . W e n n er bei e i n e m m a s t e r Arbeitet, sendet das C o m m i t t e e d i e s e m N o t i z i h n z u entlassen. W e n n nicht, strike. (220) Erstens a weekly regular c o n t r i b u t i o n is levied from every m e m b e r according to the rate of wages he receives. ... Das C o m m i t tee der Glasgow C o t t o n s p i n n e r s gab, während des latter part of 1836 u n d 4 ersten m o n t h s von 1837, 11,881 1. aus (220, 1) Secret oaths, which b i n d them, 1) to keep secret the taking of the o a t h ; a n d 2) to obey in all m a t t e r s , legal or illegal, the will of the majority, as expressed by the ruling c o m m i t tee. (221) In der Eidformel, proved von d e m late Mr. R o b i n s o n , Sheriff of

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Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 · Heft XI Lanarkshire, vor d e m C o m b i n a t i o n C o m m i t t e e des H o u s e of C o m m o n s J u n e , 1825, wovon Huskisson C h a i r m a n war, heißt es: "I etc swear, in the awful presence of Almighty god a n d before these witnesses, that I will execute etc every task or injunction which the majority of my brethren shall i m p o s e u p o n me in furtherance of o u r c o m m o n welfare; as the chastisem e n t of n o b s , the assassination of oppressive a n d tyrannical masters, or t h e d e m o l i t i o n of shops t h a t shall be d e e m e d incorrigible etc." (222) Sehr wichtiger Effect dieser secret oaths u n d des sense entertained of their obligatory n a t u r e , ist die ausserordentliche Leichtigkeit, womit, in trials wegen M o r d etc, befohlen von der U n i o n , the defence of a l i b i , however false, is successfully m a d e out. (223) Das lezte u n d H a u p t m i t t e l for m a i n t a i n i n g the authority u n d enforcing the c o m m a n d s des ruling c o m m i t t e e , is tenor and intimidation. (225) W e n n a strike Platz h a t u n d new h a n d s are att e m p t e d to be introduced, werden guards r o u n d each mill stationirt, von 5 - 1 5 persons. "The guards' duty was to try to take out the new h a n d s who were working at r e d u c e d rates, a n d to prevent others going in. T h e m e a n s were—by advising, treating to drink, or assaulting. D i e guards were relieved a b o u t the m i d d l e of the day by a n o t h e r party a n d at other t i m e s ; b u t guards c o n t i n u e d from t h e earliest h o u r in the m o r n i n g till the work was dismissed." (226) ||20| D i e Spinners' U n i o n s liessen in Glasgow d u r c h b e zahlte assassins e i n e n n o b u n d e i n e n F a b r i k a n t e n m o r d e n . Glessen von Vitriol ins Gesicht. (230 sqq.) F e u e r a n l e g e n an F a b r i k e n . (233) Die grosse Differenz zwischen d e m L o h n der spinners, colliers etc einerseits u n d d e n besten Agriculturarbeitern u n d W e b e r n (hand) anderseits is quite impossible to explain ausser d u r c h d e n effect of m o n o p o l y p r o d u c e d by conspiracy. (235) W h e n an insulated strike occurs in a single factory, the w o r k m e n are generally victorious. ... they are supported by contributions from the whole associated trade, whereas the m a s t e r is left to his own resources. (236, 37) Bei general strikes dagegen die m a s t e r s Sieger. (I.e.) D e r Liberator v o m 1 Februar, 1834, das great organ der Trades' U n i o n s in Scotland, sagt: "Theirs will n o t be insurrection; it will be simply passive resistance. T h e m e n m a y r e m a i n at leisure; there is, and can be, no law to c o m p e l t h e m to work against their will. T h e y m a y walk the streets or fields with their a r m s folded, they will wear no swords, carry no m u s k e t s , assemble no train of artillery, seize u p o n no fortified places. They will present no c o l u m n for an a r m y to attack, no m u l t i t u d e for the Riot Act to disperse. They merely abstain, w h e n their funds are sufficient, from going to work for o n e week, or o n e m o n t h , through the 3 kingdoms. A n d what h a p p e n s in c o n s e q u e n c e ? Bills are dishonoured, the G a z e t t e teems with bankruptcies, capital is destroyed, the revenue fails, the system of G o v e r n m e n t falls into confusion, a n d every link in the c h a i n which b i n d s society together is broken in a

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m a n n e r by this inert conspiracy of t h e p o o r against t h e rich." (237, 8) D i e so v o m Liberator e m p f o h l n e n principles in Praxis gesezt u n d der west of Scotland convulsed with a series of strikes in m a n y skilled trades, b e s o n ders die calico-printers, J a n u a r 1834, which lasted 9 m o n t h s . (238) V o n 1 8 2 2 - 1 8 3 7 , u n d e r t h e alternations of extravagantly high wages a n d total destitution, steht die m o r a l u n d vital statistics der Bevölkerung v o n G l a s gow wie folgt: Population has increased von 151,000 zu 253,000 oder a b o u t Serious crime gewachsen von 98 auf 392 Fever von 229 zu 3,680 oder Deaths von 3,690 zu 10,888 oder Consumption of spirits gewachsen Chance of life decreased von 1:40 auf 1:24 oder

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T h e rapid and now u n p r e c e d e n t e d application of s t e a m to weaving in t h e steam-power looms, w h i c h h a s superseded within these ten years to such an extent t h e u s e of h u m a n l a b o u r ... is in a great m e a s u r e to be ascribed to the strength of t h e U n i o n s a m o n g t h e m a n u f a c t u r e r s there e m p l o y e d ; a n d the harassing repetition of t h e strikes which took place 12 or 15 years ago 20 a m o n g t h e w o r k m e n . (254) G r a n t i n g to t h e T r a d e s ' - U n i o n s their favourite position, that the wages of skilled labour have b e e n raised by the effects of c o m b i n a t i o n , — w h a t effect m u s t that have h a d u p o n the r e m u n e r a t i o n of unskilled labour? ... T h e class of unskilled labourers is, in every country, 5 χ zahlreicher als die der skilled u n d viel m e h r der oppression ausgesezt; 25

because the persons c o m p o s i n g it are, from their extent a n d scattered posi­ tion, incapable of c o m b i n i n g , a n d from t h e short instruction requisite to enable any o n e to engage in t h e i r e m p l o y m e n t , the m o s t exposed to exten­ sive a n d depressing c o m p e t i t i o n . Wir h ö r e n n i e von C o m b i n a t i o n s u n d strikes u n t e r d e n ordinary or unskilled operatives. W i r h ö r e n beständig v o n

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c o m b i n a t i o n s u n t e r d e n p o w e r l o o m weavers, tenters, cottonspinners, colliers, m i n e r s , ironfounders, engineers, tailors, bakers u.d.g. aber n i e v o n solchen u n t e r daylabourers, h o d m e n , p l o u g h m e n , carders, reelers, piecers, pickers, or others engaged in such inferior e m p l o y m e n t s ; n o r it is possible that such c o m b i n a t i o n s ever c a n exist. W h a t t h e n are T r a d e s ' U n i o n s ,

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taken in the m o s t favourable p o i n t of view, . . . b u t monopolies of skilled against unskilled labour? a n d m u s t n o t any forced elevation of t h e wages of the former produce an u n d u e depression in t h e r e m u n e r a t i o n of the latter? ... By forcibly elevating at t i m e s the wages of t h e skilled classes, they have compelled t h e m a s t e r s to depress t h e wages of t h e m o r e n u m e r o u s u n -

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Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 · Heft XI eral an access to t h e skilled trades, except u n d e r very heavy restrictions, they have | | 2 1 | thrown a vast m u l t i t u d e of their fellow w o r k m e n back u p o n the unskilled d e p a r t m e n t s . (256, 7) M a n sieht aus Mr. Fielden's tables, published 1833, d a ß die wages of handloomweavers u n d prices of wheat u n d oats seit 1815, have stood as follows:

1815 1824 1831 1832

Wages per piece to handloomweavers

Wheat per qr

Oats per qr

4 sh. 6 d. 2 s. 3 Is. 4 Is. 6

63 s. 8 d. 62 s. 66 sh. 61 sh.

22 sh. 11 d. 24 s. 1 25 s. 4 24.

So der L o h n der handloomweavers um % gefallen seit 1815. Sie sind at the starving point. Diese deplorable r e d u c t i o n fand Statt w ä h r e n d cottonspinners von 2 5 - 3 5 sh. u n d colliers von 30 to 40 sh. a week m a c h t e n . D i e W e b e r dagegen 6 - 1 0 s. (258) D a r a n sollen n u n natürlich die combinations Schuld sein.

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|23| Westminster Review. (1842) vol. 37. Industry and its reward in Great Britain and Ireland. 5

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An agricultural labourer, who toils 12 a n d s o m e t i m e s 14, h o u r s per day in cold, rain, frost, sun, fog—alternately frozen, bleached, a n d drenched, — earns for his week's labour, for the support of himself, his wife, and his four y o u n g children the wretched pittance of 12 shillings ... these 12 sh. are expended, wie folgt:

Rent Flour Wood or coals Cheese Tea Potatoes Sugar Bacon Candles and Soap

s. 2 5 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 12

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no butter, no milk, no meat, no red herrings even, no clothing, no m e d i c i n e for the children, no shoes or boots, no provision p u t by for the t i m e s when the h u s b a n d m a y be u n a b l e to work from sickness or accident; a n d yet the 12 sh. are G o n e . Yes, G o n e ; — a n d in what? In insufficient food for the body. We visited lately 50 of s u c h cases. T h e r e are 500,000 m o r e to be 25 looked to, and 500,000 m o r e b e y o n d t h e m . So here is a p o p u l a t i o n — a n d in some of our best districts, existing on bread, potatoes, from year's e n d to year's end, b u t 2 o u n c e s of tea a n d a p o u n d of moist sugar for h u s b a n d , a n d wife, a n d 4 children for a whole week; a n d this n o r m a l state is viewed

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Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 · Heft XI not only without horror, b u t even with a sort of complacency. (219) T h e r e is no step, but simply a hair's breadth, between t h e c o n d i t i o n of our agricultural labourers a n d p a u p e r i s m ... 12 sh. sind übrigens ein M a x i m u m which it would be impossible for us to sustain, threshers e r h a l t e n selten weniger u n d oft m e h r , aber die wages of p l o u g h m e n u n d waggoners sind 5 sehr inferior ... if English agricultural labour could now be averaged, it would not a m o u n t to m o r e t h a n 10 s. 6 d. per family, i.e. for the support of a m a n , his wife, a n d 3 or 4 small children. (222, 3) T h e cottagers of England ... are m e l a n c h o l y a n d mournful. T h e voice of singing is never h e a r d within their walls. Their u n h a p p y i n m a t e s vegetate on potatoes a n d h a r d 10 d u m p l i n g s , and keep themselves warm with hot water p o u r e d over o n e small teaspoonful of tea, which barely colours t h e water a n d w h i c h is adm i n i s t e r e d to the fretful children by their a n x i o u s and impoverished parents. ... They are ground down by iron a n d searching poverty, a n d their meals are neither nutritive in quality n o r a d e q u a t e in solid a m o u n t . 15 (226)

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vol. 38 (1842) First Report of the Children's Employment Commissioners: Mines and Collieries. Presented to both Houses of Parliament etc April 21,1842. 5

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(Unter „young p e r s o n s " versteht der Factories A c t ü b e r die childhood, aber u n t e r 18 Jahren.) [88] D i e coal u n d iron m i n e s geben das chief employm e n t für K i n d e r u n d y o u n g persons u n d e r g r o u n d . ([90,] 91) U n d e r the competition which exists a m o n g the coal owners a n d coal proprietors in each district for the supply of their several markets, no m o r e outlay is incurred t h a n is sufficient to overcome the most obvious physical difficulties; and u n d e r that which prevails a m o n g the labouring colliers, who are ordinarily m o r e n u m e r o u s t h a n the work to be d o n e requires, a large a m o u n t of danger a n d of exposure to the m o s t n o x i o u s influences will gladly be encountered for wages a little in advance of those of the agricultural population a r o u n d t h e m , in an occupation, in which they can moreover m a k e a profitable use of their children. This double competition is certainly n o t so great as in m a n y other b r a n c h e s of industry, b u t it is quite sufficient to cause a large proportion of the pits to be worked with the m o s t imperfect drainage a n d ventilation; often with illconstructed shafts, bad gearing, incompetent engineers, a n d illconstructed a n d illpropped bays a n d roadways; causing a destruction of life, a n d limb, a n d health, the statistics of w h i c h would present an appalling picture. (102) Bei den Arbeitern, speziell a u c h den K i n d e r n u n d j u n g e n Leuten, Effects of Overworking, Extraordinary muscular Development, Stunted Growth, Crippled Gait, Irritation of the Head, Back etc. (134) D i e übergrosse m u s c u l a r exertion in der K i n d h e i t (bei den colliers) producirt a preternatural m u s c u l a r development. S u c h a disproportionate m u s c u l a r development, instead of being an i n d i c a t i o n of

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Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 • Heft XI s o u n d a n d robust health, is really a proof t h a t the general system is starved by the overnourishment of this o n e particular part of it; and that the system is weakened, not strengthened, by this u n d u e e x p e n d i t u r e of its n u t r i m e n t u p o n t h e muscles, is shown by the evidence now collected, which proves indubitably that the body in general is stunted in its growth, ... peculiarly 5 p r o n e to disease, u n d that it p r e m a t u r e l y decays and perishes. ... in the coal m i n e s die A n w e n d u n g der K i n d e r protracts the period of childhood, shortens the period of m a n h o o d , a n d anticipates the period of old age, decrepitude, a n d death. (134) Viel besser stehts in d e n m i n e s of tin, copper, lead u n d zinc, wo das e m p l o y m e n t ganz anders. (135) | 10 |24| T h e e m p l o y m e n t of t h e adult colliers is almost exclusively in t h e "getting" of the coal from its n a t u r a l resting place, of which there are various m e t h o d s , according to the n a t u r e of the seams a n d the habits of t h e several districts. T h a t of the children a n d y o u n g persons consists principally either in t e n d i n g the air doors where the coal carriages m u s t pass 15 t h r o u g h openings the i m m e d i a t e l y s u b s e q u e n t stoppage of which is necessary to preserve the ventilation in its proper channels, or in the conveyance of the coal from the bays or recesses in which it is hewn, along the subterran e a n roadways, to the b o t t o m of the pit shaft; a distance varying from absolute contiguity even to miles in the great coalfield of the n o r t h of England, 20 where the depth requires that the same expensive shaft shall serve for the excavation of a large tract of coal. (107) Startling as t h e fact m a y appear, it is into the pits, which "never can be worked without inflicting great a n d irreparable injury on the health of children," that children are t a k e n at the earliest ages, if only to be used as living a n d moving candlesticks, or to 25 keep rats from a dinner; a n d it is in pits of this worst character, too, in which female children are employed. (I.e.) 1

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So in der grossen M a n u f a c t u r s t a d t Leeds beträchtlich m e h r als % der ganzen adult p o p u l a t i o n h a t no regular occupation. W o v o n leben sie? V o n occasional jobwork, by sending their children to factories or into the streets to beg, by hawking petty articles for sale, by casual charity—especially of those who are only o n e degree better off t h a n themselves. W i t h such resources, can we w o n d e r t h a t no cellar or lodginghouse is too u n h e a l t h y or disgusting to fail in finding nightly its 20 or 30 occupants? Can we wonder that pilfering a n d prostitution are habitually resorted to as a m e a n s of eking out a wretched existence? (20, 21) A n d r e s remarkable result ist die extremely small n u m b e r of persons, die direkt in manufactures verwandt sind, selbst in d e n Städten, die m a n als exclusively m a n u f a c t u r i n g betrachtet. Dasselbe zeigt sich b e i allen principal seats of m a n u f a c t u r e . In G l a s gow, m i t 250,000 Einwohner, n u r 29,287 direkt oder indirekt c o n n e c t e d m i t der cotton m a n u f a c t u r e , u n d in all the factories of every description, n u r 5,585 m a l e s employed. (20 N o t e ) Mr. S y m o n d s u n d Captain Miller, in their a c c o u n t of the wynds of Glasgow, state ausdrücklich daß der größre Theil der Bevölkerung, an 30,000 persons, have no visible m e a n s of support ausser „plunder u n d prostitution". In M a n c h e s t e r giebt Dr Kay a similar description of a large district; u n d in Liverpool wenigstens % der g a n z e n Bevölkerung vertheilt between the cellars and lodging houses. In Liverpool (Parliamentary Tables of Population, 1841) zeigen die Police returns (in Paris 3800 regular prostitutes, 8000 thieves, swindlers etc, 1500 vagabonds, 243 low lodging houses) 212 m e n d i c a n t s ' lodging houses, 591 brothels, 2404 prostitutes, 5007 thieves a n d suspected characters known to the police. B i r m i n g h a m , wie gesehn, 374 lodging houses devoted to the reception der loose population of Irish and m e n d i c a n t s u n d 228 houses b e k a n n t als die resorts of thieves etc. These facts s c h e i n e n zu beweisen, t h a t a large proportion of the dense masses of p o p u l a t i o n crowded together in the low

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Exzerpte aus Samuel Laing (jun.): National distress. Heft XI. Seite 21

Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 • Heft XI districts of our large towns have absolutely no regular u n d recognised occupations, and live, as it were, as outlaws u p o n society. (21, 2) D i e m a n n e r , worin diese Klasse beständig recrutirt u n d vermehrt wird will be only too apparent, w e n n m a n erforscht die Lage der n u m e r o u s classes i m m e d i a t e l y above t h e m in the social scale, who earn an existence by c o m m o n a n d 5 comparatively unskilled labour. Am lowest in dieser class s t e h n die handloom weavers. D i e n u m b e r of persons, including their families, d e p e n d e n t on handloomweaving for existence, ist geschäzt von d e m C o m m i t t e e von 1835 auf 840,000 u n d in d e m report der h a n d l o o m weavers' c o m m i s s i o n ers, publicirt 1841, auf ü b e r 800,000. 30 oder 40 J a h r e vorher diese Klasse 10 an der Spitze der british operatives in a m o u n t of earnings, intelligence, edu c a t i o n u n d general respectability. (22) D e r folgende a c c o u n t of wages bezahlt 1839 u n d 1840 to the cotton weavers von Lancashire u n d Glasgow: Ashton-under-Lyne-District: H e a d s of family visited 483, N u m b e r of persons employed 813, N u m b e r of looms idle 213, n u m b e r of persons d e p e n d 15 ent on the earnings of those employed 1955, average per family per week 4 s. 11¾ d. Zu Huddersfield der average von 402 weavers, m a i n t a i n i n g 1655 persons, 5 s. 6% d. per week, or 2¾ d. p e r day for each individual. Zu W i g a n der average von 113 persons employed 3 s. 11 d. a week for each. (22) | |22| In Schottland folgende Tafel gegeben von Symonds, the first class being the average net a m o u n t of wages earned by adult skilled artisans on the finest fabrics; the second, the a m o u n t e a r n e d by less skilled a n d younger artisans: Fabrics

Pullicates, Ginghams etc Shawls etc Plain muslins Fancy muslins, silk gauzes etc Thibets und tartans

Chief Place of Manufacture

Number of Looms

Clear ws;ekly Wages 1 Class 2 Class s. d. s. d.

Glasgow und Lanarkshire Paisley und Renfrewshire Glasgow, Lanarkshire etc

18,420 7,750 10,080

7 10 6 7 6

4 6 4

7,860 2,980

9 6 7

6 5

Paisley und Glasgow Glasgow und Howiek

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6 30 6

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Die n u m b e r of families corresponding to this n u m b e r of looms geschäzt auf 26,160; ergiebt, 4 per family. 104,640 individuals u n d n a c h S y m o n d s % der g a n z e n Z a h l der weavers belong to the second class of wages. (23) Als Durchschnittswages der M e h r z a h l der Scottish weavers, giebt S y m o n d s für M a n n , W e i b u n d 5 children 16 s. 2 d., für m a n , wife u n d 2 children 7 s. l i d . E x t r e m e cases wo families von 7 persons n u r earn 7 s . 2 d. per week oder i s . 3 - 7 d . per person. T o earn these wages, die Durchschnittsarbeits-

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s t u n d e n sind 70 per week. (23) Fletcher schäzt die earnings der r i b b o n weavers of Coventry u n d der Nachbarschaft auf 5 sh. a week; die der best employed linenweavers of Yorkshire, during a period of comparative prosperity, n a c h d e n n ö t h i g e n d e d u c t i o n s für winding, dressing etc auf 5 s. 6 d. for a m a n ' s earnings, wöchentlich, u n d weniger als half d e n Betrag für boys a n d girls. In d e m D u n d e e d i s t r i c t die highest earnings von ablebodied linenweavers n i c h t ü b e r 7 s. 6 d. a week. In d e n finer descriptions der woollen u n d silk fabrics u n d ü b e r h a u p t wo besondrer skill oder strength, oder beides z u s a m m e n erförderlich, der rate of wages beträchtlich höher, a b e r dieß trifft n u r small proportion der total n u m b e r of handloomweavers u n d selbst m i t dieser n o m i n e l l h o h e n rate of wages oft m e h r als compensirt by the extreme inconstancy of t h e e m p l o y m e n t . ([23,] 24) D i e obigen wages n o c h zu hoch, um die actual c o n d i t i o n der weaving p o p u l a t i o n zu beurtheilen. Sehr grosse irregularity of e m p l o y m e n t , die slightest fluctuation in c o m m e r c e never fails to throw m u l t i t u d e s of looms o u t of work. ... A u f d e n average of m a n y years der W e b e r m i n d e s t e n s % der g a n z e n Zeit ausser Beschäftigung. Selbst, w e n n in full work, Zeitverlust in changing fabrics on the loom, a n d going to the m a n u f a c t u r e r for work etc, which, we are told, a m o u n t s , on the very lowest average, to 1 week in 8. Taking the average rate of earnings, n a c h d e n n o t h w e n d i g e n deductions, evident daß der bulk der Bevölkerung von 800,000 d e p e n d i n g on handloomweaving m u s t exist, u n t e r den günstigsten U m s t ä n d e n , in a state of extreme destitution. (I.e.) Die class der h a n d - l o o m weavers constituirt %, at least, of the adult m a l e manufacturing p o p u l a t i o n . ([25,] 26) N a c h Baines, acceptirt von M a c C u l loch folgende Liste, wo die wages n o c h zu h o c h angegeben: Estimate of the number and wages of different classes of Operatives employed in the Cotton Manufacture. No. of Operatives

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237,000 engaged in spinning and powerloom weaving 250,000 handloom weavers 159,300 lace workers 45,000 calico printers 33,000 makers of cotton hosiery

Average weekly wages s. d. 10 7 2 10 6

5

M a n sieht hier, d a ß wenig b r a n c h e s der c o t t o n m a n u f a c t u r e der l a b o u r a sufficient r e m u n e r a t i o n gaben. Die R e t u r n s der Factory C o m m i s s i o n e r s | / 2 4 / zeigen, daß von 220,134 in d e n cottonfactories beschäftigten P e r s o n e n n u r 58,053 oder about % des G a n z e n were males ü b e r 18 J a h r e . (26) (Fern e r sieht m a n a u s d e m F a c t o r y C o m m i s s i o n e r s ' R e p o r t v o n 1841: d a ß

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Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 · Heft XI von 424,209 operatives angewandt in der cotton, wool, worsted, flax u n d silk n u r 96,752 oder weniger als 2 3 % des G a n z e n males ü b e r 18 J a h r e war e n ; 130,218 waren females ü b e r 18 u n d 114,603 females u n t e r 18.) (I.e.) A u f die comparativ kleine Z a h l von spinners, carders, powerloom weavers, engineers, overlookers u n d einige few der best paid calico printers, b o b b i 5 n e t m a k e r etc ist die assertion zu b e s c h r ä n k e n , d a ß „in an ordinary state of t r a d e " die in der c o t t o n m a n u f a c t u r e beschäftigten operatives ü b e r die c o m forts etc zu gebieten h a b e n . (27) Dasselbe gilt für die woollen, l i n e n u n d silk m a n u f a c t u r e s . F o l g e n d e s m a y be t a k e n as a fair a n d impartial general s t a t e m e n t of the c o n d i t i o n of t h e p o p u l a t i o n of a b o u t 2% millions, who apio pear from t h e r e t u r n s to derive their subsistence directly from M a n u f a c tures, u n d e r ordinary c i r c u m s t a n c e s , a n d in an average state of t r a d e : A b o u t % plunged in e x t r e m e misery, and hovering on t h e verge of actual starvation; a n o t h e r %, or m o r e , earning an i n c o m e s o m e t h i n g b e t t e r t h a n t h a t of the c o m m o n agricultural labourer, b u t u n d e r c i r c u m s t a n c e s very 15 prejudicial to health, morality, a n d d o m e s t i c comfort, viz, by t h e l a b o u r of y o u n g children, girls, and m o t h e r s of families, in crowded factories; and, finally, )/ earning high wages, amply sufficient to support t h e m in respectability u n d comfort. (27) D i e ß der state of things u n d e r ordinary circumstances. (I.e.) 20 3

Condition of the Class of Agricultural Labourers. N a c h d e m lezten Census die Z a h l der a d u l t m a l e labourers (Agrikultur) i n G r e a t Britain 887,167; m i t ihren families, a p o p u l a t i o n of 3,500,000 o d e r a b o u t y der g a n z e n Bevölkerung u n d % m e h r als die p o p u l a t i o n der labourers directly employed in m a n u f a c t u r e s . In E n g l a n d im A l l g e m e i n e n die agricultural labourers sind daylabourers, hired by the week or j o b , m e i s t by week, possessing no property, a n d living in r e n t e d cottages. D e r rate of wages earned by an ablebodied labourer wechselt von 8 zu 12 sh. a week u n d im D u r c h s c h n i t t 9 oder 10 sh. D i e u s u a l r e n t der cottages ist von 3 zu 5 /. a year. T h e extra earnings einer family w ä h r e n d Herbstzeit etc m a y a m o u n t von 4 I. 10 s. zu 6 I. 10 s., w h i c h m a y be set against t h e rent of t h e cottage, fuel etc, obgleich in m a n c h e n T h e i l e n E n g l a n d s this source of earnings sehr reducirt w o r d e n ist d u r c h d e n influx von irish labourers. (28, 29) In Ε. C. Tuffneil, Esq, Assistant P o o r law Commissioner, Sanitary R e ­ ports, v . I p. 37 h e i ß t s : »im workhouse, where strict e c o n o m y is studied, a n d where we are constantly told that we give t h e i n m a t e s too little to eat, it is well k n o w n that a m a n , his wife a n d 5 children, c a n n o t usually be kept u n der 11, per week u n d d a b e i n i c h t s g e r e c h n e t für h o u s e r e n t ; u n d all t h e artis

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Aus Samuel Laing (jun.): National distress (Fortsetzung) cles required, being purchased in large contracts, are obtained 2 0 % u n d e r the shop prices. In A n b e t r a c h t dieses solche family ausser d e m workhouse m i t denselben comforts n u r zu erhalten zu 25 sh. a week, which is m o r e t h a n double the general agricultural weekly wages in England.« (29) Fol5 gendes ist die actual weekly e x p e n d i t u r e eines labouring m a n , m i t 1 wife a n d 6 children, in M a r c h , 1841, given von Tuffnell, which will afford a fair average view of the m a n n e r of living der agricultural p o p u l a t i o n der southern u n d m i d l a n d c o u n t i e s of E n g l a n d :

10

6 gallons of flour yeast 1 lb. of meat and Y lb of suet l i b of butter 1 lb of cheese Y lb of candles % lb of soap Potatoes Worsted, starch, cotton, and tape Zusammen

s. 8

3

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2

20

25

30

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d.

1 0 0 0 1

8 0 6 3½ 3½

3 12 sh. 3 d. (30)

D i e ß läßt nichts für rent, clothing, e d u c a t i o n . Offenbar d a ß any suspension der Beschäftigung, rise in the price of provisions, or unforeseen casualty, m u s t of necessity compel t h e m to resort to charity, or to descend to a coarser diet, and exchange the habits of an english for those of an Irish peasant. (30) | |25| Der englische Agriculturarbeiter h a s no c h a n c e of rising in the world aber sehr viele of falling. (31) H a t er Pech, so wird er Pauper oder he will be starved out of the country into s o m e large town, a n d absorbed in the floating population who t e n a n t the cellars a n d lodging houses, a n d live by the worstpaid description of m a n u f a c t u r i n g industry, or by thieving, prostitution, and casual e m p l o y m e n t . Let it always be r e m e m b e r e d , that w h e n we read in Poorlaw Reports, a n d Treatises on Political E c o n o m y , of l a b o u r being absorbed, a n d distress disappearing by refusing relief, this is, in 9 cases out of 10, what the thing practically m e a n s . (31) T h e t e n a n t s at will, i.e. die Highland peasantry are often driven out in great n u m b e r s , a n d sent in u p o n the large cities u n d speziell Glasgow (wo 20,000 poor Highlanders) where their condition is m o s t miserable; they are particularly subject to the worst diseases on c o m i n g to a city - besonders fever u n d small-pox. (33) W e n n der general rate des increase der Bevölkerung u n i f o r m gewesen wäre u n d n i c h t migration von e i n e m district in d e n a n d e r n in search of subsistence, the p o p u l a t i o n der m e h r agricultural counties würde grösser

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Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 · Heft XI gewesen sein als sie ist (1842) in E n g l a n d u n d Wales um 289,487, in Schottland um 60,512. (34) Diese results werden bewiesen d u r c h d e n fact, daß in Schottland, wo keine poorlaws, der proportionate rate of increase zu G u n s t e n der m a n u f a c t u r i n g counties h a d b e e n double t h a t i n England. O h n e Armengesetz in E n g l a n d w ü r d e es sich hier ebenso verhalten ... the bulk of the aged, infirm u n d destitute ... in Scotland wurden starved into the large towns. In Glasgow n i c h t 15 % der in die Hauptfieberhospitäler Z u gelaßnen waren natives der town; 40 % von d e n H i g h l a n d s u n d agriculturaldistricts of Scotland; 65 % der individuals zugelassen in das H o u s e of Refuge zu E d i n b u r g h sind n i c h t natives der town. In D u n d e e von 944 p a u pers, n u r 344 natives der town; u n d in A b e r d e e n n u r 420 aus 1517. (Dr Alison, J o u r n a l of Statistical Society of L o n d o n , for year 1840, p. 214.) In Schottland die Lage des Agricultural labourer wesentlich verschieden von der same class in England. F o l g e n d e Aussage von a practical witness: (Report of the C o m m i t t e e on Agriculture, 1836, p. 218): Servants are engaged half yearly. U n m a r r i e d p l o u g h m e n have from 5 I. to 6 I. 10 s., with two pecks of o a t m e a l weekly, a n d an allowance of milk a n d potatoes, with lodging and fuel generally in a bothie, i.e., a h o u s e attached n e a r to the steading, where they all live together and m a k e their @wn food. O t h e r u n married labourers get 4 I. 10 s. to 5 I. half yearly. Married m e n s e r v a n t s are engaged by the year; they generally get a h o u s e a n d garden, a n d m a i n t e n a n c e for a cow, a n d a b o u t 8 I. of wages, 6% bolls of oatmeal, a n d an allowance of potatoes, or ground for raising them, with a few barrels of coals or brushwood for fuel. F a r m l a b o u r e r s by t h e day get about 1 s. 3 d. in winter; in s u m m e r 1 s. 8 d. to 2 s. (34) D i e ß das früher u s u a l system in Schottland u n d n o c h in m a n y districts vorherrschend. Diese class natürlich viel besser dran als die englische. Sicher respectable etc. A b e r there is too m u c h reason, to fear that this class, the pride of Scotland ... ist fast disappearing. D i e oben beschriebnen conditions, of late years, sehr generally infringed, z u m N a c h t h e i l der weaker party. In m a n y counties das privilege of keeping a cow entzogen u n d selbst die allowance of milk substituted for it has b e e n discontinued as t r o u b l e s o m e and expensive. D i e Z a h l der m a r r i e d cottars living on the farm sehr reducirt u n d das bothie-system, or e m p l o y m e n t of u n m a r r i e d m e n living together in a bothie or hovel attached to the steading, sehr extended. ... a m o r e effective m e a n s of brutalising u n d demoralising a peasantry could n o t be devised, t h a n t h a t of crowding together a parcel of y o u n g m e n , half of t h e m perhaps strangers, Irish, or b a d characters, in a hovel ... It is, in fact, transplanting the lodging h o u s e from the wynds of Glasgow to the heart of the rural districts. Dieses eins der worst evils att e n d e d der Einführung des large farmsystem. Das L a n d cultivirt m i t m e h r skill u n d economy. M e h r p r o d u c e g e w o n n e n m i t less h a n d s . A b e r von der

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Aus Samuel Laing (jun.): National distress (Fortsetzung) so aus Beschäftigung geworfnen rural population, ein Theil in der o b e n b e schriebnen Weise in die great towns geworfen ins L u m p e n p r o l e t a r i a t u n d to glut the m a r k e t of m a n u f a c t u r i n g labour; der andre gezwungen to accept worse and worse terms, bis zulezt der standard of comfort u n d respectabil5 ity has b e e n b r o k e n down. ([35,] 36) U n t e r der agricultural p o p u l a t i o n von Scotland aufzuzählen die class of crofters, or peasants, living on a small p a t c h of g r o u n d barely sufficient to employ their labour. This class n u m bers von 2 0 0 - 3 0 0 , 0 0 0 in d e n H i g h l a n d s u n d Hebrides, whose c o n d i t i o n in keiner H i n s i c h t besser als die der ärmsten Irländer. (36) D e r reale Arbeits10 lohn gefallen. Beweis folgendes D o c u m e n t given by one of the assistant poorlaw commissioners, being an actual a c c o u n t of t h e m a n n e r in w h i c h a labourer's family, m i t 4 children, lived zwischen 50 u n d 60 years ago, on the t h e n current wages of 6 s. a week: 4¾ gallons of flour at 6 d., = 2 s. 3 d., grinding, baking, a n d yeast 5 d., 7 p o u n d s of beef at 2¾ d. = 1 s. 5½ d., 15 2½ p o u n d s of cheese oder 1½ p o u n d of butter 6¼ d., o a t m e a l u n d salt 2% d., one oz. of tea 2 d., % p o u n d of sugar 3 d., firing (meist h e a t h turf, cut free from the c o m m o n or wood) 3 d., candles 3 d., soap 3 d. (37) Vergleich dieß mit der obigen e x p e n d i t u r e einer family in 1841. (I.e.)

20

Condition of classes of labouring population employed in Mines, Fisheries, Canals, Railways etc.

N a c h den Population returns von 1831 sind 608,712 males, über 20 J a h r e , employed as m i n e r s , quarriers, fishermen etc. N a c h M c C u l l o c h 240,000 persons direkt engagirt im irontrade, 150,000 im coal trade, 71,000 in d e n m i n e s of Cornwall u n d Devonshire u n d 8 000 in d e n saltmines von 25 Cheshire etc. ||26| D a z u gerechnet females u n d boys: population of a b o u t 1,200,000 persons d e p e n d i n g on m i n i n g industry. (Die Z a h l der m e n u n d boys employed in british fisheries ungefähr 220,000) Mit A u s n a h m e des e m p l o y m e n t of w o m e n u n d e r ground, u n d e r circumstances revolting to decency a n d destructive of morality, a n d of children at too early an age, 30 scheint die Lage der m i n i n g class viel besser als die der agricultural u n d manufacturing population. U s u a l rates of wages for m e n über 18 J a h r e werden von d e n Commissioners stated wie folgt: Staffordshire, coal u n d iron works, 1 5 - 1 8 s. a week; Warwickshire, 18 sh. a week; Yorkshire 2 0 - 2 5 sh.; D u r h a m u n d N o r t h u m b e r l a n d 2 0 - 3 0 s.; Cornwall 4 0 - 6 5 s . per 35 m o n t h ; South Wales 2 5 - 6 0 s. a week; Lanarkshire 2 4 - 4 0 s. a week. D a z u die labour aller boys von 9 - 1 0 J a h r e n available at a rate seldom lower als die der handloomweaver ( 4 - 5 s. a week) which increases regularly zu 15 oder 20 s. a week by t h e t i m e the boy reaches 18, evident d a ß die p e c u n i a r y

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Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 • Heft XI m e a n s der most collier u n d m i n i n g families very a m p l e sind. D a s F o l g e n d e gegeben as a fair average i n s t a n c e der earnings u n d e x p e n d i t u r e einer collier family in d e m Tyne u n d W e a r district in 1841, by o n e of the c o m m i s sioners employed in the late inquiry: Earnings per fortnight. Father, two weeks Putter, one boy, 17 years of age Driver, one boy, 12 dto Trapper, one boy, 8 dto Outlay per Fortnight.

s. 2 4 1 16 13 9 £ 5 3 £

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Mutton 14 lb Flour, 5 stone Maslin, or mixed grain, 3 stone Bacon 14 lb Potatoes, % boll Oatmeal Butter 2 lb.; milk 3 d. per day Coffee 1¼ lb Tea % lb Sugar, 3 lb Candles Soap Pepper, salt, mustard etc Tobacco and beer ...

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C o n t r i b u t i o n to benefit fund, generally 1 s. 3 d. per m o n t h . R e n t u n d fuel free. ([38,] 39) Invention of the hotblast, or use of h e a t e d air statt der cold air, in the smelting of iron. Im Westen von Schottland in Folge dieser Erfind u n g der Iron trade sehr rasch entwickelt. In J u n e , 1835, waren 29 furnaces in blast in Scotland; M a y 1 8 4 1 : 68 in blast u n d 10 building. Properties, ein 35 p a a r J a h r e vorher n u r einige H u n d e r t e £ a year werth; now yield d e m proprietor an 12,000 £ jährlich. D i e Population der 2 parishes von Old u n d N e w M o n k l a n d , wo die wichtigsten dieser works liegen, angewachsen von 19,447 in 1831 zu 40,193 in 1841. A b e r diese Bevölkerung zeigt d e m A u g e n u r slavish labour u n i t e d to brutal i n t e m p e r a n c e . K i n d e r in rag u n d filth 40 etc. D i e ß domestic discomfort seems attributable u. a. d e m crowded state der habitations, die, from the want of buildings ||27| to c o n t a i n the rapidly increasing population, were filled with lodgers. In einigen H ä u s e r n , bei

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Aus Samuel Laing (jun.): National distress (Fortsetzung)

5

einer family m i t n u r 2 r o o m s , 14 single m e n als lodgers h e r e i n g e n o m m e n . An infatuated love of m o n e y , for no p u r p o s e b u t to m i n i s t e r to a d e g r a d i n g passion for a r d e n t spirits, s e e m s t h e allpervading motive for a c t i o n in this quarter. (43) Die e c o n o m i c a l c o n d i t i o n der fishing p o p u l a t i o n beweist d a ß der Besitz von E i g e n t h u m oder s o m e interest in property wesentlich to p r e serve the c o m m o n unskilled l a b o u r e r from falling into t h e c o n d i t i o n of a piece of m a c h i n e r y , b o u g h t at t h e minimum m a r k e t price at w h i c h it c a n be produced, d. h. at w h i c h labourers c a n be got to exist and propagate t h e i r species, to which he is invariably r e d u c e d sooner or later, w h e n t h e inter-

10

ests of capital a n d labour are q u i t e distinct, a n d are left to adjust t h e m selves u n d e r t h e sole o p e r a t i o n of t h e law of supply a n d d e m a n d . ([45,] 46) Die Z a h l der s e a m e n employed in navigating british vessels am 1 J a n u a r 1841 war 160,509, representing m i t i h r e n families, a considerable T h e i l der Bevölkerung. Ihre c o n d i t i o n gut, i m Vergleich z u m b u l k der m a n u f a c t u r -

15

ing u n d agricultural p o p u l a t i o n , der u s u a l rate of wages being 3 1. a m o n t h , in addition to subsistence, a n d e m p l o y m e n t tolerably certain. (46)

Condition of Classes Superior to Common Labourers.

20

"employed in retail t r a d e or in handicraft, as masters or w o r k m e n . " Shopkeepers, Schuster, Z i m m e r l e u t e , Handwerker m i t e i n e m Wort. Diese class, n a c h der der agricultural labourers die most numerous single class in England, n a c h d e n returns von 1831 einschliessend 1,159,863 m a l e s ü b e r 20 Jahre oder fast % der whole n u m b e r of m a l e s o f t h a t age u n d folglich representing % der g a n z e n Bevölkerung. Diese class, m i t d e n farmers, d e r e n Z a h l 187,075 m a l e s ü b e r 2 0 u n d von einigen der best paid u n d m o s t re-

25

spectable operatives, b i l d e n die great m i d d l e class des L a n d e s . D i e lower m e m b e r s dieser class, wie bricklayers, m a s o n s etc k a u m d a z u zu r e c h n e n . Die whole division of handicraft or skilled labour n i m m t eine mittlere P o sition ein zwischen der c o m m o n labouring class u n d der der retail dealers. I h r e wages generally good. 1 4 - 4 0 sh. wöchentlich, m i t e m p l o y m e n t i m

30

D u r c h s c h n i t t von 11 m o n t h s jährlich. (49) D i e g a n z e Z a h l der m a l e s ü b e r 20 Jahre, die zur Kapitalistenklasse gehören, ( a u c h professional a n d o t h e r e d u c a t e d m e n ) betrug n a c h d e m Census von 1831 n i c h t ü b e r 214,390 o d e r z4o der G e s a m m t b e v ö l k e r u n g . (50) D i e T o t a l z a h l der l a n d e d proprietors in Schottland, worunter a r e n t a l of 5 Mill. I. St. vertheilt, ungefähr 7800, wo-

35

von m e h r als 6000 h a b e n properties worth less als 600 I. a year. (51) Im G a n z e n k a n n m a n r e c h n e n die n u m b e r der m a l e s ü b e r 2 0 J a h r e gehörig z u d e n capitalists (professional, l a n d e d gentry, m o n i e d m e n , a few literary m e n ) 250,000 wovon % in easy c i r c u m s t a n c e s u n d γ[0 o p u l e n t . D i e ß giebt

71

Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 · Heft XI l

y der g a n z e n Bevölkerung belonging to t h e u p p e r or genteel class u n d / oo zur aristocracy of r a n k u n d wealth. (51) T h e middleclass includes 1) die m e m b e r s der lower b r a n c h e s der professions, literature, c o m m e r c e etc, who form a sort of transition class b e t w e e n this a n d t h e upper. 2) shopkeepers u n d retail t r a d e s m e n j e d e r Art. 3) farmers. 4) skilled artisans u n d h a n d i 5 craftsmen of superior description. 5) c o m m o n handicraftsmen, or m e n living by t h e exercise of a craft which requires s o m e apprenticeship, a n d c o m m a n d s wages decidedly superior to those of c o m m o n labour. T h e latter class is a transition o n e between t h e m i d d l e a n d labouring classes. (I.e.) D i e ß alles z u s a m m e n g e r e c h n e t beläuft sich die Mittelklasse auf % - % der 10 g a n z e n Bevölkerung. (52) Die arbeitende Klasse besteht aus folgenden divisions, deren Z a h l e n u n d Proportions zur g a n z e n Bevölkerung b e r e c h n e t sind n a c h d e n returns von 1 8 3 1 . 20

2

Proportion to total population Agricultural labouring population Manufacturing ditto Mining, fishing, and labour not agricultural Servants etc Total of population dependent on ordinary labour

1.-3.7 1.-6.6 1.-6.6 1.-3.7

Total numbers at present 5,000,000 2,800,000 2,800,000 500,000

20

11,300,000(52)

Die Z a h l der m a l e servants j e d e r Art ist 144,188; of female servants 6 7 0 , 4 9 1 ; total 814,679, aber der b u l k of female servants schon eingeschlossen in die families of agricultural u n d other labourers. N e h m e n wir zu d e n 11,300,000 n u n 1,000,000 für die genteel p o p u l a t i o n u n d 4,650,000 für die middleclass im obigen Sinn, so h a b e n wir a b o u t 17 Mill. Bleiben 1,500,000 u n a c c o u n t e d for. 1,300,000 persons sind in d e m official r e t u r n für 1 8 4 1 . V o n diesen a large proportion will be i n c l u d e d in t h e p o p u l a t i o n returns, u n d e r t h e h e a d of agricultural a n d other descriptions of labourers u n d their families. Die n i c h t als labourers aufgeführte class of paupers ist ||28| 1) die receiving outdoor relief die ganz unfähig sind zu arbeiten, 2) Wittwen, deserted wives u n d their families; 3) a majority of those receiving i n d o o r r e lief. D i e n u m b e r dieser classes sind stated respectively wie 170,069; 165,267 u n d 159,118, was giebt a total of paupers not i n c l u d e d in die e n u m e r a t i o n of labourers von a b o u t half a million. Läßt a residue von a b o u t a m i l l i o n für die criminal, destitute, u n d vagrant p o p u l a t i o n , die in d e n grossen S t ä d t e n als Pariah Caste existiren. (52) Sicher, if we estimate t h e class u n t e r der lowest i n d e p e n d e n t labour, including paupers receiving relief, criminals, prostitutes, vagrants u n d poor living m a i n l y on private charity, zu 2 Mill, we should be far u n d e r t h e m a r k u n d 2,500,000 oder zwischen ι/Ί u n d Υ$ der total p o p u l a t i o n m e h r correkt estimate. (53) 72

15

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30

35

40

Aus Samuel Laing (jun.): National distress (Fortsetzung)

Part

5

10

II.

Causes

of Existing

Distress.

Es ist etablirt d u r c h official evidence, d a ß eh die Factories R e g u l a t i o n bill in Operation kam, folgender Stand der D i n g e existirte: 1) A n w e n d u n g von K i n d e r n u n t e r 9 J a h r e n c o m m o n . 2) D e r average t e r m der Arbeit oft 14 S t u n d e n täglich, m a n c h m a l fortgesezt d u r c h die N a c h t u n d selbst 40 S t u n d e n n a c h e i n a n d e r , o h n e intermission. 3) D a h e r excessive a m o u n t of labour oft extracted v o n d e n K i n d e r n d u r c h strenge Strafen, inflicted at t h e discretion of reckless u n d irresponsible overseers. 4) K e i n e E r z i e h u n g . 5) no preservation of decency a m o n g a p r o m i s c u o u s assemblage of every age u n d sex. 6) K e i n e Vorsorge für die thrown out of e m p l o y m e n t by t h e want of d e m a n d for a d u l t labour, or disabled in the service by a c c i d e n t or illness. (61) D e r Z u s t a n d auf d e m country u n t e r d e n A c k e r b a u a r b e i t e r n ging voran »until t h e Swing riots in 1830 revealed to u s , by t h e light of blazing cornstacks, that misery a n d black m u t i n o u s d i s c o n t e n t s m o u l d e r e d

15

quite as fiercely u n d e r t h e surface of agricultural as of m a n u f a c t u r i n g E n g land«. (62) W i t h t h e m o r e practical intellect of E n g l a n d der U n g l a u b e an spiritual things took t h e form of indifference to m o r a l influences, a n d a hard m e c h a n i c a l way of thinking, which would recognise n o t h i n g as real which was n o t tangible a n d material. (63) »No good was ever yet d o n e by 20 wasting t i m e in vain regrets, by kicking against t h e pricks, a n d refusing to accept accomplished facts.« (I.e.)

Economical Causes of Existing Distress. Population. Theory of Malthus. 1801 war die P o p u l a t i o n von G r e a t Britain 10,472,048; 1841 aber 25 18,664,761. Dieser rate of increase adds 260,000 souls jedes J a h r zu G r e a t Britain u n d w e n n c o n t i n u e d at t h e s a m e rate, verdoppelt die Bevölkerung in a b o u t 50 J a h r e n . (64) 1754 Irland was c o m p u t e d to c o n t a i n 2,372,634 Einwohner, 1791, 4,206,642 u n d e n t h ä l t n u n 8,205,382. So in less als 90 J a h r e n fast vervierfacht u n d dieß exclusive seiner emigrations 30 n a c h England, Schottland, A m e r i c a , die sich zwischen 1801 u n d 1821 a u f 1,000,000 belief. Gleichzeitig 3 Mill, i m m e r an d e m verge des H u n g e r t o d e s b e i der slightest failure der potatoe crop. U n d in Irland t h e p o p u l a t i o n increases fastest grade in d e n m o s t distressed districts. Ζ. Β. In der Provinz Leinster zwischen 1821 u n d 1831 der Z u w a c h s n u r 9%, in Ulster 14%, wäh35 rend in C o n n a u g h t 22%. H i e r finden wir wieder Galway u n d M a y o , die 2 m o s t destitute counties, exhibiting die eine an increase of 27, die a n d r e

73

Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 · Heft XI von 25 %. In M u n s t e r finden wir Clare, Kerry u n d Tipperary an der Spitze der Liste. (66, 67) In Lancashire, der rate of increase, zwischen 1831 u n d 1841 ist 24,7%, in W e s t m o r e l a n d dagegen n u r 2,5 u n d in C u m b e r l a n d 4,8. (67) N i e m a n d heirathet unvorsichtiger als die ärmsten Weber, weil sie die K i n d e r schon von d e m 6' J a h r an m i t z u m V e r d i e n e n b r a u c h e n ... Evid e n c e a b o u n d s of the t e n d e n c y der m a n u f a c t u r i n g districts generally zu improvident marriages, ebenso so in d e m m o s t wretched u n d degraded T h e i l der Agriculturbevölkerung. (68) It is a m a t t e r of d e m o n s t r a t i o n , from t h e genealogies of patrician families in various countries, that if the people were all in easy circumstances the world would soon be depopulated. (69) Im D e p a r t e m e n t du N o r d , d e m focus der french destitution, wuchs die Bevölker u n g von 1 8 2 6 - 1 8 3 6 von 962,848 zu 1,086,417 oder um 1 3 % , während der general increase in F r a n c e w ä h r e n d derselben Periode n u r 5,2 %. (69) Misery, up to the extreme point of famine a n d pestilence, instead of checking, tends to increase population. (69) In F r a n c e von 1 7 8 9 - 1 8 4 0 die Bevölkerung n u r gewachsen um 40%, aber der n a t i o n a l wealth sich verfünffacht. (72) In Irland: L a n d arable 5,389,040; pasture 6,736,240; wastes capable of i m p r o v e m e n t 4,900,000. Die Population zu 8 Mill, giebt 1½ acres of cultivated u n d 2% acres of cultivable land per h e a d . In parts des C a n t o n of Z ü rich u n d des Pays-de-Vaud, wo die Lage der peasantry die beste in Europa, ist der average nicht V/ acres per head. An acre of land producirt im D u r c h s c h n i t t 2 / qr wheat u n d 1 qr ist j ä h r l i c h an a m p l e allowance für j e d e Person. In Great Britain sind ungefähr 1,500,000 horses, die c o n s u m e im D u r c h s c h n i t t as m u c h grain as would support 8 m e n . E n g l a n d allein h a t 15,379,200 acres in pastures u n d supports seine present p o p u l a t i o n von 1 0 , 2 5 2 , 8 0 0 a r a b l e a c r e s . ([72,] 73) W e n n England h e u t e i n small properties zu parzelliren, wie Frankreich, so k ö n n t e n 5,000,000 families oder eine Population von 20 Millionen erhalten j e d e family 2% acres arable, 4 acres of pasture u n d 2 acres of improvable waste each. (I.e.) |

5

10

15

20

4

l

2

|29| Maschinen. Extension of Manufactures. Factory System. N a c h Baines a firstrate cottonspinning factory c a n n o t be built, filled m i t M a s c h i n e r i e , u n d fitted m i t steamengines u n d gasworks, u n t e r 100,000 I. A steamengine of 100 horsepower will turn 50,000 spindles, which will prod u c e 62,500 miles of fine cotton thread per day. In such a factory 1000 persons will spin as m u c h thread as 250,000 persons could without machinery. (75) D e r powerloom, obgleich schon 1787 d u r c h Cartwright erfunden, seine i n t r o d u c t i o n gradual u n d erst general in d e n lezten 10 oder 15 J a h r e n .

74

25

30

35

Aus Samuel Laing (jun.): National distress (Fortsetzung)

5

10

15

20

25

MacCulloch schäzt die Z a h l der powerlooms in G r e a t Britain auf 130,000, was in productive power = a b o u t 300,000 h a n d l o o m s . Der use des powerloom noch, in a great m e a s u r e , confined to plain cloths, figured a n d fancy goods being woven by h a n d . Der handloomweaver indeß has become a m e r e outdoor member of the factory, with no pretensions to be considered as an independent manufacturer. (75) There is no effective d e m a n d for o u r m a n u f a c t u r e s a m o n g the l a z z a r o n i of Naples, n o t b e c a u s e they do n o t prefer good clothes to rags, b u t b e c a u s e they prefer idleness with rags to l a b o u r with good clothes. W i t h a n o t h e r n u m e r o u s class there is no d e m a n d for foreign manufactures, b e c a u s e their time is of so little value, t h a t it is impossible to undersell the h o m e m a d e produce of d o m e s t i c industry. (76) Being left at full liberty by the legislature to buy labour like cotton wherever they could get it cheapest, they succeeded to such an extent t h a t the e m p l o y m e n t of the adult m a l e l a b o u r m a y almost be said to be superseded. In 4213 factories which p r o d u c e t h e bulk der e n o r m o u s p r o d u c t i o n in d e n 4 staple m a n u f a c t u r e s of cotton, wool, flax u n d silk, out of 422,209 h a n d s employed, n u r 96,752 are m a l e s ü b e r 18 J a h r e , w ä h r e n d 244,821 are females, wovon 162,256 u n t e r 2 1 . (78) I n r u n d e n Z a h l e n 270,000 h a n d s u n t e r 2 1 J a h r e n verwandt i n d e n factories, while the whole n u m b e r , m a l e a n d female, ü b e r 21 Jahre, ist n u r 150,000; klar daher, daß, ein J a h r u m s andre, 40 oder 50,000 persons, trained from early childhood to factory labour, m u s t be cast adrift. W h a t becomes of t h e m ? handloomweavers etc etc. (80) In A m e r i c a the law provides that if children are employed in factories, 3 m o n t h s at least out of every year shall be devoted to e d u c a t i o n . This, with the force of public opinion, a m o u n t s to a prohibition of infant labour. (81) A u s d e m R e p o r t of C o m m i t t e e on M a c h i n e r y , 1841, ersieht m a n , d a ß 1831 there were 700 persons in d e m N o t t i n g h a m trade working their own m a c h i n e s in their respective houses; 1836 aber nur mehr 302 so situated. (83)

30

In dem Second Report of Committee on Machinery statuirt, daß labour, estimated by p r o d u c t i o n , is decidedly cheaper in England than in any country on the continent. (87) "The weavers of Spitalfields are rapidly descending to t h e size of Lilliputians; a n d yet, 40 years ago, the r e g i m e n t of volunteers raised in Bethnal G r e e n u n d Spitalfields were goodlooking m e n . Bad air, b a d 35 lodging, a n d bad food, cause the children to grow up an enfeebled a n d diminutive race of m e n ; b u t of 613 m e n enlisted at B i r m i n g h a m and the neighbouring towns, only 238 were approved for service." (Chadwick, Sanitary Report.) [90]

40

Gregg giebt die folgende division der gross proceeds of a farm in t h e Lothians: R e n t 3 3 % , Expenses 47%, Profit u n d Interest 20%, Total 100. (97)

75

Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 · Heft XI

Emigration. D i e a n n u a l average n u m b e r of emigrants v o m U n i t e d K i n g d o m für die 12 J a h r e e n d e n d 1837 war 57,000 n a c h d e m Report des Agent G e n e r a l for Emigration. (122) At the present rate, nearly / des annual increase of population in Great Britain is absorbed by emigration. (122) D e r a m o u n t der e m i gration n a c h Australia n i c h t ü b e r % des n a c h America. (123) l

3

5

Building. Mercenary speculators have been allowed to do what they like with their own, i.e., to take advantage of the influx of population, in order to r u n up rows of wretched hovels, streets built back to back, without drains or sewers, 10 courts a n d wynds without ventilation, cities without playground or breathing place. They have b e e n allowed to crowd lodgers together pellmell, witho u t distinction of sex or age, to stow t h e m away in cellars, to pack t h e m 5 or 6 together in b e d s yet warm with the contagion of typhus fever—in a word to work the mine of misery as they could with most profit a n d least ex15 pense. In no particular have the rights of persons been so avowedly a n d shamefully sacrificed to the rights of property, as in regard to the lodging of the labouring class. Every large town m a y be looked u p o n as a place of human sacrifice, a shrine where t h o u s a n d s pass yearly t h r o u g h the fire as offerings to the Moloch of avarice. ([149,] 150) 20

76

Aus Thomas Hopkins: Great Britain for the last 40 years

Hopkins. (Thomas.) Great Britain for the last 40 Years etc L o n d o n . 1834.

C. 5

10

15

20

25

I.

Introduction.

rent is a tax levied by the landowners as monopolists u n d t h a t tax is charged on the c o n s u m e r s of l a n d e d p r o d u c e in an addition to its price, in the same way that a tax u p o n tea, malt, hops, oder irgend eine andre W a a re, is charged in an increased price of the article. N u r im ersten Falle die tax paid to o n e class of the c o m m u n i t y by the whole of the r e m a i n d e r . (25) Every thing that tends to raise up obstacles to the a c c u m u l a t i o n of capital has a tendency to cause profit to be high, a n d every thing t h a t stimulates to a c c u m u l a t i o n has a t e n d e n c y to cause profit to be low. (38) | |30| A loan, then, to a government, to carry on a war, is to be considered as a tax on wages, levied t h r o u g h the agency of the capitalists of t h e c o u n try, who collect the tax in the form of additional profit, a n d they or a part of t h e m , pay the a m o u n t to the government in the loan which they advance. (43) Profit h a s a selfadjusting power, a n d adapts itself to t h e supply of capital in such a way as to e n s u r e s o m e supply u n d e r almost every variety of circumstances. 1253 der Zinsfuß in E n g l a n d 50 % per Jahr. ... Distress on the part of the labouring class, does n o t prevent profit from rising to an extravagant h e i g h t . . . In m o d e r n e u r o p e a n countries profit is comparatively low. (44) If you r e d u c e the labouring population, n o t only will t h e capital be reduced, but, it will be r e d u c e d in a greater degree t h a n the p o p ulation. (57) (Die Herren v o n der Populationstheorie n e h m e n dazu an, daß das Capital dasselbe bleibt, w e n n die Bevölkerung abnimmt.)

77

Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 • Heft XI

Von

1793-1802.

D e r extent des rise in der Profitrate u n d die c o n s e q u e n t r e d u c t i o n in d e m general rate of wages, m a y be seen from the prices of t h e 3 % consols, which were: 91½ im J a h r 1792, 76 im J a h r 1793, 67 / im J a h r 1794, 66¼ im J a h r 1795, 5 62¼ im Jahr 1796, 50% im J a h r 1797, 51 im J a h r 1798, 56 im J a h r 1799, 61 im J a h r 1800, 58¼ im J a h r 1801 u n d 70 / im J a h r 1802. D i e capitalists, in their additional profits, h a t t e n die m e a n s b o t h of paying their taxes a n d of creating annuities for themselves by feeding t h e loans. (83) Also das whole des wealth expended von der Regierung furnished von der labouring class. 10 (84) In countries supplied with gold in exchange for other c o m m o d i t i e s , the value of gold will d e p e n d on the cost of procuring it. In Siberia m a g es 5, in Polen 2, in F r a n c e 1¼, in G r e a t Britain 1 qr of wheat kosten, to procure an o u n c e of gold u n d in diesen countries respectively, the exchangeable value of the gold would be d e t e r m i n e d by the cost of procuring it. 15 (113) It should be recollected t h a t t h o u s a n d s of ingenious contrivances have b e e n tried a n d laid aside, before spinning m a c h i n e s were brought to their present state of perfection (i.e. in 1815) ... their u n i t e d effects a m o u n t to this, that t h e labour of o n e person, aided by t h e m , can now prod u c e as m u c h yarn, in a given t i m e , as 200 could have p r o d u c e d 50 years 20 ago. [134] (Kennedy in a paper published in the M e m o i r s of the Literary a n d Philosop. Societ. of Manchester, v. 3) 7

8

3

4

H ä t t e n u n die cotton i m A u s s e n m a r k t i m m e r n o c h z u d e m s e l b e n Preiß, i.e. Q u a n t u m Gold verkauft »gold would have c o m e into the country in such a b u n d a n c e , as to cause the moneyprices of labour, a n d of all articles p r o d u c e d in an u n i m p r o v e d way, to be doubled«. ([135,] 136) W h e n profit falls, circulating is disposed to b e c o m e , to s o m e extent, fixed capital. W e n n Z i n s 5%, capital n i c h t used in m a k i n g new roads, canals or railways, bis diese works yield a corresponding large %; b u t w h e n interest n u r 4 oder 3 % capital would be advanced for such i m p r o v e m e n t s , if it o b t a i n e d only a proportional lower percentage. Jointstock C o m p a n i e s , to accomplish great improvements, are t h e n a t u r a l offspring of a falling rate of profit. It also induces individuals to fix their capitals in t h e form of buildings a n d m a c h i n ery. (232) M c C u l l o c h schäzt so die n u m b e r s u n d i n c o m e s derer engaged in der cotton manufacture:

78

25

30

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w Aus Thomas Hopkins: Great Britain for the last 40 years

5

833,000 weavers, spinners, bleachers, etc at 24 I. each (a year) 111,000 joiners, engineers, machine makers etc at 30 I. each Profit, superintendence, coal and materials of machines 944,000

£20,000,000 3,333,000

6,667,000 £ 30,000,000

V o n d e n 6% millions, 2 millions are supposed to go for coal, iron, a n d other materials, for m a c h i n e r y a n d other outgoings, which would give e m 10 ployment, at £ 30 a year each, to 66,666 m a k i n g a total of people e m p l o y e d of 1,010,666; diesen h i n z u z u f ü g e n % der Zahl of children, aged etc d e p e n d ent on those who work, or an additional 505,330, so a total, supported on wages, of 1,515,996 persons. D i e s e n h i n z u z u f ü g e n die die are supported, directly or indirectly, by the 4¾ millions of profit, at £ 2 0 a head, 15 233,350 - u n d wir h a b e n a total p o p u l a t i o n of 1,749,346 persons supported by the 30 millions o b t a i n e d in the cotton m a n u f a c t u r e s . (336, 7) E b e n s o viel essen die Staatsgläubiger. [337]

79

1 Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 · Heft XI

| 3 i | Outlines of Popular Economy, by Jelinger C. Symons. L o n d o n . 1840. 4 cardinal elements of p r o d u c e : 1) the a b u n d a n c e of material, s u c h as land, minerals, wood, a n d water; 2) the quality of material, such as fertility of 5 soil a n d mines, goodness of climate etc. 3) the a b u n d a n c e of labour c o m pared with population, in other words the fewness of n o n p r o d u c t i v e consumers 4) the skill of l a b o u r a n d the l a b o u r of m i n d , as applied to p r o d u c tive invention a n d m a c h i n e r y . Fälschlich fügt m a n d i e s e m h i n z u t h e produce applied to further p r o d u c t i o n in the shape of m a t e r i a l a n d suste- 10 n a n c e of labour, this, however c o n t a i n s no fresh element, b u t merely constitutes a c o m p o u n d m a t e r i a l into which the e l e m e n t s already n a m e d have alone entered, acting a n d reacting on e a c h other in the process a n d r o u t i n e of production. ... This application of the savings of p r o d u c e is merely the P h o e n i x law of n a t u r e , equally operative in the arts of life as in t h e a n i m a l 15 a n d vegetable world, in which there is no c o n t i n u o u s vitality, a n d where the existence of creation is kept up by a series of reproductions, the older p r o d u c e wasting as the newer waxens, again in its t u r n to decline a n d disappear with the growth of its successor. (16) Profits are the increases of wealth, a n d the only sources of wages, a n d it is alone eventually by increasing 20 these that wages are encreased, a n d by d i m i n i s h i n g t h e m that wages are dim i n i s h e d . (25)

80

Aus Jelinger Cookson Symons: Outlines of popular economy 5

Class of labourers France and Belgium f.

10

1 Class of Mechanics 2 Class of Mechanics Farm labourers Spinning Factory Labourers, men, women, and children

c.

Weekly wages England

Difference after adding 1 s. 3 d. for difference of money value to France und Belgium

s. d.

s. d.

s. d.

15 10 80 7 80

12 6 9 6 6

20 14. 10.

3 4 2 1 4

7 50

6 3

10. 6

2

2 (26)

81

Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 · Heft XI

J. C. Symons. (One of the Assistant Commissioners on the Handloom Inquiry) Arts and Artisans at Home and Abroad. E d i n b u r g h . 1839.

1)

Wages

at

5

Home.

F o l g e n d e rates of wages in d e n Lancashire Factories sind nearly an average for the whole country, a n d were drawn up by the M a n c h e s t e r C h a m b e r of Commerce: Spinners

men women Stretchers Piecers (boys u n d girls) Scavengers In the Card Room Men Young w o m e n Children Throstle Spinners Reelers

82

20 to 25 10 15 25 26 4/7 7 1/6 2/8

10

15 1 4 / 6 - 17 9 - 9/6 6 7 5 9/6 7 9

20

Aus Jelinger Cookson Symons: Arts and artisans at home and abroad

5

10

Weavers by Power. Men Women Dressers' m e n W i n d e r s u n d warpers Mechanics Weaving by Hand. Quality N a n k i n g s (fancy) common

Checks, 15

best fancy common

Cambrics Quiltings

W o v e n by men children a n d women men men children all ages men and women

13 8 28 8 24

·•-

16/1( 12 30 11 26

9

-

15

6 10 7 6 6 9

8 13 7/6 7 6/6 12

( 1 , 2) I

|31[a]| In a n d r e n trades folgende Durchschnittswages in E n g l a n d :

20

25

30

35

F u s t i a n cutters Machinemakers Ironfounders Dyers u n d Dressers

all ages men men men Young men boys men Tailors Porters men Shoemakers men Whitesmiths dto Sawyers dto Carpenters dto Stone M a s o n s dto Bricklayers dto Bricklayers' labourers dto Painters dto Slaters dto Plasterers dto Spadesmen dto Blacksmiths dto Compositors dto

10 26 28 15 12 5 18 14 15 22 24 20 18 17 12 18 3/8 per 19 10 18 24

12 30 30 20 14 10 20 16 18 24 28 25 22 20

day 21 15 22

83

Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 • Heft XI Wages in Sheffield von 2 5 - 3 5 per week für die w o r k m e n in skilled dep a r t m e n t s u n d oft zu 40. In den ironworks in a B i r m i n g h a m district von 20 zu 30 für die c o m m o n labourers. In d e n Leeds flaxmills: M a l e adults 1 7 - 1 9 per week, females 5/6 bis 6/6, children zwischen 9 u n d 10 J a h r e n 3/6 bis 4. In d e n Gloucestershire clothfactories m a l e adults von 1 2 - 1 4 , fe- 5 males 4 - 5 , children 2 - 3 / 6 . (2, 3 ) In u n d bei Glasgow m a s o n s , bricklayers, h o u s e carpenters, b l a c k s m i t h s etc earn von 1 9 - 2 2 per week, engineers von 2 0 - 3 0 , tailors, cabinet makers, hatters, p l u m b e r s , shoemakers etc von 2 0 - 2 5 . In d e m country die wages um 1 0 - 2 0 % niedriger. (3, 4) In d e n C o t t o n mills das following ist a fair 10 general average: per week s. Picking room, females 20 years u n d upwards A t t e n d i n g cards, males a n d females, 13 J a h r e bis 15 drawing frames, females, 16 J a h r e u n d upwards slobbing frames dto do finishers do do stretchers do do throstle spinners do 13 J a h r e u n d upwards reelers do 16 toppers males 20 J a h r e u n d upwards spinners do do outside piecers do 16-20 inside piecers do 13-16 cleaners do 9-13

7 15 4/6 6/6 6/6 7 8/6 7 6/6 25 14 25-29 6 3/6 21.

In Lancashire fast dieselbe Distribution der Arbeit, aber der average rate of wages für Weiber, m e n , children z u s a m m e n , wöchentlich 10/6 per h e a d . (4) J132.1 Die stocking makers of Leicester average 8/3 per week. In D u m fries die workmen are paid at so m u c h per d o z e n of the fabric woven, whether stockings, drawers or shirts. M e n ' s stockings of 24 gage are paid 9/6 per dozen, and an average w o r k m a n will m a k e 18 pair in the week; gross wages 14/3 wovon a b z u z i e h n für framerent u n d seaming 2/2, bleibt 12/1 clearwages u n d dieß der average rate in this trade. Fast alle bishergen a n n t e n trades sind more or less c o m b i n e d . V o n d e n n i c h t c o m b i n i r t e n die handloomweavers die hauptsächlichsten. ([5,] 6) D i e woollen weavers work

84

20

30

35

40

Aus Jelinger Cookson Symons: Arts and artisans at home and abroad almost entirely in factories where t h e h a n d l o o m s are placed, belonging to the manufacturer; u n d wo dieß der Fall ist m i t den ginghams, checks u n d other cotton fabrics die wages invariably von 4 0 - 8 0 % higher. (7) engineers etc etc. 5

2)

Wages

in

Belgium.

J o h n Cockerill zu Seraing (Maschinenfabrik). Zu Seraing bei Liege, 3000 w o r k m e n employed. Die wages sind wie folgt: Dessinateurs 1 5 0 0 - 2 0 0 0 fcs jährlich oder £ 6 0 - 8 0 . D i e w o r k m e n sind divided in brigades. There are 40 in d e m ersten process who earn von 3 - 4 f. täglich; die 10 founders 4 - 5 fc täglich; die nailmakers 200 sehr y o u n g m e n , b e z a h l t per weight of nails, u n d earn von 3 - 4 fr b e i n g responsible for losses. D i e m a n u facture of furnaces sehr b e d e u t e n d , von 5 0 0 - 6 0 0 w o r k m e n employed, earning von 4 - 5 fcs; this work is very laborious, a n d deafens m o s t of t h e m e n . etc etc ([17,] 18) Die average wages der adult w o r k m e n in d i e s e m establish15 m e n t an 3f. 50 c. Die others in B e l g i u m 10% niedriger. Die gewöhnliche Arbeitszeit 11 S t u n d e n per Tag. Die miners gain as follows: Die superintendents 2 f. 30 c. per day, die first class w o r k m e n 2 f. 25 c, Zweite class 2 f. 10 c, Y o u t h s 1 f. 90 c, U n t e r 12 J a h r e n 1 f. 30. Age of admission ist 10 Jahre. Period of work 6 S t u n d e n per Tag. (19) In Cotton s p i n n i n g facto20 ries, deren h a u p t s ä c h l i c h e zu G e n t , ist der general rate of wages: for adult m e n , spinners etc von 2 f. 50 c. zu 3 f. per day; für apprentices von 12 zu 16 J a h r e n 75 c. bis 1 f., für girls 75 c. bis 1 f. (22) In d e n l i n e n s p i n n i n g factories den m e n are paid 1 f. 35 cent, für je 12 h o u r s work. Die children e m ployed % der Zahl der m e n . (23) 25 Trades Masons, Carpenters und Blacksmiths Daylabourers 30 Saddlers Wheelwrights Compositors Lithographic Printers 35 Cabinetmakers Bleachers Taylors und Shoemakers 40

Townwages f. ct.

Country Wages f.

ct.

2 5 1 35 2 25 2 25 3

1

60

Hours usually worked

11½ 11½

5 3 2 2

50

1

16 in summer 60 oder mit food 75 c.

11-12

-85

Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 · Heft XI [Trades]

Sawyers Forgers Coach Painters Paviers Labourers at Canal wharfs Miners

Provinces

[Townwages]

[Country Wages]

f.

f.

ct.

ct.

3 25 6 2 25 1 80 1

5

70 2

50

10

Agricultural Labourers Conditions Men f.

Brabant "1 Westpellier J West Flanders Liege Luxemburg

[Hours usually worked]

Γ with food |_ without food f with food \ without food J with food \ without food without food

c.

Women f.

63 91 1 1 1

20 18

10

c. 31 80

0

80 88

15

20

85

D i e wages der agricultural labourers wechseln sehr in Westflandern; n o c h niedriger in Ostflandern, weil hier weniger factories. In Liege u n d N a m u r , im H e r z des Fabrikdistricts, die agricultural wages fast doppelt was in d e n 25 purely agricultural provinces. (24, 25) D i e handloomweavers sind divided in classes, die exceedingly v o n ein­ a n d e r abweichen: D i e c o t t o n weavers b e w o h n e n chiefly Ostflandern, G e n t , St N i c o l a s etc. D i e 1' class v o n c o t t o n weavers 12 fc per W o c h e , die 2 t e 8 o d e r 9fcs, die 3 t e , b e s t e h e n d aus apprentices, old m e n v o n 3%-4%f. per 30 week. S t u n d e n 1 2 - 1 5 , selten weniger als 13. D e r l o o m u n d its a p p e n d a g e s at t h e cost des weaver, aber d e r m a n u f a c t u r e r finds t h e winding. D e r aver­ age n e t gain per week für adults 8 fc. (25, 26) In V e n d e r s die wages von 1 2 - 2 0 fcs wöchentlich für weavers. M e i s t 12 fc d a h e r clear earnings. ([26,] 27) Die silkweavers besonders zu A n t w e r p e n , average 1 f. 50 c. per day, 35 weben n u r plain silks. (I.e.) Die m e i s t e n l i n e n weavers weave the plain shirting a n d ||33| sheeting. Sie are completely i n t e r m i x e d m i t d e n agriculturists. A small farmer has generally 2 oder 3 l o o m s which he or his servants u s e w h e n n o t employed o u t of doors. W h e r e a m a n weaves constantly, he can earn von 1 f. 25 c. bis 1 f. 50 c. per day. (27) Einige d a m a s k 40 weavers zu Courtrai etc who work solely in factories u n d von 6 - 1 4 f. per W o c h e verdienen, je n a c h i h r e m skill. (I.e.) Die food der working classes, n i c h t n u r von Belgien, s o n d e r n des C o n t i n e n t s ü b e r h a u p t consists of vegetables; m e a t is not the food of t h e working classes ... It is the relish u s e d

86

Aus Jelinger Cookson Symons: Arts and artisans at home and abroad with food. Die Italiener essen m a c a r o n i , die french u n d G e r m a n h a b e n als staple food bread or cabbage, die Irish Potatoes, % selbst von J o h n Bull lebt auf vegetable diet. D i e I n d i e r essen Reis, die W e s t i n d i e r Y a m s u n d b r e a d tree, die Africans dates; in fact, a fraction, a n d that a very small one, of 5 m a n k i n d are carnivorous. ... Die l i n e n weavers u n d c o m m o n labourers in Belgien c o n s u m e potatoes u n d ryebread, vegetable soup, rarely flavoured with meat, coffee of chicory, beer etc. Die cottonweavers u n d factory workm e n (leben schlechter als die in d e n iron works of H a i n a u l t , Liege u n d die der m a c h i n e m a k i n g factories von Seraing, Bruxelles, G h e n t . A u c h schlech10 ter als die m a s o n s , blacksmiths, carpenters etc der towns. D i e ersten n ä m lich live on potatoes u n d vegetables, m i t a piece of m e a t a m o n g t h e m , for dinner regularly; coffee of chicory; u n d an Sundays, spirits in m o d e r a t e quantity. Dieses die best paid. D i e m a s o n s etc, ebenso die woollen factory u n d domestic weavers c o n s u m e either a less portion of m e a t oder n e h m e n 15 es 3 oder 4x n u r per Woche.) h a b e n Potatoes u n d vegetable soup für ihr chief food, m i t bread half rye u n d half wheat; coffee u n d gelegentlich a glass of spirits, a n d c o m m o n l y brown beer - execrably boiled. ( 2 7 - 2 9 ) M i t 7 d. k a n n an ablebodied m a n in d e m country in Belgien leben. Bread, wie es die Arbeiter essen, \% d. per lb in the country. (29)

20

3)

Wages

in

France.

D u p i n statuirt m i t R e c h t 2 f. 26 c. per day für die n o r t h e r n u n d 1 f. 90 c. für die Südprovinzen. (36) Elsaß der Hauptcottondistrikt. Bei d e n H e r r e n Schlumberguer u n d Bocard's zu Guebwillers: m e n (spinners) 1 f. 40 c . - 2 f., W o m e n 1 f . - l f. 20 c, children 4 0 - 7 0 cent. A r b e i t s s t u n d e n ü b e r 13 u n d oft 25 14, Kinder wie adults. In der Normandie u n d einigen Plätzen des Elsaß die wages der h a n d l o o m w e a v e r so niedrig wie in Schottland, in allen ü b r i g e n Fällen höher. ([36,] 37) Die h o m e s der working classes meist dirty, c o m fortless and evincing every s y m p t o m of b a d m a n a g e m e n t a n d poverty c o m bined. (38) Die Elsässischen W e b e r im A l l g e m e i n e n nicht o h n e sufficiency 30 of food, aber in allen a n d e r n respects ill off. In d e n m o u n t a i n s der Vosges die peasantry n o c h schlechter d r a n u n d there l o o m s also found, b u t chiefly on the system of the „customer" weavers von Schottland, obgleich n i c h t exclusively. (39) D i e Lyoner W e b e r sind an emaciated, miserablelooking set of beings. They are diseased u n d u n d e r s i z e d . (43) Tarare, bei Lyon, is der 35 chief muslin district of F r a n c e . E i n e Portion dieser W e b e r in d e m country verdient n u r 75 cent. (7½ d.) bis 1 f. 25 c. (1 s.) per day; die der Stadt von 2 f . - 2 f. 50 u n d m a n c h m a l 3 fc. n a c h i h r e m skill. D e r m a n u f a c t u r e r liefert n u r den reed u n d das u p p e r m o u n t i n g , all the rest being at the expense of

87

Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 · Heft XI the workmen. Die in t o w n weben das ganze Jahr, die des country n i c h t ü b e r 7 M o n a t e . D i e r e m a i n i n g 5 beschäftigt in agricultural e m p l o y m e n t . Fast all the fathers dieser weavers in d e m country sind small proprietors themselves. (44) A townweaver im average 30 sous per day u n d der c o u n tryweaver 25, für 14 hours work. Sie sind a quiet simple people, who have 5 few wants, and b u t limited intelligence. (45) Normandy produces pullicates, domestics u n d andre coarser articles. Die schlechtesten off in F r a n c e . D i e peasants live chiefly on vegetable soup, a n d the coarsest sort of bread. (46) In den Norman spinning mills, Spinners von 1 5 - 2 0 fcs per week, working von 8 0 - 8 4 hours. W o m e n u n d Girls, employed at t h e carding a n d drawing 10 operations, von 7 - 1 0 fcs. Die power loomweavers von 1 2 - 1 6 fcs wöchentlich. (47)

4)

Wages

in

Switzerland.

In Switzerland grosse i n t e r m i x t u r e of agricultural u n d artisan o c c u p a t i o n s , a vast n u m b e r of the working classes p r o d u c i n g a portion of their own subsistence. (59) R ü h m t d i e ß S y s t e m s e h r . | |34| Bread fluctuates von 1 zu \% d. per lb. of 17 o u n c e s ; the average is 1¾ d. for c o m m o n bread, i.e. o n e batz of Zürich. M e a t varies von 2 / d. zu 4]/ d. per Swiss lb. average price 3 d. Potatoes 20 d. per sack of 33 gallons. Milk, von 5 - 7 farthings per pot of 3 pints. (72) Die Swiss h a b e n eingesehn, that a handicraft, at least, as far as plain weaving is concerned, requiring the skill of children a n d the strength of w o m e n , m u s t necessarily be r e m u nerated by the wages of children's and w o m e n ' s labour. Weaving, therefore, except, in the fancy work, has long ceased to be a separate e m p l o y m e n t . ([72,] 73)

15

l

2

2

5)

Wages

in

Austria

und

25

Prussia.

Die wages der factory labourers in Austria: Spinners 1 fl. (1/8) per day. women von 3 0 - 4 0 kr. (10 d.) bis (1/1½ d.) per day; children 1 3 - 1 6 kr. (4½ d.) bis (5½ d.) per day. Die h o u r s of factory labour oft 15 h o u r s per day, exclusive of the m e a l t i m e s u n d oft 17 S t u n d e n . (74, 75) In d e n dye-works zu Elberfeld die m e n receive an 4 Th. = 12 s. p e r W o c h e , für die hardest work, m i t long h o u r s , u n d 3 dollars = 9/1 für die second class work. (77) D i e weavers, die Majorität der a r b e i t e n d e n classes dieses Platzes, sind die best paid u n d earn von 8 - 1 6 s. per week, n a c h ihr e m skill u n d der class of work, besonders silks u n d velvets. (77[, 78]) In

88

20

30

35

Aus Jelinger Cookson Symons: Arts and artisans at home and abroad

5

Nordpreussen, M e c h a n i c s , as carpenters u n d blacksmiths, earn in d e n towns von 1/6 zu 1/10 per day. S h o e m a k e r s , tailors etc an 1/2; c o m m o n labourers in towns 1 s. per day in s u m m e r u n d 9 d. in winter u n d in d e m country von 5 - 8 d. Agricultural labourers, ausser houserent, fuel u n d m a n c h m a l % acre land, von 5 - 7 d. per day. (78) Coarse m e a t costs in Wurtemberg im D u r c h s c h n i t t 8 kr. per lb = 2% d., bread von 3 zu 4 kr. = 1% d. per lb. (81) l

S. b e h a u p t e t daß die working class of E n g l a n d wenigstens um / besser dran als auf d e m C o n t i n e n t . (84) whilst very great disparity exists between the rates of p a y m e n t in t h e different d e p a r t m e n t s of labour at h o m e , an u n iformity prevails abroad, varied alone by the variations of skill required, and by the local d e m a n d for a n d supply of labour. (83) D a s factory workpeople Englands das bestbezahlte i m Vergleich m i t d e m A u s l a n d . D i e wages in d e n Lancashire factories average 10 s. 6 d. per week per h e a d . In France, Switzerland, Austria u n d B e l g i u m von 6 f. zu 9 f., averaging 7 f. 50 c. = 6 s. 3 d., was in j e n e n districts in real value = 8 s. 4 d., so d a ß cotton factory workpeople of Lancashire h a b e n 26% or a quarter m e h r wages als dieselbe class abroad. D i e disparity less in allen a n d e r n Zweigen der I n d u strie u n d die Differenz nimmt ab in each b r a n c h of industry, in t h e s a m e proportion in which that b r a n c h is unfortified by c o m b i n a t i o n s at h o m e ... the agricultural wages differing very little u n d die handloomweavers being somewhat higher abroad. (84) In F r a n c e wages as low if not lower t h a n in most countries; a n d the people live in a state of discomfort, n u r surpassed in d e n ä r m s t e n parts of Austria and W u r t e m b e r g . (85) In Schottland ist die Sache on a par m i t Prussia. (86) 6

10

15

20

25

7)

On

the

elements

which

govern

wealth

and

wages.

Der Arbeitspreiß regulirt d u r c h supply u n d d e m a n d . Diese aber d e t e r m i n e n u r the labourer's share: b u t there are another set of agencies, which determ i n e the a m o u n t of wealth to be shared. (88) I n a s m u c h as trade is re30 stricted c o m m o d i t i e s are d i m i n i s h e d , a n d with c o m m o d i t i e s wages, since wages can alone consist in c o m m o d i t i e s . (91) Die n u m b e r of w o m e n who perish by prostitution in G r e a t Britain exceeds that of any other country in the whole world, m i n d e s t e n s = 3:1 in proportion to the population. (119)

89

Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 • Heft XI

11)

Combinations

at

Home

and

Abroad.

D e n englischen ähnliche C o m b i n a t i o n s h a u p t s ä c h l i c h n u r i n R o u e n u n d Lyons. (135) n o t h i n g can benefit the labourer's share in the aggregate, except what increases the a m o u n t of c o m m o d i t i e s or lessens the n u m b e r of C o n s u m e r s , in proportion to that a m o u n t . C o m b i n a t i o n s viewed in their operation on the whole body of a people do neither. (136) the c o m b i n a t i o n s h a v e b e e n beneficial in teaching knowledge. (137) |

|35|

12)

Die

Handloomweavers

5

of Scotland.

Zerfallen in 2 distinct classes. D i e ältre Klasse h a t n o c h b e t r ä c h t l i c h e n Theil der früher dieser Klasse eignen Bildung. (146) D i e j ü n g r e G e n e r a t i o n 10 far less educated u n d lasterhafter ... I am (nach seinen B e o b a c h t u n g e n u n ter den schottischen W e b e r n ) well convinced, that poverty has the s a m e effect on the m i n d that d r u n k e n n e s s has on t h e body. I believe it to be a m a i n i n s t r u m e n t in the d e b a s e m e n t of m a n k i n d . (147) In Oestreich kostet das erecting a cotton mill of 16,000 spindles m i n d e stens 2 I. per spindle oder f 32,000. In England, zu 17 s. 6 d. per spindle würde dieß n u r kosten £ 14,000. (200) (Aber die long hours, die low wages, die waterpower costing n o t h i n g fully c o m p e n s a t e s for the cost of erection.) [201] In Oestreich die F a b r i k a n t e n 1 1 - 1 2 % Netprofit. [199] E b e n s o in Frankreich in der Spinnerei 1 1 % . (216)

15

20

Ein manufacturer of Glasgow giebt d e m S. folgende N o t i z e n : " E x p e n s e of erecting a powerloom factory of 500 looms, calculated to weave a good fabric of calico or shirting, such as is generally m a d e in Glasgow, would be about £18,000. A n n u a l produce, say 150,000 pieces of 24 yards at 6 s. W h i c h cost as u n d e r : Interest on sunk capital, a n d for depreciation of value of the m a c h i n e r y Steampower, oil, tallow etc, keeping up machinery, utensils etc Yarns a n d flax Wages to w o r k m e n Suppose profit

90

25 £45,000

£

1,800 30

2,000 32,000 7,500 1,700 £ 45,000

35

Aus Jelinger Cookson Symons: Arts and artisans at home and abroad In d i e s e m s t a t e m e n t des M a n u f a c t u r e r , wie dieß in Glasgow, aber n i c h t in Lancashire häufig, unterstellt sein G a r n im M a r k t zu kaufen. (233) "After" f ä h r t d e r s e l b e M a n n fort "a s p i n n i n g or weaving factory h a s b e e n wrought for a few years, if b r o u g h t to t h e m a r k e t for sale, t h e price to be got 5 is generally 20 oder 30 % less t h a n t h e cost; a n d if forced u p o n t h e m a r k e t in a t i m e of dull trade, even little m o r e t h a n half t h e cost s o m e t i m e s c a n be got. W h e n trade is good, if a new going mill, either s p i n n i n g or weaving, h a p p e n to c o m e into t h e m a r k e t for sale, it is very s e l d o m t h a t first cost c a n be got for it, though, p e r h a p s , n o t h i n g worse for any tear a n d wear, a n d in 10 every respect fitted up with t h e m o s t approved m a c h i n e r y . " (233, 4) „Probable expense of erecting a spinning cottonmill m i t h a n d m u l e s , calculated to p r o d u c e N o . 40 of a fair average quality, £ 2 3 , 0 0 0 . If p a t e n t selfactors 2000 £ additional. Das p r o d u c e annually zu d e n present prices of cotton, and t h e rates at w h i c h t h e yarns could be sold 15

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£25,000 Cost of which as follows: Interest of s u n k capital, a n d allowance for depreciation of value of m a c h i n e r y zu 10 % Cotton Steampower, oil, tallow, gas, a n d general expense of keeping up utensils u n d m a c h i n e r y in repair Wages to workers Profit

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2,300 14,000

1,800 5,400 1,500 £ 25,000

Das Produce der mill t a k e n at 10,0001b weekly." (234) ||36| "Cost of a cotton spinning mill of 10,000 throstles, calculated to p r o d u c e a fair quality of N o . 24 would be a b o u t £ 20,000. Taking present value of produce, t h e a m o u n t annually would be ,,, _ £ 2 3 , 0 0η Λ0 r

Costing as u n d e r : Interest on s u n k capital, a n d for d e p r e c i a t i o n of value of m a c h i n e r y , zu 1 0 % Cotton Steampower, tallow, oil, gas, keeping m a c h i n e r y in repair etc Wages to Workers A s s u m e profit

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2,000 13,300

2,500 3,800 1,400 £ 2 3 , 0 0 0 " (235)

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Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 • Heft XI Symons. ( I m o b i g e n B u c h e . ) In Frankreich, there is, generally speaking sufficient m a n l y o c c u p a t i o n to be h a d ; a n d consequently, m e n are n o t red u c e d to the necessity of having recourse to trades which require children's skill a n d strength, n o r are they r e m u n e r a t e d with children's wages. (241)

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Aus Samuel Laing (jun.): National distress (Nachtrag)

Laing. (Im obigen Buch.) T h e only articles in w h i c h any effective c o m p e t i t i o n from foreign countries has yet b e e n experienced in n e u t r a l m a r k e t s are: 1) fine a n d expensive printed G o o d s from F r a n c e , owing to t h e superiority in taste and design. 2) 5 Coarse cottons from the U n i t e d States, owing to the advantage in the rawmaterial. 3) Certain descriptions of cotton hosiery from Saxony, where u n skilled h a n d l a b o u r is t h e chief e l e m e n t of cost. 4) a few Swiss cottongoods, owing to the s a m e cause, a n d the superiority of certain dyes. 5) A little hardware a n d other miscellaneous articles from the R h e n i s h provinces, Bel10 gium, and Westphalia. (In silk n a t ü r l i c h F r a n c e superior in m o s t departments.) Also in s o m e descriptions of woollen cloths, F r a n c e , Belgium, a n d G e r m a n y , are on a footing of equality with u s . (87, 88)

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Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 • Heft XI

Hopkins. (Das oben citirte Buch.) Von C o t t o n war der average a n n u a l export, for official value £ The 5 years ending mit 1819 the 5 years ending mit 1824 the 6 years ending mit 1830

20,271,567 23,562,359 31,460,860

declared value £

Mean price of bowed cotton d.

18,202,179 16,161,422 17,113,485

18½ 9½ 7½

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D e r value des rawmaterial unterstellt zu sein % (andre sagen %) des val­ ue des m a n u f a c t u r e d article. S a n k von der ersten bis zur 3* P e r i o d e to ίο nearly 2/s when we c o m p a r e t h e declared values of t h e 2 periods, we m u s t a d d die other % of t h e price of t h e c o t t o n , w h i c h would raise t h e declared value der last period zu £20,000,000, in r o u n d n u m b e r s . U n d so von 1817, d e m m i d d l e J a h r der ersten Periode, bis 1827, d e m Mitteljahr der lezten, nöthig fast 50 % m e h r m a n u f a c t u r e s zu exportiren, in r e t u r n for an e q u a l 15 a m o u n t of m o n e y . 1815 betrug der official value 17,655,378 u n d der d e clared value 20,033,132, 1830 betrug der official value 37,269,395 u n d der declared 17,394,584. This is an extent of r e d u c t i o n in price, for which t h e r e d u c t i o n in t h e price of t h e raw material, a n d t h e i m p r o v e m e n t s in t h e m e t h o d s of producing articles, will not a c c o u n t . Die improve||37|ments 20 waren h a u p t s ä c h l i c h i m spinning d e p a r t m e n t . A u s M r K e n n e d y s s t a t e m e n t of t h e extent of t h e m 1 8 1 2 - 1 8 3 0 , sieht m a n , d a ß in d i e s e m D e p a r t m e n t die Hauptverbesserung in N o . 40 u n d da die increased p r o d u c t i o n at t h e end of 19 J a h r e n n u r 3 auf 8, while t h e decline in t h e declared value of the whole of t h e goods, exported at t h e e n d of 16 J a h r e n , was 42 millions to 25 only a little m o r e t h a n seventeen millions. ( 2 7 3 - 7 5 ) D e r o b e n citirte Hopkins b e m e r k t n o c h i n B e z u g a u f w a g e s : I n a c o u n try possessing m u c h fixed capital in m a c h i n e s where difficult processes re-

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Aus Thomas Hopkins: Great Britain for the last 40 years (Nachtrag) quire great skill a n d care, and, of course, confidence in t h e persons e m ployed, skilful labour m a y c o n t i n u e to be paid at a good rate, while t h e wages of c o m m o n l a b o u r are declining. A n d when the state of the c o m m o n labourer is m u c h r e d u c e d , t h e difference between the rates of p a y m e n t for 5 the two kinds of labour m a y increase. ... T h e comparatively h i g h wages which yet r e m a i n to t h e superior class of labourers in G r e a t Britain, are, therefore, no evidence that c o m m o n l a b o u r is even moderately well paid. The c o n s u m p t i o n of certain taxed articles is s o m e t i m e s pointed o u t as evidence of the undeteriorated, or of t h e improved condition of the people, 10 but the c o n s u m p t i o n of these articles m a y be kept up by the skilled labourers in town, who are increasing in n u m b e r s , and are yet tolerably well paid. (298, 99)

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Exzerpte aus Charles Wing: Evils of the factory system Heft XI. Seite 37

Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 · Heft XI

Charles Wing, (Surgeon to the Royal Metropolitan Hospital for Children etc) Evils of the factory System demonstrated by Parliamentary Evidence. L o n d o n 1837.

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Das bischen i m p r o v e m e n t im factorysystem hervorgebracht d u r c h perpetu a l agitation of the question, d u r c h die frequent strikes der operatives, d u r c h legislative e n a c t m e n t s u n d die voice of public opinion. (IV) Wing giebt sowohl Sadler's Report wie den der government commissioners, die d e n manufacturers sehr günstig waren, als »compelled, in spite of t h e m 10 selves, to give their verdict against the factory system by the sheer force of truth«. (V) W i t h regard to the age at which children begin to work, it appears in evidence, that in s o m e rare instances children begin to work in factories at 5 years old; it is n o t u n c o m m o n to find t h e m there at six; m a n y are u n d e r seven; still m o r e u n d e r eight; b u t the greater n u m b e r are n i n e ; 15 while some, b u t comparatively few, b r a n c h e s of m a n u f a c t u r e do n o t a d m i t of the e m p l o y m e n t of children u n d e r ten years of age. (XXIII) Herr Poulett T h o m s o n (1837) tried to obtain an act to substitute 12 for 13 years, d a m i t K i n d e r von 12 J a h r e n (nach d e n inspectors 35,000) gesetzlich 69 S t u n d e n die W o c h e statt 48 angewandt werden k ö n n t e n . (XXIV) (Dr Kay's 20 P a m p h l e t on the M o r a l a n d Physical C o n d i t i o n of the Working Classes e m ployed in the Cotton M a n u f a c t u r e in M a n c h e s t e r . Dieser Kay sagt u. a.: "There is a state of physical depression which does n o t t e r m i n a t e in fatal organic changes, which, however, converts existence into a prolonged disease, a n d is n o t only compatible with life, b u t is proverbially protracted to 25 an advanced senility.") [LXXV] Between the weight of the factory a n d n o n factory children, there is a considerable difference in favour of the latter,

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Aus Charles Wing: Evils of the factory system being, with regard to t h e boys 3.5 lbs, m i t regard to the girls only 0.3 lbs. ... factory e m p l o y m e n t prevents m u s c u l a r development. (LXXXI) D a s B u c h v o n W i n g , als M a t e r i a l i e n s a m m l u n g wichtig für die, die d i e m e d i zinischen Aussagen über das factorysystem z u s a m m e n h a b e n wollen. |

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Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 · Heft XI

|38| Samuel Laing. Notes of A Traveller On the Social and Political State of France, Prussia, Switzerland, Italy, and other Parts of Europe, during the present century. 2 . e d . L o n d . 1842

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In Italy, a n d in Holland, the social c o n d i t i o n of great c o m m e r c i a l wealth, with comparatively little e m p l o y m e n t given by it to the m a s s of the people, called into existence painters, sculptors, architects; furnished artists, a n d e n c o u r a g e m e n t for t h e m . (11) M o n e y rent deteriorates the c o n d i t i o n of a small t e n a n t in two ways. ... He m u s t sell all his best p r o d u c e , his grain, his 10 butter, his flax, his pig, a n d subsist of the m e a n e s t of food, his worst potatoes a n d water, to m a k e sure of m o n e y for his rent. It thus deteriorates his standard of living. He is also t e m p t e d by m o n e y r e n t out of the p a t h of certainty into that of c h a n c e . It thus deteriorates his m o r a l condition. (44) In the social E c o n o m y of France, o n e family in every 46 lives by functionar- 15 ism, and at the public expense; there is o n e functionary family for every 46 families of the people. (69) In t h e ratio of population, 189 paid functionaries in F r a n c e live u p o n the public, by doing t h e duties which, at the utmost, from 30 to 35 paid functionaries live by doing in Scotland. (71) Abroad, the e m p l o y m e n t u n d e r G o v e r n m e n t , in the present age, attracts to 20 it, as the c h u r c h of R o m e did in t h e m i d d l e ages, all the m i n d , industry, a n d capital of the m i d d l e classes, on w h o m the wealth a n d prosperity of a country are founded. (73, 4) Die Bauernfamilie in D e u t s c h l a n d hat its own raw material, d. h. flax, h e m p , wool, hides, raised by itself; has h o u s e - r o o m a n d t i m e — i d l e t i m e in winter—to work t h e m up ... T h e whole agricultural population, if n o t m a n ufacturing in some way—spinning, weaving, m a k i n g h o u s e h o l d s goods,

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working in iron, wood, or cloth, for t h e i r own use, during t h e winter m o n t h s — w o u l d be totally idle all t h e winter half year. It is a saving of t i m e with us to b u y all, a n d m a k e n o t h i n g at h o m e . It would be a waste of t i m e o n t h e C o n t i n e n t n o t t o m a k e a t h o m e all t h a t can b e m a d e . ... owing t o this c i r c u m s t a n c e in t h e social E c o n o m y of G e r m a n y t h e h o m e m a r k e t , on which alone any great i n d u s t r i a l prosperity c a n be founded, is, a n d always will be, i n c o n s i d e r a b l e . (286[, 287]) Exclusiveness, t h e soul of fashion, c a n ­ n o t exist in t h e p r e s e n t c h e a p , extensive p r o d u c t i o n of clothing m a t e r i a l . This greater steadiness of fashion with t h e great m a s s of c o n s u m e r s of

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cloth, c o t t o n a n d silk, a n d t h e longer e n d u r a n c e , a n d greater e x t e n s i o n of t h e d e m a n d for a n y fashion t h a t o n c e gets established, enable m a c h i n e r y a n d large capital to work even u p o n objects which would have b e e n left for­ merly to h a n d w o r k ; a n d t h e field for h a n d l o o m w e a v e r s is n a r r o w e d to t h e p r o d u c t i o n of a few fancy articles. (364) It costs a vast deal m o r e t i m e a n d

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labour to bring all this finely cooked food together: it costs, at t h e least, twice as m u c h of h u m a n t i m e a n d l a b o u r to d i n e 5 m i l l i o n s of french or g e r m a n people, as to d i n e 5 m i l l i o n s of English; a n d t i m e a n d l a b o u r are the basis of all n a t i o n a l wealth a n d prosperity. T i m e a n d l a b o u r e m p l o y e d unproductively are capital t h r o w n away. (368) In m a n y b r a n c h e s of i n d u s try, ζ. B. glassmaking, i r o n founding, s o a p m a k i n g , c o t t o n s p i n n i n g h a b e n die grossen Capitalisten in E n g l a n d s c h o n das M o n o p o l . D i e excessive tax­ a t i o n h a t dieß n o c h befördert, d e n n sie vergrössert d e n a m o u n t des vorzustreckenden Capitals. (374) t h e s h e p h e r d a n d h u n t e r states are t h e retrograde, and n o t the progressive steps of t h e h u m a n race from o n e stage of

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civilisation to another. (416) Im alten R o m »The saving of l a b o u r — a n o b ject which has led to t h e perfection of labour in all t h e useful arts in o u r state of society—was no object in their state of society. All was d o n e by slaves, and great m u l t i t u d e s of t h e m ||39| at c o m m a n d , and by overseers or freed m e n entertained a b o u t t h e families of t h e great. Any thing m a y be

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produced, if waste of t i m e , labour, h u m a n life, a n d happiness, be left out of the estimate of t h e cost of p r o d u c t i o n s (418) H a u p t p e c h für Italien: T h e great source of industry a n d civilisation in F r a n c e , is the cultivation of t h e vine, a n d its n a t u r a l exclusion from all t h e N o r t h of F r a n c e . ... It n o t only gives within F r a n c e itself a c o n s t a n t interchange of industry for industry

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etc etc. Italy has n o t this advantage. W i t h her e q u a l or nearly e q u a l p r o d u c tiveness of soil a n d climate over all, b o t h in the kinds and q u a n t i t i e s of h e r products, no considerable m a s s of her p o p u l a t i o n are d e p e n d i n g on e a c h other's industry for t h e supply of their m u t u a l wants, a n d inseparably b o u n d u p with e a c h other b y c o m m o n interests. Italy has n o n a t u r a l capa-

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bilities of raising up s u c h a division in t h e m a s s e s of her p o p u l a t i o n by manufacturing or c o m m e r c i a l industry. T h e r e is little c o m m a n d over wa-

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Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 · Heft XI terpower, a n d n o n e of firepower, in the Italian p e n i n s u l a for moving m a chinery. T h e Po, the Adige, the T e c i n o , a n d all t h e A l p i n e rivers; the Tiber, the A r n o , a n d all from t h e A p e n n i n e s , owing to the melting of the snow at their m a i n s o u r c e s , partake of the character of m o u n t a i n - s t r e a m s , having s u c h difference of level at different seasons, that millseats on their b a n k s , at which waterpower can be always available, are extremely rare. Italian a u c h schlecht für c o m m e r c i a l industry oder zu supporting a seafaring population. She h a s little coasting trade, b e c a u s e all parts of h e r territory prod u c e nearly the same articles in sufficient a b u n d a n c e for the inhabitants, a n d has little trade, for t h e same reason, with t h e other countries, on the M e d i t e r r a n e a n . ... Cities u n d towns, zu 5 0 - 6 0 , 0 0 0 E i n w o h n e r sehr häufig in Italy, vielleicht m e h r als irgend wo in Europa, within so small an area. Aber of a very peculiar character. T h e country is so fertile, that each of these masses of population draws its subsistence from, a n d extends its influence over, a very small circle beyond its own town walls. All capital, industry, intelligence, civil authority, and business, public or private; all trade, m a n u f a c t u r e or c o n s u m p t of the objects of trade a n d m a n u f a c t u r e , a n d it m a y be said all civilisation, are centralised within these cities, a n d the small circles of country a r o u n d t h e m from which they draw the articles of their c o n s u m p t . ... E a c h city or town, within its own circle, suffices for itself, is a metayer family u p o n a great scale living u p o n its own farm, a n d having no d e p e n d e n c e u p o n , or c o n n e x i o n with, the industry, interests, prosperity, or business of its neighbours in the land; a n d very little c o m m u n i c a t i o n or traffic with any other masses of population, by carriers, waggons, carts, diligences or water conveyances, the objects of interchange being, from the general b o u n t y of n a t u r e , b u t very few between t h e m . T h e y are m o r a l oases, beyond which, all is desert. W i t h i n t h e m people are refined, intelligent, wealthy, i m b u e d with a taste for the fine arts, a n d inspired with liberal ideas of the constitutional rights of the people, a n d national i n d e p e n d e n c e of their country; a n d without, the people belong to a different country, age, a n d state of civilisation, are ignorant, poor, halfcivilised, clothed in sheepskins, or u n s c o u r e d , brown, woollen cloaks, or are halfclothed etc ... Here, the townpopulation, draw the m e a n s of buying as well as what they buy, from the Country, leaving on the l a n d the cattle a n d the peasantry to reproduce next year their own food, a n d the incomes of the town populations. ||40| T h e princes, nobility, or other landholders, where the land is not, as in Tuscany, divided a m o n g the peasantry, the higher clergy, the military a n d civil establishments of government, local a n d general, with their armies of functionaries, live in the towns a n d cities with the t r a d e s m e n who live by supplying t h e m . The traffic between town a n d country is small, b e c a u s e there are no c o n s u m e r s in t h e country; its

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produce is c o n s u m e d in the towns without any return. ... Italy is dotted over with these separate a n d distinct masses of population, forming, no whole of power, wealth, c o n n e c t e d industry, c o m m o n interests, objects or feeling; a n d this state of d i s u n i o n in the social e c o n o m y of the Italian p e o pie is ... the effect of n a t u r a l , n o t of political causes. ... social u n i o n , n a tional spirit, interests a n d industry exist only in masses of people living by each other. ... T h e power of the sword in the t i m e of t h e R o m a n s , t h e power of c o m m e r c i a l capital in t h e m i d d l e ages, the power of t h e sword again in the days of N a p o l e o n compressed Italy, or distinct portions of Italy, into n a t i o n a l m a s s e s in form a n d g o v e r n m e n t ; b u t when the pressure was removed, the parts started a s u n d e r again ... the b o u n t y of n a t u r e enables m a n to live u n c o n n e c t e d with m a n by ties of c o m m o n interests a n d necessities, and exchanges of industry. ( 4 7 8 - 4 8 1 ) T h e e n o r m o u s capital which superstition in t h e m i d d l e ages, a n d down even to m o d e r n times, drew to R o m e , the vast wealth which the c o m m e r c e of the East brought, in the same ages, to Florence, Pisa, G e n o a , V e n i c e , have all b e e n laid out u n productively ... It has b e e n r e c k o n e d t h a t the churches of Italy, with their embellishments, their marbles, jewels, gold a n d silver o r n a m e n t s , paintings and statuary, have cost m o r e , t h a n t h e fee-simple of t h e whole l a n d of t h e Italian peninsula would a m o u n t to, if sold at the present average price per acre. This e n o r m o u s outlay of capital has b e e n altogether u n p r o d u c t i v e . Ebenso die vast u n d splendid palaces, with their o r n a m e n t a l architecture, their magnificent galleries of precious paintings, statues, fine marbles, a n d all the costly glory displayed, even now in their decay etc. (482) t h e besetting error of c o m m e r c i a l wealth, in the ages a n d countries which p r e c e d e d England a n d her rise, has b e e n to overbuild a n d overdisplay itself in u n r e productive objects, instead of retaining their capitals as working m e a n s or capitals in trade or m a n u f a c t u r e s . (483, 4)

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Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 • Heft XI

Gaskell, P. (Surgeon.) The Manufacturing Population of England. L o n d o n 1833. ist n u r die erste Auflage v o n

P. Gaskell (Surgeon): Artisans and Machinery: The Moral and Physical Condition of the Manufacturing Population considered with Reference to Mechanical Substitutes for human Labour. London.1836.

1)

Domestic

Manufacture.

T h e distaff, the spinning wheel, producing a single thread, a n d subsequently the j e n n y and m u l e , were to be found forming a part of the complem e n t of h o u s e h o l d furniture in the majority of the cottage h o m e s of G r e a t Britain, whilst every h a m l e t a n d village r e s o u n d e d with the clack of the h a n d l o o m . (12) Die domestic manufacturers were scattered over the entire surface of the country. ... T h e yarn which they spun, a n d which was want-

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Aus Peter Gaskell: Artisans and machinery

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ed by the weaver, was received or delivered, as the case m i g h t be, by | |41| agents, who travelled for the wholesale h o u s e s ; or depots were established in particular n e i g h b o u r h o o d s , to which they could apply at weekly periods. (13) Some surprise m a y be excited by the assertion ... t h a t sexual intercourse was almost universal prior to marriage in the agricultural districts. (20) Various circumstances h a d b e e n for a considerable period producing important modifications in the c o n d i t i o n of the m a n u f a c t u r i n g p o p ulation, prior to the i n t r o d u c t i o n of s t e a m as an antagonist to h u m a n power. (23) Der distaff u n d spinning wheel, producing a single thread, lange die only m e t h o d s of spinning. G e n M i t t e des 18' Jh. die d e m a n d for cloth so increased, d a ß die inventive faculties of those interested in it were called into activity, a n d improved m a c h i n e s for spinning were very s o o n the result. Sehr viel Vorurtheile dagegen. Einige driven durch Verfolgung in fremde Länder. T r o t z d e m zwang die w a c h s e n d e Nachfrage n a c h cloth die manufacturers to the a d o p t i o n verbesserter S p i n n m e t h o d e n ; for the difficulty h a d always lain in producing an a d e q u a t e supply of materials in a state fit for the loom. D i e s e m abgeholfen d u r c h die m u l e u n d j e n n y , b o t h of which enabled t h e spinner to p r o d u c e a greatly increased quantity of yarn. (23, 24) D e r h a n d l o o m w e a v e r gewann sehr durch diese improvem e n t s , without any extra outlay of capital ... A family of 4 adult persons, with 2 children as winders, e a r n e d at the e n d of the last a n d at t h e c o m m e n c e m e n t of the present century, 4 /. per week, w h e n working 10 h o u r s per day; when work was pressed they could earn m o r e . (24) E i n e r der ersten effects der constant d e m a n d u p o n t h e labour of the weaver, resulting from a m o r e extensive a n d p e r m a n e n t supply of yarn, was the gradual a b a n d o n m e n t of farming as an accessory, which h a d b e e n very c o m m o n with t h e m o r e respectable portion of the weavers. His labour, when employed on his loom, profitabler u n d m e h r i m m e d i a t e in its return, t h a n w h e n devoted to agricultural pursuits. Dieß led zu dem new order of farm tenants, at will. (25) So wurde der weaver a simple labourer. (I.e.) Die great body of h a n d l o o m weavers i m m e r in zwei Klassen zertheilt; die, die landholders zugleich, u n d die entirely d e p e n d a n t u p o n weaving for their support. Leztre h a t t e n i m m e r gelitten von der impossibility of supplying themselves with m a t e r i als for their labour. Considerable vacations oft occurring in d i e s e m respect u n d d a n n sie in privations. Diese Klasse also hob sich, während die erste sank. (26) Die ganze Klasse raised on the whole their general character as a body, rendered t h e m m o r e u n i t e d , u n d gab i h n e n c o m m u n i t y o f interests a n d feeling. (27) Sehr m a t e r i a l i m p r o v e m e n t d a h e r gradually operating währ e n d des h a l b e n Jh. u n m i t t e l b a r vor Einführung der s t e a m power. N i c h t v o m increase in d e m rate of p a y m e n t for labour, sondern from a m a r k e t generally understocked, and a constantly increasing p r o d u c t i o n of yarn,

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Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 • Heft XI which enabled t h e m to work full hours, a n d consequently to throw off a regular a n d sufficient quantity of cloth. (I.e.) In d e n early t i m e s of m a n u f a c turing, the spinner and the weaver were to some extent s y n o n y m o u s , - the distaff, the wheel, and the loom being all called into requisition by a single family. At a later period, als die S p i n n m a s c h i n e n verbessert, u n d als diese m a c h i n e s m i t j e d e m Schritt m o r e bulky, m o r e complicated, and consequently m o r e expensive wurden, division zwischen weaver u n d spinner ... Zu dieser Periode, when spinning was b e c o m e ||42| a separate b r a n c h , a n d when the division between the two bodies was well defined, the spinners were j o i n e d by another class of persons, who h a d heretofore h e l d aloof from m a n u f a c t u r e ; these were the yeomen, the small freeholders. ([28,] 29) D e r yeom a n bisher s u r r o u n d e d by petty farmers, die h a d generally eked out their l a n d cultivation by being weavers, a n d who h a d served h i m as bulwarks or breakwaters against the i m p e n d i n g storm. Diese removed o n e by one, gab [ g e g e n ] andre race of m e n auf who gave a considerably increased rent, u n d by improved m o d e s of husbandry, soon drove t h e small proprietor from the m a r k e t s which he h a d so long supplied. So der y e o m a n was driven to e m bark some portion of his m e a n s in the p u r c h a s e of spinning machines, u n d before very long, great quantities of yarn were p r o d u c e d by the i n m a t e s of old farmhouses, in which previously the most sluggish inertness h a d prevailed. / derselben, die purchased diese machines mußten zu loan, meist Hypothek, ihre Zuflucht nehmen, to raise money. ([29,] 30) D e r Preiß der complicirteren Spinnmaschinen sehr beträchtlich u n d removte ihn aus d e m r e a c h der inferior class of weavers. Zugleich m o n i e d m e n b e g a n to fix their attention on a b r a n c h of trade, the returns from which were very rapid. D i e ß b r o u g h t a farther accession of capital into it, a n d led to the erection of milk, c o n t a i n ing a less or greater n u m b e r of spinning m a c h i n e s , propelled by water power; with the assistance of h u m a n labour. Diese mills g e b a u t in einiger distance von den towns, doch so n a h als U m s t ä n d e erlaubten for the conven i e n c e of markets, u n d readiness of transport for the raw a n d m a n u f a c t u r e d material. Their site, sonst, durch 2 U m s t ä n d e b e s t i m m t : 1) die Existenz eines stream of sufficient volume u n d p e r m a n e n c e u n d 2) die neighbourh o o d of suitable workmen. (30, 1) Diese mills ausschließlich devoted d e n first processes of m a n u f a c t u r e , carding u n d spinning. Ihr gradual increase wirkte bald auf den domestic manufacturer, his profits quickly fell, w o r k m e n being readily found to s u p e r i n t e n d the mill labour, zu einer h o h e n Arbeitsrate aber viel lower als der estimated rate of h o m e labour. A n o t h e r cause which t e n d e d to injure the private spinner was the incessant and expensive improvements in the construction of machines, (wie h e u t e dieselbe cause of distress wirkt auf die woollen und bobbin-net manufactures.) W e r E i n J a h r eine b e d e u t e n d e S u m m e im A n k a u f der besten J e n n y ausgelegt, im folgen-

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den Jahr so behindhand, daß mit dem äussersten Fleiß er k a u m G a r n genug s p i n n e n k o n n t e to repay him for his present labour, in Folge von alterations which threw the productive power of his machine in the background. T h e price of yarn b e c a m e of necessity depreciated in proportion to the q u a n t i t y produced, which was now m o r e t h a n sufficient to supply the h o m e dem a n d . The number of machines which at this period were thrown back into the market, gave a strong impulse to the growth of the mills; a machine which was not sufficiently perfect for the purpose of domestic manufacture doing well enough in a mill in conjunction with others, worked at a less rate of wages, and assisted by water power, when its use was valueless to its original owner; he was consequently left in many cases, pekuniär, schlimmer dran als beim Beginn seiner new vocation, no time having been given him to cover its first cost. (31, 2) | |43| D i e meisten der y e o m e n gingen so caput. Ihre little estates b e k a m e n in wenigen J a h r e n so e n c u m b e r e d as to be utterly worthless to t h e m u n d a very rapid u n d very extensive c h a n g e griff Platz in der l a n d e d proprietorship von 1 7 9 0 - 1 8 1 0 . Einige arbeiteten sich durch Energie zu d e n m o s t successful s t e a m m a n u f a c t u r e r s herauf, wie die Peels, die Strutts etc. ... Eew of the m e n who entered the trade rich were successful. W ä h r e n d die, c o m m e n c i n g in an h u m b l e way, generally from exercising s o m e handicraft, as clockmaking, h a t t i n g etc aufkamen. (32, 3) V o n 1738 (invention of t h e fly shuttle by J o h n Kay) bis 1800 diese series of changes vollendet. N u n a n d rer grosser change in d e n relative situations der 2 divisions of m a n u f a c t u r ers. Die improved m a c h i n e s , ihre increased n u m b e r , das establishment of mills, the accession of capital, p r o d u c i r t e n alle z u s a m m e n viel m e h r G a r n t h a n could by any possibility be converted into cloth by the t h e n h a n d loom weavers. Das surplus in die F r e m d e versandt oder r e m a i n e d a dead weight u p o n the maker. Die d e m a n d for cloth indeß n o c h u n s u p p l i e d u n d it b e c a m e necessary to i n t r o d u c e great n u m b e r s of new h a n d s as weavers. Solange die supply of G a r n begrenzt oder u n t e r der d e m a n d oder j u s t e q u a l ihr war, die weavers h a d felt b u t little competition. Ihre wages d a h e r stationär geblieben. Jezt, w h e n der outcry for cloth c o n t i n u e d u n d G a r n a b u n d a n t , a large body of weavers immigrated into the manufacturing districts: great numbers of agricultural labourers deserted their occupations u n d a n e w race of h a n d l o o m weavers ... w u r d e n producirt, of a still lower grade als die primitive; sie hatte geerndtet e i n e n viel g e r i n g e m a m o u n t of wages u n d waren accustomed to be mere labourers. Die m a s t e r spinners fanden sie parat zu e i n e m n i e d r i g e m Preiß zu arbeiten a n d t h u s discovered an outlet for their extra quantity of yarn. D i e ß führte zu grosser Depreciation im Preiß der h a n d l o o m Arbeit. (33, 4) Die ersten manufacturers, who h a d to trust entirely t o h a n d labour, were subjected periodically t o severe i m m e d i a t e losses durch den refractory spirit of their h a n d s , who timed their opportu-

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Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 • Heft XI nity, when the m a r k e t s were particularly pressing, to urge their claims. ... a crisis was rapidly approaching die d e n progress of m a n u f a c t u r e s würde gecheckt haben, when steam u n d its application to machinery at once turned the current against the men. (34, 35) (first s t e a m engine applied to cotton spinn i n g errichtet 1783. Sir R. Arkwright's first u s e of this power 1790. 1800 a b o u t 32 s t e a m engines in M a n c h e s t e r . D i e s t e a m l o o m s i n t r o d u c e d von 1800 bis 1806 u n d followed by serious riots, a n d breaking a n d destroying of machinery.) V o n der Zeit der I n t r o d u c t i o n der steampower painful change in der condition der handloomweavers ... sie have b e e n crushed b e n e a t h the steamengine. (35) W a r u m w u r d e n diese W e b e r n i c h t die first workers on steam looms, and in other factory labours? ... Erst sie feindlich gegen die Maschinerie, die sie b e t r a c h t e t e n als infringement u p o n their proper d o m a i n of industry. D i e ß hielt sie entfernt von d e n ersten spinning u n d weaving mills; so that these were furnished with their c o m p l e m e n t of h a n d s from other sources. ( 3 5 , 6 ) D a n n die majority of workers in den early spinning establishments were children; partly on a c c o u n t of the m a c h i n e s being small, a n d partly from ||44| a difficulty of procuring adult labour. D a n n verbesserte sich die M a s c h i n e r i e sehr rasch u n d die geschicktre Arbeit überall XXXweichend ... die steam looms erheischen k e i n e n adult labourer, sondern sind ganz supplied by y o u n g w o m e n u n d girls ... there is no r o o m for the m a l e h a n d l o o m weaver—the factories are closed against h i m by the sternest necessity. (36, 7) Families, fast 1 Million von h u m a n beings, d e p e n d e n t on handloomweaving, die ganze F a m i l i e 14 S t u n d e n täglich arbeitend, m i t stets fallendem Lohn. (37) N a c h Mr. Felkin, in d e m Factory C o m m i s s i o n Report, the net weekly earnings of the h a n d s engaged in the cotton stocking trade von 4 zu 7 s. A u f diese S u m m e , a m a n , his wife u n d ihre children have to be supported. (38) E i n e andre large u n d interesting class of d o m e s tic manufacturers ist connected m i t d e m bobbin-net trade. An 200,000 young w o m e n darin engagirt. (lace-embroidering) "They begin early a n d work late, and during this long daily period their bodies are constantly b e n t over the frame on which the lace is extended, the h e a d being usually kept within 5 or 6 inches of the frame, the edge of which presses against the lower part of the chest. O n e effect, universally p r o d u c e d is short-sightedness, and often a general weakness of the eyes, with c o n s u m p tive tendency, distortion of the limbs, a n d general debility, from the confinement a n d the posture." (38)

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Factory

System.

M o d e geworden d e n K i n d e r n selbst ihre wages a u s z u z a h l e n . Z a h l t so sein e n Eltern n u r a stated s u m for food a n d lodging. (64) Ist reiner »lodger« im älterlichen H a u s . (I.e.) (Separation of Families, breaking up of t h e home)

ch. 3.

10

2.

VI.

ch. IV. Infant

ch.

V.

Labour.

Social Condition. Female

Labour.

T h e m a c h i n e s for s p i n n i n g were, day after day, b e c o m i n g m o r e bulky, a n d requiring greater skill a n d exertion for producing fine n u m b e r s , so t h a t adults gradually found their way to t h e m . (140) Nearly the whole of the h a n d s employed in the silk factories are females, as well as in t h e Scotch flax, cotton, and woollen mills. (143) Vast n u m b e r s der factory children are hired out at the rate of 1 s. 6 d. per week. (153) Das K i n d geboren von F a brikeltern: wieder n u n selbst Fabrikarbeiter, n o t only is its m u s c u l a r syst e m flaccid, supplied with t h i n watery blood; its m u c o u s surfaces u n healthy; its glandular system deranged; b u t the groundwork u p o n which these are built, the frame u p o n which they are arranged, is i n c o m p l e t e in comparison. T h e b o n y fabric has h a d no opportunity for b e c o m i n g properly solidified ... c o n t a i n s as yet too large a proportion of cartilaginous m a t ter. (158, 9) W h e r e the b o n y system is still imperfect, the vertical position it is compelled to r e t a i n influences its direction; the spinal C o l u m n b e n d s b e n e a t h the weight of t h e h e a d , bulges o u t laterally, or is dragged forward by t h e weight of the parts composing the chest; the pelvis yields b e n e a t h t h e opposing pressure downwards, a n d the resistance given by t h e t h i g h - b o n e s ; its capacity is lessened, s o m e t i m e s m o r e a n d sometimes less; [the legs] curve, and the whole body loses height, in c o n s e q u e n c e of this general yielding a n d b e n d i n g of its parts. (159) |

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H e f t XII

I Heft XII. London. 1851. Juli. |

I Inhalt. 1) Gaskell. Artisans and Machinery. London. 1836. 2) Anderson (James) An Enquiry into the Causes that have hitherto retardea the advancement of Agriculture. Edinb. 1779. 3) Anderson: (James) Essays relating to Agriculture and Rural Affairs. 3 vol. Edinb. 1777-1796. 4) Mathieu de Dombasle: Annales Agricoles de Roville. Paris. 1825 bis 1830. 5) An Enquiry into those Principles respecting the Nature of Demand and the Necessity of Consumption. London. 1821. 6) Samuel Turner. Considerations upon the Agriculture etc London 1822. 7) Thomas Hopkins. Economical Enquiries. London. 1822. 8) Thompson (Perronet) The true theory of Rent. 2 ed. London. 1832. 9) Sir Edward West., Prices of Corn and Wages of Labour. London. 1826. 10) Thomas Hopkins. On Rent of Land and its Influence on Subsistence and Population. London. 1828. 11) Ricardo. (David) An Essay on the Influence of the low Price of Corn on the Profits of Stock etc London. 1815. 12) Ricardo. (D.) On Protection to Agriculture. London. 1822. 13) The Source and Remedy of the National Difficulties etc London 1821. 14) Somers (Robert) Letters from the Highlands or, the famine of 1847. London. 1848. 15) Liebig (Justus) Die organische Chemie in ihrer Anwendung auf Agricultur und Physiologie. Braunschweig. 1842. \

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Aus Peter Gaskell: Artisans and machinery (Fortsetzung)

Iii Gaskell (Contin. von Heft 11)

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There are, in the Cotton factories in Lancashire and Cheshire Cottonfactories in Scotland Flaxfactories in Leeds Flaxfactories in Dundee and East Coast of Scotland

Male ... 100 to 100 to 100 to

VII,

Physical

ch.

VIII,

ch. IX.

Female 103 209 147

100 to 280. (173)

Condition.

Die population of G r e a t Britain früher gesünder als jezt trotz d e m d i m i n ished rate of mortality. T a k e n as individuals they were m o r e robust, fuller of organic activity, enjoyed in m u c h higher degree the feelings of existence; but, in c o n s e q u e n c e , their diseases were of a m u c h m o r e a c u t e character, and infinitely m o r e fatal in their t e n d e n c y . (201) In d e n Fabrikstädten disease generally assumes a chronic type; its progress is slow, a n d often interferes but little with the proper functional actions which are essential to life. Neither, in m a n y instances, does it, of necessity, shorten its d u r a t i o n ; b u t rather, by keeping the standard of vital energy somewhat below par, it abstracts the system from the impression of m o r e fatal affections, w h i c h kill by disturbing the circulation. (205) 1831 h a t t e L o n d o n 1 m e d i c a l m a n auf je 345 i n h a b i t a n t s , Paris auf je 900 u n d M a n c h e s t e r auf je 1 2 1 - 3 inhabitants. (208 Note) In M a n c h e s t e r m o r e t h a n % of all children born to the lower class perish before they have completed their 5 years. (212) (Pâtissier: Sur les Maladies des Artisans. Thackrah: On the effect of the Principal Arts, Trades, Professions etc, u p o n H e a l t h a n d Longevity. [222]) T h e singularly miserable aspect presented by m a n y of the operatives, shewing, as it were, an epitome of every thing that m e l a n c h o l y can impress on t h e h u m a n face, is owing to these bowel affections. (235) Dieser tribe of diseases in

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Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 · Heft XII n e u r e r Zeit sehr häufig u n t e r d e n higher classes of society, having their origin in too nourishing a n d s t i m u l a n t a diet. [236] (235 die R e d e v o n d e n d e r a n g e m e n t s in d e n digestive organs.)

ch.

X.

Education

etc.

ch. XI. Combinations. ch.

XII.

Truck

and

Cottage

5 System.

D i e s e b e i d e n A u s g e b u r t e n d e s factory S y s t e m : »the a p p r o x i m a t i o n w h i c h these show of the c o n d i t i o n of the labourer, u n d e r the factory system, to t h e t i m e s of feudal t e n u r e a n d vassalage in E n g l a n d is Singular.« (293) D i e cottages, gruppirt besonders um countryfactories, m e i s t das property des millowner, a n d the o c c u p a n t s are universally his d e p e n d e n t s . Oft diese d e p e n d e n c e viel absoluter als je u n t e r d e m feudal lord. D i e social existence des d e p e n d e n t hängt von diesem lord ab. A r o u n d m a n y mills a fixed p o p u l a t i o n has arisen, which is as m u c h a part a n d parcel of the property of the m a s t e r as his machinery. T h e rapid i m p r o v e m e n t in this last has p u t an end to the necessity for new labourers, a n d t h u s little colonies are formed u n d e r the absolute government of the employer. Combination amongst the great body of the operatives has as yet checked, or rather overpowered, the growing superiority of the master. (294) Das cottagesystem, ist in fact an offset des truck system. Erstres sich rapidly entwickelnd. (298) This system of cottagebuilding is n o t universal: in towns where masses of labourers are already collected, a n d , w h e n considerable expense would attend u p o n it, it is very little practised. It is chiefly in out-districts; a n d it is a striking ||2| proof of the advantages to the master, that the great manufacturers are gradually creeping to the outskirts, or into localities a few miles from the great towns. D i e extension a n d influence of this system m a y be very distinctly seen in the now p o p u l o u s township of Hyde and N e w t o n , Duckenfield, etc about 7 miles from M a n chester etc. Die population dieser districts 1801 k a u m 3 0 0 0 , 1 8 3 0 zu 26,000 angewachsen ... die dwellings dieser population in einer large proportion in d e n h a n d s der manufacturers, als owners oder als general t e n a n t s . (299) All e r d i n g s : »They have b e e n forced to build, a n d are still building; b u t it does not lessen the evils a t t e n d a n t u p o n the System.« (300) Die masters, m a n y of w h o m have 80, 100, 200 or m o r e of those cottages surrounding, are i m m e n s e gainers by the arrangement. Die cost of building a range of h o u s e s , such as these, z.B. 100, nicht, u p o n the m o s t liberal average, m e h r als £ 5000; im Durchschnitt, d e m very best, 50 /. will over a n d above cover the

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Aus Peter Gaskell: Artisans and machinery (Fortsetzung) outlay für every cottage. N o w for the outlay of 5000 /. the capitalist draws an a n n u a l i n c o m e of 800 1., or 13½%, a n d completely covers himself in little more t h a n 6 years. This profitable return is b u r d e n e d with no drawback; no rent is lost, every paynight it is d e d u c t e d from t h e wages. (302) Also erstens: 5 dieser disproportionate rate of interest. D a n n erleichtert i h m dieß »congregating his m e n , u n d e r his i m m e d i a t e control« 1) das trucksystem, d e n n er b a u t 2 oder 3 shops, u n d h o u s e s calculated für taverns u n d beerhouses u n d if he has no direct dealing in t h e m , he abstracts an equivalent rent. 2) it enables h i m to shorten t h e h o u r s allowed for m e a l s , to begin earlier in t h e 10 m o r n i n g , to c o n t i n u e later at night. (I.e.)

Ch.

15

20

25

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35

XIII.

Influence

of Machinery

on

Human

Labour.

T h e surplus h a n d s würden die manufacturers befähigen to lessen the rate of wages; b u t the certainty that any considerable r e d u c t i o n would be followed by i m m e d i a t e i m m e n s e losses from turnouts, extended stoppages, a n d various other i m p e d i m e n t s which would be thrown in their way, m a k e s t h e m prefer the slower process of m e c h a n i c a l i m p r o v e m e n t s by which, though they m a y triple p r o d u c t i o n , they require no new m e n . (314) w e n n die improvements n o t quite displace the workman, will render o n e m a n capable of producing, or rather of superintending, the p r o d u c t i o n of q u a n tity now requiring 10 or 20 labourers. (315) M a c h i n e s have b e e n invented which enable o n e m a n to p r o d u c e as m u c h yarn as 250, or 300 even, could have produced 70 years ago, which enable 1 m a n a n d 1 boy to print as m a n y goods as a 100 m e n a n d a 100 boys could have printed formerly. D i e 150,000 w o r k m e n in the spinning mills p r o d u c i r e n so viel G a r n als 40,000,000 an d e m onethreadwheel h ä t t e n produciren k ö n n e n . (316) 2 Millions of handloomweavers in H i n d u s t a n have b e e n driven from their labour by m a c h i n e r y here, m u l t i t u d e s of w h o m have perished by famine. (324) Mr G o r d o n an engineer sagt v o m S t e a m : "Considered in its application to husbandry, the cottager looks forth u p o n the n e a t paling which fences his dwelling; it was sawed by steam. T h e spade with which he digs h i s garden, the rake, the hoe, the pickaxe, the scythe, the sickle, every i m p l e m e n t of rural toil which ministers to his necessities, are p r o d u c e d by steam. S t e a m bruises the oilcake which feeds the farmers cattle; m o u l d s the ploughshare, which overturns his fields; forms the shears which clip his flock; a n d cards, spins, and weaves the p r o d u c e . Applied to architecture, we find t h e Briarean arms of the steam engine every where at work" etc. ([325,] 326) | | 3 | In the weaving d e p a r t m e n t the c o n s e q u e n c e of m e c h a n i c a l a d a p t a t i o n is n o w beginning to be felt in its full force. H i t h e r t o the depression which h a s

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Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 • Heft XII crept over this d e p a r t m e n t has resulted from c o m p e t i t i o n with s t e a m l o o m s , from cheap yarn, from this yarn being exported, and h e n c e compelling t h e English m e r c h a n t , in order to c o m p e t e with t h e foreign manufacturer, to bring down the price of cotton cloth below h i s ; a n d from the a m a z i n g productiveness of spinning m a c h i n e r y constantly choking the market, whilst h u m a n labour being driven from this d e p a r t m e n t , and having no other resource, has b e e n forced to keep itself on the loom. H e n c e it is t h a t the h a n d cotton manufacturers have kept on t h e increase, the n u m b e r actually employed far exceeding the factory labourers, a n d that the former are in a far greater proportion adults t h a n the latter; yet t h e h a n d l a b o u r e r s are charged with being the authors a n d perpetrators of their own r u i n . A b e r a u c h diese resource will be withdrawn from the operatives. D e r powerloom n i m m t sehr zu; every new mill which is built contains t h e m , a n d additions to old mills of weaving r o o m s are going on in every direction. ([329,] 330) If the 150,000 spinners of the present day s u p e r i n t e n d the p r o d u c t i o n of as m u c h yarn as would have required the l a b o u r of 40 millions of m e n a century ago, what is to prevent 1000 doing that which is now d o n e by 150,000? ... If o n e powerloom is 6 x as effective as a h a n d l o o m , why should n o t the powerloom be doubled in capability in 10 years? These things are yet in their infancy. ([332,] 333) A b e r B a i n e s : A very good h a n d weaver, 25 oder 30 years of age, will weave 2 pieces of 9 - 8 t h s shirting per week. In 1823 a s t e a m l o o m weaver, about 15 years of age, attending 2 looms, could weave 7 similar pieces in a week. In 1826, a steamloomweaver von 15 J a h r e n , attending 2 looms could weave 12 similar pieces in a week, some a u c h 15. In 1833, a steamloonweaver, von 1 5 - 2 0 J a h r e n , assisted by a girl about 12 Jahre, attending 4 looms, can weave 18 similar pieces in a week, s o m e 20. Also 1823 an adult handloomweaver can produce, at the u t m o s t , n i c h t % von d e m was a girl at steam l o o m ; 1826 n i c h t %\ 1833 nicht % so m u c h . (334) machinery, in the first place, destroyed d o m e s t i c spinning; in the second, it has opened up an i m m e n s e export trade in yarn; a n d in the third, it c o n d e m n s the domestic weaver to clothe the whole world, while he himself is working 14 hours a day in rags and poverty. (340) D e r Iron Man of R o berts zerstört d e n Factory Spinner. (352) Year

1821 1822 1831 1832

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Crime Commitments 13,155 12,242 19,647 20,829

Pauperism Poor Rates £

Drunkenness Spirits consumed Gallons

Cotton Trade Official value £

Exports Declared value £

6,674,938 6,102,253 7,929,608 8,255,315

8,798,655 8,754,281 21,845,309 21,778,559

22,522,079 23,541,615 33,682,400 37,060,750

16,516,758 16,094,807 17,182,936 17,344,676 (399)(

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μι Anderson (James) An Inquiry into the Causes that have hitherto retarded the Advancement of Agriculture in Europe. E d i n b u r g h . 1779. 5

D i e Agricultur schwieriger als irgend eine M a n u f a c t u r . Agricultur die abso­ lut nothwendige, die n ü t z l i c h s t e der arts; w a r u m bis j e z t n i c h t weiter entwickelt? (1) Erstens. D i e N o t h w e n d i g k e i t vieler E x p e r i m e n t e . (2, 3) D i e exp e n c e d u r c h dieselben in agriculture. (4) Infinite diversity of soils, die m a y be so m u c h altered from their original state by t h e m o d e s of c u l t u r e they

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have formerly b e e n subjected to, by t h e m a n u r e s etc we have no t e r m s capable of expressing t h a t great diversity of soils, differing from o n e a n other by such delicate a n d u n o b s e r v e d peculiarities etc. (5) D i e ß m a c h t die N ü t z l i c h k e i t der E x p e r i m e n t e größer als in a n d r e n arts. U n d die B o d e n der 4 grossen Klassen, clayey, loamy, sandy u n d gravelly u n t e r s c h e i d e n sich 15 wieder sehr. (6) E x p e r i m e n t e r ä t h er a n , v o n d e r g a n z e n G e s e l l s c h a f t g e macht.

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Essay I. On the Obstacles to the Advancement of Agriculture in England, and the means of removing them.

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Obstacles sind: 1) Commonable lands. (8) Sie sind schädlich, d e n n sie unterwerfen in regard to their culture a n d m o d e of cropping, gewisses I n d i v i d u e n gehöriges L a n d , to certain regulations, which were adopted at a very distant period, wenn Agrikultur n o c h in ihrer K i n d h e i t u n d ein very dissimilar state of society. (9, 10) In m e h r e n counties in England m e h r als % des arable land in d i e s e m state. (10) U e b r i gens löst sich die common-field h u s b a n d r y n u r im G r u n d auf in die i n a d e quate size of farms. (20)

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2) Commons. (31 sqq.) 3) the minute division of land.

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Ein L a n d von 100 acres, w e n n j e d e F a m i l i e 3 K i n d e r hat, würde in der I l t e n G e n e r a t i o n n u r 2 ½ yards auf d e n M a n n fallen lassen, e a c h m a n ' s property would be barely sufficient to m a k e a grave to hold himself. ([59,] 60)

4) Inadequate size of farms, (p. 76 sqq.) W h e r e there are two fields, the p r o d u c e of which is nearly as above stated, n ä m l i c h das Eine 12 bushels, grad r e m u n e r i r e n d die Auslage, das andre 20, 10 without requiring any i m m e d i a t e outlay for their improvement, t h e farmer would pay even m o r e rent als 6 ζ. Β. für das erste, w ä h r e n d für das a n d r e keine, (wenn 12 b u s h e l s j u s t sufficient for the expence of cultivating, no rent whatever can be afforded for cultivated land that yields only 12 b u s h els, p. 107) Yet it c a n n o t be expected that, if the superior p r o d u c e has b e e n 15 i m m e d i a t e l y occasioned by his own outlay of capital, and exertions of industry, he can pay nearly the s a m e proportion of it as rent; b u t after t h e land has b e e n for s o m e t i m e in a p e r m a n e n t state of fertility to t h a t degree, t h o u g h it even originally derived t h a t fertility from his own industry, he will be content to pay s u c h a proportion of rent as is here stated. ( 1 0 9 , 1 0 )

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5) Want of Capital among Farmers. Existirt fast überall in d i e s e m Eiland dieser want. (124)

6) Andres obstacle: Church lands, lands in Mortmain and Entails. (146 sqq.) 7) Indefinite claims upon land 25

(tithes, poorrates etc) (157 sqq.)

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8) want of easy means of communication. 9) want of markets. 10) fiscal

(209 sqq.)

(210)

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(Salzsteuer ζ. Β.) 220 sqq.

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11) law of entails. 12) want of means of circulating agriculture knowledge.

(228)

13) Die tenantry at will, ueberhaupt die Unsicherheit der l e a s e s etc. Kurz das Verhältniß des Pächters z u m Landlord, »there c a n be no doubt, t h a t while t h e obstructions above ||5| e n u m e r a t e d shall c o n t i n u e to operate, it would be nearly 10 with equal justice, that we should revile a m a n for his i n d o l e n c e a n d aversion to work, while he was b o u n d h a n d a n d foot so as to r e n d e r h i m incapable of moving, as to c o m p l a i n of t h e d e t e r m i n e d obstinacy of farmers, for n o t doing those things that were equally b e y o n d their power.« (229)

Essay II On Waste Lands, and the Means of their Improvement.

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W a s t e lands k ö n n e n b e improved, entweder i n d e m m a n sie i n cultivated fields verwandelt oder i n d e m m a n sie m i t B ä u m e n bepflanzt. (239)

Part first. Verbesserung durch means of culture. Fast alle soils k ö n n e n d u r c h m e n s c h l i c h e A n s t r e n g u n g in Kornfelder verwandelt werden. Aber viele zu größrer expence, als d e m improver a reasonable indemnification gewähren wird. (240[, 241]) Es ist in Betracht g e z o g e n worden: 1) Die N a t u r des soil u n d des subsoil. 2) D i e physical obstructions that stand in t h e way of cultivating that soil, as arising from rocks or stones, brushwood, trees etc, hurtful m o i s t u r e , inequalities of sur-

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Aus James Anderson: Essays · Relating to agriculture and rural affairs face etc. (241) 3) Clima. 4) D i e F e r n e oder N ä h e der M ä r k t e u n d ihr extent. 5) the Arten, Preisse, Beziehungsart, Zeiten, Q u a n t a wie the k i n d s of extraneous m a n u r e s can be p u r c h a s e d . 6) the n a t u r e of the roads or other m e a n s of c o m m u n i c a t i o n . 7) what conveniencies die premises afford for 5 erecting houses, rearing fences, m a k i n g drains etc wie es m i t d e m water b e stellt ist; m i t d e m fuel; der state des L a n d s m i t Bezug auf servants u n d labourers. 8) D e r Stand des L a n d s in Bezug auf m e c h a n i c arts. 9) D i e n a t u r e der t e n u r e by which t h e lands are held. ( 2 4 1 - 4 5 ) In the n e i g h b o u r h o o d of large towns alone, the e x p e n c e incurred in improving t h e most barren 10 wastes, can be repaid. As you r e c e d e from these great marts, it is necessary that the soils be of a greater degree of fertility, before the expence of cultivating t h e m can be repaid ... je weiter ab, je less a b u n d a n c e of e x t r a n e o u s m a n u r e can be o b t a i n e d etc desto smaller will be the proportion of waste land that can be b r o u g h t into cultivation. (251, 2)

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Part II. Plantation of Trees.

Wo der soil dry u n d infertile, oder wo sein chief or only produce is h e a t h ; oder wo voll von rocks u n d stones rising to the surface, oder a stiff o b d u r a t e clay, having little surface p r o d u c e , ü b e r h a u p t wo der soil poor, p l a n t a t i o n s am besten, am erträglichsten, w ä h r e n d gleichzeitig the ground itself, while 20 the trees c o n t i n u e to grow u p o n it, undergoes, for the most part, a gradual amelioration, which it would n o t have d o n e in its n a t u r a l state. (353, 4)

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Mathieu de Dombasle. Annales Agricoles de Roville. Paris. 2.

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1829. 1825.

De l'Etendue des Exploitations rurales dans ses rapports avec la prospérité de l'Agriculture.

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Lorsque l'extrême division parcellaire se c o m p l i q u e avec l ' e n c h e v ê t r e m e n t des pièces qui les r e n d r é c i p r o q u e m e n t serves, c o m m e on l'observe dans u n e partie considérable de la F r a n c e , elle forme un des plus puissans obstacles für das p e r f e c t i o n n e m e n t de l'agriculture. (206) Klar d a ß die culture ίο sera d ' a u t a n t meilleure u n d die profits d ' a u t a n t plus considérables, que le capital pécuniaire et le capital de connaissances seront plus e x a c t e m e n t proportionnés à l ' é t e n d u e de c h a q u e exploitation, g r a n d e ou petite. (213) Die grosse Kultur folgenden avantage: Möglich die Theilung der Arbeit d'établir, so daß c h a q u e h o m m e soit c o n s t a m m e n t occupé au m ê m e genre 15 d'ouvrage. ||6| (213, 14) Ferner: die dépense des attelages verhältnißmässig m o i n d r e in einer g r a n d e ferme als in einer petite. W e n n 10 Pferde nöthig für eine Exploitation von 100 hectares, 15 oder 16 h i n r e i c h e n d für eine von 200. E b e n s o verhältnißmässig geringer die dépenses de construction et de réparations des bätimens, die éducation des bêtes à laine n u r b e i grossen exploi20 tations möglich, bei k l e i n e n n u r à l'aide d ' u n t r o u p e a u c o m m u n , ce qui suppose la vaine pâture, et par c o n s é q u e n t l'état de culture le plus misérable. Die exploitations de g r a n d e culture, lorsque les améliorations de la culture alterne s'y introduisent, o c c u p e n t un b e a u c o u p plus grand n o m b r e

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de bras que dans le système d'assolement triennal, m a i s b i e n m o i n s que les fermes de petite ou m o y e n n e culture ; M a s c h i n e n u n d I n s t r u m e n t e k ö n n e n hier z u m Theil die H a n d a r b e i t ersetzen. (215, 16) Also die grosse K u l t u r giebt d e m M a r k t le plus grand e x c é d a n t possible de produits disponibles relativement au n o m b r e d'individus employés à le créer u n d elle fournit, relativement à la p o p u l a t i o n totale d ' u n pays, u n e b e a u c o u p plus g r a n d e quantité des matières p r e m i è r e s q u i servent d'aliment à l'industrie m a n u facturière. Paßt am besten für L ä n d e r d ' u n e p o p u l a t i o n m o y e n n e , wovon ein Theil die Städte b e w o h n t u n d m a n u f a c t u r i r t u n d wo folglich la m a i n d'oeuvre theuer. (216) Die g r a n d e culture n'exige pas u n e plus g r a n d e masse de capitaux q u e la petite ou la m o y e n n e culture ; elle en exige m o i n s au contraire, aber, in diesen v e r s c h i e d n e n Systemen, m ü s s e n die Capitalien verschieden distribuirt sein; d a n s la g r a n d e culture, les c a p i t a u x appliqués à l'agriculture doivent se trouver entre les m a i n s d ' u n petit n o m b r e d ' h o m m e s q u i salarient les bras qu'ils emploient ; dieß in England der Fall, wo die grands propriétaires grosse A u s l a g e n zur Verbesserung des B o d e n s m a c h e n u n d wo eine Klasse de fermiers riches u n d die Kredit h a b e n ... D a n s de telles circonstances, la petite culture ne peut soutenir la concurrence avec la grande. Car il ne faut pas oublier que, par la force irrésistible de la n a t u r e des choses, les terres t e n d e n t toujours à se ranger entre les m a i n s de ceux q u i en tirent le profit le plus élevé, parce que ce sont ceux-là qui peuvent y m e t t r e le plus h a u t prix d'achat ou de loyer. ([217,] 218) In Frankreich dagegen die Capitalien der propriétaires u n d spéculateurs n i e dirigés vers l'agriculture. Die i m m e n s e majorité qui se livrent à cet art braucht n u r sehr kleine p e c u n i ä r e M i t t e l dazu, k e i n e n Credit u n d ihre Kenntnisse im A l l g e m e i n e n n i c h t grösser als la fortune qu'ils possèdent. ... A b e r les plus petites propriétés sont celles auxquelles on consacre presque toujours le capital le plus considérable, relativement à leur é t e n d u e . (218, 19) Die K e n n t n i s s e dieser K l e i n e n a u c h groß, im Verhältniß z u m U m fang. D a h e r gedeiht die kleine Agricultur. (220 [, 221]) U n t e r d e n U m s t ä n den daher dans lesquelles se trouvent placés les h o m m e s q u i se livrent à l'agriculture im größten Theil F r a n k r e i c h s sind die petits propriétaires in der günstigsten Position p o u r les cultiver avec avantage et ils p e u v e n t par c o n s é q u e n t y mettre un prix d ' a c h a t tel q u e les propriétaires q u i désirent acquérir un d o m a i n e p o u r l'affermer, ne peuvent entrer en c o n c u r r e n c e avec eux. Les terres r é u n i e s en corps de ferme acquièrent ainsi par u n e vente en détail, u n e a u g m e n t a t i o n de valeur. (221, 2) Aber w e n n der cultivateur von grandes exploitations kämpfen k ö n n e n à armes égales m i t d e n kleinen, d. h. wenn sie p o u r r o n t appliquer Kapital u n d K e n n t n i s s e proportionellement égaux d e n e n die der Bauer anwendet, ||7| m ü s s e n die G r o s s e n i m m e r siegen u n d die exploitations t e n d r a i e n t c o n s t a m m e n t à s'agrandir

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Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 • Heft XII u n d die petites propriétés werden sich y r é u n i r successivement. (222, 3) D i e petite culture favorise e x t r ê m e m e n t la culture des récoltes-racines et des plantes potagères, qui fournissent, sur u n e é t e n d u e de terre d o n n é e , u n e si grande m a s s e de substances alimentaires, m a i s q u i doivent être c o n s o m m é e s tout près du lieu de production, et q u i ne peuvent guère supporter de transports q u e du c h a m p à la d e m e u r e du cultivateur, à cause de leur volume et de leur poids. D a h e r in d e n pays excessivement peuplés, la petite culture présente le seul m o y e n de fournir à la subsistance de la p o p u lation. (223, 4) E b e n s o sicher daß die petite culture fournit le m o i n s d'exc é d a n t disponible p o u r le m a r c h é ; elle p e u t a l i m e n t e r u n e très n o m b r e u s e population agricole, m a i s elle emploie tous les bras, et elle c o n s o m m e tout ou presque tout ce qu'elle produit ; elle n'est d o n c n u l l e m e n t favorable au développement des autres branches d'industrie, grossen Städten etc. (224) La petite culture elle m ê m e , telle qu'elle est p r a t i q u é e o r d i n a i r e m e n t en F r a n c e , emploie un b e a u c o u p m o i n s grand n o m b r e de bras q u e la m o y e n n e culture ne le fait dans les c a n t o n s les m i e u x cultivés de la F l a n d r e : aussi les bénéfices q u ' o n en obtient sont ils b e a u c o u p m o i n s élevés, quoiqu'ils soient b i e n supérieurs à ceux que présentent en général, chez n o u s , la grande et la m o y e n n e culture. (227, 8) En supposant q u e de grands perfectionnements s'introduiraient en F r a n c e dans la petite et la m o y e n n e culture, le résultat serait nécessairement, d ' u n e part, u n e g r a n d e surabond a n c e de produits alimentaires, suivie d ' u n extrême avilissement dans les prix, et de l'autre d ' u n r e n c h é r i s s e m e n t excessif de la m a i n d ' œ u v r e . Un tel état de choses ne pourrait se soutenir. Je crois avoir suffisamment d é m o n tré que, dans l'état actuel de la p o p u l a t i o n de la F r a n c e , le système de grande culture est le seul qui puisse a d m e t t r e g é n é r a l e m e n t les perfectionn e m e n s q u e l'art agricole a reçus chez d'autres n a t i o n s de l'Europe. (228, 9) (Si la petite et la m o y e n n e culture étaient pratiquées en F r a n c e avec toute la perfection dont elles sont susceptibles, elles p r o d u i r a i e n t u n e masse d'alimens disproportionnée à la population, parce qu'elles ne peuvent aussi facilement et avec a u t a n t d'avantage q u e la grande culture, tourner leurs spéculations vers les productions des a l i m e n s de n a t u r e a n i m a l e , qui font c o n s o m m e r à un n o m b r e d o n n é d'individus les produits d ' u n e é t e n d u e de terre b e a u c o u p plus considérable q u e les a l i m e n s végétaux.) (228)

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In d e n ersten Zeiten, als die Agrikultur n o c h sehr roh, die Erde cultivirt, für R e c h n u n g der E i g e n t h ü m e r , d u r c h die personnes engagées à leur service et qui avaient en j o u i s s a n c e ou recevaient u n e partie d é t e r m i n é e du produit c o m m e un salaire de leurs travaux et pour l'entretien du bétail et des i n s t r u m e n s employés à la culture des terres. D i e ß System graduell a b a n d o n n é , im M a a ß als die cultivateurs e u r e n t amassés des c a p i t a u x u n d fähig waren die terres für ihre eigne R e c h n u n g zu pachten. D i e R e n t e dieser fermes bestand ursprünglich in services u n d corvées exécutés p a r le fermier ... d a n n changée en redevance, payable en grains oder j e d e m a n d r e n Agrikulturproduct, d'après u n e q u a n t i t é fixée par les d e u x p a r t i e s ; u n d schließlich Geldrente. Im ersten état des ||8| choses die é t e n d u e des fermes sehr resserrée, tandis q u e la c o n d i t i o n du t e n a n c i e r était abjecte et m a l h e u reuse. Ein eben erst emancipirter tenancier, k o n n t e sich n i c h t leicht von den G e w o h n h e i t e n der esclavage l o s m a c h e n etc. Die tenanciers im Mittelalter obligés de suivre leurs maîtres à la guerre, sous peine d'être chassés de leurs fermes. Vor 1449 k o n n t e ein fermier écossais o h n e formalité a u c u n chassé werden ... die fermiers des biens de l'église étaient traités avec plus de d o u c e u r que leurs frères tenanciers des seigneurs laïques. ( 2 4 5 - 2 4 7 ) Q u a n t aux préjudices occasionnés par ce q u ' o n appelle a s s o l e m e n t contraire aux règles de la b o n n e agriculture, n o u s en d o u t o n s tout-à-fait, et n o u s confessons q u e n o t r e o p i n i o n est q u e la valeur primitive du sol ne peut être d i m i n u é e par a u c u n système d'assolement quelque m a u v a i s qu'il puisse être, q u o i q u ' i l soit hors de d o u t e q u e la valeur artificielle du sol qui provient de l'emploi des pâturages et du fumier puisse être dissipée par un assolement vicieux. ... die conventions restrictives z w i s c h e n f a r m e r u n d l a n d l o r d daher ganz überflüssig, à m o i n s qu'elles n ' a i e n t pour b u t de déterm i n e r la rotation à suivre à la fin du bail, et de m a i n t e n i r la ferme en b o n état à l'entrée du fermier qui succédera. (297)

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Des Baux à Partage des fruits. (Par M. de Dombasle.) (Metairiewirthschaft) Le propriétaire fournit le d o m a i n e , les b â t i m e n s , et o r d i n a i r e m e n t t o u t ou partie du bétail et des i n s t r u m e n s nécessaires à l'exploitation ; le colon, de son côté, apporte son travail, et rien ou presque rien de p l u s ; les produits de la terre se partagent par moitié. (301) les colonspartiaires sont g é n é r a l e m e n t des h o m m e s plongés d a n s la misère et l'insouciance etc. (302) W e n n der m é t a y e r ein accroissement de produit brut de 1500 fcs erhält, au m o y e n d ' u n e avance de 1000 fcs, a l s o 5 0 % b r u t t o G e w i n n , m u ß er zur Hälfte theilen m i t d e m propriétaire, zieht also n u r 750, verliert also 250 fcs von seinen avances ; c'est encore b i e n pis, si la s o m m e placée en amélioration n ' a produit q u ' u n e a u g m e n t a t i o n de 10 ou de 15 % ; le colon qui aurait été assez dupe pour faire cette avance, en perdrait près de la moitié, dès la première a n n é e . (304) D i e Agricultur in s o l c h e m Contract daher misérable, parce q u ' a u c u n capital ne p e u t s'y appliquer, et parce qu'elle ne peut être exercée q u e par des h o m m e s retenus dans un état de misère, par la n a t u r e m ê m e des stipulations qui leur d o n n e n t le droit de cultiver le sol. (305) M a n m u ß u n t e r s c h e i d e n zwischen d e m produit brut u n d d e m produit net der Agricultur. E i n Theil des ersten = d e n Productionskosten c. à d. les dépenses qu'il a été nécessaire de faire p o u r obtenir la récolte ; cette portion, ni le propriétaire, ni le colon ne p e u v e n t en disposer, c'est u n e partie du capital d'exploitation, et elle appartient à la terre, car elle doit lui être restituée p o u r la p r o d u c t i o n de l ' a n n é e suivante. La proportion de cette part du produit brut varie c o n s i d é r a b l e m e n t d a n s les divers systèmes de l'agriculture : elle est p e u considérable dans l'assolement triennal, et d a n s le système agricole imparfait, n o c h gebräuchlich im grösseren Theil du r o y a u m e , elle ne dépasse peutêtre pas alors, d a n s b e a u c o u p de cas, le quart du produit brut, q u i l u i - m ê m e reste toujours, d a n s ces circonstances, porté au minimum. Cette part du produit ||9| brut, qui représente les frais de production, s'accroît c o n s i d é r a b l e m e n t d a n s les systèmes agricoles perfectionnés qui aussi a u g m e n t e n t , dans u n e grande proportion, le produit brut l u i - m ê m e : d a n s quelques cas particuliers, les dépenses de production égalent les / du produit brut, et c e p e n d a n t celui-ci présente encore un bénéfice net plus considérable q u e d a n s l'assolement triennal, où il a été o b t e n u presque sans dépenses. D a n a c h k a n n m a n juger, si un m o d e q u e l c o n q u e de partage du produit brut, entre le propriétaire et le colon, pourrait être applicable à ces divers systèmes agricoles. (306) D a n s l'ancien système de culture, la dépense ou les frais de p r o d u c t i o n sont pris

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presque e n t i è r e m e n t sur les produits e u x m ê m e s en n a t u r e , par la c o n s o m m a t i o n des bestiaux, du cultivateur et de sa famille ; il ne se fait p r e s q u e a u c u n e dépense en écus. N u r dieser U m s t a n d a pu d o n n e r lieu de croire que le propriétaire et le colon p o u v a i e n t partager entre eux t o u t le produit des récoltes qui n ' e s t pas c o n s o m m é d a n s l'exploitation; a b e r dieser Process n u r applicable d i e s e m genre d'agriculture, d. h. der agriculture misérable, aber sobald m a n eine Verbesserung in der Cultur a n b r i n g e n will, merkt m a n daß dieß n u r m ö g l i c h d u r c h q u e l q u e s avances d o n t il faut réserver le m o n t a n t sur le produit brut, p o u r l'appliquer à la production de l'année suivante, en sorte q u e tout partage du produit brut, entre le propriétaire et le colon, forme un obstacle i n s u r m o n t a b l e à toute amélioration. (307) Um Fortschritt in der Agricultur zu m a c h e n selbst nöthig q u ' u n e partie du produit n e t ou bénéfice puisse être a n n u e l l e m e n t appliqué à l'accroissement du capital d'exploitation ; cette c o n d i t i o n est r i g o u r e u s e m e n t nécessaire, pour q u ' u n d o m a i n e s'améliore graduellement par l'accroissem e n t des produits, et par c o n s é q u e n t de la valeur foncière. Ce d o m a i n e ne peut donc, au contraire, q u e déchoir successivement, lorsque par l'effet du partage opéré sur le produit brut, on d é t o u r n e c h a q u e a n n é e de l'exploitation u n e portion du capital l u i - m ê m e employé à la production, et lorsque, par les stipulations du bail, on place le cultivateur dans u n e position où il y aurait lésion manifeste p o u r lui, s'il appliquait à son exploitation ein anderes Capital als son travail personnel, oder la portion de bénéfice qu'il pourrait avoir o b t e n u d u r c h b e s o n d e r s günstige U m s t ä n d e d a n s u n e a n n é e de son exploitation. (309) In F r a n k r e i c h der état de misère dans lequel ce système a plongé plusieurs de nos d é p a r t e m e n s , que l'on p e u t considérer c o m m e possédant les sols les plus fertiles du r o y a u m e , et où les d o m a i n e s ruraux les plus é t e n d u s ne p r o d u i s e n t presque rien p o u r le propriétaire. (310) D a n s le Berry z . B . (311) D a n s un c a n t o n divisé en grandes propriétés territoriales, et où les cultivateurs n ' o n t j a m a i s su faire a u c u n e avance pécuniaire pour les travaux de la terre, nothwendig sehr wenig zahlreiche Bevölkerung u n d diese p o p u l a t i o n se trouve inévitablement dégradée par des habitudes de fainéantise p r o f o n d é m e n t enracinées. U n e p o p u l a t i o n de colons partiaires ne p e u t être e n t o u r é e que d ' u n e population de ce genre ... wo fainéantise, misère, ignorance u n d dégradation morale. (311, 12) A u c h im Poitou die Métairie. Im Poitou u n d Berry v e r m i e t h e n sich d o m a i n e s von 300 hectares für 1 0 0 0 - 2 0 0 0 fcs, die in weniger als 20 J a h r e n , bei gutem System zu 100 fcs per hectare, d. h. zu 15 x du produit n e t actuel. (325) I

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De la r e n t e de la terre et de l'impôt foncier. (M. de D o m b a s l e ) La rente de la terre est de la m ê m e n a t u r e q u e l'intérêt d ' u n capital p é c u niaire ; car cet intérêt, chez u n e n a t i o n livrée à l'industrie, n'est autre chose q u e l'excédant du produit q u e l'on p e u t tirer du capital d a n s u n e entreprise industrielle, après avoir p a y é les dépenses de p r o d u c t i o n , et après le prélèv e m e n t des profits de l'industrie, au t a u x ordinaire d a n s le pays. S e u l e m e n t la rente de la terre est b i e n plus variable q u e l'intérêt, parce q u e d e u x s o m m e s de 1000 fcs sont toujours applicables a u x m ê m e s choses l ' u n e q u e l'autre, et peuvent d o n n e r naissance à des produits égaux, was n i c h t bei 2 hectares de terre der Fall ist: la situation, le degré de fertilité, et mille autres causes, p e u v e n t établir entre e u x d ' é n o r m e s différences ; d r u m k a n n die R e n t e von e i n e m H e c t a r 10, die v o m a n d r e n 100 fcs [oder] m e h r werth sein. (307, 8) D i e Rente ist n i c h t der Z i n s des Capitals employé à l'acquisition du fonds, plus le m o n t a n t de l'impôt ; car elle ne varie a u c u n e m e n t selon q u e la terre a été a c h e t é e à un prix plus ou m o i n s élevé ; et si le propriétaire qui a acheté à très bas prix un terrain marécageux, es wohlfeil verzehnfacht im W e r t h hat, wird die R e n t e von 100 auf 150 fcs per hectare steigen, q u o i q u e le propriétaire l'ait acquis m o y e n n a n t un capital peutêtre inférieur à cette s o m m e . E b e n s o u m g e k e h r t . (308) La rente est l ' é l é m e n t essentiel qui fixe la valeur vénale des terres ... le t a u x de la r e n t e p e u t faire baisser celui de l'impôt ; m a i s j a m a i s le t a u x de l'impôt ne p e u t apporter ni h a u s s e ni baisse dans le prix de la r e n t e . (309) Le loyer d ' u n e ferme p e u t être supérieur ou inférieur à la rente, selon que le propriétaire, n ' a pas su ou n ' a pas voulu la porter au prix qu'il aurait pu en prétendre, ou selon qu'il a trouvé un fermier q u i a consenti à le payer audessus du t a u x ordinaire. Le loyer n'existe q u e pour les terres affermées, tandis q u e la rente ... est inhérente au sol, et y reste attachée d a n s le cas où elle est exploitée par le propriétaire lui m ê m e , tout aussi b i e n q u e lorsqu'elle l'est par un fermier. (316) Q u e la rente soit payée intégralement au propriétaire, ou q u e le fermier en fasse l u i - m ê m e la répartition entre le propriétaire, le fisc et le créancier hypothécaire, cela est e n t i è r e m e n t indifférent relativement à la production agricole. (318) Um d e n valeur vénale oder d e n t a u x de la r e n t e des terres zu verstehn, in Betracht zu ziehn, d a ß : le^sol est u n e q u a n t i t é fixe et invariable; il ne p e u t ni s'étendre avec l ' a u g m e n t a t i o n de la dem a n d e , ni se rétrécir lorsqu'elle d i m i n u e ; il ne p e u t ni se déplacer p o u r aller chercher ailleurs la d e m a n d e , ni s'employer à d'autres usages q u e la cul-

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ture, ni être r e m p l a c é e par r i e n d a n s cet usage. ... Ainsi, p e n d a n t q u e la d e m a n d e p e u t varier par l'effet d ' u n e m u l t i t u d e de causes, l'offre est toujours, p o u r ce genre de propriété et d a n s c h a q u e localité, renfermée d a n s des limites i n v a r i a b l e s : q u e la d e m a n d e s'accroisse ou qu'elle d i m i n u e , elle ne p e u t exercer a u c u n e influence sur la m a s s e des offres. (324, 25) Also folgt q u e la propriété foncière est placée dans u n e position où toutes les circonstances qui p e u v e n t accroître la d e m a n d e , t o u r n e n t nécessairem e n t à son profit. (325) A n d e r s e i t s : l'élévation de la rente accroissant les charges de ||11| la p r o d u c t i o n , t e n d alors à d i m i n u e r la d e m a n d e , et à la ra-

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m e n e r au niveau de l'offre : le t a u x de la rente est ici le seul t e r m e variable qui puisse rétablir l'équilibre, p u i s q u e l'offre est i m m o b i l e par sa n a t u r e . ... c'est finalement au profit de la propriété, q u e se fait tout ce q u i favorise la p r o d u c t i o n agricole, ( d e n n c o m m e la d e m a n d e des terres s'accroît p a r l'effet m ê m e de l ' a u g m e n t a t i o n des benefits des fermiers, la rente s'élève à

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l'expiration des bail) C'est p o u r cela q u e d a n s les c a n t o n s p o p u l e u x et b i e n cultivés, c o m m e p. e. la F l a n d r e , le bénéfice des fermiers n ' e s t certainem e n t pas plus élevé q u e d a n s les c a n t o n s les plus arriérés, c o m m e le P o i t o u ou la Bretagne, en p r o p o r t i o n de l ' i m p o r t a n c e du capital q u e les u n s et les autres emploient à leur exploitation ; m a i s la r e n t e et la valeur vénale de la

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terre sont, à degré égal de fertilité, cinq ou six fois plus élevées d a n s la prem i è r e de ces provinces, q u e dans la majeure partie des d e u x autres. Là, c o m m e partout et dans t o u s les t e m p s , c'est la propriété foncière q u i recueille i n é v i t a b l e m e n t t o u t le profit des circonstances qui v i e n n e n t favoriser la p r o d u c t i o n agricole. L ' i n d u s t r i e productive s'efforce de j o u i r m o m e n -

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t a n é m e n t de ces avantages et elle y parvient, surtout dans un état a s c e n d a n t de l'art agricole, et d a n s u n e situation sociale qui en favorise les développemens ; m a i s elle ne p e u t éluder la nécessité de léguer à la p r o priété foncière le fruit de ses succès ; car ce sont ces succès e u x m ê m e s q u i c h a n g e n t ces rapports avec la propriété foncière, en fournissant à celle ci le 30 m o y e n de lui dicter des lois plus favorables p o u r elle m ê m e . ([326,] 327) Anderseits m u ß d i e propriété foncière en définitive tragen le poids des circonstances q u i e n t r a v e n t la p r o d u c t i o n industrielle appliquée à la terre, q u i d i m i n u e n t ses produits, en abaissant le prix, ou q u i élèvent les dépenses de la production, m i t e i n e m Wort, toutes les circonstances d i m i n u a n t les d e 35

m a n d e s de la terre. (328) D a n s le Berri, la r e n t e de l'hectare de terre ne s'élève guère plus h a u t q u e l ' i m p ô t foncier q u e supporte l'hectare semblable dans quelques parties de la F l a n d r e ou de la N o r m a n d i e ; q u e l'on essaie d'élever la r e n t e des terres du Berri, en d o u b l a n t , triplant, q u i n t u p l a n t l'impôt foncier q u i pèse sur elles, et l'on verra si la rente s'élèvera d ' u n seul

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c e n t i m e . (330) la r e n t e est, n o n p a s la r e d e v a n c e des fermiers envers les propriétaires, m a i s la r e d e v a n c e de l'industrie agricole envers la propriété foncière. (332) 131

Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 • Heft XII

An Inquiry into those Principles respecting the Nature of Demand and the Necessity of Consumption, lately advocated by Mr Malthus. L o n d o n 1821. A. S m i t h glaubte, daß a c c u m u l a t i o n or increase of stock in general lowered the rate of profits in general, on the s a m e principle which m a k e s the increase of stock in any particular trade lower the profits of that trade. But such increase of stock in a particular trade means an increase m o r e in proportion t h a n stock is at the same t i m e increased in other trades: it is relative. (9) I 1121 Herr Say sagt: "There is a glut of english goods in Italy, because there is n o t e n o u g h produced in Italy." But fewer goods have not b e e n prod u c e d in Italy t h a n formerly. It would be simpler to say, the English should n o t have p r o d u c e d which was possible, t h a n to say, as he does, t h a t the Italians should. (15) T h e i m m e d i a t e m a r k e t for capital, or field for capital, m a y be said to be labour. T h e a m o u n t of capital which can be invested at a given m o m e n t , in a given country, or the world, so as to return n o t less t h a n a given rate of profits, seems principally to d e p e n d on t h e quantity of labour, which it is possible, by laying out that capital, to i n d u c e the t h e n existing n u m b e r of h u m a n beings to perform. (20) Profits do not depend on price, they depend on price compared with outgoings. (28) 1) So far, as dem a n d m e a n s an exchange of goods, it is insured by increased general prod u c t i o n ; it is ... the same with production, supposing the m e a n s of communication to r e m a i n the same, oder, as is probable u n d e r such circumstances, to be increased: the increased d e m a n d for one article would be the increased supply of another, a n d the d e m a n d for the whole is ... u n m e a n i n g .

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T h e n there is, besides goods, n o t h i n g in which d e m a n d c a n consist, except land, and labour of all k i n d s . 2) T h e d e m a n d on the part of the land c a n n o t be increased; the land has a certain extent, a n d no m o r e . ... A b e r die R e n t e der landholders, der collectors (der taxes) der stockholders, oder der useless pensioners zu vergrössern, um d e m a n d zu schaffen k o m i s c h ... t h e upshot of it is, t h a t you are minus so m u c h of your goods without any return. This is not an increased demand; or ... it is no increased i n d u c e m e n t , from gain, to produce. It m a y be an increased i n d u c e m e n t from necessity ... We are continually puzzled, in H e r r n M a l t h u s speculations, between the object of increasing p r o d u c t i o n a n d that of checking it. ( 5 3 - 5 5 ) W h e n a m a n is in want of a demand, does Mr M a l t h u s r e c o m m e n d h i m to pay s o m e other person to take off his goods? (55) t h e very m e a n i n g of an increased d e m a n d by the labourers is, a disposition to take less themselves, a n d leave a larger share for their employers; a n d if it be said that this, by d i m i n i s h i n g c o n s u m p t i o n , increases glut, I c a n only answer, that glut t h e n is synonym o u s with high profits. (59) This distinction between capital and profits is in a great degree merely in t e r m s . Profits d e p e n d on the quantity I receive back in return for my whole capital expended. If, at t h e e n d of a certain period, that quantity is less t h a n what I e x p e n d e d at first, or greater in b u t a small degree, am I to say t h a t my capital is less but my profits fair profits, or to say that I have t h e s a m e capital, or nearly so, b u t have m a d e no profits? A n d what period am I to take for this purpose? It is impossible for the n a t i o n to take stock till these fluctuations are over. M a n y transactions extend over m a n y years. We m u s t wait to see how they are w o u n d u p , before we can pretend to say what o u r capital is. (78, 79) ||13| D i e G r ö s s e d e s A r b e i t s l o h n s n i c h t g u t für die A r b e i t . »Increase the value of t h e encouragem e n t of the m i n i n g labour compared to t h a t of farming labour, m i n i n g industry will increase at the expense of t h a t of farming.« Sprechen wir aber von allen Sorten of Arbeit: » H e (der Arbeiter) will work a for b wages; b u t n o t 2 a for 2 b wages. T h e n if y o u give h i m 2 b for 1 a, m a y it n o t follow, t h a t he will be content with less, a n d therefore n o t work even a?« (97) W e n n einer food producirt, »and he h a d p r o d u c e d 2x as m u c h as every b o d y could eat, in this case no new creation of products would open a d é b o u c h é for his stock, till t h e numbers h a d also increased«. (99) A m a n m a y r e d u c e the rate of his profits by the c o m p e t i t i o n of his capital with itself, i n d e pendently of that of others. I m e a n , by adding to his capital in order to gain. He will not gain so m u c h m o r e in proportion as he adds. (103) W h e r e the advantage possessed by the owner of capital is m o r e felt in p r o d u c i n g one commodity, t h a n it is in p r o d u c i n g another, in proportion to t h e l a b o u r employed of course, when capitalists c o m e to take less r e m u n e r a t i o n for the assistance of their capital, t h e former c o m m o d i t y will e x c h a n g e at a

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Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 • Heft XII less rate with the latter t h a n before. T h e advantage possessed by t h e owner of capital, who can afford to sink it for a long t i m e , i.e., by the owner of fixed capital, is greater t h a n that possessed by h i m who only sinks it for a short t i m e ; i.e. by the owner of circulating capital, or of fixed capital of less durability. Therefore, w h e n profits fall, c o m m o d i t i e s will exchange with 5 o n e another at a new rate, a given quantity of those, which are in a greater degree p r o d u c e d by fixed capital (and which therefore are, in a greater degree, b e h o l d e n to the assistance of capital on the whole), exchanging now for a less quantity of such as are p r o d u c e d in a less degree by fixed, a n d in a greater degree by circulating capital. (103, 4) Unterstellt alle h a b e n in 10 e i n e m L a n d so viel zu essen als sie b r a u c h e n , still, if industry a n d capital increase, the d e m a n d for raw produce, as materials, will rise, t h o u g h n o t the d e m a n d for raw produce, as food. T h a t land, w h i c h raises the former sort of raw produce, will rise t h e n , in t i m e , to an exchangeable value; and, if the land be convertible, it will encroach on the corn land, and straiten that, 15 a n d give that an exchangeable value too. (106, 7) If land of the n e x t degree h a d no where existed, the high price u n d high profits would have continu e d (auf d e m b e s t e n L a n d ) and, probably, increased on t h e land of the first degree; a n d the excess of it above profits in other lines, being an advantage n o t derived from capital, b u t ownership of land, would have b e e n 20 separated very soon in the form of rent. R i c a r d o m a c h t an inversion of cause a n d effect. (107) R e n t m a y arise on the former a m o u n t of capital, by an increased d e m a n d for corn. (108) the proposition of M. Say does n o t at all prove t h a t capital opens a m a r k e t for itself, b u t only t h a t capital a n d lab o u r o p e n a m a r k e t for one another. ( I l l ) 25

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Samuel Turner. Considerations upon the Agriculture, Commerce and Manufactures of the British Empire etc London.1822. 5

It is the m o s t easily cultivated, a n d n o t always the best, lands w h i c h are first cultivated, (enclosed); b u t as society advances, i m p r o v e m e n t s t a k e place, and lands which, in the earlier stages of society, would p e r h a p s h a v e yielded a very i n a d e q u a t e r e t u r n for such labour as m a n could have t h e n bestowed u p o n t h e m , m a y , w h e n new i n s t r u m e n t s are devised, a n d w h e n 10 the labours of the drainer, the lime-burner, a n d others, are brought to the assistance des cultivator, b e c o m e considerably m o r e fruitful t h a n any l a n d s before cultivated. (10) |

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Ii4| Reynolds. (John Stuckey) Practical Observations on Mr. Ricardo's Principles of Political Economy. L o n d o n 1822.

Wages. (Nichts.) D a s ganze Buch Hohler Blödsinn.

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Thomas Hopkins. Economical Enquiries relative to the Laws which regulate Rent, Profit, Wages and the Value of Money. L o n d o n . 1822.

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and

Value.

If t h e borrower paid only for the degree of d a m a g e t h a t h a d b e e n d o n e to the i m p l e m e n t , or replaced it w h e n it was worn out, the lender could derive no p e r m a n e n t revenue from lending it; he would have restored to h i m only what was precisely e q u a l to what he h a d lent. (4, 5) In the general principle, 10 that cost of p r o d u c t i o n regulates the exchangeable value of all c o m m o d i ties, original materials are n o t i n c l u d e d ; b u t the claim which the owners of these have u p o n p r o d u c e , causes r e n t to enter into value. (11) Food being considered the original e l e m e n t of value, the quantity of that e l e m e n t n e c essary to the p r o d u c t i o n of any c o m m o d i t y d e t e r m i n e s its value ... Taxes, 15 rent, profit and wages, m a y all be e s t i m a t e d in food; and the whole cost in food, to the government, the landlord, the capitalist a n d the labourer, or to any of t h e m , which is indispensably necessary, in order to have an article produced, constitutes t h e cost of production, a n d t h e exchangeable value of t h a t article. (12)

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Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 · Heft XII

2)

On

the

General Law

of Rent,

or

Charge for

Use.

R e n t , or a charge for use, arises naturally o u t of ownership, or the establishm e n t of a right of property. (13) Any thing m a y yield a rent if possessed of t h e following qualities:—First, it m u s t exist in a degree of scarcity; Secondly, it m u s t have the power to aid l a b o u r in the great work of p r o d u c t i o n . (14)

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Rent of Land. t h e existence of a second quality of l a n d is not necessary to t h e formation of a rent, the relative a m o u n t of p r o d u c e c a n n o t be the cause of it. (20) Inferior soils, so far from being the cause of rent, w h e n they exert an influence, limit or retard the advance of it. (I.e.) M a n darf n a t ü r l i c h n i c h t d e n case setzen where land so plentiful, c o m p a r e d with t h e labour a n d stock to be employed u p o n it, that no charge for rent could be m a d e , b e c a u s e it was not scarce. (21) »successive portions of capital may, instead of a less, pay a greater rent for the use of land.« (21) without the application of labour, land would pay no rent. Let t h e portions of labour and capital employed be small, a n d the rent will be low; n o t in absolute a m o u n t only, b u t on the capital employed. (22) T h e cause of successive portions of labour a n d capital affording an increased rate of rent for the land, is to be found in the superior productiveness of sufficient capital a n d wellcombined labour, to isolated a n d u n a i d e d labour. (23) T h e m a n u f a c t u r e r would pay their share of the rent of land, in the advanced price they would pay for the raw p r o d u c e ; in precisely t h e same m a n n e r that a c o n s u m e r pays the t a x on any particular article, in the additional price consequently charged for it. W h e n t h e four producers were b o t h agriculturists a n d manufacturers, the landowner received, as rent of land, a value of 10 I. Suppose this rent to have b e e n paid Y in raw produce, a n d the other % hi m a n u f a c t u r e s ; - on the division of the producers into the 2 classes of agriculturists a n d m a n u f a c t u r e r s , k ö n n t e dieß fortgesezt werden. In practice, however, it would be found m o r e convenient for the cultivators of the land, to pay the rent, a n d to charge it on their produce, when exchanging it against t h e p r o d u c e of the labour of the manufacturers; so as to divide the p a y m e n t into 2 equitable proportions between the 2 classes, a n d to leave wages a n d profits equal in each department. (26) ||15| Ist geschäzt worden, d a ß das productive land of England pays im D u r c h s c h n i t t 11, an acre per a n n u m . (28) In einigen L ä n -

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Aus Thomas Hopkins: Economical enquiries d e m k a n n der Lord 50 % a u s d r ü c k e n , in a n d r e n n i c h t 10. In einigen der fruchtbaren G e g e n d e n des Osten, m a n can subsist auf % des p r o d u c e of his labour employed u p o n the l a n d ; b u t in parts of Switzerland a n d Norway, an exaction of 10% m i g h t d e p o p u l a t e the country. ... we see no n a t u r a l 5 b o u n d s to the rent t h a t m a y be exacted, b u t in the limited abilities of t h e payers. (31) T h e great regulators of r e n t of land in a p o p u l o u s country are, inability on the part of t h e cultivators to pay m o r e , and, where inferior soils exist, t h e c o m p e t i t i o n of those inferior soils against t h e superior. (33, 34) In E n g l a n d viel c o m m o n land, the n a t u r a l fertility of which is e q u a l to 10 what a large part of the l a n d now cultivated was prior to its being t a k e n into cultivation; a n d yet t h e e x p e n c e of bringing such c o m m o n lands into cultivations is so great, as to cause t h e m not to yield the ordinary interest for t h e m o n e y expended in improving t h e m , leaving n o t h i n g as rent for the n a t u r a l fertility of the soil: a n d this m i t all the advantages of an i m m e d i a t e 15 application of labour, aided by stock skilfully applied, and furnished m i t manufactures cheaply p r o d u c e d ; a u ß e r d e m good roads in der N a c h b a r schaft etc ... T h e present l a n d proprietors m a y be considered the owners of all the a c c u m u l a t e d labour which has for ages b e e n expended, in bringing the country to its present productive state. (35)

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Rent of Mines and other things, the Gift of nature.

W h e r e irrigation of land is practised, a rent is paid for water, as well as for land. In the rice grounds of L o m b a r d y , it is not u n c o m m o n for a r e n t to be paid to one owner for water, a n d to a n o t h e r for t h e l a n d : b u t a stream, favourably situated, furnishes an instance of a r e n t being paid for an appro25 priated gift of nature, of as exclusive a kind as any t h a t can be n a m e d . T h i s is well u n d e r s t o o d in m a n u f a c t u r i n g districts, where considerable rents are paid for small streams of water, particularly if t h e fall is considerable. T h e power obtained from s u c h streams being equal to that afforded by large steamengines, it is as advantageous to use t h e m , t h o u g h subject to the pay30 m e n t of a heavy rent, as it is to e x p e n d large s u m s in the erection a n d working of steamengines. Of streams, too, there are some larger, s o m e smaller. Contiguity to the seat of m a n u f a c t u r e is also an advantage, w h i c h c o m m a n d s a higher rent. In t h e c o u n t i e s of York a n d Lancaster there is probably a m u c h greater difference between the rents paid for the smallest a n d 35 the largest streams of water, t h a n there is between the rents paid for 50 of the least and 50 of the most fertile acres that are in c o m m o n cultivation. (37, 8) Beim L a n d für H ä u s e r b a u e n the c o m p e t i t i o n always turns u p o n a m o u n t of rent d e m a n d e d , c o m p a r e d with advantage of situation. As land,

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Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 · Heft XII generally, in m a r k e t towns is of high value, b e c a u s e those towns enable individuals to effect their exchanges with less labour, the central situations in those towns are of the highest value ... scarcity a n d productiveness are the 2 great qualities which cause rent to be given for the u s e of any thing. (39) By doubling the labour a n d capital employed in working the coal m i n e , a 5 double quantity of coal could be h a d ; b u t by doubling the quantities e m ployed on the stream (in e i n e r mill) only the s a m e quantity of power would be obtained. In a limited fishery, a n d in t h e cultivation of a certain extent of land, in the same way limited quantities of labour a n d capital yield the highest rent to the owner; a n d any a d d i t i o n a l quantities employed, at the 10 s a m e rate of wages and profits, would n o t add to the rent. A fall in wages a n d profits m u s t take place, before an ||16| increased rent could be paid for t h e land or the stream; but a large increase of rent is possible for a coalm i n e , even with a rise of wages a n d profits. (42)

Rent of Stock or Profit.

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U n t e r Profit schließt m a n sonst a u c h ein, n i c h t n u r die charge für mere use; b u t a periodical charge also for the wear of the thing, a n d wages of labour in the m a n a g e m e n t . Diese 2 latter are principally wages of labour. (43) Lab o u r a n d stock being b o t h scarce, relatively to t h e land, would obtain larger shares of the produce. ... If the doctrine of Mr. Ricardo were true, that, at 20 all times, a n d u n d e r all circumstances, profits a n d wages alone enter into the value b o t h of raw p r o d u c e and m a n u f a c t u r e s , a rise in profits m u s t be a t t e n d e d by a fall in wages ... a b e r w e n n R e n t m i t in die P r o d u c t i o n s k o s t e n e i n g e h t , a r e d u c t i o n of rent would leave labour as well rewarded after as before the ... rise of profits. (48) 25

Different Rates of Rent. Competition will assign to capital its proper rate of profit, in whatever way it m a y be employed: b u t this renders it u n e q u a l : it is in the n a t u r e of things, where c o m p e t i t i o n is the m o s t free a n d active, t h a t the rates of profit should be u n e q u a l . (53)

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3)

5

Wages

of Labour.

A t t e n d i n g to these n a t u r a l causes of inequality of supply of labor (ζ. B. weaving has a t t a c h e d to itself an excessive supply of labourers; d e n n o t h e r e m p l o y m e n t s t h a t afford advantages to children, t h o u g h n o t at so early an age, receive their average c o m p l e m e n t of n e w h a n d s , b u t t h e supply is m o r e scanty, as t h e peculiar n a t u r e of t h e trade a p p r o a c h e s those w h i c h afford little r e m u n e r a t i o n for t h e labor of learners, u n t i l years of application, a n d an a p p r o a c h to m a t u r i t y , qualify t h e m for their employments.) to various b r a n c h e s of industry, a scale m i g h t be formed w h i c h would shew t h e grada-

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tions of wages, a n d p o i n t at t h e different degrees of force with w h i c h l a b o u r is d e t e r m i n e d to different e m p l o y m e n t s . (60) W h e n t h e wages of t h e p a r e n t are high, he c a n b e t t e r afford to support a child o u t of those wages, u n t i l he arrives at a sufficiently m a t u r e age to learn t h e profession which h a s t h e highest rate of wages; b u t in a c o u n t r y where t h e wages of t h e great m a s s of

15

labourers are low, t h e poverty of t h e p a r e n t i n d u c e s h i m to place his child, n o t at t h e profession in w h i c h he will be able to earn t h e most, b u t at t h a t which affords wages t h e soonest. (61) D a s W a c h s t h u m der Bevölkerung k a n n n u r d a n n die wages fallen, statt steigen m a c h e n , w e n n es bis zu d e m P u n k t geht, wo an a d d i t i o n a l labourer will not increase t h e productive

20

power of the others. T h e wages of l a b o u r m a y t h e n be considered as having arrived at t h e highest rate, in t h a t state of t h i n g s : and should labourers still increase in n u m b e r s , wages m i g h t decline; b e c a u s e t h e a d d i t i o n a l labourer would n o t increase t h e whole p r o d u c e e q u a l to t h e highest rate of wages of one m a n : a n d supposing t h e a d d i t i o n a l labourer to receive only to t h e extent that his labour increased the general p r o d u c e , he would have less wages for his labour t h a n t h e former labourers h a d ; or supposing that, as t h e new labourer works as m u c h as t h e old, the whole p r o d u c e is equally divided, t h e n the rate of wages of all would be d i m i n i s h e d in a small degree. (63) T h e gross p r o d u c e of labour being increased by t h e u s e of stock,

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it is the a d d i t i o n a l part that is divided between t h e owner of t h e stock a n d the labourer. ... T h e degree ||17| of scarcity in which those rentable articles exist, which have t h e general n a m e of stock, seems to be the p r i n c i p a l cause which d e t e r m i n e s t h e r a t e of rent that is paid for t h e m . If p l o u g h s , carts a n d looms are scarce, c o m p a r e d with t h e labourers who w a n t t h e m , 35 the owners will require, a n d t h e labourers will give, a larger p r o p o r t i o n of p r o d u c e as rent for t h e u s e of t h e m ; b u t this rent c a n never a m o u n t to m o r e t h a n t h e whole of t h a t surplus w h i c h is o b t a i n e d by t h e u s e of the m a c h i n e . (64) As the degree of scarcity is t h e i m m e d i a t e cause, those c i r c u m s t a n c e s which affect scarcity or plentifulness of stock, are t h e r e m o t e influencing

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Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 • Heft XII causes. They are various, and e m b r a c e all those w h i c h affect industry, a n d t h e inviolability of property, as liberty, security, frugality etc. (65) A farmer m a y live by spade husbandry, t h o u g h n o t so well as by the plough; b u t , to the i n h a b i t a n t s of Manchester, superior m a c h i n e r y is indispensably necessary. (68) every improved m a c h i n e to aid l a b o u r in the task of producing, 5 a n d every additional portion of stock, benefited the labourer, b e c a u s e a greater p r o d u c e was thereby obtained, a n d the labourer shared in t h e surplus. (67, 68) ... stock of all kinds u s e d in p r o d u c t i o n increases the wages of labour, a n d the m o r e stock there is, t h e higher would be the wages of labour, were it n o t for other counteracting causes ... T h u s t h e labourer is 10 m a d e a k i n d of j o i n t owner of, a n d participator in, the benefits arising from all the a c c u m u l a t e d stock in the country. (68, 9)

4) 5)

Of taxes. On

Money.

the causes which d e t e r m i n e the different values of gold in different c o u n tries ... are the same as those which regulate its value in the country where it is p r o d u c e d from the m i n e s , namely, t h e cost of procuring it. W e n n es in E n g l a n d 5 sh. sich a u s t a u s c h e n für a b u s h e l of wheat, in F r a n k r e i c h n u r 2, so ists because it costs E n g l a n d a b u s h e l of wheat to procure a supply of gold a n d silver to the a m o u n t of 5 sh etc. If all n a t i o n s h a d to give wheat in exchange for gold, the difference in the value of t h a t metal, in wheat, in different countries, would be proportioned to the difference in the expence of conveying t h e wheat to the gold market. (83) An english manufacturer, by expending a b u s h e l of wheat, or the price of it, is able to get a yard of cloth m a d e , which he can export, and, in return, bring back 5 sh., after paying his own expences. E n g l a n d is t h e n supplied with gold or silver at t h a t R a t e . A R u s s i a n m e r c h a n t has 4 bushels of wheat at Moscow, which he exports and sells; and, after paying all expences, he finds that he brings back to Moscow five sh. It is, therefore necessary to export 4 bushels of wheat from Moscow, and 1 from England, to obtain an e q u a l quantity of gold or silver—5 sh: that quantity will consequently exchange regularly in the 2 countries at those rates. W h e a t will, in England, be 5 s. a bushel, a n d in Moscow 1 s. 3 d. a bushel. ... 1st m a n u f a c t u r i n g skill u n d capital soweit in Frankreich entwickelt, d a ß es i h m vortheilhafter m a n u f a c t u r e s als wheat auszuführen u n d d o c h so hinter E n g l a n d zurück, daß es zwei b u s h , of wheat in m a k i n g of a yard of cloth verausgabt, wo j e n e s n u r 1, so, daß der original p r o d u c e r of gold would n o t give a higher price for t h e yard of

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Aus Thomas Hopkins: Economical enquiries french cloth, t h a n for t h e yard of english, i.e. 5 sh., F r a n c e would o b t a i n h e r supply of gold at t h a t rate ... H e r e , t h e cost, in wheat, of procuring gold in England, F r a n c e , a n d Russia, would be as 1, 2 a n d 4; a n d ist t h e m o n e y price of wheat in R u s s i a 1 s. 3 d., in F r a n c e 2 s. 6 d., in E n g l a n d ||18| 5 sh. 5 per bushel. ... Also das M e t a l c h e a p u n d m o n e y prices high, where superior m a n u f a c t u r i n g skill, capital a n d industry exist, as in E n g l a n d ; a n d t h e gold dear, or m o n e y p r i c e s low, in countries ill situated for exporting raw produce, a n d without m a n u f a c t u r e s , as in parts of Russia. ( 8 4 - 8 6 )

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Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 • Heft Xil

Thompson. (T. Perronet.) The True theory of Rent etc 9 Edition. L o n d o n 1832. Der wahre G r u n d der R e n t e ist der längst von A. S m i t h pointed out. »It is the limited quantity of the land, in C o m p a r i s o n with the competitors for its p r o d u c e ; or, as it is s o m e t i m e s called, t h e monopoly.« (6) It is the rise in the price of produce t h a t enables a n d causes inferior land to be b r o u g h t into cultivation; and n o t the cultivation of inferior l a n d that causes the rise of rent. (8) T h e effect of all agricultural i m p r o v e m e n t s is to increase the quantity of produce and lower its price; but, i m p r o v e m e n t s which consist in a saving of expense, do this in a m u c h less degree t h a n those which require an a u g m e n t e d outlay. I m p r o v e m e n t s of the first kind d i m i n i s h the quantity of capital d e m a n d e d from the t e n a n t , a n d consequently t h e final a m o u n t of the profits that will be left h i m ; i m p r o v e m e n t s of the latter kind increase t h e m . In i m p r o v e m e n t s of the first kind, the landlord finally obtains the whole of the gain, and a part of what used to be the profits of the t e n a n t besides. In those of the latter kind, he obtains only t h a t part of the gain which is left after paying the increased a m o u n t of profits of the t e n a n t . An i m p r o v e m e n t of this last kind is always advantageous to the t e n a n t ; and, except in the lowest class of cases where n o t h i n g is left after paying the necessary profits of the tenant, to the landlord also. An i m p r o v e m e n t of the other kind is always very advantageous to the landlord; but it is against the tenant, in the same way as a d i m i n u t i o n in the quantity of capital that can be employed with a profit is against any other dealer. (10) If any m a n were to assert that proof spirit sold for a high price because there were weaker spirits that were selling for a lower, a n d was t h e n c e to d e d u c e some practical inference ... klar dieß fallacy, (13) R e n t would increase still m o r e rapidly, if there was no disposable l a n d with any difference of productive

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Aus Thomas Perronet Thompson: The true theory of rent powers at all. ... t h e relation between rent a n d the productive power of t h e disposable land, is o n e of opposition, n o t of c o n n e x i o n . (13, 14) it is n o t true that m e n are living on a fixed quantity of food, which will n o t be dim i n i s h e d on an increase of price. ... (oder v e r m e h r t b e i m F a l l e n d e s 5 Preisses.) ... »sufficient to a t t e n d to the fact, t h a t w h e n there is a necessity for the c o n s u m p t i o n being d i m i n i s h e d because the corn is n o t t h e r e to be c o n s u m e d , an increase of price is the engine which carries it into effect; a clear proof that increase of price d i m i n i s h e s c o n s u m p t i o n s (24) T h e secret (eines glut (general)) lies in t h e slowness of the increase of t h e p r o d u c e of 10 land, compared with t h e increase of m a n u f a c t u r e s which m i g h t otherwise be created to t e m p t the agriculturists withal. It would be easy to d o u b l e t h e quantity of goods m a n u f a c t u r e d , if the offer of t h e m would t e a c h t h e agriculturists to produce food for 2 m e n where they p r o d u c e for o n e now, a n d leave a certain rate of profit for the m a n u f a c t u r i n g capitalists besides. 15 ... There is then, in any given state of m a n u f a c t u r i n g skill a n d of the supply of corn, a certain q u a n t i t y of all kinds of m a n u f a c t u r e s which can be produced a n d sold with a living profit. A n d if m o r e are produced, they c a n not be sold with a living profit; a n d this is a G e n e r a l Glut. It is not true that there would be no glut, if there was only less of o n e k i n d of m a n u f a c 20 tures a n d m o r e of s o m e other. T h e cause of the glut extends to all k i n d s , and c a n n o t be r e m e d i e d by altering their proportions. (30) M a n u f a c t u r e s are t h e application of industry in a direction where the p r o d u c e varies as the labour applied, a n d agriculture where it does not. (I.e.)

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| i 9 | Cornlaw fallacies with the answers. By T. P. Thompson. 2. ed. L o n d o n 1839. U n m ö g l i c h z u lesen. 5

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Aus Edward West: Price of corn and wages of labour

Sir Edward West. Price of Corn and Wages of Labour. L o n d o n . 1826.

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T h e price will d e p e n d n o t only u p o n the actual quantity exposed to sale, b u t also u p o n the quantity ... in the different stages of its progress of growth, or m a n u f a c t u r e , or towards t h e m a r k e t ; u p o n the period also within which the supply can be increased, a n d various other circumstances, as whether the c o m m o d i t y is durable or perishable etc. (21) T h e price of corn then, in a given state of the supply, will be settled by the d e m a n d , or t h e wants a n d m e a n s of t h e lower orders of the c o m m u n i t y ; a n d supposing their wants to be u n c h a n g e d , any variation in the a m o u n t of their m e a n s m u s t affect the price of corn. (31) Es ist klar d a ß die lower classes nicht so viel Brod h a b e n as they desire in average years, for if they h a d , the smallest addition of a more a b u n d a n t year would n o t be c o n s u m e d . (31, 2) T h e only m e d i u m through which the price of corn, the quantity remaining the same, can be increased, is an increase of the wages of labour. (35) the price of corn depends m u c h m o r e u p o n the wages of labour, a n d follows any variation of the wages of l a b o u r m u c h m o r e i m m e d i a t e l y t h a n the wages of labour follow any variation in the price of corn. (38) A n d r e U r s a c h e n afficiren natürlich a u c h d e n K o r n p r e i ß , besonders die fluctuation der supply, caused by the variety der seasons; u n d diese different powers wirken m a n c h m a l z u s a m m e n , m a n c h m a l in opposition to e a c h other. (44, 45) As the deficient crop sells for an actually larger s u m t h a n the average crop, t h e price rises m o r e t h a n in proportion to the deficiency. ... E b e n s o an a b u n dant crop sells for a smaller aggregate s u m t h a n an average crop. (56) U m g e k e h r t bei n i c h t n ö t h i g e n Artikeln, wie T h e e , Z u c k e r etc. W e n n ihr Preiß gestiegen, n i c h t n u r der C o n s u m a b g e n o m m e n , sondern die a c t u a l aggregate s u m e x p e n d e d u p o n t h e m has also decreased; u n d w e n n der

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Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 · Heft XII Preiß gefallen, nicht n u r der C o n s u m davon gestiegen, s o n d e r n die aggregate s u m e x p e n d e d u p o n t h e m has also increased. An increase of duty (auf Zucker, T h e e etc) has actually d i m i n i s h e d t h e aggregate a m o u n t of t h e duty, and a r e d u c t i o n of rate of duty has actually increased the aggregate a m o u n t of the duty. (57) Aber »an excess of supply« drückt d e n Preiß n i c h t so sehr unter d e n average, (da in a plentiful year a part of the excess m a y be kept over to the following year) wie ein Mangel of supply i h n ü b e r d e n average Preiß hebt; d e n n in e i n e m scarce year keine Mittel zu helfen der supply, es sei daß d a n n fremder I m p o r t möglich ist oder U e b e r s c h u ß von ein e m vorhergehenden reichen Herbst existirt. (57) D i e Kriegsnachfrage wird n u r d a n n d e n Preiß h e b e n , if the d e m a n d of g o v e r n m e n t for soldiers a n d sailors constitutes an additional, a n d n o t a substituted d e m a n d . (58) the price of labour is the s u m paid for a given quantity of labour; the wages of labour is the s u m earned by the labourer. ... the wages of labour d e p e n d u p o n the price of labour a n d the quantity of labour performed. (67, 8) B e i m taskwork fallen diese S a c h e n z u s a m m e n . Hier aber zu u n t e r s c h e i d e n zwischen d e m rate of wages u n d d e m amount of wages, da leztrer abhängt von der Z a h l der Tage, die ein I n d i v i d u u m arbeitet, oder der S t u n d e n am Tag; von der Z a h l der Stücke die es m a c h t etc. (68, 9) the increase of the capital which constitutes t h e m a i n t e n a n c e of labour, s u c h as food, clothing etc is generally the effect a n d not t h e cause, of the increased d e m a n d for labour, there m a y be an additional d e m a n d for labour without any preceding increase of capital, such increased d e m a n d for labour causes an increase of the m o n e y wages of labour, and that ||20| increase of the m o n e y wages effects an additional d e m a n d for a n d an increase of the quantity of s u c h capital. (79) We m i g h t j u s t as well say, t h a t the d e m a n d for coats d e p e n d s u p o n the quantity of cloth, as that t h e d e m a n d for labour d e p e n d s u p o n the quantity of capital. T h o u g h the n u m b e r of coats c a n n o t be increased without an increase of the quantity of cloth, increase the d e m a n d for a n d the price of coats, a n d the cloth will soon be m a n u f a c t u r e d ; so increase the dem a n d for and the price of labour a n d the necessaries which the labourers require will soon be raised a n d m a n u f a c t u r e d . (81)

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T h e larger the portion of the labour expended in Luxusartikeln for the rich, the less will be the portion of labour e x p e n d e d für den Theil des capital for the m a i n t e n a n c e of labour, a n d the less the a m o u n t the capital pro- 35 duced for the m a i n t e n a n c e of the labourer. (85) T h e general c o i n c i d e n c e of the high price of corn with a flourishing state of trade, and of the low price with a depression of trade c a n n o t be disputed. (89) the same increase of price or other cause which calls fresh soils into cultivation, forces a d d i tional and improved culture u p o n those already u n d e r tillage. (97, 8) Ask 40 den farmer whether every considerable increase of price does n o t m a k e it

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Aus Edward West: Price of corn and wages of labour

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answer to cultivate his farm at a larger expense t h a n would have answered [at] the old price; whether every considerable rise of price does n o t m a k e it worth his while to m a k e i m p r o v e m e n t s u p o n his lands in order to increase the produce, to apply m o r e labour a n d m o r e m a n u r e , n o n e of which would have answered at the old price; a n d he will n o t hesitate to answer you in the affirmative. (98) Allerdings: »in an improved state of agriculture produce m a y be raised on t h e second or third quality of land at as little cost as it could u n d e r the old system u p o n t h e first quality.« (98) Zweierlei Art v o n agricultural i m p r o v e m e n t s : E i n s p a r u n g von expense, wodurch der Pächter sein Produkt v e r m e h r e n k a n n o h n e increase of rate of the e x p e n s e ; zweitens die which increase the p r o d u c e but at an increased rate of expense. Die erste Art der Verbesserung n ü t z l i c h in every state of the m a r k e t ; die leztre n u r called into action u n d e r particular circumstances, a n d is n o t always applicable. (99) M a n h a t generally b e m e r k t , daß die english farmers who have taken lands in A m e r i c a have n o t prospered; die i h n e n gewohnte Art von high cultivation paßte n i c h t für den Z u s t a n d von A m e r i k a . In a cheap m o d e of cultivation the n e t p r o d u c e bears a m u c h larger proportion to the expense and to the gross p r o d u c e t h a n in an expensive m o d e of cultivation. ... weil every a d d i t i o n a l portion of p r o d u c e is raised at a greater cost. Der a m e r i k a n i s c h e Pächter legt wenig Capital aus u n d sein Profit auf dieß Capital ist e n o r m . D e r E n g l ä n d e r - a large capital m i t a small profit. (99, 100) Da jede a d d i t i o n a l portion of p r o d u c e m e h r kostet, e a c h a d d i tional portion of capital yields a less return, solang der Preiß derselbe bleibt. Liefert die erste Portion a gross return von 150%, die 2 von 140% u n d so on, so klar, daß das Capital so v e r m e h r t werden k a n n , d a ß at the given price der gross r e t u r n weniger ist als das capital expended u n d der Pächter, instead of deriving any profit, m a y actually sustain a loss. D a h e r m a n y m o d e s of cultivation u n d m a n y i t e m s of cost, die in E n g l a n d m i t d e m english price of labour u n d d e m english price of corn entsprechend, in America, m i t d e m a m e r i c a n price, selbst e i n e n Verlust verursachen k ö n nen. Klar, daß in every state of cultivation and of price, es möglich ist, so to overlay a farm with capital as that a great portion of the expense shall not answer, and shall even occasion a loss u n d dieß der Fehler vieler n a c h A m e r i c a gewanderter english farmers. (100) M a n h a t ferner b e o b a c h t e t , daß little farmers u n d die der less improved parts des L a n d e s , did n o t sustain so great a loss als die der larger farms u n d die die higher m o d e of farming adopted u n d alle m o d e r n i m p r o v e m e n t s a n g e n o m m e n h a t t e n . D e r large farmer, hatte während der Periode der high prices sein Land gesättigt mit Capital, Verbesserungen g e m a c h t bis zu d e m u t m o s t extent, den die h o h e n Preisse erlaubten, u n d h e a p e d m a n u r e u n d expense j e d e r Art u p o n the land to the very verge of | | 2 1 | profit ... Der small farmer dagegen, blieb t e

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Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 • Heft XII hartnäckig im alten System, legte n u r kleines Capital aus, raised a m u c h smaller p r o d u c e , aber larger im V e r h ä l t n i ß zur expense als das des intelligent farmer. Er litt also weniger von der Revulsion of prices, da sein n e t profit e i n e n grössern A b z u g tragen k o n n t e without t o u c h i n g his capital ... D e r erstre b e n u z t e die gute Zeit besser, war d a r u m a u c h m e h r d e m S t u r m 5 ausgesezt. N e h m e n wir eine farm, zu 100 sh. a qr of corn, bringe 160 % gross produce für die erste auf es angelegte P o r t i o n von Capital u n d 10 % less on every successive additional portion of capital (Aber wie H o p k i n s sagt: Ist die Eintheilung des Capitals in besondere Portionen nicht rein willkührlich) u n d der ordinary rate of profit sei 10 %. D a s Capital u n d gross 10 u n d net produce u n d rent w ü r d e n sein wie folgt: Capital 1st 2 3 4 5 6

100 100 100 100 100 100 600

Gross Return 160 150 140 130 120 110 810

Net Return

Rent

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50 40 30 20 10 0 150

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Dieser intelligente farmer legt 600 aus, sein ganzes Capital, u n d k a n n 20 150 R e n t e zahlen. D e r small, aus M a n g e l an Capital oder aus I n d o l e n z u n d inveterate habits u n d prejudices legt n u r 200 Capital aus, k a n n n u r 90 R e n t e zahlen. D e r Preiß falle n u n / at o n c e oder 30 sh. per qr, so das gross produce im selben Verhältniß vermindert u n d die R e c h n u n g steht wie folgt: 25 3

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1< 2 3 4 5 6

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Net Return

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160-48 = 150 - 45 = 140-42= 1 3 0 - 39= 120 - 36 = 110-33=

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112 105 98 91 84 77 567

Rent (Loss)

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Der farmer, der sein ganzes Capital ausgelegt h a t e i n e n actual loss of capital von £ 3 3 . Der farmer, der 200 ausgelegt h a t k e i n e n loss, n u r der N e t 35 R e t u r n reducirt auf 17. S u c h was the effect of the fall of price in the years which succeeded the F r e n c h wars, t h o u g h in a greater degree from the greater fall of price. ( 1 0 1 - 4 ) Die supply war nicht increased i m m e d i a t e l y in a quantity sufficient to r e d u c e the price to its n a t u r a l price. T h o u g h s o m e of t h e m e a n s of increasing the growth of corn a n d other r u d e p r o d u c e 40 m a y be i m m e d i a t e l y resorted to, a n d be m a d e i m m e d i a t e l y productive,

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Aus Edward West: Price of corn and wages of labour

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other m e a n s of increasing erheischen considerable Zeit eh sie wirken u n d sind oft erst n a c h m e h r e n J a h r e n produktiv. So bei der V e r m i n d e r u n g [der d e m a n d ] u n d d e m Preissefallen. Einige Mittel d e n growth z u v e r m i n d e r n u n d d e m L a n d Capital z u e n t z i e h n , u n m i t t e l b a r zugänglich u n d effectiv, andre erfordern Z e i t eh sie any effect p r o d u c e . ||22| Steigt der Preiß, so k a n n new land b e i m m e d i a t e l y t u r n e d u p u n d a n additional p r o d u c e raised; ebenso wirken direkt expensive m a n u r e s . A b e r einige Zeit, vielleicht Jahre, before a whole farm were clayed or m a r l e d ; Verbesserung alter oder A n l e g u n g n e u e r W e g e u n d farmbuildings, draining v o n l a n d u n d besonders, wie der Fall direkt u p o n t h e rise of price in 1794, to i n t r o d u c e the new a n d improved m o d e s of h u s b a n d r y . Viele farmers u n t e r d e m alten Syst e m h a t t e n nicht Capital g e n u g für das n e u e u n d expensive; Vorurtheile s t a n d e n i m Wege, die n u r d u r c h die Zeit z u besiegen; Feudalfeelings hielten einige landlords auf die old t e n a n t s m i t n e w capitalists zu vert a u s c h e n ; andre b e s t a n d e n n i c h t u p o n their full rents, which would h a v e forced the farmer to greater exertions. So m a c h t e n die m o d e r n improvem e n t s ihren Weg n u r slowly u n d gradually, a n d have never pervaded t h e whole country. In m a n c h e Theile des K i n g d o m das turnip system of h u s bandry n o c h nicht eingedrungen, selbst wo die lands am geeignetsten d a z u . Alle diese i m p r o v e m e n t s waren partial: in einigen districts das L a n d m i t Capital gesättigt, in a n d r e n n o c h sehr bedürftig desselben. H a d t h e capital expended u p o n l a n d during the h i g h prices b e e n m o r e equally distributed, there can be no d o u b t t h a t a larger p r o d u c e m i g h t have b e e n raised at a less expense. ... bei dieser gleichmässigren Vertheilung, h a d s o m e of t h e capital which was laid on almost to excess in s o m e districts, b e e n applied to others where it was deficient, a larger p r o d u c e m i g h t have b e e n raised at a lesser cost. 1819 bei d e m F a l l e n der Preisse, k a n n t e m a n das P r o d u c t u n d verminderte m a n es effectiv sofort, i n d e m m a n weniger Arbeit a n w a n d t e u n d less m a n u r e ; aber nahm, viele Verbesserungen, die m a n nie g e m a c h t u n d nie erneuert h a b e n würde u n t e r d e n reducirten Preissen, p r o d u c i r t e n fortwährend für viele J a h r e e i n e n b e t r ä c h t l i c h e n Effect, obgleich das produce raised by m e a n s of t h e m should n o t fetch a r e m u n e r a t i n g price u n d das ausgelegte Capital n i c h t . . . d e n gewöhnlichen Profit zahlt. As t h e capital expended c a n n o t be withdrawn, the farmer c o n t i n u e s to avail himself of the improvements effected by it, t h o u g h he would n o t renew or keep t h e m up at any great fresh expense. Beispiel das marling or claying of land, sehr expensive, b u t if d o n e well, a very p e r m a n e n t m o d e of i m p r o v e m e n t ... when the chief expense is o n c e incurred, m a g es answer to take advantage of it whilst the effects c o n t i n u e . So auf der e i n e n Seite die U m s t ä n d e preveniren an i m m e d i a t e increase of the supply in proportion to the increase of d e m a n d , u n d auf der a n d r e n Seite, retard the r e d u c t i o n of t h e

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Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 · Heft XII supply in proportion to the r e d u c t i o n of the d e m a n d . (105 - 9) T h e cost of p r o d u c t i o n (des Korns) d e p e n d s on the price of labour, and an increase of the wages of labour does n o t necessarily imply an e n h a n c e m e n t of t h e price of labour. F r o m fuller e m p l o y m e n t , a n d greater exertions the wages of labour m a y be considerably increased, whilst the price of labour m a y c o n t i n u e the same, or the price of labour m a y be e n h a n c e d , wie sicher der Fall w ä h r e n d des Kriegs u n d zugleich die wages of l a b o u r vermehrt in viel größrer Proportion. Die Productionskost in s o l c h e m Fall v e r m e h r t im Verh ä l t n i ß z u m price of labour, aber die d e m a n d for a n d the price of corn following the wages of labour, would be increased in a still greater proportion. (112) Dasselbe gilt für die r e d u c t i o n der wages of labour. A l s o Kost der P r o d u c t i o n fällt u n d steigt nicht m i t d e m Fallen u n d Steigen der wages, also a u c h Nachfrage nicht. (111[, 112]) Ist die Nachfrage sehr ü b e r der Z u fuhr, so das produce jedes Jahrs m e h r closely c o n s u m e d , a less portion of it left für das folgende J a h r u n d folglich, w e n n in d i e s e m der crop falls short von e i n e m Durchschnittsjahr, der Preiß m e h r e n h a n c e d als w e n n m e h r Rest von Vorigem J a h r geblieben wäre. Ist die d e m a n d less als die supply u n d der price u n t e r d e m n a t u r a l one, the sale m e h r languid, die dealers keep more back v o m Markt in Erwartung eines besseren Preisses, a larger surplus will be thrown u p o n the n e x t year's crop u n d w e n n der plentiful, the supply will ||23| be still m o r e increased, a n d the price u n u s u a l l y depressed. (115, 16) D a z u die farmers in solcher Zeit d u r c h ihre distress selbst gezwungen to bring all their stock to market. (116) W e r e a village to provide all its supplies within itself, die d e m a n d der society leicht zu anticipiren. Aber w e n n für countries in d e n other extremities des globe, I n d i a oder S ü d a m e r i k a zu sorgen, oft mistake in d e n articles sie want oder in ihrer Zahlungsfähigkeit. W h e n we draw our supplies from quarters as distant, they c a n n o t be very nicely proportioned to any fluctuation of the d e m a n d at the distance of half the globe. These very irregularities, however, of an extended c o m m e r c e , may, perhaps, be rectified by a still further extension of it. As our markets are multiplied, we b e c o m e less d e p e n d a n t u p o n any individual o n e ; it is improbable, t h a t all should fail, or b e c o m e unprofitable at once, and the gain in o n e m a y c o m p e n s a t e the loss in another. (141, 2) In d e m D e c e n n i u m von 1 7 4 4 - 1 7 5 3 der Durchschnitt des each Harvest Year 1 / . 11 sh. 2%d.; von 1 7 5 4 - 1 7 6 3 , II. 1 7 6 4 - 1 7 7 3 : 2 I. 8 s. 8 d., von 1 7 7 4 - 1 7 8 3 : 2 I. 8 s. 7 d.; von 9 s. 11 d.; von 1 7 9 4 - 1 8 0 3 : 3 I. 18 s. 6 d.; von 1 8 0 4 - 1 8 1 3 : 4 1 8 1 3 - 1 8 2 1 : 4 I. 4 s. 7 d. yearly average. ( 1 4 7 - 1 5 0 )

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qr of W h e a t for 1 7 s h . 6 d . ; von 1 7 8 4 - 1 7 9 3 : 2 I. I. 15 s. 7 d.; von

IF'

Aus Thomas Hopkins: On rent of land

Hopkins. (Thomas.) On Rent of Land and its Influence on Subsistence and Population. London.1828.

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Seine g e m ä s s e A n s c h a u u n g v o n d e r R e n t e i n d e r V o r r e d e : »rent is, i n its nature, a tax paid to o n e class of t h e c o m m u n i t y by the other classes, which tax m a y be raised or r e d u c e d at the option of those who impose it.« (VI.)

Ch.

ίο

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I.

Rent

of land.

Das Prinzip der R e n t e gegründet auf die power des landlord to prevent his land from b e i n g u s e d ; unless w h a t he d e m a n d s be given to h i m . (6) In der freien Praxis von settlers, g e h n sie von L a n d N. 1. - wodurch an increase of their n u m b e r , their power of raising p r o d u c e from it, ist v e r m i n d e r t - zu Ν. 2, wo their labour will bring, obgleich das L a n d von 2 1 Qualität, a greater return of p r o d u c e u n d das ist das i n d u c e m e n t to the removal. (7) In every step in this process of occupying t h e lands of inferior fertility, the m o r e fertile land yield a smaller r e t u r n for the s a m e labour, a n d t h e less fertile a larger return. (8) L a n d N. 2 would n o t yield a higher r e t u r n t h a n N. 1, to an equal population. On an average, each individual on N. 2, m u s t have a larger extent of land, to c o m p e n s a t e for inferior fertility. (I.e.) So, w h e n t h e whole land was occupied, t h e richest l a n d would have t h e m o s t dense p o p u l a t i o n ,

20

and t h e poorest l a n d t h e m o s t scanty p o p u l a t i o n . (I.e.) D a s T h e i l e n des Capitals in Dosen is altogether a process of t h e i m a g i n a t i o n . Die s.g. erste Dose is allowed to have h a d its effect collectively in raising p r o d u c e , sie wird n i c h t unterstellt theilbar zu sein in separate portions, b u t as an u n d i vided quantity it exerts its energies to p r o d u c e the crop. A n d if 2x die 25 quantity of capital a n g e w a n d t das n e x t year on t h e s a m e piece of l a n d with-

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Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 • Heft XII out producing 2 x d e n return, w a r u m sollte this larger q u a n t i t y of capital be separated in 2 doses p r o d u c i n g u n e q u a l returns? (10) W e n n eine viel größre quantity of labour or capital a smaller p r o p o r t i o n a l r e t u r n hat, so gilt dieß von der g a n z e n quantity of labour a n d capital; there can, t h e r e fore, be no difference to constitute rent. (11) Ist E i g e n t h u m da, so sind die settlers zweiter Ankunft gezwungen, d u r c h das civil privilege, n i c h t d u r c h ein N a t u r g e s e t z , sich auf B o d e n N. 2 a n z u s i e d e l n , weil die von N. 1 sie prevent from cultivating lands Ν. 1. (19) So in d e n U n i t e d States die e x a c t i o n of r e n t on the best land is t h e r e p r e m a t u r e l y forcing l a b o u r a n d capital to n e w l a n d . (21) So wie different degrees of fertility of land, r e n t m a y give s u c h a d i r e c t i o n to t h e e m p l o y m e n t of labour, as will m a k e labour, on t h e whole, less productive. (I.e.) H a t e i n P ä c h t e r 2 farms, eine at will, die a n d r e at lease, w e n n a u c h die leztre n i c h t so fruchtbar, so wird er alles Capital darauf werfen, weil es i h m n i c h t in der R e n t e abgezogen werden k a n n . So rent causes t h e capital to be u n e q u a l l y productive. (25, 6) R e n t a u c h in G r e a t Britain treibt p o p u l a t i o n p r e m a t u r e l y to poorer soils. (27) T h e l a n d of each quality has its proper relative rent ||24| d e t e r m i n e d by c o m p e t i t i o n a m o n g individual t e n a n t s , whatever m a y be t h e general average rate of rent. (27, 28) D a s principle of c o m p e t i t i o n m a c h t 2 rates of profit u n m ö g lich in d e m s e l b e n L a n d ; aber das b e s t i m m t die relative rents; aber n i c h t d e n general average rate of rent. (30) T h e rates of wages a n d profit m a y be equalised by competition, b u t they c a n n o t be kept high, if land proprietors, by raising rents, choose to r e d u c e t h e m . (I.e.) D e r u n m i t t e l b a r e Effect of a rise of rent - andre D i n g e dieselben b l e i b e n d - ist a r e d u c t i o n of wages. ... M i t der m e h r food k a n n der landlord d a n n a surplus p o p u l a t i o n , die für i h n u n d seine F a m i l i e arbeiten, n ä h r e n . H i e r rent die cause of an increase of t h e population, statt ihr effect zu sein. (34) Die Bevölkerung u n d alle ü b r i gen U m s t ä n d e stationär b l e i b e n d voraus gesezt, any rise of r e n t reduces t h e n u m b e r of primary producers, a n d increases t h e n u m b e r of secondary producers, and, with the r e d u c t i o n in t h e n u m b e r of primary producers, there m u s t evidently be a d i m i n u t i o n in t h e whole quantity of primary p r o d u c e brought i n t o existence; i.e. of t h e principal necessaries of life, and t h e share of e a c h labourer m u s t c o n s e q u e n t l y be less, or real wages m u s t fall. (38) U n t e r d e m feudal system war das great object des l a n d proprietor to have m a n y m e n u p o n his land; t h e obtaining of m o n e y , or rent from t h e l a n d was a very inferior consideration. (45) Im 1 3 u n d 14 Jh. die low rents required, enabled those t e n a n t s who held t h e richest lands, to increase their n u m b e r s , a n d in process of t i m e , with t h e c o n c u r r e n c e of t h e chief, to divide a n d subdivide their farms, a n d they were generally r e d u c e d to a small one for each family. (48) Im 13 J h . die average rent 6 d. an acre (nearly I s . %ά. von u n s r e m G e l d ) . (50) In I r l a n d :

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In 1799 1811

Labour per day Os. 6%ά. Is. Od.

Weavers Potatoes Potatoe wages acre Is. 2%ά. Os. 2y4d. 3/. 8 s. 6 d. I s . 3d. Os. 3y2d. 8 I. 13 s. 2 d.

Rent per acre 0£. l i s . Od. (A.) Young 1/. 7 s. l i d .

5

N a c h Wakefield die l e z t r e L i s t e . Also in 12 J a h r e n die R e n t m e h r als 2½ gestiegen. (59) R e n t g e h t e i n in d e n Preiß der P r o d u c t e . D i e Influenz v o n R e n t auf die Preisse der W a a r e n zeigt sich am schlagendsten b e i m Cattle, dessen Preiß schritthält m i t d e m rise of r e n t of land. Da wenig Capital geb r a u c h t u n d wenig A r b e i t in p r o d u c i n g cattle on n a t u r a l grass, ist es wohl10 feil wo rent low; t h e u e r , wo sie h o c h , as t h e value of cattle t h u s raised will be formed almost entirely of t h e h i g h rent, die words cheap a n d d e a r n a t ü r lich relatively to o t h e r c o m m o d i t i e s . (61) In d e n h i g h l a n d s of Scotland, w h e n rents were low, a p o u n d of o a t m e a l b r e a d so t h e u e r wie a p o u n d of meat. 15

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s. d. In E n g l a n d am Schluß des 13 century, a b u s h e l o f wheat c o s t . . . 09 Z u r selben Zeit 24 lbs of m e a t 0 9 In E n g l a n d 1827 a b u s h e l of w h e a t 7 24 lbs of meat, at 7 d. per lb 14 oder its relative price c o m p a r e d with bread, is d o u b l e d . 1790 in E n g l a n d Brod war per lb 0 1% U n d m e a t , zur selben Zeit, per lb 0 4¾ In F r a n c e zur selben Zeit b r e a d 1 und meat 3¼; also in E n g l a n d m e a t zu b r e a d n i c h t ganz wie 2 % : 1 , in F r a n k r e i c h = 3 ^ : 1 . Gegenwärtig m e a t z u m selben relativen Preiß in E n g l a n d gestiegen, wie 1790 in F r a n c e , d e n n bread per lb n u n 2 d. u n d m e a t 7 d. (67, 8) K e i n e nothwendige V e r b i n d u n g zwischen d e m proportional rate of r e n t u n d d e m degree of i m p r o v e m e n t of t h e land. A u f einigen der highly i m proved lands of E n g l a n d die r e n t n u r % oder % des crop, w ä h r e n d on t h e racked soils of I r e l a n d u n d d e n half deserts der p a p a l states %, % m e h r als ½ des crop. Die r e n t k a n n steigen, w ä h r e n d das land sich verschlechtert. (68)

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Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 • Heft XII

Ch.

II.

The

Labouring

classes.

Wo Boden, Clima schlecht, wo keine I n d u s t r i e u n d Capital, wie in d e n arabian u n d african sandy deserts u n d in d e n high n o r t h e r n latitudes, das people zahlt wenig, w e n n ü b e r h a u p t irgend etwas, als rents, u n d taxes, they enjoy fast ihr ganzes p r o d u c e , oder ganz ihr p r o d u c e . D e n n o c h few in n u m ber u n d c o m m o n l y very poorly subsisted. Ihre c o n d i t i o n n u r zu verbessern by increasing their productive power. E n a b l e t h e m to p r o d u c e m o r e , a n d they m a y have m o r e to enjoy. (81) If all labourers were employed for the s a m e end, or object, as the d i a m o n d cutter a n d the opera singer, in a short t i m e there would ||25| be no wealth to subsist t h e m ; because n o n e of t h e wealth produced would then become capital. If a considerable proportion were so employed, wages would be low; because, b u t a comparatively small part of what was produced would be used as capital; b u t if only a few of t h e labourers were so employed, and, of course, nearly all were p l o u g h m e n , s h o e m a k ers, weavers etc, t h e n m u c h capital would be produced, and wages could be proportionally high. (84, 5) W i t h the d i a m o n d cutter and the singer, m u s t be classed all those who labour for the ... landlords, or a n n u i t a n t s , a n d who receive a part of their i n c o m e as wages: all, in fact, whose labours terminate merely in producing those things which gratify landlords u n d a n n u i t a n t s , and who receive in return for their labours, a part of the rent of the landlord, or of the i n c o m e of the a n n u i t a n t . These are all productive labourers, b u t all their labours are for the purpose of converting the wealth which exists, in the shape of rents and a n n u i t i e s , into some other form, that shall, in that other form, m o r e gratify the landlord a n d a n n u i t a n t , and therefore they are secondary producers. All other labourers are primary producers. (85) In Irland n a c h massiger B e r e c h n u n g u n d d e m Census von 1821 das whole n e t produce, was geht an landlords, government titheowners 20¾ Millions I. St., die whole wages aber n u r £ 14,114,000. (94) It has b e e n stated, d a ß wie früher £ 5 per acre nöthig, to stock Irish land as well as E n g lish land is stocked. (Siehe Wakefield's A c c o u n t s of Ireland.) (94[, 95]) Die cultivators von Italy, im Allgemeinen, zahlen von / zu m e h r als % des prod u c e as rent an den landlord, m i t m o d e r a t e skill in agriculture u n d a scanty supply of fixed capital. Der größre Theil der p o p u l a t i o n besteht aus secondary producers u n d proprietors u n d generally the primary producers are a poor and a degraded class. ([101,] 102) U n t e r Louis X I V ähnlich, the m o n e y rents were too high to p e r m i t the cultivators to a c c u m u l a t e capital on the land. (102) N a c h A. Young in seinen Travels in France stand die R e n t e dort wie folgt

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Aus Thomas Hopkins: On rent of land

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Arable and L u c e r n e 75,000,000 zu 15 s. 7 d per acre £ 5 7 , 4 3 7 , 5 0 0 Woods 19,000,000 zu 12 s. 11,910,000 5,000,000 zu 76 s. 6 d . Vines 19,125,000 4,000,000 43 s. 9 d . Meadows 8,750,000 Wastes 27,150,000 z u I s . 9 d . 2,375,625 130,150,000 £99,598,125 Also fast 100 Mill. £ St. R e n t . H i n z u Tithes zu £ 16,599,687 (viel zu gering angeschlagen) u n d taxes zu £ 24,707,492, z u s a m m e n £ 140,905,304. D a b e i Ackerbau miserabel. D i e P o p u l a t i o n Frankreichs damals 26,363,074. W e n n selbst 6 Millions of labouring population, was zu large, hätte j e d e family zu liefern g e h a b t jährlich, direkt oder indirekt, an average von an £ 2 3 of n e t wealth to t h e landlords, the c h u r c h a n d t h e g o v e r n m e n t . N a c h Youngs A n g a b e n , n o c h allerlei in A n s c h l a g gebracht, k o m m t auf die Arbeiterfamily j ä h r l i c h £ 42, 10 sh. Product, 23 davon paid away to others u n d £ 19 u n d 10 s. r e m a i n e d to subsist itself. D a r a u s zu folgern, d a ß n u r a m o d e r a t e portion der whole french p o p u l a t i o n were primary p r o d u c ers. (103, 4) the error of Mr M a l t h u s and his followers is to be found in t h e assumption, that a r e d u c t i o n of the labouring population would not be followed by a correspondent reduction of capital. (118) At present, in G r e a t Britain, 1 family on an average cultivates 40 acres; u n d da sie gleichzeitig in distress, Mr M a l t h u s says they are too n u m e r o u s , and t h a t they m u s t by some m e a n s r e d u c e their n u m b e r s . (120) D i e antipopulationists sind b o u n d to prove, d a ß die labour would n o t be even less productive, w h e n there would be only 1 family to every 60 acres. ([120,] 121) Herr M a l t h u s vergißt daß die » d e m a n d is limited by the m e a n s of paying wages« u n d daß diese m e a n s , do n o t arise spontaneously, b u t are always previously created by labour. (122) A r e d u c t i o n of the population, a n d a c o n s e q u e n t d i m i n u tion of the a n n u a l supply of wealth, would n o t necessarily lower either rents, or t h e rate of profit, b u t would r e d u c e wages. (124) Sonderbar, daß a | |26| strong inclination to represent n e t wealth as beneficial to the labouring class, because it gives employment, t h o u g h it is evidently n o t on a c c o u n t of being net, that it h a s t h a t power, b u t b e c a u s e it is wealth, - t h a t which h a s b e e n brought into existence by labour; while, gleichzeitig, an a d d i t i o n a l quantity of labour is represented as injurious to the labouring classes, t h o u g h that labour produces 3 x as m u c h as it c o n s u m e s . (126) If by the use of superior m a c h i n e r y , the whole primary p r o d u c e could be raised from 200 to 250 or 300, while n e t wealth a n d profit took only 140, klar, d a ß there would r e m a i n as a fund for the wages der primary producers 110 oder 160 statt 60. (128) the c o n d i t i o n of labourers is r e n d e r e d bad either by crippling their productive power, or by taking from t h e m what they have p r o d u c e d .

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Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 · Heft XII (129) »No« says Mr M a l t h u s "the weight of your b u r t h e n has n o t h i n g whatever to do with your distress; that arises solely from there being too m a n y persons carrying it." (134) w h e n the emigrant, by t h e greater r o o m or larger extent of l a n d that he leaves for those w h o r e m a i n , benefits t h e m in a greater degree, t h a n leaving his share of t h e n e t wealth to be paid by t h e m , inj u r e s t h e m u n d umgekehrt. ([138,] 139.)

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5

Aus David Ricardo: An essay on the influence of a low price of corn

Ricardo. (David) An Essay on the Influence of a low Price of Corn on the Profits of Stock etc L o n d o n 1815 (2 ed.) 5

I am only desirous of proving t h a t t h e profits on agricultural capital c a n n o t materially vary, without occasioning a similar variation in t h e profits on capital, employed on m a n u f a c t u r e s a n d c o m m e r c e . (7) W e n n m a r k e d i m provements in agriculture, or in the i m p l e m e n t s of h u s b a n d r y acted with equal effect, wie die causes, w h i c h r e n d e r the acquisition of an a d d i t i o n a l 10 quantity of corn m o r e difficult, ... corn would be subject only to a c c i d e n t a l variation of price, arising from b a d seasons, from greater or less real wages of labour, or from an alteration in the value of the precious m e t a l s . (17) T h e sole effect t h e n of t h e progress of wealth on prices, i n d e p e n d e n t l y of all improvements, either in agriculture or m a n u f a c t u r e s , appears to be to 15 raise the price of raw p r o d u c e a n d of labour, leaving all other c o m m o d i t i e s at their original prices, a n d to lower general profits in c o n s e q u e n c e of the general rise of wages. (18) the interest of the landlord is always opposed to the interest of every other class in the c o m m u n i t y . (20) Der rise or fall of wages hängt ab, im stationären Stand der Gesellschaft von d e m increase or 20 falling off of the population, in d e m advancing state, ob das Capital oder die Bevölkerung rascher a d v a n c e ; in d e m retrograde state, ob Bevölkerung oder Capital decrease with t h e greater rapidity. (22) T h e facilities of o b t a i n i n g food are beneficial in two ways to the owners of capital, it at t h e s a m e t i m e raises profits and increases t h e a m o u n t of c o n s u m a b l e c o m m o d i t i e s . T h e 25 facilities in obtaining all other things, only increases the a m o u n t of c o m modities. (27) E i n rise of prices, selbst w e n n d u r c h depreciation of m o n e y verursacht, is said to be beneficial, b e c a u s e it betters the situation of t h e

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Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 • Heft XII c o m m e r c i a l classes at the expense of those enjoying fixed i n c o m e s . (42, 3) B e i m freien I m p o r t von K o r n : In every step of our progress, profits of stock increase a n d rents fall, a n d m o r e l a n d is a b a n d o n e d : besides which, the country saves all the difference between the price at which corn can be grown, a n d the price at which it c a n be imported, on t h e quantity we re5 ceive from abroad. (46) I shall greatly regret that considerations for any particular class, are allowed to check the progress of the wealth a n d population of the country. (49) To be consistent, let us by the s a m e act arrest improvement, (da improvement in agriculture auch d e m landlord schädlich) a n d prohibit importation. (50) 10

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Aus David Ricardo: On protection to agriculture

Ricardo. (David.) On Protection to Agriculture. L o n d o n . 1822. In d e m Report, Agricultural C o m m i t t e e , 1821, sagt Mr. Iveson: "I know 5 districts of the country, taking t h e very best qualities in t h e m , that will prod u c e from 4 to 5 qrs per acre. I know there are farms that have averaged in the wheat crop, 4 qrs to the acre, or 32 bushels, (in Wiltshire)" " . . . I t h i n k the middling, or second, ... quality of lands u n d e r good cultivation, m a y be t a k e n at 2% qrs. A n d the inferior lands? F r o m 12 to 15 bushels per acre." 10 Harvey statuirte, d a ß die lowest rent für das worst cornraising land sei 18 d. per acre. Er statuirte ferner, d a ß im D u r c h s c h n i t t der leztren 10 J a h r e er 30 bushels W e i z e n per acre v o n s e i n e m L a n d e erhalten. N a c h Wakefield die Differenz zwischen d e m p r o d u c e of wheat per acre auf d e m b e s t e n u n d d e m schlechtesten L a n d in cultivation 32 bushels. Er sagte: "on the sea15 coast of ||27| Norfolk, Suffolk, Essex, a n d Kent, t h e crop is t h o u g h t a b a d one, if it be not 40 bushels per acre;" a n d he a d d e d "I do n o t believe, t h a t the very poor lands p r o d u c e above 8 bushels per acre." (3, 4) W e i z e n p r e i s s e in diesem L a n d in different seasons of plenty, trotz des Exports, fielen v o n der a b u n d a n c e of crop um 50 % in 3 J a h r e n . Das folgende D o k u m e n t copirt 20 von Tooke's evidence vor d e m c o m m i t t e e von 1821. s. d. 1728 war der Preiß des Weizens 1732 25 1740 1743 1750

48

Quarters

5½

23 45 oy 22 1 28 10¾ 2

mit einem excess of import von mit einem excess of export von

70,757 202,058 46,822 371,429 947,323

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Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 • Heft XII [Quarters

[s. d.] 1757 53

4

1761 26 10¾

excess of import excess of export

130,017 441,956.

5

(P. 229, Agricultural Report.) If we lived in one of Mr Owen's parallelograms, a n d enjoyed all o u r productions in c o m m o n , t h e n no o n e could suffer in c o n s e q u e n c e of a b u n d a n c e , b u t as long as society is constituted as it now is, a b u n d a n c e will oft e n be injurious, to producers, a n d scarcity beneficial to t h e m . ([20,] 21) 10 T h a t some capital would be lost (bei freier K o r n e i n f u h r ) c a n n o t be disp u t e d , b u t is the possession or preservation of capital the end, or the m e a n s ? T h e m e a n s , u n d o u b t e d l y . W h a t we want is an a b u n d a n c e of commodities, a n d if it could be proved t h a t by the sacrifice of a part of our capital we should a u g m e n t the a n n u a l p r o d u c e of those objects which contri- 15 b u t e to o u r enjoyment a n d happiness, we ought n o t to repine at the loss of a part of our capital. (60)

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Aus Charles Wentworth Dilke: The source and remedy of the national difficulties

The Source and Remedy of the National Difficulties etc A letter to Lord John Russell. L o n d o n . 1821. 5

Suppose t h e whole l a b o u r of t h e c o u n t r y to raise j u s t sufficient for t h e sup­ port of t h e whole p o p u l a t i o n ; it is evident t h e r e is no surplus labour, conse­ quently, n o t h i n g t h a t c a n be allowed to a c c u m u l a t e as capital. S u p p o s e t h e whole l a b o u r of t h e c o u n t r y to raise as m u c h in one year as would m a i n t a i n it 2 years, it is evident o n e year's c o n s u m p t i o n m u s t perish, or for o n e year, 10 m e n m u s t cease from p r o d u c t i v e labour. B u t t h e possessors of the surplus produce, or capital, will n e i t h e r m a i n t a i n t h e p o p u l a t i o n t h e following year in idleness, nor allow t h e p r o d u c e to perish; they will employ t h e m u p o n s o m e t h i n g n o t directly a n d i m m e d i a t e l y productive, ζ. B., in t h e erection of m a c h i n e r y etc. But, t h e third year, t h e whole p o p u l a t i o n m a y again r e t u r n 15

to productive labour, a n d t h e m a c h i n e r y erected in t h e last year c o m i n g now in operation, klar d a ß das P r o d u c t grösser als das des ersten Jahrs um das p r o d u c e der m a c h i n e r y in a d d i t i o n . D i e ß surplus p r o d u c e , also n o c h mehr, m u ß perish oder be p u t to u s e as before; u n d dieser u s a n c e fügt wieder der productive power der Gesellschaft h i n z u , bis m e n must cease

20

from productive l a b o u r for a t i m e , or the p r o d u c e of their labour m u s t perish. D i e ß die palpable c o n s e q u e n c e in t h e simplest state of society. (4, 5.) Der Progress des increasing capital would, in established societies, be m a r k e d by the decreasing interest of m o n e y , oder, was dasselbe ist, t h e d e creasing quantity of the l a b o u r of others t h a t would be given for its u s e . (6) 25 A b e r wahrhaft reich eine N a t i o n ist, w e n n kein Zins für Capital gezahlt. W e n n statt 12 S t u n d e n n u r 6 gearbeitet wird »wealth is disposable t i m e , and n o t h i n g more«. (I.e.) all u n p r o d u c t i v e classes have always a twofold o p -

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Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 · Heft XII eration, not only ceasing to produce themselves, but actively destroying t h e produce of the labour of others. (9) the d e m a n d of other countries is limited, n o t only by our power to produce, b u t by their power to produce, for do what you will, in a series of years the whole world c a n take little m o r e of us, t h a n we take of the world, so t h a t all your foreign trade, of which there is so m u c h talking, never did, never could, nor ever can, add o n e shilling, or o n e doit to the wealth of the country, as for every bale of silk, chest of tea, pipe of wine that ever was imported, s o m e t h i n g of e q u a l value was exported; a n d even the profits m a d e by our m e r c h a n t s in their foreign trade are paid by the c o n s u m e r of the return goods here. (17, 18) foreign trade is m e r e barter a n d exchange for the convenience a n d enjoyment of t h e capitalist: he has n o t a h u n d r e d bodies, n o r a h u n d r e d legs: he c a n n o t cons u m e , in cloth a n d cotton stockings, all the cloth a n d cotton stockings t h a t are m a n u f a c t u r e d ; therefore they are exchanged for wines a n d silks; b u t those wines and silks represent the surplus labour ||28| of our own population, as m u c h as the cloths a n d cottons, a n d in this way the destructive power of the capitalist is increased beyond all bounds: by foreign trade the capitalists contrive to outwit nature, who h a d put a 1000 n a t u r a l limits to their exactions, and to their wishes to exact: there is no limit now, either to their power, or desires. (18) the n a t u r a l a n d necessary c o n s e q u e n c e of an increased capital, is its decreasing value. (22) In Bezug auf Ricardo's Capitel über die »Effects on A c c u m u l a t i o n on Profits and Interest«, sagt der Verfasser: »Why set o u t by telling us that no a c c u m u l a t i o n of capital will lower profits, because n o t h i n g will lower profits b u t increased wages, when it appears that if population does n o t increase with capital wages would increase from the disproportion between capital a n d labour; a n d if population does increase, wages would increase from the difficulty of procuring food.« (23) If it were possible to c o n t i n u e to increase capital a n d keep up the value of capital, which is proved by the interest of m o n e y c o n t i n u i n g t h e same, the interest to be paid for capital would soon exceed t h e whole produce of labour. ... capital tends in m o r e t h a n arithmetical progression to increase capital. It is a d m i t t e d t h a t the interest paid to the capitalists whether in the n a t u r e of rents, interests of m o n e y , or profits of trade, is paid out of the labour of others. Also w e n n capital go on a c c u m u l a t i n g , the labour to be given for the u s e of capital m u s t go on increasing, interest paid for capital c o n t i n u i n g the same, till all the labour of all the labourers of the society is engrossed by the capitalist. A b e r impossible to h a p p e n ; for whatever m a y be due to the capitalist, he can only receive the surplus l a b o u r of the labourer; for the labourer must live ... A b e r perfect wahr, daß if capital does not decrease in value as it increases in a m o u n t , the capitalists will exact from the labourers the produce of every hour's labour beyond what it is

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Aus Charles Wentworth Düke: The source and remedy of the national difficulties possible for the labourer to subsist o n : a n d however horrid a n d disgusting it m a y seem, the capitalist m a y eventually speculate on the food that requires the least labour to p r o d u c e it, a n d eventually say to the labourer, "You s h a ' n ' t eat bread, b e c a u s e barley m e a l is cheaper; Y o u s h a ' n ' t eat m e a t , be5 cause it is possible to subsist on beet root a n d potatoes." A n d to this p o i n t have we c o m e . (23, 4) If the labourer can be brought to feed on potatoes instead of bread, it is indisputably true that m o r e can be exacted from his labour; i.e., if when he fed on b r e a d he was obliged to retain for the m a i n t e n a n c e of himself a n d family t h e labour of M o n d a y a n d Tuesday, he will, on 10 potatoes, require only the half of M o n d a y ; a n d the r e m a i n i n g half of M o n day a n d the whole of T u e s d a y are available either for the service of the state or the capitalist. (26) T h e real labour of every m a n is of equal value, or rather, is equally paid for, the few exceptions of great talents n o t being worth distinguishing. Society n e i t h e r p r e s u m e s n o r pays for extraordinary 15 ability: all the i n c o m e , t h e n , t h a t a counsellor, judge, bishop, landholder, householder, (selbst was die m e c h a n i c s u n d other artizans ü b e r d e n gewöhnlichen L o h n h i n a u s ziehn) receives beyond the pay of a c o m m o n labourer, is interest of capital. (33)

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Robert Somers. Letters from the Highlands; or, the Famine of 1847. L o n d o n . 1848. Blair-Atholl, wie die m e i s t e n Highland parishes, has witnessed a rapid a n d steady decrease of its population. H i e r das clearance system b e g o n n e n schon vor 60 Jahren. G l e n Tilt cleared of its i n h a b i t a n t s by the present D u k e of Atholl's Grandfather, 20 or 30 years before the burnings a n d ejectm e n t s of Sutherland were heard of. (11) 1801 die P o p u l a t i o n von Blair Atholl: 2,848; in 1831: 2,384, in 1 8 4 1 : 2,231 ... T h e clearance a n d dispersion of the people is p u r s u e d by the proprietors as a settled principle, as an agricultural necessity, just as trees a n d brushwood are cleared from the wastes of A m e r i c a or Australia: a n d the operation goes on in a quiet, business-like way. (12) J e d e clearance p r o d u c e s misery a n d pauperism. It lessens the work to be d o n e in a parish, because the large farmers t u r n extensive tracts of soil into grass, on which the small t e n a n t s used to grow corn, turnips, a n d potatoes. A n d while it d i m i n i s h e s the work to be done, it increases the n u m b e r of those who can only subsist by hiring themselves to do it. It grinds down small farmers ( n ä m l i c h w h e n leases expire a n d a new t e n a n t can be obtained, Y D u t z e n d , 20, 30 families h e r a u s geworfen; to m a k e r o o m for one ... consolidation of small farms) into daylabourers. (12) In den H i g h l a n d s die W a l d u n g e n ausgedehnt. H e r e , on o n e side of Gaick, you have the new forest of Glenfeshie; a n d there, on the other, you have the new forest of Ardverikie. In the same line ||29| you have t h e Black M o u n t — a n i m m e n s e waste also recently erected. F r o m east to west—from the neighbourhood of A b e r d e e n to the crags of O b a n — y o u have now a continous line of forest; while in other parts of the H i g h l a n d s there are t h e new forests of L o c h Archaig, Glengarry, G l e n m o r i s t o n , Glenstrathfarar etc. ... the clearances which have t a k e n place within the last few years, to m a k e

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r o o m for these new deer-forests, have m a d e little noise in the country, simply because they were clearances of sheep a n d n o t of people. (25) In the first place, sheep were i n t r o d u c e d into glens which h a d b e e n the seats of c o m m u n i t i e s of small farmers; a n d the latter were driven to seek subsistence on coarser a n d m o r e sterile tracts of soil. N o w again, deer are supplanting sheep; a n d these are o n c e m o r e dispossessing the small t e n a n t s , w h o will necessarily be driven down u p o n still coarser land, and to m o r e grinding penury. Or ... the deerforests, a n d the people c a n n o t coexist. O n e or other of the two m u s t yield. Let the forests be increased in n u m b e r a n d extent during the n e x t quarter of a century, as they have b e e n in the last, a n d the G a e l will perish from their native soil. ... Dieses m o v e m e n t u n t e r d e n H i g h l a n d e i g e n t h ü m e r s theils aus M o d e , aristokratischem Kitzel, Jagdliebhaberei, aber: others follow the trade in deer with an eye solely to profit. For it is a fact, that a m o u n t a i n range laid out in forests is, in m a n y cases more profitable to the proprietor t h a n w h e n let as a sheep walk. ... T h e h u n t s m a n n ä m l i c h who wants a deerforest limits his offers by no other calculation t h a n the extent of his purse. In any circumstances it will be a loss to h i m . (26) Sufferings have b e e n inflicted in t h e H i g h l a n d s scarcely less severe t h a n those occasioned by the policy of the N o r m a n kings. D e e r have received extended ranges, while m e n have b e e n h u n t e d within a narrower and still narrower circle. ... O n e after o n e , the liberties of t h e people have b e e n cloven down. ... T h e oppressions are daily on the increase. (28) Small crofters (bei N e w t o n m o r e ) are located on a rocky acclivity that stretches back b e h i n d the h a m l e t . T h e s e crofters pay from f 3 to £ 7 of rent, a n d are far from being comfortable in their c i r c u m s t a n c e s — t h e n a k e d n e s s of t h e soil giving the labour of the poor people no c h a n c e of a d e q u a t e reward. It is a prevalent n o t i o n that it is small crofters, such as these, extracting a m i s erable crop of corn a n d barley from a few acres of barren land, t h a t t h e clearance system r e m o v e d from the glens. But the very opposite is the truth. The small tenants of this class are in fact creations of the clearance system. ... Allerdings. U n d e r the old system die L e u t e m a n c h m a l schlecht dran. Their system of farming was b a r b a r o u s ; they neglected their stock u n d ihre crops; and, while b o t h were going to ruin, they indulged in savage i n d o lence. Aber dieser grosse difference: the distress der small farmers u n d e r the old system arose entirely from their own bad m a n a g e m e n t , while t h a t of the small crofters, u n d e r the new system, springs from the essential defectiveness of their circumstances. In the o n e class you h a d all the m a t e r i als of gradual and steady i m p r o v e m e n t ; b u t in the other you have dilapidated m e a n s and a b r o k e n spirit, conjoined with a want of land, t h a t renders i m p r o v e m e n t scarcely possible by any m e a s u r e short of a new distribution of the soil. (31) T h e labourer or the t r a d e s m a n who has no land

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Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 · Heft XII k a n n k a u m leben u n t e r solchem System. He is pressed down to the lowest possibility of existence. His (dieser labourer h e i ß t cottar) c o m p e t i t o r — t h e crofter—feels that, with his cow or 2, a n d his 2 or 3 bolls of barley a n d oatm e a l , he c a n afford to give his work for smaller wages t h a n he could live u p o n , without these a p p u r t e n a n c e s ; a n d so he either cuts down the rem u n e r a t i o n of t h e cottar, or cuts h i m o u t altogether. (42) the result was a wretchedness of living a m o n g the p o p u l a t i o n of the H i g h l a n d s , c o m p a r e d with which, the subsistence of savage life is luxury itself. (I.e.) D i e club tenants in Lochcarron ... Ihre corncrops oft so poor as to yield little m o r e t h a n the seed; b u t even with this miserable r e t u r n the people are n o t altogether dissatisfied, providing that the yield of straw is sufficient to carry their cattle over winter. Aber dieß straw s u c h inferior feeding for cows t h a t it is i m possible they can thrive, or yield the a m o u n t of p r o d u c e which they would do if well fed. (54) Hier im Lochcarron district (wie fast überall im Highland) n u r 2 Klassen, a higher u n d a lower—the former consisting of a few large t e n a n t s all occupying nearly the same level; a n d the latter consisting of a dense body of small lotters a n d fishermen, alle equally u n i f o r m in their circumstances a n d condition. T h e o n e class has wealth on its side, the other class has n u m b e r s . D i e sprich||30|wörtliche Feindschaft zwischen Arm e n u n d R e i c h e n erhielt n o c h besondre Entwicklung in this simple social structure of the Highlands. Die clearances laid the f o u n d a t i o n of a bitter animosity between the sheepfarmers a n d the lotters; a n d as these violent changes were executed by the authority of the lairds, they also snapped the tie which h a d previously, a m i d all reverses, u n i t e d the people and their chiefs. N o c h E i n Band war da, die spiritual u n i o n . D i e Parish C h u r c h was a c o m m o n centre where all classes met. A b e r die social wrongs of the lower class inclined their m i n d s to the doctrine of n o n - i n t r u s i o n u n d sie t r e n n t e n sich von der etablirten church. T h e parishchurches, in Rossshire particularly, have b e e n literally emptied. ... the sheepfarmers adhere to the Establishment. There is thus a d o u b l e p o i n t of collision between the 2 r a n k s , — a n ecclesiastical as well as an agrarian enmity. T h e Proprietor, the minister, t h e schoolmaster a n d the large t a c k s m e n — a l l who used to act as the leaders of the people and to m a n a g e t h e public business of the parish—are ranged together on one side a n d in o n e cause; while t h e people are as u n a n i m o u s l y a n d determinedly u n i t e d on a n o t h e r side a n d in an entirely opposite cause. (65, 6) No political economist has yet written the history of such towns as Janetown, Plockton, a n d D o r n i e . Diese H i g h l a n d ( a n d e r W e s t k ü s t e ) fishing villages form a distinct species of the genus urbs. ... On some fatal M a r t i n m a s or W h i t s u n d a y term, t h e forefathers of these wretched villagers were h u n t e d out from the glens, a n d pressed together in crowds on barren stripes along t h e m a r g i n s of the lochs. They h a d no arts,

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no manufactures, no goods to sell. A n d even supposing that they h a d b e e n adepts in trade, there was no rural p o p u l a t i o n b e h i n d t h e m to give a d e m a n d for their products, a n d no corn to take in exchange; for t h e s a m e p r o cess which h u d d l e d t h e m in helpless misery on t h e shore, cleared t h e c o u n try of its peasants, a n d e x t i n g u i s h e d cultivation. ... T h e land allotted t h e m was too narrow a n d too b a r r e n to k e e p t h e m alive; but here is t h e sea—why not dip for herrings in t h e tide, a n d scratch limpets from t h e rocks? T h e y b e c a m e a m p h i b i o u s , lived half on l a n d a n d half on water, and, after all, did not half live u p o n both. ([83,] 84) D i e Isle of Skye das E l e n d u n g e h e u e r . Subdivision has b e e n carried to its farthest limits, wofür h o h e R e n t s . (93 sqq.) the land r e n t a l von Arisaig ist an £ 1200 per Jahr. D i e P o p u l a t i o n 1250. A p o u n d per h e a d is t h e relative p r o p o r t i o n of rent a n d p o p u l a t i o n in Skye, and some of the m o s t destitute districts of t h e W e s t H i g h l a n d s . (119) T h e p o p u l a t i o n m u s t necessarily be very poor on an estate where t h e r e is a

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h u m a n being for every p o u n d w h i c h goes into t h e pocket of the landlord. Very probably Lord C r a n s t o u n receives a larger share of the a n n u a l prod u c e of Arisaig t h a n t h e whole 1250 souls p u t together. To m a k e up this rent the people toil, a n d save, a n d stint themselves—living u p o n t h e scantiest a n d poorest fare, a n d scraping together every farthing they can lay their 20 fingers u p o n , from o n e year's e n d to another. (119) Die H a u p t q u e l l e n der want in d e n H i g h l a n d s sind: I) Waste of land. 1) It is wasted d u r c h das system der sheepwalks. Large tracts of country, 20 or 30 miles in length, are thrown into one farm; all fences over this vast space are removed, a n d t h e soil resigned to its own s p o n t a n e o u s p r o d u c t i o n . All kinds of land, dry a n d 25

wet, land fit for t h e p l o u g h a n d land adapted only for pasture, are t h u s applied to t h e s a m e use, a n d subjected to t h e s a m e t r e a t m e n t . C o n s e q u e n z : an e n o r m o u s waste of productive capability. 2) land is wasted by deer-forests and gamepreserving. (165) T h e b r e e d i n g and fostering of winged g a m e , which is also carried to a great e x t r e m e in the H i g h l a n d s , retains extensive

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moors u n d e r heather. A vigorous m o o r - b u r n would clear t h e soil of t h a t e m b l e m of barrenness, a n d cover it with grass. But m o o r b u r n is p r o h i b i t e d by t h e gamepreservers. (166) 3) Natural wastes. Besteht h a u p t s ä c h l i c h aus mosses, swamps, seabeaches, a n d t h e seats of old and nearly extinct forests. 2 or three centuries ago, t h e surface of t h e lowlands was scarred by similar

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wastes etc. (I.e.) 4) l a n d is wasted by imperfect cultivation. Ζ. B. das feeble scraping of the surface soil w h i c h passes for digging m a y also be said to waste t h e ground, by allowing t h e subsoil to lie useless to t h e work of vege­ tation. (166, 167) II.) Waste of Manure. M a n u r i n g is the m e a n s of repairing the waste of soil o c c a s i o n e d by p r o d u c t i o n . A waste of m a n u r e , therefore, is virtually a waste of l a n d . (167) III.) Waste of Capital t h e landlords, i n s t e a d of saving a part, have c o n s u m e d m o r e t h a n their | | 3 1 | i n c o m e s . T h e a n n u a l

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Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 • Heft XII rental of t h e 4 counties of Sutherland, Ross, Inverness, a n d Argyle, is £ 597,496 18 sh.; b u t how m u c h of this, after paying the interest of m o n e y lenders a n d family i n c u m b r a n c e s , really goes into the h a n d s of the n o m i n a l proprietors? Perhaps %, % or n o t m o r e t h a n %. ... As for the large farmers, they are also in a great m e a s u r e an absentee class. T h e sheepwalks are principally held by g e n t l e m e n who have farms in the south, a n d who carry away with t h e m the profits a n d savings a c c u m u l a t e d in the H i g h l a n d s . ... t h u s dispersion of that surplus p r o d u c e which is the lifeblood of i n d u s try, the g e r m and the food of i m p r o v e m e n t . ( 1 6 7 - 1 6 9 ) IV.) Waste of Labour. In t h e Highlands there is a want of roads, of m a c h i n e r y , of impiem e n t s , and of every contrivance of intellect a n d art, by which m a n u a l labour is assisted and facilitated. (169) V.) Waste of Time. (169 sqq.) clearance der people from Glen Tilt von 1780-1790. D u r c h d e n Großvater des jezigen Herzogs von Atholl. Dieses glen was occupied in the same ways as other H i g h l a n d valleys, each family possessing a piece of arable land, while the hill was held in c o m m o n . T h e people enjoyed full liberty to fish in the Tilt, an excellent salmon river; a n d t h e pleasures a n d profits of the chace were nearly as free to t h e m as to their chief. 3 or 4 p o u n d s a year was all the rent paid for possession capable of supplying a family with a b u n d a n c e . ... T h e present D u k e ' s grandfather acquired a taste for deer. T h e people were accustomed to take their cattle in the s u m m e r season to a higher glen that is watered by the Tarff; b u t a large dyke was built at the h e a d of G l e n Tilt, a n d they were forbidden to trespass, or suffer their stock to trespass, beyond it. T h e outer region was consigned to the u n d i s t u r b e d possession of the deer. These lighthearted creatures increased in n u m b e r , a n d paid no respect to their m a r c h e s . They leaped over the enclosure, a n d destroyed the poor people's crops. T h e D u k e , observing this, gratified their roving propensities, and added a few 1000 acres m o r e to their grazing g r o u n d s at the expense of t h e people, who now b e g a n to be peeled of their possessions like one of their elms of its leaves by an October storm. G r a d u ally the forest ground was extended, a n d gradually the m a r k s of cultivation were effaced, till the last m a n left the glen, a n d the last cottage b e c a m e a h e a p of ruins. T h e same devastation which W i l l i a m the Conqueror, a n d the early N o r m a n kings, spread over the plains of H a m p s h i r e , in the 11 a n d 12 centuries, was thus reproduced, at the end of the 18, in this quiet Highl a n d valley. D e m Herzog bot sich ein Vorwand zur Extirpation seines Volkes. H i g h l a n d chiefs h o b e n regiments to serve in the A m e r i c a n war. D e r D u k e of Atholl suchte a u c h zu enlist the G l e n Tilt people. Die m e i s t e n refusirten. T h e D u k e flew into a rage: a n d pressgangs were sent up the G l e n to carry off the young m e n by force. D u r c h i m p r e s s m e n t u n d violence endlieh das regiment raised. N a c h d e m Krieg wollte er sie an die Ostindische

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Aus Robert Somers: Letters from the Highlands Compagnie verkaufen; wurde only prevented by the rising m u t i n y of the regiment. (22, 3) After the Conquest, t h e N o r m a n kings afforested large portions of the soil of E n g l a n d in m u c h t h e s a m e way as t h e l a n d h o l d e r s are now doing in the H i g h l a n d s . To s u c h an extent was this practice car5 ried, that an historian informs us, t h a t in the reign of King J o h n "the greatest part of the K i n g d o m " was t u r n e d into forest, and that so multiform a n d oppressive were the forest laws, t h a t it was impossible for any m a n who lived within the b o u n d a r i e s to escape the danger of falling a victim to t h e m . To prepare the ground for these forests, the people required to be 10 driven o u t ... Cultivated land was laid waste, villages were destroyed, a n d the inhabitants extirpated. Distress ensued, a n d discontent followed as a n a t u r a l consequence. ... Zu R u n n y m e d e King J o h n was compelled to disafforest the land, a n d restore it to its n a t u r a l a n d appropriate u s e . (27) In einer history, written by D a n i e l , in 1650 heißt es: " A n d 12 Knights or legall 15 m e n , " says this old writer, referring to m e a s u r e s adopted in t h e reign of Henry III "are c h o s e n in every shire, u p o n their oath, to dispart the old Forrests from the new. A n d all s u c h as were disafforested were disposed at their pleasure who were to possesse t h e m . W h e r e u p o n they were laid open, plowed, and improved, to the exceeding comfort and benefit of t h e subject, 20 whereby m e n , in stead of wild beasts, were sustained, and m o r e r o o m m a d e for t h e m to use their industry." (166) |

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I32| Dr. Justus Liebig. Die organische Chemie in ihrer Anwendung auf Agricultur und Physiologie. 4* Auflage. 1842. I) Erster Theil. Der chemische Prozeß der

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Die allgemeinen Bestandtheile der Vegetabilien. Der Kohlenstoff ist der B e s t a n d t e i l aller Pflanzen u n d zwar eines j e d e n ihrer Organe. D i e H a u p t m a s s e aller Vegetabilien besteht aus Verbindungen, welche Kohlenstoff u n d die Elemente des Wassers, u n d zwar in d e m n ä m l i c h e n Verhältniß wie im Wasser, enthalten; h i e r h e r gehören die Holzfaser, das Stärkemehl, Zucker u n d Gummi. E i n e andre Klasse von Kohlenstoffverb i n d u n g e n enthält die E l e m e n t e des Wassers + einer gewissen M e n g e Sauerstoff; sie umfaßt m i t wenigen A u s n a h m e n die zahlreichen in d e n Pflanz e n v o r k o m m e n d e n organischen Säuren. E i n e dritte besteht aus V e r b i n d u n g e n des Kohlenstoffs m i t Wasserstoff, welche entweder k e i n e n Sauerstoff enthalten, oder wenn Sauerstoff e i n e n Bestandtheil davon ausm a c h t , so ist seine Q u a n t i t ä t stets kleiner, als d e m Gewichtverhältniß entspricht, in d e m er sich m i t Wasserstoff zu Wasser verbindet. Sie k ö n n e n d e m n a c h betrachtet werden als V e r b i n d u n g e n des Kohlenstoffs m i t d e n E l e m e n t e n des Wassers, + einer gewissen M e n g e Wasserstoff. D i e flüchtigen u n d fetten Oele, das Wachs, die Harze gehören dieser Klasse an. (4, 5.) D i e organischen Säuren sind Bestandtheile aller Pflanzensäfte, u n d : m i t wenigen A u s n a h m e n , an unorganische Basen, an Metalloxide, g e b u n d e n ; die leztren fehlen in keiner Pflanze, sie bleiben n a c h der E i n ä s c h e r u n g dersel-

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Exzerpte aus Justus Liebig: Die organische Chemie in ihrer Anwendung auf Agricultur und Physiologie Heft XII. Seite 32

Aus Justus Liebig: Die organische Chemie b e n in der Asche zurück. D e r Stickstoff ist ein B e s t a n d t e i l des vegetabilischen Eiweisses, des Klebers; er ist in d e n Pflanzen in der F o r m v o n Säuren, von indifferenten Stoffen u n d von e i g e n t h ü m l i c h e n V e r b i n d u n g e n enthalten, welche alle Eigenschaften von M e t a l l o x i d e n besitzen; die leztren heis5 sen organische Basen. S e i n e m Gewichtsverhältniß n a c h der Stickstoff der kleinste Theil der M a s s e der Pflanzen; er fehlt aber in k e i n e m Vegetabil oder Organ eines Vegetabils; w e n n er k e i n e n Bestandtheil eines Organs ausmacht, so findet er sich d e n n o c h u n t e r allen U m s t ä n d e n in d e m Saft, der die Organe durchdringt. Die Entwicklung einer Pflanze n a c h dieser 10 A u s e i n a n d e r s e t z u n g abhängig von der Gegenwart einer Kohlenstoffverbindung, welche ihr den Kohlenstoff, einer Stickstoffverbindung, welche ihr d e n Stickstoff liefert; sie bedarf n o c h a u s s e r d e m des Wassers u n d seiner E l e m e n t e , so wie eines Bodens, welcher die anorganischen M a t e r i e n darbietet, o h n e die sie n i c h t b e s t e h n k a n n . (5)

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Die Assimilation des Kohlenstoffes. Die Pflanzenphysiologie betrachtet e i n e n G e m e n g t h e i l der Acker- u n d D a m m e r d e , d e m m a n d e n N a m e n Humus gegeben hat, als das H a u p t n a h rungsmittel, was die Pflanzen aus d e m B o d e n a u f n e h m e n , u n d seine G e genwart als die wichtigste B e d i n g u n g seiner Fruchtbarkeit. Dieser H u m u s ist das Product der F ä u l n i ß u n d Verwesung von Pflanzen u n d Pfianzentheilen. (6) Die C h e m i k e r waren bis j e z t gewohnt, alle Zersetzungsproducte organischer V e r b i n d u n g von b r a u n e r oder braunschwarzer Farbe m i t Humussäure oder Humin zu b e z e i c h n e n , je n a c h d e m sie in Alkalien löslich waren oder nicht; diese P r o d u c t e h a b e n aber i n ihrer Z u s a m m e n s e t z u n g u n d E n t stehungsweise n i c h t das Geringste m i t e i n a n d e r gemein. (7) D i e Eigenschaften des H u m u s u n d der H u m u s s ä u r e der Chemiker sind von d e n Pflanzenphysiologen unbegreiflicher Weise übertragen worden auf d e n Körper i n der D a m m e r d e , d e n m a n m i t d e m n ä m l i c h e n N a m e n belegt ... der H u m u s in der F o r m , wie er im B o d e n e n t h a l t e n ist, trägt zur E r n ä h r u n g der Pflanzen n i c h t das Geringste bei. (8) Die Felder produciren K o h l e n stoff in der F o r m von Holz, H e u , G e t r e i d e u n d a n d e r e n Culturgewächsen, deren Massen ausserordentlich u n g l e i c h sind. Auf 2500 Q u a d r a t m e t e r Wald von m i t t l e r e m B o d e n wachsen 2650 Pfund lufttrocknes T a n n e n Fichten- Birken- etc H o l z . A u f derselben F l ä c h e W i e s e n erhält m a n i m D u r c h s c h n i t t 2500 Pfd H e u . Die n ä m l i c h e F l ä c h e G e t r e i d e l a n d liefert 1 8 , 0 0 0 - 2 0 , 0 0 0 Pfd R u n k e l r ü b e n . A u f derselben F l ä c h e gewinnt m a n 800 Pfd Roggen u n d 1780 Pfd Stroh, im G a n z e n also 2580 Pfd. Analysirt m a n n u r die Bestandtheile von Holz, H e u , etc., so findet m a n :

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Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 · Heft XII 2500 Q u a d r a t m e t e r Wald bringen hervor an Kohlenstoff 1007 Pfd Wiese 1018 Culturland, Runkelrüben ohne Blätter 951 Getreide 1020. A u s diesen T h a t s a c h e n folgt, daß »gleiche F l ä c h e n culturfähiges L a n d eine gleiche Q u a n t i t ä t Kohlenstoff p r o d u c i r e n « ... Jedes Jahr n e h m e n wir d e m Wald, der Wiese eine gewisse Q u a n t i t ä t von Kohlenstoff in der F o r m v o n H e u u n d Holz u n d d e n n o c h n i m m t der Kohlenstoffgehalt des B o d e n s zu, wird er reicher an H u m u s . Wird n i c h t gedüngt, wie G e t r e i d e u n d F r u c h t l a n d . Dieser gedüngte B o d e n bringt nicht m e h r Kohlenstoff hervor, als der W a l d u n d die Wiese, d e n e n er n i e ersezt wird. ( 1 2 - 1 4 ) D e r Kohlenstoff, v o m ge||33|düngten L a n d hervorgebracht, beträgt n i c h t m e h r als der Kohlenstoff des u n g e d ü n g t e n ... D e r Kohlenstoff der Vegetabilien m u ß aus einer a n d e r n Quelle s t a m m e n , u n d da es der B o d e n nicht ist, der i h n liefert, so k a n n diese n u r die Atmosphäre sein. (15) Zu j e d e r Jahreszeit u n d in allen Climaten hat m a n in 100 V o l u m t h e i l e n der Luft 21 V o l u m Sauerstoff mit so geringen A b w e i c h u n g e n gefunden, daß sie als Beobachtungsfehler angesehn werden m ü s s e n . W o h e r dieser u n v e r ä n d e r l i c h e G e h a l t der Luft an Sauerstoff? D e r Sauerstoffgehalt der Luft ist eine erschöpfbare Grösse. W e n n m a n erwägt, daß jeder M e n s c h in 24 S t u n d e n 57,2 Cubikfuß (hessische) Sauerstoff in d e m A t h m u n g s p r o z e ß verzehrt, daß 10 Ctr Kohlenstoff bei i h r e m V e r b r e n n e n 5 8 1 1 2 Cubicfuß Sauerstoff verzehren, d a ß eine einzige E i s e n h ü t t e H u n d e r t e von M i l l i o n e n Cubikfuß, d a ß eine kleine Stadt wie Giessen, in d e m z u m H e i z e n d i e n e n d e n H o l z e allein ü b e r 1000 Millionen Cubikfuß Sauerstoff der A t m o s p h ä r e e n t z i e h e n , so u n b e greiflich, wenn keine Ursache existirt, w o d u r c h der w e g g e n o m m e n e Sauerstoff wieder ersezt wird, daß der Sauerstoffgehalt der Luft nicht kleiner geworden, daß die Luft in d e n T h r ä n e n k r ü g e n , die vor 1800 J a h r e n in Pompeji verschüttet wurden, nicht m e h r davon als wie h e u t e enthält. (15, 16) Wo k o m m t die K o h l e n s ä u r e hin, die d u r c h das A t h m e n der Thiere, durch Verbrennungsprozesse gebildet wird? E i n Cubicfuß Sauerstoff, der sich mit Kohlenstoff zur K o h l e n s ä u r e vereinigt, ändert sein V o l u m e n n i c h t ; aus den Billionen Cubicfuß verzehrten Sauerstoffgases sind ebenso viel Billionen Cubicfuß K o h l e n s ä u r e e n t s t a n d e n u n d in die A t m o s p h ä r e gesendet worden ... das Gewicht der K o h l e n s ä u r e n a h e Y des Gewichts der Luft. Dieser G e h a l t wechselt n a c h d e n Jahreszeiten, er ändert sich a b e r n i c h t in verschiednen J a h r e n . (17) Es m u ß eine Ursache v o r h a n d e n sein, welche die A n h ä u f u n g der K o h l e n s ä u r e hindert, u n d die sich b i l d e n d e u n aufhörlich wieder entfernt; eine Ursache, d u r c h welche der Luft der Sauerstoff wieder ersezt wird, den sie d u r c h Verbrennungsprozesse, d u r c h Verwesung u n d d u r c h die Respiration der M e n s c h e n u n d Thiere verliert. 1000

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Beide Ursachen vereinigen sich zu einer einzigen in d e m Lebensprozesse der Vegetabilien. D e r Kohlenstoff der Pflanzen s t a m m t ausschließlich aus der A t m o s p h ä r e . In der A t m o s p h ä r e existirt der Kohlenstoff n u r in der F o r m der K o h l e n s ä u r e , also in der F o r m einer Sauerstoffverbindung. D i e H a u p t b e s t a n d t h e i l e der Vegetabilien, gegen deren Masse die M a s s e der übrigen verschwindend klein ist, e n t h a l t e n Kohlenstoff u n d die E l e m e n t e des Wassers; alle z u s a m m e n e n t h a l t e n weniger Sauerstoff als die K o h l e n säure. D e m n a c h gewiß, d a ß die Pflanzen, i n d e m sie d e n Kohlenstoff der Kohlensäure sich aneignen, die Fähigkeit besitzen m ü s s e n , die K o h l e n säure zu zerlegen; die Bildung ihrer H a u p t b e s t a n d t h e i l e . sezt e i n e Trenn u n g des Kohlenstoffes von d e m Sauerstoff voraus; der leztre m u ß , während d e m L e b e n s p r o z e ß der Pflanze, w ä h r e n d sich der Kohlenstoff m i t d e m Wasser oder seinen E l e m e n t e n verbindet, an die A t m o s p h ä r e wieder freigegeben werden. F ü r jedes V o l u m e n K o h l e n s ä u r e , deren Kohlenstoff Bestandtheil der Pflanze wird, m u ß die A t m o s p h ä r e ein gleiches V o l u m e n Sauerstoff empfangen. ([17,] 18) D i e Pflanze liefert nicht allein d e m thierischen Organismus in i h r e n O r g a n e n die M i t t e l zur N a h r u n g , zur E r n e u e rung u n d V e r m e h r u n g seiner Masse, sie entfernt nicht n u r aus der Atmosphäre die schädlichen Stoffe, die seine Existenz gefährden, s o n d e r n sie ist es a u c h allein, welche d e n h ö h e r e n organischen Lebensprozeß, die R e spiration, m i t der ihr u n e n t b e h r l i c h e n N a h r u n g versieht; sie ist eine unversiegbare Quelle des reinsten u n d frischesten Sauerstoffgases, sie ersezt der Atmosphäre in j e d e m M o m e n t e was sie verlor. Alle übrigen Verhältnisse gleichgesezt, a t h m e n die Thiere Kohlenstoff aus, die Pflanzen a t h m e n i h n ein, das M e d i u m , in d e m es geschieht, die Luft, k a n n in ihrer Z u s a m m e n setzung n i c h t geändert werden. (20) Die A t m o s p h ä r e enthält 2800 Billion e n Pfund Kohlenstoff, eine Q u a n t i t ä t , welche m e h r beträgt, als das G e wicht aller Pflanzen, der Stein- u n d Braunkohlenlager auf d e m g a n z e n Erdkörper z u s a m m e n g e n o m m e n . D e r Kohlenstoffgehalt des Meerwassers ist verhältnißmässig n o c h grösser. (20, 21) Die W u r z e l n u n d alle Theile der Pflanzen, welche die n ä m l i c h e Fähigkeit besitzen, saugen b e s t ä n d i g W a s ser, sie a t h m e n K o h l e n s ä u r e ein; diese Fähigkeit ist u n a b h ä n g i g v o m Sonn e n l i c h t e ; sie häuft sich während des Tages im Schatten u n d bei N a c h t in allen Theilen der Pflanze an, u n d erst von d e m Augenblicke an, wo die Sonnenstrahlen sie treffen, geht die Assimilation des Kohlenstoffs, die A u s h a u c h u n g von Sauerstoffgas vor sich; erst in d e m M o m e n t e , wo der K e i m die Erde durchbricht, färbt er sich von der äussersten Spitze abwärts, die eigentliche H o l z b i l d u n g n i m m t ihren Anfang. D i e Tropen, der A e q u a tor, die h e i ß e n Klimate, wo ein selten bewölkter H i m m e l der S o n n e gestattet, ihre g l ü h e n d e n Strahlen einer u n e n d l i c h reichen Vegetation z u z u s e n den, sind die eigentlichen ewig unversiegbaren Quellen des Sauerstoffga-

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Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 • Heft XII ses; in d e n gemässigten u n d kalten Z o n e n , wo künstliche W ä r m e die fehlende S o n n e ersetzen m u ß , wird die K o h l e n s ä u r e , welche die tropischen Pflanzen nährt, im Ueberfluß erzeugt; derselbe Luftstrom, welcher, veranlaßt d u r c h die U m d r e h u n g der Erde, seinen W e g von d e m A e q u a t o r z u d e n Polen zurückgelegt hat, bringt u n s , zu d e m A e q u a t o r z u r ü c k k e h r e n d , d e n dort erzeugten Sauerstoff u n d führt i h m die K o h l e n s ä u r e u n s e r e r W i n t e r zu. (22) Die Versuche von de Saussure h a b e n bewiesen, daß die oberen S c h i c h t e n der Luft m e h r K o h l e n s ä u r e e n t h a l t e n als die u n t e r e n , die m i t d e n Pflanzen in Berührung sich befinden, d a ß der ||34| Kohlensäuregehalt der Luft grösser ist bei N a c h t als bei Tag, wo das eingesaugte k o h l e n s a u r e G a s zersezt wird. (I.e.) Die Pflanzen verbessern die Luft, i n d e m sie die K o h l e n s ä u r e entfernen, i n d e m sie d e n Sauerstoff erneuern. (I.e.) Die Cultur erhöht den G e s u n d h e i t s z u s t a n d der G e g e n d e n ; m i t d e m Aufhören aller Cultur werden sonst gesunde G e g e n d e n u n b e w o h n b a r . W i r e r k e n n e n in d e m L e b e n der Pflanze, in der Assimilation des Kohlenstoffs, als der wichtigsten ihrer F u n k t i o n e n , eine Sauerstoffausscheidung, m a n k a n n sagen, eine Sauerstofferzeugung. (23) Materien, wie Zucker, A m y l o n etc, welche Kohlenstoff u n d die E l e m e n t e des Wassers enthalten, sind P r o d u c t e des Lebensprozesses der Pflanzen, sie leben nur, insofern sie diese erzeugen. Dasselbe m u ß von d e m H u m u s gelten, d e n n er k a n n ebenso wie diese, in Pflanzen gebildet werden. (24) Die von d e n Blättern, von den W u r z e l n m i t d e m Wasser a u f g e n o m m e n e K o h l e n s ä u r e wird m i t der A b n a h m e des Lichtes n i c h t m e h r zersezt, sie bleibt in d e m Safte gelöst, der alle Theile der Pflanze durchdringt; i n j e d e m Z e i t m o m e n t e verdunstet m i t d e m Wasser aus den Blättern eine i h r e m G e h a l t e n t s p r e c h e n d e M e n g e K o h l e n s ä u r e . E i n Boden, in welchem die Pflanzen kräftig vegetiren, enthält als eine nie fehlende Bedingung ihres Lebens u n t e r allen U m s t ä n d e n eine gewisse Q u a n t i t ä t Feuchtigkeit, nie fehlt in d i e s e m Boden kohlensaures G a s , gleichgültig, ob es von d e m s e l b e n aus der Luft a u f g e n o m m e n oder d u r c h die Verwesung von Vegetabilien erzeugt wird; kein B r u n n e n - oder Quellwasser, nie ist das Regenwasser frei von K o h l e n s ä u r e ; in keinerlei P e r i o d e n des L e b e n s einer Pflanze hört das V e r m ö g e n der W u r z e l auf, Feuchtigkeit u n d m i t derselben Luft u n d K o h l e n s ä u r e e i n z u s a u g e n . K a n n es n u n auffallend sein, daß diese K o h l e n s ä u r e m i t d e m verdunsteten Wasser von der Pflanze an die A t m o s p h ä r e u n v e r ä n d e r t wieder zurückgegeben wird, w e n n die Ursache der Fixirung des Kohlenstoffs, w e n n das Licht fehlt? (29, 30) D i e ß also der F a l l w ä h r e n d d e r N a c h t . Diese A u s h a u c h u n g von Kohlensäure h a t m i t d e m Assimilationsprozeß, m i t d e m L e b e n der Pflanze ebenso wenig zu t h u n , als die E i n s a u g u n g des Sauerstoffes. Beide Stenn m i t e i n a n der n i c h t in der geringsten Beziehung, der eine ist ein rein m e c h a n i s c h e r , der a n d r e ein rein chemischer Prozeß. E i n D o c h t von Baumwolle, den m a n

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in eine L a m p e e i n t a u c h t , welche eine m i t K o h l e n s ä u r e gesättigte Flüssigkeit enthält, wird sich grade so verhalten wie e i n e lebende Pflanze in der N a c h t , Wasser u n d K o h l e n s ä u r e werden d u r c h Capillarität aufgesaugt, beide verdunsten a u ß e r h a l b an d e m D o c h t e wieder. (30) D i e Lebenskraft ist die e i n e m j e d e n e i n z e l n e n Organ i n n e w o h n e n d e Fähigkeit, sich selbst zu j e d e m Z e i t m o m e n t e n e u wieder zu erzeugen: hierzu g e h ö r e n Stoffe, welche seine E l e m e n t e enthalten, u n d diese Stoffe m ü s s e n sich zu M e t a m o r p h o s e n eignen. Alle Organe z u s a m m e n g e n o m m e n k ö n n e n kein einzelnes E l e m e n t , k e i n e n Stickstoff, Kohlenstoff oder ein Metalloxid erzeugen. (38) Ist die Masse der d a r g e b o t n e n Stoffe zu groß, oder sind sie keiner M e tamorphose fähig, oder ü b e n sie eine c h e m i s c h e Wirkung irgend einer Art auf das Organ aus, so unterliegt das Organ selbst einer M e t a m o r p h o s e . Alle sogenannten Gifte gehören der leztren Klasse an. (39) W e n n wir m i t Bes t i m m t h e i t wissen, daß es e i n e n Körper giebt, der H u m u s z.B., welcher fähig ist, eine Pflanze bis zur vollendeten Entwicklung mit N a h r u n g zu versehn, so führt u n s eine K e n n t n i ß seines Verhaltens u n d seiner Z u s a m m e n s e t z u n g auf die B e d i n g u n g e n des Lebens einer Pflanze. Es m u ß sich alsdann m i t d e m H u m u s grade so verhalten, wie m i t e i n e m einzigen N a h r u n g s m i t t e l , was die N a t u r für d e n a n i m a l i s c h e n Organismus producirt, n ä m l i c h mit der Milch. W i r finden in der Milch einen an Stickstoff reic h e n Körper, den Käse, eine Substanz, welche reich an Wasserstoff ist, die Butter, e i n e n dritten, welcher eine grosse M e n g e Sauerstoff u n d Wasserstoff in d e m Verhältniß wie im Wasser enthält, d e n Milchzucker; in der Butter befindet sich eine der a r o m a t i s c h e n Substanzen, die Buttersäure; sie enthält in Auflösung milchsaures Natron, phosphorsauren Kalk, u n d Kochsalz. (I.e.)

Ursprung und Verhalten des Humus. Alle Pflanzen u n d Pflanzentheile erleiden m i t d e m Aufhören des L e b e n s zwei Zersetzungsprozesse, von d e n e n m a n d e n e i n e n Gährung oder Fäulniß, d e n a n d e r n Verwesung n e n n t . Die Verwesung b e z e i c h n e t e i n e n l a n g s a m e n 30 Verbrennungsprozeß, d e n Vorgang also, wo die verbrennlichen Bestandtheile des verwesenden Körpers sich m i t d e m Sauerstoff der Luft verbinden. Die Verwesung des H a u p t b e s t a n d t h e i l s aller Vegetabilien, der Holzfaser, zeigt eine E r s c h e i n u n g e i g e n t h ü m l i c h e r Art. Mit Sauerstoff in Berührung, m i t Luft u m g e b e n , verwandelt sie n ä m l i c h den Sauerstoff in 35 ein i h m gleiches V o l u m e n kohlensaures G a s ; m i t d e m Verschwinden des Sauerstoffs hört die Verwesung auf. W i r d dieses kohlensaure G a s hinwegg e n o m m e n u n d durch Sauerstoff ersezt, so fängt die Verwesung von N e u e m an, d. h. Sauerstoff wird wieder in K o h l e n s ä u r e verwandelt. D i e

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Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 • Heft XII Holzfaser besteht n u n aus Kohlenstoff u n d d e n E l e m e n t e n des Wassers; von allem a n d e r n abgesehn, geht ihre V e r b r e n n u n g vor sich, wie w e n n m a n reine Kohle bei sehr h o h e n T e m p e r a t u r e n verbrennt, grade so als ob kein Wasserstoff u n d Sauerstoff m i t ihr in der Holzfaser v e r b u n d e n wäre. D i e Vollendung dieses Ver||35|brennungsprozesses erfordert eine sehr lange Zeit; eine unerläßliche B e d i n g u n g zu seiner U n t e r h a l t u n g ist die Gegenwart von Wasser; Alkalien befördern ihn, S ä u r e n verhindern ihn, alle a n t i septischen Materien, schweflige Säure, Quecksilbersalze u n d brenzliche Oele h e b e n i h n gänzlich auf. Die in Verwesung begriffne Holzfaser ist der Körper, d e n wir Humus n e n n e n . (43, 44) In d e m s e l b e n G r a d e als die Verwesung der Holzfaser vorangeschritten ist, v e r m i n d e r t sich ihre Fähigkeit zu verwesen, d . h . das u m g e b e n d e Sauerstoffgas in K o h l e n s ä u r e zu verwandeln; zulezt bleibt eine gewisse M e n g e einer b r a u n e n oder kohlenartigen S u b s t a n z zurück, der sie gänzlich fehlt, m a n n e n n t sie Moder; sie ist das Product der vollendeten Verwesung der Holzfaser. D e r M o d e r m a c h t d e n H a u p t b e standtheil aller Braunkohlenlager u n d des Torfes aus. In e i n e m Boden, welcher der Luft zugänglich ist, verhält sich der H u m u s genau, wie an der Luft selbst; er ist eine langsame äusserst a n d a u e r n d e Quelle von K o h l e n säure. U m jedes kleinste T h e i l c h e n des verwesenden H u m u s entsteht, auf K o s t e n des Sauerstoffs der Luft, eine A t m o s p h ä r e von K o h l e n s ä u r e . In der Cultur wird, d u r c h Bearbeitung u n d Auflockerung der Erde, der Luft ein möglichst u n g e h i n d e r t e r u n d freier Zutritt verschafft. Ein so vorbereiteter u n d feuchter Boden enthält also eine A t m o s p h ä r e von Kohlensäure, u n d d a m i t die erste u n d wichtigste N a h r u n g für die j u n g e n Pflanzen welche sich darauf entwickeln soll. Im F r ü h l i n g e , wo die Organe fehlen, welche die N a t u r b e s t i m m t hat, die N a h r u n g aus der A t m o s p h ä r e a u f z u n e h m e n , wo diese Organe erst gebildet werden, sind es die B e s t a n d t e i l e des Saam e n s , welche zuerst u n d ausschließlich zur Bildung der W u r z e l n verwendet werden; m i t jeder Wurzelfaser erhält die Pflanze e i n e n M u n d , eine Lunge, e i n e n Magen. V o n d e m A u g e n b l i c k e an, wo sich die ersten W u r z e l fasern gebildet h a b e n , sind sie es, welche die F u n k t i o n e n der Blätter übern e h m e n , sie führen aus der A t m o s p h ä r e , in der sie sich befinden, aus d e m B o d e n n ä m l i c h , N a h r u n g zu; von d e m H u m u s s t a m m t die K o h l e n s ä u r e her. D u r c h Auflockerung des Bodens u m die j u n g e Pflanze e r n e u e r n u n d vervielfältigen wir d e n Zutritt der Luft, wir begünstigen d a m i t die Bildung der K o h l e n s ä u r e ; die Q u a n t i t ä t der erzeugten N a h r u n g würde sich vermindern m i t jeder Schwierigkeit, die sich im B o d e n dieser Lufterneuerung entgegenstellt; bei e i n e m gewissen G r a d e der Entwicklung der Pflanze ist sie es selbst, die diesen Luftwechsel bewirkt. Die A t m o s p h ä r e von K o h l e n säure, welche d e n unverwesten Theil des H u m u s vor weiterer Verwesung schüzt, wird von den feinen W u r z e l h a a r e n , d e n W u r z e l n selbst aufgesaugt

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u n d h i n w e g g e n o m m e n , sie wird ersezt d u r c h atmosphärische Luft, die ihren Platz e i n n i m m t ; die Verwesung schreitet fort, es wird eine n e u e Q u a n t i t ä t K o h l e n s ä u r e gebildet. In dieser Zeit empfängt die Pflanze von den W u r z e l n u n d äusseren O r g a n e n gleichzeitig N a h r u n g , sie schreitet rasch ihrer V o l l e n d u n g entgegen. Ist die Pflanze völlig entwickelt, sind ihre Organe der E r n ä h r u n g völlig ausgebildet, so bedarf sie der K o h l e n s ä u r e des Bodens n i c h t mehr. M a n g e l an Feuchtigkeit, völlige T r o c k e n h e i t des Bodens h e m m e n die V o l l e n d u n g ihrer Entwicklung nicht m e h r , w e n n sie v o m T h a u u n d der Luft soviel Feuchtigkeit empfängt, als sie zur V e r m i t t l u n g der Assimilation bedarf; im heissen S o m m e r schöpft sie d e n Kohlenstoff ausschließlich aus der Luft. W i r wissen bei d e n Pflanzen nicht, welche H ö h e u n d Stärke i h n e n die N a t u r angewiesen hat, wir k e n n e n n u r das gewöhnliche M a a ß ihrer Grösse. ... die kleine Teltower R ü b e wird in e i n e m Boden, wo ihr frei steht, soviel N a h r u n g a u f z u n e h m e n , als sie k a n n , zu e i n e m m e h r e r e Pfunde schweren Dickwanst. ( 4 4 - 4 6 ) Die Masse einer Pflanze steht im Verhältniß zu der Oberfläche der Organe, welche bestimmt sind, Nahrung zuzufügen. Mit j e d e r Wurzelfaser, j e d e m Blatt gewinnt die Pflanze e i n e n M u n d u n d M a g e n m e h r . D e r Thätigkeit der Wurzeln, N a h r u n g aufz u n e h m e n , wird n u r d u r c h M a n g e l eine G r e n z e gesezt, ist sie im Ueberfluß vorhanden, u n d wird sie zur A u s b i l d u n g der v o r h a n d n e n Organe n i c h t völlig verzehrt, so kehrt dieser U e b e r s c h u ß nicht in den B o d e n zurück, sondern er wird in der Pflanze zur Hervorbringung von n e u e n Organen verwendet. N e b e n der v o r h a n d n e n Zelle entsteht eine n e u e , n e b e n d e m e n t s t a n d n e n Zweig u n d Blatt entwickelt sich ein n e u e r Zweig, ein n e u e s Blatt; o h n e U e b e r s c h u ß an N a h r u n g wären diese n i c h t zur Entwicklung gek o m m e n . D e r i n d e m S a a m e n entwickelte Z u c k e r u n d Schleim verschwindet mit der A u s b i l d u n g der Wurzelfasern, der in d e m Holzkörper, in d e n W u r z e l n e n t s t e h e n d e Z u c k e r u n d Schleim verschwindet m i t der Entwicklung der Knospen, g r ü n e n Triebe u n d Blätter. M i t der Ausbildung, m i t der A n z a h l der Organe, der Zweige u n d Blätter, d e n e n die A t m o s p h ä r e N a h rung liefert, wächst in d e m n ä m l i c h e n Verhältnisse ihre Fähigkeit, N a h rung a u f z u n e h m e n , u n d a n Masse z u z u n e h m e n , d e n n diese F ä h i g k e i t n i m m t im Verhältniß wie ihre Oberfläche zu. Die ausgebildeten Blätter, Triebe u n d Zweige befürfen zu ihrer eigenen Erhaltung der N a h r u n g n i c h t mehr, sie n e h m e n an U m f a n g n i c h t m e h r zu; um als Organe fortzubestehn, h a b e n sie ausschließlich n u r die M i t t e l nöthig, die F u n k t i o n zu u n t e r h a l ten, zu der die N a t u r sie b e s t i m m t hat, sie sind nicht ihrer selbst wegen vorhanden. (46, 7) ||36| W i r wissen, daß diese F u n k t i o n in ihrer F ä h i g k e i t besteht, die K o h l e n s ä u r e der Luft e i n z u s a u g e n u n d u n t e r d e m Einfluß des Lichts, bei Gegenwart von Feuchtigkeit, ihren Kohlenstoff sich anzueign e n . (47) Diese F u n k t i o n ist unausgesezt, von der ersten Entwicklung an,

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Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 · Heft XII in Thätigkeit, sie hört nicht auf m i t ihrer völligen A u s b i l d u n g . A b e r die n e u e n , aus dieser unausgesezt f o r t d a u e r n d e n Assimilation h e r v o r g e h e n d e n Producte, sie werden n i c h t m e h r für ihre eigne Entwicklung verbraucht, sie d i e n e n jezt zur weitren A u s b i l d u n g des Holzkörpers u n d aller ihr ä h n l i c h z u s a m m e n g e s e z t e n festen Stoffe, es sind die Blätter, welche jezt die Bild u n g des Zuckers, des A m y l o n s , der S ä u r e n vermitteln. Solange sie fehlten, h a t t e n die W u r z e l n diese Verrichtung in B e z i e h u n g auf diejenigen M a t e r i e n ü b e r n o m m e n , welche der H a l m , die K n o s p e , das Blatt u n d die Zweige zu ihrer A u s b i l d u n g bedurften. In dieser Periode des L e b e n s n e h m e n die Organe der Assimilation aus der A t m o s p h ä r e m e h r N a h r u n g s Stoffe auf, als sie selbst verzehren, u n d m i t der fortschreitenden Entwicklung des Holzkörpers, wo der Zufluß an N a h r u n g i m m e r der n ä m l i c h e bleibt, ändert sich die R i c h t u n g in der sie verwendet wird, es beginnt die Entwicklung der Blüthen, u n d m i t der A u s b i l d u n g der F r u c h t ist b e i den m e i s t e n Pflanzen der F u n k t i o n der Blätter eine G r e n z e gesezt, d e n n die P r o d u c t e ihrer Thätigkeit finden keine V e r w e n d u n g m e h r . Sie unterliegen der Einwirkung des Sauerstoffs, wechseln in Folge derselben gewöhnlich ihre Farbe u n d fallen ab. Zwischen der Periode der Blüthe u n d Fruchtbild u n g entstehn in allen Pflanzen in Folge einer M e t a m o r p h o s e der vorhandn e n Stoffe eine R e i h e von n e u e n V e r b i n d u n g e n , welche vorher fehlten, von Materien, welche Bestandtheile der sich b i l d e n d e n Blüthe, F r u c h t oder des S a a m e n s a u s m a c h e n . E i n e organisch-chemische M e t a m o r p h o s e ist n u n der Akt der U m s e t z u n g der E l e m e n t e einer oder m e h r e r e r V e r b i n d u n g e n in zwei oder m e h r e r e n e u e , welche diese E l e m e n t e in einer n e u e n W e i s e gruppirt, oder in a n d e r n Verhältnissen e n t h a l t e n . Von zwei V e r b i n d u n g e n , die in Folge dieser U m s e t z u n g e n gebildet werden, bleibt die eine als Bes t a n d t e i l in der Blüthe oder F r u c h t zurück, die a n d r e wird in der F o r m von E x c r e m e n t e n von der W u r z e l abgeschieden. Die E r n ä h r u n g des thierischen sowie des vegetabilischen O r g a n i s m u s ist o h n e A u s s c h e i d u n g von E x c r e m e n t e n nicht denkbar. D e r O r g a n i s m u s erzeugt nichts, sondern verwandelt nur, seine Erhaltung u n d R e p r o d u c t i o n geschieht in Folge der M e tamorphose der Nahrungsstoffe, die seine E l e m e n t e e n t h a l t e n . (48, ' 9) Blausäure u n d Wasser enthalten die E l e m e n t e von Kohlensäure, A m m o niak, Harnstoff, Cyanursäure, Cyamelid, Oxalsäure, A m e i s e n s ä u r e , M e lam, A m m e l i d , M e l a m i n , A m m e i i n , A z u l m i n , Mellon, Mellonwasserstoff, A l l a n t o i n etc. Diese in ihrer Z u s a m m e n s e t z u n g u n e n d l i c h v e r s c h i e d n e n Stoffe k ö n n e n aus Blausäure u n d Wasser in c h e m i s c h e n M e t a m o r p h o s e n der mannigfaltigsten Art wirklich gebildet werden. D e r ganze Prozeß der E r n ä h r u n g der Organismen läßt sich d u r c h die Betrachtung einer einzigen dieser M e t a m o r p h o s e n zur A n s c h a u u n g bringen. Blausäure u n d Wasser ζ. B. in Berührung m i t Salzsäure zerlegen sich augenblicklich in A m e i s e n -

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säure u n d A m m o n i a k ; i n b e i d e n sind die E l e m e n t e der Blausäure u n d des Wassers, obwohl in einer a n d e r n F o r m , in andrer Weise geordnet, enthalten. Es ist das Streben der Salzsäure n a c h einer Ausgleichung, ( d u r c h e i n e Base) wodurch diese M e t a m o r p h o s e bedingt worden ist. In Folge dieses Strebens erleiden Blausäure u n d Wasser gleichzeitig eine Z e r s e t z u n g ; der Stickstoff der Blausäure u n d der Wasserstoff in d e m Wasser treten zu einer Basis, zu A m m o n i a k z u s a m m e n , w o m i t sich die Säure verbindet. I h r e m Streben ist Befriedigung geworden, ihr Charakter verschwindet. A m m o n i a k war n u r seinen E l e m e n t e n n a c h v o r h a n d e n , aber die Fähigkeit, A m m o n i a k zu bilden, war da. (50) In Folge der Bildung von A m m o n i a k sind K o h l e n stoff u n d Wasserstoff, die a n d e r n E l e m e n t e der Blausäure, m i t d e m Sauerstoff des zersezten Wassers, zur A m e i s e n s ä u r e z u s a m m e n g e t r e t e n ; die Elem e n t e u n d die Fähigkeit sich zu verbinden, waren v o r h a n d e n . D i e A m e i s e n s ä u r e ist also hier das E x c r e m e n t ; das A m m o n i a k repräsentirt d e n durch das Organ assimilirten Stoff. D a s Organ n i m m t von d e n d a r g e b o t n e n N a h r u n g s m i t t e l n , was es zu seiner eignen Erhaltung, was es zu seiner R e production bedarf. Die ü b r i g e n E l e m e n t e , welche n i c h t assimilirt werden, treten z u n e u e n V e r b i n d u n g e n , z u E x c r e m e n t e n , z u s a m m e n . W ä h r e n d ihres Wegs d u r c h d e n O r g a n i s m u s k o m m e n die E x c r e m e n t e des e i n e n Organs in B e r ü h r u n g m i t e i n e m a n d e r n , d u r c h dessen Einwirkung sie eine n e u e M e t a m o r p h o s e erfahren; die E x c r e m e n t e des e i n e n Organs e n t h a l t e n die E l e m e n t e der N a h r u n g s m i t t e l für ein zweites u n d folgendes; zulezt werden die, keiner M e t a m o r p h o s e m e h r fähigen Stoffe d u r c h die d a z u b e s t i m m t e n Organe aus d e m O r g a n i s m u s entfernt. Jedes Organ ist für seine i h m e i g e n t h ü m l i c h e F u n k t i o n e n eingerichtet. E i n Cubiczoll Schwefelwasserstoff in die Lunge gebracht, würde augenblicklichen T o d bewirken, in d e m D a r m k a n a l wird e s u n t e r m a n c h e n U m s t ä n d e n o h n e N a c h t h e i l gebildet. (51, 2) D u r c h die Nieren werden die in Folge von M e t a m o r p h o s e n ents t a n d n e n stickstoffhaltigen, d u r c h die Leber die an Kohlenstoff reichen u n d d u r c h die Lunge alle Wasserstoff u n d sauerstoffreichen E x c r e m e n t e aus d e m Körper entfernt. D e r Weingeist, die keiner Assimilation fähigen ätherischen Oele verdunsten nicht durch die H a u t , sondern d u r c h die L u n g e . Die Respiration ist eine langsame V e r b r e n n u n g , d. h. eine sich stets erneuernde Verwesung. (52) D u r c h die Harnwege wird der überflüssige Stickstoff als ||37| flüssiges E x c r e m e n t , d u r c h d e n D a r m k a n a l alle, keiner M e t a m o r phose m e h r fähigen festen Stoffe, u n d durch die Lunge alle gasförmigen aus d e m Körper entfernt. (53) A u s d e m in der G ä h r u n g gebildeten Fuselöl der Kartoffeln erzeugen wir das flüchtige Oel der Baldrianwurzel m i t allen seinen Eigenschaften, aus e i n e m krystallinischen Stoff aus der W e i d e n rinde b e k o m m e n wir das Oel der Spiraea ulmaria. (Piria) W i r sind im Stande, A m e i s e n s ä u r e , Oxalsäure, Harnstoff, die krystallinischen Körper

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Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 • Heft XII in der allantoischen Flüssigkeit der K u h , lauter Producte der Lebenskraft, in u n s e r n Laboratorien zu erzeugen. (54) M e t a m o r p h o s e n v o r h a n d n e r Verb i n d u n g e n gehn in d e m g a n z e n Lebensakte der Pflanzen vor sich, u n d in Folge derselben gasförmige Secretionen d u r c h die Blätter u n d Blüthen, feste E x c r e m e n t e in d e n R i n d e n u n d flüssige lösliche Stoffe d u r c h die W u r zeln. Diese Sekretionen finden Statt u n m i t t e l b a r vor d e m Beginn u n d währ e n d der D a u e r der Blüthe, sie v e r m i n d e r n sich n a c h der A u s b i l d u n g der F r u c h t ; durch die W u r z e l n werden kohlenstoffreiche S u b s t a n z e n abgeschieden u n d von d e m B o d e n a u f g e n o m m e n . In diesen Stoffen, welche u n fähig sind, eine Pflanze zu ernähren, empfängt der B o d e n d e n größten Theil des Kohlenstoffes wieder, d e n er d e n Pflanzen im Anfang ihrer Entwicklung in der F o r m von K o h l e n s ä u r e gegeben h a t t e . D i e von d e m B o d e n a u f g e n o m m e n e n löslichen E x c r e m e n t e g e h n d u r c h d e n Einfluß der Luft u n d Feuchtigkeit einer fortschreitenden V e r ä n d e r u n g entgegen; i n d e m sie der F ä u l n i ß u n d Verwesung unterliegen, erzeugt sich aus i h n e n wieder der Nahrungsstoff einer n e u e n G e n e r a t i o n , sie g e h n in Humus über. Die im Herbst fallenden Blätter im W a l d e , die alten W u r z e l n der Graspflanzen auf d e n Wiesen verwandeln sich d u r c h diese Einflüsse ebenfalls in H u m u s . In dieser F o r m empfängt der B o d e n i m G a n z e n a n Kohlenstoff m e h r wieder als der verwesende H u m u s als K o h l e n s ä u r e abgab. (55, 6) Im Allgemeinen erschöpft keine Pflanze in ihrem Zustande der normalen Entwicklung den Boden in Beziehung auf seinen Gehalt an Kohlenstoff; sie macht ihn im Gegentheil reicher daran. (56) D e r H u m u s ernährt die Pflanze nicht, weil er im löslichen Z u s t a n d e von derselben a u f g e n o m m e n u n d als solcher assimilirt wird, sondern weil er eine langsame u n d a n d a u e r n d e Quelle von K o h l e n s ä u r e darstellt, welche als das H a u p t n a h r u n g s m i t t e l die W u r z e l n der j u n g e n Pflanzen zu einer Zeit m i t N a h r u n g versieht, wo die äussern Organe der a t m o s p h ä r i s c h e n E r n ä h r u n g fehlen. Die Oberfläche der Erde war vor der gegenwärtigen Periode m i t Pflanzen bedeckt, deren T r ü m m e r u n d U e b e r r e ste die Braun- u n d Steinkohlenlager bilden. Alle diese riesenhaften Palm e n , Gräser, F a r r e n k r ä u t e r etc gehören zu Pflanzenarten, d e n e n die N a t u r d u r c h eine u n g e h e u r e A u s d e h n u n g der Blätter die Fähigkeit gegeben hat, den B o d e n für ihre N a h r u n g ganz zu e n t b e h r e n . (I.e.) Es k a n n hier n i c h t u n e r w ä h n t gelassen werden, daß die gewöhnliche Holzkohle ... d e n H u m u s aufs Vollständigste vertreten k a n n . M a n k a n n in ausgeglühtem (etwas ausgewaschnen) Kohlenpulver Pflanzen z u r üppigsten Entwicklung, z u m Blüh e n u n d zur F r u c h t b i l d u n g bringen, wenn sie m i t Regenwasser feucht erh a l t e n werden. (58)

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Die Assimilation des Wasserstoffs.

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Die Luft enthält d e n Kohlenstoff der Gewächse in der F o r m von K o h l e n säure, also in der F o r m einer Sauerstoffverbindung. Der feste Theil der Pflanzen, die Holzfaser, e n t h ä l t Kohlenstoff u n d die Bestandtheile des Wassers, oder die E l e m e n t e der K o h l e n s ä u r e + einer gewissen M e n g e Wasserstoff. W i r k ö n n e n u n s das Holz e n t s t a n d e n d e n k e n aus d e m K o h lenstoff der K o h l e n s ä u r e , der sich u n t e r Mitwirkung des S o n n e n l i c h t s m i t den E l e m e n t e n des v o r h a n d n e n Wassers verbindet. (59) Oder: »die Pflanze zerlegt u n t e r d e n s e l b e n B e d i n g u n g e n bei Gegenwart von K o h l e n s ä u r e das Wasser, sein Wasserstoff wird m i t der K o h l e n s ä u r e assimilirt, w ä h r e n d sein Sauerstoff abgeschieden wird; zu 100 Theilen K o h l e n s ä u r e m ü s s e n d e m n a c h 2,77 Theile Wasserstoff treten, um die Holzfaser zu bilden, u n d es werden 72,35 Gewichtstheile, eine d e m G e h a l t der K o h l e n s ä u r e g e n a u gleiche Q u a n t i t ä t Sauerstoff, die z u m Theil m i t d i e s e m Wasserstoff v e r b u n d e n waren, in der F o r m von G a s abgeschieden. E i n M o r g e n Wiese, W a l d oder ü b e r h a u p t cultivirtes L a n d ersezt also d e n Sauerstoff der A t m o s p h ä r e wieder, welcher d u r c h 10 Ctr Kohlenstoff bei seiner V e r b r e n n u n g in der Luft, oder durch d e n Respirationsprozeß der Thiere verzehrt wird. Die Holzfaser enthält Kohle u n d die Bestandtheile des Wassers; es ist aber in d e m H o l z m e h r Wasserstoff e n t h a l t e n als d i e s e m Verhältniß entspricht; dieser W a s serstoffbefindet sich darin in der F o r m v o n Blattgrün, Oel, Harz u n d überh a u p t in der F o r m sehr wasserstoffreicher M a t e r i e n ; für jedes A e q u i v a l e n t Wasserstoff, was in einer dieser F o r m e n von der Pflanze assimilirt wird, m u ß 1 Aequivalent Sauerstoff an die A t m o s p h ä r e zurückgegeben werden.« (60) Die m e i s t e n Pflanzengebilde e n t h a l t e n Wasserstoff in der F o r m von Wasser, welches sich ||38| als solches abscheiden, ersetzen läßt d u r c h a n d r e Körper; derjenige Wasserstoff aber, welcher zu ihrer Constitution wesentlich ist, k a n n u n m ö g l i c h in der F o r m von Wasser darin e n t h a l t e n sein. Aller z u m Bestehn einer organischen V e r b i n d u n g u n e n t b e h r l i c h e WasserStoff wird d u r c h Zersetzung von Wasser der Pflanze geliefert. Der Assimilationsprozeß der Pflanze in seiner einfachsten Form stellt sich mithin dar als eine Aufnahme von Wasserstoff aus dem Wasser und von Kohlenstoff aus der Kohlensäure, in Folge welcher aller Sauerstoff des Wassers und aller Sauerstoff der Kohlensäure, wie bei den flüchtigen sauerstofffreien Oelen, dem Kautschuck etc, oder nur ein Theil dieses Sauerstoffs abgeschieden wird. ( 6 1 , 2) So läßt sich die Bildung von allen stickstofffreien B e s t a n d t h e i l e n aus K o h l e n s ä u r e u n d Wasserstoff m i t A u s s c h e i d u n g von Sauerstoff u n d die U m w a n d l u n g des e i n e n i n d e n a n d e r n d u r c h A u s s c h e i d u n g von K o h l e n s ä u r e u n t e r Assimilation von Sauerstoff erklären. (63) D i e l e b e n d e Pflanze vertritt in d i e s e m

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Der Ursprung und die Assimilation des Stickstoffs. In welcher F o r m u n d wie liefert die N a t u r d e m vegetabilischen Eiweiß, d e m Kleber, d e n F r ü c h t e n u n d S a a m e n diesen für ihre Existenz d u r c h a u s u n e n t b e h r l i c h e n Bestandtheil? Diese Frage leicht zu beantworten, w e n n m a n bedenkt, d a ß Pflanzen wachsen k ö n n e n i n r e i n e m Kohlenpulver b e i m Begießen m i t Regenwasser. Das Regenwasser k a n n d e n Stickstoff n u r enth a l t e n in der F o r m von aufgelöster atmosphärischer Luft, oder in der F o r m von A m m o n i a k . Stickstoff in der Luft k a n n d u r c h die gewaltsamsten chem i s c h e n Processe nicht befähigt werden, eine V e r b i n d u n g m i t irgend e i n e m E l e m e n t ausser d e m Sauerstoff e i n z u g e h n . K e i n G r u n d v o r h a n d e n , daß der Stickstoff der A t m o s p h ä r e A n t h e i l n i m m t an d e m Assimilationsprozeß der Pflanzen u n d Thiere. W o h l aber das Ammoniak. D a s A m m o niak steht in der Mannigfaltigkeit der M e t a m o r p h o s e n , das es bei Berührung m i t a n d r e n Körpern e i n z u g e h n vermag, d e m Wasser, was sie in e i n e m s o e m i n e n t e n G r a d e darbietet, i n keiner B e z i e h u n g n a c h . I m r e i n e n Z u stande im Wasser im h o h e n G r a d löslich, fähig, m i t allen S ä u r e n lösliche V e r b i n d u n g e n zu bilden, fähig, in B e r ü h r u n g m i t a n d r e n Körpern, seine N a t u r als Alkali gänzlich aufzugeben, u n d die verschiedenartigsten direkt e i n a n d e r g e g e n ü b e r s t e h e n d e n F o r m e n a n z u n e h m e n , diese Eigenschaften finden wir in k e i n e m a n d e r n stickstoffhaltigen Körper wieder. ( 6 4 - 6 6 ) Ammoniak ist das leite Product der Fäulniß animalischer Körper, Salpetersäure ist das Product der Verwesung des Ammoniaks. (67) Die Leiber aller Thiere und Menschen geben nach dem Tode durch ihre Fäulniß allen Stickstoff, den sie enthalten, in der Form von Ammoniak an die Atmosphäre zurück. ... Der Stickstoff der Thiere und Menschen ist in der Atmosphäre als Ammoniak enthalten, in der Form eines Gases, was sich m i t K o h l e n s ä u r e zu e i n e m flüchtigen Salze verbindet, ein Gas, was sich im Wasser m i t ausserordentlicher Leichtigkeit löst, dessen flüchtige V e r b i n d u n g e n o h n e A u s n a h m e n diese n ä m l i c h e Löslichkeit besitzen. Als A m m o n i a k k a n n sich der Stickstoff in der Atm o s p h ä r e nicht b e h a u p t e n , d e n n m i t jeder C o n d e n s a t i o n des W a s s e r d a m p fes zu tropfbarem Wasser m u ß sich alles A m m o n i a k verdichten, jeder Regenguß muß die Atmosphäre in gewissen Strecken von allem Ammoniak aufs Vollkommenste befreien. Das Regenwasser muß zu allen Zeiten Ammoniak enthalten, im Sommer, wo die Regentage weit von e i n a n d e r entfernt stehn, m e h r als im Winter oder F r ü h l i n g ; der R e g e n des ersten Regentages m u ß

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davon m e h r e n t h a l t e n als der des zweiten; nach anhaltender Trockenheit müssen Gewitterregen die größte Quantität Ammoniak der Erde wieder zuführen ... Diese Q u a n t i t ä t A m m o n i a k ist für e i n e n Cubikfuß Luft verschwindend klein, dessen u n g e a c h t e t ist sie, die S u m m e des Stickstoffgehaltes von T a u s e n d e n + Milliarden T h i e r e n u n d M e n s c h e n , m e h r als h i n r e i c h e n d , um die einzelnen Milliarden der l e b e n d e n Geschöpfe m i t Stickstoff zu versehn. ( 6 7 - 6 9 ) Bemerkenswerth, d a ß das im S c h n e e u n d Regenwasser vorh a n d n e A m m o n i a k , w e n n es d u r c h Kalk entwickelt wird, von e i n e m auffall e n d e n G e r u c h n a c h Schweiß u n d fauligen Stoffen begleitet ist, was ü b e r seinen Ursprung k e i n e n Zweifel läßt. (70 [, 71]) Das A m m o n i a k im R e g e n wasser e n t h a l t e n als kohlensaures A m m o n i a k . (71) Die Gegenwart des A m m o n i a k s in der A t m o s p h ä r e erneuert sich wieder in j e d e m Z e i t m o m e n t durch die u n u n t e r b r o c h e n fortschreitende F ä u l n i ß u n d Verwesung thierischer u n d vegetabilischer Stoffe in der Luft; ein Theil des mit dem Regenwasser niedergefallnen Ammoniaks verdampft wieder mit dem Wasser; ein andrer Theil wird von den Wurzeln der Pflanzen aufgenommen, und indem es neue Verbindungen eingeht, entstehn daraus, je nach den verschiednen Organen der Assimilation, Eiweißstoff, Kleber, Chinin, Morphium, Cyan und die grosse Zahl der andren Stickstoffverbindungen. (71 [, 72]) D e n entscheidensten Beweis, daß es das A m m o n i a k ist, was den Vegetabilien den Stickstoff liefert, giebt die animalische D ü n g u n g in der Cultur der Futtergewächse u n d Cerealien. D e r G e h a l t an Kleber, ist in d e m W e i z e n , d e m Roggen, der Gerste äusserst verschieden, ihre Körner, a u c h in d e m ausgebildetsten Z u s t a n d , sind u n g l e i c h reich an diesem stickstoffhaltigen Bestandtheil. Eine Vermehrung des animalischen Düngers hat nicht allein eine Vermehrung der Anzahl Saamen zur Folge, sie übt auch einen nicht minder bemerkenswerthen Einfluß auf die Vergrößrung des Glutengehaltes. Der animalische Dünger wirkt nun nur durch Ammoniakbildung. W ä h r e n d 100 W e i z e n , m i t d e m am A m m o n i a k ärmsten K u h m i s t gedüngt, n u r 11,95 % Kleber u n d 62,34 A m y l o n enthalten, gab der m i t M e n s c h e n h a r n gedüngte B o d e n das M a x i m u m an Kleber, n ä m l i c h 35,1 % in 100 Theilen W e i z e n , also n a h e die 3fache M e n g e . In gefaultem M e n s c h e n h a r n ist aber der Stickstoff als kohlensaures, phosphorsaures, m i l c h s a u r e s A m m o n i a k u n d i n keiner a n d r e n F o r m als der F o r m eines A m m o n i a k s a l zes enthalten. (74) In einem Boden, der einzig und allein nur aus Sand und Thon besteht, genügt es, eine kleine Q u a n t i t ä t G u a n o b e i z u m i s c h e n , um darauf die reichsten E r n t e n von M a i s zu erhalten. D e r B o d e n enthält ausser G u a n o nicht das Geringste (an der P e r u a n i s c h e n Küste) einer a n d e r n organischen Materie, u n d dieser Dünger enthält weiter nichts, wie harnsaures, phosphorsaures, oxalsaures, kohlensaures Ammoniak und einige Erdsalze. (75) W a s m a n in d e m Ge||39|treide Kleber n e n n t , heißt in d e m Traubensafte vegetabilisches Eiweiß, in d e n Pflanzensäften Pflanzenleim; diese 3 Körper sind

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Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 • Heft XII in i h r e m Verhalten, in ihrer Z u s a m m e n s e t z u n g identisch. Das A m m o n i a k ist es, was d e m H a u p t b e s t a n d t h e i l der Pflanzen, d e m vegetabilischen Eiweiß, d e n Stickstoff liefert, n u r das A m m o n i a k k a n n es sein, aus d e m sich die b l a u e n u n d r o t h e n Farbstoffe in den B l u m e n bilden. (I.e.) D e r U r i n des M e n s c h e n u n d der fleischfressenden T h i e r e enthält die größte M e n g e Stickstoff; theils in der F o r m von p h o s p h o r s a u r e n Salzen, theils in der F o r m von Harnstoff; der leztre verwandelt sich d u r c h F ä u l n i ß in doppelt kohlensaures A m m o n i a k , d. h. er n i m m t die F o r m des Salzes an, was wir im Regenwasser finden. Der Urin des Menschen ist das kräftigste Düngungsmittel für alle an Stickstoff reichen Vegetabilien, der Urin des Hornviehs, der Schaafe, der Pferde minder reich an Stickstoff, aber immer noch unendlich reicher als die Excremente dieser Thiere. ... der Stickstoffgehalt der festen Excremente der Menschen und Thiere verschwindet gegen den Stickstoff in den flüssigen. (76) Das Gewicht des Futters u n d der Speise, welche das T h i e r zu seiner E r n ä h r u n g zu sich n i m m t , vermindert sich in d e m n ä m l i c h e n Verhältniß, als dieses Futter, die Speise, reich, sie n i m m t in d e m s e l b e n Verh ä l t n i ß zu, als das F u t t e r a r m ist an stickstoffhaltigen Bestandtheilen. M a n k a n n d u r c h F ü t t e r u n g m i t Kartoffeln allein sein Pferd am L e b e n erhalten, aber dieses L e b e n ist ein langsames Verhungern, es wächst i h m weder Masse n o c h Kraft zu, es unterliegt einer j e d e n Anstrengung. Es ist klar, daß der Stickstoff der Pflanzen u n d S a a m e n , welche T h i e r e n z u r N a h r u n g d i e n e n , zur Assimilation verwendet wird; die E x c r e m e n t e dieser Thiere m ü s s e n , wenn sie verdaut sind, ihres Stickstoffs b e r a u b t sein, sie k ö n n e n n u r insofern Stickstoff n o c h enthalten, als i h n e n Secretionen der Galle u n d Eingeweide beigemischt sind. Sie m ü s s e n u n t e r allen U m s t ä n d e n weniger Stickstoff enthalten, als die Speisen, als das Futter. Die Excremente der Menschen unter allen die stickstoffreichsten, denn, (weil d a s E s s e n i h n e n S p a ß m a c h t ) gemessen sie mehr Stickstoff als sie bedürfen und dieser Ueberschuß geht in die Excremente über. (77) M a c h e n wir also die Felder m i t t h i e rischen E x c r e m e n t e n fruchtbar, so geben wir i h n e n u n t e r allen U m s t ä n d e n weniger stickstoffhaltige Materie zurück, als wir davon als Futter, K r a u t oder S a a m e n denselben g e n o m m e n h a b e n , wir fügen d u r c h d e n D ü n g e r d e m Nahrungsstoff, d e n die A t m o s p h ä r e liefert, eine gewisse Q u a n t i t ä t desselben h i n z u u n d die eigentlich wissenschaftliche Aufgabe für d e n Oek o n o m e n beschränkt sich h i e r m i t darauf, dasjenige stickstoffhaltige Nahrungsmittel der Pflanzen, welches die Excremente der Thiere und Menschen durch ihre Fäulniß erzeugen, dieses Nahrungsmittel für s e i n e Pflanzen zu verwenden ... Jedes thierische E x c r e m e n t ist eine Quelle von A m m o n i a k u n d Kohlensäure, welche so lange dauert, als n o c h Stickstoff darin v o r h a n d e n ist. ... Dieses A m m o n i a k wird von d e m B o d e n theils in Wasser gelöst, theils i n F o r m von G a s a u f g e n o m m e n u n d eingesaugt, u n d m i t i h m findet

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die Pflanze eine größre M e n g e des ihr u n e n t b e h r l i c h e n Stickstoffs vor, als die A t m o s p h ä r e ihr liefert. A b e r es ist weit weniger die M e n g e von A m m o niak, was thierische E x c r e m e n t e d e n Pflanzen zuführen, als die F o r m , in welcher es geschieht, welche ihren so auffallenden Einfluß auf die F r u c h t barkeit des B o d e n s bedingt. D i e Culturpflanzen empfangen von der Atm o s p h ä r e die n ä m l i c h e Q u a n t i t ä t Stickstoff, wie die wildwachsenden, wie die B ä u m e u n d Sträucher; allein es ist n i c h t h i n r e i c h e n d für die Zwecke der Feldwirthschaft; sie u n t e r s c h e i d e t sich d a d u r c h wesentlich v o n der Forstwirthschaft, d a ß ihre Hauptaufgabe, ihr wichtigster Zweck in der Proauction von assimilirbarem Stickstoff in irgend einer F o r m besteht, w ä h r e n d der Zweck der Forstwissenschaft sich h a u p t s ä c h l i c h n u r auf die Production von Kohlenstoff beschränkt. Diesen 2 Zwecken alle Mittel der Cultur untergeordnet. V o n d e m k o h l e n s a u r e n A m m o n i a k , was das Regenwasser d e m Boden zuführt, geht n u r ein Theil in die Pflanze über, d e n n m i t d e m verd a m p f e n d e n Wasser verflüchtigt sich, j e d e r Zeit, eine gewisse M e n g e davon. N u r was der B o d e n in größrer Tiefe empfängt, was m i t d e m T h a u u n m i t t e l b a r d e n Blättern zugeführt wird, was sie aus der Luft m i t der Kohlensäure einsaugen, n u r dieß A m m o n i a k wird für die Assimilation gewonn e n werden k ö n n e n . D i e flüssigen thierischen E x c r e m e n t e , der U r i n der M e n s c h e n u n d Thiere, m i t w e l c h e m die ersten d u r c h d r u n g e n sind, enthalten d e n größten Theil des A m m o n i a k s in der F o r m von Salzen, in einer F o r m , wo es seine Fähigkeit sich zu verflüchtigen gänzlich verloren hat. ( 7 7 - 7 9 ) In d i e s e m Z u s t a n d dargeboten, geht a u c h nicht die kleinste M e n g e davon der Pflanze verloren, es wird im Wasser gelöst von d e n W u r zelfasern eingesaugt. D a h e r die W i r k u n g des Gypses auf die F r u c h t b a r k e i t u n d Ueppigkeit einer W i e s e ... sie b e r u h t auf der Fixirung des A m m o n i a k s der A t m o s p h ä r e , auf der G e w i n n u n g von derjenigen Quantität, die auf nicht gegypstem B o d e n m i t d e m Wasser wieder verdunstet wäre. Das in d e m Regenwasser gelöste k o h l e n s a u r e A m m o n i a k zerlegt sich m i t d e m Gyps auf die n ä m l i c h e W e i s e wie in d e n Salmiakfabriken, es entsteht lösliches, nicht flüchtiges schwefelsaures A m m o n i a k u n d kohlensaurer Kalk. N a c h u n d n a c h verschwindet aller Gyps, aber seine W i r k u n g hält, solange n o c h eine Spur davon v o r h a n d e n ist. (80) 100 Pf. gebrannter Gyps fixiren so viel A m m o n i a k in d e m B o d e n als 6250 Pfd reiner Pferdeharn d e m s e l b e n zuführen k ö n n e n . ||40| N e h m e n wir n u n n a c h Boussingault an, daß das Gras y eines Gewichts Stickstoff enthält, so steigert 1 Pf. Stickstoff, welches wir m e h r zuführen, d e n Ertrag der Wiese um 100 Pfd F u t t e r u n d diese 100 Pfd Mehrertrag sind der Erfolg der W i r k u n g von 4 Pfd Gyps. Z u r Assimilation des gebildeten schwefelsauren A m m o n i a k s u n d zur Z e r s e t z u n g des Gypses ist, seiner Schwerlöslichkeit wegen (1 Theil bedarf 400 Theile Wasser) Wasser die u n e n t b e h r l i c h s t e B e d i n g u n g ; auf trocknen Feldern und i M

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Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 • Heft XII Wiesen deßhalb sein Einfluß n i c h t b e m e r k b a r , w ä h r e n d auf d i e s e n thierischer Dünger, d u r c h die Assimilation des gasförmigen k o h l e n s a u r e n A m m o n i a k s , was sich d a r a u s in Folge seiner Verwesung entwickelt, seine Wirkung n i c h t versagt. (81, 2) D i e Z e r s e t z u n g des Gypses d u r c h das k o h l e n s a u r e A m m o n i a k geht n i c h t auf e i n m a l , s o n d e r n sehr allmählig vor sich, woraus sich erklärt, w a r u m seine W i r k u n g m e h r e r e J a h r e anhält. (82) E b e n s o einfach erklärt sich die D ü n g u n g der F e l d e r m i t g e b r a n n t e m T h o n , die F r u c h t b a r k e i t der e i s e n o x i d i n i s c h e n B o d e n a r t e n . ... Eisenoxid u n d Thonerde z e i c h n e n sich vor allen a n d r e n M e t a l l o x i d e n d u r c h die F ä h i g k e i t aus, sich m i t A m m o n i a k zu festen V e r b i n d u n g e n vereinigen zu k ö n n e n . D i e Niederschläge, die wir d u r c h A m m o n i a k i n T h o n e r d e - u n d Eisenoxidsalzen hervorbringen, sind wahre Salze, worin das A m m o n i a k die Rolle einer Base spielt. Diese a u s g e z e i c h n e t e Verwandtschaft zeigt sich n o c h in der merkwürdigen Fähigkeit aller eisenoxid- oder t h o n e r d e r e i c h e n M i n e r a lien, A m m o n i a k aus der Luft a n z u z i e h n u n d z u r ü c k z u h a l t e n . (I.e.) Eisenoxidhaltiger B o d e n u n d g e b r a n n t e r T h o n , dessen poröser Z u s t a n d das Eins a u g e n von G a s n o c h m e h r begünstigt, sind also wahre A m m o n i a k s a u g e r , welche sich d u r c h ihre c h e m i s c h e A n z i e h u n g vor der Verflüchtigung schütz e n ; sie verhalten sich grade so, wie w e n n eine Säure auf der Oberfläche des Bodens ausgebreitet wäre. ... M i t j e d e m R e g e n g u ß tritt das eingesaugte A m m o n i a k an das Wasser, u n d wird in Auflösung d e m B o d e n zugeführt. E b e n s o energische W i r k u n g das Kohlenpulver; übertrifft sogar im frischgeg l ü h t e n Z u s t a n d alle b e k a n n t e n Körper in der Fähigkeit, A m m o n i a k g a s in s e i n e n Poren zu verdichten, da 1 V o l u m e n d a v o n 90 V o l u m A m m o n i a k g a s in seinen Poren a u f n i m m t , was sich d u r c h bloses Befeuchten d a r a u s wieder entwickelt. In dieser Fähigkeit k o m m t der K o h l e das verwesende (Eichenholz) Holz sehr n a h , da es u n t e r der L u f t p u m p e , von allem Wasser befreit, 72 χ sein eignes V o l u m e n davon verschluckt. Also j e z t leicht zu erklären die Eigenschaften des H u m u s (der verwesenden Holzfaser). N i c h t allein er eine lange a n d a u e r n d e Quelle von K o h l e n s ä u r e , s o n d e r n versieht a u c h die Pflanzen m i t d e m zu ihrer Entwicklung u n e n t b e h r l i c h e n Stickstoff ... u n s r e Felder p r o d u c i r e n m e h r Stickstoff als wir i h n e n als N a h r u n g zuführen. (83, 4) Wir finden in der A t m o s p h ä r e , in d e m Regenwasser, im Quellwasser, in allen B o d e n a r t e n diesen Stickstoff in der F o r m von A m m o n i a k , als P r o d u c t der Verwesung u n d F ä u l n i ß der g a n z e n , der gegenwärthigen G e n e r a t i o n vorangegangnen Thier- u n d Pflanzenwelt ...es ist das Ammoniak der Atmosphäre, welches den Pflanzen ihren Stickstoff liefert. Kohlensäure, Ammoniak und Wasser enthalten in ihren Elementen die Bedingungen zur Erzeugung aller Thier und Pflanzenstoffe während ihres Lebens. Kohlensäure, Ammoniak und Wasser sind die lezten Producte des chemischen Prozesses ihrer Fäulniß und Verwesung. Alle die zahllosen, in i h r e n Eigenschaften so u n e n d -

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Aus Justus Liebig: Die organische Chemie lieh verschiednen, P r o d u c t e der Lebenskraft n e h m e n n a c h d e m T o d e die ursprünglichen F o r m e n wieder an, a u s d e n e n sie gebildet worden sind. D e r Tod, die völlige Auflösung einer u n t e r g e g a n g n e n G e n e r a t i o n , ist die Quelle des L e b e n s , für eine n e u e . (84) A m m o n i a c = N H 3

5

Die anorganischen Bestandtheile der Vegetabilien.

Z u r A u s b i l d u n g gewisser Organe zu b e s o n d e r n Verrichtungen, e i g e n t h ü m lich für j e d e Pflanzenfamilie, g e h ö r e n M a t e r i e n , die der Pflanze d u r c h die anorganische N a t u r dargeboten werden. W i r finden diese M a t e r i e n , wiewohl in v e r ä n d e r t e m Z u s t a n d , in der Asche der Pflanzen wieder. V o n die10 sen a n o r g a n i s c h e n B e s t a n d t h e i l e n sind viele veränderlich je n a c h d e m Boden, worauf die Pflanzen wachsen; allein eine gewisse A n z a h l davon ist für ihre Entwicklung u n e n t b e h r l i c h . Die W u r z e l einer Pflanze in der E r d e verhält sich zu allen gelösten Stoffen wie ein S c h w a m m , der das Flüssige u n d alles was drin ist o h n e U n t e r s c h i e d einsaugt. Diese Stoffe in g r ö ß r e m o d e r 15

geringrem M a a ß z u r ü c k b e h a l t e n o d e r wieder ausgeschieden, je n a c h d e m sie zur A s s i m i l a t i o n verwendet werden, oder sich n i c h t dafür eignen. In d e n S a a m e n aller G r a s a r t e n fehlt aber z.B. n i e p h o s p h o r s a u r e Bittererde in V e r b i n d u n g m i t A m m o n i a k ; es ist in der ä u s s e r n hornartigen Hülle enthalt e n u n d geht d u r c h das M e h l in das Brot u n d ebenfalls in das Bier über.

20

(85) Alle Pflanzen e n t h a l t e n organische S ä u r e n von der mannigfaltigsten Z u s a m m e n s e t z u n g u n d Eigenschaften; alle diese S ä u r e n sind an B a s e n geb u n d e n , an Kali, N a t r o n , Kalk oder Bittererde ... Diese Basen sind es offenbar, die d u r c h ihr V o r h a n d e n s e i n die E n t s t e h u n g dieser S ä u r e n vermitteln, m i t d e m Verschwinden der Säure b e i d e m Reifen der F r ü c h t e , d e n

W e i n t r a u b e n ζ. B., n i m m t der Kaligehalt des Saftes ab. In d e n T h e i l e n der Pflanzen, in d e n e n die A s s i m i l a t i o n am stärksten ist, wie in d e m Holzkörper, finden sich diese Bestandtheile in der geringsten M e n g e , ihr G e h a l t ist am größten in d e n Organen, welche die A s s i m i l a t i o n vermitteln; in d e n Blättern findet sich m e h r Kali, m e h r A s c h e , als in d e n Zweigen, diese sind 30 reicher daran als der S t a m m . Vor der Blüthe enthält das Kartoffelkraut m e h r Kali als n a c h derselben. (86) D e n n die organischen Säuren, ist a u c h irgend eine alkalische Basis ebenfalls eine B e d i n g u n g ihres L e b e n s , d e n n alle diese S ä u r e n k o m m e n in d e n Pflanzen als n e u t r a l e oder saure Salze vor. Es giebt keine Pflanze, die n i c h t n a c h d e m E i n ä s c h e r n eine |[41| koh-

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lensäurehaltige A s c h e hinterläßt, k e i n e also, in welcher pflanzensaure Salze fehlen. ... die Q u a n t i t ä t e n dieser Basen, w e n n das L e b e n der Pflanzen a n ihre Gegenwart g e b u n d e n ist, m u ß u n t e r allen U m s t ä n d e n e b e n s o unveränderlich sein, als es, wie m a n weiß, die Sättigungscapacität der Säu-

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I Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 • Heft XII ren ist. K e i n G r u n d zu glauben, d a ß die Pflanze im Z u s t a n d e der freien u n g e h i n d e r t e n Entwicklung m e h r von der ihr e i g e n t h ü m l i c h e n Säure producirt, als sie grade zu i h r e m Bestehn bedarf; in d i e s e m Falle aber wird eine Pflanze, auf welchem B o d e n sie a u c h wachsen m a g , stets eine nie wechselnde M e n g e alkalischer Basis e n t h a l t e n . ... Alle diese alkalischen Basen k ö n n e n sich in ihrer Wirkungsweise vertreten ... eine dieser Basen k a n n d a h e r in einer Pflanze v o r k o m m e n , w ä h r e n d sie in einer a n d e r n Pflanze derselben Art fehlt ... die fehlende Basis m u ß ersezt u n d vertreten sein d u r c h eine andre von gleichem Wirkungswerth, sie m u ß ersezt sich vorfind e n durch ein Aequivalent von einer der a n d e r n Basen. Die Anzahl der Aequivalente dieser Basen wären h i e r n a c h eine unveränderliche Grösse, u n d folgt der Regel, daß die Sauerstoffmenge aller alkalischen Basen z u s a m m e n g e n o m m e n u n t e r allen U m s t ä n d e n u n v e r ä n d e r l i c h ist, auf w e l c h e m B o d e n die Pflanze a u c h wachsen, welchen B o d e n sie a u c h erhalten m a g . Dieser Schluß b e z i e h t sich n u r auf die j e n i g e n alkalischen Basen, welche als pflanzensaure Salze Bestandtheile der Pflanzen a u s m a c h e n ; wir finden n u n grade diese in der A s c h e derselben als k o h l e n s a u r e Salze wieder, deren Qualität leicht b e s t i m m b a r ist. (87, 88) Es ist klar, w e n n die E r z e u g u n g von b e s t i m m t e n u n v e r ä n d e r l i c h e n M e n g e n von pflanzensauren Salzen d u r c h die E i g e n t h ü m l i c h k e i t ihrer (der P f l a n z e n ) Organe geboten, w e n n sie zu gewissen Zwecken für ihr Bestehn u n e n t b e h r l i c h sind, so wird die Pflanze Kali u n d Kalk a u f n e h m e n m ü s s e n , u n d w e n n sie nicht so viel vorfindet, als sie bedarf, so wird das F e h l e n d e d u r c h andre alkalische Basen von gleichem Wirkungswerth ersezt werden; w e n n ihr keine von allen sich darbietet, so wird sie nicht zur Entwicklung gelangen. (92) In allen ChinaSorten findet sich Chinasäure, aber die veränderlichsten M e n g e n von Chin i n , C i n c h o n i n u n d Kalk; m a n k a n n d e n G e h a l t a n d e n eigentlichen organ i s c h e n Basen ziemlich g e n a u n a c h der M e n g e von fixen Basen beurtheilen, die n a c h der E i n ä s c h e r u n g zurückbleiben. E i n e m M a x i m u m der e r s t e m entspricht ein M i n i m u m der a n d e r n , grade so wie es in der T h a t stattfinden m u ß , wenn sie sich gegenseitig n a c h ihren A e q u i v a l e n t e n vertreten. ... F i n d e n die W u r z e l n der Pflanze die eine Base in h i n r e i c h e n d e r M e n g e vor, so wird sie um so weniger von der a n d e r n n e h m e n . (92, 3) D e r Organismus der Pflanzen h a t die Fähigkeit alles d e m B o d e n wieder z u rückzugeben, was nicht zu s e i n e m Bestehn gehört. (95) D i e völlige Entwicklung einer Pflanze ist abhängig von der Gegenwart von Alkalien oder alkalischen Erdarten. M i t ihrer gänzlichen Abwesenheit m u ß ihrer Ausbild u n g eine b e s t i m m t e G r e n z e gesezt sein; b e i m M a n g e l an diesen Basen wird ihre Ausbildung g e h e m m t sein. Vergleichen wir ... 2 H o l z a r t e n m i t einander, welche ungleiche M e n g e alkalischer Basen enthalten, so ergiebt sich von selbst, daß die eine auf m a n c h e n B o d e n a r t e n kräftig sich entwik-

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Aus Justus Uebig: Die organische Chemie

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kein k a n n , auf w e l c h e n die a n d r e n u r k ü m m e r l i c h vegetirt. 10,000 T h e i l e E i c h e n h o l z geben 250 T h e i l e A s c h e , 10,000 Theile T a n n e n h o l z n u r 8 3 , 10,000 Theile L i n d e n h o l z 500, W e i z e n s t r o h 440 u n d Kartoffelkraut 1500 Theile. Auf G r a n i t , auf k a h l e m S a n d b o d e n u n d H a i d e n wird die T a n n e u n d F i c h t e n o c h h i n r e i c h e n d e M e n g e n alkalischer Basen finden, auf welchen E i c h e n n i c h t f o r t k o m m e n , u n d W e i z e n wird auf e i n e m Boden, wo L i n d e n g e d e i h n , diejenigen B a s e n in h i n r e i c h e n d e r M e n g e vorfinden, die er zu seiner völligen E n t w i c k l u n g bedarf. Alle Grasarten, die E q u i s e t a ceen z . B . e n t h a l t e n e i n e grosse M e n g e Kieselsäure u n d Kali, abgelagert in d e m äussern S a u m der Blätter u n d in d e m H a l m als saures k o h l e n s a u r e s Kali; auf e i n e m Getreidefeld ä n d e r t sich der G e h a l t an d i e s e m Salze n i c h t merklich, d e n n es wird i h m in der F o r m von D ü n g e r , als verwestes Stroh, wieder zugeführt. G a n z a n d e r s stellt sich dieses Verhältniß auf einer Wiese; nie findet sich a u f e i n e m k a l i a r m e n Sand oder r e i n e m K a l k b o d e n

15 ein üppiger Gras w u c h s ; d e n n es fehlt i h m ein für die Pflanze d u r c h a u s u n entbehrlicher Bestandtheil, Basalte, G r a u w a c k e , Porphyr g e b e n u n t e r gleic h e m Verhältnisse d e n b e s t e n B o d e n z u W i e s e n ab, e b e n weil sie reich a n Kali sind. D e r h i n w e g g e n o m m n e Kalk ersezt sich wieder bei d e m jährlic h e n W ä s s e r n ; der B o d e n selbst ist verhältnißmässig für d e n Bedarf der 20 Pflanze unerschöpflich an d i e s e m Körper. W e n n wir aber bei d e m G y p s e n einer W i e s e d e n G r a s w u c h s steigern, s o n e h m e n wir m i t d e m H e u e i n e größre M e n g e Kali hinweg, was u n t e r gleichen B e d i n g u n g e n n i c h t ersezt wird. So n i m m t n a c h Verlauf v o n einigen J a h r e n der Graswuchs auf vielen gegypsten W i e s e n ab, weil es an Kali fehlt. W e r d e n die W i e s e n dagegen 25

v o n Zeit zu Zeit m i t A s c h e , selbst m i t ausgelaugter Seifensiederasche überfahren, so kehrt der ü p p i g e G r a s w u c h s zurück. M i t dieser A s c h e h a b e n wir aber der W i e s e nichts weiter als das fehlende Kali zugeführt. ( 9 5 - 9 7 ) E i n s der merkwürdigsten Beispiele von der Unfähigkeit eines B o d e n s , W e i z e n , u n d ü b e r h a u p t G r a s a r t e n z u erzeugen, w e n n i n i h m e i n e der B e d i n g u n g e n

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ihres W a c h s t h u m s fehlt, bietet das Verfahren eines Gutsbesitzers in der N ä h e von G ö t t i n g e n . Er bepflanzte sein ganzes L a n d , z u m B e h u f der Pottascherzeugung m i t W e r m u t h , dessen A s c h e b e k a n n t l i c h sehr r e i c h a n k o h l e n s a u r e m Kali ist. E i n e Folge ||42| davon war die gänzliche Unfruchtbarkeit seiner Felder für G e t r e i d e b a u ; sie waren auf J a h r z e h n d e h i n a u s völlig 35 ihres Kalis b e r a u b t . (98, 99) D i e Blätter u n d k l e i n e n Zweige der B ä u m e enthalten die meiste A s c h e u n d das m e i s t e Alkali; was d u r c h sie b e i d e m L a u b u n d S t r e u s a m m e l n d e n W ä l d e r n g e n o m m e n wird, ist b e i w e i t e m mehr, als was das Holz enthält, das j ä h r l i c h geschlagen wird. D i e E i c h e n r i n d e , das E i c h e n l a u b e n t h ä l t 6 - 9 , die T a n n e n u n d F i c h t e n n a d e l n ü b e r 40

8 %. Mit 2650 Pfund T a n n e n h o l z , die wir e i n e m Morgen L a n d j ä h r l i c h n e h m e n , wird i m G a n z e n d e m B o d e n , b e i 0,83 % A s c h e n u r 7 - 8 Pfund a n

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Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 · Heft XII Alkalien entzogen, aber das Moos, was d e n B o d e n bedeckt, dessen A s c h e reich an Alkali ist, hält in u n u n t e r b r o c h e n fortdauernder Entwicklung das Kali an der Oberfläche des so leicht von d e m Wasser d u r c h d r i n g b a r e n S a n d b o d e n s zurück, u n d bietet in seiner Verwesung d e n aufgespeicherten Vorrath d e n W u r z e l n dar, die das Alkali a u f n e h m e n , o h n e es wieder zurückzugeben. (99) D i e Grasarten, die d e m M e n s c h e n zur N a h r u n g d i e n e n , folgen i h m wie ein H a u s t h i e r ... d u r c h ä h n l i c h e U r s a c h e n gezwungen, wie die Salzpflanzen d e m M e e r e s s t r a n d e u n d Salinen etc so wie die Mistkäfer auf die E x c r e m e n t e der Thiere angewiesen sind, so bedürfen die Salzpflanz e n des Kochsalzes etc. K e i n e von u n s e r n G e t r e i d e a r t e n k a n n ausgebildete Saamen tragen, Saamen, welche Mehl geben, o h n e eine reichliche M e n g e von phosphorsaurer Bittererde, o h n e Ammoniak zu ihrer A u s b i l d u n g vorzufinden. Diese S a a m e n entwickeln sich n u r in e i n e m Boden, wo diese 3 E l e m e n t e sich vereinigt vorfinden, u n d kein B o d e n ist reicher daran als Orte, wo M e n s c h e n u n d Thiere familienartig z u s a m m e n w o h n e n ; sie folgen d e m U r i n , d e n E x c r e m e n t e n derselben, weil sie o h n e deren Bestandtheile n i c h t z u m S a a m e n t r a g e n k o m m e n . (99, 100) S a a m e n u n d Pflanzen werden d u r c h W i n d e u n d Vögel ü b e r die ganze Oberfläche der Erde verbreitet, aber sie entwickeln sich n u r da, wo sich die B e d i n g u n g e n ihres L e b e n s vorfinden. (100) In den grossen F a b r i k e n zu Liverpool, wo die n a t ü r l i c h e Bors ä u r e zu Borax verarbeitet wird, gewinnt m a n daraus als N e b e n p r o d u c t viele h u n d e r t Pfunde schwefelsaures A m m o n i a k . Dieses Ammoniak stammt nicht von thierischen Organismen; es war vorhanden vor allen lebenden Generationen, es ist ein Theil, ein Bestandtheil des Erdkörpers. (102) Jeder a u c h der schwächste Luftzug entführt m i t d e n Milliarden Centnern Seewasser, welche jährlich verdampfen, eine entsprechende Menge der darin gelösten Salze und führt Kochsalz, Chlorkalium, Bittererde und die übrigen Bestandtheile dem festen Lande zu. (103) Das in steter Verdampfung begriffne Meer verbreitet über die ganze Oberfläche der Erde hin, in dem Regenwasser, alle zum Bestehn einer Vegetation unentbehrlichen Salze, wir finden sie selbst da in ihrer Asche wieder, wo der Boden keine Bestandtheile liefern konnte. (I.e.) Die W u r z e l n der Pflanzen sind die ewig thätigen S a m m l e r der Alkalien, der Bestandtheile des Seewassers, die der Regen zuführt, des Quellwassers, was d e n B o d e n durchdringt; o h n e Alkalien u n d alkalischen Basen würden die m e i s t e n Pflanzen nicht bestehn, o h n e die Pflanzen w ü r d e n die Alkalien allmählig von der Oberfläche der Erde verschwinden. (104, 5)

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Die Cultur.

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Die atmosphärische Luft u n d der B o d e n bietet d e n Blättern u n d W u r z e l n einerlei N a h r u n g dar. D i e erstre e n t h ä l t e i n e verhältnißmässig unerschöpfliche M e n g e K o h l e n s ä u r e u n d A m m o n i a k , i n d e m B o d e n h a b e n wir i n d e m H u m u s eine stets sich e r n e u e r n d e Quelle von Kohlensäure, d e n W i n ter h i n d u r c h häuft sich in d e m Regen- und Schneewasser, womit er durchdrungen wird, eine für die Entwicklung der Blüthen und Blätter ausreichende Menge Ammoniak. (106) Bei A b w e s e n h e i t aller Feuchtigkeit erhält sich der H u m u s J a h r h u n d e r t e lang, m i t Wasser benezt, verwandelt er d e n u m g e b e n d e n Sauerstoff in K o h l e n s ä u r e ; von d i e s e m Augenblick an verändert er sich ebenfalls n i c h t m e h r , d e n n die W i r k u n g der Luft hört auf, sobald sie ihres Sauerstoffes b e r a u b t ist. N u r w e n n Pflanzen in d i e s e m B o d e n wachsen, deren W u r z e l n die gebildete K o h l e n s ä u r e h i n w e g n e h m e n , schreitet die Verwesung fort, aber d u r c h lebende Pflanzen empfängt der B o d e n wieder, was er verloren hat, er wird n i c h t ä r m e r an H u m u s . (107) N u r der D ü n g e r n ü t z lich, der die Eigenschaft das Wasser zu färben, gänzlich verloren h a t . (109) In e i n e m Boden, in e i n e m Wasser, welches k e i n e n Sauerstoff enthält sterb e n alle Pflanzen; M a n g e l an Luft wirkt ganz ähnlich wie ein U e b e r m a ß an Kohlensäure. A u f sumpfigem B o d e n schließt das Wasser, was n i c h t a u s wechselt, die Luft aus, eine E r n e u e r u n g des Wassers wirkt ä h n l i c h wie ein H i n z u f ü h r e n von Luft, d e n n das Wasser enthält Luft in Auflösung; geben wir d e m Wasser in d e m Sumpfe Abzug, so gestatten wir der Luft freien Z u tritt, der S u m p f verwandelt sich in die fruchtbarste Wiese. Ueberreste von Vegetabilien u n d Thieren, ... in e i n e m B o d e n ... in d e n die Luft k e i n e n oder n u r geringen Zutritt hat, g e h n n i c h t in Verwesung über, e b e n weil es an Sauerstoff fehlt; sie g e h n in F ä u l n i ß über, zu deren Einleitung Luft gen u g sich vorfindet. ... D i e öftere Lufterneuerung, die gehörige Bearbeitung des Bodens, n a m e n t l i c h der B e r ü h r u n g m i t alkalischen Metalloxiden, m i t Braunkohlenasche, g e b r a n n t e m oder k o h l e n s a u r e m Kalk, ä n d e r t die vorgeh e n d e F ä u l n i ß in e i n e n reinen Oxidationsprozeß u m ; von d e m A u g e n b l i c k an, wo alle v o r h a n d n e n organischen M a t e r i e n in den Z u s t a n d der Verwesung Übergehn, erhöht sich die F r u c h t b a r k e i t des Bodens. D e r Sauerstoff ... dient n u n zur Bildung von K o h l e n s ä u r e . ([109,] 110) F ü r m a n c h e Pflanzengattungen, besonders für die jenigen, welche ihre erste N a h r u n g von der Substanz der S a a m e n selbst empfangen, W u r z e l n u n d Zwiebelgewächse, ist der H u m u s völlig entbehrlich, seine Gegenwart ist nützlich, insofern ihre Entwicklung beschleunigt u n d gesteigert wird, sie ist aber n i c h t nothwendig. In einer gewissen B e z i e h u n g ist ein U e b e r m a ß in d e m Anfang der Entwicklung einer Pflanze schädlich. ... W e n n im Anfang ihrer Ent-

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Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 • Heft XII Wicklung die A n z a h l der Triebe, H a l m e , Zweige u n d Blätter d u r c h ein U e b e r m a ß von Nahrungsstoff aus d e m B o d e n die G r e n z e überschreitet; (die die Luft ||43| ihr bieten kann) wo sie also zur V o l l e n d u n g ihrer Entwicklung, zur Blüthe u n d F r u c h t m e h r Nahrungsstoff aus der Luft bedarf, als diese b i e t e n kann, so wird sie n i c h t zur Blüthe, zur F r u c h t b i l d u n g gelangen. I n vielen Fällen reicht diese N a h r u n g n u r h i n , u m die Blätter, H a l m e u n d Zweige völlig auszubilden. ... Sie treiben ins K r a u t u n d k o m m e n n i c h t zur Blüthe. Bei d e m Zwergobst n e h m e n wir d e n B ä u m e n e i n e n Theil ihrer Zweige u n d d a m i t ihrer Blätter; wir h i n d e r n die Entwicklung n e u e r Zweige, es wird künstlich ein U e b e r s c h u ß von N a h r u n g geschaffen, die d a n n zur V e r m e h r u n g der Blüthe u n d Vergrößrung der F r u c h t von der Pflanze verwendet wird. Das B e s c h n e i d e n des Weinstocks h a t e i n e n ganz ä h n l i c h e n Zweck. (111, 12) Bei allen p e r e n n i r e n d e n G e w ä c h s e n , bei den Sträuchern, F r u c h t u n d W a l d b ä u m e n , geht n a c h völliger A u s b i l d u n g der F r u c h t ein n e u e r e i g e n t h ü m l i c h e r Vegetationsprozeß an; während bei d e n einjährigen Pflanzen, von dieser Periode an, die Stengel sich verholzen, die Blätter ihre Farbe wechseln u n d gelb werden, bleiben die Blätter der B ä u m e u n d Sträucher bis z u m Anfang des W i n t e r s in Thätigkeit. Die Bild u n g der Holzringe schreitet fort, das Holz wird fester u n d härter, u n d v o m A u g u s t an erzeugen ihre Blätter kein Holz m e h r ; alle K o h l e n s ä u r e , die sie a u f n e h m e n u n d assimiliren, wird zur E r z e u g u n g von Nahrungsstoffen für das künftige Jahr verwendet; anstatt Holzfaser wird jezt A m y l o n gebildet u n d d u r c h d e n Augustsaft in allen T h e i l e n der Pflanze verbreitet ... Sehr früher W i n t e r oder rascher Temperaturwechsel h i n d e r n die E r z e u g u n g dieser Vorräthe von N a h r u n g für das künftige Jahr, das Holz wird, wie b e i m W e i n s t o c k z . B . n i c h t reif, seine Entwicklung ist das folgende J a h r in engre G r e n z e n eingeschlossen. A u s d i e s e m A m y l o n entsteht i m n ä c h s t e n F r ü h j a h r der Zucker u n d das G u m m i , u n d aus d i e s e m wieder die stickstofffreien Bestandtheile der Blätter u n d j u n g e n Triebe. M i t der Entwicklung der j u n g e n Kartoffelpflanze, m i t der Bildung der K e i m e n i m m t der A m y longehalt der W u r z e l a b ; der Ahornsaft hört auf, süß zu sein, sein Zuckergehalt verliert sich m i t der A u s b i l d u n g der Knospen, der B l ü t h e n u n d der Blätter. (112, 13) M a n hat m i t U n r e c h t die gegen den Herbst h i n sich in d e n Pflanzen a n h ä u f e n d e n Vorräthe von Stärke m i t d e m F e t t der d e m Winterschlaf unterworfnen Thiere verglichen. (114) Die einjährige Pflanze erzeugt u n d s a m m e l t die N a h r u n g der künftigen, auf gleiche Weise wie die p e r e n n i r e n d e ; sie speichert sie im S a a m e n in der F o r m von vegetabilis c h e m Eiweiß, von Stärkemehl u n d G u m m i auf, sie wird b e i m K e i m e n zur A u s b i l d u n g der ersten Wurzelfasern u n d Blätter verwendet; m i t d e m Vorh a n d e n s e i n dieser Organe fängt die Z u n a h m e an Masse, die eigentliche Ern ä h r u n g an. Jeder K e i m , j e d e K n o s p e einer p e r e n n i r e n d e n Pflanze ist der

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aufgepfropfte E m b r y o eines n e u e n I n d i v i d u u m s , die im S t a m m e , in der Wurzel aufgespeicherte N a h r u n g . (115) D i e Blätter sind v o r h a n d e n , u m Stärke, Holzfaser u n d Z u c k e r zu erzeugen; führen wir Stärke, Holzfaser u n d Zucker d u r c h die W u r z e l n zu, so wird offenbar die Lebensfunktion der Blätter gestört ... E i n W e i z e n k o r n e n t h ä l t in seiner eignen M a s s e die Bestandtheile des K e i m s u n d der ersten Wurzelfaser ||44| u n d g e n a u in d e m Verhältniß als zu ihrer Entwicklung n ö t h i g ist. W e n n wir diese Bestandtheile m i t Stfärke u n d ] Kleber b e z e i c h n e n , klar, daß keiner davon allein, sondern beide zugleich a n der K e i m u n d Wu[r]zelbildung A n t h e i l n e h m e n , d e n n bei Gegenwart von Luft, Feuchtigkeit [und] einer a n g e m e ß n e n T e m peratur erleiden sie b e i d e eine M e t a m o r p h o s e . Die Stärke verwandelt sich in Zucker, der Kleber n i m m t ebenfalls eine n e u e F o r m an, beide erhalten die Fähigkeit sich zu lösen, d. h. einer j e d e n Bewegung zu folgen. Beide werden zur Bildung der Wurzelfasern u n d ersten Blätter völlig aufgezehrt, ein U e b e r s c h u ß von d e m e i n e n würde o h n e die Gegenwart einer entsprec h e n d e n M e n g e von d e m a n d e r n z u r Blattbildung, oder ü b e r h a u p t n i c h t verwendet werden k ö n n e n . (115, 16) K o h l e n s ä u r e , A m m o n i a k u n d Wasser sind die Nahrungsstoffe der Pflanzen; Stärke, Zucker oder G u m m i dienen, wenn sie begleitet sind von einer stickstoffhaltigen Substanz, d e m E m b r y o zur ersten Entfaltung seiner E r n ä h r u n g s o r g a n e . (117) Gewisse K r a n k h e i t e n von B ä u m e n , der s. g. H o n i g t h a u , r ü h r e n offenbar von e i n e m Mißverhältniß in der M e n g e der zugeführten stickstofffreien u n d stickstoffhaltigen Nahrungsstoffe her. (118) Alles übrige gleichgesezt, wird n u r eine d e m Stickstoffgehalt e n t s p r e c h e n d e Q u a n t i t ä t der von d e n Blättern erzeugten Substanzen assimilirbar sein; fehlt es an Stickstoff, so wird eine gewisse M e n g e stickstofffreier Substanz in irgend einer F o r m n i c h t verwendet u n d als E x c r e m e n t e der Blätter, Zweige, R i n d e n u n d W u r z e l n abgeschieden werden. Die Ausschwitzungen g e s u n d e r kräftiger Pflanzen von M a n n i t , G u m m i , Z u c k e r keiner a n d e r n U r s a c h e zugeschrieben. (119) U n t e r d i e s e m G e s i c h t s p u n k t e i n l e u c h t e n d , wie sehr sich die in einer Pflanze erzeugten Producte je nach dem Verhältniß der zugeführten Nahrungsstoffe ä n d e r n k ö n n e n . E i n Ueberfluß an Kohlenstoff, in der F o r m von K o h lensäure d u r c h die W u r z e l n zugeführt, wird bei M a n g e l an Stickstoff weder in Kleber, n o c h in Eiweiß, n o c h in Holz, n o c h in sonst irgend e i n e n Bestandtheil eines Organs Übergehn; er wird als Zucker, A m y l o n , Oel, W a c h s , Harz, M a n n i t , G u m m i , in der F o r m also eines E x c r e m e n t s abgeschieden werden, oder m e h r oder weniger weite Zellen u n d Gefäße füllen. Bei e i n e n U e b e r s c h u ß stickstoffhaltiger N a h r u n g wird sich der Kleber u n d der G e h a l t von vegetabilischem Eiweiß u n d Pflanzenleim vermehren, es w e r d e n A m moniaksalze in d e n Säften bleiben, wenn, wie b e i m A n b a u der R u n k e l r ü b e n ein sehr stickstoffreicher D ü n g e r d e m B o d e n gegeben, oder die F u n k -

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Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 • Heft XII tion der Blätter u n t e r d r ü c k t wird, i n d e m m a n die Pflanze ihrer Blätter b e r a u b t . D i e A n a n a s i m wilden Z u s t a n d k a u m genießbar, treibt bei reichlic h e n thierischen D ü n g e r eine Masse von Blättern, o h n e daß die F r u c h t deshalb an Zucker z u n i m m t ; der Stärkegehalt der Kartoffeln wächst in e i n e m h u m u s r e i c h e n Boden, be[i] kräftigem a n i m a l i s c h e n D ü n g e r n i m m t 5 die A n z a h l ihrer Zellen zu, w ä h r e n d sich der A m y l o n g e h a l t vermindert; in d e m e r s t e m Fall mehlige, in d e m a n d e r n eine seifige Beschaffenheit. Die R u n k e l r ü b e n auf m a g e r m S a n d b o d e n gezogen, e n t h a l t e n ein M a x i m u m von Zucker u n d kein A m m o n i a k s a l z , u n d i n g e d ü n g t e m L a n d e verlirt die Teltower R ü b e ihre mehlige Beschaffenheit, d e n n in d i e s e m vereinigen 10 sich alle B e d i n g u n g e n für Zellenbildung. (120, 1) Die Pflanzen bedürfen des Lichts u n d zwar des Sonnenlichts aber für ihre F u n k t i o n e n d u r c h a u s gleichgültig, ob sie v o m Sonnenlichte getroffen werden, oder im Schatten wachsen, d. h. die Strahlen direkt erhalten oder nicht. Ihre F u n k t i o n e n g e h n n u r m i t weit größrer Energie u n d Schnelligkeit im S o n n e n l i c h t e als 15 im Tageslichte oder im Schatten vor sich; es k a n n keine andre Verschied e n h e i t hier gedacht werden, als bei ä h n l i c h e n W i r k u n g e n , die das Licht auf c h e m i s c h e V e r b i n d u n g e n zeigt, u n d diese Verschiedenheit wird bem e r k b a r durch e i n e n h ö h e r n oder g e r i n g e m G r a d der Beschleunigung der A k t i o n . (121, 2) | 20

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H e f t XIII

Hl Heft XIII Liebig. (Contin. Sieh Heft XII.)

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E i n U e b e r m a a ß von K o h l e n s ä u r e tödtet die Pflanze; aber der Stickstoff bis zu e i n e m gewissen G r a d e ist u n w e s e n t l i c h für die Zersetzung der K o h l e n säure, ... also zur A u s ü b u n g von einer ihrer F u n k t i o n e n , w e n n a u c h für die Assimilation der d u r c h die Z e r s e t z u n g der K o h l e n s ä u r e n e u g e b i l d e t e n Producte, um Bestandtheile gewisser Organe der Pflanzen zu werden, die G e genwart einer stickstoffhaltigen Substanz u n e n t b e h r l i c h zu sein scheint. D e r aus der K o h l e n s ä u r e a u f g e n o m m e n e Kohlenstoff hat in d e n Blättern eine n e u e F o r m a n g e n o m m e n , in der er löslich u n d überführbar in alle Theile der Pflanze ist. W i r b e z e i c h n e n diese F o r m m i t Zucker, w e n n die Producte süß s c h m e c k e n , m i t G u m m i oder Schleim, wenn sie geschmacklos sind, sie heissen E x c r e m e n t e , w e n n sie d u r c h die W u r z e l n (Haare u n d D r ü s e n der Blätter etc) abgeführt werden. Es ist hieraus klar, daß, je n a c h den Verhältnissen der gleichzeitig zugeführten Nahrungsstoffe, die M e n g e u n d Qualitäten der d u r c h d e n L e b e n s p r o z e ß der Pflanzen erzeugten Stoffe wechseln werden. Im freien wilden Z u s t a n d entwickeln sich alle Theile einer Pflanze je n a c h d e m Verhältnisse der Nahrungsstoffe, die ihr v o m Standorte dargeboten werden, sie bildet sich auf d e m magersten, unfruchtbarsten B o d e n so gut aus, wie auf d e m fettesten u n d fruchtbarsten; n u r in ihrer Grösse u n d Masse, in der A n z a h l der H a l m e , Zweige, Blätter, B l ü t h e n oder F r ü c h t e b e o b a c h t e t m a n e i n e n Unterschied. W ä h r e n d auf e i n e m fruchtbaren Boden alle ihre e i n z e l n e n Organe vergrössern, v e r m i n d e r n sie sich auf e i n e m a n d e r n , wo ihr die Materialien m i n d e r reichlich zufließen, die sie zu ihrer Bildung bedarf; ihr G e h a l t an stickstoffhaltigen oder stick-

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Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 • Heft XIII stofffreien B e s t a n d t e i l e n ändert sich m i t der ü b e r w i e g e n d e n M e n g e stickstoffhaltiger oder -freier N a h r u n g s m i t t e l . Die Entwicklung der Halme und Blätter, Blüthen und Früchte ist an b e s t i m m t e B e d i n g u n g e n geknüpft, deren K e n n t n i ß u n s gestattet, e i n e n gewissen Einfluß auf ihren G e h a l t in i h r e n B e s t a n d t h e i l e n auf die Hervorbringung eines M a x i m u m s an Masse auszuü b e n . Die A u s m i t t l u n g dieser B e d i n g u n g e n ist die Aufgabe des Naturforschers; aus ihrer K e n n t n i ß m ü s s e n die G r u n d s ä t z e der L a n d - u n d Forstwirthschaft entspringen. (123, 4) N e b e n gleichen allgemeinen B e d i n g u n gen des W a c h s t h u m s aller Vegetabilien, der Feuchtigkeit, des Lichts, der W ä r m e u n d der Bestandtheile der A t m o s p h ä r e , giebt es besondre, welche auf die Entwicklung einzelner F a m i l i e n e i n e n a u s g e z e i c h n e t e n Einfluß a u s ü b e n . Diese b e s o n d r e n B e d i n g u n g e n liegen im Boden, oder sie werden i h n e n gegeben i n der F o r m von Stoffen, die m a n m i t d e m allgemeinen N a m e n D ü n g e r bezeichnet. (125) Die Aufgabe der Cultur ist im A l l g e m e i n e n die vortheilhafteste Hervorbringung gewisser Qualitäten, oder eines M a x i m u m s an Masse von gewissen T h e i l e n oder O r g a n e n verschiedenartiger Pflanzen, sie wird gelöst d u r c h die A n w e n d u n g der K e n n t n i ß der Stoffe, die zur A u s b i l d u n g dieser Theile oder Organe u n e n t b e h r l i c h sind, oder der zur Hervorbringung dieser Q u a l i t ä t e n erforderlichen B e d i n g u n g e n . ... Die Cultur beabsichtigt im Besondren eine a b n o r m e Entwicklung u n d Erzeugung von gewissen Pflanzentheilen oder Pflanzenstoffen, die zur E r n ä h rung der Thiere u n d M e n s c h e n oder für die Zwecke der Industrie verwendet werden. Je n a c h diesen Zwecken ä n d e r n sich die Mittel die zu ihrer E r n ä h r u n g d i e n e n . Die Mittel, die die Cultur anwendet, um feines, weiches, biegsames Stroh für F l o r e n t i n e r h ü t h e zu erzeugen, d e n e n völlig entgegengesezt, die m a n wählen m u ß , u m ein M a x i m u m von S a a m e n durch die n ä m l i c h e Pflanze hervorzubringen. Ein M a x i m u m von Stickstoff in diesen S a a m e n bedarf wieder zu seiner Erfüllung andrer Bedingung, m a n h a t wieder andre z u berücksichtigen, w e n n m a n d e m H a l m e die Stärke u n d Festigkeit geben will, der er bedarf, um das Gewicht der A e h r e zu tragen. (126[, 127]) E i n e E r h ö h u n g oder V e r m i n d e r u n g der Lebensthätigkeit ist bei den Vegetabilien allein abhängig von W ä r m e u n d Sonnenlicht, ü b e r die wir nicht willkührlich verfügen k ö n n e n ; es bleibt u n s n u r die Zuführung von Stoffen gestattet, die geeignet sind, d u r c h die v o r h a n d n e Thätigkeit von d e n Organen der Pflanzen assimilirt zu werden. (127) Die Ackererde ist d u r c h die Verwitterung von Felsarten e n t s t a n d e n , von den vorwaltenden Bestandtheilen dieser Felsart sind ihre Eigenschaften a b h ä n gig. Mit Sand, Kalk und Thon b e z e i c h n e n wir diese vorwaltenden Bestandtheile der Bodenarten. R e i n e r Sand, reiner Kalkstein, in d e n e n ausser Kieselsäure oder k o h l e n s a u r e m oder kieselsaurem Kalk andre anorganischen Bestandtheile fehlen, sind absolut unfruchtbar. T h o n stets ein Bestandtheil

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von fruchtbarem B o d e n ... der T h o n s t a m m t h e r von der Verwitterung thonerdehaltiger M i n e r a l i e n , u n t e r d e n e n die verschiednen F e l d s p a t h e , Kalifeldspath, Natronfeldspath (Albit), Kalkfeldspath (Labrador), G l i m m e r u n d Zeolithe die verbreitetsten u n t e r d e n e n sind, die verwittern. D i e M i n e ralien sind G e m e n g e t h e i l e des G r a n i t s , G n e u ß s , Glimmerschiefers, Porphyrs, Thonschiefers, G r a u w a c k e , v u l k a n i s c h e n Gebirgsarten, Basalt, Klingstein, Lava. (128) ... die thonerdehaltigen Fossilien die verbreitetsten an der Erdoberfläche ... die U r s a c h e , die im T h o n Einfluß auf das L e b e n der Pflanzen ausübt, ist sein nie fehlender Kali- und Natrongehalt. D i e T h o n e r d e n i m m t an der Vegetation n u r indirekt, d u r c h ihre Fähigkeit W a s ser u n d A m m o n i a k a n z u z i e h n u n d z u r ü c k z u h a l t e n , A n t h e i l ; n u r i n h ö c h s t seltnen Fällen findet sich T h o n e r d e in der Pflanzenasche, in allen findet sich aber Kieselerde, welche in d e n m e i s t e n Fällen n u r durch V e r m i t t l u n g von Alkalien in die Pflanzen gelangt. (129) D a s Kali fehlt in k e i n e m T h o n , es ist selbst im Mergel enthalten. (130) E i n T a u s e n d t h e i l Letten, d e m Quarz im b u n t e n Sandstein oder d e m Kalk in d e n verschiednen Kalkform a t i o n e n beigemengt, giebt e i n e m B o d e n von n u r 20 Zoll Tiefe, so viel Kali, daß ein Fichtenwald auf d i e s e m B o d e n ein ganzes J a h r h u n d e r t lang d a m i t versehn werden k a n n . E i n einziger Cubicfuß F e l d s p a t h k a n n eine Waldfläche m i t L a u b h o l z von 2500 • M e t e r F l ä c h e 5 Jahre lang m i t Kali versehn. Ein Boden, welcher ein M a x i m u m von Fruchtbarkeit besizt, enthält d e n T h o n g e m e n g t m i t a n d r e n verwitterten Gesteinen, m i t Kalk u n d Sand in e i n e m solchen Verhältniß, d a ß er der Luft u n d Feuchtigkeit bis zu e i n e m gewissen G r a d e leichten Eingang verstattet. Der B o d e n in der N ä h e u n d U m g e b u n g des Vesuvs läßt sich als der Typus der fruchtbarsten Bodenarten b e t r a c h t e n ... Dieser aus verwitterter Lava e n t s t a n d n e B o d e n k a n n s e i n e m Ursprung n a c h n i c h t die kleinste Spur einer vegetabilischen Materie enthalten; J e d e r m a n n weiß, daß, w e n n die vulkanische A s c h e eine Zeitlang der Luft u n d d e m Einfluß der Feuchtigkeit ausgesezt gewesen ist, alle Vegetabilien darin in der größten Ueppigkeit u n d Fülle gedeihn. D i e B e d i n g u n g e n dieser F r u c h t b a r k e i t sind die darin e n t h a l t n e n Alkalien, die n a c h u n d n a c h d u r c h die Verwitterung die Fähigkeit erlangen, von der Pflanze a u f g e n o m m e n zu werden. Bei allen G e s t e i n e n u n d Gebirgsarten [sind] J a h r t a u s e n d e erforderlich gewesen, um sie in den Z u s t a n d der Ackererde überzuführen. ([130,] 131) N a c h d e m Aufhören des Lebens, wo die Bestandtheile der Pfla[nze] Zerstörungsprocessen der F ä u l n i ß u n d Verwesung unterliegen, erhält der B o d e n wieder, was i h m entzogen w u r d e . (132) | |2| E i n kohlensäurehaltiges Wasser zerlegt die Gebirgsarten, welche Alkalien e n t h a l t e n , es empfängt e i n e n G e h a l t von k o h l e n s a u r e m Alkali. Es ist klar, daß die Pflanzen selbst, insofern ihre Ueberreste d u r c h Verwesung Kohlensäure erzeugen, insofern ihre W u r z e l n im l e b e n d e n Z u s t a n d e Säu-

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Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 • Heft XIII ren ausschwitzen, nicht m i n d e r kräftig d e m Z u s a m m e n h a n g e der Gebirgsarten entgegenwirken. N e b e n der Einwirkung der Luft, des Wassers u n d Temperaturwechsels sind die Pflanzen selbst die m ä c h t i g s t e n U r s a c h e n der Verwitterung. Luft, Wasser, Temperaturwechsel bewirken die Vorbereitung der Felsarten zu ihrer Aufschließung, d. h. zur Auflösung der darin enthaltn e n Alkalien d u r c h die Pflanzen. A u f e i n e m B o d e n , der J a h r h u n d e r t e lang allen U r s a c h e n der Verwitterung ausgesezt gewesen ist, von d e m aber die aufgeschloßnen Alkalien nicht fortgeführt wurden, werden alle Vegetabilien, die zu ihrer Entwicklung beträchtliche M e n g e n Alkalien bedürfen, eine lange R e i h e von J a h r e n d u r c h h i n r e i c h e n d e N a h r u n g finden, allein n a c h u n d n a c h m u ß er erschöpft werden, w e n n das Alkali, was i h m entzogen wurde, nicht wieder ersezt wird; es m u ß ein P u n k t eintreten, wo er von Zeit zu Zeit der Verwitterung wieder ausgesezt werden m u ß , um einer n e u e n E r n d t e Vorrath von auflösbaren Alkalien zu geben. ... N a c h e i n e m Z e i t r a u m von e i n e m oder m e h r e r e n J a h r e n , während welcher Zeit das AIkali d e m B o d e n nicht entzogen wird, k a n n m a n wieder auf eine n e u e E r n d t e r e c h n e n . Die Colonisten in Virginien fanden solchen B o d e n ; erndteten o h n e D ü n g e r auf d e m s e l b e n Feld ein ganzes J a h r h u n d e r t lang W e i zen u n d T a b a k ; jezt ganze G e g e n d e n verlassen u n d i n unfruchtbares W e i deland verwandelt, was kein Getreide, k e i n e n T a b a k m e h r o h n e D ü n g e r hervor bringt. E i n e m Morgen von d i e s e m L a n d e w u r d e n aber in 100 J a h r e n in d e n Blättern, d e m Korn u n d Stroh ü b e r 1200 Pfund Alkali entzogen: er wurde unfruchtbar, weil der aufgeschloßne B o d e n gänzlich seines Alkalis b e r a u b t war u n d weil dasjenige, was im Z e i t r a u m von e i n e m J a h r durch d e n Einfluß der W i t t e r u n g zur Aufschliessung gelangte, nicht hinreichte, um die Bedürfnisse der Pflanze zu befriedigen. In diesem Zustande befindet sich im Allgemeinen alles Culturland in Europa. Die Brache ist die Zeit der Verwitterung. (133, 4) Der W e i z e n gedeiht n i c h t in reiner Holzerde, der H a l m erhält keine Stärke u n d legt sich frühzeitig u m . Weil die Festigkeit des H a l m s von kieselsaurem Kali herrührt, weil das K o r n phosphorsaure Bittererde bedarf, die i h m der H u m u s b o d e n n i c h t liefern kann, i n d e m er keins von b e i d e n enthält, m a n erhält Kraut, aber keine Frucht. Ebenso gedeiht der Weizen nicht auf Sandboden, noch auf Kalkboden, wenn er nicht eine beträchtliche Menge Thon beigemischt enthält. W e i l diese B o d e n a r t e n für dieses G e wächs n i c h t h i n r e i c h e n d Alkali enthalten. (135, 6) K a n n es auffallend sein, d a ß n a c h d e m A b b r e n n e n von N a d e l h o l z w a l d u n g e n i n A m e r i c a , d u r c h welche der B o d e n das in J a h r h u n d e r t e n g e s a m m e l t e Alkali empfängt, L a u b h o l z gedeiht, d a ß Spartium s c o p a r i u m etc, lauter Pflanzen, welche eine an Alkali höchst reiche A s c h e geben, auf Brandstätten in üppiger Fülle emporsprossen? ... 100 Theile Weizenstengel geben 15,5 Asche, 100 Theile trockner Gerstenstengel 8,54 Theile A s c h e , 100 Theile Hafer-

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Stengel n u r 4,42 A s c h e ; diese A s c h e bei allen diesen Pflanzen von einerlei Z u s a m m e n s e t z u n g . Si[eht] m a n hier nicht genau, was die Pflanze bedarf? Auf e i n e m u n d d e m s e l b e n Felde, das n u r eine Ernte W e i z e n liefert, läßt sich 2 X Gerste u n d 3 x Hafer b a u e n . Alle Grasarten bedürfen des kieselsauren Kalis; es ist kieselsaures Kali, was b e i m Wässern der W i e s e n d e m Boden zugeführt, was in d e m B o d e n aufgeschlossen wird ... D i e M e n g e von kieselsaurem Kali, welches in der F o r m von H e u d e n W i e s e n j ä h r l i c h g e n o m m e n wird, ist sehr beträchtlich. (136, 7) D a s Kali für die m e i s t e n G e wächse aber nicht die einzige B e d i n g u n g ihrer Existenz; in vielen ist es ersetzbar d u r c h Kalk, Bittererde u n d N a t r o n , aber die Alkalien r e i c h e n allein nicht hin, u m das L e b e n der Pflanzen z u u n t e r h a l t e n . I n j e d e r bis jezt u n tersuchten Pflanzenasche fand m a n Phosphorsäure, g e b u n d e n an Alkalien u n d alkalische E r d e n ; die m e i s t e n S a a m e n e n t h a l t e n gewisse M e n g e n davon, die S a a m e n der G e t r e i d e a r t e n sind reich an Phosphorsäure, sie findet sich darin vereinigt m i t Bittererde. D i e Phosphorsäure wird aus d e m B o d e n von der Pflanze a u f g e n o m m e n , aller culturfähige Boden enthält b e s t i m m bare M e n g e n davon. I n allen Mineralgewässern hat m a n b e s t i m m t e M e n gen davon entdeckt. ... D i e der Oberfläche der Erde am n ä c h s t e n liegend e n Schichten von Schwefelbleilagern e n t h a l t e n kristallisirtes phosphorsaures Bleioxid (Grünbleierz); der Kieselschiefer, welcher grosse Lager bildet, findet sich an vielen Orten bedeckt m i t Kristallen von phosphorsaurer T h o n e r d e ; alle Bruchflächen sind d a m i t ü b e r z o g e n . . . . . A u s d e m B o d e n gelangt die Phosphorsäure in die S a a m e n , Blätter u n d W u r z e l n der Pflanzen, aus diesen in d e n O r g a n i s m u s der Thiere, i n d e m sie zur Bildung der K n o c h e n , der phosphorhaltigen Bestandtheile des G e h i r n s verwendet wird. D u r c h Fleischspeisen, Brod, Hülsenfrüchte gelangt bei w e i t e m m e h r Phosphor in den Körper als er bedarf; d u r c h d e n U r i n u n d die festen Excrem e n t e wird aller U e b e r s c h u ß wieder abgeführt. ... O h n e P h o s p h o r s a u r e Bittererde, welche e i n e n nie fehlenden Bestandtheil der S a a m e n der G e treidearten a u s m a c h t , wird sich dieser S a a m e n nicht bilden k ö n n e n ; er wird nicht zur Reife gelangen. Ausser Kieselsäure, Kali und Phosphorsäure, die u n t e r keinerlei U m s t ä n d e n in d e n Culturpflanzen fehlen, n e h m e n die Vegetabilien aus d e m B o d e n n o c h fremde Stoffe, Salze auf, wovon m a n voraussetzen darf, daß sie die [eb]engenannten z u m Theil wenigstens in ihren W i r k u n g e n ersetzen; in dieser F o r m k a n n m a n bei m a n c h e n Pflanzen Kochsalz, schwefelsaures] Kali, Salpeter, Chlorkalium u n d a n d r e als nothwendige Bestandtheile b e t r a c h t e n . D e r Thonschiefer enthält m e i s t e n s E i n m i s c h u n g e n von Kupferoxid, der G l i m m e r b o d e n enthält F l u o r m e t a l l e . Geringe M e n g e n davon g e h n in d e n O r g a n i s m u s der Pflanzen über, o h n e daß sie sich als nothwendig b e h a u p t e n lassen. (138, 9) | |3| In den verschiednen Stadien ihrer Entwicklung bedürfen die Vegeta-

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Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 · Heft XIII bilien ungleiche M e n g e n v o n d e n B e s t a n d t h e i l e n des B o d e n s . W e i z e n pflanzen lieferten i h m (de Saussure) e i n e n M o n a t vor der B l ü t h e % oo> der B l ü t h e % oo u n d m i t reifem S a a m e n n u r % oo A s c h e . M a n sieht offenbar, d a ß sie d e m Boden, von der B l ü t h e an e i n e n T h e i l seiner a n o r g a n i s c h e n Bestandtheile wieder z u r ü c k g e b e n , aber die p h o s p h o r s a u r e Bitter5 erde ist im S a a m e n zurückgeblieben. (140) D i e Brache ist ... die P e r i o d e der Cultur, wo m a n das L a n d einer fortschreitenden Verwitterung vermittelst des Einflusses der A t m o s p h ä r e überläßt, in der W e i s e , d a ß eine gewisse Q u a n t i t ä t Alkali wieder fähig g e m a c h t wird, von einer Pflanze aufgen o m m e n zu werden. Es ist klar, d a ß die sorgfältige B e a r b e i t u n g des 10 B r a c h l a n d e s seine Verwitterung beschleunigt u n d vergrössert; für den Zweck der Cultur ist es völlig gleichgültig, ob man das Land mit Unkraut sich bedecken läßt, oder ob man eine Pflanze darauf baut, die dem Boden das aufgeschlossne Kali nicht entzieht. (1. c.) U n t e r der F a m i l i e der L e g u m i n o s e n sind viele A r t e n ausgezeichnet d u r c h ihren geringen G e h a l t von Alkalien u n d 15 Salzen ü b e r h a u p t ; die B o h n e der Vicia faba e n t h ä l t ζ. B. k e i n freies Alkali, u n d a n p h o s p h o r s a u r e m Kalk u n d Bittererde n o c h n i c h t 1%; die reifen Erbsen g e b e n im G a n z e n 1,93 Asche, darin 0,29 p h o s p h o r s a u r e n Kalk ... D e r Buchweizen a n der S o n n e getrocknet, liefert i m G a n z e n n u r 0,681 p . c . A s c h e u n d d a r i n n u r 0,09 Theile löslicher Salze. D i e o b e n e r w ä h n t e n Pflan- 20 z e n gehören zu d e n s. g. Brachfrüchten, in ihrer Z u s a m m e n s e t z u n g liegt der G r u n d , w a r u m sie d e m G e t r e i d e , was n a c h i h n e n gepflanzt wird, n i c h t s c h a d e n ; sie e n t z i e h n d e m B o d e n k e i n e Alkalien, s o n d e r n n u r eine vers c h w i n d e n d e M e n g e v o n p h o s p h o r s a u r e n Salzen. (141) Zwei Pflanzen werd e n n e b e n e i n a n d e r oder h i n t e r e i n a n d e r gedeihen, w e n n sie aus d e m Bo25 d e n verschiedenartige M a t e r i e n z u ihrer A u s b i l d u n g n ö t h i g h a b e n , oder w e n n die Stadien ihres W a c h s t h u m s , der B l ü t h e u n d F r u c h t b i l d u n g weit auseinanderliegen. (142) 7

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Wintergerste, Roggen u n d Hafer; m a n r e c h n e t sie zu d e n angreifenden; Weizen, Hopfen, Krapp, Stoppelrüben, R a p s , Hanf, M o h n , K a r d e n , Lein, Pastel, W a u , Süßholz betrachtet m a n als erschöpfende. (143) Hauptaufgabe der Wechselwirthschaft »&m System der F e l d w i r t s c h a f t « das » e i n e n möglichst h o h e n Ertrag m i t d e m kleinsten Aufwand von D ü n g e r erzielt« ... Sehr bald sah m a n ein, d a ß die Mannigfaltigkeit der Cultur so gut wie die R u h e (Brache) die F r u c h t b a r k e i t des B o d e n s erhalte. Es war offenbar, d a ß alle Pflanzen d e m B o d e n in verschiednen Verhältnissen gewisse M a t e r i e n zurückgeben m u ß t e n , die zur N a h r u n g einer folgenden G e n e r a t i o n verwendet werden k o n n t e n . (144) V o n c h e m i s c h e n Principien, gestüzt auf die K e n n t n i ß der M a t e r i e n , welche die Pflanzen d e m Boden entziehn, u n d was i h m in d e m D ü n g e r zurückgegeben wird, ist bis jezt in der Agricultur k e i n e R e d e gewesen. (1. c.) Die W u r z e l n aller Pflanzen sondern M a t e r i e n ab, die in i h r e m Organismus weder in Holzfaser, n o c h in Stärke, vegetabilisches Eiweiß, Kleber etc verwandelt w e r d e n k ö n n e n . (147) Es unterliegt k e i n e m Zweifel, daß die W u r z e l n der Pflanzen M a t e r i e n ausschwitzen, d u r c h die sie d e m B o d e n d e n Kohlenstoff wiedergeben, d e n sie von s e i n e m H u m u s in ihrer frühsten Periode der Entwicklung empfangen h a b e n . (148) W e n n u n t e r d e n Stoffen, welche von d e n W u r z e l n einer Pflanze aus d e m B o d e n a u f g e n o m m e n werden, sich solche befinden, die sie zu ihrer E r n ä h r u n g nicht verwendet, so m ü s s e n sie d e m B o d e n wieder zurückgegeben werden; E x c r e m e n t e dieser Art k ö n n e n einer zweiten u n d dritten Pflanze zu ihrer N a h r u n g dienlich, zu i h r e m Bestehn selbst u n e n t b e h r l i c h sein, allein die in d e m Organismus der Vegetabilien d u r c h d e n E r n ä h r u n g s p r o z e ß n e u g e bildeten Materien, die also in Folge der Erzeugung von Holzfaser, A m y l o n , Eiweiß, Kleber, G u m m i , S ä u r e n etc etc e n t s t a n d e n sind, sie k ö n n e n in keiner a n d r e n Pflanzengattung zur Bildung von Holzfaser, A m y l o n , Eiweiß, Kleber etc verwendet werden. (149) Lein, Erbsen, Klee, selbst Kartoffeln gehören zu den Pflanzen, deren E x c r e m e n t e auf T h o n b o d e n die längste Zeit zu ihrer Humificirung bedürfen, aber klar, daß die A n w e n d u n g von Alkalien, von selbst kleinen M e n g e n unausgelaugter Asche, g e b r a n n t e m Kalke das Feld in bei w e i t e m kürzerer Zeit wieder in d e n S t a n d setzen m u ß , den A n b a u der n ä m l i c h e n Pflanze wieder zu gestatten. D e r B o d e n erlangt in der Brache e i n e n T h e i l seiner frühern Fruchtbarkeit s c h o n dad u r c h wieder, weil in der Zeit der Brache, n e b e n der fortschreitenden Verwitterung die Zerstörung oder H u m i f i c i r u n g der darin e n t h a l t e n e n E x c r e m e n t e erfolgt. E i n e U e b e r s c h w e m m u n g ersezt die Brache in kalireic h e m B o d e n in der N ä h e des R h e i n , des Nils, wo m a n o h n e N a c h t h e i l auf denselben Aeckern h i n t e r e i n a n d e r G e t r e i d e b a u t . Ebenso vertritt das W ä s sern der Wiesen die W i r k u n g der Brache; das an Sauerstoff so reiche W a s ser der Bäche u n d Flüsse bewirkt, i n d e m es sich unaufhörlich erneuert u n d

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Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 • Heft XIII alle Theile des Bodens durchdringt, die schnellste u n d vollständigste Verwesung der angehäuften E x c r e m e n t e . W ä r e es das Wasser allein, das der B o d e n aufnimmt, so w ü r d e n sumpfige W i e s e n die fruchtbarsten sein. (151, 2)1 |4| Die Vortheilhaftigkeit des Fruchtwechsels b e r u h t auf zwei Ursac h e n ... Bepflanzen wir e i n e n B o d e n m e h r e J a h r e h i n t e r e i n a n d e r m i t vers c h i e d n e n G e w ä c h s e n , von welchen das erste in d e m B o d e n die anorganis c h e n Bestandtheile zurückläßt, welche das zweite, dieses wieder, was das dritte bedarf, so wird er für diese 3 Pflanzengattungen fruchtbar sein. W e n n n u n die erste Pflanze ζ. B. W e i z e n ist, welcher die größte M e n g e kieseisaures Kali consumirt, w ä h r e n d die auf i h n folgenden Pflanzen n u r eine geringe M e n g e Kali d e m B o d e n e n t z i e h n , wie L e g u m i n o s e n , Hackfrüchte etc, s o wird m a n n a c h d e m 4 ' J a h r e wieder W e i z e n m i t Vortheil b a u e n k ö n n e n , d e n n w ä h r e n d 3 er J a h r e ist der B o d e n d u r c h die Verwitterung wieder fähig geworden, kieselsaures Kali in h i n r e i c h e n d e r M e n g e an die j u n g e n Pflanzen abzugeben. F ü r die a n d r e n organischen Bestandtheile m u ß für verschiedne Pflanzen, w e n n sie h i n t e r e i n a n d e r g e d e i h e n sollen, ein ä h n l i ches V e r h ä l t n i ß berücksichtigt werden ... die m e i s t e n dieser Pflanzen d e m B o d e n so viel Kohlenstoff zurückgegeben, als sie in der F o r m von K o h l e n säure empfingen ... aber dieß n i c h t h i n r e i c h e n d , um gewisse Theile oder Organe derselben, S a a m e n u n d W u r z e l n m i t e i n e m M a x i m u m von N a h r u n g zu versehn. (Wie das die Agricultur m u ß ) ... E i n M a x i m u m im Ertrag steht g e n a u im V e r h ä l t n i ß zu der M e n g e der Nahrungsstoffe, die ihr in der ersten Zeit ihrer Entwicklung dargeboten werden. Diese N a h r u n g s m i t t e l sind K o h l e n s ä u r e , die der Boden in der F o r m von H u m u s , es ist Stickstoff, d e n e r i n der F o r m von A m m o n i a k e r h a l t e n m u ß ... Die Bildung von A m m o n i a k k a n n auf d e m C u l t u r l a n d e n i c h t bewirkt werden, wohl aber eine künstliche H u m u s e r z e u g u n g . Diese m u ß als eine H a u p t a u f g a b e der W e c h selwirthschaft u n d als 2 U r s a c h e ihrer Vortheilhaftigkeit a n g e s e h n werden. D a s A n s ä e n eines Feldes m i t einer Brachfrucht, m i t Klee, Roggen, L u p i n e n , Buchweizen etc, u n d die Einverleibung der ihrer B l ü t h e n a h e n Pflanz e n in d e n B o d e n d u r c h U m a c k e r n , löst diese Aufgabe insofern, als b e i einer n e u e n E i n s a a t die sich entwickelnde j u n g e Pflanze in einer gewissen Periode ihres Lebens ein M a x i m u m von N a h r u n g , d. h. eine verwesende Materie vorfindet. D e n gleichen Zweck erreicht m a n n o c h vollständiger u n d sichrer d u r c h Bepflanzung des Feldes m i t Esparsette oder Lucerne. Diese d u r c h eine starke Wurzelverzweigung u n d e b e n so starken Blätterwuchs a u s g e z e i c h n e t e n Pflanzen bedürfen aus d e m B o d e n n u r einer geringen M e n g e von anorganischen Stoffen. Bis zu e i n e m gewissen G r a d e der Entwicklung g e k o m m e n , bleibt i h n e n alle K o h l e n s ä u r e , alles A m m o n i a k , was die Luft u n d der R e g e n zuführen; was der B o d e n n i c h t a u f n i m m t , sau-

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gen die Blätter ein; sie sind es, d u r c h welche die assimilirende Oberfläche ver4 oder 6facht wird, welche die V e r d u n s t u n g des A m m o n i a k s auf der Erdoberfläche h i n d e r n , i n d e m sie sie wie eine H a u b e bedecken. E i n e u n mittelbare Folge der E r z e u g u n g v o n Blattgrün u n d der übrigen Bestandtheile der Blätter u n d Stengel ist die ebenso reichliche A u s s c h e i d u n g von organischen Stoffen, die der B o d e n als E x c r e m e n t e der W u r z e l n erhält. ... Diese Bereicherung des B o d e n s m i t Stoffen, welche fähig sind, in H u m u s ü b e r z u g e h n , d a u e r t m e h r e r e J a h r e h i n d u r c h , aber n a c h einer gewissen Zeit entstehn darauf kahle Stellen. N ä m l i c h n a c h 5 - 7 J a h r e n schwängert sich die Erde in d e m G r a d e m i t diesen E x c r e m e n t e n , daß j e d e Wurzelfaser davon u m g e b e n ist; in d e m auflöslichen Z u s t a n d , den sie eine Zeitlang b e wahren, ein Theil davon wieder von der Pflanze a u f g e n o m m e n , auf welche sie nachtheilig wirken, i n d e m sie n i c h t assimilirbar sind. Abwechselnd werden Stellen auf d e m F e l d kahl u n d fruchtbar. U r s a c h e : Die E x c r e m e n t e auf den k a h l e n Plätzen erhalten k e i n e n n e u e n Z u w a c h s ; d e m Einfluß der Luft u n d Feuchtigkeit preißgegeben, g e h e n sie in Verwesung über; ihr schädlicher Einfluß hört auf; die Pflanze findet von diesen Stellen die M a t e r i e n entfernt, die ihr W a c h s t h u m h i n d e r t e n ; sie trifft im G e g e n t h e i l wieder H u m u s , (verwesende Pflanzenstoffe) an. E i n e beßre u n d zweckmäßigere H u m u s e r z e u g u n g , als die durch eine Pflanze, deren Blätter T h i e r e n zur N a h rung dienen, ist wohl k a u m d e n k b a r ; als Vorfrucht sind diese Pflanzen einer j e d e n a n d e r n G a t t u n g nützlich, n a m e n t l i c h aber denen, welche wie Raps u n d Lein vorzugsweise des H u m u s bedürfen, von u n s c h ä t z b a r e m W e r t h e . Die U r s a c h e n der Vortheilhaftigkeit des Fruchtwechsels, die eigentlichen Principien der Wechselwirthschaft b e r u h e n h i e r n a c h auf einer künstlichen H u m u s e r z e u g u n g u n d auf der B e b a u u n g des Feldes m i t verschiedenartigen Pflanzen, die in einer solchen O r d n u n g auf e i n a n d e r folgen, daß eine j e d e n u r gewisse Bestandtheile entzieht, während sie andre zurückläßt oder wiedergiebt, die eine 2 u n d 3 Pflanzengattung z u ihrer A u s b i l d u n g u n d Entwicklung bedürfen, (p. 1 5 2 - 5 6 ) W e n n n u n a u c h der H u m u s g e h a l t eines B o d e n s d u r c h zweckmässige Cultur in e i n e m gewissen G r a d e beständig gesteigert w e r d e n k a n n , d e n n o c h kein Zweifel, d a ß der B o d e n a n d e n b e s o n d r e n B e s t a n d t h e i l e n i m m e r ärmer werden m u ß , die i n d e n S a a m e n , W u r z e l n u n d Blättern, welche wir h i n w e g g e n o m m e n h a b e n , e n t h a l t e n waren. N u r in d e m Fall wird die Fruchtbarkeit des B o d e n s sich u n v e r ä n d e r t erhalten, w e n n wir i h n e n alle diese S u b s t a n z e n wieder zuführen u n d ersetzen. D i e ß geschieht d u r c h d e n Dünger. ... alle a n o r g a n i s c h e n Bestandtheile der Thiere u n d M e n s c h e n m ü s s e n als D ü n g e r betrachtet werden- W ä h r e n d ihres L e b e n s werden die a n o r g a n i s c h e n Bestandtheile der Pflanzen, welche der a n i m a l i s c h e O r g a n i s m u s n i c h t bedurfte, in der F o r m von E x c r e m e n t e n wieder ausgestoßen, n a c h i h r e m Tode geht der Stickstoff, t e

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Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 • Heft XIII der Kohlenstoff in d e n Prozessen der F ä u l n i ß u n d Verwesung als A m m o n i a k u n d Kohlensäure wieder in die A t m o s p h ä r e über, es bleibt zulezt nichts weiter als die a n o r g a n i s c h e n M a t e r i e n , der p h o s p h o r s a u r e Kalk u n d andre Salze, i n d e n K n o c h e n zurück. E i n e rationelle Agricultur m u ß diesen erdigen R ü c k s t a n d so gut wie die E x c r e m e n t e ||5| als kräftigen D ü n g e r für gewisse Pflanzen betrachten, der d e m Boden, von d e m er in einer R e i h e v o n J a h r e n e n t n o m m e n worden ist, wiedergegeben werden m u ß , w e n n seine Fruchtbarkeit nicht a b n e h m e n soll. (156, 7) D a s H e u enthält 1% Stickstoff; in 25 Pfund wird eine K u h täglich % Pfund Stickstoff zu ihrer N a h r u n g assimilirt h a b e n . Diese Stickstoffmenge würde, in Muskelfaser verwandelt, 8,8 Pfund Fleisch in s e i n e m n a t ü r l i c h e n Z u s t a n d gegeben h a b e n . Die Z u n a h m e an Masse weit weniger als dieß Gewicht u n d wir finden in der T h a t im H a r n u n d in der M i l c h den Stickstoff, der hier zu fehlen scheint. ... M i t h i n die flüssigen Excremente worin wir d e n nicht assimilirten Stickstoff zu s u c h e n ; wenn die festen auf die Vegetabilien ü b e r h a u p t von Einfluß sind, so b e r u h t er nicht a u f d h r e m Stickstoffgehalt. (159) Mit 3600 bis 4000 Pfund frischem Pferdekoth, e n t s p r e c h e n d 1000 Pfund trockn e m Pferdekoth, bringen wir also auf d e n A c k e r 2 4 8 4 - 3 0 0 0 Pfund Wasser, s o d a n n : 7 3 0 - 9 0 0 Pfund vegetabilischer Materie u n d veränderter Galle, zulezt geben wir d e m Acker 1 0 0 - 2 7 0 Pfund Salze u n d anorganische Substanzen. ... es sind dieß lauter Substanzen, die Bestandtheile des H e u e s , Strohs u n d Hafers waren, womit das Pferd gefüttert wurde. D e r H a u p t b e s t a n d t h e i l davon ist phosphorsaurer Kalk u n d Bittererde, kohlensaurer Kalk u n d kieselsaures Kali, das leztre ist in d e m H e u , die erstren in d e n K ö r n e r n in überwiegender M e n g e zugegen gewesen. In 10 C e n t n e r n Pferdeexcrementen bringen wir im M a x i m o die a n o r g a n i s c h e n S u b s t a n z e n von 45 Ctrn H e u oder von 90 Ctrn Hafer auf d e n Acker; dieß ist h i n r e i c h e n d , um V/2 Ernten W e i z e n m i t Kali u n d p h o s p h o r s a u r e n Salzen v o l l k o m m e n zu versehen. Der K o t h der K ü h e , des R i n d v i e h s u n d der Schafe enthält, ausser d e n vegetabilischen M a t e r i e n , p h o s p h o r s a u r e n Kalk, Kochsalz u n d kieselsaures Kali; das Gewicht derselben wechselt je n a c h der F ü t t e r u n g von 9 - 2 8 p . c , der K u h k o t h enthält i m frischen Z u s t a n d e 8 6 - 9 0 p . c . Wasser. Die festen m e n s c h l i c h e n E x c r e m e n t e - n a c h Berzelius - e n t h a l t e n frisch % ihres Gewichts Wasser, ferner Stickstoff von 1/4-5 p.c., sie sind u n t e r allen die stickstoffreichsten. Berzelius erhielt von 100 T h e i l e n trocknen Exc r e m e n t e n , n a c h d e m Einäschern 15 Theile A s c h e , deren H a u p t b e s t a n d t e i l e 1 0 Theile p h o s p h o r s a u r e n Kalks u n d Bittererde waren. Gewiß k ö n n e n die vegetabilischen Materien, die wir in d e n E x c r e m e n t e n der Thiere u n d M e n s c h e n auf die Felder bringen, n i c h t o h n e einigen Einfluß auf die Vegetation bleiben; i n d e m sie verwesen, liefern sie d e n j u n g e n Pflanzen Kohlensäure zur N a h r u n g , aber dieß N e b e n s a c h e , u n b e d e u -

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t e n d ... die Q u a n t i t ä t des Kohlenstoffs, d e n m a n als D ü n g e r d e m A c k e r zuführt, beträgt n u r 5 - 8 p. c. von d e m , was m a n als Kraut, Stroh u n d F r u c h t h i n w e g n i m m t ... Es bleibt die eigentliche W i r k u n g der festen E x c r e m e n t e auf die anorganischen M a t e r i e n beschränkt, welche d e m B o d e n wiedergegeben werden, n a c h d e m sie i h m in der F o r m von Getreide, von W u r z e l g e wächsen, von g r ü n e m u n d t r o c k n e m F u t t e r g e n o m m e n worden waren. ( 1 6 0 - 6 2 ) In d e m K u h d ü n g e r , d e n E x c r e m e n t e n der Schaafe g e b e n wir d e m Getreideland kieselsaures Kali u n d phosphorsaure Salze, i n d e n m e n s c h l i c h e n E x c r e m e n t e n p h o s p h o r s a u r e n Kalk u n d Bittererde, i n d e n E x c r e m e n t e n der Pferde p h o s p h o r s a u r e Bittererde u n d kieselsaures Kali. In d e m Stroh, was als Streu gedient hat, b r i n g e n wir eine n e u e Q u a n t i t ä t von kieselsaurem Kali u n d p h o s p h o r s a u r e Salze h i n z u ; wenn es verwest ist, bleiben diese genau i n d e m v o n d e n Pflanzen assimilirbaren Z u s t a n d e i m Boden. ... trotz der sorgfältigen Vertheilung u n d S a m m l u n g des D ü n gers ... ein Verlust einer gewissen M e n g e phosphorsaurer Salze u n v e r m e i d lich, d e n n wir führen j e d e s J a h r i n d e m G e t r e i d e u n d g e m ä s t e t e m V i e h ein bemerkbares Q u a n t u m aus, was d e n U m g e b u n g e n grosser Städte zufließt. In einer wohleingerichteten Wirthschaft m u ß dieser Verlust ersezt werden. Z u m Theil geschieht dieß d u r c h die W i e s e n . Zu 100 M o r g e n G e t r e i d e l a n d r e c h n e t m a n in D e u t s c h l a n d als n o t h w e n d i g zu einer zweckmässigen Cultur 20 Morgen Wiese, die durchschnittlich 500 Ctr H e u p r o d u c i r e n ; bei e i n e m G e h a l t von 6.82 P.C. A s c h e erhält m a n jährlich in d e n E x c r e m e n t e n der Thiere, d e n e n es zur N a h r u n g gegeben wird, 3410 Pfund kieselsaures Kali u n d p h o s p h o r s a u r e n Kalk u n d Bittererde, die d e n Getreidefeldern z u G u t k o m m e n u n d d e n Verlust bis zu e i n e m gewissen G r a d decken. ... In der Asche des Holzes, das in d e n H a u s h a l t u n g e n verbraucht wird, ersetzen wir d e n Wiesen wieder, was sie an p h o s p h o r s a u r e n Salzen verloren h a b e n . (162, 3) W i r k ö n n e n die F r u c h t b a r k e i t u n s r e r F e l d e r in e i n e m stets gleichb l e i b e n d e n Z u s t a n d erhalten, w e n n wir i h r e n Verlust jährlich wieder ersetzen; eine Steigerung der Fruchtbarkeit, eine E r h ö h u n g ihres Ertrags ist aber n u r d a n n möglich, wenn wir m e h r wiedergeben als wir i h n e n n e h m e n . U n t e r gleichen B e d i n g u n g e n wird v o n 2 A e c k e r n der eine so fruchtbarer werden, je leichter u n d in je größrer M e n g e die Pflanzen, die wir darauf kultiviren, die b e s o n d r e n Bestandtheile sich a n e i g n e n k ö n n e n , die sie zu i h r e m W a c h s t h u m u n d ihrer Entwicklung bedürfen. ... die W i r k u n g der thierischen E x c r e m e n t e ist ersetzbar d u r c h Materien, die ihre Bestandtheile enthalten. In F l a n d e r n wird der jährliche Ausfall vollständig ersezt d u r c h das Ueberfahren der Felder m i t ausgelaugter oder nicht ausgelaugter Holzasche, durch K n o c h e n , die z u m grossen T h e i l aus p h o s p h o r s a u r e m Kalk u n d Bittererde bestehn. (163) Die Wichtigkeit der Holzasche augenfällich. Die m i t kaltem Wasser ausgelaugte H o l z a s c h e enthält kieselsaures

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Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 • Heft XIII Kali gerade in d e m s e l b e n V e r h ä l t n i ß wie Stroh ||6| ausser d i e s e m Salze n u r phosphorsaure Salze. Die verschiednen H o l z a s c h e n übrigens e i n e n h ö c h s t u n g l e i c h e n Werth, die E i c h e n h o l z a s c h e d e n geringsten, die B u c h e n h o l z asche den h ö c h s t e n W e r t h . M i t je 100 Pfund ausgelaugter B u c h e n h o l z asche b r i n g e n wir auf das Feld ein Q u a n t u m phosphorsaurer Salze = d e m 5 G e h a l t von 460 Pfund frischen M e n s c h e n e x c r e m e n t e n . M i t 100 Pfund B u c h e n h o l z a s c h e bringen wir auf das F e l d eine M e n g e Phosphorsäure, h i n reichend für die Erzeugung von 4000 Pfd Stroh oder für 2000 Pfd W e i z e n k ö m e r . N o c h wichtiger in dieser B e z i e h u n g die Knochen. ... D i e lezte Quelle der Bestandtheile der K n o c h e n ist das H e u u n d Stroh, ü b e r h a u p t 10 das Futter, was die Thiere gemessen. K n o c h e n e n t h a l t e n 55 P. C. phosphorsauren Kalk u n d Bittererde, also 8 Pfund K n o c h e n so viel p h o s p h o r s a u r e n Kalk als 1000 Pfund H e u oder Weizenstroh, oder 20 Pfund so viel, als in 1000 Pfd W e i z e n - u n d Haferkörnern sich vorfindet. (164, 5) D i e D ü n g u n g eines Morgen Landes m i t 40 Pfd frischen K n o c h e n reicht hin, um 3 Ernd- 15 t e n (Weizen, Klee u n d Hackfrüchte) m i t p h o s p h o r s a u r e n Salzen zu versehn ... Je feiner die K n o c h e n zertheilt, je inniger sie m i t d e m B o d e n gem i s c h t sind, desto leichter wird die Assimilirbarkeit sein. (165) Als Prinzip des Ackerbaus m u ß a n g e s e h n werden, d a ß der B o d e n in vollem Maasse wieder erhalten m u ß , was i h m g e n o m m e n wird; in welcher F o r m dieß W i e - 20 dergeben geschieht, ob in der F o r m von E x c r e m e n t e n , oder von A s c h e oder K n o c h e n , ist. ziemlich gleichgültig. Es wird eine Zeit k o m m e n , wo m a n d e n Acker m i t einer Auflösung von Wassergas (kieselsaurem Kali), m i t der A s c h e von v e r b r a n n t e m Stroh, w o m a n i h n m i t p h o s p h o r s a u r e n Salzen d ü n g e n wird, die m a n in c h e m i s c h e n F a b r i k e n bereitet. (167) Es giebt 25 Pflanzen, welche H u m u s bedürfen, o h n e bemerklich zu erzeugen; es giebt andre, die i h n e n t b e h r e n k ö n n e n , die e i n e n h u m u s a r m e n B o d e n d a r a n bereichern; eine rationelle Cultur wird allen H u m u s für die ersten, u n d kein e n für die a n d e r n verwenden, sie wird die leztern b e n u t z e n , um die ers t e m d a m i t zu versehn. (167, 8) Also jezt alles d e m B o d e n gegeben, was die 30 Pflanzen für die Bildung der Holzfaser, des Korns, der Wurzel, des Stengels aus d e m B o d e n z i e h n u n d jezt z u m wichtigsten Zweck des F e l d b a u s , n ä m l i c h zur Production von assimilirbarem Stickstoff, also von M a t e r i e n , welche Stickstoff enthalten. Das Blatt, was d e n Holzkörper nährt, die W u r zel, aus der sich die Blätter entwickeln, was d e n F r ü c h t e n ihre Bestand- 35 theile zubereitet, alle Theile des O r g a n i s m u s der Pflanze e n t h a l t e n stickstoffhaltige M a t e r i e n in sehr wechselnden Verhältnissen; die W u r z e l n u n d S a a m e n sind besonders reich daran. ... D i e N a t u r , die A t m o s p h ä r e liefert d e n Stickstoff in h i n r e i c h e n d e r M e n g e zur n o r m a l e n Entwicklung einer Pflanze u n d ihre Entwicklung schon n o r m a l , w e n n sie n u r ein einziges 40 S a a m e n k o r n wieder erzeugt, was fähig ist, in e i n e m darauf folgenden J a h r e

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die Pflanze wiederkehren zu m a c h e n . ... eine weise Einrichtung giebt der Pflanze die merkwürdige Fähigkeit, bis zu e i n e m gewissen G r a d e allen Stickstoff, der ihr dargeboten wird, in Nahrungsstoff für das T h i e r zu verwandeln. (168) W e n n es der Pflanze an Stickstoff fehlt, wird sie Kraut, a b e r keine Körner, sie wird vielleicht Z u c k e r u n d A m y l o n , aber k e i n e n Kleber erzeugen. G e b e n wir der Pflanze aber Stickstoff in reichlicher Quantität, so wird sie den Kohlenstoff, d e n sie zu seiner Assimilation bedarf, aus der Luft, w e n n er im B o d e n fehlt, m i t der kräftigsten Energie schöpfen; wir geb e n ihr in d e m Stickstoff das Mittel, um d e n Kohlenstoff aus der A t m o s p h ä r e in i h r e m O r g a n i s m u s zu fixiren. Als Dünger, der d u r c h s e i n e n Stickstoffgehalt wirkt, die festen E x c r e m e n t e des Rindviehs, der Schaafe, der Pferde gar n i c h t in Betracht zu ziehn, weil ihr G e h a l t an d i e s e m Bestandtheil verschwindend klein ist; die m e n s c h l i c h e n E x c r e m e n t e verhältnißmässig reich an Stickstoff, ihr G e h a l t ist aber ausserordentlich variirend; die E x c r e m e n t e der M e n s c h e n , die in d e n Städten w o h n e n , wo m e h r animalische Kost vorherrscht, reicher dran, als die von B a u e r n u n d überh a u p t v o m L a n d e h e r g e n o m m e n e n ; Brod u n d Kartoffeln geben b e i m M e n schen E x c r e m e n t e von einer ä h n l i c h e n Beschaffenheit u n d Z u s a m m e n s e t zung, wie bei d e n Thieren. Die E x c r e m e n t e h a b e n in dieser B e z i e h u n g e i n e n ungleichen W e r t h ; für Sand- u n d Kalkboden, d e m es an kieselsaur e m Kali u n d p h o s p h o r s a u r e n Salzen fehlt, h a b e n die E x c r e m e n t e der Pferde u n d des R i n d v i e h s e i n e n ganz b e s o n d e r n N u t z e n , der sich für kalireichen T h o n b o d e n , Basalt, G r a n i t , Porphyr, Klingstein, selbst für Z e c h steinboden ausserordentlich vermindert; für diesen leztern M e n s c h e n d ü n ger das H a u p t m i t t e l seine F r u c h t b a r k e i t ausserordentlich zu steigern; denselben N u t z e n hat er n a t ü r l i c h für alle B o d e n a r t e n ü b e r h a u p t , aber z u r D ü n g u n g der e r s t e m k ö n n e n die E x c r e m e n t e der Thiere nicht e n t b e h r t werden. (169, 170) V o n d e m Stickstoffgehalt der festen E x c r e m e n t e abgesehn, n u r eine Quelle von stickstoffhaltigem Dünger, diese Quelle ist der Harn der M e n s c h e n u n d Thiere. W i r bringen d e n H a r n entweder als Mistj a u c h e oder in der F o r m der E x c r e m e n t e selbst, die davon d u r c h d r u n g e n sind, auf die Felder; es ist der H a r n , der den leztern die Fähigkeit giebt, A m m o n i a k z u entwickeln ... I m H a r n geben wir den F e l d e r n A m m o n i a k salze, Harnsäure, die a u s n e h m e n d reich an Stickstoff ist, u n d phosphorsaure Salze, die im H a r n sich gelöst befinden. (170) ||7| Bringt m a n d e n gefaulten Urin auf die Felder, so verdunstet ein Theil des k o h l e n s a u r e n A m m o n i a k s m i t d e m Wasser ... D a s k o h l e n s a u r e A m m o n i a k m a c h t bei seiner Bildung den H a r n alkalisch, in n o r m a l e m Z u s t a n d ist er sauer; w e n n es sich verflüchtigt u n d in der Luft verliert, so ist der Verlust b e i n a h e gleich d e m Verlust an d e m h a l b e n G e w i c h t U r i n ; wenn wir es fixiren, d. h. i h m seine Flüchtigkeit n e h m e n , so h a b e n wir seine W i r k s a m k e i t aufs D o p -

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Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 · Heft XII! pelte erhöht. ... Das d u r c h F ä u l n i ß des U r i n s erzeugte k o h l e n s a u r e A m m o n i a k k a n n auf mannigfaltige Weise fixirt, d. h. seiner Fähigkeit sich zu verflüchtigen b e r a u b t werden. D e n k e n wir u n s e i n e n Acker m i t Gyps bestreut, d e n wir m i t gefaultem U r i n oder Mistjauche überfahren, so wird alles kohlensaure A m m o n i a k sich in schwefelsaures verwandeln, was in d e m Boden bleibt. ... N o c h einfachre Mittel, u m alles k o h l e n s a u r e A m m o n i a k d e n Pflanzen zu erhalten, ein Zusatz v o n Gyps, Chlorcalcium, Schwefelsäure oder Salzsäure oder von s a u r e m p h o s p h o r s a u r e n Kalk, lauter S u b s t a n z e n , deren Preiß a u s n e h m e n d niedrig ist; bis z u m Verschwinden der Alkalinität des H a r n s wird das A m m o n i a k in ein Salz verwandeln, was seine Fähigkeit sich zu verflüchtigen, gänzlich verloren hat. ( 1 7 1 - 1 7 3 ) Das A m m o n i a k , was sich in Ställen u n d aus Abtritten entwickelt, ist u n t e r allen U m s t ä n d e n m i t Kohlensäure v e r b u n d e n . K o h l e n s a u r e s A m m o n i a k u n d schwefelsaurer Kalk (Gyps) bei gewöhnlicher T e m p e r a t u r n i c h t in B e r ü h r u n g zu bringen, o h n e sich gegenseitig zu zersetzen. D a s A m m o n i a k vereinigt sich m i t der Schwefelsäure, die K o h l e n s ä u r e m i t d e m Kalk zu V e r b i n d u n g e n , die n i c h t flüchtig, d. h. geruchlos sind. Bestreuen wir d e n B o d e n der Ställe von Zeit zu Zeit m i t gepulvertem Gyps, so wird der Stall seinen G e r u c h verlieren u n d nicht die kleinste Q u a n t i t ä t A m m o n i a k geht für die Felder verloren. (173, 4) Der Ackerbau der C h i n e s e n ist der v o l l k o m m e n s t e in der Welt. (175) W e n n wir a n n e h m e n , daß die flüssigen u n d festen E x c r e m e n t e eines M e n s c h e n täglich n u r 1% Pfund betragen (¾ Pfd U r i n u n d % Pfd fester Excremente), daß beide z u s a m m e n 3 P. C. Stickstoff enthalten, so wir in e i n e m J a h r 547 Pfd E x c r e m e n t e , welche 16,41 Pfd Stickstoff e n t h a l t e n , eine Quantität, die hinreicht, um 800 Pfd Weizen-, Roggen-, Hafer- u n d 900 Pfd G e r s t e n k ö r n e r n d e n Stickstoff zu liefern. D i e ß ist bei w e i t e m m e h r als m a n e i n e m M o r g e n L a n d h i n z u z u s e t z e n braucht, u m m i t d e m Stickstoff, d e n die Pflanzen aus der A t m o s p h ä r e saugen, ein jedes J a h r die reichlichsten E r n d t e n zu erzielen. E i n e j e d e Ortschaft, eine j e d e Stadt k ö n n t e bei A n w e n d u n g von Fruchtwechsel alle ihre Felder m i t d e m stickstoffreichsten D ü n g e r versehn, der n o c h ü b e r d i e ß der reichste an phosphorsauren Salzen ist. Bei M i t b e n u t z u n g der K n o c h e n u n d der ausgelaugten Holzasche würden alle E x c r e m e n t e von T h i e r e n völlig entbehrlich sein. Die E x c r e m e n t e der M e n s c h e n lassen sich, w e n n d u r c h ein zweckmässiges Verfahren die Feuchtigkeit entfernt u n d das freie A m m o n i a k g e b u n d e n wird, in eine F o r m bringen, welche die V e r s e n d u n g , a u c h auf weite Strekken hin, erlaubt. (175, 6) D e r H a r n der Pferde ist weit weniger reich an Stickstoff u n d phosphorsauren Salzen. ... 100 Theile M e n s c h e n h a r n enth a l t e n m e h r wie 4x so viel. Der K u h h a r n ist vorzüglich reich an Kalisalzen ... Der H a r n der Schweine ist vorzüglich reich an p h o s p h o r s a u r e m Bitt e r e r d e - A m m o n i a k ... (p. 178) Es ist klar, daß w e n n wir die festen u n d

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Aus Justus Liebig: Die organische Chemie (Fortsetzung) flüssigen E x c r e m e n t e der M e n s c h e n u n d die flüssigen der Thiere in d e m Verhältniß zu d e m Stickstoff auf u n s e r e Aecker bringen, den wir in der F o r m von G e w ä c h s e n darauf geärndtet h a b e n , so wird die S u m m e des Stickstoffs auf d e m G u t j ä h r l i c h w a c h s e n m ü s s e n . D e n n z u d e m , welchen 5 wir in d e m D ü n g e r zuführen, ist aus der A t m o s p h ä r e eine gewisse Q u a n t i tät h i n z u g e k o m m e n . W a s wir in der F o r m von G e t r e i d e u n d Vieh an Stickstoff ausführen, was sich davon in grossen Städten anhäuft, k o m m t a n d e r n F e l d e r n zu gut, wenn wir ihn n i c h t ersetzen. E i n G u t , was keine W i e s e n h a t u n d nicht Felder genug für d e n A n b a u von Futtergewächsen besizt, 10 m u ß stickstoffhaltigen D ü n g e r von aussen einführen, w e n n m a n auf i h m ein M a x i m u m von Ertrag erzielen soll. A u f grössern G ü t e r n ersetzen die W i e s e n den j ä h r l i c h e n Ausfall an Stickstoff aufs Vollständigste wieder. D e r einzig wirkliche Verlust an Stickstoff also beschränkt auf das Q u a n t u m , das die M e n s c h e n in ihre G r ä b e r n e h m e n , in M a x i m o 3 Pfund für j e d e s In15 dividuum, welche sich auf ein ganzes M e n s c h e n a l t e r vertheilen; dieß bleibt den G e w ä c h s e n unverloren, d e n n d u r c h F ä u l n i ß u n d Verwesung kehrt dieselbe in der F o r m von A m m o n i a k in die A t m o s p h ä r e zurück. E i n e gesteigerte Cultur erfordert eine gesteigerte D ü n g u n g . ([178,] 179) W e n n m a n erwägt, daß j e d e s Pfund A m m o n i a k , welches u n b e n u z t verdampft, 20 e i n e m Verlust von 60 Pfund G e t r e i d e gleichkommt, daß m i t j e d e m Pfunde U r i n ein Pfund W e i z e n g e w o n n e n werden k a n n , so ist die Leichtfertigkeit unbegreiflich, mit welcher grade die flüssigen E x c r e m e n t e betrachtet werden. (I.e.) Die frischen K n o c h e n , Wolle, L u m p e n , Haare, K l a u e n u n d H o r n sind stickstoffhaltige Dünger, die gleichzeitig d u r c h ihren G e h a l t an 25 phosphorsauren Salzen A n t h e i l an d e m vegetabilischen Lebensprozesse n e h m e n . (179, 80)

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J. C. Loudon. An Encyclopaedia of Agriculture etc 2 ed. L o n d o n 1831.

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Governments

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Book I. History of Agriculture amongst ancient and modern Nations. Agriculture is no longer an art of labour, but of science. (2) N a c h d e m Fall des r ö m i s c h e n Reichs, Verfall der Agricultur in Europa, chiefly preserved 10 on the estates of the c h u r c h . (4) 1) Âltes Aejypten. die canals u n d b a n k s (Deiche, D ä m m e ) die still r e m a i n in Lower Ejypt u n d besonders in d e m Delta, sind evidences des extent wozu e m b a n k i n g ( E i n d ä m m e n ) Irrigation u n d drainage (Austrocknen, Abzugskanäle) have b e e n carried. (6) by a succession of wheels, and gradation of a q u e d u c t s , it is said, s o m e hills, a n d 15 even m o u n t a i n s , were watered to their s u m m i t s . (I.e.) |

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Diese laws (die poorlaws), so beautiful in theory, p r o m o t e the evils they m e a n to remedy, a n d aggravate t h e distress they were i n t e n d e d to relieve. (2) Sagt also s c h o n v o n d e m d a m a l i g e n (1786) Zustand in England: »There never was greater distress a m o n g the poor: there never was m o r e m o n e y collected for their relief. B u t what is m o s t perplexing is, t h a t poverty and wretchedness have increased in exact proportion to the efforts which have b e e n m a d e for the comfortable subsistence of the poor; a n d t h a t wherever m o s t is e x p e n d e d for their support, there objects of distress are m o s t a b u n d a n t etc.« (7) Die n a t u r a l t e n d e n c y dieser laws is to increase the n u m ber of the poor, a n d greatly to e x t e n d the b o u n d s of h u m a n misery. (13) T h e poor know little of the motives which stimulate the higher r a n k s to action—pride, h o n o u r a n d a m b i t i o n . In general it is only h u n g e r w h i c h can spur a n d goad t h e m on to labour; yet o u r laws have said, they shall never hunger. Allerdings wollen diese Gesetze sie a u c h compel to work. A b e r legal constraint is a t t e n d e d m i t too m u c h trouble, violence, a n d n o i s e ; creates ill will etc whereas hunger is not only a peaceable, silent, unremitted pressure, but, as the most natural motive to industry and labour, it calls forth the most powerful exertions. (15) A u c h die n a t ü r l i c h e Herrschaft ü b e r d e n K n e c h t durch das A r m e n g e s e t z gebrochen. An e i n e n Magistrate appelliren is »from a superior t r i b u n a l to the inferior ... T h e wisest legislator will never be able to devise a m o r e equitable, a m o r e effectual, or in any respect a m o r e suitable p u n i s h m e n t , t h a n h u n g e r is for a disobedient servant. ( 2 1 - 2 3 ) D u r c h die A r m e n g e s e t z e der Arbeitslohn erhöht. U n d : »the h i g h

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Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 · Heft XIII price of labour raises the value of provisions, a n d the high price of provisions e n h a n c e s the value of labour.« (30) It seems to be a law of nature, that the poor should be to a certain degree improvident, that there may always be some to fulfil the most servile, the most sordid, and the most ignoble offices in the community. The stock of human happiness is thereby much increased, die delicateren sind befreit von der drudgery, und können höhern callings etc ungestört nachgehn. (39) T h e fleets a n d armies of a state would soon be in want of soldiers a n d of sailors, if sobriety a n d diligence universally prevailed ... M e n who are easy in their circumstances are n o t a m o n g the foremost to engage in a seafaring or military life. D i e A r m e n g e s e t z e n u n v e r m e h r e n zwar die improvidence, m a c h e n die poor aber n i c h t geneigt sich zu fügen in die » d e m a n d s , which the c o m m u n i t y is obliged to m a k e on the m o s t indigent of its m e m b e r s ; it tends to destroy the harmony and beauty, the symmetry and order of that system, which god and nature have established in the world.« ( 3 9 - 4 1 ) In the Progress of society ... s o m e m u s t want; a n d t h e n the only question will be this, W h o is m o s t worthy to suffer cold a n d hunger, the prodigal or provident, the slothful or the diligent, the virtuous or the vicious? (42) E r z ä h l t p. 42 s q q . die e r b a u l i c h e G e s c h i c h t e von den 2 Ziegen (Bock u n d Ziege) die J o h n F e r n a n d o auf der J u a n F e r n a n d e s in der Südsee bei ihrer E n t d e c k u n g ließ. W i e diese bald die ganze Colonie anfüllen; H u n g e r u n t e r i h n e n ausbricht oder a vessel in distress u n t e r i h n e n aufr ä u m t . Später die Spanier, um d e n english privateers zu schaden, W i n d h u n d u n d W i n d h ü n d i n auf dieselbe Insel sezten. R a s c h e V e r m e h r u n g derselben, aber die Ziegen flüchten in die craggy rocks ... n o n e b u t the m o s t watchful, strong, and active of the dogs could get a sufficiency of food. (I.e.) It is the quantity of food which regulates the n u m b e r of the h u m a n species. In the woods u n d in d e m savage state wenige i n h a b i t a n t s ; von diesen h a b e n aber n u r verhältnißmässig wenige M a n g e l zu leiden. As long as food is plenty they will c o n t i n u e to increase a n d multiply; ... the weak m u s t depend u p o n the precarious b o u n t y of the strong; and, sooner or later, the lazy will be left to suffer the n a t u r a l c o n s e q u e n c e of their i n d o l e n c e . F ü h r e n sie n u n Gütergemeinschaft ein u n d lassen j e d e m die Freiheit z u heirathen, they would at first increase their n u m b e r s , b u t n o t the s u m total of their happiness, till by degrees, all being equally reduced to want a n d misery, the weakly would be the first to perish. N e h m e n sie, to procure a m o r e ample, certain a n d regular supply of food ihre Zuflucht z u m breeding of cattle, this plenty would be of long c o n t i n u a n c e ; b u t in process of t i m e its limits would be found. Die activsten würden property erwerben, zahlreiche H e r d e n u n d F a m i l i e n h a b e n ; »whilst the i n d o l e n t would either starve or b e c o m e servants to the rich, a n d the c o m m u n i t y would c o n t i n u e to enlarge till it h a d found its n a t u r a l b o u n d s , a n d b a l a n c e d the quantity of

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food.« Aehnliches R a i s o n n e m e n t b e i m Ackerbau, »when all that is fertile has b e e n cultivated to the highest pitch of industry, the progress m u s t of necessity be stopped, a n d w h e n the h u m a n species shall ||9| h a v e m u l t i plied in proportion to this increase of food, it can proceed no further« ... T h e earth is no where m o r e fertile t h a n it is in China, n o r does any country a b o u n d so m u c h in people; yet t h e cries of deserted children prove, t h a t even they have found limits to their population. ... whilst m e n have appetites and passions, what b u t distress a n d poverty can stop the progress of population? T h e i n h a b i t a n t s of E u r o p e are said to have doubled their n u m bers every 500 years: from which we m a y infer that their quantity of food has b e e n doubled in these periods. T h r o u g h o u t A m e r i c a , for the s a m e reason, they have b e e n d o u b l e d every 25 years; a n d in some colonies, in the space of 15 years. W e n n a new u n d equal division of property were m a d e in England ... oder gar a p e r m a n e n t c o m m u n i t y of goods eingeführt ... wird n u r divertirt the occasional surplus of n a t i o n a l wealth from the industrious to the lazy, they increase the n u m b e r of unprofitable citizens, a n d sow the seeds of misery for the whole c o m m u n i t y ... It is well known that o u r c o m m o n s , without stint, starve all our cattle. H e r e we clearly see the n a t u r a l effects of that c o m m u n i t y of goods, which the poor laws would r e n d e r universal. ( 4 5 - 5 1 ) In respect to population, s o m e countries will reach their ne plus ultra sooner, a n d s o m e later, according as they s u r m o u n t the obstacles which i m p e d e their progress. This period can be retarded by i m p r o v e m e n t s in agriculture, by living h a r d e r or by working m o r e , by extensive c o n q u e s t s or by increasing c o m m e r c e . (54, 5) H a t ein L a n d trotz alledem »reached its u t m o s t limits« d a n n n u r 2 r e m e d i e s : natürliche E n t h a l t e n v o m H e i r a t h e n oder A u s w a n d e r n aller die in distress. Unnatural: Aussetzen der K i n d e r »which is the horrid practice a d o p t e d in t h e richest country u p o n earth to preserve the c o m m u n i t y from famine.« (56, 7) There is an appetite, (sagt der Pfaffe v o m Geschlechtstrieb) w h i c h is a n d should be urgent, b u t which, if left to operate without restraint, would multiply the h u m a n species before provision could be m a d e for their support. Some check, s o m e b a l a n c e is therefore absolutely needful, a n d hunger is the proper balance; hunger, n o t as directly felt, or feared by the individual for himself b u t as foreseen a n d feared for his i m m e d i a t e offspring. (57) Various are the circumstances to be observed in different n a t i o n s , which t e n d to b l u n t the shafts of Cupid, or at least to q u e n c h the torch of H y m e n . Ζ. B. G e l ü b d e der K e u s c h h e i t aus religiösem Aberglauben. Serail. Klugheit, b e m e r k b a r überall auf d e m Occid e n t i n d e m Nichtverheiratetsein der j ü n g r e n S ö h n e ... W e n n alle heiratheten, if all should listen to this call of n a t u r e , ... the whole world in a few years would be distressed with famine. (57, 8) N e i t h e r Switzerland n o r t h e coast of Africa, are depopulated by emigrations, because t h e quantity of

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Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 · Heft XIII food in e a c h r e m a i n s unaltered. It is with t h e h u m a n species as with all other articles of trade without a p r e m i u m ; the d e m a n d will regulate the market. (61, 2) Speculation apart, it is a fact, t h a t in England, we have m o r e t h a n we can feed, a n d m a n y m o r e t h a n we can profitably employ u n d e r the present sys5 t e m of our laws. (65) N o c h m e i n t er fühle m a n n i c h t alle s c h l i m m e n Folgen der Ueberpopulation in England. T h e t e n d e n c y of a law m a y be most destructive; yet, by adventitious circumstances, the bad c o n s e q u e n c e s m a y be checked a n d prevented for a season. (66) Bis die workhouses are completely filled, a n d even after they are full, they serve a d o u b l e purpose: they 10 disarm the magistrate, they i n t i m i d a t e the poor. (67) It has b e e n chiefly from the want of houses t h a t the poor have n o t m o r e rapidly increased. (68) no system can be good which does not, in the first place, encourage i n d u s try, economy, a n d s u b o r d i n a t i o n ; a n d in the second place, regulate population by the d e m a n d for labour. (94) In m a n y parishes where they have no 15 manufactures, b u t the cultivation of the soil, the horses c o n s u m e the prod u c e of m o r e land t h a n t h e i n h a b i t a n t s themselves require. (101)

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Joseph Townsend. A Journey through Spain in the years 1786 und 1787. 3 vol. L o n d o n 1791.

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T. s a g t v o n S p a n i e n : » I n d e p e n d e n t of the M e r i n o Flock, m a n y of t h e great landlords have suffered villages to go to ruin, a n d have let their estates to graziers.« (227) If we suppose, in a good climate, with plenty of food a n d healthy habitations, the n u m b e r of children in each family on the average to be 4, a n d the m e a n age to which they shall arrive to be 50 years; if t h e 10 m e n should marry at the age of 2 1 , a n d the w o m e n at 19, t h e n o n e couple at the e n d of 33 years, will leave 12 d e s c e n d a n t s . In 59 years there will be 24 persons; and at the e n d of 129 J a h r e n 188 oder 90,4 x their first n u m ber. (360, 1) D e r Progress der Bevölkerung m a y be retarded d u r c h : 1) want of food; C h i n a a u c h hier angeführt als das L a n d wo «population is ad15 vanced to the u t m o s t ability of the soil to nourish.« 2) diseases. 3) want of c o m m e r c e for the p r o m o t i o n of industry, a n d of a m a r k e t for the surplus of its produce. 4) war in all its forms. 5) superstitious vows i m p o s e d on t h e m o n a s t i c orders, a n d celibacy enjoined the priesthood. 6) E m i g r a t i o n of the breeding stock, a n d transference of capitals. 7) want of land, or t h e op20 portunity of acquiring it by industry. 8) want of habitations. ( 3 6 2 - 4 )

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Townsend sagt noch in seinem erst citirten Buch: On the subject of population we have h a d warm disputes, whilst some have l a m e n t e d that our n u m b e r s are decreasing, and others with confidence have boasted that our population has rapidly advanced; all seeming to be agreed, that the wealth of a country consists in the n u m b e r of its inhabitants. ||10| D i e ß sei a b e r n u r w a h r , wenn P o p u l a t i o n »die Consequenz« von Industrie u n d frugality. (54)

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A dissertation on the Number of Mankind in ancient and modern Times. In which the superior Populousness of Antiquity is maintained. 5

E d i n b u r g h . 1753.

(von Wallace.) Gesezt es existire n u r ein Paar; a n g e n o m m e n , d a ß alle marry who attain to maturity u n d daß j e d e E h e 6 K i n d e r producirt, 3 males u n d 3 females; 2 davon sollen sterben vor der E h e 1 M a n n u n d 1 female; bleiben 4 zu marry 10 u n d replenish the world: in 33¾ years von der Zeit, wo das original pair b e gan to propagate, they shall have p r o d u c e d their 6 children; u n d d a ß in der 2 Periode von 33¾ J a h r e n jedes der succeeding couples 6 K i n d e r producirt u n d so fort. D a n a c h : Am E n d e der ersten Periode von 33¾ J a h r e n sind 6 persons living, n ä m l i c h das Originalpaar u n d 4 a n d r e : an d e m E n d e von 15 66¾ J a h r e n 12; against 100 years 24 u n d ü b e r das G a n z e lässt sich folgende Tabelle m a c h e n : 1

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Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 · Heft XIII Periode, Jahre Geboren des seit der Schemes. lezten Periode.

0 1 2 3 4 5 6

1 33½ 66 / 100 133½ 166 / 200

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Gestorben seit der lezten Periode.

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Remain in life to propagate

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Summe aller die leben in den respectiven Perioden. 2 2+ 4 6+ 8 - 2 12+ 16- 4 24+ 32 - 8 48+ 64- 16 96 + 128 - 32

Die sums der lezten Columne gesammelt, (addirt.) 2 6 12 24 48 96 192 (p. 3 u. 4)

A n d thus we shall find m a n k i n d to double themselves in e a c h period of 33½ years, as will be evident from t h e c o m p o s i t i o n of the table. (5) D i e ß giebt für die 7 Periode, also im 233 J a h r des s c h e m e , 384 E i n w o h n e r u n d in der 37sten Periode, im 1233 J a h r des S c h e m e s eine E i n w o h n e r z a h l von 412, 316, 860, 416. (7) Die Zahl, diese R a t e des Progresses ist aber zu groß, da sonst die M e n s c h e n m u s t have overstocked the earth long before the deluge. (8) A b e r s a g t er: it is certain, t h a t they (die M e n s c h e n ) multiply irregularly, a n d m a y have b e e n m o r e n u m e r o u s i n s o m e preceeding, t h a n some s u b s e q u e n t ages; u n d daß, d u r c h verschiedne U r s a c h e n , there has never b e e n s u c h a n u m b e r of i n h a b i t a n t s on t h e earth at any o n e p o i n t of t i m e , as might have b e e n easily raised by the prolific virtue of m a n k i n d . (12) Die Ursachen dieser paucity of i n h a b i t a n t s u n d irregularity of increase, sind mannigfach: natürliche u n d moralische. Erstre bald m e h r constanter Natur, wie Temperatur, Clima, barrenness etc o d e r m e h r wechselnd, wie inclemency besondrer seasons, plagues, famines, E r d b e b e n , U e b e r s c h w e m m u n g e n . (12) S c h l i m m r e n Effect h a b e n die moral causes, which arise from the passions a n d vices of m e n ; d a z u gehören Krieg, great poverty, corrupt institutions sei es civiler oder religiöser Art, i n t e m p e r a n c e , debauchery, irregular a m o u r s , idleness, luxury, u n d whatever either prevents marriage, weakens t h e generating faculties of m e n , or renders t h e m negligent or incapable of educating their children, and cultivating the earth to advantage. ... I n d e e d , h a d it n o t b e e n for the errors a n d vices of m a n kind, and the defects of government a n d education, the earth m u s t have b e e n m u c h better peopled, perhaps m i g h t have b e e n overstocked, m a n y ages ago. (13) 'Twas simplicity of taste, frugality, p a t i e n c e of labour, a n d c o n t e n t m e n t with a little, which m a d e the world so p o p u l o u s in a n c i e n t times. T h e decay of these virtues, a n d the i n t r o d u c t i o n of a corrupted a n d luxurious taste, have contributed in a great m e a s u r e to d i m i n i s h the n u m bers of m a n k i n d in m o d e r n days. ... elegance u n d refinement, wenn dis-

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played in public works, a n d things of a durable n a t u r e , contribute zur h a p piness u n d g r a n d e u r der Gesellschaft u n d sind kein H i n d e r n i ß für die populousness. But if displayed in every t h e least trifle in private life, a n d employed to satisfy the ridiculous taste a n d whimsical fancies of e a c h particular citizen, m u s t c o n t r i b u t e in a great degree to d i m i n i s h the n u m b e r of m a n k i n d , as the c o n s t a n t labour, great expence, a n d n u m b e r of h a n d s , by which this luxury is m a i n t a i n e d , m u s t m a k e the necessaries of life scarce a n d dear. (160) |

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| i i | David Hume: Political Discourses. E d i n b u r g h . 1752.

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As there is in all m e n , b o t h female a n d m a l e , a desire a n d power of generation m o r e active t h a n is ever universally exerted, the restraints, which it lies u n d e r , m u s t proceed from s o m e difficulties in m e n s situation, which it belongs to a wise legislature carefully to observe a n d remove. A l m o s t every m a n , who thinks he can m a i n t a i n a family, will have o n e ; a n d the h u m a n species, at this rate of propagation, would m o r e t h a n double every generation, were every one coupled as soon as he comes to the age of puberty. H o w fast do m a n k i n d multiply in every colony or new settlement; where it is an easy m a t t e r to provide for a family; a n d where m e n are no way straitned or confin'd, as in long establish'd governments? History tells us frequently of plagues, that have swept away the third or 4 part of a people: Yet in a generation or 2, the destruction was n o t perceiv'd; a n d the society has again acquir'd their former n u m b e r etc. (159, 60) To rear a child in L o n d o n , till he could be serviceable, would cost m u c h dearer, t h a n to buy o n e of the same age from Scotland or Ireland; where he h a d b e e n rais'd in a cottage, cover'd with rags, and fed on o a t m e a l or potatoes. Those who h a d slaves, therefore, in all the richer a n d m o r e p o p u l o u s countries, w o u ' d discourage the pregnancy of the females, a n d either prevent or destroy the birth. T h e h u m a n species would perish in those places, where it ought to encrease the fastest; a n d a perpetual recruit be n e e d e d from all the poorer a n d m o r e desert provinces. Such a c o n t i n u e d drain would t e n d mightily to depopulate t h e state, a n d render great cities ten t i m e s m o r e destructive t h a n with us. ... If L o n d o n , at present, without m u c h encreasing, n e e d s a yearly recruit from t h e country of 5000 people, as is c o m m o n l y c o m p u t e d :

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(Malthus.) An Essay on the Principle of Population, as it affects the Future Improvement of Society. With Remarks on the Speculations of Mr Godwin, M. Condorcet and other writers.

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L o n d o n . 1798. Necessity, that imperious all pervading law of n a t u r e , restrains t h e m (Pflanzen u n d Thiere) within the prescribed b o u n d s . T h e race of plants, a n d the race of animals shrink u n d e r this great restrictive law. A n d the race of m a n cannot, by any efforts of reason, escape from it. A m o n g plants a n d a n i m a l s 10 its effects are waste of seed, sickness, a n d p r e m a t u r e death. A m o n g m a n kind, misery a n d vice. ... misery is an absolutely necessary c o n s e q u e n c e of it. Vice is a highly probable c o n s e q u e n c e . (15) if the premises are just, the a r g u m e n t is conclusive against the perfectibility of the m a s s of m a n k i n d . (17) Population, w h e n u n c h e c k e d increases in a geometrical ratio; a n d sub- 15 sistence for m a n in an arithmetical ratio. (18) In no state that we have yet known, has t h e power of p o p u l a t i o n b e e n left to exert itself with perfect freedom. (19) In the U n i t e d States of A m e r i c a , where the m e a n s of subsistence have b e e n m o r e ample, the m a n n e r s of the people m o r e pure, a n d consequently the checks to early marriages fewer, t h a n in any of the m o d - 20 ern states of Europe, the p o p u l a t i o n has b e e n found to d o u b l e itself in 25 years. This ratio of increase, t h o u g h short of the u t m o s t power of population; yet as the result of actual experience, we will take as o u r rule; a n d say, ( s c h ö n e Beweisführung) T h a t Population, w h e n u n c h e c k e d , goes on doubling itself every 25 years, or increases in a geometrical ratio. (20, 1) In 25 d e n ersten 25 J a h r e n m a g die Subsistenz verdoppelt werden, by breaking

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u p m o r e land, a n d b y great e n c o u r a g e m e n t t o agriculture. I n d e n n ä c h s t e n 25 J a h r e n it is impossible to suppose t h a t the p r o d u c e could be q u a d r u pled. ... T h e very u t m o s t that we c a n conceive, is, that the increase in t h e second 25 years m i g h t e q u a l t h e present p r o d u c e . Let us t h e n take this for our rule, t h o u g h certainly far b e y o n d t h e t r u t h ... This ratio of increase is evidently arithmetical. ([21,] 22) It m a y be fairly said, therefore, (wofür?) that the m e a n s of subsistence increase in an arithmetical ratio. Let us n o w bring the effects of these 2 ratios together. (23) ( G r o s s e r Logiker.) Taking the population of t h e world at any n u m b e r , a 1000 millions, for instance, the h u m a n species would increase in the ratio of 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, 128, 256, 512 etc u n d subsistence as 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 etc. In 2 centuries and %, the population would be to the m e a n s of subsistence = 512:10: in 3 centuries = 4096:13 u n d in 2000 years t h e difference would be almost incalculable, t h o u g h the p r o d u c e in t h a t t i m e would have increased to an i m m e n s e extent. (25, 26) No limits whatever are placed to the p r o d u c t i o n s of the earth; they m a y increase for ever a n d be greater t h a n any assignable quantity; yet still the power of p o p u l a t i o n being a power of a superior order, the increase of the h u m a n species c a n only be kept c o m m e n s u r a t e to the increase of the m e a n s of subsistence, by t h e constant operation of t h e strong law of necessity acting as a check u p o n the greater power. (26) D e r constant effort towards p o p u l a t i o n , der act selbst in d e n most vicious societies, increases the n u m b e r of people before the m e a n s of subsistence are increased. Dieselbe food d a h e r u n t e r m e h r M ä u l e r z u theilen. D e r poor m u ß daher schlechter leben, m a n c h e in grosse distress gebracht. D e r Arbeitslohn sinkt, weil der Preiß der provisions steigt. W ä h r e n d dieser Periode Population stationär. In der Zwischenzeit encouragirt die Wohlfeilheit der Arbeit, die plenty of labourers, u n d ihre vermehrte Industrie die ||12| cultivators to employ m o r e labour u p o n their l a n d etc etc bis schließlich die Subsistenzmittel in derselben Proportion zur Bevölkerung wie früher. D a n n die Situation der Arbeiter wieder erträglich comfortable, the restraints to population are in s o m e degree loosened; a n d the s a m e retrograde u n d progressive m o v e m e n t s with respect to happiness are repeated. This sort of oscillation oder vibration existirt in alien old states. ( 2 9 - 3 1 ) A foresight of the difficulties a t t e n d i n g t h e rearing of a family, acts as a preventive check; a n d the actual distresses of s o m e of the lower classes, by which they are disabled from giving the proper food and attention to their children, acts as a positive check, to the n a t u r a l increase of population. (62, 3) Die effects der preventiven checks, dieser restraints u p o n marriage are but to conspicuous in the c o n s e q u e n t vices that are p r o d u c e d in almost every part of the world; vices, that are continually involving b o t h sexes in inextricable u n h a p p i n e s s . (69, 70) W e n n i c h e i n e m a r m e n M a n n Geld gebe, supposing

227

Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 · Heft XIII t h e p r o d u c e of the country to r e m a i n the same, I give h i m a title to a larger share of that produce t h a n formerly, which share he c a n n o t receive without diminishing the shares of others. (80) T h e poorlaws of England t e n d to depress the general condition of the poor in these 2 ways. Their first obvious t e n d e n c y is to increase p o p u l a t i o n without increasing the food for its supp o r t . . . d a d u r c h der Preiß der provisions erhöht, d a d u r c h ein grosser Theil auf die parish geworfen. ... Secondly, die quantity of provisions c o n s u m e d in workhouses u p o n a part of the society, that c a n n o t in general be considered as the most valuable part, d i m i n i s h e s the shares that would otherwise belong to m o r e industrious, a n d m o r e worthy m e m b e r s , u n d t h u s in the same m a n n e r forces m o r e to b e c o m e d e p e n d e n t . ([83,] 84) All the checks m a y be fairly resolved into misery a n d vice. (100) F a m i n e seems to be the last, the m o s t dreadful resource of n a t u r e . T h e power of p o p u l a t i o n is so superior to the power in the earth to p r o d u c e subsistence for m a n , that prem a t u r e d e a t h m u s t in s o m e shape or other visit the h u m a n race. T h e vices of m a n k i n d are active and able ministers of depopulation. T h e y are the precursors in the great army of destruction; a n d often finish the dreadful work themselves. But should they fail in this war of extermination, sickly seasons, epidemics, pestilence, a n d plague, advance in terrific array, a n d sweep off their t h o u s a n d s a n d ten t h o u s a n d s . Should success be still incomplete; gigantic inevitable famine stalks in the rear, a n d with o n e mighty blow, levels t h e population with the food of the world. (139, 40) Es gilt also in every age and in every state in which m a n has existed, or does now exist. 1) T h a t the increase of p o p u l a t i o n is necessarily limited by the m e a n s of subsistence. 2) that p o p u l a t i o n does invariably increase w h e n the m e a n s of subsistence increase. A n d 3) T h a t the superior power of population is repressed, and the actual p o p u l a t i o n kept e q u a l to the m e a n s of subsistence by misery and vice. (140, 41) t h e t r u t h is, t h a t t h o u g h h u m a n institutions appear to be the obvious a n d obstrusive causes of m u c h mischief to m a n k i n d ; yet, in reality, they are light a n d superficial, they are m e r e feathers that float on the surface, in c o m p a r i s o n with those deeper seated causes of impurity that corrupt the springs, a n d r e n d e r turbid the whole stream of h u m a n life. (177) the most n a t u r a l a n d obvious check seemed to be, to m a k e every m a n provide for his own children. (199) D i e ß liegt zu G r a n d e der institution of marriage. (200) W h e n these 2 f u n d a m e n t a l laws of society, the security of property, a n d the institution of marriage, were o n c e established, inequality of conditions m u s t necessarily follow. T h o s e who were b o r n after the division of property, would c o m e into a world already possessed. If their parents, from having too large a family, could n o t give t h e m sufficient for their support, what are they to do in a world where every thing is appropriated? ... It has appeared, t h a t from the inevitable laws of

228

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40

Aus Thomas Robert Malthus: An essay on the principle of population

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15

20

25

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40

our n a t u r e , some h u m a n beings m u s t suffer from want. These are the u n happy persons who, in the great lottery of life, have drawn a blank. T h e n u m b e r s of these c l a i m a n t s would soon exceed the ability of the surplus produce to supply. ... Die Besitzer dieses surplusproduce werden d a n n T h e i l n e h m e n lassen, who were able, a n d professed themselves willing, to exert their strength in procuring a further surplus produce ... T h e fund a p propriated to the m a i n t e n a n c e of labour, would be, the aggregate quantity of food possessed by t h e owners of l a n d b e y o n d their own c o n s u m p t i o n . W h e n the d e m a n d s u p o n this fund were great a n d n u m e r o u s , it would naturally be divided in very small shares. L a b o u r would be ill paid. M e n would offer to work for a bare subsistence, a n d t h e rearing of families would be checked by sickness a n d misery. On the contrary, when this fund was increasing fast; w h e n it was great in proportion to the n u m b e r of c l a i m a n t s ; it would be divided in m u c h larger shares. ... On the state of this fund, t h e happiness or the degree of misery, prevailing a m o n g the lower classes of people ... at present chiefly d e p e n d s . A n d on this happiness, or degree of misery, depends the increase, stationariness, or decrease of p o p u l a t i o n . ( 2 0 3 - 2 0 6 ) the principal a r g u m e n t of this essay tends to place in a strong point of view, the improbability, t h a t the lower classes of people in any country, should ever be sufficiently free from want a n d labour, to attain any high degree of intellectual i m p r o v e m e n t . (217, 18) It should be o b served, that the principal a r g u m e n t of this essay, only goes to prove the n e cessity of a class of proprietors, a n d a class of labourers. (287 N o t e ) U p o n examination, it will be found, t h a t the increase (des R e i c h t h u m s im m o dernen Europa und besonders England) has b e e n chiefly in the p r o d u c e of labour, and n o t in t h e p r o d u c e of land; and therefore, t h o u g h t h e wealth of the n a t i o n has b e e n advancing with a quick pace, the effectual funds for the m a i n t e n a n c e of l a b o u r have b e e n increasing very slowly; a n d t h e result is such as might be expected. T h e increasing wealth of the n a t i o n has h a d little or no tendency to better the c o n d i t i o n of the labouring poor. T h e y have not, I believe, a greater c o m m a n d of t h e necessaries and conveniences of life; and a m u c h greater proportion of t h e m , t h a n at the period of t h e revolution, is employed in m a n u f a c t u r e s , a n d crowded together in close and u n w h o l e s o m e r o o m s . (312, 13) | 113 j A capital employed u p o n land, m a y be u n p r o d u c t i v e to the individu a l that employs it, a n d yet be highly productive to t h e society. A capital employed in trade on the contrary, m a y be highly productive to the individual, a n d yet be almost totally u n p r o d u c t i v e to t h e society: a n d this is the reason why I should call m a n u f a c t u r i n g labour unproductive, in comparison of that which is employed in agriculture, a n d not for the reason given by the french economists. (333)

229

f Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 • Heft XIII

Gray versus Malthus. The Principles of Population and Production investigated etc by George Purves. L o n d o n . 1818.

Β. I.) The Principle of Population.

5

(P. discuttirt die beiden Bücher v o n Gray (ganz antimalthusisch) u n d Malthus.) ( D a s B u c h von Gray heißt: H a p p i n e s s of States.) t h e n a t u r a l progress of p o p u l a t i o n is found in no particular ratio; b u t its progress is regulated by its various c i r c u m s t a n c e s in any given district. (14) It is to be particularly a t t e n d e d to in dieser Frage ( n ä m l i c h ob die animals sich ra10 scher v e r m e h r e n als ihre Subsistenzmittel) t h a t animals themselves form a portion of food; and that m o s t a n i m a l s of t h e sea, a n d m a n y of t h e land genera, including m a n , live either wholly or in part on a n i m a l s . T h e m o r e rapidly t h e n that animals increase, t h e m o r e do they increase t h e q u a n t i t y of n o u r i s h m e n t . (28) W e r e the supposed t e n d e n c y t h e actual fact with re15 spect to irrational a n i m a l s , it would by no m e a n s follow that it is so with respect to the rational a n i m a l , m a n . (32) Does t h e n t h e c o m m o n average price of food show any s y m p t o m of a p e r p e t u a l excess in t h e d e m a n d above t h e supply? N o . T h e average profits of t h e farmer are only s u c h as are m a d e by other dealers. Occasionally, from a deficiency, real or supposed, his 20 prices have risen far b e y o n d t h e fair average rate u n d occasionally from a m o r e t h a n u s u a l a b u n d a n c e , t h e prices have fallen below t h e average rate. (42, 43) D e r fair average price of subsistence ist a decisive proof, d a ß der impulse given by the increasing d e m a n d was sufficient in subsistence, as in every other b r a n c h of circuland, to raise t h e supply to t h e increased d e - 25

230

Aus George Purves: Gray versus Malthus m a n d , a n d t h u s keep t h e former fully up to t h e latter. (44) It is an a b u n ­ d a n c e of subsistence w h i c h h a s a strong influence as a check. Luxury, or an excess of eating a n d drinking, t e n d s to d e f e c u n d a t e , or to d i m i n i s h t h e n u m b e r of births, as well as to s h o r t e n t h e lives of those who are b o r n . A n d 5

this powerful influence s e e m s to i n c r e a s e in efficacy in p r o p o r t i o n as p o p u ­ l a t i o n grows m o r e n u m e r o u s . (65) P o p u l a t i o n h a s n o regular n a t u r a l ratio of increase, w h e n c o m p a r e d with t i m e . ... Subsistence, again, w h e n t h e p r o d u c e is s p o n t a n e o u s , s e e m s little capable of any increase at all. W h e n t h e p r o d u c e is artificial, it h a s evidently no ratio of increase of itself. T h e 10 ratio is entirely i m p r e s s e d u p o n it, or given to it by t h e cultivator. (67)

Β.

II.

subsistence,

Does or

Population subsistence

Regulate Population?

W e n n die M e n s c h e n originally subsisted b y t h e b o u n t y o f n a t u r e alone, a n d were occasionally r e g u l a t e d in t h e i r n u m b e r s by t h e q u a n t i t y of food 15 with w h i c h she p r e s e n t e d t h e m , an increase of p o p u l a t i o n took this regulat­ ing power out o f h e r h a n d s , a n d o f h u n t e r s m a d e t h e m regulators, i n t h e character of cultivators a n d s h e p h e r d s . A n d from t h e m o m e n t of t h e i r c o m ­ m e n c i n g cultivators, they have c o n t i n u e d regulators ever since. (79) D e r h u n t e r ist ganz regulated d u r c h die s p o n t a n e o u s supplies of n a t u r e , wie der 20

Tiger, der Löwe, der Wolf. D e r Schaafhirt regulirt einigermassen die n u m ber of animals w h i c h he kept, yet their feed d e p e n d e d on t h e s p o n t a n e o u s p r o d u c e of n a t u r e . Erst der regular cultivator ist a complete regulator. (80) M a l t h u s giebt a completely regulating power to subsistence over p o p u l a tion. (82) If be m e a n t only, t h a t there m u s t be a sufficient quantity of s u b -

25

sistence to feed p o p u l a t i o n , this sapient doctrine is a truism. (90) mere abundance of subsistence wirkt d u r c h a u s n i c h t direkt auf die V e r m e h r u n g der Bevölkerung, it h a s a strong contrary influence. Beweis 1815, w h e n t h e u n u s u a l a b u n d a n c e , by lowering t h e price of subsistence, and, of course, lessening t h e profits of t h e farmer a n d his m e a n s of giving e m p l o y m e n t , as

30

well as the wages of his people, h a d p e r h a p s as unfavourable an influence against marriage, as the scarcity of 1801. (95) Subsistence h a s no level of its own. ... Population is constantly employed . . . in raising subsistence to its own level. (97) T h e r e is a similar e q u i l i b r i u m between t h e hats m a n u factured by the h a t m a k e r , a n d t h e h e a d s t h a t wear t h e m , as between t h e 35 eatables produced by t h e cultivator, a n d t h e m o u t h s that eat t h e m . But is it the n u m b e r of hats that regulates t h e n u m b e r of h e a d s , or t h e n u m b e r of heads the hats? (103) F r o m universal experience t h e fact in n a t u r e is, t h a t

231

Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 • Heft XIII t h e increase of population is m u c h in the inverse ratio of the quantity of subsistence used, to the point of a bare sufficiency of m e r e necessaries. T h e less a given n u m b e r of people c o n s u m e , on the average, the faster, on the average, they increase: and vice versa. (129) Bei d e n T h i e r e n b e k a n n t , daß high feeding is unfavourable to prolificness. M a n is t h u s p u t n o t on the 5 s a m e footing with a n i m a l s but with vegetables. F o r grain, turnips, cabbages, potatoes, are r e n d e r e d m o r e a b u n d a n t from the greater quantity of artificial food supplied to t h e m . (132) W ä r e es w a h r , daß »population has an uniform t e n d e n c y to rise fully or nearly to the average a m o u n t of the m e a n s of subsistence«, so w ü r d e »there be scarcely any exportation or im- 10 portation of subsistence. Districts a n d countries would just feed t h e m selves; a n d there would be little or no surplus on the one h a n d , and little or no deficiency on the other. Yet few articles can boast so m u c h importing and exporting as subsistence, or display so m u c h fluctuation in t h e a n n u a l a m o u n t . « ([134,] 135) N e h m e n wir Berwickshire. Erste county in England, 15 wo die m o d e r n e Agricultur angewandt. Agricultur ist hier das chief m e d i u m of e m p l o y m e n t . Diese beschäftigt in d e n least improved districts % \ |14| der Bevölkerung, aber hier n u r % bei d e m highly improved state of cultivation. V o n d e m defect of e m p l o y m e n t marriage n i c h t frühzeitig in it: yet the agricultural t e m p e r a n c e in the style of living u n d die G e s u n d h e i t rend- 20 er it productive, and its offspring healthy. So beständig a considerable n u m b e r of superfluous h a n d s produced, a n d these leave it to find employm e n t ... T h u s a deficiency of e m p l o y m e n t , a n d the emigration arising from it, render population stationary in a country, which produces such an imm e n s e surplus quantity of subsistence. (141) W h a t e v e r in a district creates 25 an additional a m o u n t of e m p l o y m e n t , has a t e n d e n c y to p r o m o t e early marriage, as well as to retain the offspring on the spot. (142) It is the proportion which the circulators, who l a b o u r at cultivation, bears to the p o p u lation of a given district, that regulates the quantity of subsistence produced in it; a n d it is the circumstances of these circulators, which regulate 30 that proportion. (144) It is clear, that the regulating power is as completely in the possession of m a n with respect to subsistence, as with respect to any other supply provided by h i m . (165)

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F Aus George Purves: Gray versus Malthus

B.

III.

Does with

5

Population respect

to

tend

to

overstock

employment?

In p r o p o r t i o n as p o p u l a t i o n is t h i n , or increases slow, the m e m b e r s are u n ­ iformly, caeteris p a r i b u s , less generally or constantly employed. ... In very thinly peopled regions, t h e great m a s s s p e n d m o s t of their t i m e in idleness, or in half e m p l o y m e n t . T h e average a m o u n t of t h e d e m a n d is smaller, while the average q u a n t i t y of b u s i n e s s d o n e by individuals is less. (169) every a d d i t i o n to p o p u l a t i o n m u s t necessarily create a c o r r e s p o n d i n g a d d i ­ t i o n to e m p l o y m e n t . (173) In proof of t h e increase in the average employ-

10

m e n t arising from t h e increase of p o p u l a t i o n , t h e r e is an u n r e m i t t i n g tend­ ency to emigrate from t h e less to t h e m o r e p o p u l o u s districts in search of e m p l o y m e n t : ζ . B . v o n d e n H i g h l a n d s n a c h Lanark, von S c h o t t l a n d u n d Ir­ land n a c h L o n d o n , von der Schweiz n a c h F r a n k r e i c h . A n d e r s e i t s : t h e m o r e p o p u l o u s a district or country, the smaller is the e m i g r a t i o n from either.

15

(178) N a c h der S u b s i s t e n z t h e o r i e : »Caeteris paribus, the t h i n n e r (state) will be better e m p l o y e d a n d richer, till we r e a c h the h u n t e r ' s state which will be the best employed, a n d richest of all except w h e n subsistence h a p ­ pens t o b e m o r e t h a n usually short. O n this theory, check p o p u l a t i o n a n d a u g m e n t subsistence (were this i n d e e d at all practicable for a n y n u m b e r of

20

years) a n d you increase e m p l o y m e n t a n d wealth.« (194, 5) T h e increase of p o p u l a t i o n m u s t e i t h e r t e n d t o a u g m e n t e m p l o y m e n t a n d wealth, o r t o di­ m i n i s h it. A n d to check it m u s t do t h e reverse. If t h e increase p r o d u c e s m o r e e m p l o y m e n t a n d wealth, t h e c h e c k i n g m u s t injure t h e process a n d di­ m i n i s h both. If the increase again t e n d s to lessen t h e m , the checking m u s t

25

t e n d to enlarge t h e m . T h e m o r e it is c h e c k e d t h e n etc. (195, 6) T h e in­ crease of p o p u l a t i o n uniformly t e n d s to p r o m o t e luxury or t h e u s e of super­ fluous food, also e m p l o y m e n t ... A u s s e r d e m , in cultivating a country, zu­ erst die besten L ä n d e r e i e n gewählt. In proportion as it fills, the lands m o r e unfavourably situated, are h a d recourse to by the cultivator. N o w these

30

lands require m o r e labouring. (200, 1)

Β. or

IV.

Does

diminish

Population the

average

in

its amount

increase

tend

of Income

to and

augment Wealth?

the increase of p o p u l a t i o n is t h e grand, i n d e e d the sole original cause of the p e r m a n e n t increase of wealth. (226)

233

Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 • Heft XIII

Β.

V. the

Some effects

Practical of the

Topics, 2

including

Theories.

T h e supply of subsistence in t h e a n n u a l crops is generally m o r e t h a n a year before t h e d e m a n d ; a n d , if we i n c l u d e t h o s e forms of subsistence, w h i c h re­ quire m o r e t h a n a year to prepare t h e m for t h e m a r k e t with profit, as t h e

5

greater p o r t i o n of cattle, it is m u c h m o r e t h a n t h a t in a d v a n c e . In case of any p a r t i c u l a r failure of crops, or of any p a r t i c u l a r increase of p o p u l a t i o n , this store in a d v a n c e is drawn u p o n to supply t h e deficiency. Subsistence in t h e green form, as potatoes, or in t h e form of m e a t in case of necessity, is c o n s u m e d in a larger p o r t i o n t h a n u s u a l . (366)

234

10

Aus William Thomas Thornton: Over-population and its remedy

William Thomas Thornton. Overpopulation and its Remedy. By W. Th. Thornton. L o n d o n 1846.

ch.

I.

Definition

of the

Term

Overpopulation.

Overpopulation m a y be shortly defined to be a deficiency of e m p l o y m e n t for those who live by labour, oder a r e d u n d a n c y of the labouring class above the n u m b e r of persons t h a t t h e fund applied to the r e m u n e r a t i o n of labour can m a i n t a i n in comfort. (3)

ch.

II.

Evidences in

England

of und

Overpopulation Wales.

In England zeigt der lezte Census, daß K i n d e r u n t e r 10 Jahren, old w o m e n of 60 u n d old m e n of 70, verhielten sich zu der Zahl of m a l e s zwischen 20 u n d 70 = 4,566,813: 3,670,677 oder = about \% to 1. In E n g l a n d , therefore, the average earnings of an ablebodied m a l e adult, married or single, ought, after supplying his own personal wants, to yield a surplus w h i c h would suffice for t h e subsistence of 1¾ other persons. (9) D i e agricultural labourers bilden, m i t A u s n a h m e der d o m e s t i c servants, the m o s t n u m e r o u s class in the country. (11) U n t i l the late change in the poor-law, t h e laws affecting the settlement of p a u p e r s virtually almost confined the english field labourer to his native parish. (I.e.) ||15| D i e allotment holders of Lincolnshire and Rutland, u n d t h e y e o m e n of Cumberland und Westmoreland b i l d e n die happiest portion der english peasantry. (Die ersten leben a u c h in

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Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 • Heft XIII Dreckhütten, wo no k i n d h e a r t e d m a s t e r would keep a cow in. A b e r sie h a b e n hinlänglich Futter.) An der a n d r e n E x t r e m i t ä t der scale stehn die Kerle in d e n counties of Wilts u n d Somerset. ( 1 7 - 1 9 ) In Dorsetshire k a n n in general ein Arbeiter n i c h t m e h r earn als 8 sh. per W o c h e . E i n e w o m a n k a n n 6 d., 8 d. oder 1 sh. d e n Tag m a c h e n , je n a c h der season, aber die Beschäftigung von W e i b e r n in Agricultur ist n i c h t c o n t i n u o u s u n d des cottagers wife during the year erndtet n i c h t viel ü b e r 2 I. 10 sh. Also ein m a n u n d his wife 9 sh. a week, oder 23 I. 8 s. a year, to provide for 3¼ persons on an average. 2 I. 10 sh. go for rent, 11. 10 sh. für fuel, 11. 10 sh. für soap u n d candles, 5 l. für clothes, lässt 12 I. 18 sh. das Jahr, oder ungefähr 8 d. % per day, für food, etwas m e h r als 2 d. % a h e a d daily. Taking the average price of s u c h bread as is used by t h e peasantry in the W e s t of E n g l a n d to be 1 sh. the gallon loaf of 8 lb. 11 oz. u n d t h a t of potatoes 14 d. per b u s h e l of 55 lb., 2 d. / will purchase about 29 oz. of bread or 10 lb of potatoes. In Ireland ... 5 p o u n d s of potatos are considered no m o r e t h a n a sufficient m e a l for a labourer. (20, 1) Ihre cottages are generally old a n d decayed; the walls are of m u d , the floors generally of stone, b u t s o m e t i m e s of earth u n d die floors often below the level of the ground outside. (22) K ö n n t e er selbst m e h r für W o h n u n g zahlen, der labourer, as he m u s t live n e a r the farm on which he works, he m u s t content himself with s u c h lodgings as the owners of the l a n d think proper to provide. (23) N o c h s c h l i m m e r wie Dorsetshire ist Wilts u n d Somersetshire. In Wiltshire n ä m l i c h wages are quite as low u n d in der T h a t lower ... the farmers wonder how their m e n c a n live u p o n their earnings. (23) Weniger Brod noch, Kartoffeln m i t Salz oft die einzige N a h r u n g . In Somersetshire die matters n o c h schlechter. Wages are 8 s., 7 sh. u n d m a n c h m a l 6 sh. a week, without any addition, except an allowance of cyder, worth about 15 d., which the labourer perhaps would be quite as well without. (24) In den m e i s t e n T h e i l e n von Yorkshire u n d a n d r e n n o r t h e r n counties die peasantry little worse off als die von Northumberland. They are nearly as well fed, a n d they c a n n o t be worse h o u s e d . In Kent the rate of agricultural wages is rather above the average. ... In Norfolk (hier farms generally very large, a n d farmers m e n of considerable capital) ... Even when e m p l o y m e n t was a b u n d a n t , a n d while wages r e m a i n e d at the old rate of 10 sh. a week, the peasantry of these 2 counties s e l d o m tasted anything better t h a n dry bread; so that, when e m p l o y m e n t was only to be h a d every other day, and the rate of wages fell to 7 or 8 sh. a week, their situation bec a m e truly deplorable. ( 2 4 - 2 6 ) D i e peasantry von Bedfordshire und Buckinghamshire nicht besser dran als die des W e s t e n von England. Diese 2 counties die principal seats von 2 m a n u f a c t u r e s , those of pillow lace u n d straw plat, die vor 20 or 30 J a h r e n , enabled the wives a n d daughters of cottagers to earn as m u c h as their h u s b a n d s a n d brothers. Diese M a n u f a c t u -

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ren seitdem verfallen u n d n u n brought so low, daß persons engaged in t h e m nicht % ihrer früheren earnings erhalten. D e s farmlabourer's 7, 8 oder 9 sh. a week have n o w b e c o m e the m a i n s t a y of h i s family. (26) Die R e b e c c a Riots in Südwales, S o m m e r 1843, zogen die Aufmerksamkeit auf d e n Stand der Einwohner, die (die peasantry) s e e m to be worse off t h a n in t h e worst parts of England. 7 sh. a week, das m i n i m u m of english agricultural wages, are there the m a x i m u m , u n d are o b t a i n e d only by labourers in the employm e n t o f landowners u n d g e n t l e m e n farmers. S u c h labourers c o m m o n l y have their cottages rent free. D i e m e i s t e n farms small, n i c h t ü b e r 100 acres; u n d die poorer farmers pay their m e n only 8 d., 9 d. or, at most, a shilling a day, or 6 d. or 8 d. a day m i t food, if, as is often the case, t h e m e n board with their masters. Coarse barley bread, flummery, a n d potatoes, are almost their sole food, a n d m a n y of the small farmers themselves have little else except milk, cheese, a n d bacon. T h e y s e l d o m taste any other a n i m a l food. ([26,] 27) D i e allgemeine A n w e n d u n g der M a s c h i n e r i e u n d Dampfkraft auf m a n u f a c t u r e s h a t die leztren von der Stadt ins L a n d gezogen, where the n u m b e r of workpeople required in a large establishm e n t is most easily procurable. E i n oder 2 decaying m a n u f a c t u r e s still linger in the cottages of t h e poor, so wie die of pillow lace u n d straw plat, in Buckingham-Bedfordshire u n d einigen a n d r e n m i d l a n d u n d western counties; die of shirt-button m a k i n g in Dorsetshire. Viele h a n d l o o m w e a v ers u n d stocking m a k e r s residiren in the villages of the m a n u f a c t u r i n g districts ... It m a y be laid down as a general rule, that, wherever agriculture is carried on in the n e i g h b o u r h o o d of other occupations, its wages will be found nearly, if n o t quite, at t h e b o t t o m of the scale. (27, 8) T h e harvests in England, in 1834 a n d t h e 2 following years, so productiv, d a ß der average Preiß des corn w ä h r e n d dieser Periode is 44 s. 8 d. per qr, less als seit 1786 ... it has b e e n proved by experience that the difference in t h e s u m s laid out by the labouring classes in dress etc, in cheap a n d dear years, h a s m o r e effect u p o n the welfare of the manufacturers t h a n almost any other cause whatever. (49) S c h u l d e n d h a u p t s ä c h l i c h der c o m m e r c i a l revulsion in d e n U n i t e d States, der value of british exports to foreign countries fell, in 1837, um m e h r als 11 Mill. £ St. below its a m o u n t in 1836. A b e r die Prod u c t i o n schritt fort ... T h e manufacturers in general probably fancied t h a t the depression of trade would be of short duration, a n d did n o t i m m e d i ately perceive the ||16| necessity of contracting their operations; a n d those a m o n g t h e m who h a d established themselves with borrowed capital, saw no other c h a n c e of m e e t i n g their e n g a g e m e n t s t h a n by extending their business as m u c h as possible. Every m a n u f a c t u r e consequently c o n t i n u e d to be carried on with u n a b a t e d activity; u n d da die Z a h l der factories etc sehr vermehrt war 1835 u n d 36, the quantity of goods produced, instead of fall-

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Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 · Heft XIII ing off in proportion to the d i m i n i s h e d d e m a n d , s e e m s even to have gone on increasing. This a b u n d a n c e of goods lowered their price, a n d their low price caused the c o n s u m p t i o n of t h e m in foreign countries to be so largely a u g m e n t e d , that, in 1838 a n d the 3 succeeding years, t h e average a n n u a l value of british exports b e c a m e fast so groß als 1836 u n d viel grösser als 5 1835. Diese vermehrte exportation n ü z t e d e m m a s t e r m a n u f a c t u r e r n i c h t s , da sie d u r c h zu niedrige Preisse erkauft war. Es war i h n e n u n m ö g l i c h to c o n t i n u e this course long, a n d their difficulties were a u g m e n t e d by t h e scanty harvests of 1 8 3 8 - 4 1 , which, raising the price of food in E n g l a n d by Y above its price in 1 8 3 5 - 6 , r e d u c e d in a corresponding degree t h e h o m e 10 d e m a n d for their goods. ( 5 1 , 2) In the workshops of B i r m i n g h a m a n d Wolv e r h a m p t o n , in the potteries of Staffordshire, a n d a m o n g the lacemakers every where, there are n u m e r o u s instances of boys a n d girls u n d e r 10 years of age, working 10, 12, ja 16 oder 18 S t u n d e n per Tag, yet clothed in rags, without shoes or stockings, even in winter etc. (61) D i e ganze Z a h l von 15 Paupers, in door u n d o u t door, relieved in 585 U n i o n s in E n g l a n d u n d Wales, E n d e des Jahrs 1844 (Ladyday) war in door 195,220 u n d o u t d o o r 1,054,462; z u s a m m e n 1,249,682; wovon 431,484 ablebodied adults of b o t h sexes u n d 215, 742 davon m a l e adults. A b e r diese n u m b e r s waren n i c h t constantly in the receipt of relief. D e r whole a m o u n t , e x p e n d e d u p o n pau- 20 pers, während des Jahres war £ 4 , 3 7 0 , 1 7 1 ; wovon a b o u t 938,467 ?. abzuz i e h n für die expenses of establishments, salaries etc; läßt 3,431,704 l. für den purchase of food u n d clothing. D i e average cost dieser articles für an i n m a t e eines workhouse ist a b o u t 2 s. 6 d. 1 week oder 6 1. 10 sh. a year; so daß 3,431,704 I. St. would suffice for t h e constant m a i n t e n a n c e , w ä h r e n d 25 eines Jahrs, von n u r 527,954, worauf weniger als % oder ungefähr 90,000 adult males zu r e c h n e n . (68) 2

M a n hat die Grafschaft Sutherland als eine sehr improved county dargestellt, aber: R e c e n t inquiry has discovered t h a t even there, in districts o n c e famous for fine m e n and gallant soldiers, the i n h a b i t a n t s have degenerated into a meagre a n d stunted race. In t h e healthiest situations, on hill sides fronting the sea, the faces of their famished children are as t h i n a n d pale as they could be in the foul a t m o s p h e r e of a L o n d o n alley. (74, 5) In Glasgow an 30,000 poor Highlanders in den wynds u n d closes m i t thieves u n d prostitutes. (77, 8) (Th. beweist die Overpopulation aus dem Elend und der insufficiency der salaries.)

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(A p e r m a n e n t deficiency of e m p l o y m e n t ) K a n n h e r r ü h r e n von e i n e r diminished demand for labour oder increase in the number of labourers. (114) M i s ery, the inevitable effect a n d s y m p t o m of overpopulation, seems to be likewise its principal promoter. (121) t h e r a p i d m i g r a t i o n s of vast m u l t i t u d e s from o n e side of t h e globe to t h e other, w h i c h are k n o w n to have t a k e n place in early times, could only have b e e n effected by people who possessed in their cattle perambulatory magazines of provisions. (123 d u r c h Hirten) In a thinly peopled country, in which m a n u f a c t u r e s have m a d e little progress, and foreign c o m m e r c e is u n k n o w n , a great l a n d h o l d e r would be only e n c u m b e r e d by larger c o n t r i b u t i o n s of raw p r o d u c e t h a n his h o u s e hold could c o n s u m e . (126) In Norwegen, Belgien, Schweiz »the originally h a p p y condition of t h e peasantry h a s b e e n t h e cause of its own c o n t i n u a n c e s (144) Die N e a p o l i t a n s , Sardinier, r ö m i s c h e n B a u e r n sind »wretched

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now because wretchedness h a s , d u r i n g m a n y generations, b e e n t h e p o r t i o n of their forefathers«. (158) D i e E m a n c i p a t i o n der peasantry took place m u c h earlier i m S ü d e n u n d Südwesten von E u r o p a als i n a n d r e n T h e i l e n desselben. In Italien besonders p r o m o t e d b o t h by the interposition of t h e C h u r c h of R o m e , a n d by t h e contests b e t w e e n t h e free cities a n d t h e rural 20 barons, it was effected before t h e serfs h a d acquired any prescriptive rights over t h e soil (wie in G e r m a n y ) , so that after their enfranchisement they were obliged, as in F r a n c e , to cultivate t h e lands of others. Savoy i n d e e d , like other poor m o u n t a i n o u s regions, h a s probably b e e n always i n h a b i t e d by petty proprietors, a n d in T u s c a n y , t h e p e r s e c u t i o n which t h e nobility en25

d u r e d from confiscation ers. ([158,] p r o m o t e r of

the d e m o c r a t i c a l g o v e r n m e n t s of t h e towns, a n d the frequent of their estates, soon enabled t h e farmers to b e c o m e l a n d o w n 159) E n o u g h has b e e n said to show that misery is t h e great overpopulation. (160)

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In Italy the natifs h a d b e e n serfs u n d e r t h e R o m a n s , and they r e m a i n e d serfs u n d e r the G o t h i c d o m i n a t i o n . (164) Jedenfalls, u n d wie dieser W e c h sel i m m e r h i n bewirkt worden sein m a g , es scheint sicher daß, gegen S c h l u ß der sächsischen Periode, die peasantry in E n g l a n d im A l l g e m e i n e n aufgehört h a t t e das property ihrer lords zu sein oder irgendwas Serviles ausser 35 d e m N a m e n nach. V o n Praedial serfs waren diese villains verwandelt in | |17| perpetual t e n a n t s of land at a quit-rent. W h e n they h a d paid t h e accus-

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Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 • Heft XIII t o m e d dues, no further claims, either for work or goods, could be legally m a d e u p o n t h e m by their lord, n o r could they be ousted from their land. N u r waren sie attached to the soil, d. h. they could n e i t h e r alienate n o r otherwise a b a n d o n their lands, nor in any way free themselves from the obligation to fulfil the conditions by w h i c h they held t h e m . (169,70) In d e n 3 J a h r h u n d e r t e n , die u n m i t t e l b a r der n o r m a n n i s c h e n Eroberung folgten, m a c h t e die Civilisation sehr b e d e u t e n d e Fortschritte in E n g l a n d ; internal a n d external trade were greatly extended, foreign c o m m o d i t i e s i n t r o d u c e d in a b u n d a n c e , and native m a n u f a c t u r e s established a n d improved. D i e Wichtigkeit der villain-proprietors of land increased in proportion. Die m o s t considerable davon h ö r t e n auf zur Klasse der Arbeiter zu gehören. W h a t services they were b o u n d by the conditions of their t e n u r e to render, were performed by deputy, u n d die cultivation ihrer own farms was also performed chiefly by hired labourers. V o n diesen leztren, a large body, im Besitz von persönlicher Freiheit aber o h n e property in land, war aufgekomm e n . Sie wahrscheinlich ursprünglich e m a n c i p a t e d slaves, oder sons of small freeholders, oder of villain occupiers of l a n d ; b u t villain t e n a n t s themselves, after performing their b o u n d e n services to their lords, were at liberty to serve others for wages, the lords having only a prior claim to s u c h further services from their own b o n d s m e n as they m i g h t be willing to pay for. ... Married m e n , engaged as labourers in husbandry, s e e m to have b e e n provided with a cottage and a few acres of l a n d to cultivate, for their own profit, in the intervals of their master's work. ([170,] 171) B e h a u p t e t , daß im 12* Jh. die Arbeiter gut genährt u n d bezahlt. E b e n s o im 1 3 u n d 14'. (171, 2) 1349 s u c h t e n die landholders, d u r c h ihre Repräsentatives im Parlament, d u r c h das Statute of Labourers die wages of agricultural labourer to limit. (172) Aehnliches Statut im folgenden Jahr. (Le.) 13 J a h r e später, 1363 ein andrer Versuch gemacht, d e n h o h e n wages ein E n d e zu m a c h e n , by rendering t h e m useless to their receivers; u n d a law was passed (37 E d w . I I I . c. 14), enjoining carters, p l o u g h m e n , a n d all other farmerservants, n o t to eat or drink „excessively", or to wear any cloth except „blanket a n d russet wool of 12 d." D o m e s t i c servants, von g e n t l e m e n oder t r a d e s m e n or artificers, were at the s a m e t i m e declared to be entitled to only o n e m e a l a day of flesh or fish, a n d were to c o n t e n t themselves at other m e a l s m i t „milk, butter, cheese, a n d other s u c h victuals". 1388 m a c h t e das P a r l a m e n t a n o t h e r tariff of wages, according to which a bailiff was to receive 13 s. 3 d., a m a s t e r h i n d , carter, or shepherd, 10 s., a n d a c o m m o n labourer in h u s bandry 6 s. 8 d. or 7 s. annually. Of course board u n d lodging were to be allowed in addition. 1444, these rates were raised zu 23 s. 4 d., 20 s. u n d 15 s. respectively, independently of food a n d of clothes of a specified value. Daylabourers sollten n u r 3 d. per Tag erhalten, ausser food except in har-

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vest, w h e n they m i g h t be allowed 5 or 6. D i e s e limitations so vergeblich wie die friihren. Wages stiegen t r o t z d e m u n d die working classes so luxuriös, d a ß das P a r l a m e n t scandalisirt u n d ein Statut e n a c t e d 1463, w o n a c h servants in h u s b a n d r y restricted to clothing of m a t e r i a l n o t worth m e h r als 2 sh. a yard u n d forbidden to wear hose of a higher price als 14 d. a pair, oder girdles garnished m i t silver. D e r Preiß of ihrer W e i b e r coverchief oder h e a d dress sollte n i c h t exceed 12 d. 1482 diese Restrictions herabgesezt u n d labourers in h u s b a n d r y erlaubt to wear h o s e as dear as 18 d. a pair, w ä h r e n d ihre W e i b e r legal für d e n Kopfputz 20 d. ausgeben durften. This

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legislation, m i t Betracht des d a m a l i g e n value of m o n e y , war als w e n n j e z t Gesetz nöthig to prevent p l o u g h m e n from strutting a b o u t in velvet coats u n d silkstockings etc. (173, 4) Scarcity of labourers in proportion to t h e d e m a n d im 14* u n d ersten Hälfte des 15* J a h r h u n d e r t s . (178) (Der L o h n stieg 1) d u r c h d e n auswärtigen H a n d e l im 14 u n d 15 Jh. 2) d u r c h die M i g r a t i o n

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der freiwerdenden A r b e i t e r n a c h d e n S t ä d t e n ; 3) das A u f k o m m e n so der i n n r e n M a n u f a c t u r e n u n d des i n n r e n M a r k t s ; 4) die F e h d e der weissen u n d r o t h e n R o s e n . 5) V e r m i n d e r u n g der Bevölkerung d u r c h Pest u n d Krieg.) t h e extension of t h e field of e m p l o y m e n t proceeded at a m u c h m o r e rapid rate als die Bevölkerung. (184) D e r rise of wages erreichte seinen

ακμή zur Zeit der accession von H e n r y VII. (I.e.) t h e golden age d e r work­ ing class was followed w i t h o u t any interval by t h e iron age w h i c h still sub­ sists. In der M i t t e des 15' Jh. k o n n t e j e d e r M a n n o b t a i n so viel work als er pleased at extravagant wages. N o c h 1496 u n d selbst n o c h 1514 d a c h t e Par­ l a m e n t es advisable G e s e t z e z u r N i e d e r h a l t u n g des L o h n s zu erlassen, ob25 gleich der d a m a l s Stattfindende rise Folge der D e p r e c i a t i o n der e d l e n M e ­ talle war u n d sogar c o n c e a l e d a positive fall in t h e real price of labour. Bald n a c h h e r n a h m die G e s e t z g e b u n g a new t u r n , a n d parliament, instead of at­ t e m p t i n g to curtail t h e labourer's h o n e s t earnings, h a d to exercise its in­ genuity in providing for t h e crowds of destitute for w h o m no work c o u l d be 20

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found. E n g l a n d n i e frei von sturdy beggars ... aber die P e r s o n e n die e i n idle vagabond life der p a t i e n t industry vorzogen ... n u n aber diese beggars from choice ersezt by a race of beggars from necessity. R e p e a t e d statutes, c o m m e n c i n g with o n e passed in 1494, attest t h e rapid spread of destitu­ tion. Ursprünglich glaubte P a r l a m e n t es liege n o c h i m m e r an der F a u l h e i t ;

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no other asylum, therefore, was offered to ablebodied vagrants t h a n t h e stocks, a n d n o m i l d e r t r e a t m e n t t h a n whipping a t t h e cart's tail. U n d d a n n zurückgeschickt in ihre G e b u r t s s t ä t t e n . 1535 i n d e ß ||18| w u r d e entdeckt, d a ß diese „valiant vagrants" after r e t u r n i n g h o m e , could find no work to d o ; u n d die parish authorities were in c o n s e q u e n c e enjoined to collect volu n t a r y contributions for t h e purpose, n o t only of relieving t h e i m p o t e n t a n d t h e infirm, b u t of e n a b l i n g t h e strong and lusty to gain a living with

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Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 · Heft XIII their own h a n d s . 1547, t h e n u m b e r of beggars still rapidly increasing, in spite of the „godly acts a n d statutes" ein andres passed gegen sie, das bek a n n t e barbarische Statut. ... T h r e a t e n e d m i t slavery, stripes, a n d death, m e n chose to r u n every danger in seeking to better their condition, rather t h a n p i n e with h u n g e r at h o m e , u n d beggars u n d vagabonds c o n t i n u e d daily to increase. 1562 voluntary alms u n z u r e i c h e n d für d e n relief der poor gefunden, the parish authorities were empowered to assess persons obstinately refusing to contribute. M e n d i c a n c y a n d vagabondage c o n t i n u i n g still u n a b a t e d , 1572 power was given to tax all the i n h a b i t a n t s of a place for the relief of its poor. 1601 endlich der A k t 43 der Elisabeth. ( 1 8 5 - 8 8 ) A u f die Klöster nicht die Sache zu schieben, da diese n i c h t abgeschafft bis 1535, viele J a h r e after the c o n t i n u a l increase of vagrancy h a d b e c o m e a standing topic of parliamentary l a m e n t a t i o n . ([188,] 189) Verwandlung von Ackerbauland in Viehweide der Hauptgrund, (p. 190 sqq.) Vor u n d einige Zeit n a c h der abolition of villenage enthielt E n g l a n d eine grosse Zahl kleiner landholders. Erstens freeholders, deren freeholds von j ä h r l i c h e m W e r t h von 40 sh., war zu der Zeit, wo der acre m e i s t zu e i n e m sixpence ausgeliehn, wichtige Klasse; d a n n die tenants in villenage, oder ihre successors die copyholders; viele tenantfarmers, paying a rent of n o t m o r e t h a n 4 I. a year ... die m a r r i e d servants in husbandry, die employed u p o n the estates of large proprietors or farmers, h a t t e n a piece of ground which was seldom of less extent als 3 oder 4 acres. Die meisten landholders aller dieser verschiednen Klassen, mit Ausnahme der lezten, brauchten die aid of hired labourers, particularly as m u c h land was u n d e r tillage, a n d large quantities of corn were grown. Folglich great d e m a n d für agricultural l a b o u r u n d da die supply limited die wages very high. Aber der high rate of wages, v e r b u n d e n m i t der increasing abundance and cheapness of corn in Folge von Agriculturverbeßrung, m u s t have r e n d e r e d tillage less profitable t h a n formerly, m o r e especially to large landholders, who did not c o n s u m e at h o m e the principal part of their crops, b u t raised large quantities for sale, (190, 1) Arable lands nun in pasture verwandelt und die scheinbar i n t e r m i n a b l e corn-fields d u r c h b r o c h e n durch enclosures, to prevent the sheep from straying und um n i c h t i m m e r H i r t e n z u r W a che nöthig zu h a b e n . (191) 1487 A k t passed um diese sociale Revolution aufzuhalten, d e n n schon b e m e r k t e m a n , d a ß enclosures were, b e c o m i n g „more frequent, whereby arable land, which could n o t be m a n u r e d without people a n d families, was turned into pasture, which was easily rid by a few h e r d s m e n " , u n d daß „tenances for years, lives, and at will, whereupon most of the yeomanry lived, were t u r n e d into d e m e s n e s " . 1533 (Henry V I I I c.13) A k t passed, der sehr v e r d a m m t e die practice of accumulating" farms. In d i e s e m act statuirt, daß single farms m i t flocks von 1 0 - 2 0 , 0 0 0 Schafen darauf, u n d befahl, daß N i e m a n d m e h r als 2000 Schafen (ausser auf s e i n e m eignen

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w Aus William Thomas Thornton: Over-population and its remedy Land) h a l t e n or rent more als 2 farms solle. 1535 e n a c t e d d a ß der king should have a m o i e t y der profits of land converted (subsequently to a d a t e specified) von tillage zu p a s t u r e , bis a suitable h o u s e erected u n d das l a n d restored to tillage. 1552 (Edward VI, 5 u n d 6.) Gesetz, das r e q u i r e d d a ß auf 5

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allen estates as large a q u a n t i t y of land as h a d b e e n kept in tillage for 4 years together at any t i m e since t h e accession of H e n r y V I I I should be so c o n t i n u e d in tillage. ([192,] 193) (Alles das n ü z t e n a t ü r l i c h nichts.) Allerdings damals Handel und Manufactur sehr aufblühend ... b u t t h e r e c a n n o t be a greater error t h a n to suppose t h a t the substitution of one employment for another is not detrimental to the workmen originally employed, if the amount of work to be done remain the same. E v e n w h e n t h e new business is carried on in t h e s a m e place as t h e old o n e , t h e work m a y be very u n s u i t a b l e to m e n who have always b e e n differently employed; a n d if t h e b u s i n e s s be removed to a distance, i n n u m e r a b l e difficulties will prevent t h e w o r k m e n in

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general from following it. ([194,] 195) Am Ende des 16' Jh., in Folge des Blühns der Städte, stieg der Kornpreiß; so a strong reaction in favour of tillage. So stieg die Nachfrage n a c h A g r i c u l t u r a r b e i t e r n u n d so ihr L o h n wieder . . . aber n i c h t so h o c h wie früher. D i e neuen cottages in general ohne an sie attachâtes Land. In m o s t parishes allerdings common lands, worauf a poor h o u s e -

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holder m i g h t keep a cow: b u t otherwise e i n labourer gewöhnlich abhängig von seiner täglichen E i n n a h m e , nominell höher, real niedriger als das income eines cottager a few generations earlier. D e r Preiß des wheat ζ. Β. stieg in 100 J a h r e n von 7 sh. auf 30 sh. a qr u n d 1610 wurde 4¾ d., oder a b o u t a d. less t h a n a whole sheep h a d o n c e cost, was given for a p o u n d of m u t t o n . An

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outdoorlabourer am Anfang des 17' J h . daher, der sein eignes F o o d m i t 6 oder 8 d. a ||19| day zu kaufen h a t t e , lang n i c h t so gut dran als ein M a n n derselben Klasse im 14' J h . m i t n u r 3½ d. a day, selbst unterstellt d a ß der leztre n i c h t besessen h ä t t e in a d d i t i o n t h e p r o d u c e of a cottage farm. ( 1 9 6 - 8 ) Dieses m o d i c u m of comfort nicht im Stand zu act as a very effectual restraint upon population, u n d in wenigen J a h r e n die Z a h l der A r b e i t e r gewachsen ü b e r das was beschäftigt werden k o n n t e ... In d e n lezten 30 J a h r e n des 17' Jh. die poorrates geschäzt von 600,000 zu 840,000 /., which, at t h e rate of relief t h e n customary, m u s t have sufficed for t h e c o n stant m a i n t e n a n c e of at least 100,000 persons, or % der whole p o p u l a t i o n .

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% davon, n a c h Locke's Bericht 1697, were ablebodied ... in d e n 3 J a h r e n e n d e d m i t 1750 der average a m o u n t is shown by p a r l i a m e n t a r y r e t u r n s n i c h t to have exceeded 690,0001. A b e r 1776 der a m o u n t risen auf 1,521,000 /. u n d von 1 7 8 3 - 8 5 der a n n u a l average 1,912,000 l. N u n b l ü h t e im 27 und 18 Jh. jeder branch of national industry so sehr als bevor c o m -

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Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 • Heft XIII beit aller sorts sehr gewachsen sein m u ß t e beweist der gleichzeitige increase of p a u p e r i s m a still greater increase in t h e n u m b e r of labourers. (198, 9) while p a u p e r i s m was advancing in the m a n n e r above described, t h e condition of the labourers w h o o b t a i n e d employment was not injured by the competition of the unemployed, but on the contrary was gradually improving. (200) (Zeigt er durch Vergleichung einer Preißliste v o n E d e n und A. Y o u n g des 17* u n d des 18* Jahrhundert.) D i e ß erklärt sich T. aus d e n poorlaws, die die Ausgleichung zwischen Nachfrage und Zufuhr verhinderten. (Aber Herr Thornton vergißt, d a ß w e n n 1) Manufactur, commerce u n d Ackerbau blühten, 2) die M a s s e der Bevölkerung, wie aus Gregory King etc hervorgeht, relativ gut lebte, viel Fleisch, Weizenbrod, Bier consumirte, 3) der Arbeitslohn stieg und 4) die Paupers - % der Bevölkerung - gefüttert werden konnten, sicher k e i n U e b e r s c h u ß der Population über die Subsistenzmittel stattfand. D i e Sache m u ß also anders erklärt werden, nämlich das P h e n o m e n o n ) ... that the real price of labour rose considerably at a t i m e w h e n the m a r k e t was greatly overstocked. (203) W a s wesentlich mitbeitrug zur degradation der english peasantry war die inclosure und partition of common land. (210) In 99 cases o u t of a 100, the poor m a n has lost his rights of c o m m o n without any p e r m a n e n t equivalent. (211) A n a t i o n can scarcely, like an individual, grow rich by m e r e parsim o n y , for it m u s t always expend the whole or nearly the whole, of its average i n c o m e . ... At any rate, it is only m o n e y , plate, a n d jewels, t h a t are, strictly speaking, h o a r d e d ... W e n n m a n n i c h t reason h a t t o think, daß m a n profitable dispose k a n n ü b e r das surplus, so producirt m a n little m o r e t h a n m a y suffice for present use. M o n e y , plate u n d jewels sind sehr u n b e d e u t e n d e items in n a t i o n a l property, which consists chiefly of bulky articles, provisions, manufactures, buildings, ships, a n d raw materials, the ann u a l p r o d u c t i o n of all of which is proportioned as nearly as possible to the expected a n n u a l c o n s u m p t i o n . T h e only articles that can be called p e r m a n e n t acquisitions are those which, from their durable character, m a y rem a i n long in use without being destroyed. ... n a t i o n a l i n c o m e k a n n n u r be

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a u g m e n t e d sei es durch an increase des p r o d u c e des native soil oder d u r c h an increase of foreign imports. (221[, 222] N o t e ) Seit 1837 die Lage der agricultural labourers in England noch unstreitig verschlechtert. N a c h 1836 n a h m e n ihre earnings ab u n d der Preiß der L e b e n s m i t t e l zu. D u r c h das Gesetz 35 von 1842 - freiere Korneinfuhr - farmers verarmt, r e d u c i r t e n endlich die items of expenditure. Die labour, am m e i s t e n u n t e r ihrer Controlle ... d a n n (44) to the effects of the poverty of the farmers a d d e d die of a long c o n t i n u e d drought, which p u t an almost entire stop to m a n y operations of husbandry. (234, 5) At several places in Wiltshire, Somersetshire, Gloucester- 40 H shire u n d a n d r e n der western counties, m o s t of the cottagers 50 years ago

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waren weavers, deren chief d e p e n d e n c e was their looms, obgleich they worked in the fields at harvest t i m e and other busy seasons. So h a l t e n sie nieder die wages der agricultural labourers, bis sie selbst von der Agricultur ganz abhängig geworden in Folge der removal der woollen m a n u f a c t u r e , u n d these r e d u c e d wages have b e c o m e their own portion also. (237) D i e population of towns is rarely increased faster t h a n the m e a n s of subsistence, except by i m m i g r a t i o n from rural districts. ... Town residents h a b e n nicht dieselben i n d u c e m e n t s to marry wie dwellers in d e m country. M e h r Gelegenheit für c r i m i n a l gratification ihrer passions. D o m e s t i c comfort k a n n i h n e n gleichgültig sein. D a s ausserordentliche grosse Verhältniß der E h e n z u r Bevölkerung in M a n c h e s t e r , Glasgow etc beweist nicht, d e n n die portion verheirathbarer L e u t e h i e r viel grösser als anderswo ... die foul atm o s p h e r e worin sie leben, z u s a m m e n m i t M a n g e l a n N a h r u n g u n d Kleid u n g erzeugt sehr grosse Sterblichkeit u n t e r d e n K i n d e r n ... In Liverpool u n d Glasgow die j ä h r l i c h e n deaths zahlreicher als die births ... M a n m u ß die s u b u r b a n districts von d e n grossen Städten selbst t r e n n e n . In d e m eigentlichen m e t r o p o l i t a n district von L o n d o n , extending v o n K e n s i n g t o n n a c h Greenwich u n d von d e m foot of Highgatehill n a c h Camberwell, t h e births, i n 1 8 4 0 - 1 exceeded the deaths u m 8814; aber i n d e n von A r m e n dicht bevölkerten Vierteln, die deaths im A l l g e m e i n e n ({201 e x c e e d e d t h e births. D i e ß ist der case in d e n subdivisions d e n o m i n a t e d St M a r t i n s in the Fields, East u n d W e s t L o n d o n , W h i t e c h a p e l , St Saviour's u n d St Olave's, u n d Greenwich. In St. George's H a n n o v e r s q u a r e , Westminster, St Giles u n d St George, Strand, H o l b o r n u n d der city of L o n d o n leichter excess der births ü b e r die deaths, aber zu u n b e d e u t e n d to m a k e up for the deficiency in first n a m e d qrs. ( 2 3 8 - 4 0 ) In einigen towns, besonders in d e n southern und midland counties, distress u n d overpopulation producirt d u r c h d e n transfer of m a n u f a c t u r e s formerly carried on there to m o r e advantageous situations. (243) In der Mitte des 18* Jh., von 1750 an, giebt Th. zu, d a ß viel Ackerland in Weide verwandelt: » M e n who h a d amassed fortunes in trade or other pursuits, a n d desired to possess suitable country residences, if they could n o t p e r s u a d e a decayed family to part with its hereditary seat, purchased some of the outlying lands of an estate, and cleared half a dozen farms and a score or two of cottages to make a park.« G o l d s m i t h s "Deserted Village" is a picture of the desolation p r o d u c e d by such a process. (208, 9) (Herr Thornton's Entwicklung läuft darauf hinaus: Erst macht der Fortschritt der Industrie die Bevölkerung redundant, i n d e m sie ihr die gewohnte B e schäftigung entzieht und sie so verarmt; und dann wird die Verarmung wieder eine Quelle zu rasch wachsender Bevölkerung. Beweis hat Thornton nicht d e n geringsten geliefert. D a ß für die poor jeder Z u w a c h s s c h o n redundant ist, bedarf k e i n e s B e w e i s e s ; aber d a ß die Bevölkerung in d e n

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Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 · Heft XIII G a n z e n N a t i o n e n mit Verhältniß zu ihren Productivkräften jemals redundant war, ist zu beweisen.) Most of t h e farmers in d e n highlands waren freeholders u n d z a h l t e n keine R e n t e , s o n d e r n n u r die s. g. calpe, in token of their personal s u b o r d i n a t i o n to the chief. (247) F r o m the earliest t i m e s bis vor ungefähr 60 J a h r e n (von 5 1783 u n d 4 an) Ireland was almost entirely a grazing country. N o c h 1727 a law g e m a c h t to compel every occupier of 100 acres of land to cultivate at least 5 acres. (258) the misery of the irish people is of no recent origin, b u t has b e e n from t i m e i m m e m o r i a l an h e i r l o o m in the race. ... T h e chief difference is, that whereas people were o n c e starving on a short allowance of 10 m e a t , they are now starving on an equally short allowance of potatoes. (260, 1) ... Irland, from a very r e m o t e period, has carried on a considerable export trade; a n d the lords of the soil have always possessed, in foreign countries, a m a r k e t for their surplus p r o d u c e . T h e y have therefore h a d good reasons for practising economy, a n d for restricting t h e r e m u n e r a t i o n of 15 their servants to what was absolutely necessary for their subsistence. W h e n the servants b e c a m e serfs, they were not, according to the c u s t o m in m o r e agricultural countries, provided with portions of l a n d to cultivate for their own support; for the estates of their lords, however extensive, could scarcely be too large for pasturage. T h e y lived u p o n s u c h fare as their m a s 20 ters chose to provide, went halfnaked, a n d slept u n d e r trees, or the scarcely better shelter of a few b r a n c h e s c e m e n t e d together with m u d . W h e n they b e c a m e enfrancised, they gained n o t h i n g b u t personal freedom. (259) Herr Th. sagt: Whatever other r e m e d i e s m a y be prescribed, restrictions u p o n the marriages of the poor are an indispensable part of the regimen to 25 be observed. (268) An Irish cottier is n o t miserable because he has 2 or 3 acres attached to his dwelling, b u t b e c a u s e he has to pay for this land 3 oder 4X as m u c h as it would be let for in England. (336) In Irland lange Periode von A n a r c h i e u n d Confusion n a c h der Eroberung von H e n r y I I ; beständiger Krieg zwischen d e n Colonisten u n d d e n E i n g e b o r n e n acted as an 30 effectual bar to agriculture; beide P a r t h e i e n zogen es vor to keep their property in der F o r m von flocks u n d herds, which could be driven into a place of shelter, t h a n in corn stacks or standing crops, which m u s t have b e e n left to the mercy of a successful invader. So blieb cattle das einzige Product, so sehr daß es oft als T a u s c h m i t t e l a n g e w a n d t . . . 100 J a h r e später 35 lamentirt Spenser (der poet) that „all m e n fell to pasturage, and n o n e to h u s b a n d r y " ... U n t e r der Herrschaft der Elisabeth, J a m e s I u n d Karl I u n d Cromwell - Period m a r k e d durch die rebellion der Grafen von Tyrone u n d Tyrconnel, das massacre der Protestants p r o m o t e d by Roger M o o r e , die

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r Aus William Thomas Thornton: Over-population and its remedy gleich blutige Invasion von Cromwell u n d die Confiscation von % der I n sel - m a c h t e Agricultur keine Fortschritte. N a c h der Revolution von 1688 y des lands änderte wieder die m a s t e r s u n d a series of p e n a l acts was enacted gegen die r ö m i s c h e n Catholiken. Diese atrocious laws verboten d e n Katholiken lands zu kaufen oder zu h o l d t h e m by lease für m e h r als 31 J a h r e ... So die grosse Majorität des Volks, die Katholiken, gewaltsam von der Agricultur ferngehalten u n d die proprietors der estates m u ß t e n sie theilen u n t e r den wenigen capitalists, die gesetzlich dafür c o n c u r r i r e n k o n n t e n u n d die diese i m m e n s e tracts n a t ü r l i c h n i c h t s u p e r i n t e n d k o n n ten, i n d e m sie sie fast ganz u n t e r Gras hielten. So allgemein u n d so recent die Vernachlässigung des tillage, d a ß 1727 Gesetz | | 2 1 | gemacht, to c o m p e l every occupier of 100 acres of l a n d to cultivate m i n d e s t e n s 5 acres. (257, 8) 1783 u n d 84 granted das irische P a r l a m e n t h i g h bounties on the exportation of grain u n d verbot seine Einfuhr from abroad; in Folge davon Steigen des Preisses, promovirt n o c h d u r c h die d e m a n d for foreign corn in G r o ß b r i t a n n i e n n a c h d e m Anfang des Kriegs m i t F r a n k r e i c h u n d d u r c h die A b schaffung, 1806, aller Restrictions auf d e n corntrade zwischen d e n 2 Ländern. So ausserordentliche i n d u c e m e n t d e n landholders gegeben, pasturage in cornfields zu verwandeln; aber die tracts held by single graziers in general viel zu extensive to be cultivated by their actual t e n a n t s , daher getheilt in farms von m o r e convenient size u n d geliehn an persons willing to u n d e r t a k e t h e m . A b e r n i c h t Capital genug in dieser Insel für diese plötzliche R e v o l u t i o n in h u s b a n d r y u n d die m e i s t e n von der new race of farmers so a r m daß sie ihre Arbeiter n u r z a h l e n k o n n t e n , i n d e m sie i h n e n assignirten Stücke v o m G r u n d to build cabins u p o n u n d to cultivate for their own subsistence. Z u s a m m e n m i t d e n farmers daher a considerable body of cottiers was created u n d die Z a h l der leztren vermehrt d u r c h d e n desire der landlords ihren politischen Einfluß zu vergrössern. Das elective franchise belonged in Irland wie in E n g l a n d zu 40 sh. freeholders, d. h. zu possessors of a life interest in l a n d of the clear a n n u a l value of 40 sh. 1792 t h e privilege was c o n c e d e d to Catholics also u n d landlords b e g a n to m a n u facture voters by t h o u s a n d s , by granting t h e m leases for life of small patches of land. So wurde die bulk des people converted in occupiers of land ... Gavelkind, or the c u s t o m of dividing a father's l a n d e d property, equally a m o n g his children, has always prevailed in Ireland. Starb einer der n e u g e m a c h t e n farmers, so errichteten alle seine S ö h n e farms of smaller extent, a n d a cottier's son also generally inherited small pieces of g r o u n d . ... So most of the d e s c e n d a n t s of the original farmers have, in the course of 2 or 3 generations, sunk to the level of cottiers, a n d most of the original cottage holdings have b e e n divided a m o n g as m a n y families as c a n contrive to obtain from t h e soil potatoes e n o u g h to keep t h e m alive. ( 2 5 1 - 5 3 . ) u

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ch. I. of ch. IL

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Asia. Städte ursprünglich g e b a u t zur Sicherheit oder z u m H a n d e l u n d Sicherheit. Im ersten Fall on t h e slope of s o m e m o u n t a i n side oder along the s u m m i t of s o m e lofty rock. Im zweiten on the b a n k of t h e river or n e a r the 10 bay of the sea. (11) Die capitals in Aejypten u n d A s i e n h a t t e n their place on the course m a r k e d o u t by the principal rivers. (12) Im Orient die Privilegien der verschiednen Casten n u r sanktionirt d u r c h die Religion. »All castes are m a d e to have their i m m u n i t i e s , a n d every invasion of those imm u n i t i e s is b r a n d e d , n o t only as an act of civil i n s u b o r d i n a t i o n , b u t as be- 15 ing also an act of impiety.« D i e ß die einzige S c h r a n k e g e n d e n D e s p o t i s m u s . ([15,] 16)

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In England prevalence of d e p r e d a t i o n in the rural districts. (245) M e n change masters m o r e frequently t h a n in feudal t i m e s , b u t the m o r a l feeling which b o u n d t h e m t o o n e m a n , o r t o o n e household, now b i n d s t h e m t o their class or society. (289)

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Th. Doubleday. The true law of Population. L o n d o n . 1842. T h e great general law, das vegetable u n d a n i m a l life regirt, ist, d a ß w e n n eine species oder genus endangered is, a corresponding effort is invariably m a d e by n a t u r e for its preservation a n d c o n t i n u a n c e , by an increase of fecundity or fertility; besonders der Fall, w e n n solche danger arises von a d i m i n u t i o n of proper n o u r i s h m e n t or food, so d a ß der state of depletion, or t h e deplethoric state is favourable to fertility u n d der plethoric state, or state of repletion, ungünstig. Daher, auf die m e n s c h l i c h e Gesellschaft angewandt, in allen Gesellschaften a constant increase going on a m o n g s t t h a t portion of it which is the worst supplied with food, d. h. u n t e r d e n poorest. Dagegen u n t e r d e n e n in the state of affluence u n d well supplied m i t food u n d luxuries a constant decrease goes on. U n t e r d e n e n who form t h e m e a n or m e d i u m between these two opposite states die P o p u l a t i o n ist stationär. D a r a u s folgt that it is u p o n the numerical proportion which these 3 states b e a r to each other in any society that increase or decrease u p o n t h e whole depends. (5, 6) In trees, the effect of strong m a n u r e s and overrich soils is t h a t they r u n to superfluous wood, blossom irregularly, a n d chiefly at the extremities of the outer branches, a n d almost or entirely cease to b e a r fruit. (9.) Die Thiere, overfed, werden unproductiv. (14, 15) So b e i m Schaaf. In accordance m i t der leanness wirft 1, 2 oder 3 L ä m m e r . D i e ß d e n Verbesserern dieser Race b e k a n n t . Um die best c h a n c e of a perfect a n i m a l zu h a b e n , glauben sie daß das Werfen von E i n e m L a m m a m b e s t e n ist u n d dieß die breeders of sheep erreichen, i n d e m sie so viel F u t t e r geben, daß es weder steril n o c h 2 oder 3 wirft, a single l a m b is almost invariably the offspring of the a n i m a l so limited. (15) | |21[a]| Die Fischfresser u n t e r d e n M e n s c h e n besonders fruchtbar. (25) (Highlands, Western Islands of Scotland. F a m i l i e n von 1 0 - 2 0 Kinder!) (Irland, China.) W i r finden die P o p u l a t i o n thin in pastoral countries, wo be-

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Aus Thomas Doubleday: The true law of population sonders a n i m a l food; denser, wo gemischt m i t vegetable a l i m e n t ; denser still, wo n u r vegetable, aber m i t plenty, densest of all, wo vegetable aber m i t scarcity superadded. (27) extraordinary t e n d e n c i e s to propagation evinced by b o t h sexes when semiconvalescent, after enfeebling a n d a t t e n u a t i n g ep5 idemics, such as fevers, pestilences, a n d plagues. (28) Decay of all systems of nobility. Z . B . die Peers u n d Baronets of G r e a t Britain ... few, if any, of t h e N o r m a n nobility u n d e b e n s o wenige von d e n original b a r o n e t s ' families of King J a m e s I exist at this m o m e n t ; w e n n n i c h t für perpetual creations, b o t h orders m u s t have b e e n all b u t extinct. Die great majority des H o u s e of 10 Lords geschaffen seit 1760, d. h. seit 80 J a h r e n (George). (31, 2) U e b e r leztres giebt er folgende Tabelle:

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Numbers of Peers 1837 Dukes 21 Marquises 19 Earls 108 Viscounts 17 Baronets 185 350 Scottish Peers 16

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20 Irish Peers

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Number created seit 1760 5 Dukes 18 Marquises 58 Earls 13 Viscounts 153 Baronets 247

28 394

272 seit 1760. (p. 32)

Der Order der Baronets c o m m e n c e d 1611 u n t e r J a m e s I, as a m e a n s of raising money, besonders für d e n irish war j e n e r Periode. T h e s u m paid for this h o n o u r was very large. V o n diesen, die 1611 gemacht, existiren n u r n o c h 13 u n d von d e n e n , die er 1625 schuf, n u r n o c h 39. (33, 4) E i n G r u n d ist natürlich dieß: a single failure of offspring m a k e s a gap in the body, whilst even extra fecundity in a n o t h e r quarter is only allowed to keep up the line. (34) Aber das n i c h t g e n ü g e n d e r G r u n d . Extraordinary decrease der V e n e t i a n nobility, obgleich all the sons are e n n o b l e d by birth. A m e l o t zählte zu seiner Zeit 2500 nobles die S t i m m e im Council h a t t e n ; gegenwärtig (18* Jh. Anfang) n i c h t 1500, trotz der a d d i t i o n von vielen F a m i l i e n seit j e n e r Zeit. (35) V o n 1 5 8 3 - 1 6 5 4 der sovereign council von Bern a d m i t ted into the bourgeoisie 487 families, wovon 379 b e c a m e extinct in Z e i t von 2 J a h r h u n d e r t e n u n d 1783, blieben n u r 108 davon. V o n 1 6 8 4 - 1 7 8 4 207 Bernoise families b e c a m e extinct. (36) U n t e r d e m Kaiser Claudius sagt Tacitus: „Jisdem diebus in n u m e r u m P a t r i c i o r u m adscivit Caesar vetustiss i m u m q u e m q u e e Senatu, a u t q u i b u s clari parentes fuerant. Paucis j a m reliquis familiarum quas R o m u l u s Majorum, et Lucius Brutus M i n o r u m G e n t i u m , adpellaverat: exhaustis e t i a m quas Dictator Caesar Lege Cassia, et Princeps A u g u s t u s Lege Saenia, sublegere." (Annal. l.XI, C.25.) [37] D.

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Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 • Heft XIII führt n u n Beispiele an aus Archiven ü b e r d e n decay der free burgesses of certain rich a n d exclusive boroughs. (40) If it were t r u e t h a t p o p u l a t i o n has a n a t u r a l t e n d e n c y to increase equally a m o n g s t all classes, u n c h e c k e d by anything b u t the inability to p r o c u r e subsistence, the diseases which arise o u t of a deficiency of n u t r i m e n t , a n d t h e a b a n d o n m e n t of marriage caused by poverty a n d t h e fear of it; ... the decrease of a people m u s t take place at the b o t t o m of society, a n d n o t in t h e m i d d l e or at the top. (181)

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Statement von p. 10 des Report XVII of Excise Commissioners Date.

Hard soap made lbs

Soft Soap made

Number of manufacturers

1785 1790 1795 1800 1805 1810 1815 1820 1825 1830 1834

35,012,412 lbs 42,074,309 48,262,786 54,233,311 65,723,869 72,636,296 77,678,063 82,379,891 102,623,165 117,324,321 144,344,043

3,358,228 3,671,425 3,495,559 3,528,432 4,575,130 6,146,529 6,224,002 7,099,297 8,910,509 10,209,519 10,401,281

971 772 677 652 553 510 447 398 395 309 302 (236)

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A u s d i e s e m law of P o p u l a t i o n ] folgt, daß a long c o n t i n u e d depression, down to destitution, of a whole people, will, in t h e long r u n , be revenged on itself a n d those who caused it, by the superfluous a n d u n m a n a g e a b l e pauper p o p u l a t i o n which it is sure to generate. ([253,] 254) there is g r o u n d for 25 the supposition that the neutralization, or absence of alkali, in the m a l e ani m a l constitution, would be a direct cause of sterility, a n d its decided presence, e contrario, a cause of fruitfulness; supposing, in each case, the fem a l e to be prolific by constitution. ... N o w ... a plethoric diet, i.e. of a n i m a l food u n d wheaten bread m i t W e i n u n d Z u c k e r in c o m b i n a t i o n , ||22| 30 is a c c o m p a n i e d by a development of acid in the frame; whilst, on the contrary, a poor, u n w h o l e s o m e , deficient, or i n d e e d mostly vegetable n u t r i m e n t , t e n d s rather to an alkalescent state of t h e body, from which acid is excluded. ( 2 7 4 - 2 7 6 )

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W. P. Alison. M. D. Observations on the Management of the Poor in Scotland. E d i n b u r g h . 1840.

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Sterblichkeit in E d i n b u r g h 1: auf 22 oder 2 3 . In Glasgow war die D u r c h Schnittssterblichkeit seit 1830 = 1:30 u n d 1832 u n d 1837 = 1:21 u n d = 1:24. (VII N o t e Preface) the prevention of Disease on a large scale m a y often be in the power of a c o m m u n i t y , although beyond the power of m a n y of the inhabitants c o m p o s i n g that c o m m u n i t y . (I.e. VIII) D e r a m o u n t of suffering from the c o m b i n a t i o n of poverty a n d disease, has b e e n nearly tripled in the city of E d i n b u r g h in d e n lezten 25 J a h r e n , w ä h r e n d die p o p u l a tion n u r um 50 % sich v e r m e h r t hat. (4) D i e repeated u n d severe visitations of fever ... are not merely the occasion of m u c h a n d widely spread suffering a n d destitution, b u t they are ... in a great m e a s u r e the result, a n d t h e indication and test, of m u c h previous misery a n d destitution. (18) Jedenfalls ist destitution »a cause of the rapid diffusion of contagious fever«. (19) T h e true specific cause of the contagious fever, at least of Edinburgh, certainly does n o t spring from any thing external to the living h u m a n body, (wie v o n verdorbner Luft, d u r c h A u s d ü n s t u n g todter Körper.) (20) D a s elaborate work der Drs Cheyne u n d Barker zeigt d a ß die grossen E p i d e m i e n in Irland seit 1700, each of t h e m lasting fully 2 years, Folge von privations, sufferings u n d der m e n t a l depression u n d d e s p o n d e n c y which naturally a t t e n d t h e m ; n ä h m l i c h 1708, 1720, u n d 1731, 1 7 4 0 - 4 1 (after the great frost of 1740), 1 8 0 0 - 1 8 0 1 , after the rebellion, the transference of the seat of gove r n m e n t to L o n d o n , a n d t h e scarcity of 1799 u n d 1800; u n d wieder 1817 n a c h der «transition from t h e state of war to that of p e a c e " u n d der scarcity of 1816 u n d 1817. (22) V o n d e n recent E p i d e m i c s in E d i n b u r g h u n d G l a s gow gilt dasselbe. D i e erste in Edinburgh b e g i n n e n d 1817, n a c h 2 b a d harvests; die nächste 1826, n a c h d e n great failures in 1825 u n d der s u d d e n

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Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 • Heft XIII cessation, besonders of building speculations in E d i n b u r g h ; u n d die lezte, 1836, n a c h der great depression of trade b o t h in Glasgow u n d D u n d e e , m i t welchen towns the lower orders here are m u c h c o n n e c t e d . In Glasgow die Sache n o c h klarer, fever scheint hier to have increased a n d d i m i n i s h e d for 40 years past, nearly as it did in E d i n b u r g h , bis 1836, when, after the great 5 stagnation of trade, it b e c a m e m u c h m o r e formidable. F ü r 20 J a h r e vor 1815, als die Stadt rasch in R e i c h t h u m wachsend war, die Z a h l der Fieberp a t i e n t e n in d e m Infirmary nie ü b e r 130 im Jahr. In 1817, 1818 u n d 1819 belief sie sich zu 2715 oder 905 im Jahr. D a n n n a h m sie wieder beträchtlich a b ; h o b sich aber n a c h d e n failures 1825 u n d 1826, 1827 u n d 1828, 10 a m o u n t e d auf 3520 oder 1173 im Jahr. A n d r e increase of disease 1832; u n d n a c h d e n great failures 1835 it spread so extensively, daß die n u m b e r s t a k e n in hospitals 1836, 37 u n d 38 a m o u n t e d auf 9740, oder 3270 im J a h r u n d von diesen 5387 allein im J a h r 1837 ... In d e n lezten 3 J a h r e n die G e s a m m t z a h l der Fieberfälle von Glasgow c o m p u t e d at nearly 40,000. (23, 4) 15 D i e female field labourers, sehr zahlreich in ganz Schottland, when e m ployed, earn only 18 d. a day, a n d are u n a b l e to provide anything for the future. Accordingly, ceasing to be fit for work a b o u t the age of 50, they inevitably b e c o m e destitute ... the n u m b e r of such poor w o m e n , in almost every small town in Scotland, is distressing to t h i n k u p o n . ... T h e fact is, they 20 live in a condition to which t h a t of m o s t domestic a n i m a l s is a luxury. (31, 2) In Edinburgh und Schottland überhaupt Blüthe des M a l t h u s i a n i s m u s , »the towncouncil of E d i n b u r g h , a n d the M a n a g e r s of the C h u r c h CharityW o r k h o u s e ... refused, even last winter, at the t i m e w h e n e p i d e m i c fever was alarmingly prevalent, to order the increased assessments which were 25 proposed.« Sie wußten, daß sie d a d u r c h would have very materially relieved the sufferings vieler hülfloser W e i b e r u n d K i n d e r ... A b e r sie fürchteten d a d u r c h zu ultimately extend a n d perpetuate the k i n d of suffering which they would temporarily relieve. (40, 1) W e r in E d i n b u r g h fühlt m u c h anxiety a b o u t die sufferings der poor, s e e m to be usually regarded as well- 30 m e a n i n g , weak m i n d e d m e n , who are incapable of c o m p r e h e n d i n g the „principle of population", a n d do n o t u n d e r s t a n d that the sufferings of o n e part of the c o m m u n i t y are the proper corrective to restrain the t e n d e n c y to u n d u e increase of n u m b e r s in the rest. (39, N o t e ) Mr Revans, der Sekretär war to the Poor-law-Inquiry in E n g l a n d u n d Wales, which led z u m A m e n d 35 m e n t A c t in 1834, sagt, daß w e n n wir a b z i e h n das p a y m e n t of wages d u r c h die poorrates seit 1796, (the employers of labourers having dexterously shifted on the rate payers a great part of the b u r d e n which they only were b o u n d to bear) and allow for the difference of population, and of the price of corn, a n d for m a n y extraneous expenses ... charged on the poor rates ... 40 we shall find that they h a d pretty well reached their greatest height in 1680.

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Aus William Pulteney Alison: Observations on the management of the poor ([45,] 46) D i e ö k o n o m i s c h e n F o l g e n dieser schottischen Rigidität: An irisch widow m i t 4 j u n g e n K i n d e r n , die 4 oder 5 J a h r e in E d i n b u r g h sich aufgehalten, was refused relief from the Charity-Workhouse; ... sie u n d ihre Kinder lebten eine Zeitlang in e x t r e m e destitution, in a close cellar, in 5 a small but crowded close. Da eines der K i n d e r v o m Fieber ergriffen, die others soon sickened, die disease spread to the neighbours, 15 cases occurred in a very limited space in a few weeks; some of which b e c a m e a heavy b u r d e n to t h e Infirmary; o n e y o u n g w o m a n , who supported h e r aged m o t h e r died, and t h e m o t h e r b e c o m e s a b u r d e n on the city. H o w far further 10 the evil m a y extend is yet doubtful. (192 note) |

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Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 · Heft XIII

|23| Alison. (Archibald) The Principles of Population. E d i n b u r g h . 1840.

t.I. O h n e das bedachtlose H i n g e b e n an d e n Instinkt der G a t t u n g (Be) the species could never have emerged from the woods. (14) Unless the principle of increase h a d b e e n u n l i m i t e d in its operation in pastoral ages, die Pastoralvölker nie ihre w a n d e r n d e Lebensart verlassen. It is the feeling of want which impels t h e m into other regions, a n d leads to the formation of different habits. But for the rapid m u l t i p l i c a t i o n of t h e Scythian tribes they would have wandered to this day u n k n o w n a n d u n c h a n g e d in the steppes of the U k r a i n e or the plains of Tartary, a n d the n a t i o n s of E u r o p e who have sprung from their d e s c e n d a n t s would never have existed. (18) It was the pressure of n u m b e r s alone which compelled t h e m to leave these desert regions, a n d impelled t h e m alternately u p o n the R o m a n , the I n d i a n , or the Chinese empires. (I.e.) »the forced m i g r a t i o n of shepherd tribes« war »the m e a n s of peopling an u n i n h a b i t e d world«. (19) G r e a t part of the h i g h tableland of Asia, which shelves upwards from the N o r t h e r n O c e a n to the H i m a l a y a snows, at the foot of which it is 14,000 feet above the sea, is utterly incapable of arable cultivation: districts in Tartary u n d Mongolia, 2x as large as all Europe, are for ever c h a i n e d to the N o m a d State. (19) If, therefore, the u n l i m i t e d operation of the principle of increase is necessary in t h e savage state to the existence of m a n , it is no less essential in the pastoral to his extension a n d improvement. (21) T h e same want of a rapid increase in the h u m a n species is felt in the early agricultural state. (22) D e r slow progress which states m a k e in enlarging their n u m b e r s in the first stages of so256

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Aus Archibald Alison: The principles of population ciety zeigen die N o t h w e n d i g k e i t einer u n l i m i t e d operation des principle of increase für die multiplication of m a n k i n d in these periods. Z u r Z e i t Julius Casars die E i n w o h n e r von Britain wahrscheinlich 700,000; w ä h r e n d der Heptarchie still smaller; u n t e r H e n r y V das whole Island n i c h t 5 2,500,000 souls. So in 15 centuries die n u m b e r s of the people were hardly tripled. (23, 4) R a s c h fortschreitende Bevölkerung in d e n early ages n u r in besonders begünstigten L ä n d e r e i n , wie in d e m Delta von Aejypten, der E b e n e von M e s o p o t a m i e n , oder in d e n fields of Bengal. (24, 5) D e r rapid progress der population in N o r d a m e r i k a h a t zu sehr falschen I d e e n in Be10 zug auf die probable rate of increase in the earlier ages of the world geleitet. D i e ß Volk b e g a n n die cultivation seiner forests m i t allen advantages and resources of civilized life at their c o m m a n d ; etc etc. (25) T h e state of the N o r t h a m e r i c a n p o p u l a t i o n is n o t to be t a k e n as an example, b u t as a contrast to the condition of m a n in the r u d e r ages of the world. (26) F r o m 15 the very earliest ages ... commerce has b e e n the great compelling force which has driven civilized m a n into distant regions; a n d given rise to those stations for the transit of m e r c h a n d i s e , or the m u t u a l convenience of buyers and sellers, which have afterwards grown into the greatest cities. (29) A u s s e r d e m der spirit of urban democracy ist die great moving power which 20 leads civilized m a n to settle in distant regions. (31)

Population and Subsistence. Ein M a n n k a n n mehr t h u n als die zu s e i n e m eignen Bedarf n ö t h i g e food schaffen. Dieser Excess der food, von d e m i m m e r alle a n d r e n Klassen ausser der a c k e r b a u e n d e n gelebt h a b e n . (35) Solange die F r u c h t b a r k e i t des 25 Bodens unerschöpft u n d die äussersten limits of increasing subsistence have not b e e n attained, the s a m e proportion m u s t exist between t h e n u m bers of the cultivators, a n d the surplus p r o d u c e they can raise, as in the earliest times, weil die n u m b e r of m o u t h s have increased in exactly t h e same proportion as the n u m b e r of h a n d s . (36) Der B a n a n a b a u m , sagt 30 A. v. H u m b o l d t , will furnish food for 50 individuals on the same surface which u n d e r wheat will only m a i n t a i n two. (38) Seit 1640 die A m e r i c a n e r sich beständig verdoppelt in je 33¾ J a h r e n . This long c o n t i n u e d a n d astonishing multiplication for 2 centuries is the m o s t l u m i n o u s fact which t h e history of the globe h a s yet exhibited of the fixed superiority which t h e pro35 duce of h u m a n labour is able to m a i n t a i n even over the m o s t rapidly increasing multiplication of the species. (39, 40) M u ß zugegeben werden, that every particular country, m a y by h u m a n industry, be cultivated to its u t m o s t . . . Aber es ist falsch, d a ß long before this u l t i m a t e limit has b e e n at-

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Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 · Heft XIII tained, p o p u l a t i o n h a s a t e n d e n c y to increase faster t h a n subsistence. (42, 3) (In d e m Vereinigten K i n g d o m 27,000,000 acres of land in pasture, oder an % des land hitherto brought u n d e r cultivation. [46]) D i e G e s c h i c h t e von E n g l a n d seit 1801 beweist, d a ß trotz seiner d i c h t e n Bevölkerung, t h e powers of agricultural p r o d u c t i o n in this island have kept in a d v a n c e of its popu l a t i o n j u s t as effectually als in t h e o t h e r side of t h e A t l a n t i c - V o n 1 8 3 1 - 1 8 3 5 t h e price of every species of agricultural p r o d u c e were r u i n ously low. (47) G r o ß b r i t a n n i e n k ö n n t e in 5 oder 10 J a h r e n be m a d e to m a i n t a i n double its present n u m b e r o f i n h a b i t a n t s . I n E n g l a n d u n d W a l e s sind 27,700,000 cultivated acres; in I r l a n d 12,125,000; in Schottland an 5,265,000, in allem 45,090,000 u n d von diesen gegenwärtig in Cultur d u r c h d e n Spade u n d d e n Pflug 19,237,000 acres u n d in pasturage 27,000,000. Das ist 2 acres für jedes h u m a n b e i n g in d e m U n i t e d K i n g d o m ; t h e n u m ber of i n h a b i t a n t s in G r e a t Britain u n d Ireland, in 1827, being a b o u t 23,000,000, a n d t h e s a m e proportion probably o b t a i n s at t h e present t i m e , w h e n their n u m b e r s are nearly 30,000,000. N u n , a full supply of subsistence for every living person in wheat is a quarter a year; so t h a t at this rate there is only one qr raised over t h e whole empire, for every two acres of arable and m e a d o w land. But an acre of arable l a n d yields im D u r c h s c h n i t t für ganz E n g l a n d 2 qrs 5 bushels, etwas m e h r als 2% qrs; so d a ß je 2 acres fähig sind at t h e present average of m a i n t a i n i n g 5 h u m a n beings oder 5 times t h e present i n h a b i t a n t s of t h e empire. C a n there be t h e smallest d o u b t d a ß in a few years dieß 1 qr per % acre m i g h t be t u r n e d i n t o 2 qr per acre, less t h a n t h e existing average of E n g l a n d ? oder 3 qrs, still less t h a n | |24| t h e average of m a n y of its counties? D e r erste dieser changes würde 4 χ , der lezte 6 x der jetzigen E i n w o h n e r z a h l food geben, abgesehn v o n d e n waste lands etc, wovon 6 M i l l i o n e n acres in arable u n d p a s t u r e l a n d s verwandelt werden k ö n n e n , was zur selben R a t e a b o u t 12 M i l l i o n e n of m e n m e h r h a l t e n k ö n n t e . So klar, d a ß 120 millions of h u m a n beings oder 180 m i t ease u n d comfort von d e m territory des U n i t e d K i n g d o m gehalten werd e n k ö n n e n ; a n d supposing t h e m all t o b e m a i n t a i n e d o n w h e a t e n b r e a d drawn from the arable, a n d b u t c h e r - m e a t , raised on t h e pasture, lands, without any intermixture of potatoes or inferior food, w h i c h is greatly m o r e productive. ( 4 9 - 5 1 ) It is practically k n o w n to every Scotch farmer that, by t h e simple i n t r o d u c t i o n of tile-draining, t h e p r o d u c e of every soil, if at all wet, is at o n c e raised a half, often doubled. (55) N a c h Porter: Das L a n d included in die inclosure bills, passed seit 1826, n u r 247,000 acres; die zu der Bevölkerung hinzugefügten n u m b e r s 2,703,707 souls; t h u s affording n o t / of an acre per h e a d für j e d e n a d d i t i o n a l i n h a b i t a n t . D i e ß Beweis von der increased productiveness des soil. (I.e.) F r a n k r e i c h e n t h ä l t viel m e h r arable land im Verhältniß zu seiner surface als G r e a t Britain: d e n n n u r

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9,146,000 acres p e r m a n e n t l y waste out of 132,630,000 acres in its whole area, w ä h r e n d die british Islands v o n 77,000,000 statute acres 15,871,000 ganz sterile u n d u n p r o d u c t i v e e n t h a l t e n . D a s arable L a n d Frankreichs also 2x das der british Islands; u n d wie viel weniger p r o d u c e des soil hier d e voted to horses u n d cattle, folgt daraus, daß, w ä h r e n d in Great Britain das m e a d o w u n d pasture l a n d sich auf 27 Mill, acres behäuft, in F r a n k r e i c h n u r 24 Mill, (nach C h a t e a u Vieux) D e n n o c h h a t F r a n k r e i c h n u r 3 Millions E i n w o h n e r m e h r als G r o ß b r i t t a n n i e n . H ä t t e wenigstens 60 Mill., w e n n es contained so viele E i n w o h n e r als G r e a t Britain, im Verhältniß zu seiner Oberfläche; u n d bei 1 h u m a n being zu j e d e m arable acre, which is only supposing each acre to p r o d u c e % of the average p r o d u c e of England, oder 1 qr per acre, it would m a i n t a i n 120 Mill, souls, zu 3 qrs an acre aber 360 millions. (52 Note.) W ä h r e n d in Polen, der great granary of E u r o p e , 20 agriculturists erheischt w e r d e n to p r o d u c e a surplus für 1 manufacturer, u n d in A m e r i c a 12, für d e n s e l b e n Zweck in F r a n c e n u r 2, w ä h r e n d in Great Britain o n e agriculturist is able to m a i n t a i n in ordinary years above 3 manufacturers. (61) D i e ß beweist, d a ß das surplus produce der cultivators is continually increasing as society advances. (I.e.) Da ü b e r h a u p t Capital nichts ist als subsistence stored u p , da der G e s a m m t r e i c h t h u m der W e l t nichts ist als die a c c u m u l a t i o n des surplus produce, of the labours der Cultivators der earth in different ages, above what was requisite for their own support - W e n n d a h e r the efforts of h u m a n p r o d u c t i o n h a d a c o n s t a n t tendency to sink before the gigantic powers of population in the m o r e advanced stages of society, m u ß t e das a n n u a l i n c r e m e n t of capital have g o n e on declining m i t d e m progress of its m o r e advanced stages. U n d dieß grad das Gegentheil der Wirklichkeit. (62) Die wahre relation zwischen Bevölkerung u n d Subsistenz ist die von cause u n d effect. (63) In China, n a c h H u m boldt, die Oberfläche beläuft sich auf 463,000 square m a r i n e leagues u n d die population, n a c h i h m , ist 175,000,000. If it were peopled in d e m s e l b e n Verhältniß wie die british Islands, which c o n t a i n 2,250 to t h e square league, it would c o n t a i n 980 M i l l i o n e n oder fast 5 x seine jetzigen Einwohner; w e n n es cultivirt wäre, wie G r o ß b r i t a n n i e n sein k o n n t e (sieh oben) d. h. 1 acre von je 3 gewidmet der staple food of m a n , die 2 a n d r e n zu luxuries, it would m a i n t a i n 2 300 M i l l i o n e n Einwohner, 12 x seine gegenwärtige Bevölkerung. D i e P e n i n s u l a of India, n a c h H u m b o l d t , enthält 109,200 square m a r i n e leagues u n d 134 Mill. Einwohner. W ä r e es in d e m selben Maasse bevölkert wie England, so würde es e n t h a l t e n a b o u t 250 Mill. E i n w o h n e r oder fast 2x seine present n u m b e r . (67, 8) B i o s d e m Malthus gegenüber ist auf die ursprünglichen Productivkräfte des B o dens zu verweisen ... "the m a i n point in civilized society is not what are the productive powers of n a t u r e in t h e soil, b u t what are the m e a n s which the h u m a n race have for getting at these powers." (77) 259

Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 • Heft XIII

On the Changes in the Progress of Society which limit the Principle of Increase. W i e nothwendig auch i m m e r a rapid increase of m a n k i n d ist in early times, die necessity für diese u n l i m i t e d operation des Bevölkerungsprincips hört auf im Fortschritt der Gesellschaft u n d eine Periode k ö m m t , wo 5 s o m e powerful restraint zu legen auf die m u l t i p l i c a t i o n of m a n k i n d . (83) Check in d e n artificial wants u n d habits of foresight, die der Fortschritt der society schafft. (87) D a n n der Change, which the objects of his desire u n dergo in the progress of society. (89) D i e gradation of ranks. (I.e.) D i e Z a h l der Kinder vermindert sich m i t der Contraction der H e i r a t h e n in m i d d l e 10 life, statt of early youth. (136) D i e G r o s s e n Städte. (138)

On the Circumstances in the Progress of Society which limit the demand for Labour. Diese U m s t ä n d e sind: change in the employment of capital. (146) there is a limit imposed to the growth of capital in every country, by the height to 15 which itself has arisen; a n d that it flows into foreign channels, when the reservoirs at h o m e are supplied, as naturally a n d inevitably as a stream which has fertilized its own plains descends to enrich inferior soils. (157, 8) Change in the direction of wealth from productive to u n p r o d u c t i v e employm e n t , (p. 162 sqq.) (In allen diesen Fällen, sei es eine V e r s c h w e n d u n g von 20 Einzelnen, oder von Regierungen, ü b e r h a u p t Verausgabung als Revenue) t h e capital, das die Arbeit in Bewegung sezt d u r c h seine Nachfrage, is not reproduced by their exertions, b u t is entirely dissipated. (164) the wealth which is devoted to productive investments, in addition to the encouragem e n t given to the persons employed, reproduces itself in the h a n d s of the 25 spender, and p e r m a n e n t l y enriches h i m a n d his d e s c e n d a n t s ; whereas t h a t which is s q u a n d e r e d in t h e purchase of luxuries is in great part lost to h i m a n d his heirs, a n d reproduces itself only in the persons of those whose productions he acquires. Also im ersten Fall doppelter emploi. (166) | |25| T h e exchange of the surplus of o n e productive citizen against the 30 productive surplus produce of another, creates n o t only a m u t u a l encoura g e m e n t to industry, b u t a m u t u a l growth of capital in the h a n d s of b o t h parties, whereas, when o n e of the parties is a m e r e idle c o n s u m e r , the growth goes on only on o n e side. (167) Zunahme der Circulation, damit relative Depreciation des Gelds u n d Steigen der Preisse. (170 sqq.) 35

260

HBP

w

Aus Archibald Alison: The principles of population Theilung der Arbeit u n d Verbesserung der Maschinerie. (181) E a c h w o r k m a n in der cotton m a n u f a c t u r e s u p e r i n t e n d s as m u c h work as would have b e e n d o n e by 200 or 300 sixty years ago. As m u c h work is d o n e by a steampowermill m i t 750 m e n as 200,000 could do w i t h o u t machinery. (188) Die ex5 ports von Great Britain im D u r c h s c h n i t t der 7 J a h r e e n d e n d m i t 1806 = £ 2 3 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 0 ; im average der 7 J a h r e e n d e n d m i t 1836 £ 7 4 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 0 . D i e Bevölkerung der island in der ersten Periode 10,942,000, in der lezten 18,000,000. Also ganz andre V e r m e h r u n g des p r o d u c e als der labourers. (188 [,189]) In Glasgow (1840) 3000 publichouses auf 290,000 persons in10 eluded in 58,000 families; fast 1 p u b l i c h o u s e auf 20 families. B e w o h n t e Häuser ungefähr 30,000, so d a ß j e d e s 1 0 h o u s e appropriated to t h e sale of spirits: a proportion u n e x a m p l e d in any other city of the globe. 1830 war 1 Public h o u s e auf 12 Häuser. (190, 1) Diese Z a h l gestiegen von 1600 seit 1821, obgleich n u r 140,000 Seelen w ä h r e n d derselben Periode der Bevölke15 rung hinzugefügt. (191) the s a m e individuals, who, a year before, were reduced to pawn their last shreds of furniture to procure subsistence, recklessly throw away the surplus earnings of m o r e prosperous times in the lowest debauchery. (I.e.) It seems the peculiar effect of such debasing e m ployments, to render the c o n d i t i o n of m e n precarious at the s a m e t i m e that 20 it m a k e s their habits irregular: to subject t h e m at o n c e to the m o s t trying fluctuations of condition, a n d the m o s t fatal improvidence of character. (I.e.) Experience has proved ... that the proportion of marriages in these classes is m u c h greater t h a n in the agricultural districts; a n d the increase of population is still m o r e rapid, as the dissolution of m a n n e r s h a s multiplied 25 to an incredible degree the n u m b e r s of bastards. (192) while the improvem e n t of science a n d the extension of art is daily encroaching on the field of industry in the often-debasing e m p l o y m e n t s of manufactures, t h e wide and healthful field of agricultural o c c u p a t i o n r e m a i n s for ever o p e n to the industry of m a n k i n d , (194) the i m p r o v e m e n t of husbandry, indeed, has a 30 directly opposed t e n d e n c y from the growth of manufactures, a n d in the later ages of society the n u m b e r of persons employed in the cultivation of the earth is greater t h a n in its earlier periods. W h e r e agriculture has attained to a high degree of perfection, as in Flanders, Lombardy, a n d Tuscany, t h e value of land, a n d the great d e m a n d for its varied produce, leads to the ro35 tation of crops, a n d the garden system of h u s b a n d r y . This change a u g m e n t s immensely the n u m b e r of persons engaged in its cultivation. It has b e e n calculated, that at least d o u b l e the n u m b e r of labourers are o c c u p i e d on a farm of equal extent in the level fields of Brabant, or on the A p e n n i n e s , from those d e e m e d necessary in the best cultivated parts of Britain. T h e 40 growth of agricultural wealth leads to the division of farms; the improvem e n t of agricultural knowledge multiplies the n u m b e r of crops which c a n te

261

Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 · Heft XIII be raised from soil, the necessity for e c o n o m i s i n g b o t h space a n d l a b o u r introduces the garden cultivation. By no possible contrivance c a n the same p r o d u c e be raised from good land, as by treating it like a k i t c h e n garden with the spade a n d the h o e ; a n d this is accordingly t h e m e t h o d adopted in those countries where agriculture h a s b e e n longest practised with success, 5 a n d is best u n d e r s t o o d ; an extraordinary fact, der zeigt wie der M e n s c h an die Erde g e b u n d e n etc (194, 5) Herr A l i s o n k ö m m t auf folgendes schöne Naturgesetz, wovon grade das Gegentheil in der Praxis existirt: »It was for no light reasons, therefore, that n a t u r e established this eternal distinction between the labour of the country a n d t h a t of the town, a n d m a d e the 10 increase of wealth a n d progress of civilisation a t t e n d e d with constant restraints on the e n c o u r a g e m e n t to labour, from m a n u f a c t u r i n g , a n d constant ||26| increase to t h e d e m a n d for industry or agricultural employments.« (197) Ferner, wird im Fortschritt der Gesellschaft das W a c h s t h u m generis h u m a n i aufgehalten d u r c h d e n increase of horses für L u x u s oder 15 conveyance oder agriculture. 1 Pferd erheischt so viel food als 8 persons. (197, 8) W a h r s c h e i n l i c h n a c h den g e n a u s t e n Berichten d a ß die Pferde Lond o n s so viel food verzehren als seine Einwohner. (198) In der Agricultur in E n g l a n d 832,000 Pferde gebraucht; sie verzehren die food von fast 11 millions of m e n . Viel m e h r als die h u m a n labourers. (198, 9) D i e ß wächst im 20 Fortschritt der commercial opulence. (199) the multiplication of horses goes on at increased ratio in the advanced stages of ... opulent societies; a n d an a n i m a l which at first is valued only for its useful qualities, a n d as the fellow labourer of its master, b e c o m e s in the progress of opulence, the most costly article of luxury, a n d the principal sign of the distinction of 25 rank. (199) D a n n m i t d e m increase of wealth ebenso wichtiger change in the food, which is c o n s u m e d by the better classes of society. Metzgerfleisch, Butter, Käs werden ein H a u p t t h e i l der N a h r u n g der poor. (Esel!) ... 50 % m e h r Fleisch in Britannien als Frankreich c o n s u m i r t ... In den British islands b e s t i m m t 27,386,000 acres für pasturage u n d n u r 19,135,000 für 30 K o r n ... Dieß Verhältniß h e r s t a m m e n d aus d e m fortgeschrittnen R e i c h t h u m Englands u n d d e n gestiegnen Bedürfnissen der M e h r z a h l ... D a n n absorption of a considerable portion of grain für Brauen u n d Destilliren u n d Z i e h e n gährender u n d gebrannter G e t r ä n k e in the later stages of society ... N u r in fortgeschrittnen stages of society the quantity of grain c o n s u m e d in 35 this form b e c o m e s an i m p o r t a n t e l e m e n t in estimating the m e a n s of n a tional subsistence. ... Seit 1825 (reduction d a m a l s der duties) in Großbrit a n n i e n die Z a h l der gallons spirituöser G e t r ä n k e gewachsen von 16 Million e n auf 24,493,000 (bis 1837) ... N a c h C o l q u h o u n wird in d e n british isles: 40

262

Aus Archibald Alison: The principles of population Consumed by man Thiere (abgesehn von grass, hay, straw) Brauerei u n d Destillation

18,750,000 qrs (grain) 11,829,000 4,250,000. ( 1 9 9 - 2 0 4 )

5

A deficiency in the crop in C h i n a or H i n d u s t a n u n m i t t e l b a r gefolgt von famine, in England it p r o d u c e s only a d i m i n u t i o n in the n u m b e r of horses, a stoppage of the d e s t i n a t i o n from grain, a n d a general saving in t h e u s e of bread or a n i m a l food. (205) In F r a n k r e i c h 20 Millions Agriculturists n ö t h i g um sich u n d 10 m i l l i o n s Städter etc zu e r n ä h r e n ; in England (Britain) 10 4 Millions für sich u n d für 14 millions in a n d r e n trades. (205, 6) (In F r a n k reich 2 cultivators m a i n t a i n 1 von d e n a n d r e n Klassen; in B r i t a n n i e n 1 cultivator m a i n t a i n s 4 von d e n a n d r e n Klassen. In Polen, R u ß l a n d etc 15 oder 20 agriculturists erhalten 1 von d e n a n d r e n Klassen.) W h e n so large a proportion as % °f the fruits of the soil is c o n s u m e d in articles of luxury, the 15 rent of land rises, a n d the price of agricultural labour is e n h a n c e d long before population has reached its u t m o s t limits. (206) In d e n earlier periods of agriculture, farms überall u n d in allen Zeitaltern small, aus M a n g e l an Capital u n d A r m u t h der cultivators. D a n n engrossing of farms ... D i e ß Bedürfniß hört auf, sobald die great operations of agriculture have b e e n c o m 20 pleted, the principal drains m a d e , woods cleared, a n d enclosures finished ... u n d d a n n die operations der h u m a n h a n d nöthiger als die des Capitals u n d die c o m p e t i t i o n of agricultural capital führt d a n n zur subdivision of farms, and the change in their m o d e of cultivation. ... Das G a r t e n system of h u s b a n d r y verdrängt d a n n j e d e s andre. So in J a p a n . ( 2 1 8 - 2 0 )

25

Modifications of these principles from human corruption.

W e n n redundant population existirt, von d e n o b e n entwickelten G e s e t z e n , dieß n u r der h u m a n corruption z u z u s c h r e i b e n . (225) (die n ä m l i c h die n a türlich limiting principles über H a u f e n wirft.) Er tröstet sich m e i s t e n s bi30 blisch: "the poor will be always with u s . " (226 W e n n er selbst nicht der poor ist, sehr erträglich.) ( D a m i t er » b e c o m e s qualified for H e a v e n « (226) m u ß es Arme geben.) Schlechte Regierung. (229) B e h a u p t e n die Advocaten der necessary misery der M e n s c h h e i t , d a ß die actual victims of oppression wenige sind im Verhältniß zu d e n D u l d e r n aus U n k l u g h e i t etc dieß 35 richtig. Wollen sie aber b e h a u p t e n , t h a t this i m p r u d e n c e is n o t m a i n l y owing to erroneous institutions or h u m a n wickedness, and t h a t a t e n d e n c y to

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Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 • Heft XIII increase faster t h a n subsistence can be provided in t h e m , is i n h e r e n t in h u m a n nature, i n d e p e n d e n t of the operation of m o r a l causes, there c a n n o t be a greater or a m o r e fatal error. (231, 2) | |27| Bis 1690 ungefähr (bis zur U n i o n der K i n g d o m s ) war % der g a n z e n Bevölkerung von Schottland, a m o u n t i n g to 200,000 persons, in a state of i m p o r t u n a t e a n d helpless mendicity, so grosse Proportion wie je in Irland in its periods of greatest distress. (250, 1)

5

Principles of Decay and Renovation in Human Affairs. W h e n the lower orders, as in t h e R o m a n or G r e c i a n States, are enslaved, the social system d e p e n d s entirely on t h e valour a n d industry of the higher ranks. (283)

10

On the Action of the Principle of Increase in the East. 1) Turkey. Hier allgemeines System: t h e capital owerflows with riches, while the provinces languish in the most extreme poverty. (314) In the rich plain of R o m e lia, in t h e vicinity of Constantinople, the cultivation is beyond m e a s u r e wretched. T h e G r a n d Seignior publicly m o n o p o l i z e s all the corn, a n d with it furnishes the capital. He draws his supplies from the m a r i t i m e provinces, which are subject to a k i n d of tax called Ichtirach, consisting in the obligation do deliver to the Sultan, at a very low rate, a certain quantity of grain, which he retails to others. (315) Das türkische government m a y be considered as an army e n c a m p e d , the general of which issues orders to forage the country. (319) T h e sale of all e m p l o y m e n t s , a n d the precarious t e n u r e by which they are held, converts the depositaries of authority into oppressors. Justice is venal, because the Cadis have b e e n laid u n d e r contribution. All persons who receive pay from the Sultan ... are liable every instant to d e a t h a n d confiscation. This inspires fear, a n d p r o m p t s those in office to m a k e the most of what they hold by so frail a t e n u r e . (320, 1) I n s t i t u t i o n der A z a m s , die die I n d i v i d u e n gegen die Pachas zu s c h ü t z e n h a b e n . In Städten, sind alle die von E i n e m trade in corporations vereinigt, the chiefs of which watch over the individuals composing it. E n d l i c h das village system, which prevails almost universally over the east ... By this institution ... the whole country is divided into little c o m m u n i t i e s , who pay a certain fixed tax or rather tribute to the G o v e r n m e n t or Pacha, in

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20

25

30

ψ Aus Archibald Alison: The principles of population c o n s i d e r a t i o n of w h i c h they are relieved from all further e x a c t i o n on t h e part of these officers. (321, 2) (The p r o p o r t i o n in which e a c h individual in t h e c o m m u n i t y is to b e a r his share of t h i s b u r d e n is ascertained with nicety, a n d , in general, faithfully observed. [322]) Property vested in m o r t 5

m a i n , in t h e h a n d s of t h e m i n i s t e r s of religion, is in general tolerably se­ cure, a n d it is with t h e m , t h a t t h e little capital which arises from t r a d e or c o m m e r c e , is c o m m o n l y invested. ... G e n e r a l l y speaking ... t h e hill dis­ tricts of Turkey, b o t h in E u r o p e a n d Asia, are far better cultivated t h a n t h e plains ... das t u r k i s h e m p i r e , das in E u r o p e u n d Asia e m b r a c e s 815,000 fj]

10

miles, c o n t a i n s n u r 25,000,000 i n h a b i t a n t s , also 28 per • mile, n i c h t % der p o p u l a t i o n i t c o n t a i n e d i n t h e days o f t h e r o m a n a n d persian empires u n d k a u m m e h r als χ / 0 vieler c o u n t r i e s in m o d e r n E u r o p e . (323, 4)

2) Ejypt. Die p e a s a n t s dieses L a n d e s afford a m e m o r a b l e e x a m p l e of t h e greatest 15

excess of h u m a n misery, arising solely from t h e oppression of t h e p o o r e r classes. (327) In t h e Provinces of U p p e r Ejypt die r e t u r n s of agriculture have b e e n estimated = 80:1 u n d die m o s t m o d e r a t e calculations zeigen e i n e n D u r c h s c h n i t t s r e t u r n von 25 oder 3 0 : 1 . ... this fertility ... great as it is, die s p o n t a n e o u s gift of N a t u r e : t h e m e a n s of irrigation ... neglected or

20

lost: ignorant u n d lazy die h u s b a n d m e n . (328, 9) Aejypten zeugt von der propensity to increase, operating with t h e most force, w h e n t h e r e is t h e least scope afforded for t h e subsistence of t h e people. (335)

3) Barbary. T h e only ploughing which they e m p l o y is a species of scratching 6 i n c h e s 25

deep, frequently d o n e with a w o o d e n plough. T h e i r only m a n u r e is t h e an­ n u a l b u r n i n g of t h e stubble. (338, 9)

4) Syria, Palaestina, Asia Minor. P o p u l a t i o n thinly scattered a n d miserably indigent. (341) T h e plough is of­ t e n no m o r e t h a n t h e b r a n c h of a tree. (I.e.) t h e cause of t h e r e m a r k a b l e 30

difference between t h e n u m b e r s of t h e people, a n d capacities w h i c h t h e country affords for subsistence, is to be found in t h e tyranny of t h e t u r k i s h g o v e r n m e n t . (342, 3) L i m i t e d by t h e tyranny, to which they are subjected to

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Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 • Heft XIII the a n i m a l wants of our nature, e a c h family m a n u f a c t u r e s its own clothes, has a portable mill to grind corn, a n d this is all t h a t they require. (346) D r u s e n u n d M a r o n i t e n (Gebirgsbewohner) bilden A u s n a h m e . ([352,] 353)

5) India. W h a t e v e r m a y be the p r o d u c e of their labour, the c o n d i t i o n of the peasant 5 is nearly the same: he is universally poor: for the c o n t i n u a l exactions of his superiors leave h i m n o t h i n g b u t the necessaries of life. (354) So great is the indigence a m o n g the artisans, that the employer is obliged in every case to advance a certain proportion of the price of t h e m a n u f a c t u r e , in order to e n a b l e the manufacturer to live while he is engaged in completing it. U n - 10 able to wait the market, or anticipate its d e m a n d , he c a n only follow his t r a d e w h e n called to it by the d e m a n d s of his c u s t o m e r s ; when these fail, he is obliged to take to some other m o d e of subsistence, and agriculture is the general resource by which the u n e m p l o y e d manufacturers gain a precarious livelihood. Over the greater part of India, the p r o d u c e is at least 3 x 15 what it is on a similar extent in England, even u n d e r the present wretched m a n a g e m e n t ; d e n n die W ä r m e des Climas giebt i m m e r 2, oft 3 crops u n d größre als hier. Ein acre will ||28| yield von 1 3 - 1 4 qrs wheat in I n d i e n jährlich; in England 3 qrs der average des whole country u n d 4 is considered as a large allowance. (357, 8) W h e n this extreme fertility of the soil is consid- 20 ered, the population of H i n d u s t a n is small ... T h o u g h the population ... is everywhere r e d u n d a n t , it is greatly within the capabilities of subsistence which the soil a n d the country afford. (358) the peculiarities in the condition a n d habits of the I n d i a n people; the small a m o u n t of the revenue and of the land u n d e r tillage; the r e d u n d a n c e of the p o p u l a t i o n w h e n compared 25 with the d e m a n d for labour, and its scantiness w h e n c o m p a r e d with the capabilities of the soil; all arise from the government, the religion, a n d existing institutions. (359) K a u m 1 acre auf 50 ist cultivirt in d e m greater part der M a h r a t t a states. (362) the levying of rents, in ganz I n d i e n , is everywhere almost a scene of fraud and evasion on the o n e part, a n d of p l u n d e r 30 a n d oppression on the other. (364)

6) China. C h i n a n a c h George S t a u n t o n 330, n a c h M a l t e B r u n 175 M i l l i o n e n Einwohner. (372) the labouring classes are over the whole country in a state of t h e greatest indigence; their furniture is wretched ... N o t w i t h s t a n d i n g the m o s t

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economical arrangements, the labouring poor are almost everywhere reduced to vegetable food, with a very rare a n d scanty relish of any richer substance. ... In the great towns ... the i n d i g e n c e of the lower people cannot be exceeded. (373) farms are universally small; a n d the division of m a n u a l labour is carried to its u t m o s t length, without ever having led to any agricultural m a c h i n e r y for the d i m i n u t i o n of the w o r k m e n employed. (376) famine ... recurs in C h i n a in general at t h e expiration of every 3 or 4 years. (377)

7) Japan. 10

the m e t h o d of h u s b a n d r y , universally adopted, is the garden style; the soil is all t u r n e d up by t h e spade, a n d incredible pains are t a k e n in weeding the crops. (393) of luxuries they have no conception. (395) with the exception of the emperor, no person has the m e a n s of getting rich in J a p a n b u t t h e m e r c h a n t ; and this class of m e n frequently a c c u m u l a t e considerable 15 wealth; b u t the profession is, nevertheless, universally despised. (395)

8) Persia

and Affghanistaun.

Artificial wants are u n k n o w n a m o n g the labouring classes in Persia; t h e fare of the poor is simplest imaginable; the use of a n i m a l food or luxuries of any kind is u n k n o w n . ... their only luxury consists in the m u l t i t u d e of 20 horses. (402) T h e whole plain of M e s o p o t a m i a is susceptible of an artificial supply of water. ... Aber: T h e old c h a n n e l s for the conveyance of water were neglected or allowed to get into disrepair during some of the tartar invasions; the insecurity of property, u n d e r s u b s e q u e n t dynasties, r e n d e r e d their restoration impossible; the richest p l a i n in the world was i m m e d i a t e l y 25 converted into a moving sand; a n d t h e n e i g h b o u r i n g waters of t h e E u phrates a n d the Tigris, fed by the eternal snows of the Caucasus, have, for ages, rolled their u n d i s t u r b e d waters to the I n d i a n Ocean. (403)

On the Action of the Principle of Increase in Europe.

30

In der Lombardei die Bauern, i n h a b i t i n g a country which a b o u n d s in wine, it is seldom they drink anything b u t water; their clothing is scanty a n d wretched; their dwellings destitute of all t h e comforts of life. On the public roads, in the villages, in the cities, the traveller is assailed by m u l t i t u d e s of

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Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 · Heft XIII beggars. Die proprietors residiren alle in d e n Städten. Das land is all let to middlemen, who relet their farms to the actual cultivators, a n d such is the a c c u m u l a t e d weight t h u s heaped u p o n the farmers that, in spite of the riches of the soil, they can barely procure the necessaries of life. T h e first crop goes to the landlord, die peasantry m u ß subsist on the m o r e precarious u n d u n c e r t a i n returns of the second harvest. D i e cultivators h a b e n m e i s t a piece of land m i t 1 oder 2 cows ... by yielding the people a subsistence and nothing more, it gives an improper a n d uncalled for facility to their increase. (454, 5) Dasselbe oppressive u n d r u i n o u s system of m i d d l e m e n in d e n states von P a r m a , M o d e n a u n d d e m district von P a d u a . (455) In N e a pel u n d Sicilien die cottagers live on chestnuts, or other casual a n d u n s u b stantial n u t r i m e n t , instead of the rich a n d wholesome diet which the c o u n try affords ... whatever the country produces is owing to the m i l d n e s s of the climate or the goodness of the soil, aber fast nichts der industry or skill der E i n w o h n e r (458) Italien k ö n n t e 2x seine jetzige E i n w o h n e r z a h l reichlicher e r n ä h r e n als die jetzige: Schwer to estimate the capabilities of a country where the plains yield d o u b l e a n d triple crops, the hills an inexhaustible supply of oil a n d wine, the m o u n t a i n s a p e r m a n e n t provision from their chestnut forests, a n d the highest s u m m i t s a range of the finest a n d coolest pasturage. (463) ||29| In Spanien residiren die l a n d e d proprietors i m m e r in den Städten, die great nobles zu M a d r i d . (464) A l m o s t all the farms are too large: cultivation is generally n o t attempted on the half of it, a n d large quantities of arable land everywhere lie in a state of N a t u r e . (464, 5) Spanien enthielt früher eine viel größre Bevölkerung. (465) D a s k i n g d o m von G r e n a d a enthielt u n t e r d e n M o o r s 3 Mill. Einwohner, jezt n u r n o c h 661,000. (466) D e r B o d e n ü b e r a l l von N a t u r sehr fruchtbar. (467) Alcavalas tax of 14 % auf W a a r e n , so oft they pass from h a n d to h a n d . ... it affects heritable as well as movable property. (467, 8) Millones % auf W e i n , Oel, butchers m e a t etc. (468) The laws of the Mesta ... 5 millions of sheep, u n d e r the sanction of a particular code, n o t only fail to enrich the land on which they feed, b u t effectually prevent its cultivation. Die C o m p a n y der M e s t a besizt grossen Einfluß, e n o r m e u n d schamlose Privilegien. Ein besondres T r i b u n a l : "The H o n o u r a b l e Council of the Mesta," which superint e n d s the preservation of these i m m u n i t i e s . ... the cultivated l a n d s which lie near the route which the flocks take, suffer the greatest depredations; der court entscheidet sich fast i m m e r in favour of its own servants. A u c h die c o m m o n lands devastated d u r c h die i m m e n s e flocks which traverse t h e m ... 5 millions of sheep annually migrating in this m a n n e r , n o t only convert an i m m e n s e tract of highly valuable land into pasturage, b u t prevent any agricultural produce being ever raised u p o n it. (469, 70) Das größte U e b e l Spaniens ( n a c h J o v e l l a n o s , T o w n s e n d , C a m p o m a n e s , L a -

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borde etc) ist das engrossing of large estates in d e n h a n d s von I n d i v i d u e n , die weder Mittel n o c h N e i g u n g h a b e n es zu verbessern. Fast ganz A n d a l u sien in den h a n d s der D u k e s von O s u n a , Alba, M e d i n a Coeli; der leztre claims by descent fast ganz Catalonia. % von Spanien gehalten v o n d e n families of M e d i n a Coeli, Alba, Infantado, u n d some other grandees, the archbishops of Toledo, Compostella, Valencia, Seville, M u r c i a etc u n d a few of the religious orders; t h e nobles a n d the clergy possess nearly the whole country; u n d der major part der lands belonging diesen great proprietors is u n d e r grass. Sie leben in cities u n d überlassen alles d e m m a n agement der stewards ... andres U e b e l die great possessions of towns. An vielen Plätzen h a b e n sie l a n d e d estates, oft 10 oder 15 miles in diameter. Diese tracts are c o m m o n property a n d of course n o t h i n g is d o n e to improve t h e m . E n t s t a n d e n w ä h r e n d der wars der Moors u n d Christen, when the peasants des country were compelled to herd together into towns for their m u t u a l protection. D a h e r im S ü d e n Spaniens, wo diese* wars prevailed, i n d e p e n d e n t farms, d e t a c h e d from e a c h other, k a u m zu sehn. N e a r the village you see grain, olives u n d vines; beyond this all is desolate. A foreigner would hardly credit t h e extent of land which is necessarily waste by being kept in a state of c o m m o n t y t h r o u g h o u t the m i d d l e a n d s o u t h e r n province of Spain ... To complete t h e evils arising from this unjust m o n o p oly of land, the system of entails u n d mortmain tenure prevails m e h r in Spanien als irgend wo sonst, locks up the l a n d of the chief proprietors in t h e h a n d s of its present possessors; a n d n o t only prevents either capital or industry from being exerted on the estates which are subject to these fetters, but raises the price of the whole land in t h e country to a m o s t exorbitant a n d r u i n o u s height. ... It has b e e n observed by C a m p o m a n e s , that A n d a l u sia, obgleich eine der fruchtbarsten Provinzen Spaniens, is destitute of industry; weil das land occupied by a few proprietors whose estates pass by entail. T h e bulk der people sind daylabourers, who only find occasional e m p l o y m e n t . H e n c e , clothed in rags and wretchedness, they crowd into cities, where they o b t a i n a scanty livelihood by the b o u n t y of ecclesiastics. ( 4 7 0 - 3 ) In Spain ... resoluto j u r e dantis, resolvitur jus accipientis; a n d this has checked b o t h the progress of wealth towards farming, a n d t h e exertions of the cultivators, by the precarious n a t u r e of the t e n u r e by which they held their possessions. (474) A u s n a h m e , plus ou m o i n s , Catalonia. H i e r das establishment of feus or emphyteutic contracts has broken down the | |30| landed property. Wo dieß System etablirt, h o h e r G r a d von I n d u s t r i e . Every parish that will till or feu at a m o d e r a t e price is sure to be cultivated; but the great lord who will never sell any, is equally sure of perpetuating deserts to the disgrace of t h e country. ... Wo die lords dieß n i c h t wollen number of wastes in Catalonia u n d selbst in dieser industrious province 288

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Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 • Heft XIII deserted villages. In a country where the farmers are absolutely destitute of capital, a n d where there is no such thing to be seen as a g e n t l e m a n residing on his estate, leicht to see d a ß cultivation can m a k e no progress where the labourer is not possessed in property of t h e soil which he improves. (476, 7) Valencia ist frei von den oppressive taxes which desolate the greater part 5 der spanischen M o n a r c h i e . Dieß, v e r b u n d e n m i t der extreme fertility des soil, u n d der absence der great proprietors, has i n d u c e d the a d m i r a b l e cultivation u n d die happy appearance dieser Provinz. (478) A b e r Biscaya das einzige E x a m p l e of a p o p u l a t i o n completely happy u n t e r der Spanish m o n archy. (Siehe S w i n b u r n e , F i s h e r , M a r s h a l l ) Diese Provinz eigentlich n u r 10 u n t e r spanischer Protection; being a small republic u n i t e d to a great m o n archy. K e i n e royal taxes ausser d e m d o n a t i v e Biscay d u r c h kein state of the province regirt. (479[, 480]) Portugal. In der reichen u n d fruchtbaren Provinz von Alenteijo the privileges belonging to the flocks der nobles, e q u a l those of the m e s t a in Spain 15 u n d a t t e n d e d m i t denselben r u i n o u s effects. T h e s a m e evils from the enorm o u s size of estates, u n d der prevalence of entails, to which the prevalence of estates held in j o i n t t e n a n c y is to be added, which are generally covered with heath. T h e principal obstacle to t h e progress of agriculture, however, is the extreme badness of the roads, which r e n d e r the riches of n a t u r e , 20 wholly unavailing b o t h to their possessors a n d the state. A u s n a h m e Provinz Minho, 900,000 souls, obgleich das whole country consists of ridges of granite m o u n t a i n s intersected with precipitous vales. Die steep acclivities der hills are cut into terraces and planted m i t m a i z e , while the slopes are covered with vines, a n d yield the finest fruits. ... the whole country m i t 25 A u s n a h m e des d e m monastery g e h ö r e n d e n property, is in the h a n d s of the actual cultivators, which is the real cause of the prosperity of t h e province. (Link, Silviera.) (480, 1) In der g a n z e n pyrenäischen Halbinsel: »In the provinces where the n u m b e r s of the people are m o s t scanty, the indigence t h a t prevails is the greatest; while in those where industry a n d property have 30 b e e n suffered to establish themselves, vast n u m b e r s are m a i n t a i n e d in comfort a n d affluence.« (481, 2)

Action of the Principle of Increase in the United States of America. Seit 1640, wo die P u r i t a n e r in A m e r i c a gelandet, sie sich i m m e r verdoppelt in 23 J a h r e n . (542) 1790 waren sie 3,929,128 u n d 1830: 12,856,165. (I.e.) Das valley des Mississippi, der richest part of A m e r i c a , enthält ü b e r 1 Mill.

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Aus Archibald Alison: The principles of population square geographical miles, oder an 14 x die area der British islands, h a t sich die population in d e n lezten 40 J a h r e n 31 x vermehrt, w ä h r e n d in derselben Periode in d e n g a n z e n Vereinigten Staaten n u r verdreifacht. (543[, 544]) D u r c h E m i g r a t i o n z u m grossen T h e i l von E u r o p a u n d d e m 5 amerikanischen K ü s t e n l a n d . (544) So was, wie dieser grosse Strom v o m Osten von A m e r i c a n a c h d e m W e s t e n , aus der Civilisation in die W i l d n i ß n o c h n i e gesehn. Vast as were the savage m u l t i t u d e s which a m b i t i o n or lust of p l u n d e r in G e n g i s k h a n or T i m o u r b r o u g h t down from the plains of Tartary to overwhelm the o p u l e n t regions of the earth, they are as n o t h i n g 10 compared to the ceaseless flood of h u m a n beings which is now in its t u r n sent forth from t h e abodes of civilized m a n into the desert parts of the world. M i n d e s t e n s 300,000 persons j ä h r l i c h cross the Alleghany m o u n tains ... their war is with the forest a n d t h e m a r s h , n o t against the corrupted cities of longestablished m a n . (545) S t e a m Navigation is the vital 15 m e a n s of c o m m u n i c a t i o n by w h i c h this extraordinary activity is propelled into distant regions. (547) D a s T h a l des Mississippi, w e n n so dicht bevölkert wie Frankreich, k ö n n t e allein e n t h a l t e n 250 Mill, souls. (Europa bis zu den Ural m o u n t a i n s enthält 227 Mill.) (548) In A m e r i c a zuerst scheint das a t t a c h m e n t der owners des soil zu ihren little freeholds to be entirely oblit20 erated ... | | 3 1 | However long a n d happily a proprietor m a y have lived u p o n his little d o m a i n , he is always ready to sell it if he can m a k e any profit by t h e transaction; and putting himself a n d his family with all his effects on board t h e first steamboat, transport himself to a different part of the country a n d 25 c o m m e n c e , perhaps at the distance of s o m e 100 miles, the great a n d engrossing work of a c c u m u l a t i n g m o n e y . D i e ß peculiarity, ganz u n b e k a n n t in irgend einer frühren Periode der G e s c h i c h t e - t h e Nomad Agricultural State. ( 5 5 0 - 2 ) E r giebt i m A p p e n d i x z u T . I :

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America Rußland Nordamerika Südamerika Asiatisch Rußland Chinese Empire United States China proper Buenos Ayres India

Population 1825. 34,284,000 54,000,000 19,650,000 12,161,000 2,000,000 175,000,000 10,220,000 150,000,000 2,300,000 101,000,000

Territory in square marine leagues. 1,186,930 616,000 607,337 571,300 465,600 463,200 174,300 128,000 126,800 109,200

Verhältniß per square league, 29 87 32 21 4 377 58 1172 18 925

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Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 • Heft XIII [Countries.]

United States west vom Mississippi United States east vom Mississippi British India Die 15 states on the Atlantic der United States Austrian Empire. Germany. Spain und Portugal France und Corsica Spain Italy British Islands Prussia England Mexico Schweiz Aejypten Holland. Valencia Departements of the Charente in France

[Population 1825.]

[Territory in squaremarine leagues.]

[Verhältnißper squareleague.]

366,000

96,600

4

9,404,000 73,000,000

77,700 90,100

121 810

7,421,000 29,000,000 30,500,000 14,619,000 30,616,000 11,446,000 20,100,000 21,200,800 11,663,000 12,218,500 1,770,000 1,940,000 2,489,000 2,100,000 1,200,000

30,900 21,900 21,300 18,150 17,100 15,000 10,240 10,000 8,900 4,840 3,800 1,330 1,400 900 640

240 1324 1432 805 1790 763 1967 2120 1311 2524 465 1175 1737 1330 1874

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186 1865 (p. 572 aus Humboldt.)

T.II t h e acquisition of land, w h e n u n a c c o m p a n i e d by political oppression, is n o t only t h e strongest s t i m u l u s to industry, b u t t h e m o s t powerful security against t h e u n d u e increase of t h e people. (39) W h a t in t h e e n d is to distin­ guish t h e french p e a s a n t s from t h e ryots of H i n d o s t a n ? (73)

30

On the Corn Laws. T h e m o n e y r a t e of wages, wholly i n d e p e n d e n t of t h e price of provisions from year to year, is entirely regulated by it, o t h e r things b e i n g equal, from 10 J a h r e to 10 J a h r e . (418) Α. r e c h n e t für 1 8 3 5 - 1 8 3 7 as being £ 1 4 8 , 0 5 0 , 0 0 0 Manufacturwaaren, wovon ausgeführt n u r 48,500,000 also, m e h r als % für d e n i n n e r n C o n s u m . (427) t h e ||32| m a n u f a c t u r e s for t h e ex-

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port sales hardly p r o d u c e / des a n n u a l i n c o m e derived from the industry of the nation, and will bear no proportion, weder in Grösse n o c h Wichtigkeit, weder zu den agriculturists n o c h d e n m a n u f a c t u r e r s des h o m e m a r k e t . Die ersten produce 5 x, die 2 a b o u t double, t h e value annually created by the manufacturers for the export sales. (428) U n s r e foreign m a n u f a c t u r e s nicht y deren d e p e n d e n t u p o n t h e agriculture a n d h o m e m a n u f a c t u r e s of the kingdom. (429) N a c h Porters Progress of the N a t i o n : (für 1827) u

t e n

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10 England Wales Scotland Ireland 15 British Islands

Acres cultivated

Acres uncultivated

Acres unprofitable

Summary

25,632,000 3,117,000 5,265,000 12,125,280 383,690 46,522,970

3,454,000 530,000 5,950,000 4,900,000 166,000 15,000,000

3,256,400 1,105,000 8,523,930 2,416,664 569,469 15,871,463

32,342,400 4,752,000 19,738,930 19,441,944 1,119,159 77,394,433

(P. 435)

a quarter per h u m a n being die average c o n s u m p t i o n für ein ganzes Jahr. (436) quarter = 8 bushels. (I.e.) while every i n h a b i t a n t of A m e r i c a cons u m e s 19 sh. and 6 d. worth of british m a n u f a c t u r e s , of the W e s t i n d i e s 3 I. 20 10 sh. worth, of Australia 111, worth, every i n h a b i t a n t of Prussia takes off only 3 d. worth davon u n d of R u s s i a n u r 6 d. worth. (447) C o n s u m p t i o n per Kopf in Great Britain 25

30

Zucker per Kopf 17.1 lbs 1 Tea 22 Salt 9.2. Cotton goods 4 Wool Woollen cloth 5¾ ells 10 / tons Coal (Bowrings Report on Prusso-Germanic League. 26, 29) 4

5

Preussischer Zollverein 3.9 lbs % of an ounce 16¾ 4.35. 1.67 2.17 ells 1¾ tons. [p. 459]

France 4.3 lbs 13½

While the descendants of t h e dwellers in the cities of the plain have hardly expanded b e y o n d the first cradle of m a n k i n d , the children of t h e 35 desert have covered the globe. ... to the vigour of the h e r d s m e n who p e n e trated from the centre of Asia t h r o u g h the wilderness of Europe, the glories of m o d e r n civilisation are entirely to be ascribed. (466) 1575 Peru contained 8,280,000 souls, enthält n u n , Chili eingeschlossen, n u r n o c h 2,500,000. (474) W ä r e das Chinesische R e i c h bevölkert wie das brittische 40 es würde statt 175 M i l l i o n e n 971 e n t h a l t e n . (482) Palestine, which formerly was so richly cultivated in g a r d e n a n d terrace husbandry, m i g h t again be

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Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 · Heft XIII converted by irrigation into a land flowing with milk a n d honey. T h e deserts of M e s o p o t a m i a , now so barren, were overloaded in a n c i e n t t i m e s with the riches of n a t u r e ; and nothing b u t a renewed distribution of the waters of the E u p h r a t e s is necessary to revive t h e p r o d u c e of the soil; a n d in all the plains of Persia, now for the m o s t part deserted, traces of a system of irrigation are to be seen equal to the boasted work des m i l a n e s e territory. ... there is hardly any country in the world except Peru, where rain does n o t fall in sufficient quantities, if carefully collected, to furnish the m e a n s of artificial watering ... H u m b o l d t erwähnt, daß dieselbe R ä u m d e in W e i z e n n u r food für Zwei, im Banana Crop für 50 I n d i v i d u e n food giebt ... S u c h is the produce of the soil in Ceylon (Heber) daß whole families are frequently m a i n t a i n e d for successive generations on the fruit of a single tree u n d es ist nicht u n u s u a l to see part of a cocoa tree alienated as a separate property. ( 4 8 5 - 7 ) T h e fertility of the soil over the whole globe is constantly increasing, from the a n n u a l decay of vegetable matter, the addition of a n i m a l droppings or r e m a i n s , a n d the washing down of the soil from superior situations. ... D a s Deposit der a m e r i c a n lakes is daily forming an alluvial soil below their waves, which at no distant period will convert t h e m into vast morasses, and ultimately into fertile plains; the e n o r m o u s masses of wood and earth which are rolled down by the rivers ||33| of the new world, are incessantly producing beds of c o m b i n e d vegetable a n d a n i m a l matter, from which the u t m o s t luxuriance of vegetation will hereafter spring; and in the i m m e n s e marshy plain which forms the centre of N e w Holland, the powers of vegetation are unceasingly acting, and preparing in silence the extension of the earth. (487, 8) Das Meer: those who are alarmed at the possibility of a geometrical increase of h u m a n beings, c o m pared with the extent of the terraqueous globe, would do well to consider the rate of multiplication in the finny tribes, c o m p a r e d with the b o u n d l e s s surface of the sea. U n d das M e e r gleich prolific in allen Z o n e n . G r a d e in d e n Eisgegenden sind annually impelled those s t u p e n d o u s shoals which carry to temperate zones the inexhaustible riches of a n i m a t e d life. ... die multiplication der aquatic tribes gesichert in regions wo der foot des m a n is never destined to approach. (490) W e n n / o des irischen Volks engagirt würde in Fischerei womit die coasts dieser island a b o u n d u n d der Rest engagirt in der Cultur des Bodens, würde dieß d o u b l e t h e riches des country. ... In d e n s e l b e n waves, worin die Fische, zu finden an inexhaustible supply of salt. (491) Dieß field of subsistence ist n o c h almost u n t o u c h e d . (492) It is impossible to guess even at t h e a m o u n t of those vast shoals which a n n u ally migrate from the n o r t h a n d s o u t h poles to the t e m p e r a t e latitudes. (I.e.) While m a n in the old world is pining u n d e r the miseries etc an insect in the Pacific (Die Coralle) is calling a new world into existence, a n d count-

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Aus Archibald Alison: The principles of population less myriads of a n i m a l s are labouring to extend the c o n t i n e n t s over which ... die m e n s c h l i c h e R a c e is to extend. (499) Die Civilisirten, n a m e n t l i c h u n t e r despotischen Regierungen, bevölkern nie die Welt. D i e democratic passion bildet diese Centrifugalkraft. (507, 8) T h e d e m o c r a t i c 5 principle is the great moving power which expels from the old established centres of civilisation the race of m e n to distant a n d u n p e o p l e d regions. (512) While the naval strength a n d colonial d o m i n i o n s of E n g l a n d h a v e steadily and unceasingly advanced in W e s t e r n E u r o p e ... another, and an equally irresistible power has risen up in the Eastern H e m i s p h e r e , ... R u ß 10 land. (517) T h e moving power dieser (östlichen) vast bodies of m e n ist die lust of conquest, and a passion for southern enjoyment. (519) the t i m e will never c o m e w h e n n o r t h e r n valour will not press on s o u t h e r n wealth. (520)

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Johnston (J. F. W.): Lectures on Agricultural Chemistry and Geology. 2 ed. L o n d o n . 1847. T h e r e is a wide difference in m o s t countries between the actual a m o u n t of food produced by the land, a n d that which, in the m o s t favourable circum5 stances, it would delight to yield. An imperial acre of l a n d in our island has b e e n k n o w n to yield of Wheat 80 bushels (10 qrs), barley, 80, oats 100, Indian corn 170, beans 70, potatoes 30 tons, turnips 60. Aber das average prod u c e des L a n d s weit u n t e r diesen quantities. Schwer dieses true average produce zu b e s t i m m e n . M a c C u l l o c h schäzt es: 10 W h e a t zu 26 bushels an acre, Barley 32 Oats 36. Sir Charles Lemon giebt für das average p r o d u c e of all England u n d for the highest a n d lowest county averages folgende Z a h len: 15 Average for all England in bushels Wheat Barley Oats Potatoes

21 32¼ 35½ 241

Mr Dudgeon giebt für das average Corn in Schottland: Wheat Barley Oats

276

Highest county average in bushels

Lowest county avera in bushels

26 40 48 360

16 24 20 100

Nottinghamshire Huntingdon Lincolnshire Cheshire

Dorset. Devon. Gloucester Durham.

Good Land

Lighter land

30-32 bushels 40-44 46-50

22-26 bushels 34-38 36-43.

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dieß gäbe als die averages für das whole Island: Wheat 24 bushels, barley 34, oats 37, rye 25, potatoes 6 tons, turnips 10 u n d der average des rich state of Ohio in d e n U n i t e d States n i c h t ü b e r 15 bushels of wheat. ( 8 4 5 - 8 4 7 ) T h o u g h all c i r c u m s t a n c e s c a n n o t as yet be controlled, a n d differences to a certain a m o u n t are therefore u n a v o i d a b l e , yet m e a n s are already known by w h i c h the fertility of the richer lands m a y be m a i n t a i n e d or increased and t h e crops of t h e less productive indefinitely enlarged. (848 D i e U n t e r s c h i e d e v o n Natur sehr groß. K a n n m a n aber die U m s t ä n d e unter die Controlle ||34| n e h m e n , die sie erzeugen, so sehr v e r m i n d e r t . ) Die quantity of food p r o d u c e d by a given extent of land is affected by t h e climate, by the season, by the soil, by the n a t u r e of the crop, by t h e variety sown or planted, by t h e general m e t h o d of culture, by the k i n d a n d q u a n tity of m a n u r e employed, a n d by t h e rotation or course of cropping that is adopted. (848) 1) Climate. W ä r m e des Climas, Länge des S o m m e r s , Q u a n t i tat von Regen, die fällt. D i e W ä r m e der equatorial regions m a i n t a i n s a perpetual verdure, while the short n o r t h e r n s u m m e r s afford only a few m o n t h s of pasture to the s t u n t e d cattle. 2) Season, wet or dry, warm or cold, c a n n o t be entirely overcome. ... the greater the a t t e n t i o n which is paid to the m e chanical and physical c o n d i t i o n of the soil, the less will be t h e influence of a change of season on t h e average p r o d u c e of the land. 3) Soil. A poor sand is not expected to give the s a m e return as a rich clay. Yet in regard to t h e capabilities of soils u n d e r skilful m a n a g e m e n t , practical agriculture has yet m u c h to learn. Are there any m e t h o d s h i t h e r t o little tried by which soils of known poverty m a y be c o m p e n d i o u s l y a n d cheaply treated, so as to produce a greatly larger return? Science says that there are, a n d she points to a wide field of experimental research, by the diligent culture of which this great result will hereafter be generally attained. Into a poor or e x h a u s t e d soil i n t r o d u c e those substances which a given crop requires, and if the soil be otherwise properly treated a n d the climate favourable, the crop m a y be expected to grow. S u c h is the simple principle, u n d e r the g u i d a n c e of which agricultural practice m a y h o p e to overcome the influence of diversity of soil. 4) Kind of Crop. E i n crop of 30 bushels of wheat giebt n u r a b o u t 1 4 0 0 lbs of fine flour, while a crop of 6 tons of potatoes giebt an 3 500 lbs of an agreeable, dry, a n d m e a l y food. So das gross weight of food for m a n in d e m e i n e n Fall 2% m e h r als in d e m a n d r e n . E b e n s o a crop of clover, of tares, of rape, of potatoes, turnips, or cabbages giebt m i n d e s t e n s 3 x so viel food for cattle als 1 of pasture Grass of m e d i u m quality. 5) Variety of Seed Sown. I do not refer to the well k n o w n necessity of changing the seed if t h e same land is to c o n t i n u e to yield good crops, b u t to the general fact t h a t 2 varieties of the s a m e species will often yield very u n l i k e weights of corn,

277

Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 • Heft XIII of turnips, or of potatoes. Oberst Le C o u t e u r fand, d a ß die varieties k n o w n by t h e n a m e of W h i t e downy, a n d t h e Jersey D a n t z i c yielded respectively:

White downy Jersey Dantzic

Grain.

Weight per bushel.

Straw.

Fine flour.

Fine dto P.C.

48 bushels 43½

62 lbs.

4557 lbs. 4681

2402 lbs. 2161

80¾ lbs. 79¾,

63

5

while on a different soil a n d treated differently from t h e above, 2 other varieties yielded:

Whittington Belle Vue. Talavera

Grain.

Weight per bushel

Straw

Fine Flour

Fine dto P.C.

33 bushel

61 lbs

7786

1454 lbs

12%

52

61 lbs

5480 lbs

2485 lbs

78½lbs •·•

lbs

In the s a m e field I have k n o w n t h e Golden Kent a n d t h e Flanders Red varieties, sown in the s a m e spring, to thrive so differently, that, while t h e former was an excellent crop, t h e latter was almost a total failure.

6) Influence of the Method of General Culture, kind of manuring, and of the rotation followed, upon the produce of

10

food.

15

20

In a land of m e d i u m quality, our o p i n i o n in regard to t h e q u a n t i t y of food it is likely to yield would be greatly affected by t h e answers we should obt a i n to the following questions: a) Is the land in permanent pasture, or is it under the plough? M i t der exception of rich pastures, it is said that land, u n d e r clover or turnips, will p r o d u c e 3 x as m u c h food for cattle as w h e n u n d e r 25 grass. If such a green crop t h e n be m a d e to alternate with o n e of corn, t h e s a m e land would every 2 years p r o d u c e as m u c h food for stock as it would during 3 years if lying in grass—besides t h e crop of corn as food for m a n , a n d of straw for the p r o d u c t i o n of m a n u r e , β) What kind and quantity of ma­ nure are applied? γ) In what way is the manure applied? Ζ. B. Topdressing m i t 30 fermenting farmyard m a n u r e (topdressing die obre D ü n g u n g legen, o h n e d e n D ü n g e r unterzupflügen) o r bury d e n m a n u r e ||35| m i t d e m t u r n i p crop in der u s u a l m a n n e r . Ζ. B. an acre of grass land, p r o d u c i r e j ä h r l i c h o h n e m a n u r e 1 % tons of hay, werde top-dressed every spring or a u t u m n m i t 5 tons of farmyard m a n u r e per acre. Unterstelle e i n e n a n d r e n acre dessel35 b e n Landes in arable culture to be m a n u r e d for turnips m i t 20 t o n s of farm-

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Aus James Finlay Weir Johnston: Lectures on agricultural chemistry and geology yard m a n u r e at once. T h e n t h e grass land, by the aid of the m a n u r e , would n o t produce m o r e t h a n d o u b l e its n a t u r a l crop, or 2 / tons an acre, i.e. 10 tons of hay in 4 years. A b e r das arable L a n d , in d e m 4 Jahr, if of the same quality, m a y be expected to p r o d u c e : Turnips 20 T o n s Barley 36 bushels Clover 2 % Tons Wheat 28 bushels, besides upwards of 4 tons of straw. In all d i e s e m z u s a m m e n , there m u s t b e m u c h m o r e food t h a n i n the t e n tons o f hay. R e c h n e n wir d e n Geldprofit des farmer, so das result sehr verschieden. Die cost of raising the 10 tons of hay, exclusive rent, m a y be r e c k o n e d at % the produce, and of the several crops in t h e 4 years' rotation at % of the produce. We thus have for the clear r e t u r n or profit to the farmer—exclusive of t h e interest of his capital, w h i c h forms part of the expense of raising t h e crops, — l

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In the one case half the Produce

In dem andern case Y des Produce. 4

5 tons of hay

20

5 tons of turnips. 9 bushels of barley. % t o n of clover. 7 bushels of wheat. 1 ton of straw. Let the clover a n d t h e straw together equal in value only o n e ton of t h e hay, and the m o n e y value in the 2 cases will stand as follows:

25 Hay, 4 tons at £5 Turnips, 5 tons, at sh. 10 Barley 9 bushels at 4 sh. Wheat 7 bushels, at 7 S.

30

35

£. => 20 = 2, = 1. = 2

S.

P.

10. 16 9 15, 0 . leaving a gain u p o n t h e 6, grass land of 13 I. 5 S. oder 3 / . 6 sh. an acre every year. T h u s , t h o u g h m o r e food is raised by converting the l a n d to arable purposes, t h o u g h m o r e capital m a y be profitably employed u p o n the s a m e extent of surface, a n d m o r e people m a y be sustained by it, yet m o r e profit m a y be m a d e by t h e farmer whose m e a n s are small by keeping t h e land in m e a d o w . But this result c a n be obtained only where a ready m a r k e t exists for the hay, where it is allowed to be sold off the farm, a n d where a b u n d a n c e of m a n u r e can be o b tained for the purpose of top-dressing the grass every year, also in der N ä h e

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Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 · Heft XIII von Städten. T h e farmer, however, is never prohibited from selling his corn off the farm, or his fat stock, or his dairy p r o d u c e , a n d t h u s at a distance from large towns he m u s t t u r n his attention to the raising of o n e or other of these kinds of produce. ( 8 4 8 - 8 5 3 )

Theory of the rotation of crops. Decandolle glaubte, daß die excrements of o n e species are p o i s o n o u s to itself, b u t nutritive to other species. So e r k l ä r t e er die R o t a t i o n s t h e o r i e . ... D e r wahre G r u n d why a second or third crop of the s a m e k i n d will n o t grow well, i s — n o t that the soil c o n t a i n s too much of any, b u t t h a t it contains too little of one or m o r e kinds of matter. If after a skilful m a n u r i n g turnips grow luxuriantly, it is because the soil has b e e n enriched with all that the crop requires. If a healthy barley crop follow the turnips, it is because the soil still contains all the food of this new plant. If clover thrive after this, it is because it naturally requires certain k i n d s of n o u r i s h m e n t , which n e i t h e r of the former crops has exhausted. If, again, l u x u r i a n t wheat succeeds, | |36| it is b e c a u s e the soil a b o u n d s still in all t h a t the wheatcrop n e e d s — t h e failing vegetable and other matters of the surface being increased a n d renewed by the decaying roots of the preceding crop of clover. A n d if now turnips refuse again to give a fair return, it is because you have n o t a d d e d to the soil a fresh supply of that m a n u r e without which they c a n n o t thrive. A d d the m a n u r e , and the s a m e rotation of crops m a y again ensue. ... different species von Pflanzen erheischen sehr u n g l e i c h e proportions der several kinds of inorganic food which they derive from the soil. S o m e require a large proportion of o n e kind, s o m e of a n o t h e r kind. If a soil abound besonders in einer dieser varieties of inorganic food, o n e kind of plant will especially flourish u p o n it—while, if it be greatly deficient in a n o t h e r substance, a second plant will remarkably languish u p o n it. If it a b o u n d in b o t h substances, t h e n either crop will grow well, or they m a y be alternately cultivated with a fair return from each, ... at all events it does n o t s e e m impossible, chemically speaking, to obtain crop after crop of the same kind. Erste Regel, to grow alternately as many different classes or families of plants as possible—repeating each class at the longest possible intervals of t i m e . ... A perfect rotation would i n c l u d e all those classes of plants which the soil, climate, a n d other circumstances allow to be cultivated with a profit. ... A second rule is to repeat t h e same species of plant at the greatest convenient distance of t i m e . In corncrops t h e r e is n o t m u c h choice, since in a four years' course 2 corncrops, out of the 3 (barley, wheat, oats), usually grown in our islands, m u s t be raised. But of the l e g u m i n o u s crops

280

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we have the choice of beans, peas, vetches, a n d clovers—, of root crops, turnips, carrots, parsnips, beets, m a n g o l d wurtzel, a n d potatoes—while of grasses, there is a great variety. Instead, therefore, of a constant repetition of the turnip every 4 years, theory says, m a k e the carrot or the p o t a t o take its place now a n d t h e n , a n d instead of perpetual clover, let tares, or b e a n s , or peas occasionally succeed to your crops of corn. T h e land loves a c h a n g e of crop, because it is better prepared with t h a t food which the new crop will relish, t h a n with s u c h as the plant it has long fed before c o n t i n u e s to require. ( 8 5 4 - 5 7 )

Theory

of fallows.

1) In strong claylands o n e great benefit derived from a n a k e d fallow is t h e opportunity it affords for keeping the land clean. ... A b e r neglect auf vielen farms daß sie andre available m e t h o d s of extirpating weeds vernachlässigen. 2) In almost every instance where l a n d lies without an artificial crop 15 during the whole s u m m e r , a crop of n a t u r a l herbage springs u p , the burying of which in the soil m u s t be productive of considerable good. 3) By lying fallow (einige Stellen der surface being m e h r erschöpft als die a n d e r n , u n d b e i m Fallen des R e g e n d u r c h circuliren der solublen Stoffe ü b e r die ganze Oberfläche) the land b e c o m e s equally furnished over its whole surface, a n d 20 to a greater or less depth, with all those substances required by plants which are anywhere to be found in it. etc etc. (860 sq.) Bei schwerem L a n d »where there is no sufficient drainage, fallowing is m o r e necessary u n d where a good drainage exists, t h e u s e of n a k e d fallows even u p o n stiff clay lands b e c o m e s less necessary«. (861, 2) 25

T h e practical farmer already rejoices in having in o n e t o n of b o n e or rape dust, or in half that weight of P e r u v i a n G u a n o , the equivalent of 40 tons of farm yard m a n u r e : a n d it appears n o t unlikely that m e t h o d s will ere long be discovered for compressing into a still less bulky form the substances especially required by all o u r cultivated crops, a n d t h a t extensive m a n u f a c t o 30 ries will by and by be established for the preparation of these c o n d e n s e d m a n u r e s . (8) As a whole the island does n o t at present p r o d u c e % t h e food for m a n which it m a y be m a d e to bear with profit to the farmer. (I.e.) Trained up in a n c i e n t m e t h o d s , attached generally to conservative ideas in every shape, the practical agriculturists, as a body, have always b e e n m o r e 35 opposed to change t h a n any other large class of the c o m m u n i t y . (9) No n a tional efforts have b e e n m a d e for t h e general i m p r o v e m e n t of the m e t h o d s of culture. (I.e.)

281

1 Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 • Heft XIII Plants grow m o r e or less luxuriantly a n d their several parts are m o r e or less largely developed n a c h folgenden c i r c u m s t a n c e s ; 1) M a n c h m a l für die Wurzel der Zutritt der a t m o s p h ä r i s c h e n Luft nöthig, b e i a n d r e n nicht. Die m e c h a n i c a l c o n d i t i o n des Bodens m u ß modificiren seine fitness für d e n growth ||37| dieser oder j e n e r Sorte von Pflanzen. D a n n die c h e m i s c h e Be5 schaffenheit des Bodens, ob er schädliche S u b s t a n z e n e n t h ä l t oder M a n g e l a n d e n zur völligen A u s b i l d u n g der Pflanzen n o t h w e n d i g e n a n o r g a n i s c h e n S u b s t a n z e n . 2) D e r ascent of the sap is modified chiefly by t h e season of t h e year, by t h e h e a t of t h e day, a n d by t h e g e n u s a n d age of t h e p l a n t or tree. . . . As the tree advances in age, the vessels of t h e interior will b e c o m e m o r e 10 or less obliterated, a n d t h e general course of t h e sap will be gradually transferred to a n n u a l layers, m o r e a n d m o r e r e m o v e d from the centre. It is this transference of t h e vital circulation to newer a n d m o r e perfect vessels that enables t h e tree to grow a n d b l o s s o m a n d bear fruit t h r o u g h so long a life. . . . t h e entire c h e m i c a l functions of t h e p l a n t m u s t be d e p e n d e n t u p o n , a n d 15 m u s t be modified by, t h e n a t u r e of substances, w h i c h t h e soil a n d t h e air respectively present to the roots a n d to t h e leaves. 4) Die discharge ihrer functions von d e n leaves verändert n a c h d e m die S o n n e above or below t h e horizon, n a c h der T e m p e r a t u r u n d m o i s t u r e der air ... t h e leaf b e c o m e s green a n d oxygen is given off in t h e presence of t h e sun, while in his ab20 sence carbonic acid is disengaged, a n d t h e whole plant is b l a n c h e d . 5) t h e rapidity with which a p l a n t grows h a s an i m p o r t a n t influence u p o n t h e share which t h e bark is p e r m i t t e d to take in the general n o u r i s h m e n t of t h e whole. ( 1 5 2 - 5 7 ) T h e supply of carbonic acid in the a t m o s p h e r e is kept up partly by the respiration of a n i m a l s , partly by the n a t u r a l decay of dead vegetable matter, a n d partly by c o m b u s t i o n . A m m o n i a is p r o d u c e d a n d supplied to plants chiefly by t h e n a t u r a l decay of a n i m a l a n d vegetable substances, t h o u g h occasionally it m a y be formed in the air, a n d nitric acid is p r o d u c e d partly by t h e n a t u r a l oxidation of dead organic matter, a n d partly by t h e direct u n i o n of t h e oxygen a n d nitrogen of t h e air, t h r o u g h t h e agency of t h e a t m o s pheric electricity. (298)

25

30

Organic matter of the soil. Alle soils die in i h r e m existing state fähig sind of bearing profitable crops in our climate, possess o n e character - they all c o n t a i n organic matter in greater or less proportion. Diese organische M a t e r i e besteht ζ. T h . a u s de­ cayed a n i m a l , aber b e s o n d e r s of decayed vegetable substances. D i e ß

282

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ψ Aus James Finlay Weir Johnston: Lectures on agricultural chemistry and geology wieder i n v e r s c h i e d n e n F o r m e n . T h e p r o p o r t i o n der organic m a t t e r i n soils die are naturally p r o d u c t i v e of any useful crops varies v o n % bis zu 70 % of their whole weight. W i t h less t h a n t h e former p r o p o r t i o n they will scarcely support a profitable vegetation, with m o r e t h a n t h e latter, they r e q u i r e 5

m u c h a d m i x t u r e before they c a n be b r o u g h t i n t o a fertile state of cultiva­ tion. N u r i n sumpfigen u n d torfartigen soils findet m a n j e die above large p r o p o r t i o n - in d e n best soils die organic m a t t e r does n o t average 5 % a n d rarely exceeds 10 or 12. Oats a n d rye will grow u p o n l a n d c o n t a i n i n g only 1 or 1½ %, barley m i t 2 o d e r 3 %, aber good w h e a t soils c o n t a i n in g e n e r a l v o n 10 4 - 8 %, u n d if very stiff a n d clayey, 1 0 - 1 2 % of organic m a t t e r . D i e organic m a t t e r m a c h t e i n e n B o d e n allein n i c h t fruchtbar. Von 2 soils in d e r s e l b e n n e i g h b o u r h o o d e n t h i e l t der eine 4.05 % of organic m a t t e r u n d war sehr fruchtbar; der a n d r e 14.9 % u n d war almost b a r r e n . D i e ß h ä n g t z u s a m m e n m i t d e m influence exercised by t h e d e a d inorganic m a t t e r of t h e soil on t h e 15

general h e a l t h a n d l u x u r i a n c e of vegetation. (439, 40)

General Composition of the earthy part of the Soil. In u n s e r m Clima der earthy part u n s r e s soil does n o t constitute less als 96 % of its whole weight, w h e n free from water. Dieser erdige T h e i l besteht besonders aus 3 I n g r e d i e n z i e n : 1) Silica (Kieselerde) sei es n u n S a n d oder 20 Kies, von verschiednen Stufen von F e i n h e i t von der of an i m p a l p a b l e powder, as it occurs in clay soils, to t h e large a n d m o r e or less r o u n d e d sandstones of t h e gravel beds. 2) Alumina (Alaunerde) gewöhnlich in der F o r m von clay (Thon) aber gelegentlich occurring in schieferartigen m a s s e s m o r e or less hard, intermingled m i t d e m soil. 3) Lime (Kalk) in der F o r m von 25

chalk (Kreide) oder als fragments von l i m e s t o n e s . Soils b e s t e h n selten a u s E i n e r einzigen dieser 3 S u b s t a n z e n , heissen sandig, w e n n der Kiesel, Thonboden, w e n n der A l a u n u n d calcareous (kalkartig) wo carbonate of l i m e vorherrscht. R e i n e r clayboden findet sich n i c h t in der N a t u r vor. D i e pure porcelain clays die reichsten an a l u m i n a , e n t h a l t e n n u r 4 2 - 4 8 % dieser E r d e

30

u n d 5 2 - 5 8 Kieselerde. B o d e n z u m grossen T h e i l b e s t e h n aus d i e s e n 3 S u b stances in a state of mechanical mixture. D i e ß stets der Fall m i t siliceous sand u n d d e m carbonate of lime, aber in d e n clays, die a l u m i n a u n d silica woraus sie b e s t e h n , in a state of chemical combination. Die clays (das p u r e porcelain) rarely form a soil - ||38| the strongest agricultural clays (pipe35 clays), consist, in t h e dry state, of 5 6 - 6 2 silica, 3 6 - 4 0 a l u m i n a , 3 o d e r 4 of oxide of iron, and a trace of lime. D e u t s c h e u n d französische (Thaer) ältre Schriftsteller n e n n e n dieß d e n r e i n e n T h o n b o d e n . A u s d i e s e m agricultural

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Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 • Heft XIII clay (zu u n t e r s c h e i d e n von d e m a l u m i n a l e n ) t h e earthy part of all known soils is m a d e u p , by m e r e m e c h a n i c a l a d m i x t u r e m i t sand u n d lime, in variable proportions. ( 4 4 0 - 4 3 )

Classification of soils from

their chemical constituents.

Pure clay (Pipe clay), Strongest clay soil. Clay loam, Sandy loam, Sandy soil. 5 (Diese Beiden b e s t e h n n u r aus clay u n d sand.) Marly soils, Calcareous Soils, Vegetable moulds. ( D a m m o d e r F r u c h t o d e r G a r t e n e r d e zu D e u t s c h ) , verschiedne A r t e n von der G a r t e n e r d e , die 5 - 1 0 % , bis z u m Sumpfboden, der 6 0 - 7 0 % organische m a t t e r enthält. Diese, wie die a n d e r n soils, clayey, loamy, oder sandy, je n a c h d e m p r e d o m i n a n t character der earthy a d m i x - 10 tures. ( 4 4 3 - 5 ) Soils and subsoils. B e n e a t h the i m m e d i a t e surface soil, t h r o u g h which the plough m a k e s its way, a n d to which the seed is entrusted, lies der s.g. subsoil (Untergrund). T h e subsoil often consists of a m i x t u r e of the general constituents of soils 15 in proportions originally different from that which forms the surface layer—as when clay above has a sandy bed below, or a light soil on the surface rests on a retentive clay b e n e a t h . T h e peculiar characters des soil u n d subsoil often result from the slow operation of n a t u r a l causes. In a m a s s of loose m a t t e r of considerable depth, spread over an extent of country, it is 20 easy [to] u n d e r s t a n d , how—even t h o u g h originally alike t h r o u g h its whole m a s s — a few inches at the surface should gradually acquire different physical and c h e m i c a l characters from the rest, a n d how there should t h u s be gradually established i m p o r t a n t agricultural distinctions between t h e first 12 or 15 inches (the soil) the next 15 (the subsoil), a n d the r e m a i n i n g body 25 of the mass, which, lying still lower, does n o t c o m e u n d e r the observation of the practical agriculturist. On the surface plants grow a n d die. T h r o u g h the first inches their roots penetrate, a n d in the same the dead plants are buried. This portion, therefore, by degrees, assumes a brown colour, m o r e or less dark, according to the quantity of vegetable m a t t e r which has b e e n 30 permitted to a c c u m u l a t e in it. I n t o the subsoil, however, the roots p e n e trate less abundantly, and the dead plants are rarely buried at so great a depth. Still this inferior layer is n o t wholly destitute of vegetable or other organic matter. However comparatively impervious it m a y be, still water m a k e s its way t h r o u g h it, m o r e or less, a n d carries down soluble organic sub- 35 stances, which are continually in the act of being p r o d u c e d during the de-

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cay of the vegetable m a t t e r lying above. T h u s , t h o u g h n o t sensibly discoloured by an a d m i x t u r e of decayed roots a n d stems, the subsoil m a y in reality contain an appreciable quantity of organic m a t t e r which can be distinctly estimated. Again, the c o n t i n u a l descent of the rains u p o n the surface soil washes down the salts of p o t a s h a n d soda, the carbonates of lime, iron, a n d magnesia, as well as other soluble substances—it even, by degrees, carries down t h e fine clay also, so as gradually to establish a m o r e or less manifest difference between t h e u p p e r and lower layers, in reference even to the earthy ingredients which they respectively contain. But, except in the case of very porous rocks or a c c u m u l a t i o n s of earthy matter, these surface waters rarely descend to any great depth, and h e n c e after sinking through a variable thickness of subsoil, we c o m e , in general, to earthy layers, in which little vegetable m a t t e r can be detected, a n d to which the lime, iron, a n d m a g n e s i a of the superficial covering h a s never b e e n able to descend. T h u s the character of the soil is, that it contains m o r e brown organic, chiefly vegetable, m a t t e r in a state of decay—of the subsoil, that t h e organic m a t t e r is less in quantity a n d has entered it chiefly in a soluble state, a n d that earthy m a t t e r s are present in it which have b e e n washed o u t of the superior soil—and of the subjacent mass t h a t it has r e m a i n e d nearly unaffected by the changes which vegetation, culture, and a t m o s p h e r i c agents have produced u p o n the portions t h a t lie above it. D a h e r der effect of t r e n c h (rajolen v o n Rajolpflug) u n d subsoil ploughing, in altering m o r e or less materially t h e proportions of the earthy constituents in the surface soil, in that which the long action of rains a n d frosts has caused to sink b e yond the ordinary reach of the p l o u g h is, by s u c h m e t h o d s , b r o u g h t again to the surface. W h e n the substances so brought up are directly beneficial to vegetation, or are fitted to improve t h e texture of the soil, its fertility is increased. W h e r e the contrary is the case, the productive capabilities m a y for a longer or shorter period be manifestly d i m i n i s h e d . ( 4 4 7 - 9 )

On the general origin of soils.

An einigen Stellen der Erdoberfläche n a k e d rocks, o h n e alle D e c k e von loose materials from which a soil c a n be formed. Dieß besonders der Fall in m o u n t a i n o u s u n d granitic districts. A b e r in der greater portion sind die rocks ||39| covered m i t a c c u m u l a t i o n s m o r e or less deep, of loose m a t e r i 35 als - sands, gravels, a n d clays chiefly - the u p p e r layer of which is m o r e or less susceptible of cultivation ... This superficial covering of loose m a t e r i als varies from a few inches to 1 or 200 feet in depth, u n d besteht oft of different layers or beds, placed o n e over the other - such as a b e d of clay over

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Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 • Heft XIII o n e of gravel or sand, a n d a loamy b e d u n d e r or over both. In s u c h cases the characters a n d capabilities of the soil m u s t d e p e n d u p o n which of these layers m a y c h a n c e to be u p p e r m o s t — a n d its qualities m a y often be beneficially altered by a j u d i c i o u s a d m i x t u r e with portions of the subjacent layers. It is often observed, where n a k e d rocks present themselves, either in 5 cliffs or on m o r e level parts of the earth, that the action der rains u n d frosts causes their surfaces gradually to shiver off, c r u m b l e down, or wear away. H e n c e at t h e base of cliffs loose m a t t e r collects, on comparatively level surfaces the crumbling of the rocks gradually forms a soil, while from those which are sufficiently inclined the rains wash away t h e loose materials as 10 soon as they are separated, and carry t h e m down to form deep deposits in the valleys. Diese superficial a c c u m u l a t i o n s , die an m a n y places zu einer Tiefe von 1 - 2 0 0 F u ß die Erde b e d e c k e n , consist of materials thus washed down or otherwise transported - by water, by winds, or by other geological agents. M u c h of these heaps of transported m a t t e r is in the state of too fine 15 a powder to p e r m i t us to say u p o n e x a m i n i n g it from w h e n c e it has b e e n derived. ... the earthy m a t t e r of all soils has b e e n p r o d u c e d by the gradual decay, degradation, or crumbling down of previously existing rocks. It is evident therefore: 1) that whenever a soil rests i m m e d i a t e l y u p o n the rock from which it has b e e n derived, it m a y be expected to partake m o r e or less 20 of the composition a n d characters of t h a t rock. 2) that where the soil forms only the surface layer of a considerable depth of transported materials, it m a y have no relation whatever either in mineralogical characters or in chemical constitution to the i m m e d i a t e l y subjacent rocks. (449, 50)

On the general structure of the earth's crust, and the general composition of rocks.

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1) U n t e r d e m B o d e n u n d d e n loose or drifted m a t t e r s on which it rests, finden wir überall den solid rock. This rock in m o s t countries is s e e n — i n m i n e s , quarries, a n d cliffs—to consist of beds or layers of varied thickness placed one over the other. Diese layers heissen strata (Lager, Schicht) u n d 30 rocks thus m a d e up of m a n y separate layers heissen stratified (schichtenförmig, flözartig) rocks. M a n c h e grosse Berge, so weit wir g e k o m m e n , b e s t e h n nicht aus beds, sondern aus d e m s e l b e n material. Diese rocks heissen unstratified. Sie alle, die unstratified, like the volcanic lavas, waren in a m o r e or less perfectly m e l t e d state, ihre appearance is owing to the action of fire, 35 d a h e r heissen sie igneous or pyrogenous rocks. Sie exhibit oft eine m e h r oder m i n d e r crystallinische oder glasige Struktur, oder c o n t a i n i m b e d d e d in t h e m , n u m e r o u s regular crystals of m i n e r a l substances; heissen d a h e r

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Aus James Finlay Weir Johnston: Lectures on agricultural chemistry and geology m a n c h m a l a u c h crystalline rocks. D a s folgende D i a g r a m m exhibits t h e general a p p e a r a n c e of t h e stratified rocks as they are found to occur in c o n t a c t with unstratified m a s s e s in various parts of t h e globe: -

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A an unstratified m o u n t a i n m a s s rising up d u r c h die stratified deposits. T h e b e n d i n g up of t h e edges (das K r ü m m e n der S ä u m e ) of t h e latter i n d i cates that after the beds were deposited in a nearly level position, t h e m a s s A was i n t r u d e d or forced up t h r o u g h t h e m , carrying the b r o k e n edges of t h e beds along m i t it. Β zeigt d e n m o r e quiet way, worin veins or dikes of u n ­ stratified green-stone, o d e r trap (Porphyr) oder lava cut t h r o u g h t h e b e d s

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without materially displacing t h e m , as if w h e n in a fluid state it h a d risen up a n d filled a previously existing crack or c h a s m . F a s t alle u n s r e coal­ fields zeigen in i h r e n dikes B. C u n d D exhibit t h e m a n n e r in which t h e strata overlie o n e a n o t h e r in nearly a h o r i z o n t a l position, - 1, 2, 3, indicat­ ing different k i n d of rocks, as a l i m e s t o n e , a s a n d s t o n e a n d a clay, w h i c h

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again are subdivided i n t o b e d s or t h i n n e r layers. D i e stratified rocks liegen m a n c h m a l h o r i z o n t a l o d e r nearly level over large tracts of country wie in d e m obigen D i a g r a m m . M a n c h m a l sind sie m e h r o d e r m i n d e r i n c l i n e d o r appear to dip (versenken, sich n e i g e n ) in o n e to rise in t h e opposite direc­ tion, as if a surface, formerly level, h a d b e e n p u s h e d down at t h e o n e e n d

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a n d raised up ||40| at t h e other, a n d s o m e t i m e s they s e e m to rest entirely u p o n their edges. U p o n t h e m o d e in w h i c h they t h u s lie, t h e uniformity of t h e soil, in a district where it reposes i m m e d i a t e l y on t h e rocks from w h i c h it is derived, is materially d e p e n d e n t .

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A bis Ε a tract of c o u n t r y worin die rocks in different parts diese different degrees of i n c l i n a t i o n h a b e n , b e i A vertical, Β m e h r inclined, C - E m e h r h o r i z o n t a l . Klar, d a ß w e n n die o u t e r surface dieser several rocks c r u m b l e u n d form a soil w h i c h rests where it is p r o d u c e d , t h e n t h e quality of t h e soil

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Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 • Heft XIII on every spot will be d e t e r m i n e d by t h e n a t u r e of t h e rock b e n e a t h . V o n Ε vorgehend finden wir d e n soil pretty u n i f o r m in quality bis wir z u m edge of t h e b e d of D k o m m e n , d a n n wieder u n i f o r m , t h o u g h p e r h a p s different from t h e former, bis z u m S t r a t u m [C], wo wieder u n i f o r m beträchtliche Strecke till we begin to climb t h e hill to B. D i e g a n z e hillside in ascending to Β v o n einer u n d derselben B o d e n a r t . Aber wo wir h e r a b s t e i g e n on t h e o t h e r side u n d pass Β we get u p o n t h e edges of t h e beds, a n d t h e n as we proceed from o n e b e d to another, t h e quality of t h e soil m a y vary at successive short dis­ t a n c e s m o r e or less according as t h e m e m b e r s of this group of b e d s are m o r e or less different from each other. Steigen wir aber d e n hill zu A h i n auf; wo die beds, besides being vertical, are also very t h i n , t h e soil m a y c h a n g e at almost every step, w e n n die m i n e r a l o g i c a l characters der several vertical layers be sensibly u n l i k e . S u c h dissimilarities in the angular position of the strata ... are of c o n s t a n t o c c u r r e n c e n o t only in o u r islands, b u t over all parts of t h e globe; a n d they illustrate very clearly one i m p o r t a n t cause of t h a t want of uniformity in t h e n a t u r e a n d capabilities of t h e soil w h i c h is m o r e or less observable in every u n d u l a t i n g a n d in s o m e comparatively lev­ el c o u n t r i e s also. 2) Alle stratified rocks b e s t e h n of a l t e r n a t i o n s or a d m i x ­ tures von 3 k i n d s of rock only, of s a n d s t o n e s , l i m e s t o n e s , a n d clays. Sandstein v o n d e m loose s a n d der new-red u n d green-sand formations bis z u m almost perfect quartz rock n o t u n f r e q u e n t l y associated m i t d e n oldest strata. D i e limestones wechseln e b e n s o v o m soft chalk (Kreide) bis z u m h a r d m o u n t a i n lime-stone u n d d e m crystalline statuary marble; w ä h r e n d clays von alien degrees of h a r d n e s s von d e n e n which soften in water bis z u m Dachschiefer u n d e n d l i c h d e n Gneissrocks w h i c h rest i m m e d i a t e l y u p o n the granite, a n d which appear to be only t h e oldest clays altered by t h e action of heat. A b e r die stratified rocks, obgleich so u n t e r s c h e i d b a r in 3 Hauptvarieties, b e s t e h n selten aus n u r diesen S u b s t a n z e n im u n g e m i s c h t e n state. Sandstein enthält oft etwas clay or lime, w ä h r e n d die l i m e stones u n d clays oft m i t Sand u n d m i t each o t h e r gemischt. Die soils formed von d e n stratified rocks by n a t u r a l c r u m b l i n g or decay m u s t have a similar composition. Sandy soil gebildet von e i n e m s a n d s t o n e etc u n d ein gemischter von a m i x e d soil. ( 4 5 0 - 5 4 )

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Relative Positions and Peculiar characters of the several strata. 1) Die several strata, or series of strata, which present themselves in t h e crust of t h e globe, always m a i n t a i n the s a m e relative positions. So ζ. B. bei d e n 3 series of beds k n o w n by t h e n a m e s of m a g n e s i a n l i m e s t o n e , t h e lower new-red s a n d s t o n e , u n d der coal m e a s u r e s , liegt i m m e r der l i m e s t o n e u p -

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permost, der s a n d s t o n e n e x t u n d das c o a l m e a s u r e u n t e r b e i d e n . W h e n e v e r these 3 rocks are m e t with n e a r e a c h other, they always occupy t h e s a m e relative position. 2) Diese beds generally c o n t i n u o u s ü b e r very large areas, or are found to stretch, o h n e U n t e r b r e c h u n g , over a great extent of country. H e n c e w h e n they dip b e n e a t h other beds ... k a n n m a n m i t grosser W a h r scheinlichkeit schliessen auf ihre presence at a greater or less depth, wherever we observe on the surface those other beds which are known usually to lie i m m e d i a t e l y above t h e m . So, w e n n in a tract of a country consisting of the m a g n e s i a n l i m e s t o n e ... deep valleys occur wahrscheinlich d a ß der B o d e n in diesen T h ä l e r n will rest u p o n , a n d m a y be formed from, the u n derlying red sandstones or c o a l m e a s u r e s ; a n d t h a t it will therefore possess very different agricultural capabilities from the soil that generally prevails a r o u n d it. ... ||41| 3) Die stratified rocks so zahlreich u n d so varied in appearance yet consist generally of repeated alternations of limestones, sandstones, a n d clays, or of m i x t u r e s of 2 or m o r e of these earthy substances. D e n n o c h die several series of strata sehr verschieden von e i n a n d e r d u r c h peculiar u n d oft wellmarked characters. So sind einige soft, c r u m b l e readily u n d bilden bald a soil, w ä h r e n d andre, obgleich aus d e n s e l b e n ingredients bestehend, long refuse to break into m i n u t e fragments, a n d t h u s c o n d e m n the surface of t h e country where they occur to m o r e or less partial barrenness. In a n d r e n die Proportions von sand u n d lime so varied, v o n bed zu bed, d a ß der character der m i x t u r e in e a c h gänzlich different ist. In einigen Rocks die r e m a i n s of vegetables in beträchtlicher Q u a n t i t ä t zugegen, oder b o n e s or shells of a n i m a l s in greater or less a b u n d a n c e , j e d e r von welchen U m s t ä n d e n die agricultural characters u n d capabilities der soils m e h r oder less afficirt. Schließlich an a d m i x t u r e of other earthy substances gives a peculiar character to m a n y rocks. So das Per-oxide of iron, which imparts their red colour to m a n y strata, wie d e n r o t h e n sandstones, influences nicht n u r d e n mineralogischen character des rock, sondern a u c h die quality des soil which is formed by its decay. E b e n s o die Presence of m a g nesia, m a n c h m a l in large quantity, in m a n y lime stones, p r o d u c e s an i m portant modification in the c h e m i c a l c o m p o s i t i o n a n d mineralogical characters of the rock, as well as in its relations to practical agriculture. V o n diesen peculiarities the special agricultural capabilities dieser parts des globe wo each series of beds occurs are in a great degree d e p e n d a n t . 4) Dieser peculiar character ist m e h r oder m i n d e r c o n t i n u o u s ü b e r very large areas. T h u s if a given s t r a t u m be found on the surface in any part of England, a n d again in any part of Russia, the soil formed from that b e d will generally exhibit very nearly the s a m e qualities in b o t h countries. E i n e K e n n t n i ß der Geologie daher, d. h. of the kind of rock which appears on the surface in any part of a country, enables us to predict generally the k i n d

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Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 • Heft XIII of soil which ought to rest u p o n it, if it be n o t covered by foreign a c c u m u l a tions, the m i n e r a l substances in which it is likely to be deficient, a n d where, as when lime is one of t h e m , they m a y be o b t a i n e d at the least cost. Andrerseits a knowledge of the agricultural capabilities of any o n e district in which certain rocks are known to lie i m m e d i a t e l y b e n e a t h the soil, and of the agricultural practice suited to that district, will i n d i c a t e the probable capabilities of any other tract worin the s a m e k i n d of rock is known to appear on the surface, and of the kind of culture which m a y be most successfully applied to it. ( 4 5 4 - 6 )

Classification of the stratified rocks.

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D i e niedrigsten layers in der Erdkruste sind die ältesten. In Bezug auf ihr relatives Alter die stratified rocks getheilt in primäre, s e c u n d ä r e , tertiäre (jüngste u n d die overlie both.) Diese 3 series of strata wieder u n t e r e i n g e theilt in systems u n d diese in m i n o r groups, called formations, the several m e m b e r s of each system and formation having s u c h a c o m m o n resem- 15 blance, either in mineralogical character or in t h e k i n d of a n i m a l a n d vegetable r e m a i n s found in t h e m , as to show t h a t they were deposited u n d e r very nearly the s a m e general physical conditions of the globe. 1) The Tertiary Strata. Charakterisirt by containing, a m o n g other fossils, the r e m a i n s of animals, which are identical with existing species. 2) Secondary Strata. 20 c o n t a i n no a n i m a l r e m a i n s zu identificiren m i t d e n jetzigen, aber a u c h fast all different von d e n e n in den primary strata below. 3) Primary Strata hier the r e m a i n s von animals all belong to extinct species, the greater part to extinct genera a n d families u n d oft d e n existing races so u n ä h n l i c h , d a ß es oft schwer irgend eine Aehnlichkeit zu finden zwischen d e n j e z t l e b e n d e n 25 T h i e r e n u n d those which inhabited the waters der a n c i e n t periods in which these primary strata were deposited. ( 4 5 6 - 8 2 )

Die Unstratified Rocks (oder crystalline) form soils von ganz peculiar character.

Granitic Rocks G r a n i t besteht aus Quartz, Mica (Glimmer) u n d Felspar (Feldspath) (483)

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Aus James Finlay Weir Johnston: Lectures on agricultural chemistry and geology It is chiefly to t h e chemical decomposition of t h e felspar t h a t t h e wearing away of granite rocks is d u e , a n d t h e formation of a soil from their c r u m bling substance. (488)

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trap (Basalt) T h e granites a b o u n d in p o t a s h : but except in t h e syenites they rarely contain lime, and their soils are generally poor. Let t h e m be m i x e d with the trap soil, a n d they are e n r i c h e d . ... t h e fertility of t h e one is m a i n l y d u e to the presence of lime, a n d t h e b a r r e n n e s s of t h e o t h e r to t h e absence of this earth. (497) Die geological structure of a country, as well as t h e c h e m i c a l c o m p o s i t i o n of t h e minerals of w h i c h its several rocks consist, has a primary a n d fundam e n t a l influence u p o n t h e ||42| agricultural capabilities of its surface. (498) A b e r in vielen G e g e n d e n der soil ganz different von d e m der producirt werden w ü r d e d u r c h d i e D e c o m p o s i t i o n oder D e g r a d a t i o n der soils worauf er rests. ... In solchen F ä l l e n new c o n d i t i o n s have supervened, w h i c h render the n a t u r a l relations between soils a n d rocks in those places less simple ... W ä r e n die surfaces der rocks uniformly level, u n d die of every c o u n try flat, the c r u m b l e d materials would generally r e m a i n on t h e spots where they were formed. A b e r die rocks rarely lie in a h o r i z o n t a l position, b u t rest always m o r e or less on their edges, u n d d i e surface des country is often m o u n t a i n o u s or hilly u n d everywhere u n d u l a t i n g . H e n c e t h e rains are continually washing off t h e finer particles from t h e higher, and bearing t h e m to the lower grounds u n d b e i G e l e g e n h e i t grosser F l u t h e n vast q u a n t i t i e s even of heavy materials b o r n e to great distances, and spread s o m e t i m e s to a great d e p t h a n d over a great e x t e n t of country. T h u s the spoils of o n e rocky formation are b o r n e from their native seat and are strewed over t h e surface of other kinds of rock of a totally different character. Ζ. B. die Frag­ m e n t e von d e n G r a n i t , G n e i s s , slate rocks der high lands sind scattered over t h e old red s a n d s t o n e s , w h i c h lie at a lower level - u n d die der b l u e limestone m o u n t a i n s over t h e millstone grits, t h e coalmeasures, a n d t h e new red sandstones, which stretch away from their feet. D i e effects pro­ d u c e d d u r c h diese n a t u r a l cause zeigen sich in ihrer g a n z e n Grösse in districts, wo, wie in d e n G h a u t s , die separate das levelland der M a l a b a r coast (the Concan) von d e m high table land of D e c c a n , 120 i n c h e s of r a i n m a n c h m a l in e i n e m m o n t h fallen u n d 240 i n c h e s oder 20 feet, j e d e s Jahr, im D u r c h s c h n i t t von J u n e to September. A n d to what vast distances m u s t materials be transported by great rivers wie d e m Mississippi, A m a z o n f l u ß , G a n g e s , I n d u s , die t a u s e n d e von miles durchlaufen, before sie sich in die See ergiessen. W h a t necessary c o n n e c t i o n s c a n the deposits of m u d a n d sand, which yearly collect at t h e m o u t h s a n d in the places overflowed by

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Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 • Heft XIII t h e waters of these great rivers, have with t h e n a t u r e of t h e rocks on which these transported materials m a y h a p p e n t o rest? F e r n e r : die c o n s t a n t m o t i o n der waters der sea washes down t h e cliffs on o n e coast, a n d carries away their ruins to be deposited, either in its own depths, or along o t h e r m o r e sheltered shores. H e n c e s a n d b a n k s a c c u m u l a t e , as in t h e centre of 5 o u r own N o r t h Sea; or t h e l a n d gains u p o n t h e water in o n e spot what it loses in another. In b e i d e n F ä l l e n die so d u r c h oder von der See g a i n e d soils, k ö n n e n keine relation h a b e n zu d e n rocks worauf sie rest. A g a i n t h e sea, in general, carries with it a n d deposits in its own b o s o m t h e finest particles of clay, lime, a n d other earthy m a t t e r s , a n d leaves along its shores ac- 10 c u m u l a t i o n s of fine siliceous sand. This sand, w h e n dry, t h e sea winds b e a r before t h e m a n d strew over t h e land, forming sandhills a n d downs, somet i m e s of considerable h e i g h t a n d of great extent. So b e s o n d e r s in d e n easte r n shores der Bai von Biscaya u n d in d e n coasts von J u t l a n d , b o t h exp o s e d to violent seawinds. Before these winds t h e light sands are 15 continually drifting, and, year by year, a d v a n c e further a n d further into t h e country, gradually driving lakes before t h e m , swallowing up forests a n d cultivated fields, with t h e h o u s e s of t h e cultivators (in d e n L a n d e s der advance of t h e downs is estimated auf 6 0 - 7 0 F u ß j e d e s Jahr), a n d burying alike t h e fertile soils a n d t h e rocks from w h i c h they were originally derived. So wirk- 20 t e n die W i n d e in Africa, wo sie p o p u l o u s cities u n d fertile plains in deserts verwandelten. ( 4 9 8 - 5 0 2 ) Being a c q u a i n t e d with t h e n a t u r e of t h e rocks in a country, a n d with its physical geography—i.e. which of these rocks form t h e hills, a n d w h i c h t h e valleys or plains—we c a n predict, in general, t h a t t h e materials of t h e hills will be strewed to a greater or less distance over t h e lower grounds, a n d t h a t these lower soils will t h u s be m o r e or less altered in their m i n e r a l character. A n d w h e n the debris of t h e hills is of a m o r e fertile character t h a n that of t h e rocks which form t h e plains, that the soils will be materially improved by this covering; t h e soil of t h e millstone grit ζ. B. by t h e debris of t h e m o u n t a i n limestone, or of a decayed g r e e n s t o n e or a basalt. Andrerseits, where t h e higher rocks are m o r e unfruitful, a n d t h e low l a n d s are covered with sterile drifted sands, b r o u g h t down from t h e m o r e elevated g r o u n d s a knowledge of t h e n a t u r e of t h e subjacent rock m a y at o n c e suggest t h e m e a n s of ameliorating a n d improving t h e u n p r o m i s i n g surface drift. T h u s t h e loose sand of Norfolk is fertilized by t h e subjacent chalk m a r l : a n d even sterile h e a t h s (Hounslow), on w h i c h n o t h i n g grew before, have, by this m e a n s , b e e n m a d e to p r o d u c e l u x u r i a n t crops of every k i n d of grain. (510) I

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w Aus James Finlay Weir Johnston: Lectures on agricultural chemistry and geology |43| Soils are fertile which, besides b e i n g in a proper m e c h a n i c a l or physical condition, c o n t a i n the necessary organic substances, a n d also a sufficient supply of all t h e m i n e r a l c o n s t i t u e n t s w h i c h t h e plants to be grown u p o n t h e m are likely to require. (519) Zu d i e s e n g e h ö r e n soils, die a n a t u r a l 5 source of fertility h a b e n , (durch springs oder sonst) constantly supplied werden m i t soluble saline, a n d o t h e r substances, as to e n a b l e t h e m to yield a succession of crops w i t h o u t m a n u r e u n d w i t h o u t apparent deterioration. (521, 2) I m p o r t a n c e of d e p t h a n d u n i f o r m i t y of soil: If t h e surface soil be of a fertile quality, a n d other c i r c u m s t a n c e s be favourable a m p l e r e t u r n s will 10 be sure from any cultivated crops. B u t where t h e subsoil is similar in c o m position to t h a t of t h e surface, n o t only m a y t h e fertility of t h e land be considered as almost i n e x h a u s t i b l e , b u t those crops also which send their roots far down will be able to flourish p e r m a n e n t l y in it. (523)

B a r r e n or Unfruitful Soils. 15

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Soils are unfruitful or altogether b a r r e n , either w h e n they c o n t a i n t o o little of one or m o r e of the inorganic c o n s t i t u e n t s of plants, or w h e n s o m e s u b stance is present in t h e m in s u c h q u a n t i t i e s as to b e c o m e hurtful or poisonous to vegetation. Ζ. B. s u l p h a t e of i r o n in d e m subsoil. (524) Ζ. B. M o o r ­ l a n d s u n p r o d u c t i v wegen ihrer deficiency i n t h e n u m e r o u s substances, bewiesen d u r c h das fact, t h a t w h e n dressed with a covering of t h e subsoil they b e c o m e capable of successful cultivation. D e r subsoil e n t h ä l t d a n n a n o t a b l e proportion of all t h o s e m i n e r a l c o n s t i t u e n t s in which t h e soil itself is defective. (525) Es giebt nearly b a r r e n soils die sehr viel h u m i c acid enthalten, besides a m u c h larger proportion of insoluble organic m a t t e r . E i n

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B o d e n k a n n b a r r e n sein trotz sehr viel organic matter. (525, 6) If t h e a d d i t i o n of a given m a n u r e to t h e soil r e n d e r it m o r e fertile, so dieß der Fall weil der soil defective in o n e or m o r e der m a t t e r s die der m a n u r e c o n t a i n s oder weil der m a n u r e , wie oft m i t d e m l i m e der F a l l ist, r e n d e r s m o r e available to the plant what is already present in t h e soil. (529) Chemically

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speaking, a soil will p r o d u c e any crop a b u n d a n t l y , provided it c o n t a i n an a m p l e supply of all that t h e crop we wish to raise requires from t h e soil. B u t in practice soils which do c o n t a i n all these substances plentifully, are yet found to differ in their power of yielding plentiful returns to t h e h u s b a n d m a n u n d dieß rührt d a n n von ihren physical properties her. (I.e.)

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Physical Properties of the Soil. D i e physical properties in n a t u r e u n t e r g e o r d n e t gegen die c h e m i c a l c o m p o sition der soils. ... Plants m a y grow u p o n a soil, whatever its physical cond i t i o n — i f all the food they require be within their reach—while, however favourable the physical c o n d i t i o n m a y be, n o t h i n g can vegetate in a healthy m a n n e r , if the soil be deficient in some necessary kind of food, or c o n t a i n what is destructive to vegetable life. (529, 530)

5

M e c h a n i c a l Relations of Soils. 1) the density und absolute weight of a soil. Sandy soils sind die heaviest. T h e weight diminishes m i t d e m increase of clay u n d lessens n o c h m e h r wie die quantity of vegetable m a t t e r a u g m e n t s . Je dichter a soil, desto weniger injury i h m g e t h a n d u r c h die passage of carts u n d das treading of cattle in t h e ordinary operations of h u s b a n d r y . Die denser soils retain ihre W ä r m e länger w e n n die Sonne u n t e r g e h t oder kalter W i n d bläst. A b e r in very close or c o m p a c t Erdarten the air gains slow a n d imperfect admission. 2) State of division of the constituent Parts of the soil. Dieser status h a t a m a t e r i a l influe n c e u p o n its productive character u n d its m o n e y value, da die labours des h u s b a n d m a n , in lands of a stiffer a n d m o r e c o h e r e n t n a t u r e , are chiefly exp e n d e d in bringing t h e m into this m o r e favourable powdery condition. 3) Firmness and adhesive power of soils. Pure clays wird sehr hart w e n n getrockn e t u n d schwer z u pulverisiren. Diese tenacity u n d h a r d n e s s v e r m i n d e r t i m Verhältniß wie Sand beigemengt. D i e ß m e i s t zu kostspielig auf a large scale. A b e r thorough draining, subsoil ploughing u n d careful tillage, will gradually bring the m o s t refractory soils of this character into a c o n d i t i o n worin they can be m o r e perfectly a n d m o r e economically worked. Soils also a d h e r e to the plough in different degrees u n d present so a m o r e or less powerful obstruction to its passage. Alle bieten größren W i d e r s t a n d w e n n wet als w e n n dry u n d m e h r e i n e m hölzernen als e i n e m eisernen Pflug, a sandy soil, n a ß bietet a resistance to the passage of agricultural i m p l e m e n t s = 4 lbs, to the square foot of the surface which passes t h r o u g h it - a fertile vegetable soil or rich garden m o u l d e i n e n W i d e r s t a n d von a b o u t 6 lbs u n d a clay von 8 - 2 5 lbs auf d e n • f o o t .

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1) Power of imbibing moisture from the air. In h o t climates a n d in dry seasons diese Eigenschaft des soil sehr wichtig, restoring as it does to t h e thirsty soil, and bringing in d e n r e a c h der plants, a portion of the m o i s t u r e , w h i c h during the day they h a d so copiously exhaled. Different soils besitzen diese Eigenschaft in v e r s c h i e d n e m G r a d e , fertile soils besitzen sie in a very considerable degree. Anderseits peaty soils ||44| u n d very strong clays are still m o r e absorbent of m o i s t u r e . 2) Power of containing or holding water, the rain falls and is d r u n k in, the dew (Thau) descends, a n d is t h u s t a k e n possession of by the soil. But after m u c h rain has fallen t h e earth b e c o m e s saturated, a n d the rest either runs off from t h e surface or sinks t h r o u g h to t h e drains. This h a p p e n s m o r e speedily in s o m e soils t h a n in others. In dry climates this power of holding water m u s t r e n d e r a soil m o r e valuable. 3) Power of retaining water when exposed to the air. those soils which are capable of arresting and containing the largest portion of the rain that falls, r e t a i n it also m i t der greatest obstinacy, a n d take the longest t i m e to dry. T h u s a sand will b e c o m e as dry in o n e h o u r as a pure clay in 3, or a piece of peat in 4 hours. 4) Capillary power of the soil. W h e n water is p o u r e d into t h e sole of a flowerpot, the soil gradually sucks it in and b e c o m e s moist even to the surface. T h e same takes place in the soil of the o p e n fields. T h e water from b e n e a t h — t h a t contained in t h e subsoil—is gradually sucked up to the surface. W h e r e water is present in excess this capillary action keeps t h e soil always moist a n d cold. T h e t e n d e n c y of the water to ascend is n o t t h e s a m e in all soils. In those which, like sandy soils u n d such as c o n t a i n m u c h vegetable matter, are o p e n a n d porous, it probably ascends m o s t freely, while stiff clays will transmit it with less rapidity. 5) Contraction of the soil on drying. Some soils in dry w h e a t h e r d i m i n i s h very m u c h in bulk, shrink in, a n d crack. T h e m o r e clay or vegetable m a t t e r ein B o d e n enthält, the m o r e it swells u n d contracts in alternate wet a n d dry weather. This contraction in stiff clays m u ß schädlich sein to young roots from the pressure u p o n the t e n d e r fibres to which it m u s t give rise, w ä h r e n d in leichten sandy soils die compression der roots b e i n a h e u n i f o r m in all weathers, and they are u n d i s turbed in their n a t u r a l t e n d e n c y to throw out offshoots in every direction. Dieses eine andre gute Qualität der light soils.

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R e l a t i o n s of the Soil to t h e A t m o s p h e r e . 1) Power of absorbing oxygen and other gaseous substances from the air. s o m e soils, u n t e r allen U m s t ä n d e n , absorbiren oxygen rascher u n d i n larger q u a n t i t y als andre. Clays m e h r als sandy soils u n d vegetable m o u l d s or p e a t s m e h r als clays. W e n n der clay Eisen oder M a n g a n e s e e n t h ä l t in t h e 5 state of first or prot-oxides, these will naturally absorb oxygen for t h e purpose of c o m b i n i n g with it ... all soils absorb gaseous substances of every k i n d m o s t easily u n d in der greatest a b u n d a n c e w h e n sie in a m o i s t state sind. So wirkt leiser R e g e n s c h a u e r u n d T h a u e n i c h t n u r günstig d u r c h die supply of water to t h e thirsty g r o u n d , s o n d e r n a u c h d u r c h die power die sie 10 i m p a r t d e m m o i s t e n e d soil, of extracting for itself new supplies of gaseous m a t t e r from t h e s u r r o u n d i n g a t m o s p h e r e .

R e l a t i o n s of t h e Soil to H e a t . 1) Power of absorbing heat. Darkcoloured, s u c h as black a n d brownish red, soils absorb t h e h e a t of t h e s u n m o s t rapidly, a n d therefore b e c o m e w a r m t h e soonest. Sie attain a u c h e i n e u m einige G r a d e h ö h e r e T e m p e r a t u r als a n d r e soils of other colours u n d t h u s , u n t e r der action derselben sun, prom o t e rascher vegetation. D i e ß e Eigenschaft weniger wichtig in L ä n d e r n wo s u n s h i n e a b o u n d s ; aber sehr wichtig in solchen wie E n g l a n d , hier besizt sie a considerable e c o n o m i c a l value. D i e ß zu verstehn v o n soils die u n t e r d e n selben U m s t ä n d e n der S o n n e ausgesezt. Wo die exposure oder der aspect des soil giebt the prolonged benefit of t h e s u n ' s rays, or to shelter it from cold winds, günstiger der Vegetation als m i n d e r günstig situated, t h o u g h darker in colour a n d m o r e free from superfluous m o i s t u r e . 2) Power of retaining heat. But soils differ m o r e in their power of retaining t h e h e a t they have t h u s absorbed. Alle bodies, der air ausgesezt, erkalten. So do all soils, aber ein sandiger B o d e n l a n g s a m e r als a clay u n d dieser als ein B o d e n r e i c h an D a r n m e r d e . . . . Plants m u s t be firmly fixed—therefore t h e soil m u s t have a certain consistency, their roots m u s t find a ready passage in every direction—therefore t h e soils m u s t be s o m e w h a t loose a n d open. ... D i e i m m e d i a t e agency v o n S a n d u n d a l u m i n a m e h r physical als c h e m i c a l . D e r B o d e n im Bezug auf die V e g e t a t i o n performs 4 functions. 1) It u p h o l d s a n d sustains the plant, affording it a sure a n d safe anchorage. 2) It absorbs water, air a n d heat, to p r o m o t e its growth. (Dieses sind die m e c h a n i c a l u n d physical functions.) 3) It c o n t a i n s u n d supplies to t h e plant b o t h organic

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Aus James Finlay Weir Johnston: Lectures on agricultural chemistry and geology and inorganic food as its wants require; a n d 4) It is a workshop, in which by the aid of air a n d m o i s t u r e , c h e m i c a l changes are continually going on, by which changes these several k i n d s of food are prepared for a d m i s s i o n into the living roots. ( 5 3 1 - 5 4 1 ) |

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t h e ability of the farmer to grow this or t h a t crop u p o n his land, ist sehr b e schränkt d u r c h its natural character und composition. E a c h soil establishes u p o n itself, so to speak, a vegetation suited to its own n a t u r e . ... A b e r der 10 farmer can change the character of the land itself. He can alter b o t h its physical qualities a n d its c h e m i c a l c o m p o s i t i o n and t h u s can fit it for growing other races of plants t h a n those which it naturally bears—or, if he choose, the same races in greater a b u n d a n c e a n d with increased l u x u r i a n c e ... In t h e p r o d u c t i o n of such c h a n g e s — n e a r l y all the l a b o u r and practical skill of 15 the h u s b a n d m a n is constantly e x p e n d e d . (545) W h e r e a soil c o n t a i n s n a t u rally all that the crops we desire to grow are likely to require, m e r e m e c h a n ical operations m a y suffice to r e n d e r it fertile. Sonst a u c h c h e m i s c h e n o ting. Drains, ploughs, subsoils b e z i e h n sich auf die physische V e r ä n d e r u n g . ([545,] 546)

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Connection between the kind of soil and the kind of plants that grow upon it.

A n e r k a n n t u n t e r d e n Practikern d a ß clay soils am besten für wheat, l o a m y soils für barley, sandy l o a m s für oats or barley, n o c h sandigere für oats or rye u n d die fast ganz sandigen von d e n cornbearing crops n u r für rye. (bar25 ley Gerste, oat Hafer, rye Roggen) (I.e.) Im N a t u r z u s t a n d finden wir special difference u n t e r d e n s p o n t a n e o u s products des soil, m e h r oder m i n d e r traceable auf die c h e m i c a l c o m p o s i t i o n der spots wo sie wachsen. So: 1) A u f d e n sandy soils der sea shores u n d d e n saltsteppes Ungarns u n d R u ß lands the sandworts (wort Kraut, W ü r z ) saltworts, glass worts u n d a n d r e 30 salzliebende Pflanzen a b o u n d . W e r d e n diese lands inclosed u n d drained, so der excess von Salz allmählig washed o u t by the rains, oder in s o m e countries entfernt by reaping j ä h r l i c h die salineplants u n d b u r n i n g t h e m for soda (barilla), when wholesome u n d nutritive grasses take their place; aber der white clover u n d das daisy u n d d a n d e l i o n m ü s s e n erst erscheinen,

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Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 • Heft XIII eh, im allgemeinen, er m i t Vortheil gepflügt u n d m i t Korn besät w e r d e n k a n n . 2) Die dry drifted sands, m o r e or less r e m o t e von der See, produciren keine solche Pflanzen, sondern ihre eignen coarse grasses. 3) A u f gewöhnlichen sandy soils sind die l e g u m i n o u s plants (Hülsentragende) selten u n d das herbage oft scanty u n d void of n o u r i s h m e n t . Ist aber m a r l gegenwärtig in s u c h soils, the n a t u r a l growth of l e g u m i n o u s plants increases. D e r colt'sfoot (Huflattich) u n d die butter-bur (Rostpappel, Pestilenzwurz) wachsen n i c h t n u r von selbst, wo der B o d e n marly, s o n d e r n infest ihn oft so sehr daß ihre Extirpation sehr schwierig. A u f calcareous soils oder sehr limehaltigen ist das couchgrass selten gesehn als a weed, während der poppy, the vetch, and the darnel a b o u n d . 4) Peaty soils, when laid down to grass, slowly select für sich selbst a peculiar tribe of grasses, ihrer b e s o n d e r n n a ture entsprechend, besonders der H o l c u s l a n a t u s (meadow soft-grass) a b u n d a n t . Alter their constitution by a heavy liming u n d sie p r o d u c i r e n l u x u r i a n t green crops in a great bulk of straw, b u t give a coarse thickskinned grain, m o r e or less imperfectly filled. Alter t h e m further by a dressing of clay, or keep t h e m in arable culture, stiffen t h e m with composts, a n d enrich t h e m with bones, a n d they will be converted into rich a n d s o u n d cornbearing lands. 5) In the waters t h a t gush from the sides of lime-stonehills—on the b o t t o m of ditches t h a t are formed of lime-stones or m a r l s — , a n d in the springs that have their rise in m a n y trap rocks, the watercress a p pears a n d accompanies the r u n n i n g waters, s o m e t i m e s for miles on their course. (547, 8) Diese facts beweisen, daß alle a n d e r n U m s t ä n d e Clima etc gleich gesezt, the n a t u r a l vegetation, that which grows best on a given spot, is intimately connected with the c h e m i c a l c o m p o s i t i o n of the soil. A b e r der B o d e n u n d die Pflanzen, die er nährt, u n t e r g e h n slow b u t n a t u r a l changes. Lay down a piece of land to grass u n d n a c h einer R e i h e von J a h r e n der Boden, ursprünglich vielleicht v o m stiffest clay, wird a rich, light, vegetable m o u l d , bearing a thick sward of n o u r i s h i n g grasses d u r c h a u s verschieden von d e n e n die es vor seiner Verwandlung in pasture trug. So in a wider field u n d on a larger scale, the s a m e slow changes are exhibited in the vast n a t u r a l forests die lange extensive tracts in various countries Europas bedeckt h a b e n . Geschichtlich daß Karl der G r o ß e h u n t e d in d e m forest von G e r a r d m e r , damals bestehend aus oak (Eiche) u n d beech (Buche) ; jezt enthält derselbe Wald n u r n o c h verschiedne species von Fichten, (pine) Im Palatinat die Pinus sylvestris folgt a u c h der Eiche. Im J u r a u n d in Tyrol the beech a n d the p i n e ersetzen sich m u t u a l l y ... When the time for a change of ||46| crop arrives, the existing trees begin to languish o n e after another, their branches die, a n d finally their dry a n d n a k e d tops are seen surr o u n d e d by the luxuriant foliage of other races. In Georgia (United States) die Castanea p u m i l a is rapidly disappearing, the L a u r a s geniculata, which,

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Aus James Finlay Weir Johnston: Lectures on agricultural chemistry and geology u n t i l lately, formed large c l u m p s in the p i n e barrens, is n o w rarely to be seen a m i d the forests of P i n u s palustris, whole forests of the G o r d o n i a liseanthus are seen to die o u t in 2 or 3 years, u n d die q u e r c u s rubra u n d Laurus sasafras are showing similar s y m p t o m s of decay. Diese facts zeigen 5 die existence of slow n a t u r a l changes in der c h e m i c a l c o m p o s i t i o n des soil itself, which lead necessarily to changes in the vegetation also. We can ourselves, in the case of a n c i e n t forests, effect s u c h changes. W e n n in d e n Vereinigten Staaten von A m e r i k a ein forest von E i c h e n oder m a p l e (Ahorn) ist cut down, o n e of p i n e springs up in its place; while on the site of a p i n e for10 est, oaks and other broad leaved trees speedily appear. But if the full n a t u ral t i m e for s u c h changes has not yet c o m e , the new generation m a y be overtaken, a n d smothered by the original tribes. T h u s , when the p i n e forests of Sweden are b u r n e d down, a y o u n g growth of birch (Birke) succeeds, b u t after a t i m e the pines again appear a n d u s u r p their former d o m i n i o n . 15 T h e soil still r e m a i n s m o r e propitious to t h e growth of t h e latter t h a n of t h e former k i n d of tree. W ü n s c h e n wir also a luxuriant vegetation auf e i n e m gegebnen spot, entweder z u wählen die d e m B o d e n a m entsprechendste Art des S a a m e n s , oder ä n d e r n the n a t u r e des land so as to adapt it to o u r crop. A n d , even w h e n we have o n c e prepared it to yield a b u n d a n t returns of a 20 particular kind, the changes we have p r o d u c e d c a n only be m o r e or less of a temporary n a t u r e . O u r care a n d a t t e n t i o n m u s t still be bestowed u p o n it, that it m a y be enabled to resist the slow natural causes of alteration, by which it is gradually unfitted to n o u r i s h those vegetable tribes which it appears now to delight in m a i n t a i n i n g . (548, 9)

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Of draining, its mode of action and its effects.

Das draining (Trockenlegen d u r c h Abzugscanäle) carries off all stagnant water u n d giebt a ready escape to t h e excess of what falls in rain; Es hält d e n ascent des Wassers von u n t e n u n t e n , sei es d u r c h capillary action oder d u r c h die force of springs auf u n d preservirt so nicht n u r den o b e r e n B o d e n 30 von u n d u e moisture, s o n d e r n befreit a u c h d e n subsoil von der lingering presence der n o x i o u s substances, die so oft in u n d r a i n e d land lodge in it u n d impair the growth of deeprooted plants. Er erlaubt d e m Regenwasser, statt n u r ü b e r d e n B o d e n wegzufliessen u n d oft injuriously zu waschen die surface, to m a k e its way easily t h r o u g h t h e soil. U n d so durchfiltrirend 35 theilt das rainwater d e m B o d e n n i c h t n u r die zur Vegetation n ü t z l i c h e n Substanzen mit, die es enthält, sondern es wäscht aus von d e m obren Boden, u n d wenn die drains tief g e n u g sind, von d e m subsoil, such n o x i o u s substances as naturally collect u n d m a y have b e e n long a c c u m u l a t i n g

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Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 · Heft XIII there, rendering it u n s o u n d a n d hurtful to the roots. D e r leztre Vortheil folgt gradually the draining of land. W h e n o n c e thoroughly effected, it constitutes a m o s t i m p o r t a n t p e r m a n e n t i m p r o v e m e n t . P e r m a n e n t indeß n u r so lang die drains gehalten werden in good condition. Dieselbe openness des Boden, die die rains befähigt to wash o u t those soluble n o x i o u s substances, die sich lange angesammelt, erlaubt t h e m to carry off also s u c h die sich graduell bilden u n d so es in g e s u n d e m state zu h a l t e n ; b u t let this o p e n n e s s be m o r e or less impaired by a neglect of the drainage u n d der original state des land will again gradually return. Fällt der R e g e n so it enters the soil u n d displaces m e h r oder m i n d e r vollständig die in seinen P o r e n enthaltne Luft. This air either descends to the drains or rises into the a t m o s p h e r e . W e n n der rain ceases, the water, as it sinks, again leaves the pores of the u p p e r soil open, a n d fresh air consequently follows it. T h e air is in fact sucked in after the water, as t h e latter gradually passes down to the drains. So d u r c h die drainage der B o d e n supplied m i t renewed accèssions of fresh air. Ferner: W e n n so readily freed von der constant presence of water, wird der soil gradually drier, sweeter, looser u n d m o r e friable. Die h a r d l u m p s der stiff claylands m o r e or less disappear. They c r u m b l e m o r e freely, offer less resistance to the plough u n d sind so leichter u n d ö k o n o m i s c h e r worked. Der B o d e n wird a u c h erwärmt; w e n n voll von Wasser hält die large evaporation die surface stets cool u n d retards the growth der crops. Das Wasser entfernt, die evaporation ceases. D i e plants wachsen rascher u n d üppiger. Die air die descends u n d der Regen führen diese m i l d e T e m p e r a t u r in d e n u n t e r n soil. W e n n es die surface der earth erreicht, das Regenwasser gewöhnlich von derselben T e m p e r a t u r als die Luft w o d u r c h es gefallen u n d wie es sinkt w ä r m t es graduell den B o d e n durch d e n es passirt. Im S o m m e r wird der R e g e n selbst wärmer d u r c h den hotter soil auf den er fällt u n d bringt d e m subsoil diese größre W ä r m e . It t h u s conveys downwards a n d distributes m o r e generally a n d to a greater d e p t h the effect of the sun's rays. Daher, m i t d e m p e r m a n e n t state of moisture, the p e r m a n e n t s.g. coldness vieler soils verschwindet rapidly. D i e backwardness der crops in spring u n d die Spätheit der E r n d t e n im Herbst are less frequently c o m p l a i n e d of, d e n n in m a n y localities the drainage p r o d u c e s effects which are equivalent to a change ||47| of climate. In c o n s e q u e n c e of the drainage which has t a k e n place in the parish of Peterhead, in Aberdeenshire, during the last 20 years, the crops arrive at maturity 10 bis 14 Tage früher als früher u n d dasselbe zu e i n e m n o c h greater extent true in vielen other localities. Auf stiff clay lands, well adapted for wheat, wet weather im Herbst verzögert häufig das S ä e n von W i n t e r k o r n oder verhindert es ganz. An efficient drainage führt das Wasser so rasch ab as to bring the land in a workable state soon after t h e rain has ceased u n d so, to a cer-

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tain extent, it rescues the farmer von d e m fickle d o m i n i o n of the u n c e r t a i n seasons. Aber auf jeder Art von L a n d this removal of t h e superfluous water is equivalent to an actual deepening of the soil. D a s Wasser bleibt sonst n ä m lich in der Tiefe stehn, selbst w e n n die surface trocken. D e r subsoil so repels the approach der roots des grains, a n d compels t h e m to seek their n o u r i s h m e n t from the surface soil only. Das Wasser entfernt wird der B o d e n dry to a greater depth. D i e Luft dringt ein u n d verbreitet sich wherever the water has been. T h e roots n o w freely a n d safely descend into t h e almost virgin soil b e n e a t h . U n d n i c h t n u r h a b e n sie a larger space t h r o u g h which to send out their fibres in search of food, sondern in d e m bis d a h i n u n g e n i a l soil finden sie a store of substances, vielleicht n u r sparsam vorh a n d e n in d e m soil above, which the long c o n t i n u e d washing der rains, or the d e m a n d of frequent crops, m a y have removed, die aber w ä h r e n d der g a n z e n Zeit sich a c c u m u l i r t h a b e n im subsoil, wohin die roots of cultivated plants could rarely with safety descend. So nicht n u r V e r m i n d e r u n g der Productionskost d u r c h die drainage, sondern b e d e u t e n d vermehrtes Product in K o r n u n d G r a s ; wird gefunden daß dieß vermehrte produce allein h i n r e i c h e n d to repay the entire cost of t h o r o u g h draining in 2 oder 3 Jahren. Je tiefer daher die drains (provided the water have still a ready escape) desto grösser die Tiefe des B o d e n s der available g e m a c h t ist for t h e purposes of vegetable n u t r i t i o n . Tiefwurzelnde plants, wie L u z e r n e , often fail, selbst in moderately deep soils, weil Excess von Wasser oder G e g e n wart schädlicher S u b s t a n z e n , die deep drains would remove, prevents their natural descent in search of food. Selbst plants, wie wheat oder clover, die gewöhnlich ihre roots n i c h t so far senden, where the subsoil is s o u n d and dry, extend their fibres for 3 or m o r e feet in depth, in quest of m o r e a b u n d a n t n o u r i s h m e n t . Sie v e r m e h r e n so p e r m a n e n t die available d e p t h des Bodens. Ferner: It is n o t till the land is r e n d e r e d dry, daß Feld für die ü b r i g e n exertions. In wet soils, b o n e s , wood-ashes, rape-dust, nitrate of soda u n d andre artificial m a n u r e s are almost thrown away. Even lime exhibits b u t % of its fertilizing virtue, where water is allowed to stagnate in the soil. Ein efficient system of drainage is a necessary preparative o h n e welche alle andre Verbeßrungen u n m ö g l i c h . ... It has b e e n calculated, d a ß die drainage allein der lands die at present in arable culture in d i e s e m B o d e n (10 Millions of acres) ihr Product at o n c e v e r m e h r e n würde um 10 millions qrs der various kinds of grain now grown u p o n t h e m u n d a similar drainage der u n c u l tivated lands (15 Mill, acres) 20 Mill, qrs geben würde. 30 mill, qrs is = fast % unsrer Present c o n s u m p t i o n (65 millions of qrs) of all kinds of grain, so that were it possible to effect at o n c e this general drainage, a large superfluity of corn would by this i m p r o v e m e n t alone, be raised from the british soil. Diese general drainage k a n n a b e r n i c h t be effected in any given t i m e .

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Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 • Heft XIII In m a n y cases die individual resources der land owners are insufficient to m e e t the expense u n d solche calculations sollen h a u p t s ä c h l i c h stimuliren die exertions deren die Capital zu sparen h a b e n , oder d e n e n ein Ueberschuß von E i n k o m m e n erlaubt to invest an a n n u a l portion p e r m a n e n t l y in the soil, to drain 25 millions of acres zu £ 6 an acre würde 150 mill. I. St. kosten, a s u m equal, probably, d e m g a n z e n Capital gegenwärtig invested in farming the land. A b e r jezt b e h a u p t e t , d a ß das land can be efficiently drained m i t pipe tiles zu £ 3 per acre. Wer drains und sein eignes Land verbessert, confers a benefit to his neighbours also. In der vicinity von wet u n d boggy lands mists are frequent u n d rains häufiger on the edges of the m o o r , u n d mildews (Mehlthau) retard the maturity u n d often seriously injure the crop. Of u n d r a i n e d land, in general, the s a m e is true to a less extent, a n d the presence of one u n i m p r o v e d property in t h e centre of an enterprising district, m a y long withhold from the adjoining farms das ihr m o n e y u n d skill bringen würde. (So wahr daß wir alle von e i n a n d e r a b h ä n g e n u n d d a ß die kindly co-operation aller allein sichern k a n n that ample return of good, which the culture either of the dead earth or of the living intellect appears willing to confer u p o n our entire race p. 556) Jezt sieht m a n a u c h ein, wie leichte und sandige soils oder solche die lie on a sloping (abschüssige) surface sehr gewinnen k ö n n e n durch draining. W h e r e no o p e n outlet exists u n d e r a loamy or sandy surface \\48\ soil, any n o x i o u s m a t t e r s that either sink from above, or ooze up from b e n e a t h , will long r e m a i n in the subsoil u n d ihn m e h r oder m i n d e r u n g e s u n d m a c h e n für cultivirte Pflanzen. Solch an outlet g e m a c h t durch das establishment of drains u n d das which rises from ben e a t h will be arrested, while that which descends from above will escape. T h e rainwaters passing t h r o u g h will wash the whole soil also as deep as the b o t t o m of the drains, a n d the a t m o s p h e r i c air will a c c o m p a n y or follow t h e m . Dasselbe gilt für lands die so great a n a t u r a l inclination besitzen daß ihre Oberfläche raschen Ablauf des Wassers gestattet. Der subsoil wird dad u r c h nicht nothwendig dry, befreit von schädlichen S u b s t a n z e n oder leichtrer Lufterneurung zugänglich. Small feeders of water occasionally m a k e their way n e a r to the surface, a n d linger long in the subsoil before they m a k e their escape. D i e ß schon ein Uebel; aber wenn s u c h springs are impregnated m i t iron solche Ursache allein h i n r e i c h e n d to produce perfect barrenness. To bring such lands by degrees to a s o u n d a n d healthy state ... a system of drains or outlets b e n e a t h is often sufficient. It is to this lingering of u n w h o l e s o m e waters b e n e a t h , daß der origin vieler u n s r e r moorlands, besonders on higher grounds, in grossem M a a ß zuzuschreiben. A calcareous or a ferruginous spring sends up its waters into the subsoil. D e r slow access of air from above, or it m a y be the escape of air from the water itself, causes a m o r e or less ochrey deposit, which adheres to a n d gradually

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Aus James Finlay Weir Johnston: Lectures on agricultural chemistry and geology c e m e n t s t h e stones or earthy particles, a m o n g w h i c h t h e water is lodged. T h u s a layer of solid stone is gradually f o r m e d — t h e m o o r - b a n d p a n of m a n y districts—which n e i t h e r allows t h e roots of plants to d e s c e n d n o r t h e surface water to escape. Hopeless barrenness therefore, slowly e n s u e s . 5 Coarse grasses, mosses a n d h e a t h , grow a n d a c c u m u l a t e u p o n soils n o t originally inclined to n o u r i s h t h e m , a n d by w h i c h a better herbage h a d previously b e e n long sustained. Of such l a n d s m a n y tracts have b e e n r e c l a i m e d d u r c h breaking u p this m o o r - b a n d p a v e m e n t , aber solch i m p r o v e m e n t , w e n n n i c h t preceded von drainage, n u r temporär. N o t only is t h e drainage 10 equivalent to a change of climate in reference to t h e growth a n d ripening of plants, b u t it is so also in reference to t h e general health of the people, a n d to t h e n u m b e r and kind of t h e diseases d e n e n sie exponirt sind ... Dr W i l s o n h a t gezeigt, d a ß in d e m Distrikt von Kelso, daß fever a n d ague, die fast % der diseases der P o p u l a t i o n w ä h r e n d der 10 ersten Jahre (während der Perils ode der lezten 20 Jahre) bildeten, fast g a n z v e r s c h w u n d e n sind w ä h r e n d der lezten 10 Jahre, in Folge der general e x t e n s i o n of an efficient drainage t h r o u g h the country: w ä h r e n d gleichzeitig die fatality of disease, o d e r die comparative n u m b e r of d e a t h s von je 100 F ä l l e n ernstlicher K r a n k h e i t sich v e r m i n d e r t von 4.6 auf 2.59. ( 5 5 0 - 5 8 )

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Quellen. Wasser findet oft its way to great d e p t h s without passing d u r c h die superior strata u n d selbst w e n n diese absolut impervious sind d e m Regen, der auf sie fällt.

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Längst d e m country von A bis Β u n d b e s o n d e r s towards A t h e surface soil rests auf d e n u p p e r edges der strata. D i e b e d s 1, 2, 3 seien i m p e r v i o u s to water. So von d e m h ö c h s t e n P u n k t C wird das W a s s e r descend on either side gegen a u n d b. Bei b m a g es stagniren u n d e i n e n bog bilden, d e n n es k a n n n i c h t descend d u r c h das bed (2), das forms the b o t t o m des valley; dasselbe gilt von hollow c, wo a n d r e portions des water m a y rest. All this tract of country d a h e r will be m o r e or less cold, wet, u n d folglich u n p r o d u c -

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Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 · Heft XIII tiv. A b e r laßt das bed (4), dessen edge die surface at a bildet, be p o r o u s or p e r m e a b l e , d a n n das Wasser, das fallt auf d i e s e n spot oder w h i c h d e s c e n d s von d e n higher g r o u n d s a b o u t A u n d C, will readily sink a n d drain off, des c e n d i n g von a n a c h d along t h e inclined b e d till it finds an outlet in t h e latter direction. So k a n n a naturally dry a n d fertile valley, wie at a, exist in no great distance von m a r s h y u n d insalubrious wie b u n d c, u n d wo artificial drainage alone c a n develope t h e agricultural capabilities of t h e soil. So, obgleich in e i n e m Distrikt die rocks u n m i t t e l b a r u n t e r der surface kein W a s s e r e n t h a l t e n m ö g e n , yet ||49| other beds, perhaps at a great d e p t h b e n e a t h , m a y c o n t a i n m u c h . It is, in fact, this a c c u m u l a t i o n of water below impervious beds that gives rise to m a n y n a t u r a l springs, a n d enables us by artificial wells to bring water to t h e surface, often where t h e land would otherwise be wholly u n i n h a b i t a b l e . (560, 61) D i e ß Wasser in der Tiefe ready a n d willing to rise if a passage be o p e n e d to it. Such is t h e case m i t der folgenden site der City von L o n d o n .

1) M a r i n e Sand. 2) L o n d o n Clay, (almost impermeable.) 3) Plastic Clay and Sand. 4) Chalk, both full of water. D a s rainwater das fällt zwischen a u n d A einerseits u n d auf d e n plastischen clay zwischen d u n d Β andrerseits sinks into these 2 beds a n d rests in t h e m till it finds an escape. It c a n n o t rise d u r c h die great thickness of impervious clay on w h i c h L o n d o n u n d seine N a c h b a r s c h a f t steht, unless wo wells s u n k sind, wie a, b, c, d, sei es in d e n plastic clay (3) o d e r in d e n chalk (4), w h e n t h e water ascends copiously till it reaches t h e general level of t h e c o u n t r y a b o u t St Albans, t h e lowest part of t h e basin where t h e p e r m e a b l e beds form t h e surface. H e n c e im T h a l der T h e m s e , b e i b, it rises above t h e surface u n d forms a living spring, w ä h r e n d in a n d r e n P l ä t z e n wie a, c, d it h a s still to be p u m p e d up from a greater or less depth. It is t h e existence of water b e n e a t h t h e surface where t h e soils rest on i m p e r m e a b l e beds, a n d t h e known t e n d e n c y of these waters to rise when a boring is s u n k to t h e m , that have given rise to t h e establ i s h m e n t of Artesian wells ... T h e r e is probably no geological fact t h a t promises hereafter to be of m o r e practical value to m a n k i n d t h a n this, w h e n good g o v e r n m e n t u n d die arts of peace shall o b t a i n a p e r m a n e n t rest-

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Aus James Finlay Weir Johnston: Lectures on agricultural chemistry and geology ingplace in d e n countries die o h n e Irrigation hopelessly barren bleiben. Wo lebende Quellen in d e n sands A r a b i a n s , in d e n african deserts, in d e n parched plains von Südamerika, ist an island of p e r e n n i a l verdure u n d wo in solchen countries die m e n s c h l i c h e Arbeit verwendet in digging wells 5 u n d in raising water von i h n e n für artificial irrigation, dieselbe b e a u t y u n d fertility. It has recently be found t h a t the Oases of T h e b e s u n d Garba, in U p p e r Ejypt, where t h e blown s a n d s now hold a scarcely disputed d o m i n ion, are almost riddled m i t wells s u n k by the a n c i e n t Ejyptians, aber for the greater part long since filled u p . T h e reopening of such wells m i g h t restore 10 to these regions their long lost fertility, as the sinking of new ones by o u r easier and m o r e e c o n o m i c a l m e t h o d s m i g h t reclaim m a n y other wide tracts, and convert t h e m to the use of m a n . (563, 4)

Of ordinary ploughing.

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Destroying weeds u n d insects ... der i m m e d i a t e advantage sought by t h e farmer is the r e d u c t i o n of his soil to a state of m i n u t e division. In this state it is n o t only m o r e pervious to the roots of his corn, b u t it also gives a m o r e ready admission to the air a n d to water. So n ü t z l i c h wie der easy descent u n d escape des Wassers von der surface ist die permeability des soil für die natural powers of p r o d u c t i o n . U n t e r a n d r e n i m m e d i a t e benefits derived from the free access of the air into the soil, we m a y e n u m e r a t e the following: 1) die presence von oxygen in t h e soil nothwendig für die healthy germ i n a t i o n of all seeds, a n d it is chiefly because they are placed b e y o n d its reach, that those of m a n y plants r e m a i n b u r i e d for years without signs of life t h o u g h they freely sprout when again brought to the surface and exposed to the air. Ferner: die roots of living plants require a supply of oxygen um gesund zu bleiben. Dieser supply n u r zu erhalten, w e n n der B o d e n h i n r e i c h e n d offen ist to p e r m i t the free circulation of the air a m o n g its pores. 2) In Gegenwart der Luft geht die D e c o m p o s i t i o n der vegetable m a t ter des soil rascher vor sich. It is m o r e speedily resolved into the h u m i c , ulmic, a n d ||50| („ulmic a c i d " a d j . v o n u l m i n H u m u s s ä u r e . ) geic acids, i n t o water, carbonic acid a n d a m m o n i a , those forms of m a t t e r which are fitted to minister to the growth of new vegetable races. In the absence of the air also die substances i m m e d i a t e l y p r o d u c e d by it are frequently u n w h o l e some to the plant u n d daher fitted to injure, or materially to retard, its growth. 3) W h e n the oxygen of the air is m o r e or less excluded, the vegetable m a t t e r of the soil takes this e l e m e n t from s u c h of the earthy s u b stances as it is capable of decomposing, a n d reduces t h e m to a lower state of oxydation. Verwandelt so das red or per-oxide of iron into t h e prot-oxide

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Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 · Heft XIII u n d acts ebenso auf die oxides of m a n g a n e s e . It also takes their oxygen from the sulphates (as from gypsum) a n d converts t h e m into sulphurets. These lower oxides of iron a n d m a n g a n e s e oft injurious to vegetation u n d einer der n ü t z l i c h e n Erfolge des Pflügens oder auf andre W e i s e Lockerns des B o d e n s to allow the free admission of a t m o s p h e r i c air, daß die n a t u r a l 5 p r o d u c t i o n dieser oxides entweder z u m grossen Theil prävenirt, oder daß, w e n n producirt, sie rasch b e c o m e harmless again by the absorption of an additional dose of oxygen. 4) W e n i g e soils e n t h a l t e n n i c h t eins oder das a n d r e der c o m p o u n d m i n e r a l substances woraus die crystalline rocks bestehn, wie H o r n b l e n d e , mica, felspar etc in a d e c o m p o s i n g state. F r o m 10 these minerals, as they d e c o m p o s e , the soil, a n d therefore that plants that grow in it, derive new supplies of several dieser u n o r g a n i s c h e n S u b s t a n z e n die nöthig sind für die gesunde N a h r u n g der cultivated crops. D i e fortdauernde D e c o m p o s i t i o n dieser m i n e r a l fragments is aided durch d e n Access von Luft u n d besonders by the carbonic acid which the air contains. A 15 state of porosity oder a frequent exposure to air günstig d e m W a c h s t h u m der Pflanzen, by presenting to its roots a larger a b u n d a n c e n o t only of organic b u t also of inorganic food. 5) Die P r o d u c t i o n von A m m o n i a u n d nitric acid im soil rascher u n d in larger quantity, je öfter das L a n d is t u r n e d by the plough, broken by the clodcrusher, or stirred up by the harrow. 20 (Egge) Whatever a m o u n t either of these c o m p o u n d s the surface soil is capable of extracting from the atmosphere, t h e entire quantity t h u s absorbed so grösser u n d its distribution m o r e uniform, je vollständiger der whole soil has b e e n exposed to its influence. 6) W e n n so every where pervious to the air, t h e roots also can penetrate the soil in every direction. N o n e of the 25 food a r o u n d t h e m is shut up from the approach of their n u m e r o u s fibres, n o r are they prevented, by the presence of n o x i o u s substances, from throwing o u t branches in every direction. A deep soil is n o t absolutely necessary for the production of valuable crops. A well pulverised a n d mellow soil, to which the air and the roots have every where ready access, will, t h o u g h 30 shallow, less frequently disappoint the hopes of the h u s b a n d m a n , t h a n where a greater depth prevails, less p e r m e a b l e to the air u n d less wholesome to the growing roots. ( 5 6 7 - 9 )

Of subsoil ploughing

and forking.

A b e r im Allgemeinen d o c h a deep soil sehr superior in value to a shallow soil of the same n a t u r e . ... in m a n y cases the available qualities of deep soils bis jezt vernachlässigt. Das general principle, daß je tiefer der B o d e n desto besser er k a n n be cropped without the risk of exhaustion u n d desto

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Aus James Finlay Weir Johnston: Lectures on agricultural chemistry and geology grösser die variety of crops, deep as well as shallowrooted ... A soil is virtually shallow where a few inches of p o r o u s earth, often t u r n e d by the plough, rest u p o n a subsoil, hard, stiff u n d almost impervious ... a subsoil m u s t be dried, o p e n e d u p , mellowed by the air, a n d r e n d e r e d at once pervious u n d 5 wholesome to the roots of plants, before it can be m a d e available for t h e growth of corn. D i e ß zu bewirken, after draining, d u r c h d e n use des subsoil plough, an i n s t r u m e n t equalled only (at present) by the fork, for giving a real, practical, a n d m o n e y v a l u e to stiff u n d h i t h e r t o almost worthless clayey subsoils. It is an auxiliary b o t h to the surface plough u n d to t h e 10 drain. 1) Der surface p l o u g h t u r n s over a n d loosens the soil zur Tiefe von 6 - 1 0 inches, der subsoil plough tears o p e n u n d loosens ihn weiter to a further depth of 8 or 10 inches. So erhält das water a more easy descent, u n d die air penetrates u n d die roots m o r e readily m a k e their way a m o n g t h e particles of the undersoil. So an auxiliary to the c o m m o n plough u n d as15 sists it in aerating u n d mellowing t h e soil. 2) auxiliary to the drain. Fehler aber oft daß m a n das d r a i n n i c h t vorher angewandt. T h e s a m e e n d which is gained durch d e n subsoil plough a u c h attained durch die fork. W i t h this simple three-pronged i m p l e m e n t der subsoil loosened or t u r n e d over to a depth of 10 or 12 inches after the top soil has b e e n t a k e n off a n d thrown 20 forward by the c o m m o n spade. ... loosens the subsoil even m o r e c o m pletely als der subsoil plough. ( 5 6 9 - 5 7 1 )

Of deep ploughing and trenching. Sein Characteristicum to bring up to the surface and to m i x | | 5 1 | with the upper soil a portion of that which h a s lain long at a considerable depth, a n d 25 has b e e n m o r e or less u n d i s t u r b e d . Bekannt, d a ß schwerer Regenfall sinks in den soil u n d carries down m i t sich such readily soluble substances als er auf der Oberfläche findet. A b e r a u c h a n d r e m i n d e r lösbare S u b s t a n z e n , slowly u n d gradually, finden i h r e n way in d e n subsoil u n d bleiben dort m e h r oder less p e r m a n e n t . D a r u n t e r gypsum u n d die d e m W a c h s t h u m der 30 Pflanzen n ü t z l i c h e n Silicates of p o t a s h u n d soda. Sie naturally a c c u m u l a t e u n t e r d e m reach des gewöhnlichen Pfluges. Insoluble substances likewise slowly sink. So lime, when laid u p o n or ploughed into the land. So clay wenn mixed m i t a surface soil of sand or peat. Alle descend bis ausser d e m Bereich des c o m m o n plough u n d schneller w e n n das land is laid down in 35 grass als w e n n sie constantly brought to the surface again in arable culture. So geschiehts, daß n a c h d e m der surface soil exhausted von einer oder der andren c o m p o u n d s die die crops require, an a m p l e supply davon n o c h im subsoil present, obgleich, u n t i l t u r n e d up, werthlos. So ein P ä c h t e r m i t al-

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Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 • Heft XIII lern Dünger, lime etc n u r mittelmässige crops. Pflügt n u r zu 3 oder 4 inches. Der folgende zu 7 oder 8. He t h u s brings to t h e surface the lime a n d the a c c u m u l a t e d m a n u r e s which have naturally sunk, a n d which his predecessor has permitted J a h r n a c h J a h r to bury themselves in his subsoil. He t h u s has a new, often a rich, a n d almost always a virgin soil to work u p o n - o n e which from being long buried, m a y require a winter's exposure a n d mellowing in the air, die aber in d e n m e i s t e n Fällen zahlt für die Extracost. D a s deep ploughing, das zu 14 inches descends, oder das trenching das brings up a new soil von der depth of 20 or 30 inches n u r an extension of the s a m e practice. So n e u e r B o d e n für die Pflanzen zu i h r e n W u r z e l n gebracht, a u c h i h n e n afforded a deeper u n d m o r e o p e n subsoil t h r o u g h which their fibres m a y proceed in every direction in search of food. D o c h full benefit erst after draining, for it matters n o t how deep the loosened a n d p e r m e a b l e soils m a y be, if the a c c u m u l a t i o n of water prevent the roots from descending. ... Aber a u c h möglich daß der deeper soil m a y c o n t a i n some substance decidedly n o x i o u s to vegetation. ... Der subsoil plough u n d der drain sind die most certain available r e m e d i e s für such a state of the subsoil. In m a n y localities, however, the exposure of such an u n d e r s o i l to a winter's frost, or to a s u m m e r fallow, will so far improve a n d mellow it, as to r e n d e r it capable of being safely m i x e d with the surface soil. Unless, however, this mellowing be effected at once, a n d before a d m i x t u r e a long t i m e m a y elapse ere the entire soil attain to its m o s t perfect condition. (Der M a r q u i s von Tweeddale, in his h o m e farm at Yester, has raised his l a n d in value 8 x (von 5 zu 40 sh. per acre) by draining u n d deep ploughing. After draining, the fields of stiff clay, with streaks of sand in the subsoil, are t u r n e d over to a depth of 12 or 14 inches, by 2 ploughs (2 horses each) following one another, the u n d e r 6 inches being thrown on the top. In this state it is left to the winter's frost, when it falls to a yellow marly looking soil. D a n n ploughed again to a d e p t h von 9 oder 10 inches, w o d u r c h half t h e original soil is brought again to the surface. By a cross ploughing this is m i x e d with the new soil, after which the field is prepared in the u s u a l way for turnips.) In m a n c h e n districts m e h r schädliche Insects. Diese, ihre eggs oder larvae generally bury themselves in the u n d i s t u r b e d soil, u n m i t t e l b a r ausser d e m ordinary reach des Pflugs. W e n n sie gänzlich ungestört bleiben w ä h r e n d der Z u b e r e i t u n g des Bodens, some species r e m a i n in a d o r m a n t state u n d der s u b s e q u e n t crop m a y in a great m e a s u r e escape. Pflüge das L a n d tiefer als gewöhnlich u n d you bring t h e m all to the surface. G e schiehts im Herbst, u n d leave your land u n s o w n u n d der frost of a severe winter m a y kill the greater part, so that your crops m a y thereafter grow in safety. But cover t h e m up again with your winter corn, or let this deep ploughing be d o n e in the spring, a n d you bring all these insects within the

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Aus James Finlay Weir Johnston: Lectures on agricultural chemistry and geology reach of t h e early sun, a n d t h u s call t h e m to life in s u c h n u m b e r s as almost to ensure t h e destruction of your c o m i n g crop. ( 5 7 1 - 7 4 )

Improvement of the soil by mixing.

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Einige soils so offen defective in c o m p o s i t i o n d a ß der gewöhnlichste observer sehn k a n n wie sie zu verbessern d u r c h m e c h a n i c a l a d m i x t u r e s of various kinds. Peaty soils h a b e n oft zu viel vegetable m a t t e r ; a m i x t u r e of earthy substances of almost any c o m m o n kind verbessert. So g e b e n wir consistence d e n sandy soils d u r c h a d m i x t u r e von clay u n d o p e n n e s s u n d porosity d e n stiff clays d u r c h die a d d i t i o n von Sand. ... F e h l t d e m clay

ζ. Β. aber s o m e necessary c o n s t i t u e n t of a fertile soil, so k a n n der S a n d zwar die physical alteration hervorbringen, aber s o m e o t h e r s u b s t a n c e d a n n nöthig u m d e n n ö t h i g e n c h e m i c a l change z u bewirken. D i e Z u m i schung von clay zu peaty u n d sandy soils bewirken n i c h t n u r den physical change, d e n B o d e n firmer oder solider zu m a c h e n , sondern bewirken a u c h 15 c h e m i s c h e n c h a n g e ; sie e r h a l t e n v o m clay s o m e der m i n e r a l substances die sie früher c o n t a i n e d in less a b u n d a n c e . D i e a d d i t i o n von m a r l to t h e l a n d wirkt a u c h in a similar twofold capacity. M a c h t claylands m o r e o p e n u n d friable, a n d to all soils brings an a d d i t i o n of carbonate u n d generally of p h o s p h o r a t e of lime, b e i d e absolut nöthig zur g e s u n d e n Vegetation. A b e r 20 b e i m Pächter i m m e r die Frage des Profits ... a larger r e t u r n m a y be obt a i n e d by t h e i n v e s t m e n t of m o n e y in p u r c h a s i n g new t h a n in improving old lands. It is quite true that t h e country at large is no gainer by t h e m e r e transfer of t h e land from [|52| the h a n d s of A to those of Β u n d der sicher der verdienstlichste Bürger, der, by e x p e n d i n g his m o n e y in improving t h e 10

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soil adds to the b r e a d t h of t h e land, in causing it to yield a larger p r o d u c e . Yet it is n o t less true t h a t t h e e m p l o y m e n t of individual capital in s u c h imp r o v e m e n t is n o t to be expected generally to take place unless it be m a d e to appear that such an i n v e s t m e n t is likely to be as profitable as any o t h e r within t h e r e a c h of its possessor. ...

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Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 • Heft XIII alternate hills von Sand (3) u n d hollows u n d flats of clay (4), m a n y spots wo diese b e i d e n kinds of soil n a h b e i e i n a n d e r verbessert werden k ö n n t e n d u r c h m u t u a l a d m i x t u r e at a cost of l a b o u r which the alteration in der quality des lands m i g h t be well expected to repay. In dieser Lage ein b e trächtlicher Theil der Grafschaft D u r h a m u n d besonders die neighbour5 h o o d von Castle Eden, wo a cold, stiff, at present oft poorly productive clay rests u p o n red, richlooking, loamy sand, in m a n y places easily accessible. In this wie in vielen a n d r e n localities, die G e l d i n t e r e s s e n t e n des L a n d e s often rest satisfied that their fields are i n c a p a b l e of such i m p r o v e m e n t or would give no a d e q u a t e return for the outlay required, - Ausser solchen gen10 eral a d m i x t u r e s für die Verbesserung von L a n d , the geological formation of certain districts places within the r e a c h of its intellegent farmers m e a n s of i m p r o v e m e n t of a special kind ... thus b o t h in E u r o p e a n d in A m e r i c a the green-sand soils are found to be very fertile, u n d die sandy portion of its form a t i o n oft in easy distance of the stiff clays of the gault u n d die poor soils 15 der chalk, with either of which they m i g h t be m i x e d with m o s t beneficial effects. D i e soils die rest auf d e m new u n d selbst some parts des old red sandstone, are in like m a n n e r oft in an available distance of beds of red m a r l of a very fertilizing character, while in the granitic, a n d trap districts the materials of which these rocks consist may, by a j u d i c i o u s a d m i x t u r e , 20 be m a d e materially to benefit some of the n e i g h b o u r i n g soils. ( 5 7 5 - 8 )

Improvement of the Soil by Chemical means. Die c h e m i c a l m e t h o d s of improving the soil b e r u h n auf folgenden Principien: 1) Die Pflanzen erhalten von a fertile soil a variable proportion ihrer organic food, of their nitrogen wahrscheinlich d e n greatest part. 2) Inorga25 n i s c h e substances, die sie n u r v o m B o d e n erhalten. 3) Verschiedne species von Pflanzen erheischen a special supply of different kinds of inorganic food, or of the same kinds, in different proportions. 4) Die inorganic substance, m a g E i n B o d e n a b u n d a n t oder deficient sein, another soil in another; u n d indeß daher this or that plant will prefer to grow on t h e o n e or 30 the other accordingly. D a r a u f b e r u h t die ganze K u n s t of improving d e n soil by c h e m i c a l m e a n s . Es giebt 3 distinct m e t h o d s of operation by which a soil m a y be improved: 1) By removing from it s o m e noxious ingredient. D i e ß n u r möglich durch draining, providing an outlet by which it m a y escape oder wodurch der R e g e n oder water applied in artificial irrigation m a y 35 wash it away. 2) D u r c h changing the n a t u r e or state of c o m b i n a t i o n of s o m e n o x i o u s ingredient, die wir n i c h t soon remove k ö n n e n im obigen W e g ; oder of some inert ingredient, which, in its existing condition, is unfit to

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Aus James Finlay Weir Johnston: Lectures on agricultural chemistry and geology b e c o m e food for plants. D i e ß sind rein c h e m i s c h e Processe u n d wir setzen sie respectively in practice w h e n we add l i m e to peaty soils, or to s u c h as a b o u n d in t h e sulphate or other hurtful salts of iron, w h e n by a d m i t t i n g t h e air into the subsoil we c h a n g e the prot-oxide into the per-oxide of iron, or 5 when by adding certain k n o w n c h e m i c a l c o m p o u n d s we p r o d u c e similar beneficial c h e m i c a l alterations u p o n other c o m p o u n d s already existing in the soil. 3) By adding to the soil those substances which are fitted to b e come the food of plants. ... dieß geschieht d u r c h das eigentliche manuring the soil, obgleich wir u n a b l e in vielen cases to say, ob das von u n s h i n z u g e 10 fügte promotes vegetation by actually feeding t h e plant and entering into his substance, or only by preparing food for it. G r u n d zu glauben, d a ß m a n y substances, wie Potasche, Soda etc act in several capacities, n o w preparing food for the plant in the soil, now bearing it into the living circulation, a n d now actually entering into the perfect substance of the growing 15 vegetable. ... Saline oder mineral manures, Vegetable Manures, Animal Manures. (579-581)1 |53| At the foot of M o u n t E t n a , whenever a crevice (Riß, Spalte) appears in the old lavas, a b r a n c h or j o i n t of an Opuntia (Cactus O p u n t i a - E u r o p e a n Indian-fig) is stuck in, w h e n the roots i n s i n u a t e themselves into every 20 fissure, expand, a n d finally break up the lava into fragments. These plants are t h u s n o t only t h e m e a n s of p r o d u c i n g a soil, b u t they yield also m u c h fruit, which is sold as a refreshing fruit t h r o u g h o u t all the towns of Sicily. (633, 4) Permanent Pasture or Meadow. W h e n land is laid down to p e r m a n e n t grass, it undergoes a series of c h a n g e s : a) W e n n grass seeds are sown for t h e purpose of forming a p e r m a n e n t sward (Rasen), a rich crop of grass is o b t a i n e d during the first, u n d vielleicht a u c h das 2te Jahr, b u t n a c h 3 oder 4 J a h r e n das produce lessens u n d der value der pasture diminishes. Die plants gradually die u n d leave blank spaces, a n d these again are slowly filled up by t h e 30 sprouting of seeds of other species, which have either lain long b u r i e d in the soil or have b e e n brought t h i t h e r by the winds. Dieser first change, fast i m m e r bemerkt in fields of artificial grass, arises theils von d e m c h a n g e des Bodens selbst during t h e few years the grass seeds were sown, u n d z u m Theil von der species von grass selected n o t being s u c h as the soil, at any 35 time, could p e r m a n e n t l y sustain, b) W h e n this deterioration, arising from the dying out of the sown grasses, seinen u t m o s t point erreichte, t h e sward begins gradually to improve, n a t u r a l grasses suited to the soil spring up in the blank places u n d J a h r z u J a h r das p r o d u c e b e c o m e s greater u n d t h e land yields a m o r e valuable pasture. D i e ß aber erreicht wieder e i n e n 40 W e n d e p u n k t , wenn vielleicht a u c h erst n a c h A b l a u f einer lease oder selbst 25

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Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 · Heft XIII für die lifetime eines single observer, c) This again is owing to a new change which has c o m e over the soil. It has b e c o m e , in s o m e degree, exhausted of those substances die nöthig sind to the growth of the m o r e valuable grasses; less nutritive species, therefore, a n d s u c h as are less willingly e a t e n by cattle, take their place. ... t h e rich grass lands of our fathers are 5 found now in too m a n y cases to yield a herbage of little value. H e n c e , also, in nearly all countries, o n e of the first steps of improving agriculture is to plough o u t the old u n d failing pastures, u n d entweder p e r m a n e n t sie in arable fields zu verwandeln, oder n a c h a few years cropping u n d m a n u r i n g , again to lay t h e m down to grass. But w h e n thus ploughed out, the surface 10 soil u p o n old grass l a n d is found to have u n d e r g o n e a remarkable alteration. W h e n sown with grass seeds, it m a y have b e e n a stiff, m o r e or less grey, blue, or yellow clay—when ploughed out it consists to a certain depth of a rich brown, generally light and friable vegetable m o u l d . Or when laid down it m a y have been a pale-coloured, red, or yellow sand or loam. In this 15 case the surface soil is still, w h e n t u r n e d u p , of a rich brown colour, it is lighter only a n d m o r e sandy t h a n in the former case, a n d rests u p o n a subsoil of land or l o a m instead of o n e of clay. It is from the p r o d u c t i o n of this change that the i m p r o v e m e n t caused by laying l a n d down to grass principally results. ( 7 4 8 - 5 0 ) We c a n n o t tell how often different kinds of grass 20 succeed each other u p o n the soil, b u t we know that the final rich sward which covers a grass field when it has reached its m o s t valuable condition, is the result of a long series of n a t u r a l changes which t i m e only can bring about. (753)

Improvement of the Soil by the Planting of trees. Seit lang beobachtet von practical m e n , d a ß w e n n a r m e , d ü n n e , u n p r o d u c tive soils für some t i m e bedeckt m i t Holz\wood, ihre quality materially improves. In the intervals of the open forest they will p r o d u c e a valuable herbage, or when cleared of trees they m a y for some t i m e be m a d e to yield profitable crops of corn. (755) T h e m a i n cause of this i m p r o v e m e n t besteht in d e m n a t u r a l m a n u r i n g m i t recent vegetable matter, to which the soil year by year is so long subjected. Trees u n t e r s c h e i d e n sich von grasses n u r darin, daß die leztren enrich the soil b o t h by their root u n d by their leaves, the former m a n u r e its surface only by the leaves which they shed. T h e leaves of trees, like those of the grasses, c o n t a i n m u c h inorganic matter, a n d this when annually spread u p o n the ground slowly adds to the d e p t h as well as to the richness of the soil. ... deeprooted trees verbessern d e n B o d e n m e h r als such, die gleich der Esche, spread themselves along at the

316

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35

Aus James Finlay Weir Johnston: Lectures on agricultural chemistry and geology depth sometimes of a few inches only, a n d t h u s draw their s u s t e n a n c e from the surface soil itself. ... U n t e r d e n overshadowing b r a n c h e s eines forest, der soil v o m W i n d geschüzt u n d dieser protection schreibt Sprengel so viel zu von d e m rapid i m p r o v e m e n t so generally experienced where land is covered m i t wood. T h e winds b e a r along particles of earthy matter, which they deposit again in ||54| still forests; and t h u s gradually form a soil even o n the m o s t n a k e d places. ( 7 5 5 - 8 )

317

? Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 · Heft XIII

Alison: Nachtrag. If a boundless store of subsistence is provided for m a n k i n d in the multiplication of fish in incalculable quantities in the arctic region, whether of the n o r t h e r n or the southern h e m i s p h e r e , a progress is going forward in the milder regions of the Pacific, not less fitted in the e n d to extend the m e a n s of h u m a n subsistence, and multiply the fields of h u m a n industry. A m i d s t t h e verdant slopes a n d s u n n y isles of t h e Pacific; in regions blessed with perpetual spring, and in an ocean which is hardly ever ruffled by a tempest u o u s gale, the process of creation is going on with ceaseless activity; a n d myriads of insects, hardly visible to t h e h u m a n eye, are preparing b e n e a t h the glassy wave, a future c o n t i n e n t of vast extent for the h a b i t a t i o n of m a n . T h e whole islands which stretch from the western coast of South A m e r i c a a n d the foot of the A n d e s , to the shores of Australia, a n d t h e Alps of N e w Z e a l a n d a n d form as it were a z o n e of paradise a r o u n d the globe, are, with a very few exceptions, composed of coral reefs, some of which are still nearly on the level of the original elements in which they were formed, while others have b e e n raised up into islands and m o u n t a i n s by the force of central heat. T h e intervening ocean is in great part filled with these infant islands a n d continents, which are slowly b u t certainly rising to the surface of the water, a n d which, from being altogether invisible except in a ruffled sea, constitute the chief danger of navigation in those heavenly climates. As soon as the little architects of these s u b m a r i n e c o n t i n e n t s have brought their fabric to the surface of the water, they t e r m i n a t e their labours, a n d transfer elsewhere the ceaseless activity of their tribes; the o c e a n labourers have d o n e their work; terrestrial agents a n d a n i m a l s take the embryo contin e n t from the tenants of the deep. Subterraneous fires elevate some of t h e aquatic strata into lofty m o u n t a i n s , while others, the destined plains of the world, are subjected to a process m o r e slow, b u t in the e n d n o t less efficacious. I n n u m e r a b l e aquatic birds perch at intervals on the tiny s u m m i t s

318

5

10

15

20

25

Aus Archibald Alison: The principles of population (Nachtrag)

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

which rise above the flood, a n d by their droppings c o m m e n c e the formation of earth; m a r i n e plants clasp r o u n d t h e projecting points, a n d fill up the n u m e r o u s cavities of the coral reefs; the ceaseless agitation of t h e ocean wafts to t h e m the b r a n c h e s , leaves, a n d vegetable r e m a i n s which are floating a b o u t in those tepid seas, or have b e e n washed from the shores of their n u m e r o u s islands. Successive generations of m a r i n e a n i m a l s leave their r e m a i n s on its surface, a n d at length the n a k e d rock assumes the consistency of an earthy c o n t i n e n t . T h e transition is m a d e from m a r i n e to terrestrial formation. T h e process of terrestrial creation t h e n c o m m e n c e s ; the tribes of s e m i m a r i n e plants first begin to flourish on t h e surface hardly yet emerged from the d e e p ; n e x t a salt m a r s h appears filled with the r a n k luxuriance of tropical vegetation, a n d in the course of ages it b e c o m e s filled with the h u g e lizards, crocodiles, saurian a n d aquatic a n i m a l s of infant existence; and they, in their t u r n , after having r u n their span of life, contrib u t e to swell the a m p h i b i o u s r e m a i n s which are conspiring in the ceaseless work of creation. F r o m t h e m i n g l e d a n i m a l a n d vegetable deposit of successive generations, an alluvial soil is finally formed, slowly the solid earth rises above the level of its a q u e o u s cradle, t h e t e n a n t s of the deep forsake a region no longer fitted for their h a b i t a t i o n , the dove appears with t h e olive b r a n c h from the abodes of terrestrial life, a green turf springs up on t h e surface of the rich alluvial soil which so m a n y ages, a n d the c o m b i n e d efforts of so m a n y generations of ani||55|mated life when living, a n d their r e m a i n s when dead, have c o n t r i b u t e d to form; flights of birds from the nearest islands in quest of their prey bring the seeds of the adjacent land suited to the soil; the grassy surface is e n a m e l l e d with the flowers and the colour of spring; trees take root on the fertile expanse, a n d , from the a n n u a l fall of their leaves, a rich deposit of vegetable earth is rapidly formed, on w h i c h the harvests and the pastures of future n a t i o n s are destined to be reared. ... It is impossible to form an estimate of the extent of the surface, which, in a climate enjoying a perpetual spring, is t h u s preparing for h u m a n habitation; b u t if we cast our eyes on the globe, a n d survey the vast z o n e of islands in the Pacific, m a r k i n g the direction where this s u b m a r i n e c o n t i n e n t is forming, it may safely be affirmed, that it will o n e day, to all h u m a n app e a r a n c e , equal, if not exceed, in expanse, the vast surface of the asiatic continent. At least 20 millions of r j m i l e s , capable of containing 5 X the whole present i n h a b i t a n t s of the globe in affluence u n d plenty, are there in the course of creation, a n d slowly b u t certainly acquiring consistency in the depths of the ocean, to rise by alluvial formation above the level of t h e deep, or be elevated by the awful power of internal fire into the Alps a n d the A n d e s of a future world. O n e m o s t remarkable circumstance deserves particular attention, in t h e formation of the great terrestrial regions of t h e

319

Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 • Heft XIII southern hemisphere. M a l t e Brun has told us that all the coralreefs and all the chains of m o u n t a i n s r u n from n o r t h to s o u t h t h r o u g h the whole of these latitudes. But the winds blow with as invariable regularity, a n d t h e currents set in from east to west. T h u s a certain provision is m a d e for the deposit of the ocean being intercepted on the n u m e r o u s bars which insect 5 labour has shot across its wide expanse, a n d terrestrial formation assumes the character of long promontories, delicious islands, a n d narrow strips of land, intersected and s u r r o u n d e d by frequent c h a n n e l s of the sea. Such, accordingly, is precisely the character of the i m m e n s e archipelago of Eastern Oceanica. H o w beautiful the provision thus m a d e for the creation of l a n d 10 in s u c h a form as will t e m p e r the fiery heats of these tropical regions by t h e cool breezes of the adjacent Ocean. P r o m p t e d by a mysterious instinct, the coral insects direct the labours of their successive generations in the very way calculated to form future and delightful abodes for civilized m a n ; a n d while performing their little functions in life, are laying the foundations of 15 straits exceeding the Bosphorus, a n d seas outstripping the Aegean, in fragrance a n d beauty, (t. II, 4 9 6 - 5 0 3 . ) 1

320

Aus The Economist. Juni 1851

I56| Economist. 28 June 1851. Stand der Zuckerproduction 1828 nach der lezten Ausgabe von McCulloch's Commercial Dictionary, (p. 1485) 5

1) British Possessions.

2) Foreign freelabour produce

Tons Westindies 210,500 10

Mauritius British India

18,000 7,800

3) Foreign Slave labour,

Tons Java

5,000

Mauritius, 10,000 Siam, etc Beet Root, 7,000 Europe

Tons Cuba und Portorico Brazil

65,000

Dutch Guiana 10,000 +

28,000

Lousiana

20,000

French Colonies 50,000 Danish und Swedish

15

tons

10,000

236,300 22,000 Alles zusammen 441,300 tons. Dagegen

183,000.

Production of Sugar in 1850. 1) Free labour.

20

25

30

2) Slave Labour.

tons 260,000

British Possessions Foreign free labour: Java 90,000 Manilla, Siam und China 30,000 United States Maple Sugar 70,000 French Westindies und Bourbon 60,000 Europe beet-root 190,000 Total of free labour sugar 700,000

tons Cuba 250,000 Porto Rico 46,000 Brazil 110,000 Dutch Westindies 13,000 Danish 8,000 Lousiana United States 124,000 zusammen 440,000 551,600

3) Grand Total.

1,251,000

(p. 698)

A u s diesen Z a h l e n folgt: 1) Die T o t a l z u c k e r p r o d u k t i o n in der Welt gewachsen in 22 J a h r e n von 441,300 tons auf 1,251,000 tons. 2) W ä h r e n d 1828 n u r 22,000 tons von 441,000 d u r c h free labour producirt waren, 1850 dagegen 700,000 von 1,251,000. 1828 n u r 5 % der g a n z e n Z u c k e r p r o d u c t i o n

321

Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 · Heft XIII of free labour Zucker u n d 9 5 % aus slavelabour sugar 1850 dagegen 5 6 % n u n free labour sugar u n d n u r 44 % of slavelabour. In k e i n e m L a n d die Prod u c t i o n in solchem Verhältniß gewachsen als in Java, M a n i l l a u n d Siam. (I.e.) Irische Bevölkerung.

5

N a c h d e m official return die Z a h l der E m i g r a n t s von Irland 1850: 207,853. 1 8 4 3 - 1 8 4 7 Der a n n u a l average der emigration 69,687; 1 8 4 7 - 1 8 5 0 : 204,651. M a n k a n n r e c h n e n von 1 8 4 0 - 1 8 5 0 : 1,188,051. 1841 war die Bevölkerung von Irland 8,175,124; 1831 n u r 7,767,401, 4,5 per Jahr. 1850 die p o p u l a t i o n wahrscheinlich n i c h t viel ü b e r 7,000,000. (701.) N a c h d e m 10 Fourth Annual Report der Poorlaw Commissioners, just (Ende Juni) presented to Parliament: Rate of Mortality in Workhouses per 1,000 Inmates weekly: Date.

Maximum.

3 6 8 30 5 3 23 14 15

25.3

April 1847 November 1847 Januar 1848 September 1848 May 1849 November 1849 March December 1850 March 1851

Minimum. 15 5.0

11.8. 2.6 12.4 2.4 2.4 6.4

H ä t t e die R a t e v o m 3 März 1847 zu 25.3 wöchentlich fortgedauert, so alle 1000 gestorben vor d e m E n d e von 10 m o n t h s , (p. 700) |

322

20

6.1

25

Aus The Economist. Juli 1851

|57| The Economist. July 5.1851. Frankreich

und

England.

1835 5 Total importations of all kinds Total exportations:

10

1850

frs

£

fr.

£St.

760,700,000 834,400,000 1,595,100,000

30,280,000 33,376,000 63,656,000

2,565,000,000

102,600,000

Der increase also 969,900,000 f. oder 38,944,000 I. Also für Volk von fast 40 Mill, giebt k a u m 11. auf d e n Kopf der g a n z e n Bevölkerung. Commerce of the United Kingdom. 1835 und 1850. 1835. f

15

20

Imports Export of British Exports of foreign Produce

manufacture

48,911,000 47,372,000 12,797,000 £ 109,080,000

1850. 100,460,000 £ 71,359,000 21,893,000 £ 193,712,000

Net Increase von £ 84,632,000. England m i t seinen 28 millions W a c h s t h u m at the rate of 3 I. per h e a d . Aber von diesen 15 J a h r e n bis 1842 strikte Protection in England.

323

Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 • Heft XIII Commerce of France 1842 und 1850. 1842.

Total Imports Total Exports

1850.

fcs

£

fcs

£ St.

1,142,000,000 940,300,000 2,082,300,000

45,680,000 37,612,000 83,292,000

2,565,000,000

102,600,000

5

Commerce of the United Kingdom. 1842 und 1850. 1842. £

1850.

Imports 65,204,000 100,460,000 Exports of British Manufacture 47,381,000 71,359,000 Exports of foreign produce 13,584,000 21,893,000 126,169,000 193,712,000 ( A n n u a l F i n a n c e A c c o u n t s 1843 p. 128 u n d 1851 p. 122)

10

D e r N e t Increase von F r a n k r e i c h d a h e r von 1 8 4 2 - 1 8 5 0 : 19,308,000 1., ungefähr 10 sh. per Kopf der g a n z e n Bevölkerung. D e r Zuwachs von England 67,543,000 /. oder 2 / . 8 sh. per Kopf. A b e r die Exports in F r a n c e still kept n a c h d e m old official value u n d nicht n a c h d e m real oder declared value. Setzen wir für E n g l a n d a u c h den official value so k o m m t 1842 für Exports von brittischen W a a r e n 100,260,000 u n d 1850: 175,416,000 u n d if das 1842 erhaltne war n o c h Total 179,048,000 /., für 1850: 297,769,000 /. G i e b t e i n e n increase von 118,721,000/. in 8 J a h r e n statt 19,308,000 in F r a n c e , der former at the rate von m e h r als 4 /. per h e a d . (726, 7)

15

Irische

20

Bevölkerung.

D i e ß m a l giebt er die official r e t u r n s , »we frankly acknowledge, that, after m a k i n g the most liberal allowance for emigration, we were n o t prepared for the dismal tale which the actual e n u m e r a t i o n of the People of Ireland u n folds :«

25

Abstract of the Irish Census in 1841 und 1851. Houses. Inhabited. uninhabited, built building Total

324

1841

1851

1,328,839 52,208 3,313 1,384,360

1,047,735 65,159 2,113 1,115,007. (728) |

30

H e f t XIV

m XIV Dureau de Lamalle. Économie Politique des Romains. Paris. 1840.

5

Tome

I.

Livre I. Maasse. Geld. Census und Cadaster. A R o m e , la société forme d e u x classes distinctes, la p r e m i è r e c o m p o s é e des propriétaires fonciers (vivant de leurs revenus), la seconde de leurs serviteurs ou des pauvres, (vivant des gages.) Cette seconde classe est dans la 10 d é p e n d a n c e directe de la première. (3.) Celle qui vit de ses profits, les m a r chands, les manufacturiers, y est si faible q u ' o n p e u t à peine la compter. (1. c.) Un peuple guerrier et agricole, pour ainsi dire sans c o m m e r c e ni m a n u f a c t u r e s ; les propriétés très divisées, p e u de terres affermées; dans ces sortes de biens le fermage payé en n a t u r e par u n e portion fixe des produits. 15 Enfin la terre productive, le capital employé à son exploitation souvent l'ouvrier chargé de la culture, les bestiaux, les engrais, les outils et les inst r u m e n t s nécessaires, étaient tous la propriété de la m ê m e p e r s o n n e . (4)

325

Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 · Heft XIV

Poids et mesures des Romains. Die E i n h e i t des Längenmaasses bei d e n R ö m e r n der Fuß, getheilt in 4 palmes u n d der p a l m e in 4 doigts. (10) Die unité agraire war das jugerum, getheilt in 2 actus quadratus, dieser = un carré de 120 pieds r o m a i n s de côte, verfällt in 4 clima; der clima = 36 d e c e m p e d a q u a d r a t a u n d dieser = 100 pieds carrés. (1. c.) D i e unité de capacité war die amphora oder quadrantal = 2 urnes = 3 modius. D i e a m p h o r a = un pied cube. (11)

5

D i e unité de poids der as oder libra, getheilt in 12 Unzen, j e d e U n z e in 24 scrupula, also 288 Scrupeln auf das Pfund. ([11,] 12) l'eau de pluie cont e n u e d a n s l ' a m p h o r e pesait e x a c t e m e n t 80 livres r o m a i n e s . (14)

ίο

Monnaies

Romaines.

D i e R ö m e r h a t t e n ursprünglich G e l d von b r o n z e coulée très lourde. D i e u n i t é m o n é t a i r e war der as de bronze d'un livre (aes grave, e m e r e per aes et libram). 485 schlug m a n des deniers d'argent valant 10 as libraux de b r o n z e , 15 diese deniers waren 40 à la livre ; 510 schlug m a n 75 deniers à la livre u n d j e d e r denier n o c h = 10 as, aber 10 as von 4 U n z e n . 513 der as reducirt auf 2 U n z e n u n d der denier, i m m e r = 10 as, n u r n o c h ] / des Pfundes Silber. Leztre Zahl, hielt sich bis z u m E n d e der Republik, aber 537 galt der d e nier 16 as d ' u n e o n c e u n d 665 n u r m e h r 16 as einer h a l b e n U n z e . D e r de- 20 nier = 2 quinaires u n d der q u i n a i r e = 2 sesterces. (15, 16) 547 schlugen die R ö m e r Goldgeld, 1 s c r u p u l u m für 20 sestercia, später 40 deniers ou aureus à la livre. Also das Goldgeld anfangs b e z o g e n auf das s c r u p u l u m , später auf das Pfund. ([16,] 17) M

E i n römisches Pfund G o l d = 1124 frcs jetziges G e l d u n d ein livre d'argent 25 p u r = 72fcs. (die D e c i m a l t h e i l e fortgelassen.) ... Bei d e n R ö m e r n G o l d u n d Silber ungefähr = 1 7 : 1 . A b e r als der a u r e u s g e m a c h t w u r d e = 1 2 : 1 . (40, 1) D e r a u r e u s u n t e r Caesar = 27 f. 95 c, u n t e r A u g u s t = 26 f. 89 c, u n t e r N e r o = 25 fs. 42 c, von G a l b a bis zu d e n A n t o n i n s = 24 f. 93 c. (44) D e r solidus u n t e r C o n s t a n t i n = 15 f. 53 c, später im D u r c h s c h n i t t 15 f. 30 10 c. (46) Der denarius (Silber) a. 485 der R e p u b l i k = 1 f. 63, 510 = 0 f. 87, 5 1 3 - 7 0 7 = Of. 78. (448) V o n G a l b a bis d e n A n t o n i n s 1 fc. (450)

326

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Aus Adolphe-Jules-César-Auguste Dureau de La Malle: Économie politique des Romains

Rapports

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

des

Métaux précieux.

Gold lang vor d e m Silber angewandt, weil es sich rein oder n u r m i t ein wenig Silber alliirt vorfindet, on l'obtient p a r un simple lavage. D a s Silber existirt im A l l g e m e i n e n in filons encastrés d a n s les roches les plus dures des terrains primitifs ; il exige, p o u r son extraction des m a c h i n e s et des travaux compliqués de Poryctognosie. ... D a n s l'amérique m é r i d i o n a l e das or en filons nicht exploitirt, s o n d e r n das or disséminé en p o u d r e et en grains dans les terrains d'alluvions. E b e n s o zur Zeit des Herodot. ([48,] 49) Die ältesten M o n u m e n t e v o n G r i e c h e n l a n d , Asien, N o r d e u r o p a u n d der N e u e n Welt beweisen, d a ß der G e b r a u c h des G o l d e s en ustensiles u n d bijoux p e u t très bien s'allier avec un état de choses voisin de la barbarie, w ä h r e n d der emploi d'argent z u m selben Zweck d é n o t e par lui seul un état social assez avancé. [49] ||2| In A m e r i c a fand m a n d e n G e b r a u c h von Silber n u r in M e xico u n d Peru, d e n b e i d e n civilisirtesten Staaten; sie führten a u c h allein steinerne G e b ä u d e auf u n d besassen des h a c h e s , des ciseaux etc en cuivre, m é t a l was sie hart u n d t r a n c h a n t m a c h t e n d u r c h eine alliage von étain, a m a l g a m e , das u n t e r d e m N a m e n von b r o n z e u n d airain, die alten Völker des Orients ebenfalls vor d e m Eisen a n w a n d t e n . ([50,] 51) Dasselbe gilt von den ältesten Völkern Asiens u n d Africas; m i t A u s n a h m e v o n I n d i e n u n d Aejypten, wo die Civilisation sehr alt. (1. c.) Wahrscheinlich, d a ß v o m 1 5 - 6 siècle avant l'ère vulgaire (in Asien etc) das Gold z u m Silber = 1 : 6 oder = 1:8, rapport, der in C h i n e u n d J a p o n bis z u m Anfang des 19 Jh. existirte u n d n i c h t = 1:13, wie H e r o d o t es fixirt für Persien u n t e r Darius, Sohn des Hystaspes. D a s G e s e t z b u c h des M a n o u , geschrieben zwischen 1300 u n d 600 vor Chr. giebt encore un rapport plus faible, n ä m l i c h = 1:2%. (54) Die m i n e s d'argent finden sich n u r in d e n terrains primitifs, besonders den terrains à couches u n d in einigen filons des terrains secondaires. (54, 55) Les gangues de l'argent, statt sables d'alluvion zu sein, sind gewöhnlich les roches les plus compactes et les plus dures, telles q u e le quartz, le pétrosilex etc. Ce m é t a l est plus c o m m u n d a n s les régions froides, soit par leur latitude, soit par leur élévation absolue, q u e l'or, qui en général affecte les pays c h a u d s . M a n findet das Silber selten im r e i n e n Z u s t a n d u n d selbst in den M i n e n von Potosi, die von 1 5 4 5 - 1 6 3 8 396 millions de piastres p r o d u cirten, existirt es n u r à l'état de m u r i a t e et de sulfure noir. (55) H e u t z u t a g e giebt es 52 x m e h r Silber als Gold, aber das Verhältniß = 1 5 : 1 . (56) D a s cuivre natif wie das Silber a pour g i s e m e n t les terrains p r i m o r d i n a u x anciens. Das reinste u n d reichste findet sich à l'état de cuivre sulfuré ; u n t e r der forme von cuivre gris findet m a n es m i t Silber alliirt. A b e r es findet sich auch sehr oft an der Oberfläche der Erde, oder à de petites profon-

327

Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 • Heft XIV deurs, aggloméré en masses pures, oft von b e t r ä c h t l i c h e m Gewicht. (Zu Brasilien fand m a n eine Masse Kupfer von 2616 livres.) Deßwegen wohl das Kupfer zuerst bearbeitet u n d diente es vor d e m Eisen d e n alten Völkern im Krieg u n d Frieden. (56) Im 9 Jh. vor Christi das cuivre natif sehr a b u n d a n t in Italien, das Eisen dagegen sehr rar, p u i s q u ' i l y était importé de la G r è c e et de l'Asie, deren Civilisation u n d I n d u s t r i e damais fortgeschrittn e r als die Italiens. ... Grosse M a s s e von cuivre brut ou frappé en circulation d a n s l'Italie, soumise aux R o m a i n s , v o m 1-5 Jh. der Republik. (57) D e r G e b r a u c h von Gold u n d Kupfer verträgt sich m i t h a l b b a r b a r i s c h e m Z u s t a n d . (1. c.) Eisen n i c h t g e k a n n t vor 1431 vor Chr. Selbst b e i m H o m e r Eisen selten gegen airain, diese m é l a n g e von cuivre, Z i n k ou étain, deren sich die griechische u n d r ö m i s c h e Gesellschaft so lang b e d i e n t e n , selbst für h a c h e s u n d rasoirs. (58) N u n leicht zu erklären die variation de rapport de l'or, de l'argent et du cuivre entre eux à diverses époques, et d a n s les diverses parties du m o n d e c o n n u des anciens. ([58,] 59) Das é c o u l e m e n t der m é t a u x précieux a suivi dans l'antiquité, wenigstens bis z u m ersten Jahrh u n d e r t unsrer Z e i t r e c h n u n g u n e direction inverse de celle qu'il suit de nos j o u r s . A m e r i c a ist j e z t seine H a u p t q u e l l e ; von A m e r i c a gehts n a c h E u r o p e u n d von d a n a c h Asien. I n den t e m p s anciens schloß Asien die reichsten u n d fruchtbarsten M i n e n ein. Fortgesezte Exploitation während m e h r e n J a h r h u n d e r t e n oder vielmehr die Entvölkerung bewirkt d u r c h die blutigen Einfälle der R ö m e r u n d d u r c h die H ä r t e ihrer Verwaltung seit der Erobrung von M a c é d o n i e n bis zur Schlacht von A c t i u m v e r m i n d e r t e n die P r o d u c t i o n von Gold u n d Silber. Diese Metalle flössen von Asien n a c h G r i e c h e n l a n d u n d Italien, zuerst langsam d u r c h d e n H a n d e l , d a n n in Grossen Strömen d u r c h die E r o b e r u n g e n der G r i e c h e n u n d R ö m e r . M a n m a c h t sich eine Vorstellung von diesen Massen aus der Liste der trésors royaux deren sich Alexander der Grosse b e m ä c h t i g t e , conservé von Q u i n tus Curtius, Strabo, Justinus, Arrien, Diodore u n d Plutarch. (59) Er n a h m in d e m Feld des Darius u n d zu Babylon, Persepolis, Pasagarde, E c b a t a n allein 1,930,500,000 fcs. Seit dieser Zeit renchérissement notable in den prix de salaire, des denrées u n d beträchtliches Steigen des i m p ô t a n n u e l . ([59,] 60) (Folgt die A u f z ä h l u n g e n der G e g e n d e n in Asien, die das edle Metall lieferten.) W i r finden selbst bei Strabo, d a ß bei u n e n a t i o n voisine den Sabéens (asiatisches Volk) das Kupfer 3 x u n d das Silber 2 x d e n W e r t h des Goldes hatte. Agatarchides sagt, daß diese Völker das Eisen 2 x sein G e wicht in Gold zahlten u n d 10 Pfunde Gold für 1 Pfund Silber gaben. ... bei diesem arabischen Volke, sagt Strabo, fand sich das Gold en petites boules grosses au m o i n s c o m m e un noyau, au plus c o m m e u n e noix, et qui n ' a vaient pas besoin ||3| d'affinage. Strabo fügt h i n z u , daß der G r u n d des n i e deren Preisses dieses Metalls zu erklären ist aus der inexpérience dieser peu-

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plades arabes à travailler ce m é t a l , et d a n s la rareté des objets d ' é c h a n g e der nothwendigsten Lebensmittel. ( 6 1 , 62) A u s s e r d e m , um das reine Gold zu erhalten von d e n i m m e n s e s terrains d'alluvion situés zwischen d e m I n d o u - K o s h u n d d e m H i m a l a y a , bedurfte e s n u r einer einfachen W ä s c h e . D a m a l s diese G e g e n d e n von Asien sehr bevölkert u n d folglich die m a i n d'oeuvre sehr wohlfeil. D a s Silber, d u r c h die N a t u r de son gisement, d u r c h d e n état d'alliage, worin es sich findet, viel schwerer a u s z u z i e h n . D i e u n v o l l k o m m e n e n procédés des m i n e u r u n d métallurgiste, die A b w e s e n h e i t von M a s c h i n e n u n d des m o y e n s d ' é p u i s e m e n t , e n d l i c h die Schwierigkeit der Exploitation m u ß t e n d e n W e r t h des Silbers sehr h e b e n v e r h ä l t n i ß m ä s sig zur rareté u n d zu d e n avantages respectifs des d e u x m é t a u x . (62) D e r effet contraire producirte sich in A s i e n u n d G r i e c h e n l a n d seit d e m T o d Alexanders. D e r G o l d s a n d erschöpfte sich; der Preiß der Sklaven u n d der H a n d a r b e i t stieg; da die M e c h a n i k u n d G e o m e t r i e seit Euclid u n d Archim e d e s i m m e n s e Fortschritte g e m a c h t , k o n n t e m a n exploitiren m i t Vortheil die riches filons des m i n e s d'argent de l'Asie, T h r a c i e n s u n d Spaniens u n d da das Silber 52 x plus a b o n d a n t ist als das Gold, m u ß t e das Werthverhältn i ß der b e i d e n Metalle wechseln u n d das Pfund Gold, das zur Zeit des X e n o p h o n s , 350 Jahre vor der ère vulgaire sich gegen 10 Pfund Silber austauschte, valait 18 Pfund davon 422 J a h r e n a c h Christi G e b u r t . (62, 63) Das c h a n g e m e n t successif zwischen Gold u n d Silber, Silber u n d Kupfer in verschiednen E p o c h e n , m u ß t e z u n ä c h s t a b h ä n g e n von der n a t u r e d u gisem e n t de ces 3 m é t a u x , et de l'état plus ou m o i n s p u r d a n s lequel ils se trouvent. (63) Italien war im Anfang sehr a r m an G o l d u n d Silber. D i e ß L a n d enthielt seiner geologischen Construction n a c h sehr wenige M i n e n edler Metalle. Dagegen assez riche en cuivre natif; bis 247 vor J. C. das Kupfer das N o r m a l Geld, die u n i t é m o n é t a i r e im mittleren Italien. Die griechischen Colonien im S ü d e n der Halbinsel zogen von G r i e c h e n l a n d oder Asien, direkt oder d u r c h Tyros oder Carthago, das Silber wovon sie M ü n zen fabricirten seit d e m 5 u n d 6' Jh. vor J. C. (64) Trotz dieser N a c h b a r schaft, die R ö m e r aus politischen G r ü n d e n proscribirten d e n G e b r a u c h von Gold u n d Silber. Volk u n d Senat fühlten, d a ß ein so leichtes Circulationsmittel Concentration, Z u n a h m e von Sklaven, Verfall der alten Sitten u n d Agricultur herbeiführen w ü r d e n . (65) R o m h a t t e übrigens Silbergeld vor 485 v. Chr. u n d vielleicht schon u n t e r d e n lezten Königen. ([65,] 66)

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Ursprünglich bei d e n R ö m e r n k e i n e a n d r e n M ü n z e n als die in d e n Schatz d u r c h Erobrung k a m e n . (66) F r ü h e r b e d i e n t e m a n sich für d e n A u s t a u s c h de m é t a l en lingots, aes r u d e . (67) Die u n i t é m o n é t a i r e war der as de cuivre, der bis z u m ersten p u n i s c h e n Krieg ein r ö m i s c h e s Pfund wog. (68) 5 D i e m o n n a i e d'argent n ' a été frappée als von 485, früher w u r d e sie f o n d u e . (69) Servius gab d e n R ö m e r n zuerst g e m ü n z t e s Geld. ([70,] 71) Z u r Zeit des Servius Silber: Kupfer = 2 7 9 : 1 . (73) E i n Pfund Silber von d e n ältesten Z e i t e n bis z u m Anfang des p u n i s c h e n Kriegs = 40 d e n a r i u s ( d a r i n e i n g e theilt.) 1 denarius (Silber) = 10 as Kupfer. D a s Pfund Kupfer verhielt sich 10 also z u m Pfund Silber = % . ([76,] 77) W ä h r e n d des ersten p u n i s c h e n Kriegs der as (Kupfer) v e r m i n d e r t auf % seines W e r t h s oder 2 U n z e n . D e r D e n a r i u s auf % des Pfundes Silber herabgesezt. Galt i m m e r n o c h 10 as de cuivre, die aber n u r m e h r = 2 U n z e n . D e r rapport des g e m ü n z t e n Kupfers z u m Silber d a h e r d a m a l s = y . (77) W ä h r e n d des langen Laufens dieses 15 Krieges s u c h t e n die R ö m e r die Erschöpfung des Schatzes d u r c h successive altérations de la m o n n a i e zu heilen. (78) L ' a n de R o m e 537, u n t e r der Dikt a t u r von Q. F a b i u s M a x i m u s , in Folge der Unglücksfälle im Anfang des 2 p u n i s c h e n Kriegs, der As reducirt auf das G e w i c h t von einer U n z e . D e r D e n i e r aber galt 16 as n u n statt 10. W ä h r e n d dieser Zeit das Werthverhält- 20 n i ß von Kupfer zu Silber = y . ([81,] 82) Später der as auf % U n z e reducirt ... zur Zeit der guerre sociale (665 von R o m d u r c h die lex Papiria). ( 8 2 - 8 4 ) U n t e r N e r o schon der denarius / des Pfundes Silber. (85) Seit seiner R e d u c t i o n auf 1 U n z e war das Kupfer as n u r n o c h u n e m o n n a i e d'appoint. Le sesterce était d e v e n u l'unité m o n é t a i r e , et t o u s les grands 25 p a i e m e n t se faisaient en argent. (84) 00

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Gold- und Silbergeld und ihr Verhältniß. Das Gold im Anfang sehr rar in R o m ; 365 k o n n t e n der Staat u n d die particuliers k a u m 1000 livres r é u n i r p o u r se racheter des G a u l o i s . D a s Silber viel häufiger. D e r Besitz der spanischen M i n e n ; bis z u m Τ J a h r h u n d e r t der 30 T r i b u t der Besiegten u n d b e s o n d e r s von Carthago in Silber gezahlt, dieß hielt das Gold auf h o h e m N i v e a u . D i e ß M e t a l l n u r in lingots gebraucht bis 547. D i e ß Jahr schlug m a n zu R o m zuerst G o l d m ü n z e n . ([85,] 86) Das G o l d war z u m Silber im H a n d e l = 13,71:1, ||4| in d e n m o n n a i e s = 17,14:1. ... 1 scrupule d'or valait 20 sesterces = 5 d e n i e r s ; der d e n i e r war y eines 35 Pfundes Silber. (87) U n t e r Caesar 1 a u r e u s = 25 d e n a r i u s ; G o l d z u m Silber M

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Aus Adolphe-Jules-César-Auguste Dureau de La Malle: Économie politique des Romains = 12:1. (88, 89) B e i m A u s b r u c h des Bürgerkriegs sank das G o l d z u m Silber = 8:1, d u r c h P l ü n d e r u n g des r ö m i s c h e n Schatzes von Caesar. Dieses a e r a r i u m enthielt 663, vor der guerre sociale 1,620,829 (nach Plinius) r ö m i sche Pfunde Gold, ungefähr 1 milliard 800 000 fcs. 705, als Cäsar sich sei5 n e r b e m ä c h t i g t e , enthielt es an 2 milliards fcs. ([90,] 91) V o m a u r e u s gingen 40 bis 45 auf das Pfund, v o m solidus (aureus u n t e r C o n s t a n t i n ) 72 auf das Pfund. (93) U n t e r H o n o r i u s u n d A r c a d i u s (397) fixirt das V e r h ä l t n i ß von Silber zu G o l d = 1:14,4; u n t e r H o n o r i u s u n d T h é o d o s e - l e - J e u n e (422) = 1:18. (95) U n t e r d e n K a i s e r n des O c c i d e n t u n d Orient die G o l d m ü n z e 10 wie in E n g l a n d die regulirende u n d ihr poids u n d titre nie alterirt. (96) U n ter A r c a d i u s u n d H o n o r i u s 1 Pf. G o l d = 1800 Pfd. Kupfer. 1 Pfund Silber = 100 Pf. Kupfer. (96)

Durchschnittspreiß

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In der E p o c h e von C l a u d i u s bis Titus der Preiß des Brodes u n d M e h l s u n 15 gefähr wie in L o n d o n im 19 J h . (110)

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(denrées) W i r besitzen in der inscription de Stratonicée, p u b l i é e v o n Cardin a l i etc, u n prix m o y e n des denrées, tarifé par l ' e m p e r e u r lui m ê m e (Diocletian A . D . 303) et q u ' o n ne pouvait dépasser sans s'exposer à la p e i n e capitale. (111) D r a c h m e a t t i q u e war werth Ofr 92 c; der d e n a r i u s d'argent schwankte von A u g u s t bis G o r d i a n von 1 f. 11 c auf Of. 99 c. (113) V o n C o n s t a n t i n bis V a l e n t i n i a n war das G e t r e i d e n u r um % wohlfeiler als in F r a n k r e i c h von 1 8 1 5 - 1 8 3 0 . (124) D e r vin c o m m u n war t h e u r e r im 4* J h . als jezt in F r a n k r e i c h , n ä m l i c h 80 c. der litre. (124) U e b e r d i e a n d r e n a n a l o g e n P r e i s s e , ζ. B. ein Pfund Rindfleisch = 20 c. s i e h p. 125. (125) D i e W a a r e n i m A l l g e m e i n e n s o t h e u e r i m 4 l J h . i m r ö m i s c h e n R e i c h wie jezt i n Frankreich. (126)

Tagelohn de l'homme libre.

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Von d e m p e l o p o n n e s i s c h e n Krieg bis z u A u g u s t u s u n d d e n A n t o n i n e n der Tagelphn de l ' h o m m e libre, m a n œ u v r e , laboureur, jardinier, m e u n i e r , charpentier ou m a ç o n n u r % u n t e r d e m gegenwärtigen D u r c h s c h n i t t s Tage-

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Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 • Heft XIV lohn in F r a n k r e i c h für dieselbe Arbeit. (128, 9) N a c h Varro zog m a n die freien Arbeiter von d e n Sklaven in d e n c a n t o n s malsains et p o u r les gros ouvrages des labours, des semailles, des fenaisons et de la m o i s s o n . (130) (Sieh die Preißlisten 1 3 1 - 1 3 3 )

Vom Sold der Truppen. In G r i e c h e n l a n d der Durchschnittssold des fantassin, n o u r r i t u r e comprise, m i n d e s t e n s 61 c e n t i m e s , in R o m seit Caesar 70 c, u n t e r D o m i t i a n 83 c. u n d das 4fache für d e n cavalier. In F r a n k r e i c h für un soldat d'infanterie 92 c. par jour. R e c h n e t m a n d e n transport de m a c h i n e s , des équipages de siège etc h i n z u , so folgt, daß eine A r m e e h e u t e weniger kostet als in G r è c e u n d Asie seit Pericles bis A l e x a n d e r u n d i m r ö m i s c h e n R e i c h v o n César bis J u s t i n i a n . (141, 2)

5

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Vom Preiß der Sklaven. E r will n u r d e n D u r c h s c h n i t t s p r e i ß b e s t i m m e n der esclaves propres a u x travaux de l'agriculture ou à l'exercice d ' u n m é t i e r ordinaire. (143) En ad15 d i t i o n n a n t le capital employé à l'achat de l'esclave, l'intérêt de ce capital, la n o u r r i t u r e et le vêtement, le d é c h e t a n n u e l et en c o m p a r a n t ce résultat avec la s o m m e de travail produit, on voit q u e ce prix s'élève fort a u d e s s u s des salaires les plus h a u t s du j o u r n a l i e r ou d o m e s t i q u e cultivateur d'Italie, de F r a n c e , et m ê m e d'Angleterre. (151) Z w i s c h e n d e m 2* p u n i s c h e n Krieg 20 bis z u r Herrschaft Trajans, hielt sich der Preiß des esclave cultivateur zwis c h e n 2000 u n d 2500 fcs. C'était, avant 1789, le prix d ' u n b o n nègre a d u l t e à S a i n t - D o m i n g u e . (154) je crois avoir prouvé q u e le rapport des m é t a u x p r é c i e u x au prix m o y e n du blé, de la solde et de la j o u r n é e du travail, était, d a n s le h a u t et d a n s le bas e m p i r e [romain], à peu près égal à ce qu'il est 25 a u j o u r d h u i en F r a n c e . (157) Il est évident q u e les m é t a u x p r é c i e u x se r é p a n d e n t a u j o u r d ' h u i d a n s les cinq parties du m o n d e , et q u e , d a n s l'antiquité, leur usage était limité au bassin de la M é d i t e r r a n n é e et à q u e l q u e s contrées de l'Afrique et de l'Asie. S'il y avait 5 x m o i n s d'or et d'argent q u ' a u j o u r d ' h u i , il y avait 5 x m o i n s de besoins. L'industrie des m a n u f a c t u r e s était m o i n s perfectionnée, le c o m m e r c e m o i n s actif, et la valeur relative des m é t a u x p u t être la m ê m e , q u o i q u e la q u a n t i t é m i s e en circulation ait b e a u c o u p a u g m e n t é d e p u i s les siècles de Périclès et de C o n s t a n t i n , j u s q u ' à l ' é p o q u e actuelle. (158) N o u s trouvons la proportion de l'or à l'argent de 1 à 12 d a n s les 2 premiers siè-

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Aus Adolphe-Jules-César-Auguste Dureau de La Malle: Économie politique des Romains cles de l'ère vulgaire, de 1 à 15, c o m m e à présent en E u r o p e , d u r a n t presque tout le III siècle, de 1 à 18 à la fin du IV et dans la première m o i t i é du V. (158, 9) I

|5| Origine du Cens. 5

les divisions des plébéjens et des patriciens ... prouvaient le besoin de distraire le peuple et de l'occuper au dehors, firent de la guerre un système, un moyen, un ressort du g o u v e r n e m e n t r o m a i n , (p. 159 wie b e i d e n E n g l ä n d e r n a u s d e r E r o b e r u n g s t e t s n e u e r M ä r k t e . ) L a connaissance exacte d e leurs ressources en h o m m e s , en argent et en vivres, était la c o n d i t i o n indis10 pensable du succès. La nécessité créa d o n c chez ce peuple guerrier la statistique, le cadastre, les registres de naissance et de décès. T o u t cela fut compris dans l'institution du cens, et cette institution, base f o n d a m e n t a l e du g o u v e r n e m e n t et de la p u i s s a n c e r o m a i n e , est d u e à Servais Tullius, le sixième des rois de R o m e , et date de l'an 197 de cette ville, 555 ans avant 15 J. C. (160) Aile 5 Jahre d u r c h die C e n s o r e n gemacht. (161) Les 20,000 citoyens d'Athènes, les 450,000 citoyens r o m a i n s du temps de César étaient réellement u n e noblesse privilégiée, quoiqu'elle portât le n o m de peuple, les esclaves, les étrangers ne jouissaient pas des m ê m e s droits. De m ê m e enfin que le Livre d'or à Venise c o n t e n a i t l'état de toutes les familles patri20 ciennes, q u e le nobiliaire de F r a n c e c o m p r e n d le n o m et les armes de 80,000 familles nobles, de m ê m e les registres de naissance, de décès, par sexe et par âge, étaient indispensables à R o m e et dans l'Italie. L'âge a u q u e l un citoyen prenait la prétexte, la robe virile, y était consigné. Sans cela, c o m m e n t aurait-on pu établir son admissibilité aux divers emplois p u 25 blies? La loi fixait un âge p o u r sortir de tutelle, un âge p o u r être a d m i s dans l'ordre équestre ou sénatorial, p o u r être n o m m é t r i b u n du peuple, questeur, édile, préteur, censeur ou consul. Il en était de m ê m e p o u r être apte à se marier, à tester, à contracter, à prêter serment en justice. (164, 5) Pour les b i e n fonds diese t a b u l a e censuales basirt auf e i n e m Cadaster u n d 30 u n e estimation vérifiés tous les l u s t r e s ; elles c o n t e n a i e n t la qualité du c h a m p , la n a t u r e des cultures, soit blé, fourrages, vignes, oliviers etc. (165)

Du Cadastre. Le plan cadastral du territoire entier était gravé sur cuivre et déposé dans le Tabellarium, soit de la R é p u b l i q u e , soit de l ' e m p e r e u r ; un d o u b l e était 35 conservé dans les archives de la colonie ou du m u n i c i p e . (169) La descrip-

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Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 • Heft XIV tion j o i n t e à ce plan, m e n t i o n n a n t toutes les conditions de la propriété, data, assignata, excepta, c o m m u t a t a , reddita veteri possessori, était gravée sur cuivre, signée par l'auteur du cadastre, puis transportée sur des toiles de lin, déposées et conservées aussi dans les archives. (170) A u g u s t u s schrieb eigenhändig das Cadaster u n d das r e c e n s e m e n t général 5 de l'empire romain, das enthielt le r é s u m é des ressources de l'empire, le n o m b r e des citoyens et des alliés sous les armes, l'état des flottes, des provinces, des royaumes, des tributs, des impôts directs ou indirects, des dépenses nécessaires et des gratifications. (191[, 192]) ( D i e ß w a r n a t ü r l i c h ein A u s z u g a u s d e r öffentlichen Arbeit, die er m a c h e n ließ.) 10

Livre II. Population. Population libre de l'Italie. In d e m 35. Census, J a h r 488 der Republik, vor d e m ersten p u n i s c h e n Krieg, fand m a n 292 334 römische Bürger; (209) le cadastre et la statistique rom a i n e s'appliquaient i m m é d i a t e m e n t à toutes les contrées soumises. (210) 15 Kurz vor d e m 2' p u n i s c h e n Krieg, gegen 527, r e c e n s e m e n t de ses (de R o m e ) forces et de ses alliés [209, 210]; giebt 770,000 waffenfähige M ä n n e r . (214) Waffenfähig in gewöhnlichen Fällen von 1 7 - 4 5 Jahren, in ausserordentlic h e n (wie damals, wo t u m u l t u s gallicus) von 1 7 - 6 0 J a h r e n . (216, 17) B e r e c h n e t die population libre totale d a n a c h auf 3 Millionen. (218) Les m é - 20 t œ q u e s ou peregrini étaient des h o m m e s libres, m a i s privés des droits de cité et de suffrage, qui exerçaient les professions industrielles ou m e r c a n t i les. (225)

De la Population servile. D i e R ö m e r im IV u n d V J a h r h u n d e r t R o m s h a t t e n sehr wenige Sklaven; 25 bei i h r e m einfachen L e b e n k o n n t e n sie n u r wenige b r a u c h e n u n d halten. (233) Die lois agraires, proposées p o u r la p r e m i è r e fois l'an de R o m e 268, stets erneuert; (in d e n 3 ersten J a h r h u n d e r t e n seit Vertreibung des T a r q u i nius) elles limitaient de 2 à 7 jugères l ' é t e n d u e de la propriété de c h a q u e citoyen. (234) (on les élude en distribuant au peuple les terres conquises. 30 1. c.) L ' a n de R o m e 388 Licinius Stolo fit passer la loi die j e d e m Bürger verbot m e h r als 500 jugères zu h a b e n (126 hectares) et o r d o n n a i t q u e l'exc é d a n t serait ôté aux riches et distribué à ceux q u i n ' a v a i e n t a u c u n e

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Aus Adolphe-Jules-César-Auguste Dureau de La Malle: Économie politique des Romains propriété foncière. Dasselbe Gesetz fixe un n o m b r e circonscrit de domestiques et d'esclaves p o u r faire valoir ces terres ainsi partagées, et enj o i n t de se servir d'Italiens et d ' h o m m e s libres. (235) Valerius M a x i m u s sagt v o m 5' Jh. „Kein oder fast k e i n Geld, wenig Sklaven, 7 jugera L a n d , 5 l'indigence dans les familles, les obsèques payées par l'état, les filles sans dot ; m a i s d'illustres consulats, de merveilleuses dictatures, d ' i n n o m b r a b l e s triomphes". (238) Diese einfachen u n d frugalen Sitten existirten n o c h in der ersten Hälfte des 6' Jhdts; aber seit d e m E n d e des 2' p u n i s c h e n Kriegs, besonders n a c h der E i n n a h m e von Carthago u n d Corinth, le tableau 10 change totalement. (238) Diese einfachen Sitten d a u e r t e n bis zur Eroberung von M a c é d o n i e n . (240) V o n 550 de R o m e bis 575 die Cultur geführt fast ganz von E i g e n t h ü m e r n u n d journaliers libres. (1. c.) U e b e r h a u p t werd e n von d e n R ö m e r n weniger Sklaven zur Agricultur angewandt als m a n gewöhnlich glaubt; der service d o m e s t i q u e dans les villes leur était particu15 lièrement affecté. (243) N a c h Varro der Sklave ein i n s t r u m e n t u m vocale, die Thiere i n s t r u m e n t u m s e m i - m u t u m , Pflug i n s t r u m e n t u m m u t u m . ([253,] 254) | |6| Die Z a h l der m ä n n l i c h e n Sklaven war 4 oder 5x grösser als die der weiblichen; die E h e n in dieser Klasse im A l l g e m e i n e n verboten; die Skla20 venbevölkerung rekrutirte sich n u r d u r c h d e n Krieg, la traite, les ventes voluntaires u n d d i m i n u a i t par l'affranchissement. D e r Preiß des esclave m â l e , adulte, propre aux travaux de l'agriculture, oscillirte in G r i e c h e n l a n d u n d Italien, v o m m e d i s c h e n Krieg bis z u m E n d e des 2' p u n i s c h e n Kriegs, zwischen 500 u n d 1200 fcs. (252, 3) 25

Die Z a h l der Sklaven m u ß t e in d e n 5 ersten J a h r h u n d e r t e n R o m s sehr schwach sein ... m a n n a h m d e n besiegten Völkern e i n e n Theil ihres Territoriums, um des colons libres draufzusetzen u n d , généralement, on les soum e t t a i t à un tribut m o d é r é sans les asservir. Das demokratische E l e m e n t , das 388 sein Vorherrschen zeigt in d e n licinischen Gesetzen, prévalut à 30 R o m e bis zur Eroberung von M a c é d o n i e n . (265) D i e Länder, die G r i e c h e n land u n d R o m h a u p t s ä c h l i c h Sklaven lieferten bis zur E r o b e r u n g von Gallien d u r c h Cäsar, waren Thracien, Scythien, Dacien, G e t i e n , Phrygien, le Pont ( E u x i n u s ) ; m i t e i n e m Wort der S ü d e n d e l'Europe occidentale u n d ein Theil von Asia m i n o r . Die H a u p t m ä r k t e des Sklavenhandels waren, für 35 den N o r d e n l ' E m p o r i u m de T a n a ï s ; für Kleinasien Ephesos u n d Side, für G r i e c h e n l a n d Samos, A t h e n u n d Delos. (266) Letronne hat bewiesen, daß von Anfang des peloponnesischen Kriegs bis zur Schlacht von C h é r o n é e in Attica 110,000 Sklaven auf 130,000 Freie

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f Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 · Heft XIV von allen âges u n d sexes k a m e n , also n i c h t 1 Sklave auf e i n e n Freien. (270) N a c h D . , g e s t ü z t auf Dionys von Halycarnass im J a h r 278 der Stadt R o m 440,000 Einwohner, n ä m l i c h 390,290 r ö m i s c h e Bürger u n d Bürgerinn e n (110,000 Waffenfähige von 1 7 - 6 0 Jahre), 32,523 m é t œ q u e s ou affranchis u n d n u r 17,186 Sklaven. Diese verhielten sich also zu d e n F r e i e n = 2 5 : 1 . ([270,] 271) Das produit m o y e n du blé im alten Italien zur Zeit des Varro = 5:1 (für Sicilien; für R o m zur Zeit des Columella = 4:1), obgleich einige privilegirte Theile Italiens u n d Etruriens n a c h Varro r e n d a i e n t 10 u n d 15 grains pour 1. Jezt ist der prix m o y e n in d e n K i r c h e n s t a a t e n c i n q u e per u n o . Zu Pisa, jezt, n a c h der Kadasterschätzung, das Product der schlechtesten L ä n d e r e i e n = 3 : 1 , der besten = 8:1, p o u r le blé, l'avoine, les haricots, le seigle etc. Der maïs rend 4 0 : 1 . Dieselbe Proportion existirt im Territorium von A r e z z o ; aber in d e n u n f r u c h t b a r e n terrains bepflanzt m a n n u r Y der terres u n d läßt die a n d r e n brachliegen. (272 Note) Cato fixirt die n o u r r i t u r e der travailleurs n a c h d e n verschiednen Jahreszeiten auf 4 u n d 5 livres r o m a i n e s de pain, wovon der D u r c h s c h n i t t m a c h t 3 livres français, poids de m a r c . (273) Sallust beweist, daß die Plebejer, die R o m b e w o h n t e n , dotés par la loi frumentaire, jeder, wie die Gefangnen 5 m o d i u s (66 livres) de blé für d e n M o n a t erhielten u n d d a ß diese N a h r u n g k a u m h i n r e i c h t e . ... Seneca giebt dieselbe Q u a n t i t é d ' a l i m e n t den Sklaven der Stadt u n d d e n c o m é d i e n s : servus est ; q u i n q u e m o d i o s accipit. Also der tägliche G e t r e i d e c o n s u m der Plebejer täglich etwas m e h r als 2 französische livres. (274) Also die c o n s u m t i o n (journalière) eines citadin de R o m e etwas m e h r als 2 livres françaises, eines c a m p a g n a r d 3 livres. (275) Die Sklaven erhielten n u r das z u m L e b e n nöthige et n o n pour se nourrir c o m p l è t e m e n t . (1. c.) E i n Pariser verzehrt an Brod 0,93, ein c a m p a g n a r d (in d e n 20 d é p a r t e m e n t wo das blé die H a u p t n a h r u n g ) 1,70 (livre). (277) E. Biot h a t gefunden für die tägliche R e i s c o n s u m t i o n der familles agricoles de C h i n e 1 livre, 8 onces. D. h a t g e f u n d e n im jetzigen Italien, in d e n T h e i l e n wo blé die H a u p t n a h r u n g , 1 livre, 8 onces für das individu der famille agricole. ([277,] 278) W a r u m assen die R ö m e r verhältnißmässig m e h r ? Ursprünglich assen sie das blé cru oder n u r ramolli d a n s l'eau; n a c h h e r ils s'avisèrent de le griller. Später k a m m a n zur art de m o u d r e u n d anfangs aß m a n crue la pâte faite avec cette farine. On se servait, p o u r m o u d r e le grain, d ' u n pilon ou de d e u x pierres frappées ou tournées l'une sur l'autre ... Diese pâte crue, puis, appretirte sich der r ö m i s c h e Soldat für m e h r e Tage. D a n n erfand m a n le van, qui nettoie le grain, on trouva le m o y e n de séparer le son de la farine ; endlich on ajouta le levain u n d d'abord on m a n g e a le p a i n cru, bis der Z u fall lehrte, daß en le cuisant on l'empêchait de s'aigrir et m a n le conservait bien plus longtemps. Erst n a c h d e m Krieg gegen Perseus, 580, h a t t e R o m des boulangers. ([278,] 279) Vor der christlichen Z e i t r e c h n u n g k a n n t e n die

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Aus Adolphe-Jules-César-Auguste Dureau de La Malle: Économie politique des Romains R ö m e r keine W i n d m ü h l e n . (280) P a r m e n t i e r h a t bewiesen daß i n Frankreich seit Louis XIV die K u n s t des M a h l e n s grosse Fortschritte g e m a c h t u n d daß der U n t e r s c h i e d der alten u n d der n e u e n m o u t u r e sich auf % des von d e m s e l b e n G e t r e i d e gelieferten Brods erstreckt. D ' a b o r d assignirte 5 m a n 4, d a n n 3, d a n n 2, d a n n e n d l i c h 1½ setier des blé pour la c o n s o m m a tion annuelle d ' u n h a b i t a n t de Paris. (1. c.) A i n s i s'explique facilement l'énorme disproportion entre la c o n s o m m a t i o n journalière de blé chez les R o m a i n s et chez n o u s ; aus der imperfection der procédés de m o u t u r e et de la panification. (281) Er rechnet heraus für 529 für das m i t R o m ver10 b u n d n e Italien 4,978,482 Einwohner, wovon 2,312,677 Sklaven u n d 2,665,805 Freie. Die freie Bevölkerung also zur population affranchie, m é t œ q u e ou esclave, à peu près = 2 6 : 2 3 . (289) (Unter die Sklaven hier mitgerechnet die affranchis et m é t œ q u e s ) |

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|7| U n t e r d e m Kaiserreich a u c h die Z a h l der Sklaven geringer als die der freien. (300) Er schäzt die Bevölkerung des Theils des alten Galliens, der d e m h e u t i g e n Frankreich entspricht auf 10,617,215. (313)

Extension du droit de cité depuis César et Auguste. D e r dernier cens e x é c u t é sous la république, 683, durch die censeurs L. Gellius Poplicola u n d C. L. C l o d i a n u s zeigt n u r 450,000 citoyens r o m a i n s waffenfähig (von 1 7 - 6 0 J a h r e n ) . 708 u n t e r Caesar eine andre D e n o m i n a tion zeigt grosse V e r m i n d e r u n g in Folge der Bürgerkriege. (314) 42 J a h r e n a c h h e r census u n t e r A u g u s t zeigt Z a h l von 4,063,000 citoyens r o m a i n s . (316) W o h e r diese grosse A u s d e h n u n g des droit de cité? D i e grossen Er25 oberungen von P o m p é e u n d César, en reculant les frontières de l'empire, l'avaient mis, vers l'Occident et le Nord, en contact i m m é d i a t e avec le puissant r o y a u m e des Parthes et les n a t i o n s libres et guerrières de la G e r m a nie. Die Gallier erst unterjocht n a c h lOjährigem Krieg, verdächtig d e n Siegern. Also größre Z a h l von L e g i o n e n beständig u n t e r d e n F a h n e n nöthig 30 geworden. Also größre Basis für d e n entretien des armées n a t i o n a l e s , die o h n e äusserste Gefahr für den Staat d e n corps auxiliaires nicht inférieures sein durften. (317, 18) W ä h r e n d seiner Dictatur, 705, gab Caesar das droit de cité complet à t o u t e la G a u l e t r a n s p a d a n e . (318.) Seit d e n Bürgerkriegen von M a r i u s u n d Sylla bis zur Schlacht von A c t i u m , u n g e h e u r e A r m e e n 35 von R ö m e r n gegen R ö m e r . Octavius u n d A n t o n i u s , B r u t u s u n d Cassius hatten, 711, 59 légions. (295,000 h o m m e s , o h n e die r ö m i s c h e Cavalerie, 20

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Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 · Heft XIV die légion zu 5000 soldats) (318, 9) M a r c A n t o i n e w ä h r e n d seines C o n s u lats gab Sicilien u n d g a n z e n Provinzen le droit de cité complet. (319) (Die e x e m p t i o n d'impôts folgte n o t h w e n d i g d e m droit d e cité complet u n d A n t o n i u s ließ sich die Verleihung dieses Privilegiums bezahlen.) M a n entging so e i n e m grave inconvénient, d e m m a n seit M a r i u s u n d Sylla ausgesezt war, in die L e g i o n e n e i n g e h n zu lassen die prolétaires u n d affranchis. H ä u fige révoltes dieser corps, b e d r o h t e n m e h r m a l s die Existenz der M a c h t von César u n d Octave; m a n war gezwungen diese révoltes zu besänftigen d u r c h distributions d'argent u n d gewaltsam der besiegten Parthei f o r t g e n o m m e n e L ä n d e r e i e n ; vols, brigandages folgten d e m l i c e n c i e m e n t dieser armées, form é e s en grande partie de l ' é c u m e de la société. (320) Caesar n a h m die Provinzen g a n z auf. A u g u s t n u r die magistrats des cités, les notables et les grands propriétaires des provinces. (321) Das Bürgerrecht befreite v o m impôt foncier, des droits de d o u a n e , d'octroi u n d de péage. (323) A u g u s t ü b r i gens selbst gezwungen einer M a s s e Sklaven u n d affranchis z u m B e h u f des Kriegs das r ö m i s c h e Bürgerrecht zu ertheilen. ([322,] 323) Das Bürgerrecht n a h m a u s v o m i m p ô t foncier seit 585, von d e n a n d r e n seit 694 de R o m e . (323) U n t e r A u g u s t in 20 J a h r e n die Z a h l der citoyens r o m a i n s um % verm e h r t . Diese a d m i s s i o n avait d i m i n u é la q u o t i t é de m a t i è r e imposable, w ä h r e n d die A u s g a b e n wuchsen. (326) V o n A u g u s t bis Vespasian die Z a h l der r ö m i s c h e n Bürger wahrscheinlich um die Hälfte gewachsen. Der cens, opéré u n t e r Claudius, 801, stieg auf 5,984,072. N e r o u n d C l a u d i u s ou ses affranchis sehr verschwenderisch d a m i t . D a h e r beträchtliche d i m i n u t i o n dans les revenus de l'état. A b e r Caligula, C l a u d i u s , N e r o , w e n n sie d e n Schatz erschöpften, füllten i h n wieder d u r c h m e u r t r e s u n d confiscations. (327, 8) V o n G a l b a bis Trajan wird Differenz in d e n R e c h t e n g e m a c h t zwischen d e n anciens u n d nouveaux citoyens. A b e r die Jagd auf das r ö m i s c h e Bürgerrecht so groß, d a ß m a n Sklave wurde, um sich d a n n affranchir zu lassen u n d r ö m i s c h e r Bürger zu werden. ([328,] 329) V o n Vespasian bis Caracalla die das r ö m i s c h e Bürgerrecht erhielten, genossen n i c h t m e h r dieselbe e x e m p t i o n von d e n Steuern wie früher, ζ. B. v o m 2 0 e sur les succes­ sions en ligne directe. O h n e das l ' e x t e n s i o n prodigieuse du droit de cité aurait presque e n t i è r e m e n t tari la source des revenus de l'état. (330) Caracalla gab das droit de cité à t o u s les sujets de l'empire. (1. c.) cette noblesse privilégiée qui portait le n o m du peuple r o m a i n . (335) Der Verkauf, der H a n d e l m i t d e m r ö m i s c h e n Bürgerrecht war sicher die H a u p t q u e l l e der é n o r m e s fortunes der affranchis des Claudius, des N e r o , des G a l b a u n d Vitellius. (336) Die 6 oder 7 M i l l i o n e n de citoyens r o m a i n s , gewählt u n t e r d e n reichsten propriétaires des empire, v e r m e h r t e n ihr fortune d u r c h die e x e m p t i o n d'impôts attachée à ce titre, d u r c h d e n W u c h e r , d u r c h die acquisitions successives. H a l b e Provinz Africa gehörte 6 I n d i v i d u e n , die

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N e r o fît périr p o u r s'emparer de leurs dépouilles. Diese m o n s t r u o s e C o n centration der propriété in der classe der citoyens r o m a i n s , die U n m ö g l i c h keit Steuern auf diese privilegirte Klasse zu e r h e b e n u n d d u r c h e m p r u n t s das déficit der ressources ordinaires zu decken, erklären die crimes des e m pereurs. Es trieb sie d a z u der b e s o i n d'argent q u i renaissait sans cesse u n d d e n sie d u r c h voies légales n i c h t befriedigen k o n n t e n . ... la c r u a u t é ne vint q u ' à la suite de la prodigalité. ([336,] 337) la m ê m e nécessité contraignit a u x m ê m e s crimes et l'empire O t t o m a n et ce régime de 93 q u i battait m o n naie sur la place de la Revolution. (338)

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Etendue et Population

de Rome.

A t h e n war ι/Ί des Paris v o n 1813 in Bezug auf Oberfläche u n d Bevölkerung. H a t t e 100,000 Einwohner. (344) Die superficie dieses R o m e superbe weniger als y der von Paris in 1840, circonscrit par le m u r des barrières. (347) D i e superficie comprise dans l'enceinte des m u r s d'Aurélien etwas m e h r 15 als % der von Paris. (1. c.) Selbst, was zuviel ist, a n g e n o m m e n , die Bevölker u n g von R o m , im V e r h ä l t n i ß zur superficie der Stadt sei 2 x stärker gewesen als zu Paris, so hielt das R o m des A u g u s t u n d N e r o , o h n e die faubourgs, n u r 266,684 Einwohner. (370) s

Des Faubourgs de Rome. 20

V e r s t e h t u n t e r F a u b o u r g s die quartiers u n d bourgs contigus a u x m u r a i l l e s de l ' a n c i e n n e R o m e , telles qu'elles existaient sous N é r o n . (371) (cf 3 7 6 - 3 8 7 . )

Des Maisons de Rome. N i m m t an d a ß im IV Jh. der ère c h r é t i e n n e die faubourgs 120,000 Einwoh25 n e r enthielten, die e n c e i n t e d ' A u r é l i e n 382,695, z u s a m m e n 502,695 oder en s o m m e r o n d e 502,000 Einwohner. 30,000 Soldaten. F r e m d e 30,000. Z u s a m m e n 562,000 têtes. (403) M a d r i d , w ä h r e n d 1½ siècles seit Karl V H a u p t s t a d t eines Theils von E u r o p a u n d einer Hälfte der n e u e n W e l t viele rapports m i t R o m . A u c h seine Bevölkerung wuchs n i c h t i m V e r h ä l t n i ß z u 30 seiner politischen B e d e u t u n g . (405, 6) |

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|8| Obstacles à la Population. Bei d e n G r i e c h e n u n d R ö m e r n »le peuple, investi du pouvoir judiciaire et législatif, est u n e véritable noblesse, u n e oligarchie é t e n d u e , et d a n s ces classes les familles t e n d e n t toujours à se r e s t r e i n d r e : l'oligarchie héréditaire t e n d toujours à se resserrer«. ([408,] 409) Les lois fixent un cens p o u r la participation au pouvoir; elles b o r n e n t le n o m b r e des citoyens actifs: aussi ... elles p e r m e t t e n t l'avortement, l'infanticide, l'exposition des enfans ; elles d o n n e n t à l'autorité paternelle un pouvoir illimité. Les femmes, les enfants en bas âge sont rangés, n o n dans la classe des personnes, mais d a n s celle des c h o s e s ; on peut s'en défaire c o m m e d ' u n m e u b l e inutile. (1. c.) Die fixation du cens u n d die Z a h l der Bürger a d m i s à l'exercice des droits politiques begünstigten die goûts contre n a t u r e u n d die n o m b r e imm e n s e de courtisanes in R o m u n d A t h e n . (1. c.) Die Sklaven, in R o m u n d G r i e c h e n l a n d in einer condition très dure, m a l vêtus, m a l logés, m a l n o u r ris, c o n d a m n é s aux travaux de m i n e s , aux fonctions les plus pénibles et les plus délétères dans la m a r i n e , les m a n u f a c t u r e s et les applications des procédés de l ' i n d u s t r i e ; die b e s c h r ä n k t e Z a h l der weiblichen Sklaven, ein Theil davon der Prostitution b e s t i m m t ; d e n Sklaven von d e n M e i s t e r n auferlegtes célibat rigoureux; ihr massiger Preiß m a c h t e es vortheilhafter sie rascher zu exploitiren, als sie zu élever; alles d a s k o n n t e v o n dieser Seite h e r die B e v ö l k e r u n g n i c h t f ö r d e r n . (410, 11) Aristoteles will in einer weisen Republik eine b e s t i m m t e Z a h l von citoyens u n d eine é t e n d u e b o r n é e des territoire, damit sie h i n r e i c h e n d e ressources h a b e n um zu leben, sich u n d ihr Territorium genau k e n n e n k ö n n e n . Plato will in seiner R e p u b l i k n u r 5040 Bürger. A t h e n hatte zur Zeit des Solon n u r 10,800; 20,000 en m a x i m u m von Pericles bis Alexander. Sparta h a t t e h ö c h s t e n s 7000. (412) la limitation du n o m b r e des citoyens était la base du g o u v e r n e m e n t de la Grèce, besonders des gouvernements républicains. (413) le n o m b r e des citoyens était limité dans presque toutes les républiques de la Grèce, l ' a m o u r antiphysique était u n e m e s u r e politique employée par les législateurs afin de restreindre l'accroissement de la population. (415) Fast in ganz Griec h e n l a n d hatte der Vater das R e c h t o h n e A p p e l zu entscheiden ü b e r L e b e n u n d T o d seiner Kinder. Sobald sie geboren, legt m a n sie zu seinen F ü s s e n : w e n n er sie in seine A r m e n i m m t , sind sie gerettet; w e n n er n i c h t reich gen u g ist um sie aufzuziehn oder w e n n sie certains vices de conformation haben, il détourne les yeux u n d m a n sezt sie aus oder n i m m t i h n e n das Leben. Aristoteles sagt Polit. VII, 16: „Das Gesetz h a t zu b e s t i m m e n welche N e u g e b o r n e n ausgesezt oder ernährt werden sollen ... W e n n m a n d e n excès der Bevölkerung aufhalten m u ß u n d Sitten u n d I n s t i t u t i o n e n sich d e m

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Aussetzen der N e u g e b o r n e n widersetzen, wird der Magistrat d e n é p o u x die Zahl ihrer K i n d e r fixiren; w e n n die M u t t e r vient à concevoir ü b e r die vorg e s c h r i e b e Zahl h i n a u s , elle sera t e n u e de se faire avorter avant q u e l'embryon soit a n i m é . " (415, 16) Plato sagt Rep. V. p. 460 u . a . : «les enfants des h o m m e s pervers, c e u x q u i n a î t r a i e n t difformes, les fruits illégitimes, les enfants de père et m è r e trop âgés, seront exposés ; on ne doit pas en surcharger la r é p u b l i q u e . » (416) Das fait der destruction graduelle et constante des classes privilégiées, lorsqu'elles ne se recrutent pas par des a d m i s sions de prolétaires, oder d'étrangers bewiesen d u r c h die ganze griechische u n d römische G e s c h i c h t e . (420) Spätes Alter für das H e i r a t h e n fixirt. (421[, 422]) barbarie des Kriegsrechts bei d e n Alten. (422) Die r ö m i s c h e Agricultur h a t alles von d e n G r i e c h e n entlehnt. ... Un système d'assolem e n t vicieux, u n e jachère b i e n n a l e , l'ignorance des procédés de l'altern a n c e des récoltes, la rotation trop fréquente du blé sur les m ê m e s terres, l'insuffisance et la m a u v a i s e préparation des engrais, le peu d'extension d o n n é e aux prairies artificielles, le petit n o m b r e de bestiaux répartis sur les cultures, l'imperfection des m é t h o d e s et des i n s t r u m e n t s aratoires, l'usage vicieux de brûler les c h a u m e s sur la place au lieu de les convertir en fumier, cent autre pratiques funestes ... tel est le tableau affligeant ... der agriculture grecque et r o m a i n e . (426, 27) Fast alle propriétés rurales in Grèce u n d in Italie entweder régies, für R e c h n u n g du maître, par un intend a n t esclave oder verpachtet an e i n e n colon partiaire, der d e n 9\ n i e m e h r als d e n 6' Theil der récolte erhielt. (427) Zu R o m , le corps des citoyens actifs, plébéjens, chevaliers, sénateurs, ne p u t j a m a i s se m a i n t e n i r au complet sans se recruter par des adjonctions successives de citoyens libres des peuples voisins. (429) En G r è c e et dans l'Italie r o m a i n e c'était la qualité, n o n la quantité des citoyens q u ' o n s'étudiait à obtenir. (430)

Tome

II

Livre III. Agriculture. Produits. 30

Agriculture

Romaine.

Die Blüthe der r ö m i s c h e n Agricultur seit der Vertreibung der Könige bis z u m Krieg gegen H a n n i b a l ... W e n n ein M e n s c h n u r ein kleines Stück Land für seine Existenz u n d die seiner F a m i l i e zu verwerthen hat, il e m ploie nécessairement toutes ses facultés. (2) Die R ö m e r Hessen % ihrer Fel35 der brachliegen. (3) In Irland die Bevölkerung ne songe pas à gagner, elle songe à vivre. (5) In Frankreich, in der L i m a g n e d'Auvergne tout se cultive

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Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 • Heft XIV à bras, dans la Beauce tout à la charrue ; in der ersten die Bevölkerung 3,500 individus, in der 2 7 - 8 0 0 par lieue carrée. D i e propriétés u n d die culture Italiens in d e n ersten J a h r h u n d e r t e n R o m s , wenigstens bis 560 wie Irland u n d la L i m a g n e . Aber E n g l a n d cherche à borner, R o m e d a n s ses 6 premiers siècles tendait à étendre l'accroissement de sa population. (6, 7) l

5

État Physique de l'Italie. D e r B o d e n i m A l l g e m e i n e n G e s u n d , w e n n die F o r m des Terrains d e n A b fluß des Wassers erlaubt, u n g e s u n d im gegentheiligen Fall. (9) Die spätre extension é n o r m e der possessions veranlaßte die Verwandlung von Ackerland in Viehweide. (47) D e r influence de la c o u c h e de gazon e m - ίο p ê c h e l'écoulement des eaux, retient l ' h u m i d i t é u n d favorise, p e n d a n t les chaleurs, l'exhalaison des m i a s m e s putrides. (48) Le luxe, l'avidité et la g o u r m a n d i s e réunis ont inventé des piscines, des étangs d'eau d o r m a n t e , d o u c e ou salée, et ont crée par là de n o u v e a u x foyers d'infections. (50) D i e Sklaven oder Kriegsgefangenen, gaulois ou syriens, asiatiques ou m a u r e s , 15 ne travaillaient q u ' e n c h a î n é s , vivaient le reste du t e m p s entassés d a n s des cachots (ergastulis) u n d ihre G e s u n d h e i t , geschwächt schon d u r c h die Transplantation in ein fremdes Clima, h a t t e zu leiden von mauvais traitem e n t , mauvaise nourriture, réclusion, m a n q u e d'air et d'espace. ([50,] 51) D i e Ursachen des accroissement der Be||9|völkerung des c a n t o n s infectés 20 de l'Italie in den ersten J a h r h u n d e r t e n der R e p u b l i k waren: 1) D i e Ankunft pelasgischer u n d griechischer Colonien, sorties d ' u n clim a t semblables et de cantons malsains, gewohnt à l'intempérie et aux préc a u t i o n s salutaires qui la c o m b a t t e n t ; 2) Die Entwicklung der Cultur, utile à l'écoulement des eaux, der V e r d u n s t u n g der Feuchtigkeit u n d d e m assai- 25 n i s s e m e n t de l'air, en d i m i n u a n t la putréfaction des substances a n i m a l e s ou végétales. (51) Die Hauptgründe des Wachsthums der Ungesundheit und der Verminderung der Bevölkerung waren: 1) Die guerres d ' e x t e r m i n a t i o n en Italie; 2) Die Zerstörung des petites propriétés; 3) D i e Verwandlung von Akkerbau in Wiesen, Folge der C o n c e n t r a t i o n u n d extension der propriétés. 30 4) l ' a b a n d o n des précautions sanitaires. 5) die Ersetzung d ' h o m m e s libres d u r c h Sklaven. 6) Die Einfuhr fremder Sklaven u n d ihre u n g e s u n d e n Verhältnisse. 7) Die s t e h e n d e n süssen u n d salzigen Fischteiche ... n o u v e a u x centres d'exhalaisons pernicieuses, wie die W e i d e n u n d die Gefängnisse der Sklaven. (52) 35

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Agrikultur des

5

10

Cato.

(Cato geboren 520 l'an de R o m e , starb 605, 148 vor J.C.) Alle l o b e n die römische Agricultur im 4 u n d 5 Jh. ... die C o n c e n t r a t i o n u n d E i n s c h i e b u n g von Sklaven s'opéra in d e n 40 lezten J a h r e n des 6* Jh., n a c h der E r o b e r u n g von M a c é d o n i e n d u r c h P a u l u s A e m i l i u s ; die effets stärker gefühlt im VII u n d VIII Jh., seit der Zerstörung Carthagos bis z u m E n d e der R e g i e r u n g N e r o s . ( 5 2 - 5 4 ) Die G e s e t z e ü b e r Ex- u n d I m p o r t des G e t r e i d e s wirkten auch. (54) Im Τ J h . da der B o d e n erschöpft d u r c h beständige Folge v o n W e i z e n b a u ; producirte n u r m e h r u n e q u a n t i t é m é d i o c r e d e céréales; d a r u m verwandelte m a n in W e i d e n e i n e n grossen T h e i l der terres labourables Italiens u n d der c h a m p de blé s c h o n zur Zeit Catos n u r im 6' R a n g dans l'ordre de la valeur et du rapport, ou p r o d u i t n e t des fonds de terre. (54) La terre était épuisée par la petite culture. (55) Im 6 u n d Τ J h . gab d e r italische B o d e n l/2 weniger grain. (56) F ü r die Cultur von O l i v e n b ä u m e n l

15

auf 240 jugera n a c h Cato n u r 13 P e r s o n e n nöthig. (56) ( M a n b r a u c h t e m e h r D ü n g e r u n d h a t t e w e n i g e r K o r n . ) D i e R ö m e r w a n d t e n eine sehr geringe Zahl von T h i e r e n an. (57) les céréales n ' é t a i e n t fumées que par la j a chère. (58)

Du Mode de fermage. 20

Z u r Zeit des Cato, aile propriétés, die die E i g e n t h ü m e r n i c h t selbst b e wirthschafteten d u r c h sich selbst oder d u r c h e i n e n régisseur, affermées à un politor oder colon partiaire, partiarius. Der E i g e n t h ü m e r lieferte Sklaven oder journaliers, bestiaux, s e m e n c e s , outils, vases ou i n s t r u m e n t s , kurz das ganze m o b i l i e r nécessaire à l'exploitation. (60) In d e n terrains von Ca-

25

s i n u m u n d Vénafre, sagt Cato, u n d in e i n e m g u t e n terrain, wird er h a b e n die 8 corbeille, in e i n e m sol assez b o n , die 7 , in e i n e m 3' Q u a l i t ä t die 6 . D a n s le Vénafre die 9 corbeille (panier.) (60) % war das h ö c h s t e für d e n m é t a y e r r o m a i n ; in F r a n k r e i c h h a t der m é t a y e r à cheptel %. (61) In F r a n k reich die métayers m i t der Hälfte elend. In d e n französischen Provinzen, 30 wo baux fixes r e c h n e t m a n % des p r o d u i t b r u t für die R e n t e , % für die Kulturkosten, Steuern, N a h r u n g der M e n s c h e n u n d Thiere die nöthig sind für die Exploitation u n d % als Z i n s u n d Profit des Pächters. Der r ö m i s c h e m é taire oft n o c h schlechter dran, wie der Sklave. ([61,] 62) te

te

te

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Procédés

d'Agriculture.

Bei der Catonischen Agricultur zu loben l'emploi du travail, l'ordre et la vigilance qui étaient la base de cette agriculture. (62, 3) Im III, IV u n d V Jh. mit d e n lois agraires u n d der grossen T h e i l u n g des G r u n d b e s i t z e s das produit b r u t sehr groß. D a h e r W a c h s t h u m der Bevölkerung trotz der b e s t ä n d i 5 gen Kriege. Andrerseits, é n o r m i t é des frais de cette culture à bras, schlechte M e t h o d e n u n d I n s t r u m e n t e , U n k e n n t n i ß der R o t a t i o n , grosser G e t r e i d e c o n s u m der cultivateurs b e i ihrer U n k e n n t n i ß vortheilhaften M a h lens u n d B r o d m a c h e n s , erklärt, wie die r ö m i s c h e n Plebejer m i t 1 oder 3½ arpent de propriétés, i m m e r a r m u n d verschuldet waren; sie waren in 10 der Lage der Irländer. Der m a n q u e d'engrais, n o t h w e n d i g e Folge der klein e n Cultur à bras, de la rotation b i e n n a l e du blé u n d einer zu grossen A u s d e h n u n g der W e i z e n p r o d u c t i o n , erklärt die a b n e h m e n d e Fruchtbarkeit des italischen Bodens u n d die Verwandlung eines grossen Theils davon in Viehweiden. (67) Die distributions gratuites de blé waren die Armentaxe der 15 R ö m e r . (68) Die Concurrenz der terres de l'Ejypte, de la Sicile, de l'Afrique trug a u c h das ihrige z u m Verfall der G e t r e i d e k u l t u r bei. (1. c.) Ce changem e n t fut très prompt et ses effets très rapides, puisqu'ils causèrent, von 619 bis 630, die m o u v e m e n t s des G r a c q u e s , et leurs propositions. (1. c.)

Agriculture de Varro.

20

I t a q u e sub urbe (in der N ä h e der Stadt) hortos colère late expedit, sic violaria, ac rosaria, (Veilchen- u n d Rosengärten) i t e m m u l t a , q u a e urbs recipit. (76)

Des

Instruments

d'Agriculture.

M a n sieht aus einer Stelle des Varro, daß la majeure partie des propriétaires, et tous les grands propriétaires sans exception étaient obligés de faire fabriquer chez eux tous les objets nécessaires à leurs besoins. (82)

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M a n cultivirte die lys, d e n safran, les roses et le serpolet im Grossen. (87) So groß war d a m a l s die c o n s o m m a t i o n des grives et des merles engraissés d a n s les volières, daß ihr K o t h (leur fiente) als D ü n g e r p o u r les terres diente. (89)

Patrie des Céréales. G l a u b t daß das T h a l des J o r d a n s ( J u d ä a ) das Vaterland des blé u n d orge ist, weil hier u. a. diese F r ü c h t e , n a c h d e m m a n sie abgeschnitten, sich im 2' J a h r von selbst wieder aus d e m Stengel erzeugen. (117[, 118]) Also »la 10 chaîne du Liban«. (118) |

|10| Rapport de la Semence au Produit. Die terres fécondes des L é o n t i n s (agri L e o n t i n i E b n e n von Catania (Sicilien)) gaben n a c h Varro 8, 10 u n d 15 grains pour un ; die m o y e n n e war n u r 4:1 zur Zeit des Columella im größten Theil von Italien. Die plaines de Ca15 t a n e gaben n o c h 8:1 in d e n guten, 10:1 in d e n ausserordentlich fruchtbaren Jahren. 4:1 ist n o c h das p r o d u i t m o y e n du froment in P i é m o n t . ( 1 1 9 - 1 2 1 ) Sehr wenige endroits en Toscane g e b e n jezt n o c h 10:1 en b l é ; das Val d'Arno giebt n u r n o c h 6:1. La m a r c h e d ' A n c ô n e in d e n saisons favorables 10:1. ... Le val de Chiana, qui, dans le 17 siècle, n ' é t a i t presque q u ' u n lac 20 et un marais pestilentiel, a été desséché, et le blé y rapporte c o m m u n é m e n t 10 à 12 boisseaux pour u n . (Nach J. S y m o n d s p. 122) D e r c o m t e Prospéra Balbo u n d M. Charles Pictet, dans leurs m é m o i r e s sur l'agriculture de Piém o n t , d o n n e n t les rapports de la s e m e n c e au produit, ganz g e m ä ß d e n e n die Columella berichtet. Ihre B e m e r k u n g e n erklären zugleich das P h ä n o 25 m e n einer grossen Bevölkerung m i t schlechten assolements u n d u n e agriculture peu habile. N a c h i h n e n der rapport en blé = 1:4, der des seigle = 1:9; keine j a c h è r e s ; 2 récoltes p a r an. W e n i g Dünger, relativement à cette c o n t i n u i t é de p r o d u c t i o n ; aber die prés fast ganz fécondés d u r c h irrigations u n d liefern 3 récoltes de foin. Die feuilles des arbres d i e n e n z u m 30 Thierfutter. C'est surtout l'excellente construction de la charrue p i é m o n taise, l'araire, conduite par 2 boeufs et 1 h o m m e , ce sont les 4 ou 5 labours q u ' o n d o n n e avec la charrue p o u r la culture du froment, ce sont les binages répétés pour les maïs et les légumes, qui, selon M. Pictet, sont la cause de

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Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 · Heft XIV cette a b o n d a n c e de produits bruts. La terre est t o u t e entière affermée à moitié, lorsqu'elle produit du blé, du maïs, du seigle, du riz et de la soie ; les prés sont seuls à rente fixe et affermés la m o i t i é du revenu net. Le propriétaire paie les impôts ; le m é t a y e r fournit les bestiaux et les i n s t r u m e n t s aratoires. (123, 4) La Toscane et l'état de L u c q u e s , où il y a 5 ou 6 mille ha5 bitants par lieue carrée, et où l'on ne cultive pas la p o m m e de terre, où le produit net est très faible, m a i s le produit b r u t é n o r m e et employé presque en totalité à la p r o d u c t i o n des h o m m e s , explique très b i e n le p h é n o m è n e de la grande p o p u l a t i o n italienne dans les 5 premiers siècles de la républiq u e r o m a i n e ; car m ê m e système de culture, de b a u x à part de fruits, 10 m ê m e s outils aratoires imparfaits, m ê m e assolement vicieux. (124) D a s produit m o y e n en blé de la F r a n c e geschäzt 5 - 6 : 1 in 1780 d u r c h N e c k e r u n d Lavoisier, jezt von 7 - 8 , grâce aux progrès q u ' a faits la culture depuis 46 ans. (124, 5) Zu Varros Zeit der D u r c h s c h n i t t h ö c h s t e n s von 5:1. D i e ß erklärt, p o u r q u o i à cette époque, le prix du blé étant a u g m e n t é d ' u n tiers, 15 on convertit en pâtures la plus grande parties des terres labourables. L ' é n o r m i t é des frais de culture, accrue encore par la substitution du travail des esclaves à celui des h o m m e s libres, r e n d raison de ce fait. (125)

Revenu des terres labourables et des Prés. Si l'on songe que les anciens faisaient usage alors de faux d'airain, i. e. d ' u n alliage d'étain et de cuivre j a u n e ; qu'ils ne connaissaient pas l'art de b i e n tremper le fer et de fabriquer l'acier ; qu'ils n ' o n t découvert qu'assez tard l'espèce de pierre propre à aiguiser la faux, on ne sera pas é t o n n é qu'ils fussent obligés de faire en d e u x fois, et par u n e m a i n d ' œ u v r e b i e n plus chère, l'opération du fauchage des prés q u e n o u s exécutons d ' u n seul coup. Ce n'est m ê m e , c o m m e on sait, q u e depuis le dernier siècle q u e la fabrication des fers de faux a été portée à u n e assez grande perfection. ... D a s moissonner erheischte a u c h u n e m a i n d ' œ u v r e double de la n ô t r e q u a n d n o u s coupons le blé à la faucille, et plus que le quadruple si n o u s n o u s servons de la faux. (129, 30)

Des

Troupeaux.

Presque tous nos espèces d o m e s t i q u e s sont originaires de l'Asie. (138)

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Du menu bétail. (144 sqq.) Du Gros Bétail. (150 sqq.) Des Mulets et des Chiens. (159) Des Bergers et de leurs travaux. 5

C'est encore un des fruits de la domesticité que la production p e r m a n e n t e s de lait chez les vaches, les brebis et les chèvres ; les espèces sauvages ne le conservent q u e le t e m p s nécessaire p o u r q u e leurs petits puissent s'habituer à d'autres aliments. (170) |

| 1 1 | Produits de la Villa; Des Volières. 10

U n t e r Villa verstand m a n u n t e r a n d e r e m a u c h u n e m é n a g e r i e p o u r élever et engraisser des a n i m a u x , des oiseaux, des poissons, des insectes et des m o l l u s q u e s recherchés par le luxe des tables. (175, 6) M a n m ä s t e t e künstlich des ortolans, des cailles et des grives. (179) On les privait de la lumière ; on les nourrissait de boulettes faites avec des figues et de la farine 15 d'épeautre, on faisait passer d a n s la volière un petit canal d'eau c o u r a n t e pour qu'ils pussent boire et se baigner à volonté. On tenait la volière très propre. Vingt jours avant de les p r e n d r e p o u r la c o n s o m m a t i o n , on augm e n t a i t leur nourriture, on y m e t t a i t de la farine plus fine. A côté de la grande volière, on en avait u n e petite plus éclairée, où l'on faisait entrer les 20 oiseaux gras q u ' o n voulait tuer. (179, 180) é d u c a t i o n des paons. (180) Les pigeons. (184) é d u c a t i o n des tourterelles. (186) Les poules. (187) etc. la domestication du canard était négligée chez les anciens. Chez n o u s ces oiseaux vivent libres et ne p e n s e n t pas à s'envoler. (199)

Des Parcs D'animaux. 25

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Enthielt zur Zeit Varros n i c h t m e h r 1 oder 2 jugera de terrain et q u e l q u e s lièvres, sondern eine grosse Z a h l d'arpents peuplés de cerf et de chevreuils. (200) Die R ö m e r engraissaient des l i m a ç o n s et des loirs. (1. c.) Le 14ième chapitre de Varron traite de l'éducation des mollusques d'eau d o u c e à coquilles, q u ' o n engraissait aussi dans les parcs p o u r les délice de la table. (202, 3) Parcs d'escargots. (204)

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Des Viviers (bassins d'eau peuplé de poissons.) (d'eau d o u c e et d'eau salée) « L e s viviers alimentés par la m e r sont l'apanage de n o t r e noblesse.» (p. 209) (Ils c o û t e n t b e a u c o u p à construire, b e a u c o u p à peupler, et b e a u c o u p à nourrir.) (209) Lucius Lucullus avait fait percer u n e m o n t a g n e près de Naples et avait introduit dans ses viviers des fleuves m a r i n s q u i coulaient ou s'écoulaient par le flux et le reflux ... il p e r m i t à son architecte de c o n s u m e r sa fortune, pourvu qu'il lui conduisît u n e galerie souterraine depuis ses viviers j u s q u ' à la mer, en la fermant d ' u n e b o n d e qui permît à la m a r é e , d'y entrer et d'en sortir d e u x fois par jour. (212, 13) (et de renouveler ainsi l'eau de ses piscines. [213]) On a dû r e m a r q u e r q u e cette culture en grand des fleurs, cette industrie si productive d ' a n i m a u x de t o u t e espèce, nourris et engraissés dans les villas, n ' é t a i e n t destinées q u ' a u luxe de la capitale, et restaient concentrées dans un rayon circonscrit a u t o u r de R o m e . L'état social des R o m a i n s ressemblait alors b e a u c o u p plus à celui de la Russie ou de l'empire o t t o m a n q u ' à celui de la F r a n c e ou de l'Angleterre: p e u de c o m m e r c e ou d'industrie ; des fortunes i m m e n s e s à côté d ' u n e extrême m i sère. (214) V o n 388 de R o m e bis 609, diese 2 J a h r h u n d e r t e n a c h Errichtung der lois liciniennes größte Blüthe der Agricultur in R o m . E p o c h e der T h e i l u n g der propriétés, des emploi de la p o p u l a t i o n libre à l'agriculture, Erfindung des m é t h o d e s savantes ... W a c h s t h u m der freien Population, Italien producirt m e h r als es consumirt, führt Korn aus. D i e Cultur sehr dispendieuse, I n s t r u m e n t e u n v o l l k o m m e n , die travail à m a i n allgemein adopté; folglich das produit b r u t viel stärker als das produit net. ... Seit der Zerstörung Carthagos, wo die Oligarchie sich des pouvoir bemächtigt, die licinischen Gesetze abgeschafft, die propriété des plébéjens usurpirt, die R e i c h t h ü m e r accumulirt u n d concentrirt, Corruption der Sitten, Einführung des Luxus, E n t s t e h e n des W u c h e r s , Geld wird eine M a c h t , u n e n t g e l d liche Vertheilung von blé, Export desselben von Italien verboten, I m p o r t von Africa, Sicilien u n d Sardinien d u r c h P r ä m i e n begünstigt; Volk wird oisif u n d turbulent, a b a n d o n n e la culture des terre, méprise la profession de journalier : il faut importer u n e é n o r m e q u a n t i t é d'esclaves. La culture des grains devient trop dispendieuse, la c o n c u r r e n c e des grains étrangers trop redoutable. Verwandlung in pâtures d ' u n e grande partie des terre en lab o u r ; on crée des basses cours, des colombiers, des viviers, des parcs de bêtes fauves, p o u r la c o n s o m m a t i o n de l'oligarchie de la capitale. Le produit, la valeur des terres d i m i n u e ; l'agriculture confiée à des esclaves déchoit. Entvölkerung, la population libre décroît avec les produits. ( 2 1 5 - 1 7 ) Die 19 J a h r h u n d e r t e seit Varro h a b e n exercé u n e influence m a r q u é e sur la

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Concentration des Propriétés.

G e s c h i c h t e des Τ u n d 8' J h . zeigt Agricultur, Bevölkerung, Producte Roms verfallen wachsend m i t der A u s d e h n u n g seiner M a c h t u n d d e m A n z i e h n eines grossen Theils des R e i c h t h u m s der d a m a l i g e n Welt. Concentration des Reichthums; wunderbar wachsende Zahl der Sklaven. Kaiser Tiberius dagegen. Latifundia perdidere Italiam, j a m vero et provincias; sex d o m i n i s e m i s s e m Africae possidebant c u m interfecit eos N e r o princeps. (Plinius) Z u r Zeit des H o n o r i u s u n d A r c a d i u s , wo der R e i c h t h u m sehr verfallen, besassen einige grosse r ö m i s c h e F a m i l i e n , en argent et en produits ruraux, n o c h reven u s von 2 millions fcs. A u g u s t u s klagte ü b e r die distribution gratuite de vivres als eine U r s a c h e des Verfalls der Agricultur. A p p i a n u s sagt: « L e s distributions de blé q u ' o n faisait à R o m e a u x citoyens pauvres y avaient at-

15

tiré tous les fainéants, t o u s les m e n d i a n t s , tous les séditieux de l'Italie.» S c h o n vor J. Caesar erhielten 320,000 citoyens gratis du blé, m i t 3 m u l t i p l i cirt für W e i b e r u n d K i n d e r giebt 960,000 oisifs. Caesar reducirte sie auf 150,000. Chertés des vivres u n t e r d e n 12 ersten Césars. Die R ö m e r b e zweckten in i h r e m Colonisationssystem d e n a c k e r b a u t r e i b e n d e n T h e i l der 20 italischen Bevölkerung zu v e r m e h r e n . Gegentheiliger Erfolg. Die r e i c h e n citoyens b e m ä c h t i g t e n sich des größten Theils der eroberten L ä n d e r e i e n , die n i c h t verkauft oder abgetreten waren, u n d b e t r a c h t e t e n sich auf die Länge als deren E i g e n t h ü m e r . D a s E i g e n t h u m ihrer k l e i n e n N a c h b a r n b r a c h t e n sie an sich d u r c h persuasion, violence, C h i c a n e s . So vastes d o 25

m a i n e s . L ä n d e r e i e n u n d H e r d e n d e n Sklaven anvertraut, die n i c h t u n t e r worfen d e n charges die die conscription militaire auf die F r e i e n fallen ließ. A u s d e m Columella sieht m a n , d a ß zu seiner Zeit, die Weiber, in Stadt u n d L a n d sich n i c h t m e h r u m d e n m é n a g e k ü m m e r t e n , s o n d e r n i n S c h m u c k u n d L u x u s g e g e n s t ä n d e n das Capital verpraßten, das auf die Agri-

30

cultur hätte verwendet werden m ü s s e n . N a c h Plinius in d e n ersten 5 Jahrh u n d e r t e n der Preiß der vivres u n g l a u b l i c h niedrig. Ce bas prix du blé fut une des causes qui en firent abandonner la culture. ( 2 1 8 - 2 3 4 )

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Destruction de la classe moyenne. V o n d e n G r a c c h e n bis August système d'exactions, de concussions, de confiscations, de proscriptions. Das e n v a h i s s e m e n t c o n t i n u e l des petits propriétaires par les h o m m e s riches et puissants zerstörte vollständig die classe m o y e n n e , active et industrieuse. M o r d u n d Proscription n a c h der 5 Niederlage der G r a c c h e n . G u e r r e sociale von 3 J a h r e n , n a h m Italien 300,000 M a n n . Die Proscriptions u n t e r M a r i u s u n d Sylla. Die classe m o y e n n e h a t t e besonders m i t M a r i u s gehalten. Sylla gezwungen, 10,000 Sklaven zu Bürgern zu m a c h e n . Vertheilte d e n 23 légions die propriétés foncières etc der Proscrits. Cäsar etablirte m e h r als 120,000 légionnaires. 10 683 n u r n o c h 450,000 citoyens r o m a i n s von 1 7 - 6 0 J a h r e n . E n d l i c h der Krieg von Spartacus. U n t e r Cäsar disette de subsistance u n d F o r d e r u n g der abolition der dettes, gestüzt auf die Verringerung des W e r t h s der L ä n d e reien in Folge der guerres et séditions. D u r c h die lex Julia erlaubte er den débiteurs de s'acquitter en livrant des fonds de terres estimés au prix où ils 15 étaient avent la guerre civile ; die loi retranchait aussi du capital der dette die W u c h e r z i n s e n , die % der Schuld bildeten. U n t e r Cäsar n u r n o c h 450,000 waffenfähige Bürger u n d also ungefähr (a. 683) 1,800,000 personnes libres, wo 529: 750,000 c o m b a t t a n t s u n d ungefähr 3 m i l l i o n e n freie Bürger. U n t e r Caesar daher lex Julia ü b e r die mariage. Prérogatives assu- 20 rées à ceux qui auraient plusieurs enfans. Proscriptions u n d confiscations u n t e r Octave, A n t o i n e u n d Lépide. Vertheilung u n t e r d e n Soldaten, état déplorable de la culture tombées dans les m a i n s de ces guerriers avides et prodigues. ( 2 3 4 - 2 4 4 )

Diminution de la Population et des Produits.

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U n t e r August jährlich n a c h R o m u n d Italien, von Aejypten u n d Africa, 60 M i l l i o n e n m o d i u s blé gebracht, la disette d ' h o m m e s libres so groß gen E n d e der Regierung des August, daß m a n gezwungen d'enrôler les affranchis dans les légions. C o n c e n t r a t i o n der propriétés, e n o r m e r W u c h e r z i n s , culture vicieuse, Fortschritte des L u x u s die j e d e s J a h r m e h r terrain der 30 Agricultur entzogen, die multiplicité des fêtes et des jours consacrés aux j e u x , V e r m i n d e r u n g der freien Bevölkerung d u r c h die v e r d o r b n e n Sitten, goûts contre nature, l'usage der avortements u n d expositions der enfants, u n t e r August m e h r célibateurs als mariés ... so die produits v e r m i n d e r t de règne en règne. D a z u der despotisme impérial u n d die instabilité des 35 E i g e n t h u m s . G e g e n a n s t r e n g u n g e n des Tiberius. Leiden des Volks u n t e r

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Aus Adolphe-Jules-César-Auguste Dureau de La Malle: Économie politique des Romains i h m von disette u n d cherté des vivres. 785 u n t e r i h m Gefahr eines Aufruhrs wegen disette. U n t e r Claudius n o c h größre d i m i n u t i o n der produits de l'Italie. 804 furchtbare disette zu R o m . C l a u d e assailli sur son tribunal. U n t e r i h m lex Papia zur Beförderung der mariages. U n t e r Nero famine in 5 R o m ; m a n war obligé T a r e n t e u n d A n t i u m zu versuchen zu repeupler d u r c h Veteranen. Seit d e n Bürgerkriegen von M a r i u s u n d Sylla, wieviel R ö m e r enrôlés in die légions wo die 20 ersten J a h r e ihres e n g a g e m e n t s'écoulaient d a n s le célibat. Die Veterans, nourris in d e n Bürgerkriegen, d e n e n m a n vertheilte die biens der proscrits oder die territoires der Städte 10 q u i avaient t e n u le parti contraire, prodigues et dépravés, rebelles a u x lois de mariage, inhabiles à élever des enfants, s t r ö m t e n n a c h R o m pour y j o u i r des jeux, des spectacles, des festins, des distributions gratuites, verschuldet e n sich ü b e r die O h r e n u n d erwarteten d a n n oder suscitaient des n o u veaux troubles um zu réparer leur r u i n e par de nouvelles u s u r p a t i o n s . Also 15 das Célibat der Soldaten H i n d e r n i ß für die R e p r o d u c t i o n der Freien, wie die dure condition der esclaves für ihre R e p r o d u c t i o n . ( 2 4 5 - 2 5 4 )

Livre IV Institutions Politiques. Administration. - Finances. Nature des Lois Agraires. 20

loi agraire war u n e limitation de la propriété foncière entre les citoyens actifs ... diese Beschränkung des Besitzes die G r u n d l a g e der Existenz u n d prospérité der alten R e p u b l i k e n . (256, 7) |

|13| De l'Intérêt légal de l'argent. Das Gesetz ü b e r die S c h u l d e n (260) h a t t e einfach statuirt daß die intérêts perçus seraient passés en c o m p t e et en d é d u c t i o n du capital u n d d a ß d e n S c h u l d n e r n 3 Jahre gegeben w ü r d e n um s'acquitter du reste en 3 paiem e n t s égaux. ... Das Gesetz der 12 Tafeln, 303, sezte d e n Geldzinsfuß auf 1 % par an. 398, durch D u i l i u s dieß Gesetz hergestellt u n d der Zinsfuß von n e u e m auf 1 % gesezt. A u f % % reducirt 408 u n d 413 a b s o l u m e n t défendu 30 par un plébiscite, m u l t i s q u e plebiscitis, sagt Tacitus, obviam i t u m fraudib u s quae, totiens repressae, m i r a s per artes r u r s u m oriebantur. A b e r d a m a l s zugleich der c o m m e r c e en gros et en détail interdit aux citoyens. Dieser Z u s t a n d dauerte 3 J h d t e bis zur E r o b e r u n g von Carthago. Als die Oligarchie gesiegt 12 % erlaubt b e i m L e i h e n , aber 6 % der t a u x c o m m u n de l'inté25

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1 Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 · Heft XIV rêt a n n u e l . 429 die contrainte par corps abgeschafft u n d die créanciers n u r m e h r actions auf die biens de leurs débiteurs, die cessèrent d'être livrés à l'esclavage. ( 2 5 9 - 2 6 6 )

Des Lois Liciniennes. t e

Das 2 (388) dieser Gesetze erlaubte k e i n e m Bürger ü b e r 500 jugera, Gratisvertheilung oder Verpachtung des Ueberschusses an die a r m e n Bürger, m i n d e s t e n s in dieser partage 7 jugera pro Kopf, n u r b e s t i m m t e Z a h l von Sklaven auf diesen terres, Z a h l der t r o u p e a u x b e s c h r ä n k t u n d im Verhältniß zur Grösse der b e s e ß n e n L ä n d e r e i e n ; daß die R e i c h s t e n weder n ä h r e n n o c h envoyer dürften auf d e n c o m m u n a u x u n d pâturages publics m e h r als 100 H o r n v i e h u n d 500 Schafe; a m e n d e bei U e b e r t r e t u n g von 10,000 as (1630 fcs.). Das 3* Gesetz eröffnete d e n Plebejern das Consulat, 398 ein plebejischer Dictator, 403 u n d 406 Censor, zugelassen zur Pretur 417 u n d zu den sacerdoces 452. (Carthago zerstört 608) Les t r i o m p h e s de la république a m e n è r e n t la ruine de sa constitution. Die E r o b e r u n g von M a c é d o n i e n verdarb die Sitten des Volks. « C e r o y a u m e subjugué, sagt Polybe, on crut pouvoir vivre dans u n e entière sécurité et j o u i r t r a n q u i l l e m e n t de l'empire de l'univers. La plupart vivaient à R o m e dans un d é r a n g e m e n t é t r a n g e ; l'amour emportait la jeunesse a u x excès les plus h o n t e u x . On s'adonnait a u x spectacles, aux festins, aux luxes, a u x désordres de tout genre, d o n t on n'avait q u e trop é v i d e m m e n t pris l'exemple chez les Grecs p e n d a n t la guerre contre Persée.» Die désordre stieg m i t der M a c h t , bis der Sturz Carthagos, ayant livré aux grands d ' i m m e n s e s possessions, porta la corruption au plus h a u t degré. Das Gesetz das d e n Besitz ü b e r 500 jugera verbot, zuerst fraudulös u m g a n g e n . Die riches erwarben beträchtlichere Besitzungen u n t e r erborgten N a m e n ; d a n n , encouragés par leur n o m b r e , fuhren sie fort zu besitzen par u n e violation ouverte des Gesetzes. ... D i e grands liessen sich v o m ager publicus adjuger à vil prix des vastes portions; ils avaient eu le crédit d'obtenir des b a u x à rente m o d i q u e ou des distributions privilégiées dans les diverses colonies de la république. Um ihre d o m e s t i q u e s d e n charges du service militaire zu e n t z i e h n , führten sie statt ihrer auf ihren terres fremde Sklaven ein, réduisirent par là les h o m m e s de c a m p a g n e s à la plus grande misère, et les forcèrent à se réfugier au sein des villes p o u r y trouver leur subsistance d a n s les largesses des grands u n d vendre leur suffrage au plus offrant. A p p i a n sagt: « L e s riches se firent adjuger la plus grande partie des terres n o n distribuées ; ils achetèrent ou prirent de force les petits héritages des pauvres gens leurs voisins et firent ainsi de leurs champs d'immenses domaines.» (266-279)

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Lois de Tiberius Gracchus. T. G. 619, z u m T r i b u n e r n a n n t , beschloß die licinische loi agraire wieder in Kraft zu setzen. Ausser den 500 j u g e r a erlaubte er d e n fils der riches propriétaires 250 u n d n u r das surplus sollte d e n pauvres vertheilt werden. 5 Verbot den R e i c h e n diese biens zu kaufen und den Armen sie zu verkaufen. Auf den W i d e r s t a n d des T r i b u n Octavius verlangt er direkte Wiederherstellung der alten Gesetze u n d das a b a n d o n n e m e n t der surplus terres auf der Stelle. 3 Commissaire e r n a n n t für die D u r c h f ü h r u n g seines Gesetzes, woru n t e r er selbst. Einige Zeit n a c h h e r , als Attale Philométor, lezter K ö n i g 10 von Pergamus, das römische Volk zu s e i n e m E r b e n einsezte, schlug Tiberius ein neues Gesetz vor, daß „tout l'argent c o m p t a n t de la succession de ce prince serait distribué aux pauvres citoyens, afin qu'ils eussent de q u o i s ' e m m é n a g e r dans leurs nouvelles possessions, et se pourvoir des instruments nécessaire à l'agriculture". C i c e r o Schuft. D i e Proletarier gleichzeitig von 15 den L ä n d e r e i e n h e r a u s g e s c h m i s s e n u n d d u r c h die Sklaven von der Arbeit verdrängt, hatten nichts m e h r zu verkaufen als ihre S t i m m e n . Voyez, sur la vénalité des élections et les m a n œ u v r e s employées p o u r acheter le consulat, la préture, l'édilité die 2* R e d e gegen Verres. D a h e r die Corruption générale. Sie fingen an, wie Sallust sagt, à vendre la république avec leur pro20 pre liberté. Die U s u r p a t i o n datirte von 12 J a h r e n vor T. G r a c c h u s . (280-299) Lois de Cajus Gracchus. U. A. édits qu'il présenta, eines qui regardait les colonies u n d d e n a r m e n citoyens die terres des villes gab, w o h i n m a n sie schickte um diese zu re25 peupler; andres zu G u n s t e n der T r u p p e n ; ein andres das allen Völkern Italiens le droit de suffrage gab; ein andres, das den Getreidepreiß für die Arm e n verminderte; e n d l i c h eins, das d e n S e n a t o r e n die richterliche Gewalt n a h m u n d sie d e n Chevaliers gab, die sie 16 oder 17 J a h r e wirklich genossen. Das schlimme u n t e r seinen G e s e t z e n die lex frumentaria, w o d u r c h ein 30 Bürger den m o d i u s (13½ de nos livres) für % eines as erhielt. Concession obligée de l'oligarchie envers le peuple, on regardait la fortune p u b l i q u e c o m m e u n e propriété c o m m u n e qui devait être partagée entre les particuliers. Die Vertheilung des blé waren die r ö m i s c h e Paupertaxe. A u f die 450,000 citoyens r o m a i n s (705, 48 J a h r e vor Ch.) 320,000 erhielten gratis 35 blé von der Republik. Diese Vertheilung aber u m g e k e h r t e n Effect wie die A r m e n t a x e in England - n ä m l i c h d i m i n u t i o n de la population. Z u r Zeit Ciceros nicht 2000 h o m i n u m q u i r e m haberent. ( 2 9 9 - 3 2 2 ) |

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|14| Lois de Rullus, de Flavius, et de César. D a s Gesetz des Tiberius G r a c c h u s erhielt d e n Anfang von Ausführung seit seiner Promulgation, 621 bis z u m T o d e von Cajus G r a c c h u s , 6 3 3 . Kurz n a c h h e r u n e loi portée, die erlaubte de vendre et d'acheter les portions concédées du d o m a i n e public. D i e riches renouvelèrent leurs u s u r p a t i o n s 5 u n d die pauvres colons dépossédés. 15 J a h r e n a c h der P r o m u l g a t i o n der Gesetze des Cajus blieb d e n plébéjens ni terres concédées, ni distribution d'argent et de blé. 6 9 1 , seit d e m entrée Ciceros z u m Consulat, schlug der Volkstribun Servilius Rullus ein n e u e s Agrargesetz vor, das u n t e r d e m Vorwand du soulagement des pauvres, einigen citoyens alle D o m ä n e n u n d R e - 10 v e n u e n der Republik preißgab et conférait aux decemvirs chargés de son exécution un pouvoir exorbitant. 694, Pompejus revenu de l'Asie, wollte seinen soldats u n e distribution de terres m a c h e n . D a z u schlug der T r i b u n Flavius eine lex agraria vor. afin q u e t o u t le peuple p û t y p r e n d r e intérêt, ils associaient les autres citoyens au partage des terres. 695 J. César, consul, 15 reprit les propositions de Rullus et Flavius, m a i s en les modifiant, et présenta de n o u v e a u u n e loi agraire. Il paraît que, par suite de la loi agraire de J. César, toutes les terres d o m a n i a l e s situées en Italie, furent distribuées a u x plébéjens; d e n n Cicero sagt in e i n e m Brief an A t t i c u s : « A p r è s la distrib u t i o n des terres de la C a m p a n i e et l'abolition des d o u a n e s et des entrées, 20 q u e l revenu reste-t-il en Italie à la r é p u b l i q u e , excepté le 2 0 assis sur la vente et l'affranchissement des esclaves?» ( 3 2 2 - 3 3 2 ) è m e

Droits Civils et Politiques. le g o u v e r n e m e n t r o m a i n n ' a été q u ' u n e n s e m b l e d'institutions m u n i c i pales. Q u a n d R o m e s'est é t e n d u e , ce n ' a dû être q u ' u n e agglomération de 25 colonies de m u n i c i p e s , de petits états fait pour l'isolement et l'indépend a n c e . Das G e h e i m n i ß der d e n n o c h i g e n u n i t é des r ö m i s c h e n R e i c h s ist das système gradué de différents droits accordés, soit a u x individus, soit a u x cités, soit enfin aux peuples s o u m i s à la d o m i n a t i o n r o m a i n e . Optimum jus civis romani, R e c h t e d ' u n citoyen envoyé dans u n e colonie, j u s l a t i n u m , 30 j u s italicum, j u s des m u n i c i p e s , des villes libres ou fédérées, enfin les droits et les charges des villes et des c a n t o n s tributaires. ... 585 la victoire de P a u l Emile affranchit le peuple r o m a i n de l'impôt foncier u n d die droits de d o u a n e et d'octroi abgeschafft in Italien u n d R o m , 694, par la loi de Metellus N e p o s . ( 3 3 2 - 3 5 2 ) 35

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Civile

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Il y avait dans les provinces des terres qui étaient la propriété d o m a n i a l e de la république. Les a n c i e n s d o m a i n e s des rois de M a c é d o i n e , de P e r g a m e , de Bithynie, de Cyrène, de Chypre, et les territoires confisqués lors de la c o n q u ê t e c o m p o s a i e n t l'ensemble de ce p a t r i m o i n e public, toutes ces terres s'affermaient en argent au profit de l'état. ( 3 5 2 - 3 6 4 . ) (Concussion, Exhaustion, Prellerei etc.)

Effets

de

lAdministration

Provinciale.

Le pillage des contrées opulentes de la G r è c e et de l'Asie avait créé, p o u r un certain n o m b r e de sénateurs, des fortunes i m m e n s e s ; ils en employèrent u n e partie p o u r a m u s e r le p e u p l e par des jeux, des fêtes, des spectacles, des combats de bêtes féroces ou de gladiateurs. Ils s'attachèrent à faire naître chez leurs anciens rivaux la d é b a u c h e et la paresse. Bientôt la misère ... gagna t o u t le corps des plébéjens et les m i t sous la d é p e n d a n c e 15 absolue des riches qui fournissaient a u x plaisirs et a u x besoins de leur vie. C o m m e le cens et les propriétés foncières conféraient un pouvoir politique, les riches en dépouillèrent p e u à p e u les plébéjens par l'usure, la séduction, la fraude ou la violence. ... La vanité des grands s'enorgueillissait d'exercer un i m m e n s e patronage. ... foule de clients ... R o m e devint un séjour de 20 délices et d'oisiveté, et les peuples de l'Italie ... quittèrent en foule leurs villes, leurs ateliers et leurs cultures pour venir s'établir d a n s la capitale et y jouir des plaisirs et de l ' e x e m p t i o n de travail qu'elle offrait à ses h a b i tants. ( 3 6 4 - 3 7 6 ) 10

Population et Produits de la Sicile. 25

30

In Sicilien l'usage des grandes ferme§. ... la Sicile fabriquait b e a u c o u p d'étoffes précieuses, soit pour la parure, soit p o u r l ' a m e u b l e m e n t ; des m e u bles, des o r n e m e n t s , des objets d'art et de luxe, exécutés avec le goût et l'élégance propres à la n a t i o n grecque, sortaient en foule de ses ateliers et de ses manufactures. ( 3 7 6 - 3 8 4 ) (Sicilien hatte zur Zeit Ciceros 1,190,592 Einwohner.)

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De la Province d'Asie. Kleinasien sehr productiv, é t o n n a n t e population, richesses, industrie. Cicero sagt, daß diese province a b o n d e en richesses et en b e a u t é s de t o u t genre, esclaves superbes, m é t a u x précieux, étoffes recherchées, vases, tab l e a u x et statues. Zahlreiche Städte. Er sagt: «les tributs des autres provinces suffisent à peine à leur défense ; m a i s l'Asie est si riche et si fertile que, par la fécondité de ses c h a m p s , l ' é t e n d u e de ses pâturages, la variété de ses produits ||15| et la m u l t i t u d e des objets q u i en sont exportés, elle surpasse de b e a u c o u p tous les autres pays.» Les tributs perçus par les publicains, qui avaient dans la r é p u b l i q u e le m ê m e e m p l o i q u e nos anciens fermiers généraux, consistaient en redevances fixes, capitation sur les h o m m e s et sur le bétail, droits de d o u a n e s , d'octroi, de péage, impôts sur les portes, et sur la vente du sel. Sie w u r d e n g e n o m m e n , diese fermiers, dans l'ordre des chevaliers u n d waren organisés en grandes compagnies, et b e a u c o u p des R o m a i n s des autres classes, attirés en Asie par des spéculations de t o u t e espèce, y avaient porté u n e si grande m a s s e de leurs capitaux propres ou empruntés, q u e l'état des affaires dans cette province était dev e n u le régulateur du crédit et du t a u x de l'intérêt d a n s la capitale. ... les publicains aggravaient é n o r m é m e n t le poids des charges, et forçaient les villes de l'Asie, qui étaient solidaires de la totalité des impôts, à payer, p o u r les termes arriérés, un intérêt usuraire qui m o n t a i t souvent à 48 pour % par an. Les gouverneurs étaient p o u r t a n t forcés de m é n a g e r cette corporation puissante, qui formée des chevaliers r o m a i n s , était alors investie du pouvoir judiciaire et se mettait souvent audessus des lois. ... Aus e i n e m Briefe Ciceros an Atticus folgt, d a ß die chevaliers r o m a i n s p r e n a i e n t à ferme, p o u r cinq ans, tous les revenus de la r é p u b l i q u e d a n s u n e province, et qu'ils les louaient et sous louaient ensuite à des traitants et à des sous traitants. ... E i n Gesetz von Solon o r d o n n a i t de vendre à prix fixe, sans dol ni f r a u d e ; les agoranomes veillaient à la stricte exécution de cette loi. ... Ces républiques asiatiques loin de flétrir, c o m m e Sparte et R o m e , le c o m m e r c e et l'industrie, les h o n o r a i e n t et les encourageaient puissamm e n t . ... Cicero's esprit aristocratique s'indigne de voir dans la Phrygie et d a n s la Mysie, à Pergame, à Tralles, les artisans prendre part a u x délibérations publiques. Er erzählt daß diese asiatischen Städte weder trésors n o c h d o m a i n e s publics hatten, sie h a t t e n n u r 2 M i t t e l sich Geld zu verschaffen: des impôts et des e m p r u n t s . ... Cicero - Consul - interdit a u x juifs, alors b a n q u i e r s et usuriers à R o m e , c o m m e ils l'ont été partout, la faculté d'exporter de l'or tous les ans, pour Jérusalem, de l'Italie et des provinces. ... N o c h während des bas empire u n d des m o y e n âge sehn wir d e n O c c i d e n t

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i m m e r pauvre u n d stérile, d e n O r i e n t a b o n d a n t e n m é t a u x , e n p r o d u c t i o n s de t o u t genre . . . L'Italie r o m a i n e , d e p u i s la destruction de Carthage j u s q u ' à la fondation de C o n s t a n t i n o p l e , avait existé, vis-à-vis de la G r è c e et de l'Orient, dans le m ê m e état où l'Espagne, p e n d a n t le 18 siècle, s'est trouvée à l'égard de l'Europe. A l b e r o n i disait: « l ' E s p a g n e est à l'Europe ce que la b o u c h e est au corps ; t o u t y passe, rien n ' y reste. » So das r ö m i s c h e Italien i m lezten J h . der R e p u b l i k u n d u n t e r d e n Kaisern. R o m e attirait, engouffrait l'or des provinces, wie S p a n i e n die edlen Metalle M e x i c o ' s u n d Peru's . . . l'argent s'écoulait sans cesse de leurs m a i n s ; d e n n Italien, wie

10

Spanien, c o n s u m i r t e , o h n e zu reproduire. D e r Orient war wesentlich p r o ducteur, c o m m e r ç a n t et m a n u f a c t u r i e r ; die i m p ô t s , die concussions, die avanies, faisaient couler sans cesse à R o m e de nouvelles richesses, q u e le travail i n d u s t r i e u x de l'Ejypte, de la G r è c e et de l'Asie r e p o m p a i t par des échanges et r a m e n a i t à leur source par le g r a n d c a n a l du c o m m e r c e et de la

15

navigation. D e r R o m unterworfne O c c i d e n t , wie die i h m f o l g e n d e n B a r b a r e n n a h m e n seine a n t i c o m m e r c i e l l e n u n d antiindustriellen Vorurtheile an. Im Orient bei d e n griechisch s p r e c h e n d e n Völkern U m g e k e h r t : elles attrib u a i e n t a u x professions m e r c a n t i l e s des droits politiques égaux, souvent supérieurs à ceux des autres c o n d i t i o n s sociales. Ces villes d'Ejypte, de

20

G r è c e et d'Asie, sont à l'Occident, sous le h a u t empire et dans le m o y e n âge, ce que Venise, G ê n e s et F l o r e n c e sont à l'Europe depuis le 1 3 - 1 6 siècle. ( 3 8 5 - 4 0 2 )

Système

des Impôts.

les revenus de l'état consistaient en d o m a i n e s , contributions en n a t u r e , 25 corvées, et quelques i m p ô t s en argent payés à l'entrée et à la sortie des m a r chandises, ou perçus sur la vente de certaines denrées. Diese m o d e existirt fast n o c h o h n e A e n d r u n g im e m p i r e o t t o m a n ... Z u r Zeit der D i k t a t u r Syllas u n d selbst am E n d e des Τ J h . n a h m die r ö m i s c h e R e p u b l i k n u r 40 M i l l i o n e n fcs jährlich ein. ( n ä h m l i c h 697) ... 1780 das revenu des t ü r k i s c h e n 30 Sultans, in piastres en n u m é r a i r e , n u r 35,000,000 piastres oder 70 Million e n fcs. ... Die R o m a i n s u n d die Turcs prélevaient en n a t u r e la plus g r a n d e partie de leurs revenu. Bei d e n R ö m e r n J/ der grains, % der F r ü c h t e , bei d e n T ü r k e n von / auf Y der produits wechselnd. Da das r ö m i sche R e i c h n u r eine A g g l o m e r a t i o n i m m e n s e d e m u n i c i p e s i n d é p e n d a n t s , 35 blieb der größte T h e i l der charges u n d dépenses c o m m u n a l e . Der fisc u n d der trésor n u r belastet m i t d e n K o s t e n de l ' a r m é e de terre et de m e r u n d den e n der a d m i n i s t r a t i o n dans les provinces impériales. ... Grosse A e h n l i c h keit zwischen d e m Steuersystem des empire r o m a i n u n d d e n Vereinigten 10

l

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Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 • Heft XIV Staaten von N o r d a m e r i k a , wo a u c h die A u s g a b e n der Centrairegierung gering. ( 4 0 2 - 4 0 7 )

Conditions des terres Imposables. N u r wenige impôts u n t e r d e n rois, gezahlt en n a t u r e , excepté le produit de la vente du sel. D e r impôt régulier assis sur le cens gezahlt d u r c h die Plebejer; 5 t r i b u t u m abgeleitet von d e n tribus dieses ordre. W a r u n e taxe à t a n t par mille, variable n a c h d e n Staatsbedürfnissen ... c o n t r i b u t i o n directe sur les choses sans égard à leurs produits. Diese charge frappait n u r die assidui; die Prolétaires n u r t e n u s à la déclaration de leur avoir. W e n n die R ö m e r ein Volk unterjocht, legten sie i h m e i n e n j ä h r l i c h e n T r i b u t für die Kriegs- 10 kosten auf oder n a h m e n i h n e n ganz oder theilweis ihr territorium ab, das sie zur d o m a i n e public schlugen. M a n c h m a l etablirten sie des colons auf d e n terres conquises, die d e m trésor public u n e certaine partie du revenu de ces terres z a h l e n m u ß t e n . ... In der alten R e p u b l i k die 3 Hauptzweige der impositions waren assises sur les c h a m p s cultivés, die pâturages u n d 15 die m a r c h a n d i s e s die ein droit z a h l t e n b e i m entrée oder sortie der villes u n d ports. ||16| Diese Steuern hiessen d e c u m a , scriptura u n d portorium. die terres du d o m a i n e public hiessen agri publia, parce q u e la propriété d e m Staat gehörte, der davon die F r u c h t zog, oder vectigales, weil m a n die possession concedirt hatte an particuliers m o y e n n a n t u n e redevance en n a - 20 ture, vectigal. (à vehendo) Die terres du d o m a i n e public erworben, w e n n eine Stadt freiwillig toutes ses propriétés d e m r ö m i s c h e n Volk gab oder w e n n die Eroberung es en avait investi. Diese d o m a i n e s , in gewöhnlichen Zeiten, die Base der Staatsrevenus; ihr Verkauf, d a n s les besoins pressants, u n e ressource assurée. Einigen Völkern n a h m e n die R ö m e r %, % ihres ter- 25 ritoire; a n d r e n gaben sie die propriété de leurs fonds zurück ... Fast ganz Etrurien, weil es der Parthei des M a r i u s gegen Sylla gefolgt, fut dépouillée de ses propriétés foncières. ... Ein andrer Theil der terres enlevées a u x peuples vaincus vertheilt u n t e r die Veterans oder der r ö m i s c h e n plèbe indigente et séditieuse. So die prolétaires zu G r u n d e i g e n t h ü m e r n g e m a c h t , die 30 Soldaten belohnt, die n e u unterjochten peuples c o n q u i s d u r c h ces colonies placées dans les villes fortes. Die vétérans z a h l t e n d e n alten E i g e n t h ü m e r n für die i h n e n assignirten terres u n e petite rente ... die colons, d e n e n m a n die eroberten terres vertheilte soumis einer massigen R e n t e an d e n trésor public n a c h der Z a h l der i h n e n zugefallenen jugera. ... die terres q u i 35 étaient possédées von den clans patriciens (gentes) oder consacrées a u x dieux oder affectées à l'entretien des temples, wie in F r a n k r e i c h vor 1789, exemptes de t o u t e espèce d'imposition ... Der U e b e r s c h u ß der theilbaren

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F Aus Adolphe-Jules-César-Auguste Dureau de La Malle: Économie politique des Romains terres ü b e r die Z a h l der colons, blieb das surplus d e m fisc, von i h m loué oder v e n d u oder j o i n t partiellement a u x propriétés concédées, m a i s en p a y a n t un i m p ô t (ebenso verhielt es sich m i t d e m ager subsecivus, portion de terrain vague et n o n b o r n é e , a t t e n a n t a u x terres arables partagées a u x 5 colons) oder r e n d u d e n a n c i e n s possesseurs, gegen die charge eines Z e h n ten des Products, oder en c o m m u n d e n colons gelassen, die u n e faible rétribution dafür zahlten. D i e M u n i c i p i e n h a t t e n a u c h das R e c h t des b i e n s fonds zu besitzen, deren revenu servait à soutenir les charges de la ville ... D i e biens c o m m u n a u x fast i m m e r des terrains vagues ou de pâtures, u n d 10 n a n n t e n sich c o m p a s c u a , weil alle Thiere der Colonie y avaient droit de pacage. Diese G ü t e r oft sehr entfernt von d e r Stadt, die sie besaß ... D i e villes affermaient ihre terres à perpétuité, d . h . m o y e n n a n t le p a i e m e n t exact du prix stipulé, ni les fermiers ni leurs successeurs ne p o u v a i e n t être évincés. ... Diese sortes de propriétés m u n i c i p a l e s n a n n t e Coelius agros 15 fructuarios. ... Ces propriétés p u b l i q u e s furent conservées aux villes par les empereurs. ( 4 0 7 - 4 1 7 )

Revenus des terres du Domaine de la République. D i e Einkünfte der terres die das p a t r i m o i n e der république waren b i l d e t e n le revenu le plus considérable de l'état, wie die d o m a i n e der französischen 20 rois im c o m m e n c e m e n t der 3' R a c e . ... R é p a n d u s dans toutes les provinces conquises, ces biens étaient o r d i n a i r e m e n t m i s en régie, c o m m e le sont en F r a n c e les bois de l'État, et on les faisait valoir pour le c o m p t e de la république, der produits war das m a x i m u m des i m p ô t foncier. ... D i e forêts de chênes u n d die taillis z a h l t e n geringren i m p ô t als die oliviers u n d 25 die vignes. ( 4 1 7 - 4 2 1 )

Prestations en Nature. Die durch Krieg unterworfnen pays, surtout hors de l'Italie, unterworfen e i n e m i m p ô t fixe, basé sur le cadastre ... So Sardinien, Africa, Spanien, A s i e n u n d die a n d r e n Provinzen m i t A u s n a h m e von Sicilien. Vectigal cer30 tum, annuum. Ein Theil dieses Tributs, stipendiarium, in Geld gezahlt ... A s i e n u n d die a n d r e n Provinzen z a h l t e n ausser der dîme e i n e n impôt, denselben in fruchtbaren wie sterilen J a h r e n ; elles supportaient en outre des frais de recouvrement considérables, étant soumises au régime des p u b l i cains ou des fermiers g é n é r a u x . D i e C e n s o r e n k o n n t e n alle 5 J a h r e aug35 m e n t e r l'impôt u n d l'adjugeaient à l'enchère à des compagnies qui se char-

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Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 • Heft XIV geaient de le recouvrer. (Censoria locatio) ... D i e pâturages, lacs u n d étangs a u c h soumis à un impôt direct ... le lac L u c r i n affermé par les censeurs, hauptsächlich wegen der Austern, sehr recherchées von d e n R ö m e r n . ... Die quote-part der produits, die die fonds de terre des provinces z a h l e n m u ß t e n , diente zur N a h r u n g , soit de la p o p u l a t i o n de R o m e , soit des n o m 5 b r e u x soldats q u i étaient sous les d r a p e a u x . ... la s o m m e totale du blé produit par les dîmes était inscrite sur des registres publics et devait être transportée intégralement à R o m e ... u n e autre redevance en blé était encore accordée au préteur par les publicains, qui, d a n s leurs procès avec les provinciaux, avaient intérêt à gagner la faveur des magistrats, f r u m e n t u m h o - 10 n o r a r i u m ... le préteur ou le proconsul h a t t e das R e c h t d'exiger des habitants de la province certaines redevances en n a t u r e pour sa n o u r r i t u r e et celle de sa maison. ( 4 2 1 - 4 2 9 )

De l'Impôt direct Sous l'Empire. In d e n 2 lezten J a h r h u n d e r t e n der R e p u b l i k v e r m i n d e r t e n sich diese res- 15 sources. N a c h der Eroberung von M a c é d o n i e n die r ö m i s c h e n Bürger von d e m impôt territorial befreit. Die lois agraires verwandelten die d o m a i n e s der république in Privateigenthum. Der Volkstribun Spurius Thorius abolit toutes les redevances établies sur les terres de d o m a i n e public qui avaient été concédées a u x colons. J. Caesar, in s e i n e m Consulat, n a h m der R e p u - 20 blic das Territorium de la C a m p a n i e , le seul d o m a i n e q u i lui restât alors en propriété. Alles um die capitale zu befreien d ' u n e p o p u l a c e oisive u n d séditieuse u n d um repeupler l'Italie. M a i s la plèbe citadine, ignorant et m é prisant la culture des c h a m p s , après avoir dissipé son p a t r i m o i n e , reflua toujours à R o m e , où on lui fournissait g r a t u i t e m e n t du p a i n et des speeta- 25 cles. ... Sicilien, Sardinien, Africa, Asia, S p a n i e n zahlten a u c h u n t e r d e n Kaisern N a t u r s t e u e r in blé. A n d r e Provinzen starke Geldsteuer. So Gallien, n a c h der Eroberung von Cäsar m i t einer Steuer von 40 Mill, de sesterces (10 mill, de fcs) belastet. ... Veränderte Gestalt des impôt foncier u n t e r Augustus. Ausgaben h a t t e n zu, (Armee, Spiele etc) E i n n a h m e n a b g e n o m - 30 m e n . U n t e r d e m K a i s e r t h u m die frühre quotepart variable du produit ann u e l payé e n n a t u r e wurde u n e quotepart fixe d u revenu p r é s u m é , l e 5 ou 7 suivant l'estimation de la valeur des biens. Die M e h r z a h l der Provinzen zahlte n u n , was n i c h t u n t e r der Republik, ce revenu en espèces. ... I n d e ß u n t e r d e n spätren Kaisern, les i m p ô t s s'étant accrus et le n u m é r a i r e 35 ayant en grande partie disparu, l'État était forcé de recevoir et de payer en nature. (430-439) è m e

è m e

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Impôt sur les mines et les Carrières. W a h r s c h e i n l i c h im 4' Jh. durch Senatusconsult die edlen M e t a l l m i n e n Italiens geschlossen, ihre Exploitation verboten. D i e R ö m e r gaben ihre m i n e s indigènes auf pour les gisements plus féconds des terres conquises, wie die 5 von Spanien, M a c é d o n i e n , Illyrien, G r i e c h e n l a n d , Afrika u n d Sardinien. U n t e r der R e p u b l i k die M i n e n meist Privateigenthum, z a h l t e n à l'État u n e ||17| redevance. U n t e r d e m empire w u r d e n sie fast alle propriété du fisc, besonders die G o l d m i n e n . Les m i n e s a p p a r t e n a n t en propre à l'état étaient en régie, die redevances imposées sur les autres verpachtet d e n p u 10 blicains pour u n e é p o q u e d é t e r m i n é e . I m p ô t sur la carrière. ( 4 3 9 - 4 4 4 )

Impôt sur le Bétail. War zugleich u n e redevance payée en retour du droit de pacage d a n s les pâtures u n d u n droit d'enregistrement, u n e taxe par c h a q u e tête d e bétail, daher die 2 N a m e n scriptura u n d capitatio. ( 4 4 4 - 4 4 7 )

15

Impôts indirects. Douanes.

Octrois. Péages.

20

J. César rétablit les d o u a n e s für die Einfuhr fremder W a a r e n ; A u g u s t d e h n t e sie aus. Péages sur les routes u n d au passage des Ponts. D i e énorm i t é dieser droits, v e r b u n d e n m i t den frais de transport, centuplait à R o m e , lors de la vente, le prix d ' a c h a t des m a r c h a n d i s e s de l'Inde. Sous l'administration fiscale der r ö m i s c h e n Kaiser le cadavre m ê m e d ' u n m o r t , q u ' o n transportait du lieu de sa sépulture temporaire dans un autre, était assujetti au péage sur les routes q u ' i l parcourait. U n t e r J u s t i n i a n verlangte m a n % v o m W e r t h an W a a r e n , i m p ô t é n o r m e et q u i devait a n é a n t i r le c o m merce. (447-459)

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Impôts sur les objets de Consommation.

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heißt: Vectigal r e r u m v e n a l i u m . il se percevait, soit sur les denrées v e n d u e s au m a r c h é , soit sur les objets adjugés p u b l i q u e m e n t à la criée ou a u x enchères. Xoo des W e r t h s der r e r u m v e n a l i u m . Etablirt von A u g u s t u s n a c h den Bürgerkriegen. N ä m l i c h auf die g e n i e ß b a r e n W a a r e n auf d e m M a r k t . (marchés u n d foires.) Caligula d e h n t e i h n auf die ganze Stadt auf alle Ver-

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Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 · Heft XIV kaufe aus. Traf n u r die capitale. Salzsteuer. Eingeführt 548 de R o m e . U n t e r d e n Kaisern y auf die Salinen, (du produit.) V o n d e n m a r a i s salants geh ö r t e n einige d e m fisc, andre Privaten. Die ersten exploités par des criminels (mancipes salinarum). Italien u n d die Provinzen dieser Steuer u n t e r worfen. U n t e r d e n Kaisern scheinen die Privaten avoir recouvré le droit de 5 fabriquer et de vendre du sel à bas prix, soit au fisc, soit a u x fermiers génér a u x des salines ... U n t e r d e n objets die die R e p u b l i k u n d das empire en n a t u r e i h r e n magistrats ou officiers lieferten, wie blé, vin, huile, viande, bois, h a b i l l e m e n t s , chevaux, m u l e t s , tentes, chariots, vaisselle, cuisiniers, etc, spielte das Salz eine Hauptrolle; m a n n a n n t e diese traitements salaire, 10 solarium, (sel.) ( 4 5 9 - 4 6 6 ) i0

Affranchissements

et

Successions.

D e r i m p ô t sur la vente et l'affranchissement des esclaves, établi 398, existirte n o c h 543 u n d selbst 693, scheint u n t e r d r ü c k t zwischen 693 u n d 760. A u g u s t führte wieder ein un i m p ô t du / sur la vente des esclaves. U n t e r 15 N e r o y . D e r impôt sur l'affranchissement de l'esclave était le prix de la liberté; il était dû par l'esclave affranchi, / . D e r Preiß an den Herren, w e n n er sich loskaufte u n d das % gezahlt, prélevés sur le pécule de l'esclave. 759 errichtet ι/2ϋ sur les héritages, les legs ou d o n a t i o n s faites par les m o u r a n t s . Traf alle ausser d e n agnats. A u s g e n o m m e n waren die étrangers, die provin- 20 ciaux u n d um sie dieser e n o r m e n T a x e zu unterwerfen gab Caracalla das droit de cité r o m a i n e à tous ses sujets. Diese Steuer existirte n o c h u n t e r Valens. Das produit dieses impôt von August in die A r m e e k a s s e gelegt, i h r e m entretien bestimmt. Dieselbe B e s t i m m u n g u n t e r d e n späteren K a i sern. ( 4 6 6 - 4 7 4 ) 25 l

50

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Aqueducs et Prises d'Eau. Das eau pure et salubre des a q u e d u c s besteuert; on l'achetait, sei es z u m Trinken, sei es zur Irrigation des cultures et des j a r d i n s situés le long de leur développement, dans un terrain brûlant qui est p e n d a n t 6 m o i s de l ' a n n é e sans recevoir d'eau de pluie. D e r erste a q u e d u c de R o m e exécuté 441 par C. Appius ... Später des c o n d u i t s ou t u y a u x q u i a m e n a i e n t l'eau du réservoir public dans les propriétés privées ... les taxes sur les prises d'eau existait d a n s les m u n i c i p e s , et formait u n e partie du revenu de la commune. (475-479)

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Impôts sur les Égouts et les Matières Fécales. D i e R ö m e r h a t t e n viele latrines p u b l i q u e s , p l u s nécessaires chez e u x q u e chez n o u s ... diese latrines d e n foricariis v e r p a c h t e t . . . I n R o m i n d e n carrefours u n d in d e n coins de rue, des a m p h o r e s ou des t o n n e a u x sciés en 5 deux, dolia curta, wo m a n gratis pissen k o n n t e bis Vespasian, qui défendit de pisser en public autre part q u e d a n s ces vases, die er a u c h verpachtete an e n t r e p r e n e u r s ; diese percevaient u n e r é t r i b u t i o n sur les p e r s o n n e s qui en faisaient usage. D i e financiers byzantins fügten h i n z u Steuer auf die Arm e n u n d Bettler, courtisanes, f e m m e s répudiées, esclaves, affranchis, bêtes 10 de s o m m e et les chiens. ( 4 8 0 - 8 2 )

Impôts

divers.

taxe fixe imposée sur les propriétaires p o u r l'entretien m ê m e des grandes routes et voies p u b l i q u e s ... In d e n villes j e d e r verpflichtet de paver la rue devant s a m a i s o n ... o s t i a r i u m , s c h o n u n t e r der R e p u b l i k , e n t s p r a c h d e m 15 i m p ô t sur les portes et fenêtres, aber a u c h die colonnes besteuert. . . . τ έ λ ο ς ά ε ρ ι κ ό ν (Fenstersteuer, i m p ô t sur l'air) ... vectigal a r t i u m , u n t e r A l e x a n der Severus, A e h n l i c h k e i t m i t u n s r e m i m p ô t des p a t e n t e s , traf aber n u r die fabricants ou c o m m e r ç a n t s d'objets de luxe. Er b e s t i m m t e diese E i n n a h m e à l'entretien des t h e r m e s q u ' i l avait bâtis et des autres b a i n s à l'usage du 20

25

public. ... Die Prostitués b e i d e r sexes u n d ihre e n t r e m e t t e u r s seit Caligula d i e s e m j ä h r l i c h e n droit de p a t e n t e unterworfen ... Steuer auf die saccarii, Sackträger, waren ein corpus privilégié, h a t t e n allein das R e c h t de transporter les m a r c h a n d i s e s du port d a n s les m a g a s i n s , existirt n o c h in G e n u a u n d einigen a n d r e n Häfen des M i t t e l m e e r s . ... l ' u x o r i u m seit 350 de R o m e Strafe für die célibataires, v i d u v i u m für die Wittwen, die n i c h t wieder heir a t h e n wollten, existirt a u c h in A t h e n u n d Sparta. ( 4 8 3 - 4 9 1 )

Conclusion.

30

le long débat des lois agraires ne p r o d u i s a i t que les distributions gratuites de blé ... die Kaiser b e m ä c h t i g t e n sich der propriétés m u n i c i p a l e s , u n d die ihrer b i e n s b e r a u b t e n m u n i c i p e s h a t t e n d e n n o c h gleichzeitig ihre städtischen u n d ihren Theil der a l l g e m e i n e n S t e u e r n zu tragen. Alle Verantwortlichkeit fiel auf ein certain part d ' h a b i t a n t s aisés, die, u n t e r d e m N a m e n décurions, un corps d'officiers n o m m é la Curie, bildeten. Im 4' u n d 5' Jh.

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Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 • Heft XIV die Lage dieser décurions so öklich, daß sie sich i h n e n n u r e n t z i e h n k o n n t e n en se réfugiant a u x Barbares. ... D i o c l e t i a n u n d Constantin, um ein wenig zu r e m é d i e r aux inconvénients du despotisme militaire schufen eine büreaucratische A r m e e . U n e n u é e d'employés civils et administratifs se rép a n d i t d a n s toutes les provinces; il fallut pourvoir à leur entretien et frapper de nouvelles taxes sur des contribuables seit lange épuisés. (493-496)

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Erste B a n d e u n t e r d e n M e n s c h e n , welche die N a t u r selber knüpfte - Familienbande. (4) In der F a m i l i e Ungleichheit. H e r r s c h e n u n d G e h o r c h e n ... 10 W e i b u n d Kind E i g e n t h u m des M a n n e s . - Familiendespotismus. D i e B a n d e der Verwandtschaft r e i c h e n u n t e r d e n uncultivirten Völkern weiter als u n ter den cultivirten. D i e e i n z e l n e n F a m i l i e n m i t g l i e d e r zerstreuen sich nicht, wenn herangewachsen, zu mannigfaltigen Geschäften. Alle führen dieselbe Lebensart. Jagd oder V i e h z u c h t . Die F a m i l i e n bleiben z u s a m m e n , 15 wachsen zu Stämmen, die S t ä m m e zu Völkerschaften. Stammabtheilung herrscht daher allgemein u n d an ihr h ä n g t alles, bei d e n W i l d e n in N o r d america u n d Australien, wie bei den Halbwilden in Mittelasien u n d d e n A r a b i s c h e n u n d Afrikanischen W ü s t e n . D e r S t a m m lebt z u s a m m e n u n d wandert z u s a m m e n . D a s Bedürfniß der gemeinschaftlichen Vertheidigung 20 u n d Sicherheit in d e n vielen k l e i n e n Kriegen festigt das N a t u r b a n d . Oberherrschaft der Stammhäupter. (5, 6) Sobald Ackerbau, feste W o h n s i t z e entstehn Ortschaften, Städte. Verfassung. Gemeinschaftliche A n g e l e g e n h e i ten, Vertheidigung, gemeinschaftliche Berathung in Bürgerversammlun-

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Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 • Heft XIV gen, Vorsteher, die dieselben l e n k e n . Herrschaft der S t a m m o b e r h ä u p t e r verliert sich, weil je m e h r solche Orte, T h e i l u n g der Arbeit, verschiedne Lebensweise, V e r m i s c h u n g der E i n g e b o r n e n m i t F r e m d e n . Diese E n t s t e h u n g der Städte im A l t e r t h u m Ursache der republikanischen Verfassungen ... D i e Freistaaten der alten Welt waren n u r Städte mit ihrem Gebiet. So die P h ö n i zischen, griechischen, italischen Freistaaten ... B ü r g e r z u s a m m e n k ü n f t e , wo alle persönlich erscheinen, also keine Representativverfassung ... Rathsversammlung, Senat u n d Magistrate. D i e ß der allgemeine U m r i ß der rep u b l i k a n i s c h e n Verfassungen des A l t e r t h u m s ... V e r m ö g e n s u n g l e i c h h e i t , politische Ungleichheit ... F a m i l i e n a d e l , Patriziat ... Staaten dieser Art in i h r e m Ursprung i m m e r klein ... Wo m e h r e oder viele Städte derselben N a tion Verbindungen u n t e r i h n e n , besonders w e n n D r u c k von aussen g e m e i n schaftliche Vertheidigung nothwendig m a c h t . D i e mächtigste Stadt an der Spitze der vielen, Principat ... R o m ü b e r die lateinischen, Tyrus ü b e r die p h ö n i z i s c h e n , T h e b e n ü b e r die böotischen Städte u. s. w. E r o b e r u n g e n d a n n u n t e r d i e s e m Principat. ( 7 - 1 2 ) A n d r e R e i h e von Staaten, die der grossen Reiche oder Monarchien ... Einige von diesen b e s c h r ä n k e n sich auf Eine Nation, gingen aus der alten Stammherrschaft hervor; so in Epirus, M a c é d o n i e n b e h a u p t e t e sich das G e s c h l e c h t der alten Stammfürsten in der Herrschaft ... andre umfassen eine Menge von Nationen ... Ihr Ursprung in der schnellen Verbreitung erobernder Völker; b e s o n d e r s Hirtenvölker ... Militärische Herrschaft, Despotismus ... Religion, so politisch wichtiger in der G e s c h i c h t e der Völker, je weiter m a n in der G e s c h i c h t e zurückgeht ... R e ligion politisch-nationales Band ... die N a t i o n gruppirt sich u m d e n T e m pel der Nationalgottheit ... T e m p e l des Tyrischen Hercules M i t t e l p u n k t des P h ö n i z i s c h e n S t a a t e n b u n d s , Jupiter Latialis des lateinischen, die Griec h e n fühlten sich als eine N a t i o n bei d e n O l y m p i s c h e n Spielen v e r s a m m e l t u m d e n T e m p e l des Z e u s ... I m Orient G e s e t z g e b u n g u n d Religion unzertrennlich. Caste der Priester beschränkt die Allgewalt der Herrscher. ( 1 2 - 1 8 ) Die 3 grossen Continente, die allein im A l t h e r t h u m b e k a n n t , d u r c h keine weiten M e e r e getrennt, b e r ü h r e n sich theils wirklich, theils b e i n a h e ; u n d das in ihrer Mitte eingeschloßne M i t t e l m e e r von b e s c h r ä n k t e m Umfange. Landhandel daher H a u p t , Seehandel N e b e n s a c h e ... D i e Schiffahrt im Mittelmeer u n d einigen K ü s t e n diente n u r zur Fortsetzung des L a n d h a n d e l s u n d zu seiner Erleichterung, z u r Ueberfahrt der W a a r e n ... Grosser Seeh a n d e l erst e n t s t a n d e n d u r c h die Entdeckung von America - Zu j e n e r n e u e n Welt führen keine Wege zu L a n d e , keine Schiffe an die K ü s t e n oder von Insel z u I n s e l . . . W e l t m e e r wurde Hauptstrasse für den W e l t h a n d e l . . . N u r die südlichen Theile von Italien u n d G r i e c h e n l a n d gingen aus der Barbarei heraus ... selbst der H a n d e l von G r i e c h e n l a n d u n d R o m nicht viel m e h r als H a n d e l für d e n eignen Verbrauch. ... S p a n i e n allein h a t t e d e m Orient

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was zu bieten, edle Metalle ... A s i e n u n d Africa die H a u p t s c h a u p l ä t z e des alten H a n d e l s ... Handelsgesellschaften, Caravanen ... ihr Z u s a m m e n k o m m e n erheischte feste B e d i n g u n g e n von Ort u n d Zeit ... Die Plätze des E i n u n d Verkaufs m u ß t e n ebenfalls traditionell werden ... D i e W a h l der Strassen d u r c h die Oasen in d e n Steppen u n d S a n d w ü s t e n b e s t i m m t ... So der C a r a v a n e n h a n d e l an fixe F o r m g e b u n d e n , erhielt so e i n e n festen G a n g , blieb derselbe d u r c h J a h r h u n d e r t e u n d J a h r t a u s e n d e , w e n n a u c h i m E i n zelnen die R i c h t u n g verändert. I m A l t e r t h u m u n d Mittelalter blieb d a h e r der G a n g des W e l t h a n d e l s derselbe. D i e V e r ä n d e r u n g e n bis zur E n t d e k kung von A m e r i c a bezogen sich n i c h t auf die A r t u n d Weise u n d L ä n d e r wodurch er geführt, s o n d e r n auf die Völker, die ihn führten ... Caravanenh a n d e l erforderte grosse Z a h l von C a m e e l e n u n d M e n s c h e n nöthig, die sie zu warten verstehn. L e b e n im F r e i e n ... I h r e n a t ü r l i c h e n Wärter daher die N o m a d e n v ö l k e r . Sie d a h e r die W a a r e n f ü h r e r u n d geben d e m Bewohner der H a n d e l s s t ä d t e die Lastthiere. H a l b a s i e n u n d Afrika aber von diesen Völkern besezt. D a h e r dort so grosser U m f a n g dieses H a n d e l s . M e h r e 100 Cam e l e k ö n n e n k a u m die Last eines grossen o s t i n d i s c h e n Schiffs führen. D e r L a n d h a n d e l daher in Betracht der Q u a n t i t ä t der W a a r e n grossen Beschränk u n g e n unterworfen, die sehr schwer wiegenden, grosse Q u a n t i t ä t e i n n e h m e n d e n W a a r e n gar n i c h t oder in geringem G r a d G e g e n s t ä n d e des L a n d h a n d e l s . D a h e r k o m m e n viele der n ü t z l i c h s t e n P r o d u c t e i m A l t e r t h u m gar n i c h t in d e n H a n d e l . So Reis, Zucker, Salpeter. Dagegen leichte u n d zugleich kostbare W a a r e n : Edelsteine, Metalle, ||19| Räucherwerk, G e w ü r z e , K l e i d u n g e n aus leichten Stoffen ... Cultur von Asien u n d Africa hing vorzugsweis an d i e s e m H a n d e l . . . D e r C a r a v a n e n h a n d e l erzeugt e i n e n starken Zwischenhandel. D e r Weg der C a r a v a n e n g e h t d u r c h viele L ä n d e r u n d viele Völkerschaften u n d ihre Bedürfnisse wie die der Kaufleute erheischen e i n e n wechselseitigen Verkehr. ... Gewisse Plätze im I n n r e n der Länder, werden H a u p t p l ä t z e des Z w i s c h e n h a n d e l s , die grossen M ä r k t e , wo ein Z u s a m m e n f l u ß der N a t i o n e n entsteht, d u r c h die Leichtigkeit des Verkehrs hier viele Niederlassungen, A u f b l ü h n grosser Städte daher. ( 2 0 - 2 9 ) D e r H a u p t c h a r a k t e r der alten Schiffahrt - Küstenschiffahrt ... Vor der E n t d e k k u n g von A m e r i c a bedurfte m a n der grossen Seefahrt n i c h t ... Sie bildet übrigens die Seeleute. D i e Fischerein bei N e u f u n d l a n d u n d die K o h l e n Schiffahrt n o c h jezt die S c h u l e n der brittischen M a r i n e . D u r c h lang fortgesezte Küstenschiffahrt fanden die Portugiesen d e n W e g n a c h Ostindien. ... Das Fortschiffen längst d e n Küsten, d u r c h e i n e n langen Z e i t r a u m fortgesezt, ist den allmähligen Fortschritten am günstigsten; kein P u n k t , wo m a n aufhören m u ß ; G e w i n n s u c h t u n d E n t d e c k u n g s s p a ß führen von d e m B e k a n n t e n stets auf das U n b e k a n n t e ; P h ö n i z i e r u n d Carthager trieben J a h r h u n d e r t e d u r c h ihre Schiffahrt so ungestört ... So die N o r m a n n e n im

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Bekanntschaft u n d Verkehr der Völker vermehrt. Babylon Sitz der I n d u strie u n d Kultur u n d H a u p t m a r k t von Asien. Tyrus H a u p t a r m des asiatisch-europäischen H a n d e l s . Verkehr des südlichen Afrikas und Aethiopiens, stand d u r c h den C a r a v a n e n h a n d e l d u r c h die afrikanischen u n d arabischen W ü s t e n m i t Carthago u n d Tyrus in Z u s a m m e n h a n g . ( 4 0 - 3 )

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Asien s e i n e m F l ä c h e n i n h a l t 4 x von E u r o p a u n d % m e h r als Africa. In i h m größte Mannigfaltigkeit von K l i m a u n d P r o d u c t e n . Seine M e e r e b i l d e n i m S ü d e n überall grosse Busen, die sich tief ins L a n d h i n e i n erstrecken u n d da, wo sie aufhören wieder grosse Flüsse a u f n e h m e n . D i e asiatischen Steppen-Länder nicht so gefährlich für die R e i s e n d e n wie die afrikanischen Sandmeere. A u s n a h m e n u r die W ü s t e Cobi in der kleinen Bucharei, erschwert d e n Zutritt z u d e m W e s t e n u n d M i t t e von China. Gebirgsreihen die das Skelett bilden: Altaigebirge (nördliche Kette.) Taurus, die südliche Gebirgskette. E u p h r a t u n d Tigris, I n d u s u n d G a n g e s , Oxus u n d Jaxartes. D u r c h j e n e Gebirgsketten A s i e n in 3 grosse Theile getheilt, verschieden d u r c h Clima u n d Bodenbeschaffenheit. Der nördlichste - Fischer und Jägervölker. Mittleres Asien, zwischen d e m Altai u n d T a u r u s k e t t e n . D i e weiten Steppenländer von d e m caspischen M e e r bis z u m östlichen Ocean, M o n g o lei u n d Tartarei. Die Ströme die sie d u r c h z i e h n , reichen n i c h t h i n diese u n g e h e u r e n E b e n e n für d e n A c k e r b a u gehörig zu bewässern. H o c h e b e n e . D o c h selten i n i h n e n dürre u n d unfruchtbare Plätze. Z u m größten Theil m i t d e n üppigsten F u t t e r k r ä u t e r n bedeckt, oft d e m w e i d e n d e n V i e h an H ö h e gleich. G ä n z l i c h e r M a n g e l a n W a l d u n g e n u n d allen grossen Holzarten. So b e s t i m m t z u m h e r u m z i e h e n d e n Hirtenleben. D i e weiten E b e n e n m i t G e z e i t e n u n d Lagern bedeckt. Schaafe, Rinder, Pferde, C a m e e l e . Leb e n von M i l c h u n d Fleisch ihrer Stuten u n d K ü h e ; ihre H ä u t e u n d das H a a r ihrer Camele verschafft i h n e n Kleider u n d Filze für ihre G e z e l t e : R o h r an den Ufern ihrer Seen u n d Flüsse Bogen u n d Pfeile. An der Stelle der bürgerlichen Verhältnisse die n a t ü r l i c h e n B a n d e der Verwandtschaft; u m s c h l i n g e n ganze S t ä m m e u n d Völker. Volk zerfällt in S t ä m m e , diese in H o r d e n , die wieder F a m i l i e n umfassen. Häupter der Familien und Stämme Richter u n d Kriegsanführer. Südasien. Begreift die reichsten u n d fruchtbarsten L ä n d e r der Welt. A u s i h n e n s t a m m e n die edelsten Obstarten, Thiere, Baumwollstauden, S e i d e n r a u p e n , Rauchwerk, Gold, Edelsteine, Perlen etc. (48-62) I |20| Einförmigkeit der asiatischen Geschichte. R e i c h e entstehn, vergehn, aber die n e u e n t s t a n d e n e n n e h m e n i m m e r wieder dieselbe F o r m a n , wie

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Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 • Heft XIV die untergegangenen. Die grossen Reiche v e r d a n k e n i h r e n Ursprung fast n u r grossen erobernden Nomadenvölkern. D a s ganze n ö r d l i c h e u n d mittlere Asien m i t solchen h e r u m z i e h e n d e n Völkerschaften gefüllt. A u c h i m s ü d l i c h e n Asien m i t i h n e n besezt m a n c h e Strecken der t a u r i s c h e n Bergkette u n d fast die ganze arabische Halbinsel. D i e s e n Völkern d u r c h ihre Lebensart für d e n Krieg passend. R e u t e r e i besonders, die Pferde i m m e r m i t sich; k o m m e n a u c h in ruhigen Z e i t e n fast n i e aus den Sätteln. G l e i c h verwüstenden H e u s c h r e c k e n s c h w ä r m e n b r e c h e n sie aus i h r e n Steppen oder Sandwüsten, wie M o n g o l e n u n d Araber, oder steigen, wie Parther u n d Perser von i h r e n G e b i r g e n u n d ü b e r s c h w e m m e n die E b e n e n des s ü d l i c h e n Asiens. Stiften d a m ä c h t i g e , u n g e h e u r e R e i c h e . L u x u s u n d C l i m a b r i n g e n bald a u c h bei i h n e n veränderte Lebensart hervor; n e h m e n die Sitten der Besiegten an. Cultur des Luxus entsteht u n t e r i h n e n . W e r d e n d a n n wieder verdrängt von n e u e n , u n v e r d e r b t e n Völkern, die aus d e n s e l b e n oder a n d r e n W o h n s i t z e n hervorbrechen. So e n t s t a n d e n u n d verschwanden im A l t e r t h u m die R e i c h e der Assyrer, Perser, Chaldäer, Parther; im Mittelalter die arabische Herrschaft; später die tartarischen u n d m o n g o l i s c h e n Staaten. Allmähliges Entstehen u n d Z u n e h m e n nicht möglich bei d e n asiatischen R e i c h e n ; erhalten gleich n a c h i h r e m E n t s t e h n schnellen u n d grossen Umfang. D i e n o m a d i s c h e n Völker m ü s s e n so ihre E r o b e r u n g e n m a c h e n , da sie weitläufige L ä n d e r zu ihrer eignen Erhaltung b r a u c h e n . J e d e g e m a c h t e Beute A n trieb zu n e u e n Streifzügen. H a l t e n sich für die H e r r e n der Welt. I h r e n R e i c h e n k ö n n e n sie ursprünglich n u r eine militairische Verfassung geben. D i e Stadthalter h a b e n d a n n n u r die T r i b u t e e i n z u t r e i b e n u n d die unterjochten Völker in der Abhängigkeit zu erhalten. Später werden i h n e n die Provinzen gegen eine gewisse S u m m e , die sie jährlich d e m königlichen Schatz zahlen, übergeben. Die bürgerlichen E i n r i c h t u n g e n der L ä n d e r bleiben u n verändert; selbst die besiegten F ü r s t e n oder d o c h ihre N a c h k o m m e n b e h a l ten oft ihre Regierung, so u n t e r d e n Persern u n d M o n g o l e n . A u s dieser blos militairischen Verfassung geht n a c h u n d n a c h eine Art von Staatsverfassung hervor. Die F e l d h e r r n werden zu Satrapen oder der Despot sezt i h n e n diese aus Eifersucht zur Seite. D i e grossen asiatischen R e i c h e d a h e r d u r c h eine Herrschaft im A l l g e m e i n e n z u s a m m e n g e h a l t e n ; grosse M a n n i g faltigkeit der Theile, M e n g e der verschiedensten Verfassungen - kleine Tyr a n n e n , beschränkte Fürsten, R e p u b l i k e n , wie die p h ö n i z i s c h e n u n d griechischen Städte in Kleinasien u n t e r der persischen Herrschaft. Schon b e i den wilden Völkern selbst der D e s p o t i s m u s d u r c h die u n b e s c h r ä n k t e Herrschaft ihrer S t a m m h ä u p t e r vorgebaut. Bei d e n M o n g o l e n das F a m i l i e n h a u p t der u n u m s c h r ä n k t e Herr seines S t a m m e s . Die ganze Stammverfassung geht von der väterlichen Gewalt aus. A u c h die Grösse u n d der ungeheure Umfang dieser R e i c h e beförderte d e n D e s p o t i s m u s . E n d l i c h : die

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r Aus Arnold Hermann Ludwig Heeren: Ideen über die Politik ... unauflösliche V e r b i n d u n g zwischen G e s e t z g e b u n g u n d Religion. E i n e n e u e Gesetzgebung wäre hier e i n e n e u e Religion. Selbst einzelne V e r ä n d e r u n g e n u n d Verbesserungen h i e r R e l i g i o n s e r n e u e r u n g e n . Hofritual u n d cer e m o n i e l i n d e n H ä n d e n einer a b g e s o n d e r t e n Priesterkaste, deren Interesse 5 die Unveränderlichkeit. D a n n u n t e r d e n Völkern des i n n r e n A s i e n s die Polygamie. Vielweiberei g r ü n d e t F a m i l i e n d e s p o t i s m u s . Die Gesellschaft b e steht aus einer Z a h l von h ä u s l i c h e n Despoten, die a u c h wieder despotisirt sein wollen. D u r c h die Polygamie wird der D e s p o t i s m u s von u n t e n auf gegründet. A e h n l i c h e Einförmigkeit, wie in der Verfassung der grossen asiati10 sehen Reiche in d e m Verkehr ihrer Bewohner. Caravanenhandel. Zwar waren a u c h die grossen Flüsse Asiens Handelsstrassen. A b e r weil sie d u r c h grosse Steppenländer fliessen, fehlt es i h r e n Ufern gewöhnlich an H o l z z u m Schiffbau, so wie in m a n c h e n G e g e n d e n an Eisen; die Flußschiffahrt erhielt d a h e r in Asien n i c h t dieselbe Wichtigkeit wie in Europa. Der innre H a n d e l 15 d a h e r wie in Africa Landhandel u n d ebenso ausgeführt. Heerstrassen, um die errungne Herrschaft zu b e h a u p t e n u n d die entfernten Völker u n t e r d e m J o c h z u h a l t e n ; d a z u m u ß einer A r m e e stets der W e g z u i h n e n offen stehn; liefen durch das ganze A s i e n im Persischen u n d m o n g o l i s c h e n Zeitalter, m i t e i n e m Aufwand u n d einer A n s t r e n g u n g angelegt; die n u r in sol20 c h e n despotischen Staaten, wo m a n die g a n z e Kraft u n d Thätigkeit der Völker auf E i n e n P u n k t concentriren kann, möglich sind. ... D a n n Anlage der Caravansereien oder Stationen für die Caravanen, grosse viereckigte G e b ä u d e , die e i n e n weiten Hof oder Platz einschliessen. ... D u r c h die E r o b e r u n g e n der G a n g des asiatischen H a n d e l s für eine Zeitlang u n t e r b r o c h e n , 25 aber nie gänzlich gestört, u n d i m m e r rasch wieder hergestellt ... Seine Hauptsitze veränderten sich n i c h t ... Die Bedürfnisse der M e n s c h e n , des L u x u s u n d W o h l l e b e n s wie der Nothwendigkeit, zu fühlbar u n d dringend, als daß der Krieg oder D e s p o t i s m u s sie sehr v e r m i n d e r n oder gar aufheben könnte. (63-80) 30

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Johnston: (J. F. W.) Catechism of Agricultural Chemistry and Geology. 23 ed. E d i n b u r g h . 1849. (Apparatus speziell für diesen K a t e c h i s m u s in L o n d o n von Mr. Button, 146, H o l b o r n Bars, from Mr. Simpson 1 u n d 2 K e n n i n g t o n R o a d , oder von Mr Griffin, 53 Baker Street, P o r t m a n Square, 2 /. für d e n smaller u n d 5 /. für den larger set. [VI]) Q »what is the object of the farmer in cultivating t h e soil? A. To raise the largest crops at the smallest cost, a n d with the least injury to land.« D e r farmer h a t 3 Hauptbeschäftigungen, raises crops, rears u n d fattens stock u n d fabricirt Butter u n d Käse. (7)

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Die u n o r g a n i s c h e n Bestandtheile der Pflanzen enthalten Pottasche, Soda, Kalk, Magnesia, Eisenoxide, M a n g a n e s e o x i d e , silica, chlorine, sulphuric acid, oder Vitriolöl u n d p h o s p h o r i c acid. (12) (über 200,000 Pfund Phosphor in L o n d o n jährlich g e b r a u c h t zur M a n u f a c t u r von Lucifer m a tches.) (I.e.) 600 Pfund Wasser lösen an E i n Pfund quicklime auf, b i l d e n d das s.g. limewater. (13) Magnesia ist the white, nearly tasteless powder sold in the shops u n t e r d e m N a m e n of calcined magnesia extracted von Seewasser u n d von d e n varieties of l i m e s t o n e called M a g n e s i a n Limestones. (14) Q. what is oxide of iron? A. W h e n polished iron is exposed to the air it gradually b e c o m e s covered with rust. This rust consists of the m e t a l iron, and of the gas oxygen which the iron has attracted from the moist air, a n d h e n c e it is called an oxide of iron. (14) | | 2 1 | T h e teacher will explain m o r e fully that, w h e n metals c o m b i n e m i t oxygen, they form new u n d compound substances, to which the n a m e of. oxides is given, a n d illustrate this by a reference to the red oxide of mercury, which, by the h e a t of the l a m p , he h a d resolved or decomposed into oxygen gas a n d metallic mercury. T h e r e are 2 oxides of iron, the black a n d t h e red. D a s red oxide building den c o m m o n rust u n d gives their red or ochrey colour to soils. T h e scales which fall from the anvil of the blacksmith c o n t a i n m u c h of t h e black oxide. ... M a n g a neseoxide very like oxide of iron, b u t occurs in soils u n d plants in sehr small quantity. (14) Chlorine ist eine Gasart, die has a greenish-yellow colour u n d a strong suffocating smell u n d ist 4¾ x heavier als c o m m o n air. A taper b u r n s in it with a dull smoking flame. It exists in c o m m o n salt in large quantity. (15) 100 Pf. c o m m o n salt e n t h a l t e n 60 Pf. chlorine. (I.e.) Sulphuric Acid oder Vitriolöl ist a very sour, b u r n i n g , oily liquid, wird h e i ß , w e n n m i t Wasser vermischt. Fabricirt wirds aus b u r n i n g sulphur (brimstone) u n d exists i n c o m m o n gypsum, a l u m , G l a u b e r u n d E p s o m salts. (I.e.) 1 Pf. sulphur giebt ü b e r 3 Pf. der strongest sulphuric acid of c o m merce. (I.e.) Acid or Sour. Erstens sauer für d e n G e s c h m a c k ; acid substances färben vegetable-blue colours roth, sowie decoctions of violets, of red cabbage oder of a b l u e s u b s t a n c e sold in the shops u n d e r the n a m e of litmus, während alkaline substances, wie hartshorn ( A m m o n i a ) , common soda, pearlash oder quicklime restore the b l u e colour again after an acid has r e d d e n e d t h e m . (I.e.) Phosphoric acid gebildet d u r c h V e r b r e n n e n von Phosphor in der Luft. Exists in large quantity in the bones of a n i m a l s . (16) 100 Pf. Phosphor verbrannt bilden 227¾ Pfund phosphoric acid. (I.e.) Alle diese substances sind to be found in the ash of all our usually cultivated

373

Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 · Heft XIV plants. (I.e.) Einige Pflanzen, w e n n verbrannt, liefern m e h r A s c h e , a n d r e weniger. So 100 Pf. H e u h a b e n 9 oder 10 Pf. A s c h e , w ä h r e n d 100 Pf. W e i z e n n u r 2 Pf. Asche. D i e A s c h e n der v e r s c h i e d n e n Pflanzen e n t h a l t e n n i c h t alle diese S u b s t a n z e n in denselben, s o n d e r n in verschiednen Proportionen. Die W e i z e n a s c h e enthält ζ. B. m e h r p h o s p h o r i c acid als die H e u a s c h e , w ä h r e n d diese m e h r L i m e enthält als die W e i z e n a s c h e . (I.e.)

Of

the

Organic food

of Plants.

Alle Pflanzen erheischen beständige Zufuhr von N a h r u n g , u m z u leben u n d zu wachsen. Sie erhalten sie theils aus der Luft, theils aus d e m B o d e n . Sie e r h e i s c h e n organisches F u t t e r für ihren organischen, u n o r g a n i s c h e s für ihren u n o r g a n i s c h e n Bestandtheil. D i e organische N a h r u n g liefert theils die Luft, theils der Boden, die u n o r g a n i s c h e n u r der B o d e n . Die F o r m , worin Pflanzen ihre organische N a h r u n g aus der Luft n e h m e n , ist h a u p t s ä c h lich carbonic acid gas, kohlensaures G a s . (Kohlenstoffsäure) Carbonic acid gas ist a kind of air o h n e Farbe, m i t b e s o n d r e m G e r u c h u n d leicht säuerlic h e m G e s c h m a c k . B r e n n e n d e Körper erlöschen i n i h m u n d T h i e r e sterben darin. Ist um % schwerer als die c o m m o n air, renders lime water milky u n d is taken up by its own bulk of cold water. Ist die U r s a c h e des boiling up von Sodawasser u n d des frothing von beer u n d bildet fast % des Gewichts aller l i m e s t o n e rocks. (17) In 5000 G a l l o n s a t m o s p h ä r i s c h e r Luft sind n u r 2 gallons of carbonic acid gas. (18) Pflanzen s a u g e n sehr viel K o h l e n s ä u r e aus der Luft. D u r c h ihre Blätter, by m e a n s of a great n u m b e r of very small openings or m o u t h s , which are spread especially over the u n d e r surface of t h e leaf. N i c h t less als 120,000 dieser pores or little m o u t h s on a square i n c h of t h e leaf of the lilach. A b e r dieses E i n s a u g e n von carbonic acid n u r w ä h r e n d des Tags, geben davon ab w ä h r e n d der N a c h t . Carbonic acid besteht aus carbon oder charcoal u n d oxygen. 6 Pf. carbon u n d 16 Pf. oxygen bilden 22 Pf. of carbonic acid. By b u r n i n g charcoal in oxygen gas bildet m a n carbonic acid gas. Die Pflanze retains only t h e carbon, giving off the oxygen again into the air. (19) A u s s e r d e m trinken die Pflanzen aus der Luft watery vapour; it serves in part to m o i s t e n t h e leaves a n d stems, a n d partly to p r o d u c e the substance of t h e p l a n t itself. V o n der Erde n e h m e n die Pflanzen carbon auf in der F o r m von carbonic acid, h u m i c acid u n d s o m e other substances which exist in t h e black vegetable m a t t e r of t h e soil. Urn humic acid zu b i l d e n n u r nöthig aufzulösen a little c o m m o n soda in water, to boil t h e solution u p o n finely powdered peat or rich dark soil, to pour off the solution w h e n it has stood to settle, a n d to add vinegar or weak

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Aus James Finley Weir Johnston: Catechism of agricultural chemistry and geology spirit of salt to it. Brown flocks will fall w h i c h are h u m i c acid, die n u r a u s carbon u n d water besteht. Nitrogen n e h m e n die Pflanzen h a u p t s ä c h l i c h a u s d e m B o d e n auf in der F o r m v o n Ammonia u n d nitric acid. (20)

Of

the

Organic

Substance

of Plants.

5

Die organische S u b s t a n z der Pflanzen besteht besonders aus Holzfaser (woody fibre) Stärke (starch) u n d Kleber, (gluten) Woody or cellular fibre ist die Substanz die d e n größren T h e i l aller A r t e n v o n Holz, Stroh, H e u u n d chaff, of the shells of n u t s , a n d of cotton, flax, h e m p etc. Diese fibres of cotton ζ. B. sind u n l ö s l i c h in Wasser, schwärzen sich by strong s u l p h u r i c

10

acid, u n d werden d u r c h nitric acid in g u n cotton verwandelt. Stärke (starch) ist a white powder, das fast die g a n z e S u b s t a n z der Kartoffel bildet u n d a b o u t % des Gewichts von H a f e r m e h l , W e i z e n m e h l u n d des flour a n d rer für food cultivirter K o r n a r t e n . Kleber (gluten) ist a s u b s t a n c e wie birdlime (Vogelleim), der m i t Stärke in almost all plants existirt. K a n n e r h a l t e n

15

werden aus w h e a t e n flour, by m a k i n g it into a dough, a n d washing it with water. (21) Most a b u n d a n t ist die woody fibre in d e m s t e m der plants u n d die starch in its seeds. Exists a b u n d a n t l y in der Kartoffel u n d a n d r e n similar roots, -woody fibre u n d starch, wie gum und sugar b e s t e h n n u r of carbon u n d water. F o l g e n d e Tabelle: |

20

|22| Carbon. Water

25

36 lbs und 36 lbs und 36 lbs und 36 lbs und 36 lbs und

36 lbs form 72 lbs of woody or cellular fibre. 45 lbs form 81 lbs of dry starch or gum. 49 y lbs form 85 % lbs of loafsugar or sugarcandy. 64 lbs form 100 lbs of fruit, raisin, and honeysugar. 27 lbs form 63 lbs of humic acid. 2

Diese S u b s t a n z e n m a y be formed from t h e kinds of food w h i c h t h e leaves drink in from t h e air, weil sie drink in carbonic air u n d water. D i e Pflanzen require only carbon u n d water to form t h e woody fibre u n d starch which they c o n t a i n u n d therefore they give off t h e oxygen of t h e c a r b o n i c 30

35

acid i n t o the air b e c a u s e they c a n n o t m a k e use of it. D i e Pflanzen beraub e n die air nicht der carbonic acid, trotz ihres vielen Einschlucks davon, weil beständig new supplies of this gas are r e t u r n i n g into the air. (22) Diese supplies k o m m e n v o n 3 sources: from t h e b r e a t h i n g of a n i m a l s , from t h e b u r n i n g of wood a n d coal, a n d from t h e decay of a n i m a l s and vegetables. All a n i m a l s throw off a small q u a n t i t y of carbonic acid from their lungs every t i m e they breathe. T h e carbon which wood, coal, candles etc c o n t a i n , w h e n it b u r n s in t h e air, forms c a r b o n i c acid gas, j u s t as p u r e c a r b o n does w h e n it is b u r n e d in oxygen gas. T h e decay of vegetables, of roots in the

375

Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 • Heft XIV soil, a n d of the r e m a i n s of animals, is only a slow kind of b u r n i n g , by which their carbon is at last converted into carbonic acid. ... A n i m a l s u n d plants thus appear to live for each other's support. T h e a n i m a l produces carbonic acid, u p o n which plants live; a n d from this carbonic acid a n d water together, plants produce starch etc, u p o n which animals live. Wasser be5 steht aus Oxygen u n d Hydrogen. In 9 Pfund Wasser e n t h a l t e n a b o u t 8 lbs of oxygen u n d 1 lb of hydrogen. Wasser also, which puts out all fire besteht aus 2 G a s e n , Eins wovon (Hydrogen) b u r n s readily, w ä h r e n d in d e m andren (Oxygen) bodies b u r n m i t great brilliancy. Also b e s t e h n woody fibre, starch, g u m u n d sugar aus carbon, hydrogen u n d oxygen. Gluten (Kleber) 10 besteht aus allen 4 E l e m e n t e n , carbon, hydrogen, oxygen u n d nitrogen, u n i t e d to a little sulphur a n d p h o s p h o r u s . Die Pflanze k a n n 3 der Elem e n t e , woraus G l u t e n besteht, carbon, hydrogen u n d oxygen aus der Luft erhalten, aber nitrogen, sulphur u n d P h o s p h o r it usually obtains almost solely from the soil. H e n c e the i m p o r t a n c e of adding to the soil m a n u r e s 15 which c o n t a i n the three latter substances. (23, 4)

Of the

Soil

on

which

Plants

grow.

D e r soil besteht aus e i n e m organic oder c o m b u s t i b l e u n d aus e i n e m u n o r ganic oder incombustible part. (24) D e r organic part des soil is derived from the roots and stems of decayed plants u n d von d e m d u n g u n d r e m a i n s of animals u n d insects of various kinds. V o n peaty soils forms dieser organic part m a n c h m a l %, von rich u n d fertile soils gewöhnlich n u r Y oder Y des g a n z e n Gewichts. In u n s r e m Clima k a n n der B o d e n keine g u t e n crops tragen, wenn er n i c h t e i n e n Theil of organic m a t t e r enthält. A rich soil enthält m i n d e s t e n s Y seines Gewichts, 5 %, of organic matter. D i e organische m a t t e r vermehrt oder vermindert sich im B o d e n according to the way in which it is cultivated. Sie diminishes wenn das L a n d oft gepflügt u n d cropped oder schlecht gedüngt wird; u n d wächst, w e n n das L a n d m i t B ä u m e n bepflanzt, in p e r m a n e n t pasture verwandelt oder when large doses of farm-yard m a n u r e or of peat compost are given to it. Diese organic matter in d e m soil supplies the organic food which plants draw from the soil t h r o u g h their roots. Die Q u a n t i t ä t dieser N a h r u n g (organische) die Pflanzen v o m B o d e n z i e h n wechselt m i t der Art der Pflanze, der Art des B o d e n s u n d der season; ist aber stets beträchtlich u n d nothwendig für d e n gesund e n W u c h s der Pflanze. Wird der B o d e n badly m a n a g e d u n d constantly cropped so wird er d u r c h das E n t z i e h n von organic m a t t e r von Seiten der Pflanzen beständig ärmer an derselben. D i e supply davon wird aufrecht erhalten durch ploughing in green crops, by growing clovers u n d other plants

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Aus James Finley Weir Johnston: Catechism of agricultural chemistry and geology which leave long roots in the soil, by restoring all the hay and straw to t h e land in the form of m a n u r e , by laying down to pasture etc. D e r inorganic or mineral part of t h e soil is derived from t h e c r u m b l i n g down of t h e solid rocks. Diese rocks b e s t e h n aus m o r e oder less h a r d e n e d sandstones, lime5 stones u n d clays. ... If a soil effervesce (give off bubbles of gas) w h e n an acid is poured u p o n it, it c o n t a i n s c a r b o n a t e of lime, a n d the degree of effervescence indicates the proportion of lime. ... Am leichtesten u n d wohlfeilsten cultivirt die lightlands (die c o n t a i n a large proportion of sand or gravel) called barley or turnip soils, weil diese u n d andre green crops b e 10 sonders gut auf i h n e n f o r t k o m m e n . W e n n n o c h leichter u n d m e h r sandig, they grow rye and b u c k wheat better. ... Drains nie flacher zu m a c h e n als 3 0 - 3 6 inches; oft tiefer, b u t where there are springs or bodies of water at a greater depth ... D i e roots of corn, clover u n d flax g e h n down 3 F u ß u n d selbst turniproots in an o p e n soil ü b e r 2 F u ß . ... W h e n my drains are so 15 deep, I can go down 20 or 24 inches with my subsoil || 231 plough, my spade, or my fork, without any risk of injuring t h e m . ... crops which look well at first, often droop or fail altogether w h e n their roots get down to t h e hurtful m a t t e r im subsoil ... Subsoil ploughing stirs u n d loosens, b u t does n o t bring up the subsoil to the surface, wie deep ploughing or trenching. 20 ... Schweres Land, so gedrained etc, would be m o r e cheaply worked, u n d yield a greater n u m b e r of bushels of corn per acre als zuvor u n d giebt green crops in addition. ... there is m u c h high l a n d (über der See) which will n o t at present pay to crop, which would yet pay well if drained a n d subsoilploughed or forked. F ü r draining tile drains werden vorgezogen d e n stone25 drains. Diese b e s t e h n usually of a d e p t h of 9 or 12 inches of stones b r o k e n the size of road m e t a l . A tile drain ist inefficient without a sole, b e c a u s e it is liable to sink, a n d t h u s b e c o m e choked. Der advantage der pipetiles ist, daß sie cheaper, gleich wirksam u n d d a u e r n d sind, lighter to carry u n d contains tile and sole in o n e . ... An i n c h pipe will carry off a m u c h larger 30 quantity of rain t h e n usually falls in our climate. ... Diese drains are to be p u t from 15 to 18 feet distance. ( 2 5 - 3 1 )

Of

the

Inorganic

Food

of Plants.

Der inorganic oder earthy part des soil dient 1) als ein M e d i u m , worin die W u r z e l n sich fixiren k ö n n e n , so as to keep the plant in an upright position 35 u n d 2) supplirt die plant m i t inorganic food. Ausser d e n H a u p t b e s t a n d t h e i len, Sand, clay u n d lime, enthält der inorganic part of the soil small q u a n t i ties von Potash, soda, magnesia, Eisenoxid, M a n g a n e s e o x i d , S u l p h u r i c Acid, Phosphoric acid u n d Chlorine. Bilden a m u c h larger proportion of the soil

377

Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 • Heft XIV t h a n they generally do of plants. A u s s e r d e m e n t h ä l t der inorganic part des B o d e n s alumina, while plant usually c o n t a i n s n o n e . D e r soil enthält silica u n d a l u m i n a , die plant silica o h n e a l u m i n a , das a n i m a l weder silica n o c h a l u m i n a . E x c e p t i o n z u m leztren ist das fact, d a ß die F e d e r n der Vögel u n d H a a r u n d Wolle von m a n u n d a n d r e n a n i m a l s silica e n t h a l t e n i n m i n u t e q u a n t i t y b u t as an essential constituent. In s o m e plants traces of a l u m i n a have b e e n found, b u t it does n o t as yet appear to be necessary to any w h i c h we cultivate for profit. ... Alumina is a white, earthy, tasteless powder, which exists in alum, a n d gives their stiffness to pipe-clays a n d to stiff claysoils. D i e ß earthy m a t t e r enters into t h e p l a n t by the roots, in a state of solution. T h e r a i n a n d springwater dissolve t h e m , a n d carry t h e m into t h e roots. ... V o n allen diesen i n o r g a n i s c h e n S u b s t a n z e n p l a n t s m u s t have a certain small quantity, b u t they require m o r e of s o m e s u b s t a n c e s t h a n of others. 1) Quantity and Composition of the Ash left by a ton (2240 lbs) of hay of different Kinds.

Potash Soda Lime Magnesia Oxide of Iron Sulphuric acid Phosphoric acid Chlorine Silica

15

Italian Rye grass Hay

Clover Red

Hay White

Lucerne Hay

17 7 13% 3 1 4 8¾ 2 81½ 138

26 3½ 55½ 17½ 1½ 6½ 10 4 5 129½

24¾ 10½ 45½ 14 3½ 12½ 20 5 6 141¾

30 13½ 107½ 1%

20

%

9 29 6¾ 7½ 211½

Ist ein B o d e n gänzlich entblöst von o n e dieser S u b s t a n z e n , good crops would n o t grow u p o n it; enthält er a large supply von allen u n d n u r a small von s o m e o n e derselben, so werden die Pflanzen well auf i h m wachsen which require only a small quantity of that o n e s u b s t a n c e ; aber die viel d a v o n erheischen würden b e stunted u n d u n h e a l t h y . E n t h i e l t e das L a n d ζ. Β. little lime, so k ö n n t e es grow a good crop of rye-grass, aber n i c h t a good crop of clover. 1st a soil destitute of a considerable n u m b e r of these different inorganic substances, so würde er refuse to grow good crops of any k i n d whatever. It would be naturally barren. S o m e larger tracts of country, die n i e werden cultivated by m a n , sind naturally fertile u n d a n d r e naturally barren. In t h e fertile soils all those inorganic substances exist which our cultivated crops require; in t h e b a r r e n soils, s o m e of these substances are or m a y be wholly wanting. Composition of Soils of different degrees. (Sieh die folgende Seite ü b e r d e r

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Aus James Finley Weir Johnston: Catechism of agricultural chemistry and geology

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Bodentafel.) A soil k a n n b a r r e n sein obgleich er alle substances enthält, which plants require. W e n n it c o n t a i n s a very large p r o p o r t i o n of s o m e o n e , wie oxide of iron or c o m m o n salt, d a s in great quantity injurious to t h e soil, l a n d reclaimed from t h e sea often c o n t a i n s t o o m u c h salt w h i c h t h e r a i n gradually removes. Solcher B o d e n zu verbessern d u r c h t h o r o u g h draining u n d subsoilploughing, t h a t the r a i n s m i g h t sink t h r o u g h it a n d wash out t h e injurious m a t t e r ; d u r c h liming, if it required lime. ( S c h l a g um.) I |24| II. Composition of Soils of different degrees of fertility. *(Sieh die Notiz zu dieser Tafel) Fertile without manure

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Organic matter Silica (in the sand and clay) Alumina (in the clay) Lime Magnesia Oxides of Iron Oxide of Manganese Potash Soda f chiefly as Chlorine 1 common salt Sulphuric Acid Phosphoric Acid Carbonic Acid (combined mit dem lime und magnesia) Loss Summa: (31-36)

Effect 35

40

Fertile with Manure

Barren

97

50

40

648

833

778

51 18 8 30 3 trace

91 4 1 81

57 59 8½ 61 1 2 4

%

trace

2 2 4½

%

40 14 1000

of Cropping

4½ 4½ 1000 (p. 35)

1000

upon

the

Soil.

E i n n a t ü r l i c h fruchtbarer B o d e n k a n n b a r r e n g e m a c h t w e r d e n d u r c h cont i n u e d cropping, w e n n die same kind of cropping be carried on for a long t i m e , z. B. J. zitirt w h e a t , o a t s o d e r a n d r e g r a i n . Schließlich unfähig Eins derselben zu tragen. W e i l sie draw certain substances von d e m soil in great a b u n d a n c e u n d n a c h einer R e i h e von J a h r e n the soil c a n n o t furnish these substances in sufficient quantity. D a s grain of our corn crops ζ. B. e x h a u s t s besonders d e n B o d e n von phosphoric acid, Potash u n d Magnesia. (36)

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Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 · Heft XIV Composition of the Ash of Wheat, Oats, etc exclusive of the Straw, (in a 100 pounds.) Wheat Potash und Soda Lime Magnesia Oxide of Iron Phosphoric acid Sulphuric Acid Chlorine Silica

Oats

33 3 12

26 6 10

Barley

22½ 2½ 7½ 1½ % 44 39 10½ trace % trace 27 2% 100 100

% 49 % trace 2 100

Rye

Indian Corn

33 32½ 5 1½ 10½ 16 1½ % 48½ 45 1 3 trace % y 1½ 100 100 2

Beans 45 6½ % 33 4½ 1¼ % 100

Turnips Potato 51½ 11¼ 3 % 11¼ 15 5½ 2 100

58 2 5 % 12½ 13½ 4¼ 4¼ 100 (37)

(*Notizen zu Tafel II (p. 35) D e r Boden, dessen Z u s a m m e n s e t z u n g in der ersten C o l u m n e gegeben h a d p r o d u c e d crops für 60 J a h r e o h n e m a n u r e , a n d still c o n t a i n e d a sensible q u a n t i t y of all t h e s u b s t a n c e required by plants. Der in der 2 C o l u m n e p r o d u c i r t e gute crops, w e n n regulär ged ü n g t ; it was in want of 3 or 4 substances only, w h i c h were ||25| given to it by t h e m a n u r e . D e r 3 war hopelessly barren, it was in want of m a n y substances w h i c h ordinary m a n u r i n g could not supply in sufficient quantity. D a b e i enthielt er zu viel Eisen.)

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Der special e x h a u s t i o n n u n z u v o r g e k o m m e n by r e t u r n i n g to t h e soil the particular substances my crops h a d t a k e n out. Ζ. B. die p h o s p h o r i c acid zu­ rückgegeben d u r c h b o n e dust or g u a n o oder p h o s p h a t e of l i m e ... J e d e r crop takes away from the soil a certain q u a n t i t y dieser substances w h i c h all 25 plants require. If you are always taking out of a purse it will at last b e c o m e empty. (37) A b e r w e n n der farmer p u t s in t h e soil t h e proper substances, in t h e proper quantities, a n d at the proper times, he m a y keep up t h e fertility of t h e land, perhaps for ever. D e r F a r m e r m u ß d e m L a n d p u t in at least as m u c h as he takes out. To m a k e his l a n d better, he m u s t p u t in m o r e t h a n 30 he takes out. His profits consist in this, that he takes off the l a n d w h a t he c a n sell for m u c h m o n e y , a n d he p u t s in what he c a n buy for comparatively little m o n e y . If I sell my oats, hay, or turnips, I get a m u c h higher price for t h e m t h a n I afterwards give, w h e n I buy t h e m b a c k again in t h e form of horse or cowdung. (38) 35

380

Aus James Finley Weir Johnston: Catechism of agricultural chemistry and geology

Of Manures

5

and

Manuring

the

Soil.

Portable masses, die are of a small bulk or weight u n d leicht zu great distances transported w e r d e n k ö n n e n . I h r Vortheil: they can be b r o u g h t v o n fremden Ländern, oder carried far inland, oder carted up to high districts u n d n o c h m i t Profit v o m P ä c h t e r a n g e w a n d t werden. So G u a n o , b o n e s , rapedust, pigeon's dung, p h o s p h a t e of l i m e , gypsum, nitrate of soda etc. ... vegetable, a n i m a l , m i n e r a l m a n u r e s . (39)

Vegetable

Manures.

Pflanzen, wie grass, clover, hay, straw, potatotops, rapedust etc, die usually 10 are buried in the soil for t h e purpose of m a k i n g it m o r e productive. D e r soil is m a n u r e d m i t green grass w h e n grass l a n d is ploughed u p . E b e n s o white m u s t a r d , rape, rye, b r o o m , an m a n c h e n Stellen a u c h turnips ploughed in green to enrich the soil. A green crop einzupflügen in leichte u n d sandy soils u n d in solche die very little organische M a t e r i e enthalten ... sea15 weed, wo es in large quantity gefunden, bereichert d e n B o d e n sehr. Es ist either spread over the land a n d ploughed in, or is allowed to rot a n d sink in, or is m a d e i n t o a compost. In d e n potato drills ist es oft p u t in a fresh state, care being t a k e n to prevent t h e potato sets from touching t h e seaweed, by putting a little earth between t h e m . So an d e n Ost u n d W e s t k ü 20 sten Schottlands, giebt large Kartoffelcrops, b u t of inferior quality. ... P o tato or turnip tops dug in, w h e n the roots are lifted, m a k e the n e x t year's corn better. W i e zu erhalten die largest quantity of green m a n u r e in t h e form of potato-tops? By pulling off the blossoms the tops are k e p t in a green state till the potatoes are dug u p , a n d thus give m u c h green crop. Heu 25 wird gewöhnlich d e n Pferden gegeben u n d d a n n aufs L a n d geworfen in t h e shape of their dung. Stroh an s o m e places gebraucht in feeding the cattle, an a n d r e n theils d e n cattle gegeben u n d theils t r o d d e n a m o n g t h e litter, while in places, where few cattle are kept, it is s o m e t i m e s rotted with water u n d a little cow's d u n g u n d put on the l a n d in a half fermented state. 1st 30 das L a n d leicht, so zu d ü n g e n mit*straw well fermented u n d m i x t with t h e droppings of a good m a n y cattle; ist es heavy clay l a n d during the n a k e d fallow before a crop of wheat, d a n n rather m i t straw m o r e loose a n d unferm e n t e d . It would help to keep my l a n d o p e n . Rape-cake is t h e refuse t h a t r e m a i n s when rape or colzaseed is crushed in t h e mill to squeeze o u t t h e 35 oil. W h e n the cake is b r o k e n to powder, it is called rapedust. R a p e d u s t is applied to turnips or potatos either in place of the whole or a part only of

381

Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 · Heft XIV the c o m m o n farmyarddung - a n d it is in m a n y parts of the country u s e d with great profit as a top-dressing to the y o u n g wheat in spring. ( 3 9 - 4 2 )

Of

Animal

Manures.

H a u p t s ä c h l i c h s t e sind: Blut, Fleisch, K n o c h e n , H a a r e , Wolle, Mist u n d U r i n der Thiere u n d der refuse der Fische. Blut Eins der m o s t powerful m a 5 nures. In soils, die a r m an Phosphates, b o n e s p r o d u c i r e n excellent crops of wheat u n d t u r n i p ; w e n n reich daran, rapedust, woollen rags, the salts of a m m o n i a u n d t h e nitrates of potash u n d Soda are applied m i t great profit für corn u n d root crops. T h e practical i m p o r t a n c e of Geology b e c o m e s apparent, w h e n it is known that the inspection of a geological m a p enables us 10 to point out where soils rich or poor in p h o s p h a t e s are likely to occur. Bones b e s t e h n aus gelatine or glue, w h i c h m a y be partly extracted by boiling t h e m in water, (verbrennt, organischer Bestandtheil) u n d aus bone-earth, die als A s c h e zurückbleibt (phosphate of lime.) (100 lbs of b o n e earth as it is o b t a i n e d by b u r n i n g bones e n t h a l t e n 4 0 - 4 5 lbs of phosphoric acid.) Old 15 dairy pastures especially require b o n e s , weil M i l c h u n d Käse b o n e earth e n t h a l t e n u n d diese, s o n a c h u n d n a c h d e m B o d e n entzogen, e r n u r n o c h Grasses produciren kann, die little b o n e earth e n t h a l t e n . In 10 gallons Milch e n t h a l t e n / Pf- b o n e earth. A cow daher, die 20 quarts a day giebt, n i m m t a b o u t 2 Pf. b o n e earth von d e m soil j e d e W o c h e . To return these to 20 the soil 3 Pf. of dry b o n e s oder 4 Pf. of c o m m o n b o n e dust sind erheischt. Hair u n d wool sind remarkable for c o n t a i n i n g a b o u t 5 % of sulphur. V o n d e n E x c r e m e n t e n die n ü t z l i c h s t e n der R e i h e n a c h M e n s c h e n = d a n n bird's = d a n n horse = d a n n pig's, schließlich u n d least cowdung. ( 4 2 - 4 5 ) | |26| Nitrogen während der fermentation of a n i m a l m a n u r e s n i m m t erst die 25 F o r m von a m m o n i a an. Ammonia is a kind of air which has an exceedingly strong smell u n d possesses alkaline properties. T h e h a r t s h o r n of the shops is merely water impregnated m i t this gas. Besteht aus nitrogen u n d hydrogen. 14 Pf. of nitrogen u n d 3 Pf. of hydrogen m a c h e n 17 Pf. a m m o n i a . D i e ß a m m o n i a , w h e n formed in m a n u r e , is dissolved in t h e soil by water 30 u n d is t h e n sucked in by the roots. D u r c h die acid of a m m o n i a in d e n Pflanzen gebildet das gluten u n d other substances containing nitrogen. D e r U r i n von m a n u n d von d e m pig enthält phospates; die des horse, der cow u n d des sheep nicht. 1845: 220,000 tons of g u a n o i m p o r t e d in the U n i t e d K i n g d o m . 1847: 82,000, worth a b o u t £ 500,000. ( 4 7 - 5 1 ) 35 l

2

382

r Aus James Finley Weir Johnston: Catechism of agricultural chemistry and geology

Of

Saline

or

Mineral

Manures.

Die wichtigsten p h o s p h a t e of lime, nitrate of soda, sulphate of Soda, sulp h a t e of magnesia, c o m m o n salt, gypsum, kelp, woodashes, soot u n d l i m e . Phosphate of lime ist a white earthy s u b s t a n c e , b e s t e h e n d aus l i m e u n d 5 phosphoric acid, which in m a n y places is d u g up as a mineral, a n d is u s e d for agricultural purpose. Es occurs a b u n d a n t l y in s o m e geological formations, besonders in d e m greensand u n d d e m crag u n d ist zu a variable extent e n t h a l t e n in allen Kalksteinen. T h e discovery dieser p h o s p h a t e b e d s ist o n e of the i m p o r t a n t benefits w h i c h m o d e r n science has bestowed u p o n 10 practical agriculture. Wird als m a n u r e verwandt, w e n n ground to fine powder oder dissolved, like b o n e s , in sulphuric acid u n d applied to t h e corn a n d root crops. Nitrate of Soda a white saltlike (saline) substance, gefunden in der Erde in einigen T h e i l e n von Peru u n d oft m i t Vortheil angewandt as a topdressing to grass lands a n d to young corn. Besteht aus nitric acid u n d 15 soda. 54 Pf. of nitric acid u n d 31 Pf. of soda bilden 85 Pf. of nitrate of soda. W e n n carbonic acid sich verbindet m i t Potasche, Soda, l i m e u n d m a g n e sia, bildet es a carbonate, w e n n ein phosphoric acid a phosphate, sulphuric acid a sulphate, nitric acid a nitrate. Nitric acid a very sour, corrosive liquid, called also a q u a fortis. Besteht aus nitrogen u n d oxygen. Sulphate of Soda 20 (Glaubersalz) besteht aus sulphuric acid (Vitriolöl) u n d Soda. Sulphate of Magnesia (Epsom salts) ist a bitter substance, consisting of sulphuric acid u n d Magnesia. Gypsum is a white solid substance, besteht aus sulphuric acid u n d lime. Kelp is the ash that is left w h e n sea-weed is b u r n e d in large quantities. Soot enthält lime, g y p s u m u n d sulphate of a m m o n i a , t h e latter 25 s o m e t i m e s to the extent of % of its whole weight. Soot, die salts of ammonia und die nitrates give the crops a rich and luxuriant green colour. ( 5 1 - 5 6 )

Of Limestone, and

and Use

of

the

Burning

of Lime.

Limestone besteht aus lime (quicklime) in c o m b i n a t i o n m i t C a r b o n i c acid, 30 heißt bei d e n chemists »carbonate of lime«. Varieties of limestone, einige soft wie Kreide, andre hart, wie die c o m m o n limestones, einige m i t gelber F a r b e wie der m a g n e s i a n l i m e s t o n e , einige weiß, wie der statuary m a r b l e , einige schwarz, wie der Derbyshire black marble. Marl ist dasselbe wie limestone, n ä m l i c h carbonate of lime, n u r oft m e t with in a soft state oder 35 in that of a fine powder, a n d often also m i x e d with earthy matter. L i m e -

383

Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 · Heft XIV stones u n d marls e n t h a l t e n gewöhnlich a m i n u t e q u a n t i t y of p h o s p h a t e of lime. In limestones das p h o s p h a t e oft zu 1 % % u n d in s o m e few marls zu 2, 3 oder 4 % . Shellsand or b r o k e n seashells is also nearly t h e s a m e thing as c o m m o n l i m e s t o n e . W e n n l i m e s t o n e (carbonate of lime) is b u r n e d in t h e kiln, t h e carbonic acid is driven off from t h e l i m e s t o n e by t h e h e a t u n d der 5 l i m e alone r e m a i n s . D i e ß der s.g. b u r n e d lime, q u i c k - l i m e , caustic lime, h o t lime, lime shells etc (Alkali). D e r lime, sowohl der q u i c k l i m e als der m i l d l i m e (leztrer s.g. w e n n g e b r a n n t e r Kalk wieder m i t W a s s e r v e r b u n d e n u n d wieder K o h l e n s ä u r e aus der Luft ausgesogen h a b e n d in Pulver zerfällt) wirkt by supplying t h e lime which all plants r e q u i r e as part of their food, by 10 c o m b i n i n g with acids in the soil, so as to r e m o v e t h e sourness of t h e land a n d by converting the vegetable m a t t e r of t h e soil i n t o t h e food of plants. In d i e s e m L a n d gewöhnlich 8 oder 10 bushels a year a d d e d to an imperial acre. A b e r n i c h t every year, sondern every r o t a t i o n or every second rotation oder m a n c h m a l n u r once in the 19 J a h r e n . ( 5 6 - 6 1 ) 15

Of

the which

composition

of

the farmer

the

crops

reaps.

D i e different kinds of grain b e s t e h n besonders aus starch, gluten u n d oil oder fat. 100 Pfund Roggen- oder Weizenmehl e n t h a l t e n a b o u t 50 Pf. Stärke, 10 Pf. Kleber (gluten) u n d 2 oder 3 Pf. Oel. 100 Pf. oats e n t h a l t e n ungefähr 60 Pf. Stärke, 16 Pf. gluten u n d 6 Pf. Oel. 100 Pf. Indian com ungefähr 70 Pf. Stärke, 12 Pf. gluten u n d 8 Pf. Fett. Kartoffeln und Turnips b e s t e h n besonders aus Wasser. 100 Pf. potatos e n t h a l t e n an 75 Pf. Wasser. 100 Pfund of t u r n i p s e n t h a l t e n 88 Pf. Wasser u n d 100 Pf. M a n g o l d w u r z e l an 85 Pf. Die quantity of water oft n o c h grösser, s o m e varieties of wheat e n t h a l t e n m e h r gluten als andre, some varieties of oats m e h r Oel als a n d r e , s o m e varieties of potatoes m e h r Stärke als a n d r e . Oats u n d I n d i a n corn u n d die Oelsaam e n e n t h a l t e n m o s t fat; beans, pease u n d O e l s a a m e n d e n m e i s t e n gluten. ( O e l s a a m e n also ζ. B. L e i n s a a m e n , R a p s s a a m e n , poppy seed, h e m p s e e d ) . D a s Clima Einfluß hierauf. D e r W e i z e n warmer Climate soll m e h r gluten u n d die potatoes u n d barley grown auf light u n d welldrained land m e h r Stärke e n t h a l t e n . ( 6 1 - 6 2 ) |

384

20

25

30

Aus James Finley Weir Johnston: Catechism of agricultural chemistry and geology

|27|

Uses of the

Crops

in

Feeding.

E i n Thier m u ß erhalten Stärke, Kleber, Oel oder Fett u n d saline or inorganic matter, um to be m a i n t a i n e d in a h e a l t h y state. E i n M a n n throws off from his lungs in a day 6 - 8 U n z e n of carbon. M u ß daher z u m Ersatz 5 nearly a p o u n d of starch essen. 10 o u n c e s of starch e n t h a l t e n 4 % U n z e n of carbon. Derselbe carbon ist again u n d again transformed by the plant into starch u n d by the a n i m a l into carbonic acid; diese changes nöthig to keep up the w a r m t h of the a n i m a l body. D e r gluten der Pflanzen ersezt die m u s cles der Thiere. food that c o n t a i n s m u c h oil ist die best for fattening. Dario um lin-seed u n d oilcake so good for fattening stock. A b o u t 80,000 tons of linseed cake imported jährlich in G r e a t Britain, as food for cattle, at a cost of nearly £ 700,000. P h o s p h a t e of l i m e u n d other inorganic m a t t e r s nöthig to supply the daily waste of the b o n e s , of t h e salts in the blood etc. A b e r gluten u n d saline matter, when the a n i m a l is growing, n o t only supply t h e 15 daily waste, but are daily adding to the weight of the a n i m a l ' s body. Q. How would you convert a ton of oats or turnips into the largest quantity of beef or m u t t o n ? A. I would keep my cattle or sheep in a warm or sheltered place, where they m i g h t have wholesome air, a n d b u t little light, a n d I would disturb t h e m as little as possible. Q. If y o u wanted merely to fatten a 20 fullgrown beast, what would you do? A. I would keep it warm, disturb it little, a n d give it fat or oily food etc with a good supply of turnips. T h e degree of warmth and c o n f i n e m e n t u n d e r which a n i m a l s will thrive d e p e n d s m u c h u p o n the breed. Q. If you wished only to convert a large quantity of hay, straw or turnips into m a n u r e s , what would you do? I would p u t my 25 stock in a cool a n d less sheltered place, a n d I would m a k e t h e m take a good deal of exercise. ( 6 3 - 6 7 )

Of

milk

and

dairy

Produce.

Milch besteht aus water, curd, b u t t e r u n d einer b e s o n d e r n Art Zucker, gen a n n t Milchzucker. 100 Pf. oder 10 gallons of cow's milk e n t h a l t e n a b o u t 30 4 % lbs of pure curd, 3 of fat or butter, u n d 4 % of milk sugar - nearly all t h e rest is water. W ü n s c h t m a n , daß die K u h die möglichst grosse Quantität M i l c h gebe, so reicht m a n ihr rich juicy grass, turnips m i t their tops, green rye, brewers' grains, warm m a s h e s , oder other food containing m u c h water u n d giebt ihr so viel to drink als sie will. Will m a n aber Milch von der bestes möglichen Qualität erhalten, so giebt m a n ihr drier food - oats, b e a n s , b r a n , oilcake u n d clover hay, along with h e r turnips or boiled food. Will m a n

385

Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 • Heft XIV besonders Butterreiche Milch so giebt m a n ihr dasselbe k i n d of food als für fattening animals. Die Milch enthält alle E l e m e n t e einer nahrhaften N a h rung. D i e Butter der M i l c h supplies das fat des Körpers, das curd supports die muscles, der Milchzucker liefert d e n carbon für die Respiration u n d die Phosphates die earthy m a t t e r der bones ... Das a n i m a l finds ready 5 formed in t h e ripened plant, all the m o s t i m p o r t a n t substances of which its own b o d y is composed. D e r gluten of its food ist nearly identical m i t d e m fibre of its muscles, das oil similar d e m fat of its b o d y while the bone-earth u n d other salts of the plant supply materials for the b o n e s a n d blood of the a n i m a l , u n d die starch u n d sugar d e n carbon w h i c h is necessary for the 10 purpose of respiration. W h e n the vegetable food has discharged its office in the a n i m a l body, it returns to the earth in the form of d u n g - only to enter into the roots of new plants u n d t h u s to p r o d u c e new supplies of sustenace for other races of animals. ( 6 7 - 9 ) D e r s e l b e J o h n s t o n u.a. n o c h g e s c h r i e b e n »Elements of Agricultural Chemistry u n d Geology.« 5 ed. W. Black- 15 wood u n d sons. E d i n b u r g h u n d L o n d o n . 1848. »Instructions for the Analysis of Soils.« «Contributions to Scientific Agriculture. 1849.« « E x p é r i m e n tal Agriculture, being the Results of Past, a n d suggestions for future e x p e r i m e n t s in scientific a n d practical agriculture. 1849.«

386

Aus William Johnston: England as it is, political, social, and industrial

Johnston. (William, Barrister at Law.) England as it is, Political, Social, and Industrial etc 2 vol. L o n d o n . 1851.

5

T.I.

Statistics of the Land. Farmers und Gentry. Das U n i t e d K i n g d o m 77,394,433 acres. D a v o n 46,522,970 u n t e r irgend einer Art von Cultur; n ä m l i c h 19,135,990 acres of arable land u n d g a r d e n s ; 27,386,980 acres of m e a d o w s , pastures u n d m a r s h e s ; 15,000,000 acres of 10 waste land capable of i m p r o v e m e n t , in i h r e m present state geschäzt z u m W e r t h von 5 Mill. £ S t . a year u n d 15,871,463 acres incapable of improvem e n t . (10) Spackman schäzt das R e n t a l des l a n d des U n i t e d K i n g d o m zu 58,753,615 l. u n d adds daß die direct u n d local taxation applicable to it a m o u n t s zu 18,314,908 1., wovon 13,881,9111, paid von d e m l a n d e d inter15 est u n d 4,432,997 l. von d e m m a n u f a c t u r i n g interest. Er schäzt das in der Cultur des Bodens e m b a r k e d capital auf 250 Mill. J a m e s M a c Q u e e n estim a t e s the a n n u a l agricultural p r o d u c e des U n i t e d K i n g d o m auf 686,524,132 l. u n t e r protection prices u n d auf 470,580,485 l. u n t e r d e n prices of 1850. N a c h Porter: 19,135,000 acres zu 7 I. per acre geben 20 £ 133,945,000; 27 Mill, acres zu 6 I. per acre £ 162 Mill, u n d 15 Mill, acres wastes zu 5 Mill. G i e b t ein jährliches P r o d u c t von £ 300,945,000. ( 1 0 , 1 1 ) | |28| Spackman schäzt das a n n u a l p r o d u c e [des] L a n d e s des U n i t e d Kingd o m n u r auf 250,000,000 I. St; obgleich er W e i z e n das qr zu 60 sh. n i m m t u n d alles andre grain zu 30 sh. His calculation is:

387

Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 • Heft XIV 22,000,000 qrs of wheat 34,000,000 qrs of all other grains Hay, seeds, garden u n d green crops 2,000,000 head of cattle 10,000,000 sheep a n d lambs Potatoes Wool Butter Cheese Poultry, milk, eggs, fruits u n d vegetables 200,000 horses Pigs All other a n i m a l s Hops Timber V a l u e of uncultivated wastes u n d woods

£

66,000,000 51,000,000 30,000,000 30,000,000 15,000,000 25,000,000 8,000,000 5,000,000 5,000,000 3,000,000 3,000,000 2,000,000 1,000,000 1,500,000 2,500,000 2,000,000 £250,000,000.

S p a c k m a n schäzt das yield of wheat in E n g l a n d zu 18 Mill, qrs; of barley zu 6 Mill, qrs; of oats, rye, beans u n d peas zu 12 Mill, qrs, z u m W e r t h von 54 Mill. £ für wheat, 9 Mill. I. für barley, 18 Mill. £ für die other sorts of grain u n d pulse. McCulloch „On T a x a t i o n " , giebt sein E s t i m a t e von d e m corn grown in England: Wheat, 14,000,000 qrs zu 50 sh. Barley 5,000,000 qrs zu 30 sh. Oats, peas und beans 12 Mill, qrs zu 25 sh.

£

10

15

20

35,000,000 7,500,000

16,000,000 £ 58,500,000. 1844 gab McCulloch für das ganze e m p i r e : P r o d u c e from arable land £ 138,021,548 Pasture u n d uncultivated l a n d 89,750,000 £ 2 2 7 , 7 7 1 , 5 4 8 . ([11,] 12.) M c C u l l o c h schäzt das G e s a m m t G r u n d r e n t a l von E n g l a n d u n d Wales auf 4 0 - 4 1 Millionen. (On Taxation, p. 147) Mr. Spackman giebt das gross rental of England u n d Wales auf 40,167,088 1.; von Schottland: 5,586,628 u n d von Irland auf 13,562,946, z u s a m m e n 59,316,662 /. (13) D e r average of rent per acre in England u n d Wales 1 8 4 2 - 3 war 1 /. 1 s. 8½ d., having risen to that s u m von 18 s. 6% d., which was the rate in 1 8 1 4 - 1 5 . (I.e.) 5 - 6 £ per acre hielt m a n für das capital required for the cultivation of land; aber das high farming of m o d e r n times erfordert fast das Doppelte. (14) from state-

388

5

25

30

35

Aus William Johnston: England as it is, political, social, and industrial m e n t s m a d e in P a r l i a m e n t in 1845 it appeared d a ß das G r u n d r e n t a l of l a n d in G r e a t Britain advanced von ü b e r 39, in 1814, auf ü b e r 45 Mill. £ (in 1843), while that of h o u s e s h a d increased von 16,259,399 I. in 1814 zu 38,475,738 l. G r u n d r e n t e scheint n u r um 1 2 % gestiegen zu sein, w ä h r e n d H a u s r e n t e um 140 %. (16, 17) To the Lords C o m m i t t e e on Parochial A s sessments (May 1850) Mr Cornwall Lewis stated t h a t in 1843 das „real p r o perty" assessed to t h e i n c o m e t a x was as follows:

10

15

20

25

Lands Houses Tithes Manors Fines Quarries Mines Ironworks Fisheries Canals Railways O t h e r Property

£40,167,088 35,556,399 1,960,330 152,216 319,140 207,009 1,903,794 412,022 11,104 1,229,202 2,417,609 1,466,815 £85,802,728.

1848 lands h a d increased to Houses zu Railways zu All other Property Total:

£41,179,713 37,282,140 5,465,584 7,245,034 91,172,471 1. ( 1 7 , 1 8 )

T h e smaller proprietors, von d e n e n der M ' C u l l o c h sagt sie seien die M a jorität u n d h ä t t e n kein E i n k o m m e n ü b e r 170 /. a year, sind nicht, as they o n c e were, owners of fields, b u t of h o u s e s a n d gardens, the proprietors, in short, of residences, b u t n o t deriving their support from the land. ([18,] 19) 30 Of t r a d e s m e n u n d h a n d i c r a f t s m e n heißt es in den C o m m i s s i o n e r s ' abstracts presented d e m P a r l a m e n t 1844: „Of tradesmen u n d handicraftsmen bei weitem die größte Z a h l are i n c l u d e d u n d e r the h e a d of boot u n d shoe makers, a m o u n t i n g zu 214,780 oder fast % m e h r als die butchers, bakers, b u t t e r m e n , m i l k m e n , grocers u n d greengrocers p u t together." (p. 25) 1849 35 waren die exports von Great Britain 58,848,042 /. u n d dieß schließt ein d e n value des raw material, wovon ein grosser Theil of foreign p r o d u c t i o n ; D i e ß probably nicht m e h r als % der a n n u a l p r o d u c t i o n of wealth in the U n i t e d K i n g d o m . Spackman in s e i n e m B u c h „The O c c u p a t i o n s of the P e o p l e " giebt:

389

Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 · Heft XIV £ Agriculture, annual creation of Wealth in Great Britain Manufactures (deducting the value des raw material) Mining Interest Colonial Interest Foreign commerce (including the shipping interest) Fisheries

250,000,000 127,000,000 37,000,000 18,000,000 15,000,000 3,000,000 £ 450,000,000.

5

10

|29| S p a c k m a n schäzt den gross value der m a n u f a c t u r e d p r o d u c t i o n s auf 187,184,292 1., wovon 118,600,000 l. für d e n h o m e t r a d e u n d 58,584,292 I. für d e n foreign trade. Unterstellt d a ß von der m a n u f a c t u r i n g industry der h o m e trade % absorbirt u n d der foreign n u r Bei der c o t t o n m a n u f a c t u r e die h o m e c o n s u m p t i o n zu der e x p o r t c o n s u m p t i o n = 20:25. ([51,] 52) the 15 quantities t a k e n into h o m e c o n s u m p t i o n in 1849 waren, of wheat 4,509,626 qrs, of I n d i a n corn 2,249,571 qrs, of wheatflour 3,937,219 cwt, of I n d i a n c o r n m e a l 102,181 cwt, besides 1,554,860 qrs of barley, 1,368,673 qrs of oats u n d 1,417,863 cwts of potatoes. (54) 1849 foreign eggs eingeführt 97,884,557. (55) Die Edinburgh Review sagt irgendwo: »intelligent apprécia- 20 tion, childish fear, childish wonder, a feverish spirit of speculation, a n d a strong infusion of cupidity, are all strangely m i n g l e d in the popular estimate of what the sciences are destined to effect for the world. T h e general faith in science as a wonder-worker is at present u n l i m i t e d ; a n d along with this t h e r e is cherished the conviction t h a t every discovery a n d i n v e n t i o n a d m i t s 25 of practical application to the welfare of m e n . Is a new vegetable product brought to this country from abroad, or a new c h e m i c a l c o m p o u n d discovered, or a novel physical p h e n o m e n o n recorded, the question is i m m e d i a t e ly asked, cui bono? W h a t is it good for? Is food or drink to be got out of it? Will it m a k e hats or shoes, or cover umbrellas? Will it kill or heal? Will it 30 drive a steamengine or m a k e a mill go? ... Chemistry has long c o m e down from her atomic altitudes a n d electric affinities, a n d now scours a n d dyes, brews, bakes, cooks, and c o m p o u n d s drugs a n d m a n u r e s with contented c o m p o s u r e . Electricity leaves her t h u n d e r b o l t in the sky, and, like Mercury dismissed from Olympus, acts as lettercarrier a n d messageboy. Even myste- 35 rious m a g n e t i s m , which once seemed like a living principle to quiver in the compass-needle, is u n c l o t h e d of mystery, a n d set to drive turning-lathes. T h e public perceives all this, a n d has u n l i m i t e d faith in m a n ' s power to c o n q u e r n a t u r e . T h e credulity which formerly fed u p o n u n i c o r n s , p h o e n i x es, m e r m a i d s , vampires, crackens, pestilential comets, fairies, ghosts, witch- 40 es, spectres, charms, curses, universal remedies, p a c t i o n s with Satan, a n d

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the like, now tampers with chemistry, electricity a n d m a g n e t i s m , as it o n c e did with the invisible world: Shoes of swiftness, seven-leagued boots, a n d F o r t u n a t u s ' wishing caps are b a n i s h e d even from the nursery; b u t an electro-magnetic steam fire-balloon, which will cleave the air like a t h u n d e r bolt, and go straight to its destination as the crow flies, is an i n v e n t i o n which m a n y h o p e to see realized before railways are quite worn to pieces.« [p. 245, 246] By a return presented to P a r l i a m e n t at t h e b e g i n n i n g of t h e session of 1850 sieht m a n d e n progress of railways: (p. 262, 263) Miles Dec. Juni Dec. Juni Dec.

open in the United Kingdom at the end of 1844 2240 J u n e 1847 1845 2343 D e c . 1847 1845 2536 J u n e 1848 1846 2765 D e c 1848 1846 3142 J u n e 1849

3603 3945 4478 5127 5447. (263)

Die general receipts waren: (Jahr i m m e r E n d e n d J u n e 30)

20

Receipts von Passengers £ Cattle, Goods etc. £ Total Receipts. £ 1845 3,976,341 2,233,373 6,209,714 1846 2,840,354 4,725,215 7,565,569 5,148,002 3,362,884 1847 8,510,886 1848 5,720,382 4,213,170 9,933,552 1849 5,094,926 11,200,901. (265) 6,105,975

T.II. 25

A u f d e m L a n d die boys work hard von 8 J a h r e n bis 15, at wages gradually increasing von 4 - 1 0 d. a day, bis sie at length achieve m a n h o o d u n d der climax von 1 8 - 2 0 d. a day gezahlt wird, in this, the dearest country in t h e world, a n d t h e country in which the agricultural labourer works t h e hardest. (198) A clergyman von Kent sagt, d a ß „a great u n d oppressive misfortune 30 to the labourer's family", ist die difficulty of expending his earnings to h i s advantage. Confined to the limits of his little circle u n d perhaps only late on t h e Saturday evening receiving his wages, his dealings are solely m i t d e n village shops. In diesen shops articles für c o n s u m p t i o n von sehr m o d erate quality zu sehr h o h e n Preissen verkauft. There are n u m e r o u s in35 stances of large fortunes m a d e in places where the farmers u n d labourers

391

Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 · Heft XIV are the only customers; g e m a c h t n u r durch excessive profits u n d want of competition. It is a h a r d case, says this informant vor der parliamentary C o m m i s s i o n , to have earned 12 sh. by the sweat of t h e brow, and to be able to procure n o t m o r e t h a n 9 s. would c o m m a n d in a town where c o m p e t i t i o n exists ... A labourer is allowed credit for a small a m o u n t u n d t h e n obliged t o deal, u m n i c h t getreten z u werden. »Millers c o m m o n l y p u r s u e the same system. Blankets are d o u b l e the price of a wholesale shop in L o n d o n ; shoes, too, e n o r m high.« (199, 200) |

5

|30| National and Private Indebtedness. M a n unterstelle das s. g. „real property" in E n g l a n d u n d Wales werth 90 Mill, oder in Capital 2,800,000,000, das der I n h a b e r der N a t i o n a l D e b t 800,000,000, so sind diese 800 M i l l i o n e n hypothesirt auf die 2,800. (270) the terms on which loans were contracted during the reigns of W i l l i a m III, A n n e u n d George I were m o s t unfavourable. A b e r a great advantage to the m o n e y owners, who, because the g o v e r n m e n t was unstable, o b t a i n e d for a small s u m a large lien u p o n the fruits of the future industry of the people. (275) V o n 1 7 9 4 - 1 8 1 7 für die a c c o m m o d a t i o n von 584 Mill, in cash (mit g o v e r n m e n t security) the country gave its b o n d s für 879,000,000 1., wovon n o c h 576 Mill, out-standing u n d 303 Mill, have b e e n discharged by the m e a n s of the sinking fund. U n d dieß n i c h t alles: our g o v e r n m e n t first gave 879 Mill. I. St. in stock für 584 Mill. £ in paper m o n e y u n d t h e n the legislature m a d e a change in the law which gave to t h e whole of the o u t s t a n d i n g stock the value of goldmoney. So die 576 Mill, of o u t s t a n d i n g stock enh a n c e d von 30 to 4 0 % oder, in a n d r e n W o r t e n , für 396,352,207 1., the net s u m received from loans von 1 7 9 4 - 1 8 1 7 , the n a t i o n is now b o u n d in a s u m e q u a l to 768 Mill. £ of the m o n e y in which those loans were contracted. (275, 6) N a c h den official accounts dated J a n u a r y 5, 1850, die total capital debt das U n i t e d K i n g d o m 775,734,579 1., wovon 2,566,263 transferred to the Commissioners for the r e d u c t i o n of the debt. D i e g a n z e „ u n r e d e e m e d debt", abgesehn von den Exchequerbills, worauf die n a t i o n Z i n s zu zahlen, also 773,168,316 I. (277) M'Culloch liefert eine Tabelle, w o d u r c h er beweist, daß, if no m o r e interest on debt h a d to be paid t h a n t h a t which existed in 1793, the country might have expended all that it did expend u p o n internal government a n d foreign war von 1 7 9 3 - 1 8 1 6 u n d have incurred n u r 151,327,007 1., of new debt statt 573,377,988 I. In fact, the total expenditure of the country, on account of internal government, the colonies, the war + die debt contracted previously to 1793, von that year bis 1816, b o t h inclusive, war n u r 151,327,007 /. grösser als die R e v e n u e actually derived from taxes

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during that period. It was t h e profuse system of borrowing etc. (279) D e r a m o u n t of private d e b t im U n i t e d K i n g d o m wird geschäzt von 1 auf 3 Milliarden /. N e h m e n wir das i n c o m e von fixed property zu 100 Mill, a year, so /4 davon is tied up by mortgages, settlements, or i n c u m b r a n c e s of o n e kind or another; interest, a n n u i t i e s etc. (281)

/

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Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 · Heft XIV

I3i| The Economist. Juli, 26,1851. Patent

Laws.

D a s Principle eines Patentlaw is to bestow on o n e individual the exclusive use of some particular i n s t r u m e n t or object which he claims to have discovered or invented. N u r asked to prevent some other persons from using 5 his inventions. ... It is the very n a t u r e of knowledge a n d skill, totally distinct from most kinds of property, to be improved a n d e x t e n d e d by being imparted. To limit the exclusive use of knowledge a n d skill to one person, as is d o n e in degree by the Patent Laws, is in fact to take m e a s u r e s to stop their growth. ... We deny, therefore, that the claims m a d e by inventors to 10 the exclusive use of inventions is a right of property. ... M a n sagt o h n e Pat e n t e würden vielleicht n ü t z l i c h e Erfindungen der Gesellschaft n i c h t mitgetheilt ... society would n o t be in t h e least injured t h o u g h all s u c h secrets died with their possessors ... nearly all useful inventions d e p e n d less on any individual t h a n on the progress of society. A want is f e l t . . . ingenuity is 15 directed to supply it u n d a great n u m b e r of suggestions or inventions of a similar k i n d c o m e to light. ... So we find continually a great n u m b e r of similar patents taken out about the same t i m e . T h u s the want suggests the invention ... T h e progress of knowledge, a n d the progress of invention and discovery, like the progress of p o p u l a t i o n a n d t h e progress of society have 20 their ordained a n d settled course, which c a n n o t be hastened, t h o u g h perh a p s it m a y be retarded, by P a t e n t laws. (812)

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Aus The Economist. August 1851

The Economist. August, 2,1851. Englische

und

nordamerikanische

Schiffahrt.

D i e inward u n d outward entries of ships of all kinds to u n d from the U n i t e d States, 1850, belief sich auf 8,689,641 tons. D a v o n gehörten 5 5,205,804 tons den U n i t e d States u n d 3,483,837 d e n foreign n a t i o n s . D a von gehörten 2,855,338 tons d e n British ships, während die aller a n d r e n L ä n d e r z u s a m m e n n u r 628,499 tons. Also das whole of the shipping engaged im foreign trade der U n i t e d States besteht aus 6 0 % of A m e r i c a n shipping u n d 4 0 % of foreign. D e r british shipowner hat 32 % von d e m gan10 z e n foreign trade der U n i t e d States u n d 82 % von d e m Theil carried on by foreign ships. - A u s d e n accounts des U n i t e d K i n g d o m für das J a h r end e n d 5 J a n u a r 1851 folgt: daß die inward u n d outward entries of ships of all kinds, to a n d from t h e U n i t e d K i n g d o m , im lezten J a h r 12,020,674 tons. D a v o n 8,039,308 of british shipping u n d 3,981,366 of foreign ships of all 15 kinds. V o n den 3,981,366 foreign tons gehörten 1,215,225 d e m a m e r i c a n shipping u n d 2,766,141 den ships aller a n d r e n n a t i o n s . Also im G a n z e n 67 % of british shipping u n d 33 % of foreign tonnage. Die a m e r i c a n shipowners have obtained n u r 11 % von d e m Ganzen foreign trade des U n i t e d K i n g d o m u n d 3 5 % von d e m by foreign ships geführten. (837, 8) 20

Competition.

—Shipping.

W i e bei Bildung der E r d r i n d e successive changes u n d zu den v e r s c h i e d n e n E p o c h e n Pflanzen u n d Thiere verschieden u n d u n t e r i h n e n a successive development, plants u n d a n i m a l s of a m o r e complete organisation succeed25 ing to plants u n d a n i m a l s of a less complete organisation, so in der G e schichte der M e n s c h e n . A u c h im Detail gilt d i e ß ; a u c h von d e n classes of men, some of w h o m disappear like the copyists of m a n u s c r i p t s before t h e printers; u n d in unsrer Zeit die postboys vor d e n engineers, stokers u n d railway guards u n d gleich d e n h a n d l o o m w e a v e r s vor d e n powerloomweav30 ers ... U n t e r d i e s e m Gesetz des b e s t ä n d i g e n Wechsels u n d der b e s t ä n d i g e n Entwicklung there m u s t be always s o m e a n i m a l s , some classes of h u m a n beings, s o m e n a t i o n s m a k i n g less progress t h a n others, or decaying or dying o u t and m a k i n g r o o m for other a n i m a l s , other classes, or other n a t i o n s . So leztlich m i t d e n Irish, m a k i n g way either for such for themselves as

395

Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 • Heft XIV c o m p r e h e n d the laws which govern the wellheing a n d subsistence of m a n in Ireland, or for other m e n who c o m p r e h e n d t h e m . In all these cases of m o d e r n i m p r o v e m e n t we see distinctly, that the race or the m a n who succeeds, possesses m o r e knowledge etc of the powers of n a t u r e as the m a n or race who fails. N a t u r e works with the successful m a n a n d the thriving nation. T h e y succeed by her power ... A u c h u n s e r shipping d i e s e m Gesetz u n terworfen. Ihre Industrie ersezt d u r c h werthvollere Industrie. T h e application of s t e a m to propelling vessels a n d of s t e a m to drag carriages on railroads is rendering m a n y old sailing craft comparatively valueless. ... Jezt ||32| auf grosser Stufenleiter im U n t e r g e h n begriffen our coasting vessels. It is cheaper a n d quicker to send sugar or corn between L o n d o n and Lowestoffe or L o n d o n a n d Y a r m o u t h on the east, a n d between L o n d o n a n d Hastings on the south, a n d L o n d o n a n d S o u t h a m p t o n on t h e west, by rail t h a n by water, a n d this change puts an end to m u c h coasting trade. M u c h of what is retained is carried on by steamvessels, which are m o r e safe a n d quicker t h a n sailing vessels. M a c h e n wahrscheinlich n u r 1 oder 2 Reisen, wo j e n e 3. T h e least efficient of our coasting vessels are t h u s continually b e a t e n by the rapidly extending operations of railroads u n d s t e a m b o a t s ; they are continually b e a t e n too by improved sailing vessels; they swell t h e a m o u n t of u n e m p l o y e d shipping; they are laid u p , or they [are] sent into t h e m a r k e t as general carriers, a n d the c o m p e t i t i o n which ensues a m o n g s t shipowners leads to those low freights of which they so loudly complain. T h e m a i n cause of the deterioration of their property is the i m p r o v e m e n t of other m o d e s of carriage. ... „Früher war die Küstenschiffahrt die nursery for our seamen, which our government still vainly e n d e a v o u r to protect." ... laws however well i n t e n t i o n e d will n o t preserve either m a r i n e r s or postboys in existence. T h e condition of their c o n t i n u a n c e a n d their success is, that they do the real work of society, supply the wants of m a n cheaper a n d better t h a n others ... It is u s u a l for those who do n o t succeed in the great struggle of life to complain of competition. T h e successful m a n exults in it. It is the stimulus to his e x e r t i o n s — t h e m e a n s by which t h e m o s t energetic, the most skilful, the m o s t knowing o b t a i n p r e p o n d e r a n c e , a n d carry forward the m o r a l development which is the law of n a t u r e . It is the m e a n s by which the imperfect are gradually weeded out of society, a n d individuals a n d the race are ennobled. N o t h w e n d i g e C o n s e q u e n z that there m u s t always be some classes less successful t h a n others; s o m e classes whose occupations are b e c o m i n g relatively valueless; a n d these classes, while the successful and the prosperous are silent, fill the land with complaints. T h e shipping interest, opposed as it is now by the new a n d thriving railway interest, is somewhat in this condition; ... A part too of the present détérioration of some shipping is d u e to the i m p r o v e m e n t of other shipping. „In

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w Aus The Economist. August 1851 1848, said Mr L a b o u c h e r e , there were built 3 iron vessels of 1,300 tons a n d 7 wooden vessels of 3,000 tons, z u s a m m e n 10 ships u n d 4,300 tons. 1849 there were 7 iron vessels of 1,654 t o n s u n d 10 w o o d e n vessels of 5,703 tons, z u s a m m e n 17 ships u n d 7,357 tons. 1850 there were 13 iron ships of 5 4,562 tons u n d 17 wooden ships of 9,935 tons, z u s a m m e n 30 ships u n d 14,497 tons, or exactly double the a m o u n t of t o n n a g e built in 1849. He congratulated the h o u s e o n the extraordinary i m p r o v e m e n t that h a d t a k e n place in the quality of the ships, a n d the increased a m o u n t of t o n n a g e . " T h a t is the sort of i m p r o v e m e n t by which o n e class of shipowners drives an10 other class off the water ... Die P o p u l a t i o n des U n i t e d K i n g d o m in d e n lezt e n 10 J a h r e n n u r um 2% gewachsen, die der U n i t e d States um a b o u t 35 %. Hier schon G r u n d , in the relative increase of population, für die relativ große increase des shipping der U n i t e d States. (841, 2)

is

The Economist. August, 9,1851. British tonnage war 1849 z u s a m m e n : 8,152,000 u n d 1850: 8,039,000. Verm i n d e r u n g u m 113,000 tons. (866)

Criminals

in

England

and

Wales.

1850.

20

(Aus d e n P a r l a m e n t s p a p i e r e n 1851) 1841 c o m m i t m e n t s 27,760; 1842 = 31,309, 1843 = 2 9 , 5 9 1 ; 1844 = 26,542, 1845 = 24,303, 1846 = 25,107; 1847 = 28,833; 1848 = 30,349; 1849 = 27,816, 1850 = 26,813. Z u s a m m e n 278,423. Executions fanden Statt: 1801-1810 1811-1820 1821-1830 1831-1840 1841-1850 25 302; 897; 686; 250; 107. N u m b e r of executions 1850 n u r 6, a m i n i m u m which has b e e n 3x r e a c h e d in the last 12 years. Capital convictions in 1850 n u r 49, being the lowest n u m b e r ausser in 1845 wo a u c h 49; aber die transportations for life in 1850 waren in Excess gegen die 3 previous years. T h e most serious classes of of30 fences blieben nearly the s a m e . ... D i e tables zeigen alle how m u c h m o r e influential are other circumstances t h a n p e n a l laws over the greater or less quantity of crime at any given period. (868, 9) |

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Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 · Heft XIV

|33| The Economist. August, 16,1851. Der

Census.

V o r der Prorogation des P a r l a m e n t s ( A u g u s t 1851) w u r d e i h m vorgelegt ein R e t u r n , betittelt: „Tables of the Population and Houses in the Divisions, Registration Counties, and Districts of England and [Wales,] Scotland etc." Es sind dieß die tables die d e m Census Office by the Registrars of E n g l a n d u n d the Sheriffs u n d Provosts von Scotland vorgelegt worden sind, vor der Revision d u r c h das Central Office. D i e Gesetze sind gemacht, s a g t d e r E c o n o m i s t , n i c h t für die streams, soil, b u t for the m e n who live on it; a n d as they change in relative n u m b e r s , wealth a n d knowledge, the law m u s t change in conformity with t h e m . ... T h e n u m b e r s a n d the distribution of the people are the f o u n d a t i o n of all political science. (895) Das Volk von E n g l a n d u n d Wales in 10 J a h r e n gewachsen von 15,914,148 zu 17,922,768 oder um a b o u t 12 %. M e h r als % der Bevölkerung hinzugefügt in 10 J a h r e n (Zuwachs: 1,968,341) 405,457 oder fast % dieses Zuwachses in der Division of L o n d o n . D a v o n n u r sehr wenige als m a r k e t gardeners engaged in the cultivation of soil. N a c h London der größte increase in Lancashire 360,420; in d e m W e s t R i d i n g of Yorkshire, 162,799; a l s o e r s t e r aus d e m Baumwollsitz, zweiter d e m W o l l e n m a n u f a k tursitze. D r i t t e n s in Staffordshire, d e m Sitz der Erdwaare u n d iron m a n u facture 101,639; 4) in Durham, d e m grossen Kohlendistrikt, 82,853; 5) in Südwales, a n d r e m Sitz der E i s e n m a n u f a k t u r , 74,658; u n d in Warwickshire, a u c h Sitz der Eisenmanufaktur, 70,841. D e r increase in d e n agricultural districts as Sussex 33,679, oder Hampshire 45,993 oder Devonshire, 31,353 oder Bedfordshire 17,411 oder Kent 33,679, finden wir d a ß der principal part des increase geschuldet d e m Z u w a c h s der städtischen Bevölkerung von Brighton u n d Hastings, P o r t s m o u t h u n d S o u t h a m p t o n , P l y m o u t h u n d L u t o n , a t C h a t h a m , u n d Dover. I n short adding z u m Zuwachs i n L o n d o n d e n von Lancashire, Yorkshire u n d d e n Zuwachs der Städtischen Bevölkerung in d e n s. g. Agriculturdistrikts finden wir m i n d e s t e n s 1,600,000 von d e n 1,968,341 als increase der town population, d, h. n i c h t u n m i t t e l b a r oder Direct von der Agricultur für Beschäftigung u n d Bestehn a b h ä n g i g e n Bevölkerung. I n d e n Agriculturdistricten, die sich a m m e i s t e n v e r m e h r t h a b e n , Cambridge, Lincolnshire, Essex, Suffolk, Norfolk u n d East R i d i n g von Yorkshire k ö m m t wieder grosser Theil auf die Städte. V o n d e n Agriculturdistricten, die am wenigsten zur V e r m e h r u n g der Bevölkerung beigetragen,

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Aus The Economist. August 1851 7

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Wiltshire, wo die P o p u l a t i o n abgenommen um / w %; in Shropshire i n c r e a s e 1 %, Somersetshire 2 %, Herefordshire 3 %, Westmoreland 3 %, North Riding of York 4 %, Oxfordshire 4 %, Bucks 4 %, Berkshire 5 %, Rutlandshire 5 %, # κ η ί ingdonshire 9 %. In allen d i e s e n Grafschaften Z u w a c h s der s t ä d t i s c h e n P o p u l a t i o n ; die rein l ä n d l i c h e also n u r s c h w a c h vermehrt, w e n n n i c h t d e creased; A c c u m u l a t i o n also in d e n Städten, in d e n iron u n d coal districts des N o r d e n s u n d W e s t e n s , i n d e n M a n u f a c t u r d i s t r i k t e n , i n d e n Seehäfen u n d Handelsmärkten; u n d Nichtvermehrung, wenn nicht Verminderung auf d e m L a n d e . In allen Distrikten der Agricultural counties sehr viele D i -

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strikte a b g e n o m m e n u n d in allen s ü d l i c h e n u n d westlichen, die n i c h t h a v e derived an increase from their m a r i t i m e p o p u l a t i o n . D i e südwestliche division (einschliessend Wiltshire, Dorset, Cornwall u n d Somerset) u r n 3 % zug e n o m m e n , M i n i m u m des i n c r e a s e ; die Eastern division (einschliessend die 3 agriculturaldistricts Essex, Suffolk u n d Norfolk) um 7 % ; D i e London

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Division u n d Northwestern Division (Lancashire u n d Cheshire) b e i d e um 21%, das M a x i m u m . D i e Grafschaft Durham ( K o h l e n d i s t r i k t ) h a t am m e i sten z u g e n o m m e n , 2 6 % ; d a n n k o m m t Lancashire 22%, zählt n u n 2,063,913 persons. V o n d e n b e s o n d e r n districts in der c o u n t y of D u r h a m der district D u r h a m u m 4 5 % u n d Houghton-le-spring 4 0 % ; Liverpool, i n eluding W e s t Derby um 3 1 % oder von 311,683 auf 408,298; Manchester (eingeschlossen Salford u n d Chorlton) um fast 30%, von 339,734 a u f 439,757, Bradford u m 3 7 % von 132,161 z u 181,977, Leeds u n d H u d d e r s field jedes 14%; Halifax ü b e r 10%. Brighton um 4 1 % , von 46,661 zu 65,573; Bath etc n i c h t sehr. Die Seebäder vielmehr als die Flußbäder. ||34| In

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Fällen wie York (von 47,778 zu 57,111 oder a b o u t 20%) Peterborough (von 25,473 auf 28,966 oder 14%) Lincoln (von 36,110 auf 42,061 oder m e h r als 16%), die alle C e n t r a der Eisenbahn Communikation, o h n e sonst b e s o n d r e r C o n s p i c u o u s source of increase, we m a y trace distinctly t h e influence of rails in promoting t h e prosperity of towns. A b e r zu Reigate, a small Centre of railway traffic, h a t die Bevölkerung a b g e n o m m e n ; zu Godstone n i c h t far from a rail, sehr v e r m i n d e r t ; e b e n zu Canterbury, w o d u r c h a rail passes; e b e n s o zu Chippenham a n o t h e r small centre of railway c o m m u n i c a t i o n . Wo die Rail has superseded an ordinary road wie zu G o d s t o n e , Reigate, C a n terbury, its transit traffic is of far less c o n s e q u e n c e to t h e town t h a n was t h e transit traffic of the road. Da in solchen Fällen, w e n n n i c h t a n d r e Q u e l l e n der prosperity, A b n a h m e der P o p u l a t i o n . D e n n o c h clear that n o town c a n now prosper without a rail; those destined to decay w ü r d e n es um so schneller for wanting a rail. Every town n o t in c o m m u n i c a t i o n with a rail labours u n d e r great disadvantages whatever it m a y p r o d u c e . (896)

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Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 • Heft XIV Wiederausfuhr von n e t die Zufuhr von von 1851 als von 33,584,730 lbs; u n d

fremder u n d Ausfuhr von englischer Wolle eingerechWolle um 3,485,619 lbs m e h r in d e n ersten 6 M o n a t e n 1850. In d e n ersten 6 M o n a t e n von 1850 eingeführt in d e n ersten 6 m o n t h s von 1851, 35,243,840 lbs. [898]

Reaping

by

Machinery.

In der Exposition »American Reaping Machine«. T h e i m m e n s e cost at which corn is cut by m a n u a l labour, and the very short period during which all the corn of the country m u s t be cut, r e n d e r any practicable m a c h i n e r y for t h e purpose deeply interesting to farmers. D i e Hauptschwierigkeit n o c h 10 from the deep furrows u n d laborious e m p l o y m e n t of removing the straw when cut from the board on which it falls. These will probably be overcome or alleviated. (McCormick, A m e r i c a n e r , der Erfinder.) Schneidet 1 0 - 1 6 acres per day, according to c i r c u m s t a n c e . A b e r hard work für d e n M a n n , der die geschnittene Quantity entfernen m u ß , to remove 1¼ acre per 15 hour. [899]

T h e m e n who can c o m m a n d the services of locomotives, build tubular bridges, soar into the air, r u n with m o r e t h a n ostrich swiftness on the surface of the earth, cleave the ocean with ease a n d safety, m u s t c o m e to pride 20 themselves chiefly on such wonderful achievements as these, a n d m u s t also c o m e to look with disdain on m a n y of the representations a n d m u c h of the tinsel a n d gilt and frippery that were the solace of t h e r u d e a n d ignorant early i n h a b i t a n t s of Asia. ... Those, who can c o m m a n d the elements will n o t be m u c h plagued with a m b i t i o n to c o m m a n d their fellowmen. G r e a t 25 power seems likely to be s y n o n y m o u s with general equality, a n d w h e n a m bition a n d a desire for worthless o r n a m e n t s are abated, there will be fewer motives for greediness. U n s e r bisheriger L u x u s s t a m m t aus Asien, von Barbaren, die weder m u l e s p i n n i n g n o c h steam navigation k a n n t e n . [905]

In der Exposition an a m e r i c a n sewing machine, die u n g e h e u e r schnell arbeitet, u n d droht to extinguish the o c c u p a t i o n which dwarfs a race into the 9 part of its n o r m a l type. [702] th

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Aus The Economist. August 1851 / 3 0 / It is singular, that the chief arts of o r n a m e n t a n d decoration are derived without m u c h i m p r o v e m e n t from a very backward, n o t to say barbarous c o n d i t i o n of society. In t h e o r n a m e n t s of o u r houses a n d our persons we do little m o r e t h a n imitate the Greeks, t h e H i n d o o s , a n d the Ejyptians. 5 T h e best of these o r n a m e n t s are m o r e a d m i r e d from a kind of traditional reverence, t h a n from their relation to the present a n d future wants of society. They are preserved a n d h o n o u r e d as we cherish m a n y a n t i q u a t e d errors a n d abuses in politics, in morals, a n d religion, m o r e from a conservative love of the past, t h a n from an enlightened anticipation of the future. 10 ... T h e o r n a m e n t s a n d the decorations t h a t will please the civilised m e n of the future will probably be m o r e appropriate to their c o n d i t i o n a n d will be worthy of the powerful i n s t r u m e n t s they will use. A n d as the leading m i n d s of society—its real rulers a n d g u i d e s — c o m e to love a n d a d m i r e m o r e t h e wonders in m o d e r n art, they will disregard e m b e l l i s h m e n t s t h a t are merely 15 costly a n d wasteful. (Economist 16 A u g u s t 1851, 905.) Schneider in L o n d o n seit 10 J a h r e n um % vermindert. Bei d e n R ö m e r n (Sieh L a m a l l e ) ausdrücklich verboten, aus d e n M a t e r i a lien alter G e b ä u d e n e u e aufzuführen. 20

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[The Times.] „Times" b e m e r k t , d a ß der Landweg wieder d e n Wasserweg absezt. Bis 1866 k ö n n e , r e c h n e t e ein I n g e n i e u r aus, die E i s e n b a h n v o m C o n t i n e n t bis Calc u t t a g e b a u t sein u n d m a n in 10 Tagen da sein. 5 A m e r i k a n e r ü b e r d e n I s t h m u s herüber.

Nähmaschine.

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|35| Prescott. (W.H.) History of the Conquest of Mexico. 5 e d . 3 vol. L o n d o n . 1850.

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ch. 1 Ancient Mexico. Climate and Products. Primitive Races. Aztec Empire.

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A n c i e n t M e x i c a n s oder Aztecs: b i l d e t e n n u r sehr kleinen Theil, ihr L a n d , die m o d e r n republic of M e x i c o . (2) Covered wahrscheinlich n i c h t m e h r als 16,000 square leagues. In its greatest breadth, it could n o t exceed 5 degrees a n d Y , dwindling, as it a p p r o a c h e d its southeastern limits, to less t h a n two. Yet such is the r e m a r k a b l e formation of this country, that, t h o u g h n o t m o r e 2x as large as N e w E n g l a n d , it presented every variety of climate, and was capable of yielding nearly every fruit found between the e q u a t o r a n d the Arctic circle. ([2,] 3) D i e G e g e n d in 3 terraces getheilt (tierra caliente, tierra t e m p l a d a (temperate) u n d tierra fria). ( 3 - 5 ) Die kalte tierra (Plateaus) h a t a climate, the m e a n t e m p e r a t u r e of which is n o t lower t h a n t h a t of the central parts of Italy. (6) Der B o d e n h a t häufig a p a r c h e d u n d barren aspect, theils aus M a n g e l of trees to shelter the soil from t h e fierce influence of the s u m m e r sun. In der Zeit der Aztecs das table l a n d thickly covered m i t larch, oak, cypresses u n d other forest trees ... t h e curse of barrenness in later times m e h r chargeable on m a n als auf n a t u r e . D i e early Spaniards m a c h t e n an i n d i s c r i m i n a t e war on t h e forests. (6) Midway across the continent, etwas n ä h e r d e m Pacific als d e m Atlantic, at an elevation of 2

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Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 • Heft XIV nearly 7500 feet is the celebrated Valley von M e x i c o . ... e n c o m p a s s e d by a towering r a m p a r t of porphyritic rock. (7) D e r Boden, früher carpeted with a beautiful verdure u n d thickly sprinkled m i t stately trees, jezt oft bare u n d weiß in m a n y places mit der incrustation of salts, caused by the draining of the waters. 5 lakes ü b e r das Thal, n e h m e n / seiner Oberfläche ein. (7) states of A n a h u a c . D i e Toltecs ... t h e true fountains der spätren Civilisation. Im 7' Jh. N a c h 4 J a h r h u n d e r t e n verschwinden die Toltecs. Folgen andre races, wovon die m o s t n o t e d die Aztecs oder M e x i c a n s u n d Acolhuans oder Tezcucans von ihrer H a u p t s t a d t Tezcuco. Breiteten ihre Herrschaft ü b e r die r u d e r tribes in the n o r t h aus. D a n n geklopft d u r c h die T e p a n e c s . D a n n m i t Hilfe der M e x i c a n allies wieder sich befreiend u n d n o c h brilliantre carrière ... A u c h die M e x i c a n s k a m e n from the r e m o t e regions of the north, the p o p u l o u s hive of n a t i o n s in the N e w World, as it has b e e n in the old. Sie arrived at t h e borders of A n a h u a c gen Beginn des 13 Jh., some t i m e after the o c c u p a t i o n of the land by the kindred races. Lang Zeit etablirten sie sich nicht, sondern w a n d e r t e n von e i n e m Platz z u m andren. Schließlich langten sie an den südwestlichen borders des H a u p t s e e s an u n d m a c h t e n dort Halt 1325. Stifteten Tenochtitlan (Mexico); lebten ursprünglich dort von Fischen, wildem Seegevögel u n d der Cultur solcher simple vegetables als ihre floating gardens (halbe marshes) raise k o n n t e n . D i e ß die beginnings des Venedig der western world. ( 8 - 1 3 ) Skandale u n d U n e i n i g k e i t e n u n t e r sich. M a c h t e n sich im Thal R u f für courage u n d cruelty in war. Beg i n n des 15* Jh. erhielten sie das L a n d der Tepanecs für ihren Beistand, den sie den Tezcucans leisteten. D a n n League zwischen d e n states of M e x i c o , Tezcuco u n d d e m kleinen N a c h b a r k i n g d o m Tlacopan. (Ueber das L a n d , das sie bei künftigen Kriegen u n t e r sich vertheilen würden) ... Z u n ä c h s t h a t t e n die allies genug zu t h u n in i h r e m eignen Thal. G e g e n Mitte des 15' Jh., u n t e r d e m ersten M o n t e z u m a , sie h a d spread down the sides of the table land to the borders of the Gulf of Mexico. Im Beginn des 16* Jh. das Aztec d o m i n i o n reached across the c o n t i n e n t from A t l a n t i c z u m Pacific; bis in die farthest corners of G u a t e m a l a u n d Nicaragua. U n d sie h a t t e n überall m i t gleich kriegerischen u n d in der Cultur i h n e n n u r wenig nachgeb e n d e n S t ä m m e n zu kämpfen. D i e history der Aztecs erinnert in vielen P u n k t e n an das alte R o m , n i c h t n u r in i h r e n militairischen successes, sondern a u c h in der policy which led to t h e m . ( 1 3 - 1 6 ) (Don M a r i a n o Veytia, Historia Antigua, 1836, Mexico, H a u p t q u e l l e für die alte G e s c h i c h t e . [17]) l

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ch. II. succession to the crown ... Aztec nobility. — Judicial System. —Laws und Revenues ... Military Institutions.

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D i e Regierungsform verschieden in d e n verschiednen states of Anahuac. Die der Aztecs u n d T e z c u c a n s m o n a r c h i s c h u n d fast absolut. Diese 2 n a tions sich d u r c h a u s ähnlich. Die Regierung der M e x i c a n s an elective monarchy. Vier von d e n principal nobles, die c h o s e n by their own b o d y in d e m preceding reign, filled the office of electors, wozu added, m i t rein h o n o r ä r e m Rang, die 2 royal allies von T e z c u c o u n d Tlacopan. D e r sovereign selected von d e n brothers des deceased prince oder in default of t h e m , aus seinen Neffen. So die election restricted auf dieselbe family. Der c a n d i d a t e preferred m u ß t e sich im Krieg ausgezeichnet h a b e n , obgleich er a m e m b e r of the priesthood, wie bei d e m lezten M o n t e z u m a ... R e i h e von able princes so g e s i c h e r t . . . G e k r ö n t der Erwählte erst bis er d u r c h siegreiche C a m p a gne d e n p o m p of h u m a n sacrifice etc sich g e b e n k o n n t e ... D i e A z t e c princes, besonders gen Schluß der Dynastie, lebten in a barbarie p o m p , truly Oriental. ... a distinct class of nobles m i t large l a n d e d possessions, w h o held the most i m p o r t a n t offices n e a r t h e person of the prince u n d engrossed the a d m i n i s t r a t i o n of the provinces a n d cities. ... an 30 caciques, wovon jeder an 100,000 vassals auf seinen estates m u s t e r n k o n n t e ... D a s country occupied von n u m e r o u s powerful chieftains who lived like i n d e p e n d e n t princes on their d o m a i n s . M u ß t e n , w e n n sie nicht in der capital residirten, hostages d e n kings stellen ... Diese estates held von various tenures u n d verschiednen restrictions unterworfen. Einige held o h n e limitation, n u r n i c h t verkaufbar an e i n e n Plebejer. A n d r e entailed an die Aeltgeb o r n s t e n u n d b e i M a n g e l von solchen, fielen zurück an die crown. Obligation, die meisten, to military service. A n d r e , statt dieser D i e n s t e , to provide for the repair der königlichen buildings u n d to keep t h e royal dem e s n e s in order, with an a n n u a l offering, by way of h o m a g e , of fruits u n d flowers. ... In alledem several features of the feudal system. Die k i n g d o m s of A n a h u a c aber, in their n a t u r e , despotic, attended, indeed, with m a n y mitigating circumstances u n k n o w n to the despotisms of the East. Die legislative power in M e x i c o u n d T e z c u c o resided ganz um d e n M o n a r c h e n . Dagegen constitution der judicial tribunals. U n d diese wichtiger b e i e i n e m r u d e people als die Legislative Gewalt. U e b e r j e d e r der principal cities m i t ihren d e p e n d e n t territories ||36| gestellt a s u p r e m e judge, appointed by t h e Crown, mit original u n d final jurisdiction in b o t h civil u n d c r i m i n a l cases. K e i n Appell von seiner Sentenz, selbst n i c h t an den König. Sein Office lebenslänglich; wer u s u r p e d his ensigns m i t T o d bestraft. H i e ß cihuacoatl. U n t e r ihm, in j e d e r Provinz, a court, von 3 m e m b e r s . Ausser diesen courts

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a m o n g the several families of the calpulli; u n d , on the extinction or removal of a family, its lands reverted to the c o m m o n stock, to be again distribu t e d . T h e individual proprietor h a d no power to alienate t h e m . T h e laws regulating these m a t t e r s were very precise, and h a d existed ever since t h e occupation of the country by t h e Aztecs. ... Ausser dieser t a x on agricultural produce of the kingdom, there was another on its manufactures. Z . B . cotton dresses u n d m a n t l e s of featherwork, o r n a m e n t e d armour, vases u n d plates of gold, gold-dust, b a n d s u n d bracelets, crystal, gilt, u n d varnished jars u n d goblets; bells, arms u n d utensils of Copper; r e a m s of paper; grain, fruits, copal, amber, cochineal, cocoa, wild a n i m a l s u n d birds, timber, lime, m a t s etc Salz, Tigerfelle etc. (Sieh A u f z ä h l u n g des tribute furnished by different cities 33, not. *) ... Garnisons errichtet in d e n larger cities, wahrscheinlich den entfernten u n d recently c o n q u e r e d , to keep down revolt u n d to enforce the p a y m e n t of tribute. Die caziques, die s u b m i t t e d to the allied arms, gewohnlich confirmed in their authority u n d die c o n q u e r e d places allowed to retain their laws u n d usages. Taxgatherers verbreitet d u r c h das K i n g d o m , erkennbar an ihren official badges u n d gefürchtet wegen der merciless rigour ihrer exactions. Jeder defaulter war liable to be t a k e n a n d sold as a slave. In der capital waren spacious granaries u n d warehouses für die reception der tributes. A receiver general quartered in the palace ... h a t t e m a p of t h e whole empire, m i t a m i n u t e specification der imposts assessed on every part of it. Diese imposts, ursprünglich m o d e r a t e , so d r ü c k e n d at t h e close der dynasty u n d n o c h d r ü c k e n d e r g e m a c h t d u r c h die m a n n e r of collection, bred disaffection t h r o u g h o u t the l a n d u n d prepared d e n way for its conquest by the Spaniards. Communication m i t d e n entferntesten T h e i l e n des Landes d u r c h couriers. Posthäuser in the great roads, an 2 leagues dist a n t from each other. D e r Courier m i t seiner D é p ê c h e , in the form of a hieroglyphical painting, r a n m i t derselben zur ersten Station, where they were taken by a n o t h e r messenger u . s . w . Diese couriers, trained from childhood, travelled m i t incredible swiftness; so daß die D e p e c h e n 1 - 2 0 0 miles a day befördert. A u f d i e s e m Wege Intelligenz der m o v e m e n t s der royal armies rasch brought to court ... A e h n l i c h im alten R o m , in Persien. In C h i n a three miles von einander. A b e r diese posts for the u s e of the governm e n t only. ... In M e x i c o wie in Aejypten der soldier shared m i t d e m priest die highest consideration. D e r Schutzgott der Aztecs war der Kriegsgott. Jeder Krieg war a crusade zu H e k a t o m b e n für d e n Kriegsgott. D e r gefallne Krieger k a m direkt to t h e region of ineffable bliss in t h e bright m a n s i o n s of the Sun. ... Vor der Eröffnung des Kriegs ambassadors were sent, to require the hostile state to receive the M e x i c a n gods, a n d to pay the c u s t o m ary tribute. ... quotas were drawn from the c o n q u e r e d provinces, which were always subjected to military service as well as the p a y m e n t of taxes;

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Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 · Heft XIV a n d the royal army, gewöhnlich m i t d e m M o n a r c h an der Spitze b e g a n n ihren Marsch. A remarkable resemblance dieser military usages m i t d e n e n der alten R ö m e r ... various military orders, e a c h having its privileges u n d peculiar insignia. D a z u a sort of knighthood, of inferior degree; der cheapest reward of martial prowess; wer ihn n o c h n i c h t erreicht, excluded from 5 using o r n a m e n t s on his arms or his person u n d obliged to wear a coarse white stuff, m a d e from the threads of the aloe, called » n e q u e n « . Selbst die m e m b e r s der royal family nicht von d i e s e m Gesetz a u s g e n o m m e n ... Der dress der higher warriors pittoresk u n d oft magnificent. Ihre bodies bedeckt m i t a close vest of quilted cotton, so thick as to be i m p e n e t r a b l e to the light 10 missiles of I n d i a n warfare. T h e wealthier chiefs s o m e t i m e s wore, statt diesen cotton mail, a cuirass m a d e of t h i n plates of gold, or silver. Over it was thrown a surcoat of the gorgeous feather work in which they excelled. Ihre h e l m s oft von wood, fashioned like the h e a d s of wild a n i m a l s u n d m a n c h m a l von Silber, on the top of which waved a panache of variegated 15 feathers, sprinkled m i t precious stones u n d o r n a m e n t s of gold. They wore also collars, bracelets u n d earrings, of the s a m e rich materials. N a t i o n a l flagge m i t embroidery von Gold u n d Federwerk. Die c o m p a n i e s u n d great chiefs a u c h ihre appropriate b a n n e r s u n d devices ... war war bei i h n e n a trade, aber n o c h keine science. ... the valour of a warrior geschäzt n a c h der 20 Z a h l seiner G e f a n g n e n u n d kein r a n s o m large genug to save the devoted captive. Ihr military code natürlich a u c h drakonisch. Hospitals waren errichtet in d e n H a u p t s t ä d t e n für die eure der sick u n d das p e r m a n e n t refuge des disabled soldier u n d surgeons placed over t h e m . So die Aztec u n d Tezcucan races advanced in civilisation sehr weit ü b e r die wandering tribes of 25 N o r t h America. ... T h e a m e r i c a n I n d i a n has s o m e t h i n g peculiarly sensitive in his n a t u r e . He shrinks instinctively from the r u d e t o u c h of a foreign h a n d . Even when this foreign influence comes in the form of civilisation, he seems to sink and p i n e away b e n e a t h it. It has b e e n so with t h e M e x i cans. ... the m o r a l characteristics of the n a t i o n , all that constituted its indi- 30 viduality as a race, are effaced for ever. ( 1 9 - 4 2 ) |

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ch.III.

Mexican Mythologie.—The Sacerdotal The Temples. —Human Sacrifices.

Order.—

D i e m e x i c a n i s c h e Religion war nicht m e h r im ersten S t a d i u m . Sie h a t t e received a peculiar complexion from t h e priests, who h a d digested as thoro u g h u n d b u r d e n s o m e a ceremonial as ever existed in any n a t i o n . Allegorisch-Asiatisch ihre Deities. Die Aztecs h a t t e n von ihren Vorfahren eine mildre Religion geerbt, worauf they später engrafted their own mythologie.

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Die leztre wurde h e r r s c h e n d u n d gab its dark colouring d e n creeds der eroberten nations, which the M e x i c a n s , like the a n c i e n t R o m a n s , s e e m willingly to have incorporated into their own, u n t i l the same funereal superstition settled over the farthest borders of A n a h u a c . 13 H a u p t g o t t h e i t e n , 200 inferior, j e d e m wovon s o m e special day, oder appropriate festival, was consecrated. Huitzilopotchli (der M e x i c a n Mars) an der Spitze aller. Dieser die p a t r o n deity der n a t i o n . Die p h a n t a s t i c forms der m e x i c a n idols im h ö c h s t e n G r a d symbolical. Der H u i t z i etc von einer Jungfrau geboren, (wie B u d h (Indien) F o h i (China) Shaka (Tibet.)) ... his altars reeked with t h e blood of h u m a n h e c a t o m b s in every city of t h e empire. ... Die Sage m i t d e m emigrirten G o t t Quetzalcoatl b a h n t e d e n Spaniern den Weg ... Diese M e x i c a n Götter stiegen hierarchisch h e r a b bis zu den p é n a t e s oder h o u s e hold gods, whose little images in der h u m b l e s t dwelling sich fanden. In ihren Begräbniß R i t u a l i e n finden wir ein G e m e n g s e i von römischkafholisehen, m u s u l m ä n i s c h e n , tartarischen, altgriechischen u n d R ö m i s c h e n Riten. Taufe (ganz wie d a n n die Christen; a u c h um die S ü n d e wegzuspülen). Die priests s u c h t e n to dazzle the i m a g i n a t i o n des people by the m o s t form a l a n d p o m p o u s ceremonial. D e r influence der priesthood am größten in d e m imperfect state of civilisation, where sie engrosses all the scanty science of the t i m e in its own body. D i e ß besonders der Fall, w e n n diese science nicht um die real p h e n o m e n a of n a t u r e , sondern die fanciful chimeras of h u m a n superstition sich k ü m m e r t . So die sciences of astrology u n d divination, worin die A z t e c priests initiated ... they seemed to hold the keys of the future in their own h a n d s ... D e r sacerdotal order sehr zahlreich; 5000 priests attached d e m H a u p t t e m p e l in der capital. D i e various ranks u n d functions dieser b o d y hierarchisch gegliedert. Die musikalischsten leiteten die Chöre. A n d r e arrangirten die festivals conform z u m Calendar. A n d r e überwachten die E r z i e h u n g der J u g e n d u n d andre die hieroglyphical paintings u n d oral traditions; while the dismal rites of sacrifice were reserved for the chief dignitaries of the order. An der Spitze der g a n z e n body 2 Hohepriester, gewählt von king u n d d e n principal n o b l e s ; inferior n u r d e m sovereign. Die priests e a c h devoted d e m service einer particular deity, u n d hatten quarters in den spacious precincts ihres t e m p l e ; sonst i h n e n erlaubt zu h e i r a t h e n . Viele prayers, W a c h e n , Fasten, Geissein, Kasteien des Fleisches. Parochial Pfaffen in d e n Districts vertheilt. W i e bei d e n Katholiken confession u n d absolution. Priestly absolution was received in place of the legal p u n i s h m e n t of offences u n d authorised an acquittal in case of arrest. ... F ü r die e d u c a t i o n certain buildings appropriated in der enclosure des principal t e m p l e . In diesem Convent (Kloster) die Jugend, weibliche u n d m ä n n l i c h e erzogen ... To each of the principal t e m ples lands were a n n e x e d for the m a i n t e n a n c e of the priests. U n t e r d e m

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ch. IV Mexican Hieroglyphics. Manuscripts. Arithmetic. Chronology. Astronomy.

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To Describe actions u n d events by delineating visible objects seems to be a n a t u r a l suggestion, a n d is practised, after a certain fashion, by t h e r u d e s t savage. ... picture-writing h ö h e r e Stufe, to p a i n t intelligibly a consecutive series of actions ... Aber geht das Object des Schreibers h i n a u s ü b e r die Gegenwart, the literal i m i t a t i o n of objects will n o t answer for this m o r e complex plan. W ü r d e z u viel R a u m u n d Zeit e i n n e h m e n . D a n n n ö t h i g t o abridge the pictures, to confine the drawing to outlines, or to such p r o m i n e n t parts der bodies delineated, as m a y readily suggest the whole. D i e ß das representative oder figurative writing, die niedrigste stage der H i e r o glyphics, K o m m e n aber n i e abstrakte I d e e n h i n e i n , o h n e Type in der m a t e r i a l world. This constitutes Symbolical writing. D i e 3 u n d lezte division ist die phonetic, wo signs are m a d e to represent s o u n d s , either entire words, oder parts of t h e m . Dieß die n ä c h s t e approach der hieroglyphical series ans Alphabet, wodurch die Sprache aufgelöst in ihre E l e m e n t a r l a u t e u n d an apparatus supplied u m leicht u n d g e n a u die feinsten G e d a n k e n s c h a t t e n auszudrücken. Die Aejypter waren geschickt in allen 3 A r t e n von Hieroglyphen. D i e Aejypter almost wholly relied in i h r e m ordinary intercourse u n d written records on the p h o n e t i c character. D i e Aztecs, a u c h b e k a n n t m i t d e n verschiednen varieties der Hieroglyphen, m e h r auf die figurative als die andern. ||38| Um das picture-writing der Aztecs zu würdigen, m u ß m a n es bet r a c h t e n in V e r b i n d u n g m i t oral tradition, der es als E r g ä n z u n g galt ... Die Materials ihrer M a n u s c r i p t e besonders g e m a c h t aus a fine fabric from t h e leaves of the aloe, agave Americana, called by the natives maguey, which grows luxuriantly over the tablelands of M e x i c o . ... Z u r Zeit der A n k u n f t der Spanier M a s s e n von diesen M a n u s c r i p t s aufgehäuft. Der erste Erzbischof von Mexico ( d e m die soldiers n a t ü r l i c h nachfolgen) D o n J u a n de Z u marraga collected these paintings von allen Ecken, besonders von T e z c u c o , d e m great depository der n a t i o n a l archives u n d verbrennt sie d a n n in a „ m o u n t a i n h e a p " auf d e m Marktplatz von Tlatelolco. E b e n s o h a t t e Erzbischof Ximenes a similar autodafé arabischer M a n u s c r i p t e einige 20 J a h r e vorher in G r a n a d a g e f e i e r t . . . Ausser d e n hieroglyphischen m a p s die traditions des country e m b o d i e d in d e n songs u n d h y m n s , carefully taught in den public schools. ... Sie devised a system of n o t a t i o n in their arithmetic, sufficiently simple. D i e ersten 20 n u m b e r s were expressed by a corresponding n u m b e r of dots. Die ersten 5 h a t t e n spezifische n a m e s ; after which they were represented by c o m b i n i n g the fifth with one of the 4 preceding: as 5 + one für 6, 5 u n d 2 für 7 etc. 10 u n d 15 h a t t e n jeder e i n e n b e s o n d e r n Na(

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ch. 5 Aztec Agriculture. Mechanical Arts. Merchants. Domestic Manners. Husbandry, to a very limited extent, practisirt by m o s t der r u d e tribes of 35 N o r t h America. Wherever a natural opening in the forest, or a rich strip of interval m e t their eyes, or a green slope was found along the rivers, they planted it m i t beans u n d I n d i a n corn. (Mais) In Mexico die Agricultur in-

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terwoven m i t d e n civil u n d religious institutions der n a t i o n . All, except t h e soldiers u n d great nobles, even t h e i n h a b i t a n t s of the cities, cultivated the soil. D a s work chiefly d o n e by m e n , die w o m e n scattering t h e seed, husking the corn u n d taking part only in d e n lighter labours of t h e field. (113) W e n n der Boden erschöpft ließen sie i h n brachliegen. Canals, severe penalties gegen die Destruction of the woods. A m p l e granaries for their harvests. (114) U n t e r ihren A g r i c u l t u r p r o d u c t e n die B a n a n a , Cacao, Vanilla. Das great staple des L a n d s , wie des A m e r i c a n continent, war M a i z e oder I n d i a n Corn, which grew freely along the valleys, a n d up the steep sides of the Cordilleras to the high level of the table land. Its gigantic stalks, in these equinoctial regions, afford a saccharine m a t t e r u n d lieferte d e n n a tives sugar little inferior to that of t h e cane itself, which was n o t i n t r o d u c e d a m o n g t h e m till after the Conquest. A b e r das Miracle der N a t u r war die great Mexican Aloe oder Maguey. Seine Blätter zu Papier b e n u z t , sein Saft fermented in an intoxicating beverage, pulque; a u c h seine leaves zur Bedekkung für die m o r e h u m b l e dwellings; von s e i n e n tough u n d twisted fibres thread u n d draus coarse stuffs g e m a c h t u n d strong cords; pins u n d needles g e m a c h t von den thorns at the extremity of its leaves; and the root, when properly cooked, was converted into a palatable a n d n u t r i t i o u s food. Die agave, in short, war m e a t , drink, clothing u n d writing materials für d e n Aztec. ( 1 1 4 - 1 1 6 ) Sie k a n n t e n u n d p r o d u c i r t e n Silber, lead u n d tin. Gold, found on the surface or gleaned from the beds of rivers, was cast into bars, or, in the form of dust, m a d e part of the regular tribute of the s o u t h e r n provinces of the empire. D e r use von iron, w o m i t der B o d e n impregnated, i h n e n u n k n o w n . Trotz seiner a b u n d a n c e , erheischt es so viele Processe to prepare it for use, t h a t it has c o m m o n l y b e e n o n e of the last metals pressed into the service of m a n . (117) | |39| Substitut für sie an alloy von tin u n d copper u n d m i t diesen tools m a d e of this bronze, could cut n o t only metals, sondern m i t Hilfe eines siliceous dust, the h a r d e s t substances, wie Basalt, Porphyr etc. Sehr kunstvolle G o l d s c h m i e d e ... T h e y employed a n o t h e r tool, m a d e of itztli, or obsidian, a dark transparent m i n e r a l , excedingly hard, found in a b u n d a n c e in their hills. They m a d e it into knives, razors u n d ihre serrated swords. ... Sie wrought d a m i t die various stones u n d alabasters employed in the construction of their public works u n d principal dwellings; ... Sculptured images waren sehr zahlreich ... m a c h t e n utensils of earthenware für the ordinary purposes of domestic life ... F a m o s e F a r b e n , mineralische u n d vegetabilische. V o n i h n e n die cochineal eingeführt n a c h E u r o p a ... So colorirten sie brilliant die webs aller Art of fineness v o m cotton raised in a b u n d a n c e t h r o u g h o u t the warmer regions of the country. H a t t e n a u c h die art of interweaving m i t diesen das delicate hair of rabbits etc u n d darauf n o c h oft ge-

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f Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 • Heft XIV legt a rich embroidery of birds, flowers, or s o m e other fanciful device. ... Die Art, worin sie m o s t delighted, war ihr plumaje oder featherwork. T h e gorgeous p l u m a g e of the tropical birds, b e s o n d e r s des parrot tribe, afforded every variety of colour; u n d die fine down of t h e h u m m i n g b i r d ... supplied t h e m with soft aerial tints t h a t gave an exquisite finish to the picture. T h e feathers, pasted on a fine cotton web, were wrought into dresses for the wealthy, hangings for apartments u n d o r n a m e n t s for the temples. ( 1 1 8 - 1 2 2 ) K e i n e shops in M e x i c o ; die various m a n u f a c t u r e s u n d agricultural produces were brought together for sale in the great market-places of the principal cities. Fairs hier gehalten j e d e n 5* Tag u n d grosser Concurs von der Nachbarschaft, to buy or sell; a particular quarter was allotted to each k i n d of article; die transactions geführt u n d e r t h e inspections of magistrates, a p p o i n t e d for the purpose. D e r traffic geführt theils d u r c h barter, theils by a regulated currency of different values. This consisted of transp a r e n t quills of gold dust; of bits of tin, cut in t h e form of a T; u n d of bags of cacao, containing a specified n u m b e r of grains. „O felicem m o n e t a m sagt Peter Martyr (De Orbe novo), q u a e suavem u t i l e m q u e praebet h u m a n o generi p o t u m , et a tartareâ peste avaritiae suos i m m u n e s servat possessores, q u o d suffodi aut diu servari n e q u e a t . " (123) K e i n e K a s t e n in M e x i c o , d o c h usually folgte der Sohn der Beschäftigung des Vaters. D i e different trades were arranged in eine Art von guilds; having e a c h a particular district der city appropriated to it, with its own chief, its own tutelar deity, its peculiar festivals u. s. w. trade geschäzt von d e n Aztecs. ... A b e r besonders geachtet war die o c c u p a t i o n des merchant. Er war a sort of itinerant trader, der seine journeys m a c h t e zu d e n remotest borders of A n a h u a c u n d d e n countries beyond, carrying m i t i h m m e r c h a n d i s e of rich stuffs, jewelry, slaves u n d a n d r e n valuable c o m m o d i t i e s . Die slaves were obtained auf d e m grossen M a r k t von Aztcapotzalco, n o t m a n y leagues von der capital, wo regularly fairs held für d e n Verkauf derselben ... slavedealing was an h o n o u r a b l e calling a m o n g the Aztecs. R e i s t e n in bewaffneten Caravanen, visited die different provinces, always bearing some present of value from i h r e m own sovereign u n d usually receiving others in return, m i t a permission to trade. ... Ihr government i m m e r bereit to e m b a r k in a war, w e n n sie injured, finding it a very convenient pretext for extending the m e x i c a n empire. N o t u n gewöhnlich to allow the m e r c h a n t s to raise levies themselves, which were placed u n d e r their c o m m a n d . A u c h sehr c o m m o n für d e n Prinz to employ t h e m e r c h a n t s as a sort of spies, to furnish h i m information der countries w o d u r c h sie passed u n d der dispositions der i n h a b i t a n t s gegen ihn. So ihre Sphären of action sehr a u s g e d e h n t ü b e r die von h u m b l e traders u n d they acquired a high consideration in the body politic. They were allowed to ass u m e insignia and devices of their own. Einige von i h n e n bildeten a coun-

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Aus William Hickling Prescott: History of the conquest of Mexico cil of finances, wenigstens in T e z c u c o . T h e y were m u c h consulted von d e m m o n a r c h , der i m m e r einige u m sich h a t t e ; n a n n t e sie „uncle" ... h a t t e n ihre own courts, worin civil u n d c r i m i n a l cases, capital n o t excepted, were d e t e r m i n e d ; so t h a t they formed an independent community, as it were, of 5 themselves. U n d , da ihr various traffic sie m i t a b u n d a n t stores of wealth versah, genossen sie viele der m o s t essential advantages of an hereditary aristocracy. ( 1 2 4 - 6 ) Polygamie erlaubt d e n M e x i c a n s , beschränkt auf die reichsten Klassen. (128) Die Aztecs r a u c h t e n Pfeifen u n d Cigarren u n d schnupften. (130) Grosse F e i n s c h m e c k e r . Saucen, confections etc. O n e 10 other dish, of a disgusting n a t u r e , was s o m e t i m e s a d d e d to the feast, especially w h e n the celebration partook of a religious character. On s u c h occasions a slave was sacrificed, a n d his flesh elaborately dressed, formed o n e of the chief o r n a m e n t s of the b a n q u e t . C a n n i b a l i s m , in the G u i s e of an E p i c u r e a n science, b e c o m e s even the m o r e revolting. (131) T h e m e a t s were 15 kept warm by chafingdishes. T h e table was o r n a m e n t e d m i t vases of silver u n d s o m e t i m e s gold, of delicate w o r k m a n s h i p . Die drinking-cups u n d spoons m a d e of t h e same costly materials u n d likewise of tortoise-shell. T h e favourite beverage war die chocolatl, flavoured with vanilla a n d different spices. (131, 2) T h e e n t e r t a i n m e n t (die b a n q u e t s ) was c o n c l u d e d by a 20 liberal distribution of rich dresses u n d o r n a m e n t s a m o n g the guests. (133) (when they withdrew, after midnight.)

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Die Aztecs did n o t h i n g to ameliorate the c o n d i t i o n or in any way to prom o t e the progress, of their vassals. Their vassals were serfs, u s e d only to 25 minister to their pleasure, held in awe by a r m e d garrisons, ground to the dust by imposts in peace, by military conscriptions in war. They did not, like the R o m a n s , e x t e n d the rights of citizenship to the c o n q u e r e d . T h e y did n o t a m a l g a m a t e t h e m into one great n a t i o n , m i t c o m m o n rights u n d interests. They held t h e m as aliens ... even those who in t h e Valley were 30 gathered r o u n d the very walls of the capital. T h e Aztec metropolis, the heart of the m o n a r c h y , h a d n o t a sympathy, n o t a pulsation, in c o m m o n with the rest of the body politic. (176, 7) ( K a n n t e n nicht den u s e of milk.) | |40J D i e Aztecs k a n n t e n no domesticated a n i m a l s whatever. (341)

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Prescott. (W.H.) History of the Conquest of Peru. 4 e d . 3 vol. L o n d o n . 1850.

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ch. I. Physical aspect of the Country. Sources of Peruvian civilisation. Empire of the Incas. Royal family. Nobility. Trotz aller Schwierigkeiten, die dieses schmale K ü s t e n l a n d m i t seinen Berg e n liefert: »By a j u d i c i o u s system of canals u n d subterraneous a q u e d u c t s , 10 t h e waste (Sand) places an der K ü s t e erfrischt von copious streams, that clothed t h e m in fertility a n d beauty. Terraces were raised u p o n the steep sides der Cordillera; and, as the different elevations h a d t h e effect of differe n c e of latitude, they exhibited in regular gradation every variety of vegetable form, from the Stimulated Growth of the tropics to the t e m p e r a t e 15 products of a n o r t h e r n clime; while flocks of l l a m a s — t h e peruvian sheep— w a n d e r e d m i t ihren shepherds over t h e broad snow covered wastes on t h e crests of the sierra, which rose beyond the limits of cultivation. An i n d u s trious population settled along the lofty regions of t h e p l a t e a u s ; a n d towns u n d h a m l e t s , clustering amidst orchards u n d widespreading gardens, 20 s e e m e d suspended in the air, far above the ordinary elevation of the clouds. Intercourse was m a i n t a i n e d between these n u m e r o u s settlements d u r c h great roads which traversed the m o u n t a i n passes, and o p e n e d an easy comm u n i c a t i o n zwischen der capital u n d d e n remotest extremities des e m p i r e .

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D i e source dieser Civilisation im T h a l von Cuzko, C e n t r u m von Peru.« (6, 7) Inca signified king or lord. (9) Die I n c a s m o n a r c h e n h ö c h s t e n s 2% Jh. vor der Eroberung zurück zu datiren. (11) N i c h t vor Mitte des 15 Jh. d a ß der famous T o p a Inca Y u p a n q u i , grandfather of t h e m o n a r c h who o c c u p i e d the throne at the coming of the Spaniards, led his armies across the terrible desert of A t a c a m a u n d , penetrating to the s o u t h e r n region of Chili, fixed t h e p e r m a n e n t b o u n d a r y of his d o m i n i o n s at the river M a u l e . Sein Sohn, m a r c h e d along the Cordilleras towards the n o r t h u n d a d d e d the powerful k i n g d o m of Quito to the e m p i r e of Peru. ([13,] 14) Cuzko war die „Holy City" u n d der great temple of the S u n darin die m o s t magnificent structure in the new world. (15) Die furchtbaren Granitblöcke (viele 38 F u ß lang auf 18 Breite u n d 6 F u ß Dicke) zu d e m B a u der T h ü r m e von C u z k o verwandt. W u n d e r b a r w h e n we consider that these e n o r m o u s masses were hewn from their native b e d a n d fashioned into shape by a people ignorant of the u s e of iron; that they were brought from quarries, von 4 - 1 5 leagues distant, o h n e die aid von Lastthieren, were transported across rivers u n d ravines, raised to their elevated position on the sierra, u n d finally adjusted there m i t der nicest accuracy, o h n e die knowledge of tools u n d m a c h i n e r y familiar to the E u r o p e a n . 20,000 m e n sollen an dieser grossen structure verwandt worden sein, u n d 50 J a h r e c o n s u m e d h a b e n in its building. However this m a y be, we see in it t h e workings of a despotism w h i c h h a d t h e lives a n d the fortunes of its vassals at its absolute disposal, a n d which, however mild in its general character, e s t e e m e d these vassals, when employed in its service, as lightly as the brute a n i m a l s for which they served as a substitute. (17, 18) Die Regierung von Peru war d u r c h a u s despotisch. D e r sovereign stand in u n e r m e ß l i c h e r distance ü b e r d e n subjects. Stand als Repräsentant der Sonne an der Spitze der Priesterschaft. E r h o b die A r m i e s , k o m m a n d i r t e sie meist, legte taxes auf, m a c h t e laws u n d provided für deren E x e c u t i o n d u r c h das a p p o i n t m e n t der Judges die er r e m o v e d at pleasure. (23, 4) D i e I n c a ' s , um ihre claims as a superior being zu beweisen, n a h m e n e i n e n l ä c h e r l i c h e n P o m p a n ; two feathers of a rare a n d curious bird, called the c o r a q u e n q u e , zu d e n H a u p t i n s i g n i a of royalty. T h e birds, wovon diese F e d e r n erhalten, in einer W ü s t e a m o n g the m o u n t a i n s ; u n d it was d e a t h to destroy or to take t h e m . Jeder succeeding m o n a r c h versehn m i t a new pair dieser F e d e r n u n d his credulous subjects believed t h a t only two individuals of the species h a d ever existed to furnish the simple o r n a m e n t for the d i a d e m of the Incas. ... Ein H a u p t m i t t e l der I n c a s für die C o m m u n i c a t i o n m i t ihren p e o ples, waren ihre progresses t h r o u g h the empire. Diese c o n d u c t e d , at intervais verschiedner J a h r e , m i t great state u n d magnifience. T h e sedan, or litter, worin sie travelled, war reich e m b l a z o n e d m i t Gold u n d emeralds

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Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 · Heft XIV u n d guarded by a n u m e r o u s escort. D i e m e n who bore it on their shoulders were provided d u r c h 2 cities, specially a p p o i n t e d für d e n Zweck. It was a post to be coveted by n o n e , if, wie versichert, a fall was p u n i s h e d m i t Tod. N a c h Zarate die nobles die Träger; 1000 of w h o m b e s o n d e r s reservirt für die h u m i l i a t i n g h o n o u r . ( 2 4 - 2 6 ) D i e Peruvian m o u n t a i n s t e e m e d m i t G o l d ; die natives verstanden die M i n e n a r b e i t ; n o n e of t h e ore wurde in coin verwandelt u n d das whole of it passed into the h a n d s des sovereign for his own exclusive benefit, sei es for purposes of utility or o r n a m e n t . In der Lieblingsresidenz der I n c a s zu Yukay, wo sie m i t i h r e n C o n c u b i n e n liebelten, | | 4 1 | »they loved to indulge in the luxury of their baths, replenished by streams of crystal water which were c o n d u c t e d t h r o u g h subterraneous silver c h a n n e l s into basins of gold. N e b e n ihren G ä r t e n zugleich Parterres, die glowing with the various forms of vegetable life skilfully imitated in gold u n d silver«. (29, 30) Starb so ein H u n d v o n I n c a »his palaces were a b a n d o n e d ; all his treasures, except what were employed in his obsequies, his furniture a n d apparel, blieben wie er sie left u n d his m a n s i o n s (save one) closed up for ever. T h e new sovereign was to provide himself with every thing new for his royal State«. G r u n d der Volksglaube d a ß die soul des departed m o n a r c h would return after a t i m e to r e a n i m a t e his body on earth ... m i t i h m begraben a quantity of his plate a n d jewels u n d a n u m b e r of his a t t e n d a n t s u n d favourite c o n c u b i n e s . (30, 1) Der body v o n d e m deceased I n c a wurde skilfully e m b a l m e d u n d removed to the great t e m p l e of the S u n at Cuzco. Hier auf der e i n e n Seite die Könige, auf der a n d r e n ihre Weiber. T h e bodies, clothed in t h e princely attire which they h a d b e e n acc u s t o m e d to wear, were placed on chairs of gold, a n d sat m i t ihren h e a d s inclined downward, ihre h a n d s placidly crossed over their b o s o m s , their c o u n t e n a n c e s exhibiting their n a t u r a l dusky h u e ... T h e Peruvians were as successful as the Ejyptians in the miserable attempt to perpetuate the existence of the b o d y beyond the limits assigned to it by n a t u r e . ... O n e der houses belonging to a deceased I n c a was kept o p e n u n d occupied by his guard u n d attendants, with all the state appropriate to royalty. On certain festivals the revered bodies der sovereigns were brought o u t m i t great cere m o n y in d e n public square der capital. Invitations were sent by the captains of the guard der respective I n c a s to the different nobles u n d officers of the court; u n d e n t e r t a i n m e n t s were provided in d e n n a m e s ihrer m a s ters, which displayed all the profuse magnificence ihrer treasures, u n d sagte Sarmiento, "such a display was there in the great square of Cuzco on this occasion, of gold a n d silver, plate a n d jewels, as no other city in the world ever witnessed." (32, 3) Der A d e l von Peru bestand aus 2 orders, erste und wichtigste! Die Incas, boasting a c o m m o n descent with their sovereign. Sie trugen a peculiar dress, h a t t e n a peculiar dialect u n d h a d t h e choicest

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Aus William Hickling Prescott: History of the conquest of Peru portion des public d o m a i n assigned for their support. Sie allein z u l a ß b a r zu d e n great offices in der priesthood; waren invested m i t der c o m m a n d der armies u n d distant garrisons, placed over the provinces u n d filled every station of high trust u n d e m o l u m e n t . An I n c a noble was incapable of 5 crime. D e r andre Orden des Adels die Curacas, die Caciques der c o n q u e r e d nations, or ihre d e s c e n d a n t s . W u r d e n m e i s t in ihren Plätzen gelassen, m u ß t e n aber m a n c h m a l die capital b e s u c h e n u n d allow their sons t o b e e d u c a t e d there as the pledges of their loyalty. Ihre A u t o r i t ä t scheint gewöhnlich local gewesen zu sein u n d stets subordinirt der Territorialjuris10 diction der great provincial governors, who were t a k e n from the Incas. D i e I n c a nobility constituirte die Realkraft der peruvian m o n a r c h y . After the lapse of centuries, they still retained their individuality as a peculiar p e o ple. ... T h o u g h living chiefly in t h e capital, they were also distributed t h r o u g h o u t the country in all its high stations u n d strong military posts, so 15 establishing lines of c o m m u n i c a t i o n m i t d e m court, which enabled t h e sovereign to act simultaneously u n d m i t effect on t h e m o s t distant quarters of his empire. Sie besassen an intellectual p r e - e m i n e n c e ... T h e crania der I n c a race show a decided superiority over the other races of the land in intellectual power. ( 3 4 - 3 7 )

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Ch. II. Orders of the State. Provisions for Justice. Division of Lands. Revenues and Registers. Great Roads und Posts. Military Tactics und Policy.

Das G e s a m m t r e i c h u n t e r d e n orders der I n c a s h i e ß : »Tavantinsuyu« (4 quarters of the world.) D a s Königreich in 4 Theile getheilt, j e d e r m i t 25 b e s o n d e r e m Titel u n d zu each of which ran E i n e r der 4 great roads t h a t diverged von Cuzco, der capital des P e r u ' s c h e n Reichs. E b e n s o die city in 4 Theile getheilt; u n d die various races, which gathered there von d e n dist a n t parts des Reiches, lebten z u s a m m e n in d e m quarter nearest to its respective province. F u h r e n fort ihre Originaltracht zu tragen; u n d dieselbe 30 order u n d system of a r r a n g e m e n t prevailed in der motley p o p u l a t i o n der capital, wie in den great provinces des empire. T h e capital, in fact, was a m i n i a t u r e image des empire. J e d e der 4 great provinces hatte e i n e n viceroy oder governor, m i t e i n e m oder m e h r e n councils für die different départem e n t s . Diese viceroys residirten, some t i m e m i n d e s t e n s in der capital, wo 35 sie eine Art von Staatsrath für d e n I n c a bildeten. Die n a t i o n im G a n z e n in D e c a d e n getheilt oder small bodies of ten u n d j e d e r 10' M a n n oder H a u p t einer D e c a d e hatte supervision of the rest ... Diese, wenn sie e i n e n Verbrecher nicht vor Gericht brachten, u n t e r z o g e n derselben penalty that would

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Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 • Heft XIV have b e e n incurred by t h e guilty party. D a s Volk a u s s e r d e m getheilt in bodies von 50, 100, 500, 1000, m i t each an officer having general supervision over those b e n e a t h u n d the higher ones possessing, to a certain extent, authority in matters of police. Schließlich das ganze E m p i r e eingetheilt in sections oder d e p a r t m e n t s von 10,000 Einwohnern, m i t a governor über j e d e from the I n c a nobility, die Controlle h a t t e n ü b e r die curacas u n d andre territorial officers in d e m Distrikt. Regular tribunals of justice, besteh e n d aus magistrates, in jeder der towns oder small c o m m u n i t i e s , m i t jurisdiction ü b e r petty ||42| offences, da die greater offences gebracht vor superior judges, meist die governors oder rulers der Distrikts. D i e crown sezte sie ein u n d ab n a c h Willkühr. M u ß t e n j e d e n suit in 5 Tagen von der Zeit, wo er vor sie gebracht, e n d e n . K e i n appeal von e i n e m T r i b u n a l an das andre. A c o m m i t t e e von visitors patrolled das k i n g d o m zu certain times, to investigate the character u n d c o n d u c t der magistrates; j e d e r neglect oder violation aufs strengste bestraft. Die inferior courts h a t t e n m o n t h l y returns zu m a c h e n an die h ö h e r n u n d diese an die viceroys: so t h a t the m o n a r c h , seated in the centre of his d o m i n i o n s , could look abroad to their m o s t dist a n t extremities u n d review u n d rectify any abuses in the administration des law. Gesetze wenig, sehr streng. F a s t n u r für criminal m a t t e r s . Theft, adultery, m u r d e r , Blasphemy der S o n n e , u n d M a l e d i c t i o n des Inca, b u r n ing einer bridge - alles capital. E i n e rebellische Stadt oder Provinz wüst gelegt u n d its i n h a b i t a n t s exterminated. Rebellion gegen das „Child of the S u n " was the greatest of all crimes. ... To violate the law war sacrilege. D o c h nicht grausam in der Ausführung ihrer Strafen. ( 3 8 - 4 4 ) Das ganze Territorium der Incas war in 3 parts getheilt, Einer für die S o n n e , Zweiter für d e n Inca, Dritter für das Volk. Die Proportions differed wesentlich in d e n verschiednen Provinzen. Aber die E i n t h e i l u n g für j e d e n n e u e n Conquest gemacht. Das der S o n n e assignirte L a n d gab R e v e n u e für d e n Unterhalt der T e m p e l , der C e r e m o n i e n u n d m u l t i t u d i n o u s priesthood. Die für d e n Inca reservirten went to support d e n royal state, die n u m e r o u s m e m bers of his h o u s e h o l d u n d kindred u n d die various exigencies of governm e n t . D e r Rest des Lands getheilt, per capita, in gleichen T h e i l e n u n t e r das Volk. Gesetzlich b e s t i m m t , daß j e d e r Peruvian zu einer b e s t i m m t e n Zeit h e i r a t h e n m u ß t e . W e n n dieß Ereigniß statthatte, lieferte i h m die c o m m u n i t y oder der District worin er lebte a dwelling, which, as it was constructed of h u m b l e materials, wenig kostete. A lot of land d a n n assigned to h i m h i n r e i c h e n d für his own m a i n t e n a n c e u n d die seines Weibs. An additional portion granted für jedes child, für d e n S o h n 2 x so viel als für eine Tochter. Die Theilung des Bodens erneut jedes J a h r u n d die possessions des t e n a n t increased or d i m i n i s h e d n a c h der Z a h l deren in seiner family. Dasselbe arrangement fand für die curacas statt; n u r d a ß die i h n e n zuge-

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Aus William Hickling Prescott: History of the conquest of Peru theilte D o m a i n e ihrer h ö h e r n W ü r d e entsprach. E i n wirksamres u n d consequenteres agrarisches Gesetz n i c h t zu e r s i n n e n . (Bei der F r u c h t b a r k e i t des Bodens reichte n a t ü r l i c h sehr kleines lot hin.) D i e nearest a p p r o a c h zu der Peruvian constitution die von J u d e a , wo on t h e recurrence des grossen j u 5 bilee, am Schluß j e d e s h a l b e n J h d t s . A u c h w ä h r e n d des J a h r e s h a t t e der tena n t no power to alienate or to a d d to his possessions. W a h r s c h e i n l i c h e a c h new partition des soil usually confirmed d e n o c c u p a n t in his possession u n d der t e n a n t for a year was converted i n t o a proprietor for life. D a s territory was cultivated wholly by t h e people. Z u e r s t die der S o n n e gehörigen 10 lands. They n e x t tilled die l a n d s , der old, der sick, der widow u n d o r p h a n u n d der soldiers engaged in a c t u a l service; in short des g a n z e n Theils der c o m m u n i t y der u n a b l e war t o a t t e n d z u s e i n e m eignen concern. D a n n d e m Volk allowed, j e d e r für sich s e i n e n e i g n e n G r u n d zu bearbeiten, aber m i t der general obligation s e i n e m N a c h b a r to assist, w e n n irgend ein U m s t a n d , 15

die b u r d e n einer j u n g e n u n d z a h l r e i c h e n family ζ. Β. m i g h t d e m a n d it. Schließlich die L a n d s des I n c a cultivirt. D i e ß geschah m i t grosser C é r é m o nie by the whole p o p u l a t i o n in a body. ... A similar a r r a n g e m e n t prevailed m i t Bezug auf die different m a n u f a c t u r e s ... D i e flocks der L l a m a s , o d e r Peruvian sheep, waren ausschließliches E i g e n t h u m der S o n n e u n d des

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Inca. Ihre Z a h l i m m e n s . Scattered ü b e r die v e r s c h i e d n e n Provinces, besonders in d e n colder regions des country, vertraut der care erfahrner shepherds, die c o n d u c t e d t h e m to different pastures je n a c h d e m change der seasons. A large n u m b e r jedes J a h r sent n a c h der capital für d e n c o n s u m des Hofes u n d für religious festivals u n d sacrifices. A b e r n u r die m a l e s . D i e

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females durften n i c h t be killed. D i e regulations für die care u n d b r e e d i n g dieser flocks prescribed m i t der greatest m i n u t e n e s s ... Z u r a p p o i n t e d season sie alle geschoren u n d die W o l l e d e p o n i r t in d e n public m a g a z i n e s . D a n n dealt o u t j e d e r family in solchen q u a n t i t i e s as sufficed for its wants u n d d e m female part des h o u s e h o l d consignirt, die wohl instructed i m b u s iness of spinning u n d weaving. D i e ß für cold climate der m o u n t a i n s . In d e m lower country, cotton, furnished in like m a n n e r by t h e crown, took t h e place, to a certain extent, of wool. D a n n n u n das Volk required to l a b o u r für d e n Inca. The q u a n t i t y of t h e cloth n e e d e d , as well as t h e peculiar k i n d a n d quality of the fabric, was first d e t e r m i n e d at C u z c o . T h e work was t h e n

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apportioned a m o n g the different provinces. Officers appointed for t h e purpose, s u p e r i n t e n d e d t h e distribution of t h e wool, so daß die m a n u f a c t u r e der different articles should be intrusted d e n m o s t c o m p e t e n t h a n d s . (The m a n u f a c t u r e of cloths für d e n I n c a schloß ein die für die z a h l r e i c h e n persons des blood royal, who wore g a r m e n t s of a finer texture als p e r m i t t e d to

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any other Peruvian.) Sie entered t h e dwellings von Zeit zu Zeit u n d s a h e n , d a ß das work was faithfully executed. Diese domestic inquisition, n i c h t b e -

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a u c h in der agricultural labour, so lange als engaged im e m p l o y m e n t der Regierung, for the t i m e m a i n t a i n e d at the public expense. D u r c h diese b e ständige Rotation der Arbeit bezweckt, daß K e i n e r überlastet u n d Z e i t h a b e für die d e m a n d s seines eignen H a u s h a l t s zu sorgen. Diese R e g u l a t i o n s so arranged, daß die m o s t wearing u n d u n w h o l e s o m e labours wie die der M i n e n , occasioned no d e t r i m e n t für die h e a l t h des labourer, a striking contrast to his s u b s e q u e n t c o n d i t i o n u n t e r d e m Spanish law. E i n Theil der Agricultur u n d M a n u f a c t u r p r o d u c t e transported n a c h Cuzco, für die i m m e d i a t e wants des I n c a u n d seines Hofs. A b e r der bei weitem größre aufgespeichert in m a g a z i n e s scattered ü b e r die v e r s c h i e d n e n Provinzen. Diese g e r ä u m i g e n buildings, construirt aus Stein, getheilt zwischen der S u n u n d d e m I n c a ; leztrer d e n größren Theil. Gesetz, w o n a c h any deficiency in d e n contributions des I n c a m i g h t be supplied von d e n granaries der S o n n e . A b e r gewöhnlich a large surplus in d e n royal depositories, which was rem o v e d zu a third class von M a g a z i n e n , d e r e n Zweck to supply das people in seasons of scarcity u n d gelegentlich für U n t e r s t ü t z u n g verarmter Individ u e n ... Diese m a g a z i n e s were found von d e n Spaniern, stored m i t all d e n various products u n d m a n u f a c t u r e s des country, m i t M a i z e , Goca, q u i n u a , W o l l e n u n d cotton stuffs der finest quality, m i t V a s e n u n d utensils v o n Gold, Silber u n d Kupfer, kurz m i t j e d e m Luxusartikel d e n Peruvianern b e k a n n t . Das G e t r e i d e m a g a z i n besonders would häufig have sufficed für d e n c o n s u m der b e n a c h b a r t e n Districts für E i n Jahr. Ein I n v e n t a r i u m der various products des L a n d e s u n d der quarters whence they were o b t a i n e d , was jedes J a h r t a k e n d u r c h die royal officers u n d recorded d u r c h die quipucamayus on their registers, m i t surprising regularity u n d precision. Diese registers transmitted to the capital u n d s u b m i t t e d to the Inca, der so m i t ein e m Blick could e m b r a c e the whole results der N a t i o n a l i n d u s t r i e u n d see how far they corresponded m i t d e n requisitions of government. ... A u f d e m Peruvian people lastete die whole b u r d e n of m a i n t a i n i n g , n o t only t h e i r own order, b u t every other order im Staat. Die m e m b e r s des royal h o u s e , die great nobles, die öffentlichen B e a m t e n , die zahlreichen Priester, alle e x e m p t from taxation. D e r Peruvian could n o t better his condition. K o n n t e kein H a a r zu seinen Besitzungen hinzufügen oder advance sich in the social scale. Even his t i m e he could n o t properly call his own. O h n e m o n e y , m i t little property of any kind, he paid his taxes in labour. Müssiggang war a crime against the state, sozusagen a frustration des exchequer. ... A b e r : I f n o m a n could b e c o m e rich i n Peru, n o m a n could b e c o m e poor. ... T h e very condition of his being s e e m e d to be at war with change. ( 4 4 - 5 8 ) N o c h findet m a n in d e n central regions besonders r e m a i n s of temples, palaces, fortresses, terraced m o u n t a i n s , great military roads, a q u e d u c t s . (59) E i n e r der roads (von Cuzco n a c h Quito!) passed over the grand plateau. It was

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Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 • Heft XIV c o n d u c t e d ü b e r pathless sierras buried in snow; galleries were cut for leagues t h r o u g h the living rock; rivers were crossed by m e a n s of bridges that swung suspended in the air; precipices were scaled by stairways hewn o u t of the native bed, ravines of h i d e o u s d e p t h were filled up m i t solid m a sonry; kurz all the difficulties t h a t beset a wild u n d m o u n t a i n o u s region u n d m i g h t appal the most courageous engineer der m o d e r n times, waren e n c o u n t e r e d u n d successfully overcome. D i e length des road ... stone pillars, in Weise der europäischen milestones, in Z w i s c h e n r ä u m e n von etwas m e h r als a league, all along the route. ... U e b e r einige der boldest streams suspensionbridges, still retained von d e n Spaniards ü b e r diese streams. G e m a c h t aus d e n tough fibres der maguey oder der osier des country, sehr ten a x u n d stark. Diese osiers gewebt in T a u e n von M a n n s d i c k e . T h e h u g e ropes, t h e n stretched across the water, ||44| were c o n d u c t e d through rings or holes cut in i m m e n s e buttresses of stone raised on the opposite banks of the river, a n d there secured to heavy pieces of timber. Several dieser enorm o u s cables, b o u n d together, formed a bridge, which, covered m i t planks, well secured u n d defended by a railing of the s a m e osier materials on the sides, afforded a safe passage for the traveller. ... D e r andre grosse road der I n c a s gelegt d u r c h das level country between d e n A n d e s u n d d e m Ocean. ... AU along diesen highways, caravanseries, oder tambos errichtet, je 10 oder 12 miles von einander, für die A c c o m m o d a t i o n des I n c a u n d seiner suite u n d die für public business R e i s e n d e n . T h e r e were few other travellers in Peru. Einige dieser G e b ä u d e sehr extensiv, m i t fortress, barracks u n d a n d r e n military Works, s u r r o u n d e d by a parapet of stone, u n d covering a large tract of ground. Die care der great roads c o m m i t t e d d e n districts w o d u r c h sie passed u n d a large n u m b e r of h a n d s beständig beschäftigt u n ter d e n Incas to keep t h e m in repair. D i e ß so leichter in e i n e m L a n d where the m o d e of travelling was altogether on foot ... G i n g e n caput u n t e r d e n Spaniern. Yet the broken portions that still survive, here u n d there, like the fragments der great r o m a n roads scattered over E u r o p e , bear evidence to their primitive G r a n d e u r ... Posts me bei d e n Aztecs. ... All along these routes small buildings errichtet, von je 5 miles, in j e d e m wovon a n u m b e r of r u n n e r s oder chasquis stationirt, to carry die D e p e s c h e n der Regierung. Entweder diese D e p e s c h e n m ü n d l i c h oder conveyed vermittelst der Quipus u n d m a n c h m a l begleitet by a thread der crimson fringe worn r o u n d the temples des Inca, regarded m i t derselben implicit deference als der signet ring eines orientalischen Despoten. Die chasquis dressed in a peculiar livery, intimating their profession. All trained to the e m p l o y m e n t u n d selected for their speed u n d fidelity. Messages carried zu d e m rate of 150 miles a day. A u s s e r d e m b r a c h t e n die chasquis various articles für d e n u s e des court; Fisch v o m Ocean, fruits, g a m e u n d different c o m m o d i t i e s

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Aus William Hickling Prescott: History of the conquest of Peru von den hot regions der Küste ... So die entferntesten Theile des p e r u a n i schen Reichs in i n t i m a t e relations m i t einander. ... E i n Hauptzweck der great roads die military c o m m u n i c a t i o n . D i e I n c a s beständig at war. N a c h d e m sie e i n m a l das Corpus ihres R e i c h s gebildet, war against the b a r b a r o u s 5 nations on the frontier. Die I n c a s of Peru offered no alternative b u t t h e worship of the S u n or war. V e r s u c h t e n erst Beispiel, d a n n Negotiation, Präsente, schließlich war. I h r e levies gezogen von allen different provinces; o b gleich von einigen, wo der Character des Volkes besonders gehärtet, m e h r als von andern. Die rotation of military service u n d die regular drills, die 10 statthatten 2 oder 3x in a m o n t h , of t h e i n h a b i t a n t s jedes village, raised die soldiers Generally ü b e r d e n R a n g einer raw militia. Am Schluß ihres Reichs groß. K o n n t e n an 200,000 M a n n ins Feld bringen. ... At regular intervals M a g a z i n e errichtet, filled m i t grain, weapons u n d d e n different m u nitions of war, womit die army was supplied on its m a r c h . Besondre Sorge 15 der Regierung d a ß diese M a g a z i n e , gefüllt von d e n stores der Incas, were always well filled. W e n n die Spanier invaded the country, they supported their own armies for a long t i m e on the provisions found in t h e m . ... D e r erste step der Regierung, n a c h der R e d u c t i o n of a country, war die Einführung der worship of the Sun. T e m p l e s errichtet u n d gestellt unter die zahl20 r e i c h e n Pfaffen, die die N e u e r o b e r t e n indoctrinirten u n d dazzled by t h e display of its rich a n d stately ceremonial. A b e r die Religion der Besiegten, nicht dishonoured. Die images ihrer gods removed to Cuzco u n d established in one of the temples, to hold their rank u n t e r den inferior deities des Peruvian P a n t h e o n . Hier b l i e b e n sie gewissermaassen als Geissein für 25 die conquered n a t i o n ... Bei ihren new conquests sorgten die Incas für a census der Population u n d cadaster der P r o d u c t e u n d Bodenbeschaffenheit des L a n d e s . D a n n dieselbe division, die bei i h n e n galt ... D i e extraordinary institutions der I n c a s w u r d e n etablirt mit little opposition in d e n conquered territories. ... Kurz n a c h e i n e m frischen conquest die curacas u n d 30 ihre families removed for a t i m e n a c h Cuzco. Hier lernten sie die Sprache der capital, wurden vertraut m i t d e n m a n n e r s u n d usages des court etc u n d erfuhren solche G u n s t b e z e u g u n g e n von d e m sovereign u n d d a n n zurückgeschickt, b u t still leaving their eldest sons in the capital, to r e m a i n there as a guaranty for their own fidelity as well as to grace the court of the 35 Inca. - A n d r e s Mittel: to revolutionise the language of the country. Substituirt E i n e universal language das Quichua. D i e Sprache des Hofs, der capital u n d des Surrounding country - the richest u n d m o s t comprehensive der s ü d a m e r i k a n i s c h e n dialects. Teachers were provided in d e n towns u n d villages d u r c h das Land, who were to give instruction to all, even the h u m 40 blest classes; u n d zugleich i n t i m a t e d , d a ß n i e m a n d zu Stellen u n d W ü r den, u n b e k a n n t m i t this t o n g u e . Die curacas u n d andre chiefs lernten sie

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Peruvian Religion.—Deities.—Gorgeous Temples.— Festivals.—Virgins of the Sun.—Marriage.

Das G o v e r n m e n t der I n c a ' s Theocratic (84) D i e images der deities der c o n q u e r e d n a t i o n s w u r d e n transported n a c h der Capital, where t h e b u r d e n s o m e charges of their worship were defrayed by their respective provinces. (90) Gold, in der figürlichen Sprache des people, war „the tears wept by t h e Sun". (92) In d e n „Houses of t h e S u n " alle Gerätschaften von G o l d oder Silber: t h e censers for t h e perfumes, t h e ewers w h i c h held t h e water for sacrifice, t h e pipes which c o n d u c t e d it t h r o u g h s u b t e r r a n e o u s c h a n n e l s i n t o t h e buildings, t h e reservoir that received it, even t h e agricultural i m p l e m e n t s u s e d in t h e gardens of the t e m p l e etc. Diese H o u s e s , n i c h t zu vergessen »were t h e c o m m o n reservoir i n t o w h i c h flowed all t h e streams of public u n d private benefaction t h r o u g h o u t t h e empire«. ( 9 3 - 5 ) H e u t z u Tage »the friar c h a n t s his orisons within t h e consecrated precincts o n c e occupied by t h e Children of t h e S u n « . (95) U n m a s s e T e m p e l . G a n z e A r m e e von Pfaffen. An der Spitze der Villac Vmu, der Hohepriester. (97) D o c h diese sacerdotal order n i c h t u n t e r s c h i e d e n by any peculiar b a d g e n o c h Cost u m e . N o c h waren sie die einzigen Depositare der Wissenschaft, n i c h t m i t

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Aus William Hickling Prescott: History of the conquest of Peru der E r z i e h u n g charged etc. Erklärlich daraus, d a ß die I n c a nobles were in fact »the holy order of the State« u n d sie in a m a n n e r engrossed whatever there was of religious veneration in the people. (97, 8) D i e duties des priest confined to m i n i s t r a t i o n in the t e m p l e . Seine Wissenschaft K e n n t n i ß der 5 Feste u n d des R i t u a l . (98) D i e Virgins der S u n waren brides of t h e I n c a u n d at a marriageable age the m o s t beautiful a m o n g t h e m were selected for t h e h o n o u r s of his bed u n d transferred to t h e royal seraglio. B e s t a n d e n z u m Theil aus T a u s e n d e n ... Die great nobles of Peru were allowed a plurality of wives. T h e people ... limited to o n e . 24 J a h r e heirathsvorgeschriebne A l io ter für die males, u n d 18 oder 20 für die w o m e n . Bei e i n e m appointed day des Jahres sie alle z u s a m m e n g e r u f e n in d e n great squares ihrer respective towns u n d villages im g a n z e n empire. D e r I n c a präsidirte in Person ü b e r die assembly of his own kindred, a n d taking t h e h a n d s der different c o u p les who were to be u n i t e d , he placed t h e m within each other, declaring t h e 15 parties m a n u n d wife. Dasselbe geschah v o n d e n curacas gegen alle persons of their own or inferior degree in their several districts. N i e m a n d erlaubt to select a wife beyond t h e c o m m u n i t y to which he belonged, die generally c o m p r e h e n d e d all his own kindred; ausser d e m Sovereign durfte N i e m a n d seine Schwester h e i r a t h e n . E r l a u b n i ß der Eltern nöthig. ( 1 0 6 - 8 ) Die R e 20 gierung der Incas was t h e mildest, b u t t h e m o s t searching of despotisms. (109) ch. IV.

Education.—Quipus. —Astronomy. —Agriculture. — Aqueducts.—Guano. —Important Esculents.

Wissenschaft n u r für die E d l e n ... Volk regarded n u r als children, who 25 were never to emerge from the state of pupilage, to act or to t h i n k for t h e m selves ... a m a u t a s (wise m e n ) ... D e r quipu war a cord ungefähr 2 F u ß lang, z u s a m m e n g e s e z t of different coloured threads tightly twisted together, from which a quantity of smaller threads were s u s p e n d e d in the m a n n e r of a fringe. Die threads were of different colours u n d were tied into knots; das 30 W o r t quipu signifies a knot. T h e colours d e n o t e d sensible objects, ζ. B. W e i ß für Silber, G e l b für Gold oder für abstract ideas, wie W e i ß für Frieden, R o t h für Krieg. A b e r h a u p t s ä c h l i c h die q u i p u s u s e d für a r i t h m e t i c a l purposes. Die knots d i e n t e n statt der Ziffern u n d k o n n t e n so c o m b i n i r t werden to represent n u m b e r s to any a m o u n t they required. So k a m e n sie 35 t h r o u g h their calculations m i t great rapidity ... Officers - q u i p u c a m a y u s etablirt in j e d e m der districts die zu furnish the government m i t information on various i m p o r t a n t matters. Einer h a d charge ü b e r die R e v e n u e s , r e ported the quantity of raw m a t e r i a l distributed u n d e r the labourers, t h e quality u n d quantity der fabrics m a d e of t h e m etc. Ein andrer das Register

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ploughshare der Old world, n o c h Zugthiere, die, indeed, were n o w h e r e found in the New. Das I n s t r u m e n t , das sie b r a u c h t e n a strong, sharppointed stake, traversed by a horizontal piece, 10 oder 12 inches from the point, on which the p l o u g h m a n m i g h t set his foot a n d force it into the ground. 6 oder 8 strong m e n were attached by ropes to the stake, a n d dragged it forcibly along, pulling together, a n d keeping t i m e as they moved by c h a n t i n g their n a t i o n a l songs, worin begleitet von i h r e n W e i b e r n , die followed in their train to break up the sods with their rakes. D e r mellow soil offered slight resistance; u n d der labourer, by long practice, acquired a dexterity which enabled h i m to turn up the g r o u n d to the requisite depth m i t astonishing facility. ... E i n Mittel des agricultural Austausche der verschiednen Provinzen gegeben d u r c h fairs, die 3 x im M o n a t in d e n volksreichsten Plätzen stattfanden, u n d wo, da G e l d u n b e k a n n t , a r u d e k i n d of c o m m e r c e was kept up by the barter of their respective products. These fairs afforded so m a n y holydays für die relaxation des industrious labourer. ... In d e m lower level der cassavatree u n d die banana, which die M e n s c h e n v o n d e m F l u c h des Arbeitens erlöst; (Nach H u m b o l d t seine Fruchtbarkeit zu W e i z e n = 133:1, u n d zu potato = 44:1). Mais. D r a u s ein gegohrnes G e t r ä n k , d e m sie sehr zugethan. D i e saccharine m a t t e r c o n t a i n e d in d e m m a i z e stalk is m u c h greater in d e n tropical countries ... D a s t e m p e r a t e climate des Tableland lieferte i h n e n die maguey (agave a m e r i c a n a ) ... Tobacco (Die Peruvians b r a u c h t e n es n u r als Snuff for m e d i c i n a l purposes.) Coca oder Cuca. This is a shrub which grows to the height of a m a n . T h e leaves w h e n gathered are dried in the sun, a n d being m i x e d m i t a little lime, form a preparation for chewing, m u c h like the betel-leaf des East. M i t a small supply dieses cuca in his p o u c h , u n d a handful of roasted m a i z e , the Peruvian I n dian of our t i m e performs his wearisome journeys, day after day, o h n e fatigue etc. Die food the m o s t invigorating sezt er n a c h der loved narcotic. U n t e r den Incas soll es exclusiv d e n n o b l e orders reservirt gewesen sein. H ö h e r on the slopes der Cordilleras, ü b e r d e n G r e n z e n des M a i z e u n d des q u i n o a (Art Reis) war die Kartoffel zu finden. It formed the great staple der m o r e elevated plains u n t e r d e n Incas. ( 1 1 0 - 1 3 4 )

ch. V. Peruvian sheep.—Great Hunts.—Manufactures.— Mechanical Skill—Architecture.—Concluding Reflections. 35

Die Peruvians, t h o u g h lining a long extent of sea-coast, h a d no foreign c o m m e r c e . F ü r d o m e s t i c m a n u f a c t u r e h a t t e n sie besondre Vortheile in besonders vorzüglichem Material. Sie fanden gutes Substitut für L e i n e n in e i n e m Fabrikat, das sie wie die Aztecs webten aus d e m tough t h r e a d der

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due t i m e , d e m Volk vertheilt. D i e coarser quality bearbeitet zu g a r m e n t s für ihren eignen use, die finer für d e n I n c a ; n u r der I n c a noble could wear the fine fabric of t h e vicuna. D i e Peruvians zeigten viel skill in der m a n u facture verschiedner Artikel von d i e s e m delicaten Material, für d e n königlichen household. H e i ß t diese Wolle in E u r o p a vigonia wool. W i r k t e n es in Shawls, R o b e s u n d a n d r e Artikel of dress für d e n m o n a r c h u n d in carpets, coverlets u n d hangings für die imperial palaces u n d temples. D i e ß cloth auf b e i d e n Seiten gleich finished; die Délicatesse der texture gab i h m d e n lustre der Seide; brilliancy der dyes. M a c h t e n a u c h e i n e n Artikel von great strength u n d D a u e r daraus d u r c h B e i m i s c h u n g von T h i e r h a a r e n ; A u c h erfahren in s c h ö n e m Federwerk, das sie i n d e ß n i c h t in so grosser A c h t u n g hielten wie die Aztecs. Jeder B a u e r in Peru erfahren in d e n handicrafts die sein H a u s r a t h erforderte. Einige individuals aber carefully trained für die Operations which m i n i s t e r to the d e m a n d s der o p u l e n t e m classes of society. Diese occupations, like every other calling u n d office in Peru, always descended von Vater auf Sohn. Die division of castes, in this peculiar, so precis als in Ejypten u n d H i n d u s t a n . D i e ß A r r a n g e m e n t u n g ü n s t i g für Originalität, u n d für die Entwicklung des peculiar talent des Individual. A b e r it at least conduces to an easy u n d finished execution, by familiarising the artist m i t der Praxis seiner K u n s t v o n K i n d h e i t . Wenigstens dieß die opinion der Aejypter, who referred zu ihrer K a s t e n e i n r i c h t u n g ihre peculiar dexterity i n d e n arts. I n d e n royal m a g a z i n e s u n d d e n h u a c a s oder t o m b s der Incas hat m a n gefunden V a s e n von G o l d u n d Silber, bracelets, collars u n d andre S c h m u c k s a c h e n for the person; utensils jeder Art, einige aus fein e m T h o n , viel m e h r e aus copper; mirrors of hard, polished stone oder burn i s h e d silver, Délicatesse u n d m i n u t e n e s s of finish. Sie casted u n d sculptured metallic substances. A b e r schwer zu erklären, daß sie schnitten die hardest substances, wie emeralds u n d a n d r e Edelsteine. Turquoises. U n b e k a n n t m i t d e m G e b r a u c h des Eisen. Das Material, womit sie das Schwerste vollbrachten, Kupfer m i t a very small portion of tin. Diese C o m p o s i t i o n gab d e m Metall eine Härte, wenig inferior der des Stahls. Ihre large q u a n tity von Gold u n d Silber, bearbeitet zu verschiednen Artikeln of elegance u n d utility, klein gen d e n m i n e r a l i s c h e n R e i c h t h u m des L a n d s u n d was später von d e m white m a n erhalten. G o l d wurde gathered von d e n I n c a s from the deposits der streams. Sie extracted das ore a u c h in considerable quantities v o m T h a l von Curimayo, n o r d e a s t von C a x a m a r c a u n d a n d r e n Orten; u n d die Silberminen von Porco g a b e n i h n e n reiche returns. S u c h t e n n i c h t in die bowels der E r d e e i n z u d r i n g e n by sinking a shaft, s o n d e r n simply excavated a cavern in d e n steep sides des m o u n t a i n oder öffneten h ö c h stens a horizontal vein of m o d e r a t e depth. K a n n t e n nicht d e n G e b r a u c h von Quecksilber zur D e c o m p o s i t i o n des ore. Sie did little m o r e t h a n p e n e -

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[ B o o k II.

D i s c o v e r y of Peru.]

[Ch. I. Ancient and modern science.— Art of navigation. —Maritime discovery. —Spirit of the Spaniards. — Possessions in the New World.—Rumours concerning Peru.] 5

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G e o g r a p h i e - E r d k e n n t n i ß - could c o m e only from an e x t e n d e d c o m m e r c e u n d dieser founded on artificial wants or an enlightened curiosity, hardly compatible m i t der earlier c o n d i t i o n of society. (177) | |48| Im Mittelalter die Organisation der Gesellschaft günstiger für G e o graphie als in der alten Zeit. Statt eines overgrown lethargic empire, oppressing everything by its colossal weight, E u r o p e aufgebrochen in verschiedne i n d e p e n d e n t c o m m u n i t i e s ... die petty Republics on the M e d i t e r r a n e a n u n d Baltic sent forth their swarms of s e a m e n in a profitable c o m m e r c e , that knit together die different countries scattered along t h e great E u r o p e a n waters. Verbesserungen in der Schiffskunst, accuratre Zeitmessung. E n t d e c k u n g der Polarität des M a g n e t s ... the n a t i o n s worauf der spirit of enterprise at this crisis naturally d e s c e n d e d were Spain u n d Portugal, placed as they were on the outposts of the E u r o p e a n continent, c o m m a n d i n g the great theatre of future discovery. (179) T h e discovery of an Indian passage is the true key to the m a r i t i m e m o v e m e n t des 15' u n d der ersten Hälfte des 16' Jh. W a r die grosse leitende Idee die gab d e n character of enterprise d e m age. Das g a n z e 15* Jh. d u r c h versuchten es die portugisischen Könige; though, so t i m i d was the navigation, that every fresh h e a d land b e c a m e a formidable barrier, bis Diaz passed um das Cap der g u t e n Hoffnung. Aber eh Vasco da G a m a h a d availed himself of this discovery to spread his sails in the I n d i a n seas, Spain entered etc. A u c h C o l u m b u s suchte a route to India, b u t by the west instead of the east. He h a d no expectation of m e e t i n g with a c o n t i n e n t in his way u n d n a c h verschiednen voyages, he r e m a i n e d in his original error, dying, as is well known, in t h e conviction that it was the eastern shore of Asia which he h a d reached. It was the same object which directed the n a u t i c a l enterprises of those who followed in the Admiral's track; a n d the discovery of a strait into the I n d i a n Ocean was the b u r d e n of every order from the G o v e r n m e n t , a n d t h e design of m a n y an expedition to different points of the new continent, which seemed to stretch its leviathan length along from o n e pole to t h e other. Impulse given to E u r o p e d u r c h die E n t d e c k u n g von A m e r i c a . N i c h t die gradual acquisition of s o m e border territory, a province, or a k i n g d o m that h a d b e e n gained, b u t a N e w World t h a t was now thrown o p e n to t h e E u r o p e a n . T h e races of a n i m a l s , the m i n e r a l treasures, the vegetable forms,

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Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 • Heft XIV u n d die varied aspects of n a t u r e , m a n in t h e different phases of civilisation, filled d e n m i n d m i t entirely new sets of ideas, that changed the h a b i t u a l current of thought u n d stimulated it to indefinite conjecture. D i e eagerness to explore the wonderful secrets der n e w h e m i s p h e r e w u r d e n so activ, daß die H a u p t s t ä d t e Spaniens wie entvölkert d u r c h E m i g r a t i o n . (180, 1) gold 5 was ever floating before their distempered vision ... t h e life of the Spanish adventurer was o n e chapter m o r e a n d n o t the least remarkable, in the chronicles of knight-errantry. (182) 1521, the Portuguese Maghellan, sailing u n d e r the Spanish flag, solved the p r o b l e m of the strait, a n d found a westerly way to the long-sought Spice-Islands of India, greatly to the aston- 10 i s h m e n t of the Portuguese, who, sailing from t h e opposite direction, there m e t their rivals, face to face, at the antipodes. (185)

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2 vol. L o n d o n 1841 u n d 42.

Vol. 1.

Part I. Historical account of the Progress of the Colonies of Modern Europe. 10

a) Spanien in Continental America bis zur Periode seiner Unabhängigkeit.

1519 landete Cortez m i t a few adventurers zu Vera Cruz; 1521 wurde er m a s t e r von M e x i c o : Peru, Quito, Chili h a d b e e n overrun by the year 1535: 1532, Terra F i r m a was occupied u n d N e w G r a n a d a in 1536. Die folgende A u s d e h n u n g der spanischen Colonisation n a c h d e m N o r d e n ü b e r die re15 gions adjacent to M e x i c o , später called die „Internal Provinces" u n d n a c h d e m Süden, über La Plata u n d Paraguay, was a work of greater t i m e u n d m o r e difficulty. Arbeit der c o n q u e s t rapid, die of settlement slow u n d interrupted. Wird behauptet, n o c h Mitte des 16* Jh. seien n i c h t m e h r als 18,000 Spanier all over the c o n t i n e n t of A m e r i c a gewesen. Sie k a m e n at 20 first rather to garrison t h a n to colonize; few w o m e n begleiteten die earlier adventurers; erhielten ihre subsistence u n d wealth n i c h t d u r c h ihre, sondern durch die Arbeit der Indier; wars, debaucheries u n d die effects des Clima caused a rapid mortality u n t e r i h n e n . Das earliest enterprise ganz di-

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I Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 • Heft XIV rected auf d e n Erwerb der edlen Metalle. D i e erst in H i s p a n i o l a e n t d e c k t e n supplies bald erschöpft; doch nicht bevor die greater p o r t i o n der native inh a b i t a n t s u n t e r g e g a n g e n in der labour of working t h e m . ... Die i n h a b i t a n t s als slaves getheilt u n t e r die conquerors, driven in herds zu d e n m i n e s , forced to supply by their n u m b e r s the total want of skill u n d capital ihrer masters u n d ihre lives wasted m i t derselben reckless profusion womit der Colonist of m o d e r n times wastes die powers u n d wealth of n a t u r e which are placed at his disposal - the wild a n i m a l s des forest u n d die resources eines virgin soil. In d e n districts, wo keine M i n e n , die Situation der I n d i e r less hart u n d die Entvölkerung weniger e n o r m , d o c h ihr t r e a t m e n t ebenso iniquitous u n d disgraceful. Diese Excesse z u m T h e i l gecheckt d u r c h a series von legal provisions, beginning so früh wie 1542. D i e I n d i a n s , erst Sklaven, d a n n subjected d e m System der repartimientos, d.h. divided u n t e r masters, who h a d a property in their labour, n o t in their persons; u n d lastly distribu t e d in „ e n c o m i e n d a s " , zahlend d e m „ e n c o m e n d e r o " oder owner des Distrikts e i n e n Tribut oder produce-rent in return für protection. Auch dieß System a b a n d o n e d oder sehr modified, in its t u r n . Spanische Regierung t h a t m e h r als eine andre für die ||49| aborigines. D a s great principle des Spanish law in Bezug auf die I n d i a n s war sie zu erhalten in e i n e m state beständiger Unmündigkeit. Sie wurden unfähig g e m a c h t of legal contracts u n d liabilities, except to a very limited extent. U n t e r protection des king, d e m sie die capitation tax zahlten; u n d der clergy, d e n e n sie die dues der c h u r c h zahlten: u n d m i n o r justice i h n e n häufig a d m i n i s t e r e d by officials of their own complexion. ... Der Stand der Gesellschaft in d e n amerikan i s c h e n colonies n a h m früh den Charakter der Oligarchie an. P u r e Spanish families few in n u m b e r . Besassen oft grossen wealth, von agricultural possessions oder m i n i n g operations. Aber dieser wealth verschafft i h n e n wenig comforts. Der owner ganzer Provinzen could c o m m a n d only a m o d i c u m of surplus agricultural produce, wofür er u n t e r d e m prevailing c o m m e r c i a l system oft keinen möglichen market. D e r m i n e r sichrer seiner exports, die die great mass der regular exports der colonies n a c h d e m M u t t e r l a n d bildeten. Aber die Profits sehr precär. F ü r e i n e n der sich bereicherte, n u m b e r s ruined. N u r in der ersten Hälfte des 17' Jh. in Peru u n d der lezten Hälfte des 18' in Mexico vermehrte sich der wealth der c o m m u n i t y schnell in Folge der vermehrten Production der edlen Metalle; sonst k a u m die funds replaced, u n d n a h m der ganze Z u w a c h s des Capitals der c o m m u n i t y n u r Statt in der Agricultur. Dieser oligarchische character der society z u s a m m e n m i t d e n restrictions, worunter sie lebten, schuf die habit der Spanish Creoles, besonders in den m i n i n g districts in Städten z u s a m m e n zu wohn e n , entgegen d e m general spirit der m o d e r n colonists. M u t u a l defence gen die Masse der unterworfnen I n d i a n s ihr Objekt in early times. Die Ten-

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Aus Herman Merivale: Lectures on colonization and colonies denz increased d u r c h die i n d o l e n t habits of families, für deren Subsistenz reichlich gesorgt d u r c h die Arbeit Andrer. D e r bulk dieser städtischen Bevölkerung Mischlinge der Spanier u n d I n d e r u n d später beider m i t d e n Negern, eingeführt, obgleich n i e sehr zahlreich, n a c h Abschaffung der slav5 ery der I n d i a n s . D i e I n d i e r selbst, wo zahlreich genug, tilled den soil oder wrought die m i n e s . E a c h capital city, z u m größten Theil, stood in a rich u n d well cultivated district, b u t of limited extent u n d getrennt v o m R e s t der Welt durch deserts of ice u n d snow, ravines, provinces of forest oder hot u n d u n h e a l t h y plains. So e a c h c o m m u n i t y dwelt apart, divided at o n c e 10 by n a t u r a l u n d artificial barriers. O h n e Z u s a m m e n h a n g u n d u n b e k ü m m e r t um e i n a n d e r ... D i e commercial policy der spanischen Regierung gegen its c o n t i n e n t a l colonies das m o s t perfect m o n u m e n t of systematic tyranny. Der traffic des M u t t e r l a n d e s w u r d e confined, at first, auf d e n single port of Sevilla; später to that of Cadiz; u n t e r der control eines board „Casa de Con15 tratacion", der subjected d e m direct g o v e r n m e n t der crown. Zwei squadrons w u r d e n jährlich dispatched. D i e „galleons" meist 12 in Zahl, zu d e m port of Carthagena in S ü d a m e r i k a ; die „flota", von about 15, zu V e r a Cruz in Mexico. Der great a m o u n t of business carried on auf diesen few vessels u n d die s u d d e n activity c o m m u n i c a t e d to c o m m e r c e w ä h r e n d der brief 20 transactions which supplied the wants of a whole continent, which dazzled die eyes der Europaeer u n d i h n e n Falsche Begriffe beibrachte ü b e r d e n a m o u n t der a n n u a l exchanges actually m a d e . ... Das m o n o p o l of a few rich houses zu Seville naturally p r o d u c e d d u r c h diese restrictions. So kauften die A m e r i c a n s die W a a r e n des M u t t e r l a n d s z u e i n e m M o n o p o l p r e i ß u n d 25 »der Benefit« dieses M o n o p o l s fiel einer k l e i n e n u n d privileged class anh e i m . Aber, in fact, der trade der flota u n d galleons so i n a d a e q u a t e to supply the wants der population, daß, u n t i l the operations des smuggler began to redress the evil, it was almost destitute of E u r o p e a n c o m m o d i t i e s . Im Z u s a m m e n h a n g m i t d e n restrictions on foreign trade, n i c h t n u r die settle30 ments, sondern die visits aller foreigners strenger verboten als in J a p a n u n d China. Spanier selbst m i g h t n o t visit t h e m o h n e royal license u n d dieß usually n u r granted für a limited t i m e . Internal commerce u n t e r d e n Provinces prohibited fast ebenso effectually as foreign trade. ... A b e r wenigstens b e t r a c h t e t e n die s p a n i s c h e n kings die I n d i e s m e h r als integral parts ihrer 35 m o n a r c h y , als provinces d e p e n d i n g on the Crown of Castile, d e n n als colonies im Sinn des 16* Jh. u n d der c o m m e r c i a l n a t i o n s . D a h e r das people n i c h t systematisch prohibited, wie in m o s t colonies, from m a n u f a c t u r i n g for themselves. Das M u t t e r country führte i h n e n ausschließlich europäische W a a r e n zu, aber n i c h t compelled sie zu n e h m e n im Vorzug gegen 40 ihre eigne Industrie. So Zuckerraffinerie erlaubt in Spanish A m e r i c a ; u n d beträchtliche m a n u f a c t u r e s der coarser goods existed zu Quito u n d an-

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Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 • Heft XIV derswo, obgleich m a n c h m a l discouraged by E u r o p e a n governors. A b e r die Cultur von Saffran, Hanf, Tabak, Oliven u n d vineyards at different times i h n e n verboten; u n d n o c h 1803 an order was dispatched v o n M a d r i d for the rooting up of all the vines in d e n n o r t h e r n d e p e n d e n c i e s der Provinz M e xico. Das Regierungssystem d u r c h viceroys, captains-generals, a u d i e n c i a s u n d councils, m i t ihren various relations to e a c h other ... a complicated contrivance to render every part des g o v e r n m e n t a check on every other. D i e besten governors k o n n t e n keine Reform d u r c h f ü h r e n u n d die schlechtesten fanden es leicht sich zu bereichern. Power n u r in d e n h a n d s of Spaniards u n d m o s t colonial offices were sold in Madrid. ... In Spanish A m e r i c a existirte an aristocracy; for there were very large estates enjoyed by A m e r i c a n families, u n t e r a strict system of mayorazgos or entails: m a n y h a d b e e n raised to nobility; some decorated m i t titles by the crown, aber excluded from every public trust. S u c h t e n als Sicherheit gegen die discontent der Creoles die Cultur der jealousy zwischen i h n e n u n d d e n inferior or m i x e d races. T h e place of a m a n in society was m a d e to d e p e n d on his colour, even to the m i n u t e s t shades. T h e different degrees of departure from the white standard of purity by intermixture m i t Negro or I n d i a n blood, were m a r k e d out m i t der u t m o s t m i n u t e n e s s , nicht n u r d u r c h die usages der society, sondern d u r c h die laws. D e r Kastenstolz a c o m m o n feature of society in all slave colonies; aber hier geht er n a t ü r l i c h hervor aus der D e g r a d a t i o n worin der Sklave gehalten. H i e r Politik Spaniens. Stand der Kirche die worst feature in der c o n d i t i o n dieser colonies. D u r c h die bulls von A l e x a n d e r VI u n d Julius II ( 1 5 0 1 - 1 5 0 8 ) die Perception aller Z e h n t e n u n d die collation zu allen benefices absolut der K r o n e überlassen. D i e clergy, b o t h regular u n d secular, notoriously lazy u n d corrupt to a degree u n k n o w n in d e m M u t t e r l a n d . Die frontier missionaries, die only active class, k a m chiefly von Europa. Die Inquisition transferred across the Atlantic. E d u c a t i o n discouraged. Die degeneracy der Creole race u n t e r solchen I n s t i t u t i o n e n u n d in d e m Clima der Tropics war rapid to an u n p r e c e d e n t e d degree. A u c h die Courage des Castilian disappeared. In 3 oder 4 G e n e r a t i o n s die N a c h k o m m e n der Conquerors so feig wie die I n d i a n s . Als die Buccaneers des 17* Jh. crossed den I s t h m u s von D a r i e n u n d ravaged die coasts der Südsee fanden sie die population absolut defenceless, in herds zu d e n K i r c h e n fliehend at the first m o m e n t of alarm. Dieselben scenes e r n e u e r t e n sich 80 J a h r e später als die Expedition von A n s o n Chili u n d Peru b e d r o h t e ... D e r Schmuggler erleichterte später die c o m m e r c i a l restriction (unter d e n Bourbons). Der C o n t r a b a n d t r a d e zu d e n spanischen Colonies wurde in d e m early part des 18' Jh. the most regular u n d organised system der Art das je h a d b e e n gesehn. Die English led the way in it, i h n e n erleichtert d u r c h ihr Erhalten, b e i m F r i e d e n von Utrecht, des Assiento Contract ... Die D u t c h , F r e n c h u n d

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andre n a t i o n s seized on their share der spoil. Jamaica u n d St. Domingo werd e n complete entrepôts fur smuggled W a a r e n , wovon leicht n a c h d e m Cont i n e n t verführt; wie die Danish und Swedish islands später so für Jamaica itself dienten. Buenos Ayres rose von einer u n b e d e u t e n d e n station to a considerable city, n u r weil es das centre des Schmuggelhandels zwischen E u r o p a u n d Peru war. D i e K ü s t e n d e c k t e n die Spanier d u r c h expensive m a r i t i m e force; im I n n r e n m a c h t e n Sie Schmuggeln zu einer offence cognisable by the Inquisition. Alles u m s o n s t . Die flotas u n d galleons sank to insignificance u n d ihre owners were glad ||50| to m a k e these licensed s q u a d r o n s serve for introducing the c o n t r a b a n d c o m m o d i t i e s furnished' by other n a tions. D e r Krieg von 1737, worin Sir R. W a l p o l e forced d u r c h das Volk, nichts als a w a r for the protection of smuggling. 1748 das System der flotas u n d galleons changed für das of licensed or „register" ships, which sailed singly from Europe. They o p e n e d the c o m m e r c i a l passage um Cap H o r n ; so a stop z u m grossen Theil gesezt d e m illegal trade ü b e r B u e n o s Ayres. Schmugglen wuchs m i t den w a c h s e n d e n Bedürfnissen der n u n rascher i n R e i c h t h u m vorwärts s c h r e i t e n d e n Bevölkerung. Krieg m a c h t e die Sache n o c h schlimmer; die spanischen Kreuzer d a n n von der See vertrieben u n d der trade geführt u n t e r n e u t r a l e n Flaggen; so d a ß n a c h H u m b o l d t der H a n del von Mexico am b l ü h e n d s t e n in times of hostilities. 1765 öffnete Spain d e n trade between d e n islands u n d d e m c o n t i n e n t ; 1774 die obstacles gegen d e n internal c o m m e r c e removed; 1778 a new u n d m o r e liberal scale of duties adopted; u n d der trade m i t Spain e x t e n d e d to 14 ports des M u t t e r landes ... In der Zwischenzeit u n d zugleich m i t diesen changes die i n d u s try u n d social condition der colonists h a d m a d e a s u d d e n u n d fast u n p a r a l leled advance. 1778 ihre Exports n a c h Spain 74,500,000 reals, 1788 = 804,500,000. M e x i c o , von d e m erstaunlichen increase in der Productivität seiner M i n e n ; G u a t e m a l a , Venezuela, La Plata u n d Chili, from their agricultural improvement, waren die Provinzen worin dieser Fortschritt am most strikingly sich manifested. ( 1 - 1 5 ) There is no region, says H u m b o l d t , in which the circumstances of society are so m u c h regulated by climate a n d by the disposition of the soil as Spanish A m e r i c a . ... In d e n extreme northern und southern districts, the internal provinces of Mexico und die Pampas von La Plata, wide dry plains, m i t a t e m p e r a t e climate, b e c a m e t h e abodes einer pastoral population. Die z a h m e n europäischen Thiere h i e r wunderbar vermehrt, w u r d e n der chief wealth ihrer settlers; diese h a u p t sächlich of pure Spanish descent; die I n d i a n s few u n d warlike; u n d poverty rendered die i m p o r t a t i o n von slaves u n m ö g l i c h . U n t e r i h n e n die T e n d e n z zu insulation h a d a m p l e r o o m to exert itself. Das great object jedes Colonisten was to obtain free space u n d constant removal, for his flocks u n d herds; wie n u n der Fall m i t d e n boors des cape der good h o p e . D a h e r be-

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Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 • Heft XIV ständiger Krieg m i t d e n bordering I n d i a n s , a r m e d u n d m o u n t e d like h i m self, m a c h t e n i h n so hart u n d activ, so wild u n d remorseless wie diese: die few cities scattered ü b e r die wilderness d i e n t e n n i c h t so sehr zu H a n d e l s zwecken als z u m refuge der Spanier w h e n o v e r - m a t c h e d oder surprised by their vigilant e n e m i e s . In d i e s e m state of things civilization rapidly retrograded u n d die white settlers h a d almost forgotten t h e arts u n d knowledge ihrer A h n e n . In d e n warmen und fruchtbaren regions mit easy access zur See, wie Guatemala u n d Venezuela b e s t a n d der größte wealth der settlers in d e n staple products der tropical climates; coffee, cotton, sugar u n d cacao. Hier state of society ä h n l i c h d e n e n in d e m englischen W e s t i n d i e n . D i e Weissen reich i n d e m a b u n d a n t p r o d u c e ihrer Pflanzungen, sehr gesteigert w ä h r e n d der lezten Hälfte des 18' Jh. Arbeit besonders verrichtet von N e g e r n ; von I n d i e r n , wo diese zahlreich; u n d von d e n m i x e d races die in einigen provinces m e h r als die halbe Bevölkerung bildeten. D i e M i n e n dieser districts few u n d unwichtig. A b e r die Masse der Bevölkerung u n d des R e i c h t h u m s der Spanish colonies Concentrin on the small table lands und lofty valleys der great Cordillera. Hier die P e r u a n e r u n d M e x i c a n e r . H i e r der vast m i n e r a l wealth. H i e r b a u t e n sie Städte an die Seite der Zerstörten. D i e remarkabelsten dieser p l a t e a u x sind die von Mexico, New Granada, Quito u n d Upper Peru. ... Zu H u m b o l d t s Zeit (1800) Mexico, das sich sehr entwickelte in d e n lezten 50 J a h r e n des 1 8 Jh., so advanced beyond the rest, d a ß n a c h i h m % der g a n z e n currency of Spanish A m e r i c a used in t h a t province alone. H. sagt, d a ß das d o m i n i o n over a colony für ihre precious m e t a l s n u r desirable w h e n it h a s a m o n o p o l y of t h e supply of those m e t a l s „by having t h e richest m i n e s , a n d underselling the rest of t h e world". ... Mexico's M i n e n waren die Productivsten, n i c h t so sehr from a superior fertility, als weil sie easily accessible u n d die supply of l a b o u r practically u n l i m i t e d ... Die m i n e s were all the property of adventurers or landlords. Das G a n z e der duties levied on silver vor der Revolution a b o u t 11¾ %, tax die die von M e xico sehr well tragen k o n n t e n ... Die e n o r m o u s m a s s of surplus wealth t h u s created was lodged in a very few h a n d s . Nach H. the return to seed in the cultivation of wheat in Mexico = 24:1. In France = 6:1. D e r labourer des temperate country of M e x i c o erhielt wages of 30 sous täglich; der french labourer an 35; aber da K o r n etwas theurer in F r a n k r e i c h wie in M e x i c o die real wages gleich. Zu H u m b o l d t s Zeit waren fortunes von 15 oder 20,000 /. St. j ä h r l i c h in C u b a ; das h ä c h s t e in V e n e z u e l a 6 oder 7000 /., in L i m a few a m o u n t e d zu 3 oder 4000 l. A b e r [bei] d e n Mexican grandees sagt selbiger H u m b o l d t , „there are individuals who possess no m i n e s u n d deren jährliches income d o c h a million of firs (40,000 1.). Die family des Grafen von V a l e n c i a n a ζ. Β. besizt allein, on t h e ridge der Cordillera, estates v o m W e r t h von m e h r als 25 millions (6 mill. I. St.) without i n c l u d i n g t h e m i n e

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of V a l e n c i a n a bei G u a n a x u a t o , which in c o m m o n years brings a n e t inc o m e von 1½ millions. (50,000 l.) D e r late C o u n t of V a l e n c i a n a has s o m e times received from his single m i n e , 6 millions (240,000 I.) in E i n e m Jahr. A single vein, possessed by t h e family des M a r q u i s de Fagoaga, in d e m district von Sombrerete, has p r o d u c e d in 6 m o n t h s , all expenses d e d u c t e d , a clear i n c o m e von 20,000,000." D e n n o c h war nichts seltner als a c c u m u l a tion of wealth by these great proprietors. Theils geschuldet d e m spirit of speculation in m i n i n g der sie beständig z u m prey of needy adventurers m a c h t e ; theils der habit of extravagant u n d illregulated establishments, m i t little of real splendour or comfort; theils der prevalence of gambling. D i e Spanish u n d Creole i n h a b i t a n t s des table land of Mexico 20 % des whole; die m i x e d races u n d Negroes (leztre sehr few) 30; die I n d i a n s 50; u n d dieselben proportions, m i t einiger variation, prevailed in den m o u n t a i n regions of South America. Die I n d i a n s - alles d a s zu H ' s Zeit - subject (in Mexico) to no compulsory service whatever. Ihre labour ganz frei. Arbeiteten in den m i n e s für ihr own a c c o u n t u n d für sehr h o h e wages. - Die Lage von Peru war m i n d e r günstig. Seine m i n e s h a t t e n ihre Schätze m i t wunderbarer Fruchtbarkeit ausgespuckt w ä h r e n d der ersten 1% Jh. n a c h der Erobrung. Aber ihre richest veins früh erschöpft u n d waren besides situated z u m größten Theil h o c h on the ridge der A n d e s , wo wood u n d provisions fehlten u n d c o m m u n i c a t i o n s sehr schwer waren. Diese disadvantages n u r overcome by the profuse application of I n d i a n labour. Die natives transported von ihren own valleys to a scene of incessant toil in an air almost too a t t e n u a t e d for h u m a n life, 1 2 - 1 4 , 0 0 0 feet ü b e r der Meeresfläche. T h e i r n u m b e r s rapidly d i m i n i s h e d u n d die m i n e s wurden unfruchtbar von der increasing cost of working t h e m . K o n n t e n d a h e r n i c h t m i t d e n e n von M e x i c o concuriren. U n d even in i h r e m decay, they were still wrought by m e a n s of the „mita" or conscription of I n d i a n s , to serve by rotation for a limited p e riod. ... Am border der vast S p a n i s h possessions, in California, on the Orinoco u n d Amazons m i t their b r a n c h e s u n d in Paraguay errichtet die R e d u c tions oder missions | | 5 1 | of religious bodies, chiefly t h e Jesuits. ( 1 5 - 2 6 )

b) Spanish Colonies in the West Indies. Portuguese, Dutch and French Colonies.

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Die Hauptrelics die Spain n o c h besizt von s e i n e m colonial e m p i r e sind die Philippine Islands in Asien u n d Cuba u n d Portorico in d e m G u l f v o n M e xico. Die Philippinen sind b e w o h n t von einer zahlreichen u n d civilised Malay Population, governed rather t h a n colonised by a handful of E u r o p e ans. Bis gen Schluß des 18' Jh. Cuba von wenig B e d e u t u n g . Jezt die reichste

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Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 · Heft XIV u n d b l ü h e n d s t e Colonie besessen von irgend einer e u r o p ä i s c h e n M a c h t . Ursache: 1) T h e opening of the c o m m e r c e of C u b a in 1809, von w a n n an der W e n d e p u n k t in its affair datirt. 2) Its n a t u r a l advantages, die i h m m ö g lichst wenig n ü z t e n u n t e r der long period of c o m m e r c i a l restriction which it u n d e r w e n t . In d e m present state of Cuba, old p l a n t a t i o n s , n a c h einer considerable n u m b e r of years, z u m größten T h e i l deserted von d e m sugar producer; die a b a n d o n e d estates devoted to raising I n d i a n corn u n d die a n d r e n im island c o n s u m i r t e n staple articles. D i e earliest cultivated, n a c h der city ( H a v a n n a h ) have long b e e n a b a n d o n e d to other purposes. N u r % des soil von C u b a bis jezt u n t e r Cultur gebracht. 3) stimulus die abolition des slave trade in d e n english colonies, 1812. 1830 lieferte C u b a zwischen % u n d % alles in E u r o p e c o n s u m i r t e n Zuckers. D i e 4 rights des slave, as they are emphatically t e r m e d in Spanish legislation, uniformly respected in theory u n d generally in practice, n ä m l i c h : the right of marriage; the right to c o m p e l a m a s t e r guilty of illegal severity towards a slave to sell h i m to another; the right to p u r c h a s e his own e m a n c i p a t i o n , a n d to acquire property. ... But the progress of wealth u n d des slavetrade have rapidly changed the m o r a l aspect dieser c o m m u n i t i e s . F r o m being t h e m o s t h u m a n e a m o n g all e u r o p e a n slave owners, the Spanish colonists have b e c o m e the most barbarous u n d utterly demoralised. ... Seit C u b a eröffnet d e m W e l t h a n d e l , a very small portion dieses trade r e m a i n s d e m Spanier. Aber its revenue hilft den dilapidated finances of Spain. - A n d r e b l ü h e n d e spanische Colonie, Portorico. So lang S p a n i e n sein c o n t i n e n t a l empire besaß, P. wie die a n d r e n insular possessions, neglected. P e n a l settlement, wohin criminals transportirt, raising no surplus p r o d u c e , u n d u n k n o w n by n a m e in der c o m m e r c i a l world. Aber gut gelegen für d e n S c h m u g g e l h a n d e l m i t M e x i c o . Dieß, z u s a m m e n m i t der F r u c h t b a r k e i t seines soil, s a m m e l t e auf seiner surface, schon im Beginn des 19. Jh., a considerable population, fast ganz von weissem Ursprung. 1815 sein trade von der spanischen Regierung e i n e m new code von d e n liberalsten B e s t i m m u n g e n unterworfen, lands were granted to settlers gratis; ihr extent to bear a proportion to the n u m b e r of slaves imported. Slaves rendered liable to a fixed u n d low poll-tax. Prod u c e befreit von export duties. Z e h n t e n r e m i t t e d für 15 J a h r e u n d fixed after that t i m e at a low c o m m u t a t i o n . Die alcavala, a duty on the sale of comm o d i t i e s peculiar to Spain, remitted for a like period. Foreign goods were admitted, subject to an ad valorem duty of 17 %. N u n in 20 J a h r e n die Bevölkerung der Insel verdoppelt, j e z t ü b e r 400,000 on a space of 4000 Q miles. Der best peopled spot of any extent in ganz A m e r i c a . In denselb e n 20 J a h r e n der export m e h r als 4 x. D a b e i k a u m any increase in d e m relative a m o u n t der slave population, stets smaller in its proportion to the free t h a n in any other westindian colony. 1810 h a t t e P. an 165,000 free u n d

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Aus Herman Merivale: Lectures on colonization and colonies 17,000 Sklaveneinwohner; 1830 an 300,000 freie u n d 34,000 slaves; die Masse der Freien sind Weisse u n d Spanier. Planter hier n i c h t a b s e n t e e . Ausser den eigentlichen planters enthielt Portorico a very n u m e r o u s class von small white proprietors. Fast % der g a n z e n P o p u l a t i o n waren freemen m i t 5 ihren families, cultivating their own small estates u n d besonders white; diese Xivaros, wie sie hiessen, a frank, robust, hearty race. D u r c h free labour (nach G e n e r a l Flinter Portorico c o n t a i n e d 1830 45,000 free labourers, die kein L a n d of their own besassen) part des sugar of Portorico u n d fast all der rest seines exportable wealth erhalten. A b e r jezt schon less practicable 10 to cultivate the soil successfully, ausser in large estates, by t h e aid of m u c h capital u n d m i t n u m e r o u s gangs of slaves. In der ersten Zeit grosse Sklaveneinfuhr etc. Also Aufhören der k l e i n e n proprietors. If so, its (Portoricos) destinies, like those of Cuba, are fixed; a n d n o t h i n g can save t h e m b o t h eventually from accomplishing the u n f o r t u n a t e career which t h e other 15 great W e s t I n d i a n colonies have e a c h in its t u r n gone through. ... D i e Spanish Islands, u n m i t t e l b a r vor der E m a n c i p a t i o n enthielten, in r o u n d n u m b e r s , 700,000 free white i n h a b i t a n t s , die british n u r 80,000; die former 250,000 free coloured, die leztren 60 oder 70,000; die erstren weniger als 450,000 slaves, die british m e h r als 800,000. U n d trotz dieser inferiority in 20 slavelabour die ersten p r o d u c i r t e n an % des Z u c k e r q u a n t u m p r o d u c e d in d e n latter u n d a m u c h greater proportion of other tropical c o m m o d i t i e s . W o h e r dieß R ü c k b l e i b e n der E n g l ä n d e r h i n t e r d e n Spaniern, politisch u n d social? N a c h G e n e r a l Flinter das average p r o d u c e des Zuckers in J a m a i c a an 10 cwt per acre; in St. Vincent, der fruchtbarsten der caribischen Inseln 25 25, in Portorico 30. Möglich daß die Zuckercultur, so lang der B o d e n wenig D ü n g e r erheischt u n d sein return b e i n a h sicher, m a y be p u r s u e d on a small scale by little proprietors possessing little c o m m a n d of labour. A b e r w e n n die Fruchtbarkeit a b n i m m t u n d crops n u r zu sichern durch grosse Auslage von Capital u n d Arbeit, the small planter m u s t give way to t h e capitalist; 30 plantations will be considerable u n d die zahlreiche free population, deren G e n e r a l Flinter sich r ü h m t , m u s t either cease to exist or a b a n d o n t h a t b r a n c h of agriculture. ( 3 3 - 4 4 ) Portuguese. There was an age w h e n less als 40,000 a r m e d Portuguese kept the whole coasts des o c e a n in awe, von M o r o c c o bis C h i n a u n d w h e n 35 1 50 sovereign princes paid tribute to the treasury of Lisbon. But in all their enterprises they a i m e d at conquest a n d n o t at colonization. D a s g o v e r n m e n t at h o m e ü b t e wenig Gewalt aus ü b e r die arms of its piratical warriors; t h e m o t h e r country derived no benefit from their achievements. ... A s i a damals für sie der road of fortune u n d fame. Brasilien n u r gebraucht als Platz 40 für die transportation der convicts; erste a d o p t i o n dieses Systems d u r c h ein m o d e r n e s Volk. G e w ö h n l i c h e n Verbrechern n a c h h e r hinzugefügt die Opfer

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Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 · Heft XIV der Inquisition u n d die Jews, durch t h a t tribunal d a h i n g e s a n d t , führten zuerst die Zuckercultur ein. free emigrants so attracted im Lauf der Zeit d u r c h d e n increasing wealth des L a n d e s ; als T h o m a s de Souza als governor 1558 hingeschickt u n d es z u m erstenmal in an orderly u n d peaceful state brachte, h a t t e es schon beträchtliche Fortschritte g e m a c h t . Die Organisat i o n dieser Colonie grew so up by degrees as necessity required. D i e Portugiesen b e g a n n e n a u c h m i t R e d u c t i o n der natives to slavery. Aber diese far less advanced in Civilisation u n d viel weniger zahlreich als die von Peru u n d M e x i c o ; ihre labour trug daher wenig bei z u m i m p r o v e m e n t der colony. 1570 bewirkte die clergy in Lisbon décret, daß kein I n d i e r Sklave ausser d e n Kriegsgefangnen. D i e ß wholly disregarded von d e n Colonists. 1 6 2 6 - 1 6 4 0 der greater part of Brazil von den D u t c h erobert. N a c h der rec o n q u e s t (1640) die Befreiung der I n d i e r vollzogen; 200,000 I n d i a n s , living im Territoire occupied by the planters, were settled in villages u n d placed u n t e r der Direction der Jesuit missionaries. D a h e r die power dieser famous society in A m e r i c a ihren Ursprung. Neger statt der I n d i e r eingeführt. K e i n L a n d in der Welt so great a b r e a d t h of highly productive soil as Brazil. Hier daher Sklaverei viel m e h r eingeführt, wie in d e n spanischen Besitzungen. D e r brasilische trade m o d e r i r t spanischer. D i e vessels die carried it on sailed in fleets o n c e a year u n d die Z a h l beschränkt, aber grösser als in d e m spanisch a m e r i k a n i s c h e n trade u n d visited a larger n u m b e r of ports. Aber 1755 schuf P o m b a l die exclusive c o m p a n i e s von Maranham u n d Pernambuco u n d legte in ihre H ä n d e d e n g a n z e n H a n d e l m i t Nordbrasilien: E m a n c i p i r t e die I n d i a n s a u c h von der Controlle der Jesuiten. D i e precious metals - im südlichen Brazil - erst entdeckt in a late period ihrer colonization, als agriculture u n d c o m m e r c e schon W u r z e l geschlagen. Erst 1700 die first gold m i n e s began to be wrought in d e n arid Serras des Interior. D i e ersten successful m i n e r s die Paulistas, eine sonderbare ||52| R a c e , of semirepublican habits, gezeugt von e n t s p r u n g n e n Convicts u n d I n d i a n w o m e n . Sie etablirten sich in Stadt u n d Distrikt St. P a u l in Südbrasilien, wo sie m e h r als ein J h d t sich u n a b h ä n g i g von der portugiesischen K r o n e beh a u p t e t e n . Overran das ganze I n n e r e von Brazil, von d e m P a r a n a bis zu d e n tributaries des A m a z o n s , in b e s t ä n d i g e m Krieg m i t d e n I n d i e r n , die sie, wo sie k o n n t e n zu Sklaven m a c h t e n . Erst 1730 i n d u c e d die portugiesische Regierung a n z u e r k e n n e n . Die G o l d m i n e n n u r t e m p o r ä r e R e i c h t h u m s q u e l l e für Brazil. G a n z freigelassen d e n adventurers by the governm e n t , on p a y m e n t einer Steuer von Die search für diamonds, erst 1730 in Brazil entdeckt, strengern regulations unterworfen. G a n z in die h a n d s einer exclusiven Compagnie gelegt, wovon die Regierung selbst der A g e n t war. Restricted to the e m p l o y m e n t of a limited n u m b e r of slaves. Um den value des article zu e n h a n c e . Urn die c o n t r a b a n d practise zu verhindern,

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Todesstrafe; als u n z u r e i c h e n d gefunden das whole country a r o u n d , in e i n e m U m k r e i s von 100 leagues, r e d u c e d to a desert, wo kein H a u s g e b a u t werden durfte ausser d e m E i n e n für die M i n e n a r b e i t e r . Eschwege (1823) schäzt den Totalwerth der diamond workings in 80 Jahren at a sum hardly exceeding 18 months' produce of sugar or coffee in Brazil. D e r trade der m i n i n g districts h o b R i o J a n e i r o ü b e r B a h i a i n d e m latter part des 1 8 J h . u n d 1807 wurde es die R e s i d e n z der k ö n i g l i c h e n family of Portugal, die von N a p o l e o n fortgejagt. Da dieser c h a n g e d u r c h V e r m i t t l u n g der E n g l ä n d e r stattfand, diese, für i h r e n Vortheil, p r o c u r e d freedom of trade to be established l

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in Brazil. I m m e d i a t e removal aller restrictions, die Theil des alten Colonialsystems gebildet h a t t e n . D i e ports von Brazil eröffnet für foreign goods in foreign vessels, on p a y m e n t of an ad valorem duty, for purposes of reven u e only; England w u r d e die m e t r o p o l i s of Brazil. Perfect freedom given to internal industry. ( 4 4 - 5 4 )

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Dutch. Die prosperity der D u t c h O s t i n d i s c h e n C o m p a g n i e led sie to form expensive establishments, die sie in debts verwickelten; u n d so b u r d e n e d , k o n n t e n sie d e m H a n d e l u n d d e n Waffen der E n g l ä n d e r n i c h t widerstehn. Dieß stets der Vortheil des new c o m e r ü b e r d e n etablirten possessor in distant regions: die D u t c h h a t t e n i h n ü b e r die Portugiesen, die E n g l ä n d e r

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ü b e r die D u t c h , die N o r d a m e r i k a n e r in einigen Handelszweigen j e z t ü b e r die Engländer. Die prosperity declined sobald empire substituted for trade. J e n e C o m p a g n i e b a n k r u t t i r t e kurz vor ihrer Auflösung 1792. E i n e der cont i n e n t a l Colonies der D u t c h in A m e r i c a - Berbice - war für a short t i m e u n t e r d e m exclusive g o v e r n m e n t of a m e r c a n t i l e h o u s e , des van Peere, w h i c h h a d bought its absolute sovereignty of t h e state. (55, 6) French, that propensity to little peddling traffic, requiring m o r e of activity a n d enterprise t h a n industry, die Burke als characteristic der f r e n c h m e n hervorgehoben, stimulated their adventurers to disperse themselves in t h e fur trade u n d der chase, over t h e whole interior von N o r d a m e r i c a . K e i n e a n d r e n Europäer je dasselbe T a l e n t entwickelt for conciliating savages; oder for approximating to their usages u n d m o d e s of life. D i e french traders u n d h u n t e r s intermarried u n d m i x e d m i t d e n I n d i a n s at t h e back of o u r settlements; e x t e n d e d their scattered posts along t h e whole course der 2 long rivers o f t h a t c o n t i n e n t . (57, 58)

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Die early settlers, die die Antilles occupied, waren besonders small proprietors, die lebten on t h e p r o d u c e ihrer estates. Als gen 1670 die Z u c k e r c u l t u r eingeführt, n a h m die freie weisse Bevölkerung reissend ab u n d c o n t i n u e d

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Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 • Heft XIV to do so for a Century afterwards. D i e W e i s s e n in Barbadoes sollen bis 70,000 gen 1670 gewachsen sein. 1724 n u r 18,000 jezt 16,000. Antigua enthielt 5000 freie Weisse u n t e r Charles II, j e z t n u r 2500. Die history der andren Windward Isles ähnlich. Selbst in J a m a i c a die n u m b e r s der whites blieb stationär von 1670 bis 1720. This declining c o n d i t i o n der weissen Bevölkerung besonders z u z u s c h r e i b e n d e m monopoly of the land, consequent on the cultivation of sugar. D e r little proprietor k o n n t e n i c h t concurriren m i t d e m large o n e in der P r o d u c t i o n dieses staplearticle. Caffee u n d n o c h m e h r Z u c k e r erheischen die s i m u l t a n e o u s application vieler Arbeit at particular seasons. "To m a k e 10 hogsheads of sugar" sagt der A u t o r eines report on the present state der french Zuckerinseln, in d e m statistischen J o u r n a l von Paris "needs nearly the s a m e expenditure in beasts of b u r t h e n , mills, u t e n sils etc as to m a k e a h u n d r e d . A property of less t h a n 50 arpens c a n n o t be used as a sugar plantation." Diese T e n d e n z der D i n g e beschleunigt, wenn, d u r c h improvidence der early cultivators, besonders in Barbado.es, der soil erschöpft u n d greater expence u n d labour nöthig wurde to raise the same a m o u n t of p r o d u c e . H e n c e all accounts of our W e s t i n d i a n colonies, in the first half of the last century, t e e m m i t complaints of the decay of small proprietors, and t h e consolidation of all the classes of society into two, the wealthy planters and the slaves. „The great stocks u n d das r u n n i n g into a staple which required t h e m " sagt Burke 1758 „have by degrees devoured the island. (Jamaica.) It is the n a t u r e of vast stocks to create a k i n d of m o nopoly; a n d it is the n a t u r e of m o n o p o l y to a i m at great profits from a comparatively little produce." N u n folgte n o c h schlechtrer state der society; die reichern Pflanzer selbst b e g a n n e n sich zu entfernen u n d fix their residence at h o m e . D i e islands bald von d e n other classes of whites als factories betrachtet, wo fortune möglichst rasch zu m a c h e n u n d es d a n n to leave. D i e ser change von residence to absenteeism theils Folge des progress des Reicht h u m s , theils des spez. englischen Charakters ... In Barbadoes, wo die Weissen, obgleich sehr vermindert, n o c h a n u m e r o u s body bilden, die condition der lowest class derselben sehr degraded: o h n e property u n d raised d u r c h ihre colour über das d e b a s e m e n t of labour, leben sie in a great m e a s ure von charity, administered oft by the Negroes themselves. ... W h e n the slavetrade was abolished, the cost of producing sugar in J a m a i c a was already, perhaps, twice as great as in Cuba. ... D i e quantity of sugar in England used by each individual im D u r c h s c h n i t t k a u m m e h r als % war 40 years ago. ... R e m a r k a b l e uniformity, womit die events sich folgen in der economical history der West Indies in general. At each e p o c h in that history ... the opening of a fresh soil m i t freedom of trade gives a s u d d e n stimu l u s to settlement u n d industry; der soil covered m i t free proprietors u n d a general b u t r u d e prosperity prevails. T h e n follows a period of m o r e care-

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ful cultivation, during which estates are consolidated, gangs of slaves succeed to c o m m u n i t i e s of freemen, the r o u g h c o m m o n wealth is formed into a most productive factory. But fertility d i m i n i s h e s : the cost of p r o d u c t i o n a u g m e n t s : slave labour, always dear, b e c o m e s dearer by t h e increased difficulty of supporting it: new settlements are occupied, new sources of prod u c t i o n opened: the older colonies, u n a b l e to m a i n t a i n a r u i n o u s c o m p e t i tion, even m i t der aid of prohibitions, after a period of suffering u n d difficulty, fall back into a secondary state, worin capital, e c o n o m y u n d increased skill m a k e u p , to a certain extent only, for the invaluable advantages which they have lost. So die Windward Islands, ursprünglich m i t zahlreicher weisser Bevölkerung, d a n n zahlreiche Sklaven einführend u n d supplirend fast d e n g a n z e n d a m a l i g e n limited c o n s u m von Europe. Jamaica h e b t sich on their decay u n d geht d u r c h dieselben E x i s t e n z p h a s e n . St. Domingo eclipsirt d a n n J a m a i c a u n d selbst cut off by a s u d d e n tempest, never attained to the period of decline. Schließlich C u b a u n d Portorico, n a c h vielen J a h r h u n d e r t e n of comparative neglect u n d r u d e productiveness, start auf e i n m a l in d e n first rank u n t e r exporting countries u n d flourish like the exuberant crops of their own virgin soil, while our islands, still rich in capital, but for t h e m o s t part exhausted in fertility u n d deficient in labour, were struggling by the aid of their a c c u m u l a t e d wealth against t h e encroaching principle of decay. ( 7 5 - 8 8 ) North America. Die C o l o n i e n in N o r d a m e r i k a u n t e r 3 h e a d s : 1) royal governments, worin a legislative assembly, b e s t e h e n d aus a lower h o u s e of representatives u n d an u p p e r h o u s e or council, n o m i n a t e d by the governor. Prevailed in Virginia u n d d e n s o u t h e r n provinces. 2) Proprietary Governments. Wo der Proprietor oder die C o m p a g n i e of Proprietors das R e c h t of n o m i n a t i n g a council, a n d s o m e t i m e s the governor also. Pennsylvaenia, Delaware u n d Maryland blieben long u n t e r dieser species von constitution. 3) Charter governments, wo der sovereign h a d parted m i t his rights, ganz oder partially, to the colonist; beide H ä u s e r electiv u n d m a n c h m a l a u c h d e r governor; in short democracies. ... T h e disposal of lands was never u n d e r any systematic regulation in our early colonies. D i e first settlers cultivated the cleared ground a b o u t their villages in c o m m o n . ... Diese c u s t o m prevails bis 1619 in Virginia. W h e n the soil was vested in proprietaries, it was m o r e c o m m o n l y granted at a quitrent t h a n sold; a n d the freehold was acquired in t i m e by sale, or a b a n d o n m e n t on t h e part of the proprietary. ... Grosse Schwierigkeit of procuring labour gradually obviated in d e n southern colonies d u r c h die E i n f ü h r u n g von Sklaven. T r a n s p o r t a t i o n der convicts n a c h den Colonies never large. D i e favourite resource war die lab o u r of indented servants. G a b A n l a ß 1) zu e i n e m odious system of m i s r e p resentation u n d selbst of kidnapping, practised by the m a n a g e r s of t h e

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Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 · Heft XIV trade in England. D a n n , wenn ein Pflanzer sich d u r c h viele K o s t e n solche Kerls verschafft (who were b o u n d in E n g l a n d to masters in the colonies, w h o m they served for a limited period) his n e i g h b o u r lockte sie weg d u r c h h ö h e r n L o h n . W e n i g e daher h a t t e n a c o m m a n d over free labour u n d ausser in d e n slave colonies, estates were almost uniformly scattered u n d small; u n d towns increased so slowly, daß die largest in British A m e r i c a , Boston, n i c h t m e h r als 25,000 zählte als der Revolutionskrieg ausbrach, 150 J a h r e n a c h seiner Stiftung. ( 8 8 - 9 3 ) |

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|53| Australia. N a c h d e m die coast von Neusüdwales entdeckt von Captain Cook, m a d e a p e n a l settlement, m i t a view to rid our gaols of the n u m b e r of 10 prisoners who were a c c u m u l a t i n g there after the A m e r i c a n war. 1787 die Siriusfrigate landete 800 Convicts zu Botany Bay. D i e Küste, die d e m Cook so t e m p t i n g geschienen, was soon found to afford n o t h i n g b u t swamps u n d sand. Am 26 Januar, 1788, die little colony r e m o v e d n a c h Sidney. In d e n 50 years, since elapsed, der progress von N e u s ü d w a l e s u n e r h ö r t . 1789 the 15 first harvest was reaped; 1790 the first p e r m a n e n t settler (a convict) took possession of the plot of land allotted to h i m . 1793 the first p u r c h a s e of colonial grain (1200 bushels) was m a d e by government. D i e first newspaper printed in 1802. In 1803 Mr. M a c a r t h u r exhibited in L o n d o n the first sample of m e r i n o wool from the sheep of the colony. 1807, 245 lbs dieser Wolle 20 exported von Sydney; 1820, 100,000 lbs; 1830, 3,564,532 lbs; 1840 gen 7 Mill. lbs. Sydney now a fine city etc. It is the relative increase of trade und surplus wealth in proportion to population which gives to our australian settlem e n t s their distinctive character, selbst im Vorzug vor den western states von America. O u r Exports to New South Wales alone, in d e m J a h r e n d e n d 25 J a n . 1840, value von £ 1,176,000; so daß auf j e d e s I n d i v i d u u m der Population (100,000) C o n s u m von 11 /. per head. ... Die n a t ü r l i c h e n Vortheile dieses L a n d s für Schaafzucht h ä t t e n nicht so exploitirt werden k ö n n e n , o h n e die a b u n d a n t supply of labour which N e w South Wales has hitherto furnished to i m m i g r a n t capitalists. By transporting thither on the average 30 3000 convicts per a n n u m , the government has in fact presented the settlers m i t labour to that extent, free of the expense of importing it; just as if it h a d t a k e n u p o n itself to furnish a p l a n t a t i o n with so m a n y slaves or ind e n t e d labourers. ( 1 1 7 - 1 2 1 )

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Part II. Economical Effects of Colonisation on the Parent State. Emigration

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und Progress der Population in dem Mother Country.

emigration is no r e m e d y for overpopulation u n l e s s it be continually repeated. (140) Die largest n u m b e r of emigrants, die je in a single year das U n i t e d Kingd o m verlassen, 100,000, etwas m e h r als % des a n n u a l increase des p e o p l e . Die größre Z a h l dieser A u s w a n d r e r persons above t h e average in p o i n t of energy, who are driven abroad less by t h e fear of worse, t h a n t h e desire of better. ... by far the larger p r o p o r t i o n der Spanish emigrants n a c h A m e r i c a geliefert von seinen bevölkertsten u n d industriellsten u n d least oppressed provinces, Biscay, Catalonia, Galicia, d e n Canaries. (142, 3) Gesezt, b e i G e l e g e n h e i t einer Crise, t h e n a t i o n were to rouse itself to t h e effort of getting rid by emigration of s o m e h u n d r e d s of 1000 of superfluous a r m s , w h a t would be t h e c o n s e q u e n c e ? T h a t , at t h e first r e t u r n i n g d e m a n d for labour, there would be a deficiency. However rapid reproduction may be, it takes at all events the space of a generation to replace the loss of adult labour. N o w t h e profits of our m a n u f a c t u r e r s d e p e n d m a i n l y on t h e power of making use of the prosperous moment when demand is brisk, a n d t h u s c o m p e n s a t i n g t h e m selves for t h e interval during w h i c h it is slack. This power is secured them only by the command of m a c h i n e r y a n d of m a n u a l labour. They m u s t have h a n d s ready by them; they m u s t be able to increase the activity of their operations when required, a n d to slacken it again according to t h e state of t h e m a r k e t ; or they c a n n o t possibly m a i n t a i n that p r e - e m i n e n c e in t h e race of c o m p e t i t i o n on which t h e wealth of t h e country is founded. (146) those persons that are desirable as emigrants, are precisely those best able to find e m p l o y m e n t at h o m e in different times. (152 N o t e ) H e b t m a n ζ. B. in Ir­ l a n d d e n L o h n d u r c h gewaltsames Emigriren, so b e i m »first rise of wages strebt das Capital z u disappear u n d seek e m p l o y m e n t elsewhere; u n d die labourers folglich werden driven to u n d e r b i d e a c h other a n d r e t u r n to their former rate of wages again«. (I.e.)

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Effects of the Exportation of Capital on the Mother Country. Das e n c o u r a g e m e n t given der productiven I n d u s t r i e eines L a n d e s d u r c h die e x p e n d i t u r e of an i n c o m e at h o m e , besteht n u r in d e n few instances wo die difference of cost by reason of carriage i n d u c e s t h e b u y e r to resort to the h o m e instead of the foreign market. But t h e effect of taxes on goods 5 i m p o r t e d from foreign countries will modify these results to a certain ext e n t and r e n d e r absenteeism a little m o r e injurious. (165) G e g e n die Colonisation wird angeführt: „So viel Capital wir der Colonie geben, so viel e n t z i e h n wir d e m M u t t e r l a n d . Die labourers die i m L a n d b l e i b e n erhalten also dieselben wages wie vorher. Aber, wenn, wie wahrscheinlich, das first 10 e s t a b l i s h m e n t einer n e u e n Colonie Capital verursacht in g r ö ß r e m Verhältn i ß to be withdrawn als labour, in d e m m o t h e r country wages will be dim i n i s h e d . Colonisation, while it m u s t , a strictly necessary c o n s e q u e n c e , dim i n i s h the aggregate power u n d wealth des p a r e n t state, m a y , as a highly probable c o n s e q u e n c e , r e d u c e the d e m a n d for l a b o u r in a greater propor- 15 tion t h a n it reduces the supply u n d so deteriorate die Lage der zurückbleib e n d e n I n d u s t r i o u s . " D i e ß a r g u m e n t r u h t ganz auf der V o r a u s s e t z u n g , ' t h a t there can be no redundancy of capital at any t i m e in any country, a n d no general glut of c o m m o d i t i e s . ([167,] 168) Nach Ricardo the increase of capital is, in itself, sufficient to increase the field of employment, and the demand for la20 bour. (169) Zugegeben n a c h Ricardo's Prinzip, daß C o n c u r r e n z allein n i c h t Profits erniedrigen k a n n . B u t the question is, whether u n d e r the actual circ u m s t a n c e s of society, there being always a natural limit, close at hand, to the employment of capital at that rate of profit which now prevails, c o m p e t i t i o n has n o t the effect of forcing capital to pass t h a t limit, a n d i n d u c i n g its posses- 25 sor to be c o n t e n t with a continually lower a n d lower rate of profit ... N o w in every country raising raw produce, the limit in question to the employm e n t of capital at the existing rate of profit ist n a c h R. selbst the extent of the worst soil at present in cultivation. (170, 1) Suppose the capitalist to have a c c u m u l a t e d savings, lying idle in his h a n d s ; the existing rate of 30 profit is 10 %, b u t all the soil which will yield s u c h a profit is o c c u p i e d ; it is practicable to obtain 9 % by the cultivation of fresh soil; It is better for h i m to employ 2001, at 9 %, t h a n to employ 100 I. at 10 %: as soon as t h e capitalist feels it better to employ a larger capital at a smaller return, t h a n a smaller at a higher rate, he will do so; a n d consequently by the necessary 35 force of competition, will bring down the average rate of profit in the cultivation of the soil to that a m o u n t with which he himself chooses to be satisfied. This is one m o d e in which c o m p e t i t i o n operates to lower profits. It does so, because industry is necessarily less u n d less productive, as popula-

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Aus Herman Merivale: Lectures on colonization and colonies tion a n d wealth a d v a n c e ; a n d b e c a u s e t h e t e n d e n c y of m e n in a prosperous state of society, to a c c u m u l a t e a n d to employ their capital, is c o n t i n u a l l y driving t h e m t o extend their b u s i n e s s , a l t h o u g h n e w u n d e r t a k i n g s m u s t b e carried on with less profit. (173) D a r a u s folgt d a ß das W a c h s t h u m des Ca5 pitals für sich selbst n i c h t h i n r e i c h e n d to increase his field of e m p l o y m e n t . (174)| |54| 1st die society exactly am P u n k t , wo der Capitalist t e m p t e d to e m ploy his a c c u m u l a t i o n s at a r e d u c e d rate of profit, rather t h a n allow t h e m to r e m a i n idle, so, w e n n a n o t h e r field of e m p l o y m e n t of labour sich präsen10 tiret, w e n n er in Australia or C a n a d a c a n realize r e m u n e r a t i o n sufficient to i n d u c e h i m to remove it there - t h e m o t h e r country is benefitted d u r c h Verzögerung des Falls in d e m rate of profit, der erfolgt wäre, h ä t t e er dieß Capital zu H a u s angewandt. A n d who is i g n o r a n t that this is t h e p o i n t towards which english industry is c o n t i n u a l l y gravitating? (174, 5) 15

A b e r sagt m a n , bei freier Korneinfuhr, k a n n c o m p e t i t i o n n i c h t zu inferior soils treiben, also n i c h t lower t h e rate of profits. Supposing t h e proportion of capital and l a b o u r to r e m a i n u n a l t e r e d , this m a y be t h e case. G e s e z t Capital aufgehäuft in e i n e m trade supplying a foreign m a r k e t , so d a ß , ζ. Β. i m c o t t o n t r a d e , unbeschäftigtes u n d n a c h i n v e s t m e n t s u c h e n d e s Capital

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ist. E i n Ballen C o t t o n t a u s c h e n u n aus für, 11 hogsheads french wine. 10 von diesen h o g s h e a d s m ö g e n wages z a h l e n , 1 zu d e m Capitalisten g e h n ; die R a t e des Profits sei 10 %. D e r owner des a c c u m u l a t e d capital m u ß zufrieden sein m i t a less return, w e n n er das a d d i t i o n a l capital in d e m s e l b e n Geschäft a n w e n d e n will; weniger W e i n für seinen cotton zu erhalten.

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Diese Concurrenz sei zu s o l c h e m Excess getrieben d a ß die cotton exported exchanges only half t h e q u a n t i t y of wine w h i c h it did before; oder in andr e n words, sein Preiß falle auf / its former a m o u n t in d e m french m a r k e t , u n d der r e t u r n sei n u r 5 % h o g s h e a d s für d e n Cottonballen. W e n n gleichzeitig die Z a h l der Arbeiter in solcher Proportion gewachsen, d a ß ihre services c a n be c o m m a n d e d für / die wages wie früher, d a n n der rate of profit will r e m a i n unaltered. D e r capitalist gewinnt j e z t n u r % hogshead, statt a whole o n e ; die labourers 5 statt 10; aber ihre respective proportions des whole return are t h e s a m e . K a n n die C o n c u r r e n z der Capitalists solch an effect in a single b r a n c h of industry hervorbringen, it would p r o d u c e t h e s a m e in all its b r a n c h e s of industry t a k e n collectively. Die G e s a m m t A u s fuhr E n g l a n d s m a g less r e t u r n im foreign m a r k e t c o m m a n d i r e n ; aber der rate of profit würde n i c h t fallen. If t h e progress of p o p u l a t i o n caused t h e c o m p e t i t i o n a m o n g labourers to be greater t h a n that a m o n g capitalists, it m i g h t even rise. . . . G e s e z t aber der capitalist, w ü n s c h e n d seine savings in l

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der cotton m a n u f a c t u r e anzulegen, does n o t find labourers willing to a c cept of a lower a m o u n t of wages. Suppose, d a ß für j e d e n bale of c o t t o n ex-

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Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 · Heft XIV ported von England, er 10 hogsheads of wine d e n labourers g e b e n m u ß , because, in the existing state of the supply of labour, t h e c o m p e t i t i o n a m o n g capitalists keeps wages up to that point. There r e m a i n s no resource to the capitalists, b u t to be c o n t e n t with a lower rate of profit. (175, 6) D a r a u s folgt h ö c h s t wichtige praktische C o n s e q u e n z : for whether the effect of increased competition, u n d e r given circumstances, be to lower the price of exported articles, or to lower the rate of profits, it m u s t , in either case, be advantageous to relieve that c o m p e t i t i o n by opening new fields of employm e n t for the capital thus in excess. W h e t h e r its abstraction prevents the value of english products abroad from falling, or the rate of profits from falling, or both, it m u s t be beneficial to industry. (177) Selbiges entwickelt Colonel Torrens, wie folgt: (Colonization of S o u t h Australia p. 242, 243) „ F a c t u m , daß in e i n e m industriellen L a n d savings von i n c o m e s g e m a c h t u n d capital aufgespeichert werden k a n n ; andres fact, daß in verschiednen L ä n d e r n das Capital in verschiednen ratios a n w a c h s e n k a n n . W e n n , in England, das in der Baumwollfabrikation verwandte Capital für d e n foreign m a r k e t rascher wächst als das in d e n fremden L ä n d e r n zur Hervorbringung des R o h m a t e r i a l s verwandte Capital, d a n n wird der W e r t h der cottonfabrics, in relation to the ordinary cost of production, decline; u n d im cotton trade, wages, or profits, or both, m u s t c o m e down. E b e n s o k a n n es im silk, woollen trade u n d allen a n d r e n Industriezweigen sein, worin goods aus foreign materials g e m a c h t werden. In allen trades, manufacturing capital may increase faster als das foreign capital, which raises the materials of manufacture: u n d so, in allen Industriezweigen, supplying goods to foreign m a r k e t s , there m a y be c o n t e m p o r a n e o u s overtrading, or a c o n t e m p o r a n e o u s , h o m e competition', occasioning a general fall of prices, of profits a n d wages, want of e m p l o y m e n t a n d distress." So m a n c h m a l a change from saving to spending, from productive to unproductive employment, may sometimes operate to relieve national industry from temporary plethora or oppression. ( 1 7 7 - 1 7 9 ) D a s capital spent on colonization by a country exporting m a n u f a c t u r e s , is n o t wasted unproductively, or lost to the resources of the p a r e n t state. It is spent in founding a fresh m a r k e t for her goods, and in stimulating a new a n d m o r e intense d e m a n d for t h e m . (181) Dégérando (Bienfais. p u b . IV. 112) sagt, d a ß von 1828 bis 1837, 14,365 emigrants from the lower R h i n e carried with t h e m 8,200,000 fcs of capital, d. h. 630 fcs oder 25 I. per h e a d . Buchanan denkt, d a ß die emigrants of 1834 n a c h C a n a d a carried out 1 Mill. £ St. D e r W e r t h der imports in C a n a d a , 1835, 2,300,000 1., der exports 1,800,000 l. „Die Bilanz, sagt Murray, (British N o r t h A m e r i c a v. II, p. 39) liquidirt durch die funds, brought into the colony by emigrants, by government expenditure, u n d by the transfer of capital from this country for investment in the colony." A similar calculation m a y be applied to

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Aus Herman Merivale: Lectures on colonization and colonies other colonies. D i e imports in N e u s ü d w a l e s e x c e e d e d die exports von da für some years past um 300 oder 400,000 I. D i e Differenz besteht h a u p t sächlich aus Capital exported von E n g l a n d d u r c h emigrants oder G o v e r n m e n t expenditure. (181, 2)

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Colonial trade und Colonial System.

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Die Hauptvortheile der Colonisation für das M u t t e r l a n d doppelt. 1) D i e opening n e u e r Quellen der P r o d u c t i o n , woher Articles billiger zu schaffen: 2) Die Eröffnung n e u e r M ä r k t e , profitlicher u n d rascher sich a u s d e h n e n d als die alten wegen des rapid growth of wealth in new c o m m u n i t i e s . (183) (Sieh p. 57) |

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Heeren.

[Fortsetzung]

Asiatische Völker. Theil I Perser. Innere

Verfassung des persischen Reichs.

Perser ursprünglich ein nomadisches Bergvolk. In 10 H o r d e n oder S t ä m m e getheilt. N u r ein Theil wurde herrschender Theil. Die ü b r i g e n b l i e b e n Barb a r e n u n d fuhren fort ein N o m a d e n l e b e n zu führen. D i e persische G e schichte n u r die der edleren Stämme; b e s o n d e r s der Pasargaden. Bei d e n Persern hing ursprünglich alles an Stamm und Stammverfassung. N o c h jezt dieser höhre u n d geringre Adel der Stämme, wahrscheinlich aus d e m Stolz der kriegerischen H o r d e n entstehend, bei den N o m a d e n v ö l k e r n des mittl e m u n d südlichen Asiens, bei Arabern wie M o n g o l e n . U n t e r s c h e i d e n sich solche S t ä m m e zugleich durch die Lebensart, so ist dieß der G r u n d zu der Kasteneintheilung, eben deßhalb bei m e h r e n Völkern des Orients einheim i s c h . A u s j e n e r S t a m m - entwickelte sich allmählig eine Staatsverfassung. Cyrus besiegte die s ä m m t l i c h e n Völker des d a m a l s b e k a n n t e n A s i e n s ; Z u g ging von Osten n a c h W e s t e n . Sein H e e r m e i s t e n s R e u t e r e i , die besiegten Völker m u ß t e n es stets vergrössern. So eine Art Völkerwandrung. Belager u n g e n von Städten die am m e i s t e n gefürchteten U n t e r n e h m u n g e n . Cyrus wie Dsingischan ließ in d e n besiegten L ä n d e r n A r m e e n zurück, an deren Spitze Feldherrn, die sie in der Unterwürfigkeit erhalten; i h n e n zur Seite königliche Einnehmer, die d e n Tribut e r h e b e n u n d d e m König überschikken; endlich die Befehlshaber über die Besatzungen in den Städten, deren m a n sich besonders zu versichern sucht. Die e r z w u n g n e n T r i b u t e hiessen Geschenke. Z u r B e h a u p t u n g der Herrschaft: 1) D i e fortdauernde Unterhaltung

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stehender Armeen ; 2) D i e gewaltsamen Verpflanzungen der Völker. U n t e r d e n Persern wurde diese Sitte n o c h allgemeiner. 3) Gesetze zur Verbreitung eines vorgeschriebnen entnervenden Luxus (Lyder). D i e Sieger n a h m e n i n d e ß viel an von der Lebensart, Sitten, Religion der Besiegten. N o m a d i s c h e Völker, weil sie kein b e s t i m m t e s Vaterland h a b e n , am m e i s t e n zu solchen Veränd e r u n g e n geneigt. Besonders die Meder, stammverwandt, wirkten auf die Perser u n d wurden das erste Volk u n t e r i h n e n ... Hofeinrichtung u n d H a r e m n a c h d e m M e d i s c h e n geformt. D a m i t v e r b u n d e n die A n n a h m e der Hof und Staatsreligion dieses Volkes u n d des g a n z e n politisch religiösen Ceremoniels, das sie vorschrieb. D i e Magier, u r s p r ü n g l i c h ein m e d i s c h e r S t a m m , ward jezt persische Priesterkaste u n d b e k a m d a d u r c h A n t h e i l a n der Regierung. Cambyses unterwarf sich Aejypten. U n t e r Darius Hystaspes die i n n r e Organisation. U n t e r i h m , U e b e r g a n g v o m N o m a d e n l e b e n z u festen W o h n sitzen, Aufenthalt der persischen Könige m e h r an e i n e n Ort fixirt, Susa. E i n t h e i l u n g des R e i c h s in Satrapieen (war u n t e r i h m m e h r VÖlkereintheilung, als geographische.) Veranlassung d a z u die regelmässigre B e s t i m m u n g der Tribute. Folge eine regelmässige E r n e n n u n g von Statthaltern. U n t e r D a r i u s fingen bereits die grossen Heereszüge nach Europa an. B r a c h t e n Verä n d e r u n g in der kriegerischen Organisation hervor. N o c h u n t e r Xerxes die Perser die tapfersten, aber gleich n a c h i h m verloren sie diesen Vorzug. H a u p t c o r p s der A r m e e n u r aus Miethstruppen z u s a m m e n g e s e z t , wozu m a n besonders Griechen n a h m . Widerspenstigkeit und Empörungen der Satrapen. F i n g e n an u n t e r Artaxerxes I; E n k e l des D a r i u s H. Vorderasien u n d Syrien ihr gewöhnlicher Schauplatz. U n t e r s t ü z t d u r c h G r i e c h e n u n d Aejypter. So wurden diese entfernten Provinzen die H a u p t p r o v i n z e n des persischen Reichs u n d der H a u p t g e g e n s t a n d der persischen Politik. Sittenverderbniß des Hofs und des Harems. D u r c h diese U r s a c h e n bereitete sich die persische M o n a r c h i e ihren U n t e r g a n g im 2* J a h r h u n d e r t ihrer Existenz. ( 3 9 6 - 4 2 3 )

Rechte und Gewalt des Königs. Zoroasters Gesetz. Hofstaat, Harem, Privatleben des Königs.

König = Eigenthümer von Land und Leuten. A u c h die höchste richterliche Gewalt in der H a n d des Königs. Erwuchs sogar daraus (der Despotismus) bei den M e d e r n n a c h Herodot. D e r richterlichen Willkühr alles überlassen; so Weg zur Herrschaft ü b e r P e r s o n e n u n d E i g e n t h u m gebahnt. A u s d e m M i ß 35 b r a u c h der richterlichen Gewalt, besonders bei Bestrafung v o n Verbrechen, die ersten Versuche zu Gesetzgebungen, die sich besonders auf E i n s c h r ä n k u n g e n ersterer bezogen. Alle: Knechte des Königs. Diese despotische G e -

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1 Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 • Heft XIV wait findet ihre B e s c h r ä n k u n g e n 1) In der Ausübung n o t h w e n d i g viel beschränkter als in der Theorie. Fällt z u n ä c h s t auf k l e i n e n Kreis, Paschas u n d Satrapen. Satrapen ruiniren das n i e d r e Volk. Härte u n d G r a u s a m k e i t des D e s p o t e n gegen j e n e d a h e r der M a a ß s t a b der G ü t e seiner Regierung, für das Volk. 2) Priester die Urheber, Aufbewahrer u n d Ausleger einer Art von Gesetzgebung. G e b e n n u r der Priesterkaste ein andres Verhältniß z u m Despoten. Versuche, die R o h h e i t der Völker zu m i l d e r n . Sie e n t h a l t e n also n u r B e s c h r ä n k u n g e n der richterlichen Gewalt. Religiöses Ceremoniel. Religion besteht weniger hier in L e h r e n als G e b r ä u c h e n . J e n e Gesetzgebung zunächst religiöses Hofceremoniel. G a b d e n Priestern A n t h e i l an der Regierung, weil es sie zu den ersten Hofbedienten m a c h t e . D a h e r u n t e r i h n e n selbst mannigfaltige Abstufung u n d Hierarchie. An die Stelle der Repräsentanten des Volks traten die Repräsentanten der Gottheit. Zendavesta. (Hauptschriften desselben: V e n d i d a t u n d Izeschne.) D a s R e i c h Ormuzd (das Licht) war Iran, das A c k e r b a u l a n d u n d Turan, das nördliche L a n d (die F i n sterniß) das N o m a d e n l a n d . Alles, M e n s c h e n , Thiere, Pflanzen, rein oder u n r e i n , gehört zu O r m u z d u n d A h r i m a n ' s Reich. Leztes auszurotten. Darauf gründet Zoroaster seine Gesetze zur Beförderung der physischen Cultur des Landes, Ackerbau, Viehzucht, Gärtnerei. Die i n n r e Organisation b e r u h t bei i h m auf 4 K a s t e n Priester, Krieger, Ackerleute, Gewerbetreibende. D a s Bild des Reichs des O r m u z d ist das Ideal eines Despotischen Reichs, wie es für d e n Orient paßt. Die Aufbewahrung seiner G e s e t z g e b u n g e i n e m Priesters t a m m oder Priesterkaste, den Magiern anvertraut. Zoroasters R e f o r m e n sollten z u n ä c h s t n u r die Magier selbst betreffen, d e n m e d i s c h e n Volkss t a m m , d e m die Erhaltung ihrer wissenschaftlichen K e n n t n i s s e u n d A u s Übung der religiösen G e b r ä u c h e aufbewahrt war. D i e A n n a h m e des m e d i schen Cultus betraf z u n ä c h s t n u r d e n Hof. Ritual a u c h für das ganze Privatleben. ||56| Bei d e n Persern keine Kasten. Zwar Stämme der Edlen oder der Krieger u n d Stämme der Ackerbautreibenden. A b e r keine Kaste der G e werbetreibenden. A u c h bei j e n e n S t ä m m e n nicht ausgemacht, d a ß ihre Beschäftigung nothwendig an den S t a m m g e b u n d e n war. D e r Hof und das Gefolge des Königs bestand nicht n u r aus Hofbedienten, s o n d e r n aus z a h l r e i c h e m Heer, m e i s t Reuterei, das seine Person u m g a b u n d zu seiner Begleitung gehörte. Die R e u t e r s c h a a r e n bei 10,000 abgetheilt n a c h d e n Völkerschaften, woraus sie g e n o m m e n . Die V o r n e h m s t e n die Perser. M i t d e m L u x u s stieg die Z a h l der Hof bedienten. Z u r j e d e n , a u c h der kleinsten Verrichtung eigne Leute angestellt. Alle freie Beköstigung. 15,000 speisten v o m Tisch des Königs. Schon das M a c h e n des Betts des Königs erforderte n a c h X e n o p h o n grosse Schaar von L e u t e n . D e r Hof der persischen Despot e n ursprünglich aus d e m S t a m m der Pasargaden u n d besonders die F a m i lie der Achaemeniden gebildet. Die Polygamie m a c h t die Verschnittnen z u m

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Aus Hermann Ludwig Heeren: Ideen über die Politik (Fortsetzung) Bedürfniß. Mit d e n R e g i e r u n g e n aus d e m Serail z u s a m m e n h ä n g t die Ungewißheit der Erbfolge. Das ganze übrige Privatleben der persischen Könige ein auf den höchsten Grad des Luxus getriebnes Nomadenleben. H e r u m z i e h n , bei d e m W e c h s e l der Jahreszeiten, von der e i n e n H a u p t s t a d t des R e i c h s 5 zur a n d r e n , Susa, Babylon u n d E c b a t a n a . Ihre Züge gleichen grossen H e e reszügen, die ä r m e r e n Provinzen m u ß t e n d a m i t verschont bleiben, u m sie nicht der H u n g e r s n o t h auszusetzen. Diese E i n r i c h t u n g e n n o c h bei d e n Herrschern des n e u e n Asiens. D i e Paläste u n d Lustschlösser der K ö n i g e m i t grossen Parks u n d Paradisen u m g e b e n , g a n z e Landschaften, um H e e r e zu 10 m u s t e r n u n d Jagden anzustellen. Palast des Königs h i e ß schon bei d e n Persern Thor oder Pforte. Ausser d e n J a g d e n in d e n Paradisen, die im F r e i e n . A u c h bei der Tafel ganz b e s t i m m t e s Ceremoniel. Es durfte n u r das Beste genossen, Wasser aus d e m Choaspes, auf einer M e n g e von W a g e n in silbernen Gefässen i h m nachgeführt; Salz von d e m T e m p e l des Jupiter A m n i o n aus 15 der M i t t e der afrikanischen W ü s t e , W e i n von C h a l y b o n in Syrien, W e i z e n zu s e i n e m Brod aus A e o l i e n etc. G a n z e Schaaren im weiten R e i c h bestimmt, i h m die köstlichsten Speisen u n d G e t r ä n k e aufzusuchen. (423-475)

Verwaltung der Provinzen.

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Satrapen.

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Ein rohes eroberndes Volk betrachtet die e i n g e n o m m n e n L ä n d e r als sein E i g e n t h u m . Beispiele gejtiug in der Asiatischen G e s c h i c h t e , d a ß um sie u n gestört zu besitzen, A u s r o t t u n g der E i n g e b o r n e n . Bei sehr a u s g e d e h n t e n E r o b e r u n g e n m u ß t e dieß von selbst wegfallen; gezwungen auf E i n r i c h t u n gen zu denken, um die Herrschaft zu b e h a u p t e n . Die Geldtribute der L ä n 25 der bildeten blos die Privatkasse des Königs, woraus er seinen eignen Aufwand bestritt oder h ö c h s t e n s G e s c h e n k e m a c h t e . Bei d e n Persern keine Besoldungen von Staatsbedienten, F i n a n z z w e c k auf Kosten der Besiegten zu leben. Das ganze persische Reich, n a c h H e r o d o t , u n a b h ä n g i g von d e n Trib u t e n , für d e n U n t e r h a l t des Königs oder seines Hoflagers u n d Heers ein30 getheilt; u n d jeder Distrikt m u ß für eine gewisse Zeit das Seine liefern. Folge davon, d a ß die A b g a b e n der Provinzen bei weitem d e m größten Theil n a c h in Früchten und Naturalien geliefert. D a s Beste j e d e r Provinz gehört d e m König. So flössen aus allen T h e i l e n des R e i c h s die V o r r ä t h e j e d e r Art bei d e m Hoflager z u s a m m e n . D a h e r L u x u s u n d Ueberfluß, Schwelge35 rei u n d Ueppigkeit. J e d e Provinz h a t t e ferner die Satrapen zu erhalten. Ihr Hof n a c h d e m des Königs geformt. Zogen ihre Bedürfnisse aus allen T h e i len ihrer Provinz. 4 grosse Flecken in Babylon h a t t e n für die F ü t t e r u n g der J a g d h u n d e von Masistius, d e m Satrapen von Babylon zu sorgen. E n d l i c h

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Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 · Heft XIV der Unterhalt der königlichen Truppen, allenthalben in die Provinzen verlegt. A u c h diese von den besezten L ä n d e r n bestritten. N e b e n diesen N a t u r a l i e n für die Privatkasse des Königs die Tribute in ungemünztem Gold oder Silber. E i n g e s c h m o l z e n , in Barren aufbewahrt, wovon der König n a c h d e n Bedürfnissen etwas abschlagen ließ. D u r c h die H e e r z ü g e , b e s o n d e r s u n t e r Xerxes, E r h ö h u n g der Tribute. D a s H a l t e n der M i e t h t r u p p e n verursachte V e r m e h r u n g dieser Auflagen. A u s s e r d e m b e z o g e n die Satrapen Summen aus den Provinzen. D i e T r i b u t e sind n u r die Summen, die die Satrapen an den königlichen Schatz abliefern mußten. Persis von diesen A b g a b e n a u s g e n o m m e n . A u s s e r d e m : Einkünfte von der Bewässerung. ( D u r c h Schleusenwerke h a t t e n die persischen Könige das Wasser in ihrer Gewalt) Fischerei in d e m Canal, der d e n See Möris m i t d e m N i l verbindet, ein Regal. Eingezogne Güter bei H i n r i c h t u n g e n der Satrapen u n d Grossen. M e h r als alles dieß die freiwilligen Geschenke, die m a n d e m König m a c h t e . N a c h der Sitte des Orients k a n n N i e m a n d vor d e m H ö h e r n , vielweniger vor d e m K ö n i g o h n e G e schenk erscheinen. A n d e m Geburtstage des Königs fliessen i h m Kostbarkeiten u n d Seltenheiten aus d e m g a n z e n R e i c h zu. Ausgaben des Königs. G e s c h e n k e . Die n i e d r e n Hofbedienten (Trabanten, Leibwächter etc.) erhalt e n ihren U n t e r h a l t in Naturalien. (Ebenso bei allen persischen Grossen u n d d e n Befehlshabern der Städte u n d Provinzen.) E b e n d a z u die grossen a u s den verschiednen Provinzen g e s a n d t e n Vorräthe verwandt. D i e vorn e h m r e n Hofbedienten erhalten Anweisungen auf Oerter und Städte. A u c h A n w e i s u n g e n - besonders m i t Hofstellen v e r b u n d e n - auf Häuser und Länderein in d e n Provinzen. Diese A n w e i s u n g e n auf Lebenszeit. Fielen n a c h d e m T o d e d e m Könige a n h e i m . Da aber die Hofstellen am S t a m m hingen, also in der Regel erblich, werden a u c h diese Besitzungen erblich. Zu X e n o p h o n s Zeit hatte bereits die Satrapenregierung ihre völlige Organisation erhalten. Sorgfältige Trennung der Civil und Militairgewa.lt. D e r G r u n d zu dieser E i n r i c h t u n g gleich gelegt durch die den F e l d h e r r n zur Seite gesezten königlichen Einnehmer. In d e n spätren P e r i o d e n d e n Satrapen, besonders w e n n aus königlicher F a m i l i e , zugleich die Befehlshaberschaft der T r u p p e n übertragen, besonders in d e n G r e n z p r o v i n z e n , wo das Bedürfniß oft solche Vereinigung nöthig m a c h t e . D i e ü b r i g e n bürgerlichen B e d i e n t e n blieben a u c h später von den Befehlshabern der T r u p p e n gänzlich getrennt u n d diese durften sich in keine Civilgeschäfte m i s c h e n . U n t e r d e n Satrap e n die I n t e n d a n t e n . Besonders k ü m m e r t e n sich u m A n b a u des L a n d e s etc. Die religiösen Vorschriften m a c h t e n dieß zur Pflicht. D i e Satrapen h a t t e n von d e n königlichen T r u p p e n verschiedne Haustruppen, b e s t a n d e n ganz oder z u m Theil aus Persern. W e n n der Satrap von d e n E i n k ü n f t e n sein e n eignen Aufwand, d e n U n t e r h a l t der königlichen T r u p p e n u n d der übrigen Civilbedienten bestritten, ging das andre an d e n königlichen Hof. Um

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das Interesse des Königs zu besorgen, im Gefolge der Satrapen stets königliche Schreiber, d e n e n die Befehle des Königs eingehändigt werden, u n d die sie d e n Satrapen eröffnen. - Eilboten, auf Stationen vertheilt, d u r c h das ganze Reich. (Später n o c h m e h r i n d e n m o n g o l i s c h e n Reichen) J ä h r l i c h schickte der ||[57]| König e i n e n Bevollmächtigten an der Spitze eines H e e res, der die Satrapen u n t e r s t ü z t e oder a u c h züchtigte ... In d e n Spätren Z e i t e n mehre Satrapien Einem ü[ber]tragen. D o c h wuchs ihr U e b e r m u t h . Kriege der Satrapen u n t e r e i n a n d e r . M e h r e r e von i h n e n , d e n e n die Herrschaft von P o n t u s , C a p p a d o c i e n etc übertragen, w u r d e n die Stifter u n a b hängiger R e i c h e . D i e Satrapen m a c h t e n sich n a c h u n d n a c h u n a b h ä n g i g u n d b e t r a c h t e t e n die P r o v i n z e n als D o m ä n e n , d e r e n Einkünfte sie zogen. (477-500)

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D i e Kriegszüge der n o m a d i s c h e n Völker ursprünglich Wanderungen, z u r E i n n a h m e beßrer u n d fruchtbarer Länder. D a h e r die im Orient allgemeine Sitte, daß Weiber, Kinder und alle bewegliche Habe von i h n e n mitgeschleppt wird. Ihr H e e r ganz oder grossentheils Reuterei. Erstres der Fall bei d e n M o n g o l e n , leztres b e i d e n Persern. Erleichtert sehr ihre Züge. Die m o n g o l i sche Geschichte giebt Beispiele, d a ß solche R e u t e r h e e r e m i t einer u n b e greiflichen Schnelligkeit entfernte Züge u n t e r n a h m e n , woran ein europäisches H e e r nicht würde d e n k e n k ö n n e n . D i e Kriegsverfassung erlitt i n d e ß grosse A e n d e r u n g e n . Schon gleich bei der E r o b e r u n g Asiens blieben Corps s t e h n in d e n Provinzen, b e s o n d e r s in d e n G r e n z p r o v i n z e n , wie Vorderasien, Aejypten etc. In j e d e r Provinz 2 A r t von Truppen. Theils auf d e m platten Land zerstreut. Theils als Besatzungen in den Städten. Beide ihre eignen Befehlshaber. Jährliche Musterungen der Truppen d u r c h das ganze R e i c h in der N ä h e der H a u p t s t a d t v o m König selbst gehalten. E i n t h e i l u n g des Reichs in militairische Cantons n a c h d e n V e r s a m m l u n g s oder Musterplätzen der T r u p p e n ... Bei d e n Persern m u ß t e jeder, der L ä n d e r e i e n besaß zu Pferd aufsitzen. D a h e r i n n r e Organisation des ganzen Volks für d e n Kriegsdienst nothwendig. Decimalabtheilung geht d u r c h die ganze N a t i o n , u n d b e s t i m m t zugleich d e n R a n g der Befehlshaber. Das g e m e i n e Volk i m Häuflein von 10 m i t i h r e m Vorsteher, d a n n die Befehlshaber v o n 100, d a n n von 1000, d a n n von 10,000. D i e h ö h r e n Officiere gehören n i c h t m e h r für einzelne Corps, sondern b i l d e n die Generalität. So bei d e n M o n g o l e n , so bei den Persern. Sold an b a a r e m Geld b e k a m e n n u r die griechischen Miethtruppen. Dieß alles b e z i e h t sich auf die T r u p p e n , die die Perser regelmässig zur Vertheidigung u n d B e h a u p t u n g ihrer Provinzen u n t e r h i e l t e n . l e i

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ΐ Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 · Heft XIV B e s t a n d e n m e h r aus M i e t h s t r u p p e n , als d a ß sie die B e w o h n e r der Provinz d a z u gebraucht. Die unterjochten N a t i o n e n n u r b e i a u s s e r o r d e n t l i c h e n G e legenheiten, wie bei d e n grossen H e e r z ü g e n , die z u r Erweiterung des R e i c h s u n t e r n o m m e n , d a z u gebraucht. In solchen F ä l l e n allgemeine Aufgebote durch das ganze unermeßliche Reich. D i e N a t i o n e n des Ostens u n d W e 5 stens w u r d e n gleich H e r d e n z u s a m m e n g e t r i e b e n . S c h o n die vorläufigen A n s t a l t e n d a z u u n e r m e ß l i c h . Die Bewegungen d a z u vor d e m Z u g e des Xerxes d a u e r t e n 4 J a h r e . E r s c h i e n e n u n t e r d e n V o r s t e h e r n ihrer eignen N a t i o n e n . Im Krieg selbst die Offizire aber n u r aus d e n Persern g e n o m m e n . D i e ß Vorrecht des h e r r s c h e n d e n Volks, wie b e i d e n M o n g o l e n u n d Tarta10 ren. ( 5 0 0 - 5 1 5 )

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Merivale. (Fortsetzung von p. 5 4 )

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Das alte System dachte n u r an die Vortheile der Exportation, die d o c h n u r Mittel für die Importation sein soll. F e r n e r plan of monopolizing the productions of colonies, or the imports from them. Ausgeführt bios d u r c h Spanier u n d Portugiesen für die edlen Metalle u n d die D u t c h für die spices. Zucker, caffe, cotton, T a b a k u n d die a n d r e n staple products of colonial industry n i e praktisch monopolisirt d u r c h irgend eine europäische M a c h t . Dagegen bis zu e i n e m gewissen G r a d möglich die Colonien, by fiscal regulation, to confine zu dem use der products des Mutterlands. Dieß daher Hauptpunkt des Systems; Russia m a y colonize large tracts of desert country by drafts from the s u p e r a b u n d a n t p o p u l a t i o n ihrer central provinces; aber kein Vortheil davon für d e n russian producer, weil [er] n u r d a h i n articles of raw p r o d u c e s e n d e n kann, die die Colonists m e h r h a b e n als sie b r a u c h e n . U n d e r freier Concurrenz der Vortheil der Colonieen n i c h t für das M u t t e r l a n d , s o n d e r n für das L a n d das i h n e n on the cheapest terms goods in A u s t a u s c h geben k a n n . Allerdings a u c h u n t e r free c o m p e t i t i o n das M u t t e r c o u n t r y für ger a u m e Zeit advantage von d e n Colonieen von der durability of n a t i o n a l tastes u n d habits. ... Als C o m p e n s a t i o n gab m a n den Colonists, at the expense der consumers. Zwang des M u t t e r l a n d s n u r die Colonialartikel prod u c e d by her colonists zu kaufen. D e r n a t ü r l i c h e G a n g der Colonialpolitik war daher überall: 1) D e m M u t t e r l a n d zu sichern das M o n o p o l einiger precious commodities p r o d u c e d in the colony. 2) D i e colonies d a n n unterworfen der necessity of c o n s u m i n g articles of her own p r o d u c t i o n . 3) D e n colonists granted the exclusive right of producing particular articles for h e r own c o n s u m p t i o n . D i e ß last is t h e only substantial fragment of the old colonial system which now r e m a i n s . ... 5 verschiedne Classen of restrictions contribute to m a k e up the entire c o m m e r c i a l system: 1) Restrictions auf den Export der Colonie anderswohin als n a c h d e m M u t t e r l a n d . 2) Restrictions auf d e n I m p o r t von goods in die Colonie von fremden L ä n d e r n . 3)

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Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 • Heft XIV Restrictions auf d e n I m p o r t von C o l o n i a l p r o d u c t e n in das M u t t e r l a n d from foreign countries or colonies. 4) Restrictions auf das carriage von goods von u n d n a c h d e n Colonies i n a n d r e n Schiffen als d e n e n des M u t t e r l a n d s . 5) restrictions auf die M a n u f a c t u r ihres eignen R o h p r o d u c t s d u r c h die Colonists. ( 1 8 3 - 1 8 8 ) ad. 1. Die H o l l ä n d e r b e s t e h n n o c h auf i h r e m spicerestriction. Die spices o b t a i n e d d u r c h das enslaving einer P o p u l a t i o n von 46,000 oder m i t der Arbeit von 11,500 persons, so r o b b e d u n d kept in barb a r i s m u n d slavery to ensure a c o n t e m p t i b l e object. ([188,] 189) ad 2. A. S m i t h glaubt daß so die R a t e des Profits ü b e r h a u p t im M u t t e r l a n d gesteigert würde. N a c h Ricardo, weicht die m o n o p o l i s i r e n d e C o m p a g n i e , würde die Concurrenz die Profite auf i h r e n gewöhnlichen level zurückbringen. D a s M u t t e r l a n d würde größre Masse von W a a r e n erhalten, wie die n i c h t begünstigten Länder, aber die R a t e des Profits unalterirt bleiben. N a c h der Theorie von der superabundance des Capital aber und weil die productiveness of industry vermehrt wurde aber Steigen des Profits hervorgebracht. A b e r da Colonies langsamer wachsen als das M a n u f a c t u r c a p i t a l im M u t t e r l a n d , würde die C o m p e t i t i o n der native m a n u f a c t u r e r s die Preisse ihrer goods down b r i n g e n so gut im foreign als im inland c o m m e r c e . „Der Preiß von Holz in C a n a d a is trifling; in England vermehrt d u r c h h i g h charges, 5 x die original cost; so daß eine fluctuation von 2 0 % in d e m price in d i e s e m L a n d e = a total loss oder a profit von 100 %. H e n c e , a trifling decline in o u r m a r k e t is completely r u i n o u s to the colonial shipper." ( 1 8 9 - 1 9 5 ) Praktisch aber die interests der colonies u n d die devices des smuggler too m u c h für c u s t o m h o u s e regulation. (197) ||[58]| ad 3. D e r colonialtrade [je]zt rests on prohibitions [wovo]n die b u r d e n has fallen fast ganz auf das M u t t e r l a n d allein. (199) Die lezten Reformen im Z u c k e r t r a d e n ö t h i g geworden d u r c h die sehr verminderte P r o d u c t i o n u n d e r h ö h t e n Preiß, also A b n a h m e der Productivität in d e n englischen Colonieen i n n e r h a l b der lezten 6 Jahre. (201) ad 4. Petty schäzte u n t e r Charles II das whole m e r c a n t i l e shipping von E u r o p a auf 2 Mill. Tons, wovon 800,000 d e n U n i t e d Provinces (Dutch) geh ö r t e n . (207) In parting with a portion of our capital for the f o u n d a t i o n of colonies we are, in effect, placing it out at interest. Applied to a new a n d fertile soil etc. (228) T h e colonial system, like every other system of the kind, was constructed with a view to the present gain of particular classes. (229) N a c h Say kostet j e d e r french soldier 2 x soviel in d e n colonies als in F r a n k r e i c h . In England das Verhältniß n o c h grösser. (232) Monopoly Profits or Rent. (232)

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Part III. Progress of Wealth and Society in Colonies. Scarcity of Labour in New Colonies.

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Fast u n m ö g l i c h daß any first essay in Colonization should succeed. D i e ersten settlers by their own service d i e n t e n m e i s t n u r to p r o m o t e the success of some new b a n d s of colonists. (243) L a n d u n n ü t z o h n e Capital. D i e first settlers in N o r d a m e r i c a fanden sehr fruchtbaren B o d e n in the state of forest. A b e r it costs von 3 bis 4 I. to clear a single acre of it, principally exp e n d e d in labour. Die ersten settlers rieben sich auf in insulated efforts; perished miserably; 10 oder 2 0 0 0 0 l a n d e t e n in Virginia u n t e r Elisabeth. U n t e r J a m e s I Virginia m u ß t e n e u colonisirt w e r d e n ... L a n d u n d Capital beide nutzlos unless labour c a n be c o m m a n d e d . ... If a j u d i c i o u s system of cooperation were p u t in practice, so that no labour or capital were wasted, a m u c h smaller a m o u n t of b o t h would be requisite to produce the desired results; u n d „plenty of good l a n d " would be fast das only thing needful. A b e r der Emigrant, der in die wilderness geht, will sich i n d e p e n d e n t m a c h e n ... Zwei principles sind i m m e r at work: t h e desire of obtaining land, which is hostile to all c o m b i n a t i o n of labour; t h e n a t u r a l d i m i n u t i o n in t h e fertility of occupied land, which continually urges its possessors to change it for fresh. W h e r e these prevail, there m u s t be great obstacles in the way of accum u l a t i o n of capital, a n d of the raising of surplus produce, a n d a constant t e n d e n c y of the p o p u l a t i o n towards b a r b a r i s m by their dispersion; e a c h settler, as he advances in the wilderness, leaving b e h i n d h i m whole tracts which he considers as unprofitable, or which he has r e n d e r e d so by exhausting t h e m . ... Die 2 H a u p t p r o p o s i t i o n e n des »neuen« Colonisationsystems, die die richtige Proportion der E l e m e n t e des R e i c h t h u m s in einer Colonie g r ü n d e n wollen, sind: 1) D a ß es desirable ist to provide colonists m i t a greater supply of labourers, to work on their account, t h a n their capital would naturally attract. 2) D a ß es desirable ist to prevent the p o p u l a t i o n of new colonies from spreading over so large a n d scattered surface of l a n d as it would be t e m p t e d to occupy, were every facility given for the acquisition of land. ... N u n zu u n t e r s c h e i d e n zwischen zwei Arten von Colonien. D i e Erstem etablirt in Countries, possessing no peculiar advantages für die Production, by agricultural or mining labour, of articles of value in the foreign market. Solche Colonien die englisch n o r d a m e r i k a n i s c h e n für die ersten 1½ Jh. ihrer Stiftung. F a s t die ganze N a t i o n war agricultural. A b e r ihr chief exportable wealth b e s t a n d in d e m p r o d u c e der secondary b r a n c h e s of industry, the t i m b e r of their forests a n d the fish of their seas; diese allein t a u s c h t e n sie m i t E u r o p a aus u n d n u r a small surplus of their corn u n d cat-

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Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 • Heft XIV tie gegen die peculiar staples andrer Colonies. D i e ß n o c h der Charakter der englischen n o r d a m e r i k a n i s c h e n possessions u n d der originalcharacter der australischen Besitzungen bis zur very recent discovery ihrer capabilities für Wollproduction. Die 2 Classe of colonies begreift alle wo die Industrie der settlers hauptsächlich gerichtet auf das raising of staple articles of produce für 5 den european market oder towards mining operations. So die meist ältesten spanischen u n d portugiesischen Colonies in S ü d a m e r i k a , die Südprovinz e n der Vereinigten Staaten u n d die establishments aller e u r o p ä i s c h e n nations in W e s t i n d i e n . Klar d a ß die obigen b e i d e n E l e m e n t a r p r o p o s i t i o n s der theory of „systematic colonization" n i c h t gleich passend auf beide Sorten von 10 Colonieen ... In der ersten Sorte von Colonieen angewandt, n a t ü r l i c h das product vermehrt. A b e r kein Artikel producirt wofür a constant u n d urgent d e m a n d , distance from any available m a r k e t weit u n d such e x t e n d e d prod u c t i o n wahrscheinlich sehr unprofitable speculation. C o n c e n t r a t i o n of inh a b i t a n t s n u r möglich wenn some of the settlers r e l i n q u i s h the advantage 15 of appropriating the m o s t fertile land within their reach, in order to secure the real or supposed advantages of congregation. Fertile soil ist die M a schine des settler. Prävenirt m a n i h n d e n fruchtbarsten B o d e n in s e i n e m Bereich zu erwerben, d u r c h raising seines Preisses oder andres Conventionelles Mittel, so zwingt m a n i h n to resort to the use of a less productive 20 m a c h i n e . D e n n durch das Regeln m a c h t m a n i h n unfit z u e i n e m Pioneer of civilization. J e d e d e d u c t i o n from the liberty eines m a n as a free agent ist, ö k o n o m i s c h gesprochen, a d i m i n u t i o n of his power. D i e ß besonders wahr in new countries. D e r spirit of restless enterprise n ö t h i g für colonies. Die R e s t a u r a t i o n des most exhausted land leichter als das removal of a 25 dense forest. U n d wie sehr Colonists zur Dispersion geneigt, there is a limit das der boldest b a c k w o o d s m a n does n o t pass u n d diese fixed by the situation of the nearest market. As the m a r k e t s extend, ther[e]fore, t h e settlers will spread; b u t no faster. U n t e r d e ß a certain quantity of capital accumulirt d u r c h die Pächter; advanciren vom Nothdürftigen z u m comfort, subsidiary 30 b r a n c h e s of industry, wie fisheries u n d coarse m a n u f a c t u r e s , arise; people aggregirt um die hierzu am geeignetsten spots; l a n d steigt in value from their vicinity; soil, n a c h der Cultur wieder aufgegeben, gewinnt wieder n e u e n W e r t h ; Städte gebaut etc etc. U n d diese graduell a u f b l ü h n d e n c o m m u n i t i e s viel sichrer u n d solider als die r a s c h e n R e i c h t h u m erwerben 35 von n a t u r a l advantages in der P r o d u c t i o n von exportable c o m m o d i t i e s . Diese fortunes k ö n n e n ebenso rasch overthrown werden [by the] Concurrenz of newer soils, oder d u r c h a m e r e change in der d e m a n d für particular articles of c o n s u m p t i o n . M. verglichen n u r ||59| die b e i d e n Theile der Vereinigten Staaten; wenn m a n eine Linie zieht von d e m A t l a n t i c bis z u m 40 Mississipi, nearly along the course des Delaware u n d des O h i o , die ziem,e

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lieh t r e n n t die 2 Sorten von Colonies; S ü d l i c h davon die Colonies wo die great staples of a m e r i c a n export have b e e n raised, Reis, T a b a c k u n d später cotton; nördlich die das corn u n d cattle p r o d u c e u n d wovon nichts oder wenig n a c h E u r o p a exportirt ausser timber. Leztre Colonieen strafen W a k e field etc Theorie Lügen. ... Kommen wir jezt auf die andre Art von Colonieen. Hier grosse Zufuhr von Arbeit viel dringender n ö t h i g u n d alles, was gesagt von der Nothwendigkeit of c o m b i n e d l a b o u r to t h e productive e m p l o y m e n t of capital is of pointed application. Diese necessity schuf das e n s l a v e m e n t der original i n h a b i t a n t s von S ü d a m e r i k a , die Negersklaverei u n d d e n Sklav e n h a n d e l , die profitliche A n w e n d u n g der Arbeit der convicts u n d die o h n e solche odious resources zu befriedigen n u n das größte praktische Prob l e m der Colonisation. I n d e ß Settlements dieser Art oft für eine Zeitlang geblüht trotz aller Schwierigkeit arising von der dispersion der settlers u n d d e m want of compulsory labour. In d e m early progress der colonies u n d so lang das L a n d u n m i t t e l b a r adjoining to ports u n d navigable rivers oder sonst versehen m i t facilities für transport, n o c h unerschöpft ist, raw produ c e can often be raised für d e n foreign m a r k e t in considerable quantities d u r c h die r u d e labour of small l a n d owners. So in d e n West I n d i a n Islands. Portorico. D i e ß ursprünglich a u c h der Fall in d e n annals der older N o r t h A m e r i c a n provinces, s o u t h of the P o t o m a c . Virginia, 1671, wo es schon blüh e n d e n H a n d e l in Taback, b e s t a n d aus 40,000 Einwohnern, wovon n u r 2000 black slaves, 6000 Christian servants for a short time. Yearly, sagt Sir W. Berkeley in seiner Beschreibung dieser Colonie, c o m e in ungefähr 1500 servants (english, scotch, irish) u n d n i c h t ü b e r 2 or 3 ships of negroes in 7 years. D i e ß das picture eines country, worin der state of transition von der occupancy of small landowners, to t h a t of proprietors of large estates cultivated by slaves, is only j u s t beginning; w h e n o n c e b e g u n it is certain to proceed with continually increasing rapidity, u n t i l the new c o n d i t i o n of society is developed. ... D e r u s u a l course of events daher: it is n o t u n t i l t h e m o r e fertile u n d best situated l a n d s have b e e n occupied, a n d to a certain extent exhausted, that the superior productiveness of capital in masses, a n d labour in c o m b i n a t i o n , begins to be practically felt. D e r stimulus afforded by an increasing m a r k e t acts strongly in accelerating this inevitable change. ... A b e r n o c h falscher bei leztren Colonieen, d a ß an a m p l e supply of labour tends to c o n c e n t r a t i o n of people. D i e a b u n d a n c e of new u n d productive soil ist die very first c o n d i t i o n der prosperity solcher settlements, d u r c h nichts zu ersetzen. M a n g e l d a r a n die cause des decline der Barbadoes, Jamaicas, der smaller Antilles. Demerara producirt in diesen lezten J a h r e n m e h r als / so viel als J a m a i c a , m i t less als % seiner E i n w o h n e r z a h l , nicht weil P o p u l a t i o n concentrirt oder Capital a c c u m u l i r t ist, sondern weil es besizt an extensive surface of alluvial soil, over which cultivation is conl

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Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 · Heft XIV stantly spreading, u n d wovon wahrscheinlich n i c h t 7(00 u n d e r it gebracht ist. J e n e writers wollen an artificial limit m a c h e n in all colonies for t h a t limit w h i c h n a t u r e has assigned in our islands, - to m a k e an island of a settlem e n t in a wide continent. Die growers von Tabak, Reis, cotton, Zucker für d e n M a r k t erheischten a far greater extent of soil for their cultivation als die m e r e ordinary agriculturists of the n o r t h e r n settlements, (in d e n Vereinigten Staaten) So far from an a m p l e supply of labour t e n d i n g to concentrate population, it has, in N o r t h A m e r i c a , invariably g o n e along m i t der greatest possible dispersion. D i e early settlers in Virginia wollten construct den Plan der Systematler, an old society in a new country. F ü r eine Zeitlang dieß realisirt. Dörfer, rural aristocracy, c h u r c h e s t a b l i s h m e n t etc. A b e r j e d e s J a h r wurde der B o d e n u n p r o d u c t i v e r d u r c h den T a b a c k s b a u , den most exhausting crop. A b e r an a m p l e supply of labour befähigte sie zu rem o v e . Sie u n d ihre slaves migrated in quest of new soil; they spread from t h e eastern to the western limits of the province, from the A t l a n t i c coast to the M o u n t a i n s , a n d t h e n c e to the vallies of t h e O h i o a n d t h e Mississippi; u n d in diesen days der traveller finds u n t e r d e n deserted „old fields" von Virginia u n d Maryland die traces der » m a n s i o n s « der versuchten rural aristocracy etc. W ä h r e n d N e u e n g l a n d ganz u n s u p p l i e d m i t d e p e n d e n t labourers from the beginning has attained Bevölkerungsdichtigkeit = 1 0 0 : Q m i l e , Virginia, m e h r amply m i t Sklaven versehn als irgend ein a n d r e r Staat der U n i o n , n u r 3 0 : Q m ü e . ... D i e m o d e s , worin die 3 elem e n t s of land, capital u n d labour c o m b i n e themselves in n e u e n colonies sehr controllirt u n d modificirt d u r c h extrinsic circumstances. D i e T e n d e n z der settler sich zu isoliren k a n n counteracted werden d u r c h d e n limited ext e n t des L a n d e s selbst, wie in Inseln oder T h ä l e r n u m g e b e n m i t u n ü b e r steiglichen m o u n t a i n s , wie in d e n u p p e r A n d e s ; d u r c h die Dichtigkeit der native forests, m a k i n g clearing m o r e difficult; d u r c h die Z a h l u n d warlike character der native population, wie in parts der Cape colony, wo die boors gezwungen to congregate together for selfprotection u n d wie in Algier. So in Spanish America, wo die p o p u l a t i o n collected in m o u n t a i n plains u n d b e s o n d e r s wo m i n i n g operations, large cities früh gegründet, wie Q u i t o , L i m a , Mejico etc a large government e x p e n d i t u r e in a colony producirt ä h n l i c h e n Effect, wie in Neusüdwales u n d V a n D i e m e n s l a n d . Anderseits die U r s a c h e n , die increase z u m M a x i m u m die n a t u r a l t e n d e n c y zu dispersion sind: a wide extent of fertile soil, gesundes Clima, A b w e s e n h e i t of dense forests u n d andrer n a t u r a l obstacles u n d der want of navigable rivers, an deren banks ||60| m e n geneigt sich in c o m m u n i t i e s zu etabliren. Da überwiegt alles die ease u n d i n d e p e n d e n c e of pastoral, semi-savage life, wie in d e n P a m p a s von B u e n o s Ayres u n d d e n plains von N e w Mexico u n d California. ( 2 4 5 - 2 6 7 )

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Employment

of Labour of Native

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D i e ß die erste der different methods by which the requisite supply of labour has been procured in European colonies. (269) V o n alien points, wo im s p a n i s c h e n u n d portugiesischen A m e r i c a , the 5 peopled provinces t o u c h e d on t h e u n s u b d u e d forests or deserts of t h e interior, missionaries der M ö n c h s o r d e n , b e s o n d e r s die Jesuiten, beständig issuing in die b e n a c h b a r t e wilderness, establishing a c h a i n of settlements an d e n G r ä n z e n . Heissen Missions or R e d u c t i o n s . E x t e n d e d b e s o n d e r s along t h e great water c o m m u n i c a t i o n s , die A m a z o n s , Orinoco, tributaries des 10 Plata, in d e n forests at the eastern foot der A n d e s u n d z u m e x t r e m s t e n N o r d e n der Spanish possessions in Californien. E a c h e s t a b l i s h m e n t served t h e double purpose of a receptacle for t h e converted or r e d u c e d I n d i a n s of the vicinity, and of a factory or place of trade a n d c o m m u n i c a t i o n with those as yet u n s u b d u e d . ... Die great Jesuit republic oder vielmehr r e p u b 15 lies b e s t a n d e n aus 3 sets of r e d u c t i o n s , c o m p r e h e n d e d within t h e s a m e Spanish G o v e r n m e n t , n ä m l i c h die lieutenancy of B u e n o s Ayres, aber at a considerable distance from e a c h other, those of t h e Guaranis, the Chiquitos u n d der Moxos. Die G u a r a n i s sehr n u m e r o u s people, das die Jesuits z u m C h r i s t e n t h u m bekehrt w ä h r e n d des 1 7 ' J h . Sie obtained, by degrees, von 20 der crown, das privilege of governing these I n d i a n s u n d e r laws of their own contrivance, arming t h e m for their own defence, a n d excluding from the limits of their territory all strangers, sojourners, a n d even all visitors whatever, unless admitted for their own purposes. D i e G u a r a n i R e d u c t i o n s contained, at one time, 1 0 0 - 1 5 0 , 0 0 0 souls. G e t h e i l t in Missions, wovon j e d e 25 contained m e h r e T a u s e n d e . Das Volk jeder mission collected in a large village oder town. In e a c h residirten zwei ecclesiastics des Ordens, E i n e r m i t d e m Titel Curate; der andre a subdirector, or assistant, d e m die Details des temporal m a n a g e m e n t der mission were entrusted. Die I n d i a n s of e a c h elected their own m u n i c i p a l officers, n a c h d e m G e b r a u c h aller s p a n i s c h e n 30 towns, aber ihre E r n e n n u n g der approval des curate unterworfen u n d in W a h r h e i t ihre Autorität n u r titular; j e d e function of power, von der h ö c h sten bis zur niedrigsten, was lodged in t h e h a n d s des spiritual governor. Alle natives were a r m e d u n d officered by I n d i a n s of their own n a t i o n ; b e ing gelegentlich p u t u n d e r temporary training by Spaniards, u n d e r the es35 pecial s u p e r i n t e n d e n c e der priests. D i e h o u s e s j e d e r Stadt oder village exact gleich, keine Distinction a d m i t t e d in dress, oder d e m G e n u ß der domestic comforts. Das einzige s u m p t u o u s building die church; its adornm e n t , u n d der p o m p of divine worship, fast die only m o d e worin der surplus wealth der c o m m u n i t y could be e x p e n d e d . Das l a n d des village ge-

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Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 · Heft XIV theilt in das field der c o m m u n i t y u n d in das field of G o d . D a s leztre cultivirt d u r c h die Arbeit aller, um articles to raise die die Jesuits aust a u s c h t e n für W a a r e n , die nöthig für d e n splendor ihres ritual, zur Erhaltung von establishments für sick u n d orphans etc. Das a n d r e Feld cultivated für die s u s t e n a n c e der c o m m u n i t y u n d um d u r c h A u s t a u s c h die 5 n i c h t selbst fabricirten M a n u f a c t u r w a a r e n zu erhalten. W i e weit j e d e r Ind i a n e r E i g e n t h u m nicht sehr klar. N a c h Ulloa i n d e n G u a r a n i R e d u c t i o n s all the surplus p r o d u c e des soil sold für the c o m m u n i t y by t h e Jesuits. Sie allotted a u c h j e d e m M a n n bei Beginn des day die tools w o m i t er was to lab o u r u n d die seed he was to u s e ; sie s u p e r i n t e n d e d die öffentlichen 10 Schlachthäuser u n d delivered j e d e r family das necessary m e a t . ( 2 7 7 - 2 8 0 ) "An I n d i a n of the R e d u c t i o n s " , sagt Southey "never knew, during his whole progress from the cradle to the grave, what it was to take t h o u g h t for the morrow; all his duties were comprised in o b e d i e n c e . " (281) D i e J e suiten, wie die slavehunter, um ihre stets a b n e h m e n d e Bevölkerung auf- 15 recht zu erhalten, jagten wilde Indier, besonders Kinder, als recruits zu dien e n für die christian population. U n d sehr g r a u s a m dabei. (290)

Zu bemerken: Bei den Wilden, wie bei den Affen, k e i n Erfindungs, dafür Nachahmungstalent. D i e Jesuiten bildeten die Indier nicht, sondern 20 zähmten sie. happy family. Ihre Bevölkerung reichte nie aus sich zu erhalten.

Jezt Goldland Californien und Australien. Wo rasch der M e n s c h e n s t r o m hingelenkt werden soll, m u ß wirklich oder angeblich die precious metals 25 und stones sich finden.

Slave

Labour.

Die rasche V e r m i n d r u n g der Z a h l der natives trieb d e n Spanier king % Jh. n a c h der Erobrung zur I m p o r t a t i o n von N e g e r n . R o h e Z a h l der Negerskla- 30 ven u n d die der coloured classes in ganz A m e r i c a u n d d e n Inseln zwischen 6 u n d 7 millions. D a v o n 3,500,000 in d e n U n i t e d States, 1,800,000 in Brazil, 500,000 in d e n Spanish colonies; 300,000, in d e n french; 200,000 in den e n der a n d r e n n a t i o n s . Vielleicht 3 - 4 Mill, freie Negroes u n d coloured m e n , d a r u n t e r die Haytians u n d 800,000 von E n g l a n d E m a n c i p i r t e . Fast 35 all | | 6 1 | u n s e r Zucker, cotton, Tabak, Caffee etc raised by negroe labour,

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Aus Herman Merivale: Lectures on colonization and colonies (Fortsetzung) 9

l

wovon / Sklavenarbeit. / u n s r e s Export, trade n a c h slave countries ... slavery without t h e slavetrade, wie in E n g l a n d n a c h Abschaffung des Sklav e n h a n d e l s 1812 u n d vor E m a n c i p a t i o n der Neger, was eher loss als gain. Die slaves h ä t t e n d o c h befreit werden m ü s s e n d u r c h ihre masters from t h e increasing cost of m a i n t a i n i n g t h e m , slave l a b o u r is far dearer than free wherever abundance of free labour can be procured. D e n n der b o n d s m a n h a t nichts to gain by his industry u n d der free labourer bietet sich z u m M i n i m u m an. t h e limit, a l s o , of t h e profitable d u r a t i o n of slavery is a t t a i n e d whenever t h e p o p u l a t i o n has b e c o m e so d e n s e t h a t it is cheaper to employ w

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the free labourer for hire. J e d e c o m m u n i t y n ä h e r t sich dieser limit. So long, aber in Colonien, as there is new soil to break u p , so long the c o n t i n u ance of slavery is secured; b e c a u s e w o r k m e n m u s t be h a d at all h a z a r d s , and it is m o r e profitable to cultivate a fresh soil by the dear labour of slaves, t h a n an e x h a u s t e d o n e by t h e c h e a p l a b o u r of freemen. D i e Sklaverei wird

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a b u r d e n für d e n planter, t h e profit of his cultivation falling off along with the gradual d i m i n u t i o n of fertility, while t h e expense of m a i n t a i n i n g his slaves r e m a i n s t h e s a m e or increases. In d e n englischen Colonies, bei der N e g e r e m a n c i p a t i o n fand sich sehr verschiedner Preiß derselben in d e n verschiednen Colonieen. D e r Preiß eines fieldlabourer, von d e n s.g. praedial

20

attached, d . h . der great majority der negroe peasantry in D e m e r a r a 169 / (ist a c o n t i n e n t a l colony m i t sehr fruchtbarem B o d e n u n d M a n g e l an P o p u lation dazu), in T r i n i d a d zu 110 /., in Barbadoes 75 /., in D o m i n i c a 70 /., in J a m a i c a 67 /. ... Je n a c h d e n V e r h ä l t n i ß e n der Colonie die Abschaffung der Negersclaverei ihr schädlich oder n i c h t . In Barbadoes und Antigua ζ. B. n i c h t . D i e Neger h a t t e n in dieser dichtbevölkerten Colonie d a h e r k e i n e n a n d r e n Subsistenzzwang ausser L o h n a r b e i t . (Später allerdings A u s w a n d rung derselben n a c h h ö h e r salarirenden Inseln.) In Jamaica schädlich. Zwar % des Bodens u n t e r Cultur. U n d der beste s c h o n seit 100 J a h r e n b e baut. But there is a great b r e a d t h of land, b o t h cleared u n d u n c l e a r e d ,

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available für das raising of provisions u n d o t h e r articles, sufficient to s u p ply t h e necessary wants of t h e negro labourer. Estates, die 1825 p r o d u c e d 2900 hogsheads, j e z t 1840 n u r 280. Dritte Classe von Colonies, wo n o c h a b u n d a n c e of fertile u n d u n o c c u p i e d land, wie in Mauritius, Trinidad, u n d in n o c h h ö h r e m G r a d , in Guiana, leztres eins der productivsten L ä n d e r der Welt. H i e r grosse sufferings d u r c h Abschaffung des negro trade u n d n o c h m e h r der negro slavery ... T h e enfranchised negro in slave c o m m u n i t i e s feels his own superiority to his c o m r a d e chiefly in his freedom from compulsory labour. T h u s enfranchised negroes in slave c o m m u n i t i e s prove, in general, an idle a n d a dissolute part of t h e p o p u l a t i o n . ( 2 9 2 - 3 2 1 ) Preiß der Sklaven, genannt „Praedial attached" von den Returns made for the purpose of assessing Compensation under the Emancipation Act.

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• Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 · Heft XIV Honduras 191 l. (etwas weniger.) Guiana 169 1. 10 sh. Trinidad. 110 /. 2 sh. Grenada. 100 /. &. Vincent. 97 /. 6 s. Antigua. 94 /. 8 sh. Mauritius. 93 /. 15 sh. Montserrat. 90 /. Ä L a d a 80 /. Barbadoes. 75 /. Dominica 70 /. Jamaica 67 /. Ä. . O f s 59 /. 15 s. Nevis 57 /. Toiago 55 l. Virgin Islands 55 /. Bermuda 51 /. 18 Bahamas. 35 /. 10.

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Production in British Guiana vor und seit der vollständigen Emancipation.

1835. 1838. 1839.

Zucker. lbs

Rum. gals

Cotton. lbs

107,586,405. 77,052,737. 47,522,000.

3,740,867. 2,239,256. 1,440,000.

867,942. 470,460. 303,900.

Vol. Convict

Caffe. lbs 3,066,742. 1,590,539. 747,450. [328, 329]

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II. Labour.

Portugiesen zuerst employed transportation u n d p e n a l l a b o u r in d e n Colo15 nies. England im 17' Jh. für die N o r d a m e r i k a n i s c h e n Plantations n a h m das System an. Cromwell sold his political captives as slaves to the Westi n d i a n s . Aber die Z a h l zu klein u n d die der free labourers zu groß als das von B e d e u t u n g . U n s r e Zeit zuerst das P h a e n o m e n von c o m m u n i t i e s , wo die bulk des working people felons serving out the t i m e of their p u n i s h - 20 ment. | |62| Penal Colonies u n t e r der britischen Regierung 4, New South Wales, Van Diemensland, Bermuda u n d Norfolk Island. In Bermuda n u r 900 convicts working in gangs u n d n u r employed in the governments dock-yards. Norfolk Island ist a place of temporary p u n i s h m e n t . 1836 convicts in N e w 25 S o u t h W a l e s : 2 7 , 8 3 1 ; V a n D i e m e n s L a n d : 16,968. W o v o n ungefähr 26,000 assigned d. h. m a d e over to settlers as servants to perform compulsory labour. V o n 1 7 8 7 - 1 8 3 6 75,200 transported n a c h N e w Süd Wales u n d 27,757 n a c h V a n d i e m e n s l a n d . D e r average der lezten J a h r e 3500 n a c h d e m erstren u n d 2000 n a c h d e m leztren. D a s ursprünglich rasche W a c h s e n dieser Colo- 30 n i e n ganz künstlich, einerseits grosse government expenditure, anderseits a m ple supply of labour. D a s government first supplied the settlers with slaves ( - labour) u n d t h e n b o u g h t the produce o f that labour. ( 1 - 5 )

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Aus Herman Merivale: Lectures on colonization and colonies (Fortsetzung)

Methods of obtaining Labour in Colonies without Slaves or Convicts.

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In der infancy of our W e s t i n d i a Colonies u n d der tobacco u n d ricegrowing settlements in N o r t h a m e r i c a c o m m o n für die colonists to procure indented labourers from E n g l a n d . (28) D i e m e m b e r s der »Colonization Society« (Wakefield et Co.) schlugen vor s c h o n 1830 o d e r 3 1 , of fixing a c o m p a r a tively high price on g o v e r n m e n t lands, in order at o n c e to furnish a fund that m i g h t be exclusively appropriated to t h e purpose of emigration, a n d to prevent the poorer emigrants from a c q u i r i n g a d o m i n i o n in t h e soil on too easy terms, a n d b e c o m i n g o c c u p a n t s in lieu of labourers. T h e first fruit

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ihres Projects war die f o u n d a t i o n der colony of S o u t h Australia; seit der Zeit dasselbe Princip, m e h r o d e r m i n d e r strikt, in all our australian colonies angewandt. (32, 3) F ü r die lezten 20 J a h r e P o p u l a t i o n u n d E x p o r t t r a d e von N e u b r a u n s c h w e i g , j e d e , verdoppelt. V o n Neusüdwales in d e r s e l b e n Z e i t P o p u l a t i o n etwas m e h r als verdreifacht, seine exports verl5facht. D e r E m i -

15

grant n a c h N e u s ü d w a l e s wird viel eher a p r o d u c e r of value als der n a c h British A m e r i c a . A b e r das leztre besser für das s e t t l e m e n t der E m i g r a n t e n selbst. (34) W e n n der settler sein L a n d für N i c h t s erhält, wie in d e m alten free-grant system, he h a s so m u c h m o r e to s p e n d in labour a n d in contrib u t i n g to matters of p u b l i c c o n v e n i e n c e . If he h a s an a m p l e supply of la-

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b o u r offered h i m at a cheap rate (wie früher in Neusüdwales) he will have m o r e to lay out on land. If t h e state chooses to take on itself t h e e x p e n s e of r o a d - m a k i n g and surveying, his funds, freed from those b u r d e n s , will be m o r e available for t h e p u r c h a s e b o t h of l a n d a n d labour. A fund für E i n e dieser 3 A r t e n von operations besizt der Staat in its wild lands, or t h e m o n ey for which they m a y sell. ... In w h i c h of these m e t h o d s is it m o s t convenient for the settler t h a t t h e fund should be applied? A system of freegrant, or s o m e t h i n g approaching to it, s e e m s t h e only u n d e r which a p o p u l a t i o n of small y e o m e n c a n p l a n t itself successfully over an extensive surface, wie C a n a d a ζ. B. Sie b r a u c h e n k e i n e a b u n d a n t supply of labour. H a b e n aber

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a u c h k e i n e Aussicht auf rasches, dagegen auf stätiges W a c h s t h u m des wealth. Ist das L a n d aber im Besitz von b e s o n d r e n facilities für die P r o d u c tion von exportable articles of value, by an e x p e n d i t u r e of capital, wie L a n d fruchtbar in Z u c k e r etc oder für fine wool wie Australia, so w ü r d e die E n t wicklung des capitals etc u n d A c c u m u l a t i o n aufgehalten, wo es u n m ö g l i c h die h i n r e i c h e n d e Zufuhr von l a b o u r zu verschaffen u n d wo alle labourers m i g h t i m m e d i a t e l y b e c o m e i n d e p e n d e n t landowners. Der 2 ' M a n g e l b e i d e m disposal of l a n d d u r c h free grant ist t h e difficulty, w h i c h h a s b e e n found in obliging t h e owners to cultivate t h e soil. ( 3 6 - 4 0 )

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Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 • Heft XIV T h e real pressure which is felt by capitalists in new countries raising exportable p r o d u c e arises n o t so m u c h from the h i g h price of l a b o u r t h a t is to be h a d as from the difficulty of procuring any. O h n e assistenz der Sklaverei oder einiger Ersatzmittel derselben h a t m a n es fast u n m ö g l i c h gefunden, sie zu erhalten at all; absolutely impossible to o b t a i n it in s u c h proportions as to r e n d e r capital most productive by a proper division of e m p l o y m e n t . (50) D e r value of wild land in a colony ist nothing. D e r Price of all land m u ß daher at first arbitrary sein, sei es daß die R e g i e r u n g es versteigert oder d e n acre gleich t h e u e r verkauft. In b e i d e n Fällen die imposition m e h r a tax imposed u p o n t h e purchaser, als die exaction of purchase m o n e y in the ordinary sense. (52, 3) the price of 100 acres is to be spent in the i m p o r t a t i o n of labour necessary for 100 acres. (56) A b e r n a c h u n d n a c h sollen d o c h die labourers landowners werden, a u c h n a c h W a k e f i e l d . A l s o C o n c u r r e n z zwischen d e n new comers who require labour u n d d e n old settlers who have j u s t lost theirs, for every working m a n who is brought from the m o t h ercountry ||63| by the expenditure of the capital of the former. Wages, daher, will rise. Das imaginary e q u i l i b r i u m between land a n d labour will be disturbed. (56, 7) Vieles G e k o h l ü b e r d a s J a g e n n a c h d e m »discovering a sufficient price for waste land«. (59) U e b e r das Verkaufen des waste land, z u m fixen Preiß den acre, sagt Sir George Gipps, (Governor von N e u s ü d wales): " L a n d t h r o u g h o u t the wide extent of N e w S o u t h W a l e s is to be found of s u c h varied quality and value, t h a t I feel p e r s u a d e d a complete scramble would ensue if any price whatsoever were fixed at which the first c l a i m a n t m i g h t be entitled to take such portion of it as he chose. Every acre of good land would be i m m e d i a t e l y bought up by our great capitalists, at whose mercy all newly arrived emigrants would infallibly be placed." (75) A u c h in D e m e r a r a the cultivated land n o t m o r e extensive t h a n the a b a n d o n e d . (83) In Südaustralien selbst, der „model colony" keine »Concentration« hervorgebracht. M ä r z 1840, w h e n the p o p u l a t i o n could n o t h a v e exceeded 12,000 souls, die purchases had far exceeded its agricultural u n d pastoral r e q u i r e m e n t s . T h e lands already surveyed would well bear von 50,000 bis 40,000 i n h a b i t a n t s , while the districts actually sold would support in comfort double those n u m b e r s . (83) D e r squatter ist der n a t u r a l corrector of land monopolies, wie der smuggler of commercial. (84) Das W a k e f i e l d s c h e E x p e r i m e n t succeeded, in respect of the quantity of land sold a n d the n u m b e r of emigrants conveyed, ü b e r alles Erwarten in Südaustralien. Jezt über 1,700,000 I. realisirt of late years in a l i e n australian colonies by the sale of land. (86, 7)

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Aus Herman Merivale: Lectures on colonization and colonies (Fortsetzung)

Disposal of Land in British America und United States.

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Der ältesten M e i n u n g n a c h hielt m a n es für das Beste, das L a n d gratis wegzugeben. W ä r e der Fall gewesen, w e n n die die received die grants b o n a fide settlers, m i t h i n r e i c h e n d e m Capital versehn to r e n d e r t h e grants available für die P r o d u c t i o n . D a n n bald obvious, d a ß wenn der owner neglected to cultivate his grant, the c o m m u n i t y was injured by t h e interposition of vacant spaces between the o c c u p i e d lands. M a n fand, d a ß B e d i n g u n g e n auferlegen u n d confisciren w e n n n i c h t erfüllt; o d e r eine quit rent entweder für uncultivated land allein oder alles, die das L a n d d e m werthlos m a c h e ,

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der es n i c h t b e b a u e n wolle, oder p a y m e n t of fines for noncultivation, o d e r general taxes unpraktisch, u n p o p u l a r u n d leicht z u u m g e h e n . A b e r das System der grants aggravated d u r c h gross abuses. D i e Colonialregierung betrachtete das L a n d rein als Present der N a t u r , um es n a c h W i l l k ü h r zu vertheilen. Da n u r a certain n u m b e r of acres could be granted to a single

15

person u n t e r d e n existing regulations, a n u m b e r applied for grants at t h e s a m e time, a n d t h e n t h e associates m a d e over their shares to t h e leader. So in Lower Canada 1,425,000 acres m a d e over zu a b o u t 60 individuals, u n t e r der Regierung von Sir A. M i l n e ; a territory in e x t e n t fast gleich der c o u n t y of Devon. In Upper Canada an 17 Mill, of acres surveyed 1825, Oberfläche so groß als die von Irland; all dieß granted away ausser 2 Mill, acres u n d doch die P o p u l a t i o n r e a c h e d k a u m 150,000. 3 Mill, weggegeben als G e schenk to „American Loyalists"; 600,000 to militia m e n ; % m i l l i o n to discharged soldiers u n d sailors, wovon sehr few t u r n e d cultivators, so d a ß ihre grants nichts als small u n d variable gratuities in m o n e y , je n a c h d e m Preiß

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d e n sie got for their lots. In Nova Scotia von 6 millions acres of useful l a n d 5,750,000 lavished in free grants. Schließlich G a n z e Prince Edward's Island an e i n e m Tag, 1767, an 60 grantees verschenkt, subject to quit-rents u n d conditions, die sie n i e erfüllt. In Lower C a n a d a die clergy reserves errichtet 1791, die crownreserves ebenfalls. U r s p r ü n g l i c h ι/Ί von j e d e m lot granted was reserved für die clergy u n d e b e n s o viel für die crown. N a c h 1821 diese scattered fragments consolidated in blocks, weniger i n c o n v e n i e n t aber i m m e r n o c h interposing desert tracts between the cultivated, ausser in F ä l l e n wo takers gefunden für long leases. Die crownreserves später aufgegeben. V o n d e n clergy reserves % sold 1831, a n o t h e r p o r t i o n 1836 u n d der r e m a i n d e r disposable g e m a c h t d u r c h A k t of p a r l i a m e n t von 1840. Die G e s c h i c h t e d i e ser Reserves in Upper Canada fast dieselbe. In U p p e r C a n a d a , seit 1825, hatte die Regierung k a u m n o c h lands to part with, d. h. solche die attractiv für settlers. Hier wie in d e m Prince Edward's Island h a t t e n die ||64| settlers von d e n grantees zu kaufen. D i e Bevölkerung in U p p e r C a n a d a gestiegen

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Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 • Heft XIV von 150,000 auf 400,000 seit 1825. In der Prinz Edwards Insel seit 1820 fast verdoppelt, n ä m l i c h auf 40,000. D i e Besitzer hier der farms, die landlords, stock the farm m i t horses, h o r n e d cattle, sheep u n d hogs, die Hälfte der necessary seed u n d d a n n give possession to a practical farmer, who will cultivate it a n d find labour. N a c h h e r gleiche T h e i l u n g , M é t a y e r System ... In j e d e r township der U n i t e d States a section of 640 acres oder l f j m i l e is appropriated to the purpose of education, forming % der whole township. D i e ß L a n d in den h a n d s von trustees, die aber nicht can dispose of it. ... Die e c o n o m i c a l disadvantages der reserves verschwinden, sobald adjacent land b e c o m e s valuable by the progress of settlement, d a n n it b e c o m e s worth the settler's while to r e n t the reserved land. ... T h e uniform system of sale für such a price as the land would fetch in C a n a d a eingeführt 1826, aber previous p a y m e n t of purchase m o n e y erst erheischt 1837. In Nova Scotia u n d N e u b r a u n s c h w e i g sale by a u c t i o n etablirt 1827, in N e u s ü d w a l e s 1831, wenn der „upset" price, originally 5 s. raised to 12 s. 1839; in Swanriver 1832. In allen diesen cases sale by a u c t i o n ; der u p s e t price, generally, 5 s. Das system der U n i t e d States war das great m o d e l followed in these proceedings ... In den United States die lands sind surveyed on an accurate plan, according to a general system; offered for sale, by p r o c l a m a t i o n of the president, u n d by law, m u s t be sold by public auction, der m i n i m u m price being 1% dollar per acre, ready m o n e y . Bietet n i e m a n d für das L a n d zu dies e m Preiß, oder upwards, it is subject to private entry at any time, auf baare Z a h l u n g . D e n n Credit wird n i c h t gegeben. L a n d wird n i c h t verkauft u n t e r 40 acres von der Regierung ... D i e 3 m a i n features des a m e r i k a n i s c h e n Systems sind: 1) Das Territorium gehört d e m Volk, in trust der Regierung, to be sold individually. 2) All lands sold zu e i n e m u n i f o r m upset price. 3) Alle proprietors subject to local taxation. ... lands sold by the general gove r n m e n t n i c h t subject to taxation u n t e r 5 years after purchase. ... Die „squatters", w e n n das Land, worauf sie sich etablirt, sold, m a n c h m a l per law überall d u r c h den usage entitled to a right of preemption ... Public l a n d in d e n U n i t e d Staten sehr cheap verkauft; der ordinary price selten ü b e r 6 s . 3 d . an acre. Das System gives great e n c o u r a g e m e n t to speculators; land generally passes in erster I n s t a n z in die h a n d s von Käufer deren einziger Zweck es zu resell at a profit: aber bleibt nicht lang unoccupied, in consequence of being subject, whether occupied or not, to local taxation. (94-106)

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Australien.

(Disposal

of Land.)

In Südaustralien die Colonie gegründet 1836. D i e ordinary executive u n d legislative powers vested in a governor u n d council, n a c h der c o m m o n m e t h o d ; aber in addition a board of c o m m i s s i o n e r s appointed, wovon 5 Einer zu residiren h a t in der Provinz, u n d d e m überwiesen das disposal of the land u n d das m a n a g e m e n t der emigration. Die g a n z e n funds raised d u r c h das disposal of l a n d s to be devoted z u m conveying von labouring families to the colony. L a n d Preiß hier erst 12 s., später auf 11, gesettled. E n d e 1838 ungefähr 50,000 /. raised d u r c h d e n sale of land a n d applied to 10 emigration; aber fast das G a n z e der sales bis zu d e m Z e i t r a u m effected in E n g l a n d u n d daher z u m grossen Theil of a very speculative character. 1839 J a h r der größten Prosperity für die Colonie, d u r c h massenhaftes Einström e n von Capital u n d I m m i g r a t i o n . D a r a u f begann, m i t u m die Colonie z u h e b e n , the most extraordinary system of public expenditure. 1840 die Co15 lonie bankerutt. D i e E m i g r a t i o n u n d l a n d sales ceased in August, 1840; a n d a s u d d e n u n d complete stop p u t der s.g. prosperity. Result war, d a ß P a r l a m e n t einschreiten m u ß t e u n d empower t h e g o v e r n m e n t to advance a very considerable s u m to m e e t the present emergencies auf solche security als zu erhalten o h n e overburdening the resources of the Colony. So ends 20 der „selfsupporting" part of the s c h e m e ; a n d S o u t h Australia, like other settlements, m u s t be content to d e p e n d for a while on the m o t h e r country for assistance. ... n a t u r a l advantages are in the long r u n of far m o r e import a n c e t h a n sound e c o n o m i c a l doctrines, to the progress a n d the wellbeing of a colony. ... D a s settlement in Western Australia or Swan River h a t t e so 25 great distress at o n e period, d a ß die settlers relieved d u r c h subscription in den N a c h b a r c o l o n i e s ; dieß settlement, das n u n only 4000 people c o n t a i n s , has cost this country 150,000 I. D i e m o s t u n f o r t u n a t e feature hier, wie in Vandiemensland, war s u c h profusion in e n o r m o u s grants to parties, who found it impossible to t u r n t h e m to account, d a ß fund von d e m Verkauf 30 von L ä n d e r e i e n n u r schwer zu raise. Sale by a u c t i o n etablirt 1832 ... | |65| In Neusüdwales b e g a n n das System der sales by auction, z u m upsetprice von 5 s. per acre. 1831. In d e m s e l b e n J a h r die sales of l a n d r e a c h e d 126,000 I. Die average s u m realised von 7 to 8 sh. per acre, including town allotments. 1839 der u p s e t price raised to 12 sh. V o n 1 8 3 8 - 1 8 4 0 (3 Jahre) 35 von 8 0 0 0 - 1 0 , 0 0 0 emigrants j ä h r l i c h expedirt n a c h Sydney by the e x p e n d i ture des landfund. 1841 soll die Zahl 23,000 oder m e h r gewesen sein u n d z u m erstenmal effect p r o d u c e d on the rate of wages by this vast influx of people. ... In a new country das Agriculturproduct nicht i m m e r am größten in d e n H ä n d e n der Capitalisten; weil die m o r e fertile patches of soil being

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Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 • Heft XIV often (speziell in A u s t r a l i e n ) scattered a m o n g t h e m o r e indifferent, the capitalist m u s t either content himself with the inferior soil instead of the better, or disperse his labourers over an extensive tract, a n d thus lose the advantage of his power of c o m b i n i n g labour. In so b e u m s t a n d e t e n c o u n tries Agricultur profitable carried on for a t i m e by small farmers. ... Port Philipp entwickelt sich am besten. Its land sold at the great average price of 30 s. per acre. Aber; it was not an insulated settlement, b u t a district of N e w S o u t h W a l e s ; a n d its existence nicht der Speculation s o n d e r n d e n act u a l wants der b e n a c h b a r t e n Colonies; das increasing Capital von V a n Diem e n s L a n d found a new field in this adjacent region etc m o s t favoured by n a t u r e etc. 1841 producirte es an 800,000 lbs Wolle für d e n english Market, exceeding das p r o d u c e des Caps der g u t e n Hoffnung. ( 1 1 0 - 1 2 7 )

Preparatory Expenses.

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Wichtig bei der first foundation einer Colonie, aus welchem fund ihre ersten Kosten bestritten werden sollen. Der einzige sichre fund der v o m Verkauf der Ländereien, wovon ein Theil for procuring labour, ein andres für die sonst n ö t h i g e n A u s g a b e n der Colonie ... Die necessary preparation für d e n Empfang der Emigrants, die preliminary G e n e r a l surveys, das laying out of town sites, die r u d i m e n t s of internal c o m m u n i c a t i o n , alles R e q u i s i t e für success der Colonie, n i c h t zu erhalten o h n e beträchtliche expenses u n d für diese legitimate purposes k a n n es n i c h t sehr wrong sein to pledge, by anticipation, that portion of the land revenue which belongs to t h e m . ... after a t i m e , the land sales would obviously furnish an insufficient fund, and taxation (aber i n s c h o n entwickelter P e r i o d e d e r Colonie) i n s o m e shape m u s t be resorted to. ... Plain, that the colony would gain s o m e t h i n g if it were, at the earliest period possible, to s u b m i t to local taxation for the purpose of road m a k i n g , a n d set free a portion of the land fund for the purpose of purchasing m o r e labour. ... several great land c o m p a n i e s sind n u n etablirt in N o r d a m e r i c a , Australia u n d N e u s e e l a n d . ... "Their policy" sagt Mr. M a n n (Six Years in den Australian Provinces, 1839) "is to leave land in a state of nature, until, by the gradual i m p r o v e m e n t of n e i g h b o u r i n g lands, their territorial acquisitions are increased in value by the general imp r o v e m e n t u n d advance of the colony; when they can dispose of their best lands to advantage, without incurring any expense in the i m p r o v e m e n t der i m m e n s e tracts they have taken possession of u n d e r the plea of public utility, but which have a direct contrary t e n d e n c y a n d effect." ... D e r Capitalist zahlt Preiß für that portion of the productive powers of the soil, which, in the course of improvement, yields monopoly profit, or rent. ( 1 3 4 - 1 4 8 )

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Policy of Colonial Governments towards Native Tribes, as regards their Protection und their Civilization. perverse wickedness of those outcasts of society w h o m the first waves of our colonization are sure to bring along with t h e m . ... t h e history der euro5 p e a n settlements in A m e r i c a , Africa, u n d Australia, presents every where the same general features—a wide a n d sweeping destruction of native races by the uncontrolled violence of individuals a n d colonial authorities, followed by tardy attempts on the parts of governments to repair the acknowledged crime. (153) whilst those tribes t h a t are in c o m m u n i c a t i o n with E u 10 ropeans are allowed to execute their b a r b a r o u s laws u n d customs u p o n o n e another, so long will they r e m a i n hopelessly i m m u r e d in their present state. (Aus Captains Grey's suggestions with reference to the practicability of i m proving the m o r a l u n d social c o n d i t i o n der aboriginal i n h a b i t a n t s von Südaustralien 1840). [167] ... In A m e r i c a , C a n a d a etc Provisions g e m a c h t für 15 L ä n d e r e i e n für die aborigines. Diese lebten so insulated in der M i t t e von sich rasch entwickelnden districts. [172, 173] Klar daß diese »reserves of land, appropriated to the natives« n u r p o s t p o n e the evil day. For, whether or n o t the natives, residing on these reserves, attain in their insulated condition to a certain degree of civilization, the same result will inevitably fol20 low. After a time, t h e colonists will cast an eye of cupidity on the native lands; they will ||66| complain, a n d with perfect truth, of t h e economical disadvantages which attend the interposition of large tracts between populous districts; of their own sufferings by t h e proximity of the natives; of the political mischiefs p r o d u c e d by these little inert republics, stagnant in the 25 very centre of a rapidly-moving society. A n d government will find itself, as it always has been, u n a b l e to resist these importunities, and cajoled by the t h o u s a n d plausibilities advanced in favour of removing these unfortunates a further stage into the wilderness; it will comply with the exigencies of the times, a n d the natives will be transported to some other region, to be fol30 lowed there again with sure a n d rapid steps by the encroaching tide of E u r o p e a n population. (175,6) Disputes a n d animosities are engendered; these are stimulated by the landjobbing class of the c o m m u n i t y ; until, at last, the gov e r n m e n t is half driven by the influence of a rapacious party, half i n d u c e d by the h o p e of protecting the u n f o r t u n a t e natives from insult a n d out35 rage, to remove t h e m o n c e m o r e into some distant territory. In other cases this b e c o m e s a m a t t e r of necessity. T h e g a m e in the I n d i a n reserves is destroyed by the progress of cultivation a r o u n d t h e m ; and, where they have m a d e no advance at all in agriculture, they m u s t be removed to save t h e m from starvation. (174) D i e ß removal also 1) n u r temporär. 2) N i c h t s de-

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Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 • Heft XIV structiver für civilization. Capital verloren für die emigrants. A u s der Agricultur wieder in die Jagd geworfen. D e r Preiß der Artikel, an deren Cons u m sie sich gewöhnt, steigt im Verhältniß sie farther removed von der civilized frontier, so d a ß sie gezwungen zu inferior substitutes. It is precisely as if a savage had been nurtured in European habits und costume until his own 5 were forgotten, and then turned naked into the wilderness, and told to thrive as he did before. D a n n das Gefühl der insecurity, die despair of p e r m a n e n c e , die conviction of approaching a n n i h i l a t i o n . (176, 7) Es giebt n u r 3 W e g e : E x t e r m i n a t i o n der native races; ihre civilization, complete or partial, by retaining t h e m as insulated bodies carefully von d e n E u r o p ä e r n entfernt; 10 their amalgamation mit den Colonists. (179) Leztres ist der keystone, das leading principle of all s o u n d theory on the subject. (180) U n d e r a m a l g a m ation zu verstehn die u n i o n of natives m i t d e n settlers in d e n s e l b e n comm u n i t i e s , als master u n d servant, fellow labourers, fellow citizens u n d if possible, as c o n n e c t e d by intermarriage. (180) In N e w Z e a l a n d Y von jeder 15 township für die aborigines reserved. (182) 10

children of most native races are fully or m o r e t h a n a m a t c h for those of Europeans in aptitude for intellectual a c q u i r e m e n t . I n d e e d it appears to be a singular law of n a t u r e , that there is less precocity in the e u r o p e a n race t h a n almost any other. In those races in which we s e e m to have reason for believing t h a t the intellectual organization is lower, perception is quicker, a n d maturity earlier. (197) T h e missionary training is based on the insulation of the natives from the rest of the c o m m u n i t y . As soon as this is interrupted, the influence des missionary m u s t d i m i n i s h , a n d his efforts m u s t be carried on at an increasing disadvantage. D a r u m erfolgreiche missionary experiments generally n u r Stattfindend in u n c o l o n i z e d regions, wie d e n islands des Pacific, oder in frontier districts of thinly peopled colonies, wie in S ü d a m e r i k a ... the natives m u s t eventually either m i x with the colonists, or remove, and remove is relapse into barbarism. If they r e m a i n , t h e c o m m i x t u r e will take place. If the natives be n o t elevated into the rank of the s o u n d a n d healthy part of the population, they will inevitably fall victims to the contact of the m o r e degraded. ... m o r e is to be h o p e d from the y o u n g t h a n the adult. ... in m a n y Canadian u n d northwestern tribes a very large proportion der present generation n i m m t Theil an e u r o p e a n blood. N a c h Dr H i n d s after some years no p u r e N e w Z e a l a n d e r will r e m a i n in N e w Z e a l a n d ... there is strong t e s t i m o n y to the superior energy and h i g h organization of m a n y of these half blood races. ... N o r is it t h e white m a n , sagt Mr. Darwin, alone that thus acts the destroyer. T h e Polynesian of Malay extraction has, in parts of the East I n d i a n Archipelago, t h u s driven before h i m the darkcoloured native. T h e varieties of m a n s e e m to act u p o n

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e a c h other in the s a m e way as different species of a n i m a l s ; the stronger always extirpating t h e weaker. ... In M e x i c o u n d Peru die indische Bevölker u n g sich beständig vermehrte. D i e H o t t e n t o t s beständig gewachsen von | |67| 1 8 0 7 - 1 8 2 3 . U n d M. führt selbst Beispiele aus Nordamerica an, wo nicht die b e s o n d e r n G r ü n d e ihrer D e p o p u l a t i o n w ü t h e t e n . A l s o die aboriginal races m ü s s e n nicht nothwendig untergehn ... the probable theory seems to be, that t h e h u n t i n g tribes which first b e c a m e k n o w n to E u r o p e a n s were the m e r e fragment of a great family of the h u m a n species, losing, in every successive generation, s o m e t h i n g of the qualities which h a d distinguished their predecessors, d i m i n i s h i n g in n u m b e r s a n d resources, a n d on their way towards extinction; m a n c h e h a b e n diese o p i n i o n für alle races c o m m o n l y called savage. ... K e i n I n d i a n tribe reclaimed from t h e h u n t i n g state hat je so grosse Fortschritte g e m a c h t als die Cherokees, prior to their last and u n h a p p y removal. (In d e n U n i t e d States) "1824, sagt Mr. Stuart (3 years in N o r t h A m e r i c a v. II, p. 1 4 2 - 1 4 3 ) when the population of the Cherokees was 15,560 individuals, it i n c l u d e d 1277 negroes (slaves); they h a d 18 schools, 36 grist-mills, 13 saw-mills, 762 looms, 2480 spinning wheels, 172 waggons, 2923 ploughs, 7683 horses, 22,531 black cattle, 46,732 swine, 2546 sheep, 430 goats, 62 blacksmith's shops m i t several public roads, ferries u n d turnpikes. A u c h newspaper in their own language." ... In T a h i t i u n d d e n Sandwichinseln h a b e n die savages wundervolle Fortschritte gemacht. ( 1 9 8 - 2 2 2 )

Progress of Wealth in Colonies. Rate of Wages. Rate of Profits. Taxation. 25

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D i e m o n e y wages of bricklayers, m a s o n s u n d carpenters, in Vandiemensland, a m o u n t e d in 1824 to 12 s. a day; 1830 gefallen auf 10, 1838 auf 6 s. 6 d. Yet, between 1830 u n d 1838 die exports der colony verdreifacht u n d die P o p u l a t i o n did n o t nearly d o u b l e . (229) Der e n o r m o u s rate of m o n e y wages in Neusüdwales aus 4 G r ü n d e n : Silber cheap, weil N e u s ü d w a l e s besondere facilities für die P r o d u c t i o n der Wolle besizt, in Folge wovon a day's labour in Australia raises a greater value in exportable p r o d u c e t h a n a day's labour in most other countries; Silber ferner cheap, weil grosse Q u a n tity von Silber oder its equivalent, jährlich in die Colonie gebracht o h n e ret u r n by emigrants. D r i t t e n s : D e r reale Tauschwerth der von d e m labourer c o n s u m i r t e n W a a r e n erhöht by the length of the transit. Schließlich real wages hoch, weil Nachfrage n a c h Arbeit groß im Verhältniß zur Z u f u h r in e i n e m L a n d wo labourers are few, a n d land cheap a n d a b u n d a n t . D e r effect

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Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 · Heft XIV of real wages being high is this, that the capitalist c a n n o t profitably apply his capital to inferior soils, or in less valuable situations; and, consequently, the productiveness of labour c o n t i n u e s at its m a x i m u m . (230, 1) So long as cultivation c o n t i n u e s to extend itself over land of the first quality, the rate of profits is more likely to fall than rise, unless large supplies of labour be introduced, larger t h a n the ordinary course of emigration m a y be expected to bring. ... capital h a t hier a t e n d e n c y to increase faster t h a n m a n k i n d u n d d a d u r c h steigt der Preiß der Arbeit. A u c h sind die Colonists m e i s t m e h r sparsamer u n d a c c u m u l i r e n d e r als i n d e n M u t t e r l ä n d e r n ... Result dieser rapid a c c u m u l a t i o n ist an increasing d e m a n d for labour u n d a powerful t e n d e n c y towards a rise of wages, a n d a lowering of profits; a n d h e n c e the u r g e n t desire for cheaper u n d m o r e subservient labourers, for a class to w h o m the capitalist m i g h t dictate terms, instead of being dictated to by t h e m ... Kritischer P u n k t in der G e s c h i c h t e der Colonien, w h e n capital begins to a c c u m u l a t e ... Bisher no instance in der G e s c h i c h t e einer Colony possessing a b u n d a n t fertile land, which h a s c o n t i n u e d to raise exportable p r o d u c e in large quantities without the aid of compulsory labour. ( 2 3 5 - 7 ) W h a t is called rent, in old countries, is partly profits: profits on capital e x p e n d e d on such i m p r o v e m e n t s . B u t in countries where only the m o s t fertile soil is cultivated, the e x p e n d i t u r e of capital in p e r m a n e n t improvements is as yet comparatively small. (243) In diesen m o d e r n e n colonies the lightest of all recognised ties are those which b i n d the cultivator to t h e land which he occupies. (244) In new colonies rent is comparatively inconsiderable. D e n n o c h it arises früh, not in the land generally used for agricultural purposes, but in that which possesses certain monopolized advantages of situation, wie suburban tracts of ground, spots commanding falls of water, die immediate vicinity of harbours und navigable waters. (I.e.) |

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|68| A u s e i n e m parliamentary paper von 1835 folgt, daß die a n n u a l n e t t exp e n d i t u r e incurred by G r e a t Britain, on a c c o u n t of h e r foreign possessions is a b o u t 2,350,000 l. D a v o n 700,000 l. für m a i n t e n a n c e of military u n d m a r - 30 i t i m e stations. 250,000 für die m a i n t e n a n c e der convict establishments in Australia. Bleiben 1,400,000 l. für die civil u n d military a d m i n i s t r a t i o n der «plantations u n d settlements". (247, 8) G e n t l e m e n (english) sind an artificial class, the j o i n t p r o d u c e of feudalism a n d wealth. (278) N a c h Humboldt der Weizenretum in Preussen = 4 oder 5:1; in France = 5 oder 6:1, in den best 35 soils 1 3 : 1 ; La Plata 12:1; Nordmexico 17:1, Peru 18:1, e q u i n o x i a l Mexico 24:1, b u t if the comparison were m a d e between the a m o u n t of exchangeable value which m a y be produced by an e u r o p e a n labourer raising wheat on a soil of average fertility, and a negro on a sugar estate in C u b a or D e merara, the difference would probably appear still more remarkable. (224, 5) 40

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Aus Herman Merivale: Lectures on colonization and colonies (Fortsetzung) In densely peopled colonies the labourer, although free, is naturally dep e n d e n t on the capitalist; in thinly peopled ones, the want of this n a t u r a l d e p e n d e n c e m u s t be supplied by artificial restrictions. (314)

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Felix Wakefield. Colonial Surveying, with a view to the Disposal of waste Land; in a report to the New Zealand Company. L o n d o n . 1849. In order t h a t intending settlers m a y enjoy a free a n d e q u a l choice, the land 5 m u s t be so m e a s u r e d , m a p p e d u n d described, as to furnish a complete picture of it. This is the survey. (7, 8) the only proper course is to p u t a fixed a n d u n i f o r m price per acre u p o n all the waste land in a settlement. If there were l a n d in the settlement for which this price was d e e m e d excessive, s u c h land would n o t be sold at first: b u t if the u n i f o r m price were n o t 10 d e e m e d excessive for the m o r e fertile a n d better situated sections, these would be sold; and the progress of settlement a n d the increase of population would gradually confer u p o n sections of inferior fertility a n d position, a value e q u a l to the u n i f o r m price; a n d this price would t h e n be o b t a i n e d for t h e m . This happens every day in new colonies. Land which at first nobody 15 would take at any price, becomes desirable, and is then sold for the price which at first was cheerfully paid for only the most fertile and best situated spots. (23, 4) T h e price of waste land, according to the System adopted by the N e w Zeal a n d C o m p a n y , is not really paid for the land, b u t is a c o n t r i b u t i o n by all t h e buyers towards objects of the u t m o s t advantage to themselves. (24) the 20 G o v e r n m e n t of U n i t e d States is the greatest a n d m o s t successful of colon i z i n g authorities. (26) In such countries wie d e n A u s t r a l i a n colonies u n d N e u s e e l a n d , the pastoral capitalist is the best pioneer of settlement. He discovers the most fertile districts, ascertains the different qualities of the soil etc. (32) W. will d a ß die C o m p a g n i e keine G r e n z e b e s t i m m t für das Maximum 25 des Länderverkaufs an Einen, wohl aber ein Minimum, n ä h m l i c h 100 acres für die Agricultur u n d 500 für die V i e h z u c h t . Als Rente n i m m t er 1 /. St.

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für 100 acres V i e h z u c h t . (The peculiar m o d e s of Surveying, Selecting, a n d giving Possession of L a n d are those adopted by the Canterbury Association in its Settlement on the S o u t h e r n Plains of N e w Z e a l a n d . D i e englische Regierung hat die N e u s e e l a n d C o m p a n i e zu i h r e m A g e n t e n daselbst gem a c h t , u n d u n t e r dieser h a b e n sich wieder Associations von k l e i n e n L a n d agenten gebildet, wie die angegebne.) ( 3 5 - 3 7 )

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Wakefield. (Edward Gibbon.) A View of the Art of Colonization, with present Reference to the British Empire. L o n d o n 1849. | |69| Of colonization, the principal elements are emigration a n d t h e p e r m a 5 n e n t settlement of the emigrants on u n o c c u p i e d land. D e r Prozeß w o d u r c h die colony peopled u n d settled heißt Colonization. (16) In Ireland there is a want of r o o m for the poor, but plenty of r o o m for capitalists if they could be got to go or to grow there: in F r a n c e there is a r e m a r k a b l e want of r o o m for the literary class, t h o u g h n o t for capitalists ... in Russia, where trade is 10 despised by t h e nobility, there is a great want of r o o m for cadets of that class; whilst if capital were m o r e a b u n d a n t , there would be plenty of r o o m for m o r e people of the labouring class, or else waste land would not a b o u n d , a n d slavery would n o t c o n t i n u e : b u t in G r e a t Britain all classes suffer from the want of room. (65) »there are too m a n y competitors in pro- 15 portion to the fund, u n d dieß bildet d e n want of room.« (66) G r e a t Britain is less capable t h a n any other in the world is, or ever was, of u n d e r g o i n g great political disturbance without m o r t a l injury. Weil der Credit nirgend so grosse Rolle. Overturn, or only shake the belief, that t h e promises will be kept, a n d you thoroughly destroy the value of this credit m o n e y . N o w the 20 belief, t h a t the promises to pay, which constitute t h e great bulk of our m o n ey, will be kept, depends altogether on the preservation of political order. Aber in Frankreich etc eine Zeit lang the townpeople m i g h t be fed by the government, because it bears so small a proportion to t h e rural population. A b e r in Great Britain das Verhältniß der rural p o p u l a t i o n zu small zur 25 städtischen, in Great Britain so large a majority of the people live in towns, a n d are totally d e p e n d e n t on credit for their daily bread,-that political dis-

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orders which should destroy credit, would inevitably occasion famine in our towns. U n d sind sie would increase political disturbance. (69, 70) In E n g l a n d necessity von Zeit zu Zeit of an occasional destruction of capital on the grandest scale. ... T h e practice with us seems to be to hoard up capital till we know n o t what to do with it, a n d t h e n to throw it away as rapidly as possible till the quantity for u s e is brought to a level with the field of investment. T h u s o n e observes for a t i m e a general care a n d p r u d e n c e in m a k i n g the investments: m e r e speculation is almost u n k n o w n : everybody that saves, saves now. Presently, a decreasing rate of interest on good securities shows that a want of r o o m for capital is growing; a n d the least prud e n t t u r n an eye to unsafe securities which yield a higher r e t u r n : but t h e h o a r d i n g goes on. At length, interest on good securities is so low, or so nearly r e d u c e d to n o t h i n g , t h a t t h e a n n o y a n c e of risking to lose b e c o m e s less t h a n that of t h e certainty of not gaining: a n d all the world, everybody being afraid lest his n e i g h b o u r s h o u l d get before h i m , rushes h e a d l o n g i n t o speculation. Capital without e n d is thrown into operation from which large returns are expected, b u t which t u r n o u t m o r e or less r u i n o u s : a great a m o u n t of capital has disappeared. T h e r u i n a n d misery thus brought u p o n individuals frighten t h e whole body of capitalists: a n d now a n o t h e r set of people are r u i n e d by the difficulty or impossibility of obtaining capital for safe undertakings. By degree t h e p a n i c subsides; steady h o a r d i n g goes on again; a n d after a while t h e s a m e process is repeated. T h e alternations of hoarding, wasting, a n d p a n i c , are full of evil of various kinds. ... D u r i n g the t i m e of speculation indeed, s o m e gain; those who are fortunate or sharp e n o u g h to "get o u t " of b a d speculation before their b a d n e s s is generally known. These gain suddenly a n d largely; they are, for the m o s t part, g a m blers for life. Their success is an e x a m p l e which induces others to b e c o m e gamblers when the speculation-time c o m e s r o u n d again. During the t i m e of speculation m o s t people are gamblers. ... Ever since capital b e g a n to be s u p e r a b u n d a n t in England, t h e spirit of the g a m b l e r has b e e n growing amongst our c o m m e r c i a l a n d m a n u f a c t u r i n g classes. ... generally, o u r m e n of business of all ranks a n d kinds are, in c o m p a r i s o n with their predecessors of the last century, unsteady, in h a s t e to be rich, fearless of risk, sharp or ready to take advantage of all opportunities, rather t h a n signally h o n e s t and true. ( 7 6 - 7 8 ) T h e peculiar characteristic of colonies is plenty of r o o m for all classes. (79) ||70| In colonies, the field of p r o d u c t i o n is u n l i m i t e d ; a n d the u s e of it m a y be enlarged faster t h a n capital a n d p o p u l a t i o n c a n possibly increase. ... Allerdings k a n n da sein temporary excess of capital u n d people, sei es daß plötzliche I m p o r t a t i o n von Capital exceeds the actuai supply of labor oder u m g e k e h r t . ... A b e r an excessive capital h i e r soon wasted; an excess of labour is soon r e m e d i e d by fresh importations of capi-

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Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 · Heft XIV tal, or by the rapid increase of capital in t h e colony. ( 7 9 - 8 1 ) Colonies sind von N a t u r exporting c o m m u n i t i e s . U n d ihr Product besonders suited for exchange with old countries. In leztren m a n u f a c t u r e d goods die n a t u r a l p r o d u c t i o n for export. Dagegen: In c o n s e q u e n c e of the c h e a p n e s s of land in colonies, t h e great majority of the people are owners or occupiers of 5 l a n d ; a n d their industry is necessarily in a great m e a s u r e confined to the producing of what c o m e s immediately from t h e soil: viz. food, a n d the raw materials of m a n u f a c t u r e . T h e old country a n d t h e colony, therefore, are, naturally e a c h other's best customers. (83) M e r e labour, without the enterprise a n d energy required for rendering a wilderness productive, will not 10 raise a large surplus p r o d u c e from even the most fertile soils. (84) D i e Verb e ß r u n g e n in der Agricultur sehr langsam. Avanciren n u r im Verhältniß z u m W a c h s t h u m der Bevölkerung, c o m p e t i t i o n is unaffected by an increase of p r o d u c e arising from agricultural i m p r o v e m e n t s . A l o n g with the i m p r o v e m e n t , there are m o r e people of all classes to c o n s u m e the greater 15 p r o d u c e ; a n d the c o m p e t i t i o n is unaltered. As a r e m e d y for competition, therefore, it is m o r e l a n d that we want. ([88,] 89) Every fresh i m p o r t a t i o n of food by m e a n s of exporting m o r e m a n u f a c t u r e d goods, is an enlargement of the field of p r o d u c t i o n ; is like an acreable increase of our l a n d ; a n d has a t e n d e n c y to abolish a n d prevent injurious competition. (89) Die 20 s c h l i m m e c o m p e t i t i o n also reducirbar auf »an excess of capital u n d people in proportion to land«. ... N e i t h e r by i m p r o v e m e n t s of agriculture, n o r by the i m p o r t a t i o n of food, if these fall short of the power of the people to increase, is the competition of excessive n u m b e r s in all classes d i m i n i s h e d in t h e least. By whatever m e a n s the field of e m p l o y m e n t for all classes is en- 25 larged, unless it can be enlarged faster t h a n capital a n d people can increase, no alteration will take place in profits or wages, or in any sort of r e m u n e r a t i o n for exertion: there is a larger fund, b u t a corresponding or greater increase of capital and people, so that c o m p e t i t i o n r e m a i n s the same, or [may] even go on b e c o m i n g m o r e severe. (91) D i e M o d e r n e n , sagt 30 Dr H i n d s m a c h e n ihre colonies of a single class of persons, a n d t h a t t h e m o s t helpless, and the m o s t unfit to perpetuate o u r n a t i o n a l character ... T h e ancients, on the contrary, sent out a representation of the p a r e n t state ... colonists from all ranks. (109) C r i m e is rare in N o v a Scotia a n d N e w Brunswick; so it is in South Africa a n d West Australia. T h e colonial 35 soil is u n s u i t a b l e for crime, which grows there slowly a n d with difficulty. In the convict colonies a n d their i m m e d i a t e neighbours, it is the imperial gove r n m e n t which forces crime to grow a b u n d a n t l y in a soil naturally unfavourable to i t . . . . Dagegen „colonial smartness". For the growth of h o n our, the colonies are n o t a very congenial soil. (151) a colony that is n o t 40 attractive to w o m e n , is an unattractive colony: in order to m a k e it attrac-

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tive to b o t h sexes, you do e n o u g h if you take care to m a k e it attractive to w o m e n . (156) There is a n o t h e r principle of l a b o u r which n o t h i n g points out to t h e e c o n o m i c a l i n q u i r e r in old countries, b u t of w h i c h every colonial capitalist h a s b e e n m a d e conscious in his own person. By far t h e greater part of t h e operations of industry, a n d especially those of w h i c h t h e prod u c e is great in proportion to t h e capital a n d labour employed, r e q u i r e a considerable t i m e for their c o m p l e t i o n . As to m o s t of t h e m , it is n o t worth while to m a k e a c o m m e n c e m e n t w i t h o u t t h e certainty of being able to carry t h e m on for several years. A large p o r t i o n of the capital employed in

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t h e m is fixed, inconvertible, d u r a b l e . If a n y t h i n g h a p p e n s to stop t h e operation, all this capital is lost. If t h e harvest c a n n o t be gathered, t h e whole outlay in m a k i n g it grow h a s b e e n thrown away. | | 7 1 | ... D i e ß zeigt d a ß constancy is a no less i m p o r t a n t principle als c o m b i n a t i o n of labour. T h e i m p o r t a n c e of t h e principle of constancy is not seen h e r e , b e c a u s e rarely

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indeed does it h a p p e n , that t h e l a b o u r w h i c h carries on a business, is stopped against t h e will of t h e capitalist ... A b e r in d e n colonies grade u m g e k e h r t . H i e r capitalists are so m u c h afraid of it, that they avoid its occurrence as m u c h as they can, by avoiding, as m u c h as possible operations which require m u c h t i m e for their c o m p l e t i o n . (169[, 170]) T h e r e are n u -

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m e r o u s operations of so simple a kind as n o t to a d m i t a division i n t o parts, which c a n n o t be performed w i t h o u t t h e co-operation of m a n y pairs of h a n d s . Ζ. B. t h e lifting of a large tree on to a wain, keeping down weeds in a large field of growing crop, shearing a large flock of sheep at t h e s a m e t i m e , gathering a harvest of corn at t h e t i m e w h e n it is ripe e n o u g h a n d n o t too ripe, moving any great weight; everything in short, w h i c h c a n n o t be d o n e unless a good m a n y pairs of h a n d s h e l p e a c h o t h e r in t h e s a m e u n d i v i d e d e m p l o y m e n t , and at t h e s a m e t i m e . (168) C o m b i n a t i o n u n d c o n s t a n c y of labour are provided for in old countries, without an effort or t h o u g h t on the part of the capitalist, merely by t h e a b u n d a n c e of labourers for hire. T h e scarcity of labourers for h i r e is t h e universal c o m p l a i n t of colonies. It is t h e o n e cause, both of the high wages w h i c h p u t t h e colonial l a b o u r e r at his ease, a n d of t h e exorbitant wages which s o m e t i m e s harass t h e capitalist. (170) Colonial d e m o c r a c y u n d demagogism. (p. 187 sq.) T h e privileged class (in d e n englischen colonies) is t h e official class. ( B e a m t e n ) (194) In

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o u r colonies, as in F r a n c e now, office is t h e only distinction. (I.e.) Zu d e n H i n d e r n i s s e n at c o l o n i s a t i o n gehört n o c h t h e colonial Effects of Convict Transportation, which occur n u r i n der Colonie von N e u s ü d w a l e s u n d Nachbarschaft u n d die p r e s e n c e of aboriginal natives m i t d e m revolting process w o d u r c h ihre e x t e r m i n a t i o n is b r o u g h t about. T h e latter set of coloniai evils belong chiefly to the colonies of S o u t h Africa, Ceylon u n d N e w Z e a l a n d . ([221,] 222) N u r das cheapest land in a colony, is that whose price

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Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 • Heft XIV affects t h e labour market. T h e price of this land, as of all bare land, and of everything else which it costs nothing to produce, d e p e n d s of course on t h e relation between the demand and the supply. (332) Official favouritism a n d j o b b i n g in t h e disposal of l a n d by grant, constitute o n e of t h e m o s t p r o m i n e n t a n d ugliest features of colonial history. (336) In Order t h a t t h e price of waste 5 land should accomplish its objects (nämlich die Arbeiter nicht zu Landeigenthümern zu m a c h e n ) it m u s t be sufficient for t h e purpose. H i t h e r t o t h e price h a s b e e n everywhere insufficient. (338) D i e s e r „sufficient price wird beschrieben wie folgt: »In founding a colony, t h e price m i g h t be so low as to r e n d e r the q u a n t i t y of land appropriated by settlers practically unlim1ο ited: it m i g h t be h i g h e n o u g h to occasion a p r o p o r t i o n b e t w e e n l a n d a n d people similar to t h a t of old countries, in w h i c h case, if this very h i g h price did n o t prevent emigration, t h e cheapest l a n d i n t h e colony m i g h t b e a s dear, a n d t h e s u p e r a b u n d a n c e of labourers as deplorable as in E n g l a n d : or it m i g h t be a j u s t m e d i u m between t h e two, occasioning n e i t h e r super- 15 a b u n d a n c e of people n o r s u p e r a b u n d a n c e of land, b u t so limiting t h e q u a n t i t y of land, as to give t h e cheapest l a n d a m a r k e t value t h a t would have t h e effect of compelling labourers to work some considerable time for wages before they could b e c o m e landowners.« (339) T h e s u b s t i t u t i o n by t h e U n i t e d States of selling for granting h a s n o t in t h e least d i m i n i s h e d t h e 20 value of negroslaves, or t h e necessity in t h e free states of relying for t h e c o n d u c t o f works requiring m u c h c o n s t a n c y a n d c o m b i n a t i o n o f labour, o n a vast i m m i g r a t i o n of s u c h n a t u r a l slaves as t h e poorest Irish. (340) | |72| In t h e founding of West Australia, t h e r e was no choice. In disposing of the waste land, t h e g o v e r n m e n t b e g a n by granting 500,000 acres (fast % as m u c h as t h e great c o u n t y of Norfolk) to o n e person. T h e n c a m e t h e governor a n d a few o t h e r persons, with grants of i m m e n s e extent. T h e first grantee t o ok his principality at t h e l a n d i n g place, a n d t h e second, of course, could only choose his, outside of this vast property. T h e n t h e prop­ erty of t h e second grantee compelled t h e t h i r d to go further off for l a n d ; a n d t h e fourth, again, was driven still further i n t o t h e wilderness. At length, t h o u g h by a very brief process, an i m m e n s e territory was appropriated by a few settlers, who were so effectually dispersed, that, as there were no r o a d s or m a p s , scarcely o n e of t h e m knew where he was. ... In t h e founding of S o u t h Africa by t h e D u t c h , t h e dispersion of t h e first settlers, t h o u g h superficially or acreably less, was as mischievous as at Swan River. ... D i e Ur­ sache der dispersion appears at first sight to have b e e n t h e u n l i m i t e d lib­ erty of t h e settlers' choice in t h e selection of their land. W h e n t h e dog was in the m a n g e r , t h e cow h a d to go w i t h o u t hay, or pick up what r u b b i s h she could elsewhere. Only t h e first grantee at Swan River h a d a real liberty of choice as to locality: t h e second h a d less liberty, t h e t h i r d still less, a n d so

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Aus Edward Gibbon Wakefield: A view of the art of colonization on. At last, when a d o z e n people h a d appropriated e n o u g h land for t h e support of millions, n o b o d y else h a d any liberty at all: the whole of t h e l a n d suitable for settlers at the t i m e was gone, a n d h e l d by a handful of people, veritable dogs in the m a n g e r , who could n o t u s e their property, a n d yet 5 would not part with it, because, c o m i n g from an old country where land has b o t h a scarcity a n d position value, they d e e m e d it worth m o r e t h a n anybody would think of paying for it u n d e r the c i r c u m s t a n c e of the vast extent of private land in proportion to p o p u l a t i o n . ( 4 3 3 - 5 ) T h e placing of i m m e n s e quantities of waste l a n d in s u c h a state of private property as pre10 vents it from being u s e d — a s keeps it always waste l a n d , — h a s b e e n t h e u n i versal vice of colonial governments acting u n d e r instructions from Downingstreet. T h e result occurs, whether t h e l a n d is granted in q u a n t i t i e s exceeding the grantees' m e a n s of using the land, or is sold at a price so low as to encourage absentee ownership. (435, 6) 15

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Th. Hodgkin. An Enquiry into the merits of the american Colonization Society etc. L o n d o n 1833. 1787 Granville Sharp, Philanthrop, was the m e a n s of colonizing an 400 N e groes zu Sierra L e o n e . Diese colony seit der Zeit repeatedly recruited by 5 F r e e Blacks, d a h i n gesandt von verschiednen quarters, d u r c h Großbritann i e n . 1787 schlug Dr. Thornton vor, die Schwarzen an der K ü s t e von Africa zu kolonisiren, d e m Volk of Boston u n d v o n Providence. (Rhodeisland.) 1789, Samuel Hopkins, Minister of Newport in R h o d e i s l a n d , proposed to Granville Sharp the colonization of e d u c a t e d a n d industrious Blacks from 10 N e w England, in his new settlement. 1790 Ferdinando Fairfax, of Richm o n d , U n i t e d States proposed t h e colonization of the free people of Color. Jefferson in V e r b i n d u n g m i t some other Virginians, d a c h t e d a r a n 1801. ... Robert Finley, von N e w Jersey, hat das merit of reducing this s c h e m e to a practical form, by the successful institution of t h e Colonization Society. 15 This he effected am 1 Jan. 1817. (p. 4, 5)

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|73| Th. F. Buxton. The African Slave Trade. 1839. My first proposition is, that ü b e r 150,000 h u m a n beings are annually conveyed from Africa, across the Atlantic u n d sold as slaves. (1) V o m 1 Juli 5 1827 bis 30 J u n e 1830 (3 Jahre) n a c h officiellen D o c u m e n t e n gebracht allein in d e n Hafen von R i o de J a n e i r o 148,940 negroes oder annually im D u r c h s c h n i t t 49,643, 1838 aber 60,000. (3) 78,331 were landed, at 5 ports in Brazil, im Lauf der 12 m o n t h s , e n d e n d am 30 J u n e 1830 (5); to which m i g h t be a d d e d the indefinite but considerable n u m b e r smuggled into 10 other places in Brazil. (12) H a u p t s k l a v e n l ä n d e r : Brasilien; C u b a ; Portorico; Einiger Sklavenhandel a u c h getrieben n a c h B u e n o s Ayres, R i o de la Plata, den U n i t e d Provinces von Uruguay, d e n U n i t e d States u n d Texas. ( 1 2 - 2 6 ) Sklavenhandel u n t e r amerikanischer Flagge. (24) (In Newyork eigens Schiffe gebaut für den Sklavenhandel, n a c h H a v a n n a h g e h e n d u n d 15 von dort absegelnd u n t e r amerikanischer Flagge. [21-23]) D i e m e r c h a n dise, chiefly if n o t exclusively, given in exchange for slaves, consisted of cowries, Brazilian tobacco in rolls, spirits u n d M a n c h e s t e r piece goods. % cowries (im Durchschnitt) % tobacco u n d spirits u n d % M a n c h e s t e r cott o n goods. (Alle diese D a t a von captain M'Lean.) Die average s u m paid für 20 j e d e n Sklaven, die goods at costprice g e n o m m e n 4 I. Fast alle cotton goods gekauft für d e n slave trade in Lancashire g e m a c h t u n d diese Art goods n u r suitable für diesen traffic. Die entire quantity of cotton goods m a n u f a c tured in Lancashire für d e n African trade (legitimate u n d slave trade zus a m m e n ) war im J a h r e 1836 wie folgt: 25

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Aus Thomas Fowell Buxton: The African slave trade Value of M a n c h e s t e r goods m a n u f a c t u r e d n u r für den legitimate African trade £ 150,000 Value of goods m a n u f a c t u r e d in Lancashire u n d shipped n a c h Brazil, Cuba, U n i t e d States u n d 5 elsewhere n u r für d e n slave trade 250,000. So ein U e b e r s c h u ß , 1836, von % des g a n z e n Betrags des slave ü b e r d e n legitimate trade. R e c h n e n d n a c h diesen D a t i s die Z a h l der slaves to the purchase of which der a m o u n t der 1836 fabricirten G o o d s a d a e q u a t , would a m o u n t zu 187,500. K ö m m t aber h i n z u : goods only suited für d e n slave 10 trade a u c h in Glasgow g e m a c h t ; specie to very considerable extent finds its way t h r o u g h C u b a u n d Brazil to Africa, u n d hier für d e n slaveankauf verwandt; A m m u n i t i o n u n d firearms to a large a m o u n t , and, like the goods of a quality only fit for t h e Slavetrade, are sent from G r e a t Britain to Africa. Der jährliche a m o u n t dieser exports stated in d e n Official tables, 1836, zu 15 137,698 I; die a m e r i c a n s also furnish C u b a u n d Brazil m i t arms, a m m u n i tion u n d goods; east I n d i a n goods a u c h employed i m Slave trade. ( 3 3 - 3 5 ) Im G a n z e n , m i t d e n e n die perish, wenigstens 250,000 jährlich ausgeführt. (36) ( E r n i m m t a b e r die g e r i n g r e Z a h l an.)

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I m m e n s e trade carried on für die supply der m o h a m m e d a n m a r k e t s of Morocco, T u n i s ; Tripoli, Ejypt, Turkey, Persia, A r a b i a u n d der borders von Asien. Dieser c o m m e r c e comprises 2 distinct divisions, 1) der m a r i t i m e , dessen victims shipped von der N o r d o s t k ü s t e in arabvessels u n d 2) der D e sert, carried on d u r c h caravans n a c h der Berberei, Aejypten etc. Der M a r i t i m e trade besonders carried on d u r c h die subjects des Imaum von Muscat. (37) D u r c h diesen Zweig wenigstens 30,000 jährlich ausgeführt. (40) Schäzt diese n o r t h e r n or Desert Portion des M o h a m m e d a n Slave t r a d e auf 20,000 jährlich. (45) Schäzt also auf 50,000 d e n G e s a m m t M o h a m m e d a n Slave trade. (46) N i c h t g e r e c h n e t die zahlreichen Negersklaven required for the h o m e slavery der M o h a m m e d a n provinces u n d k i n g d o m s in Central Africa. ([46,] 47) Also total: 200,000. (48) F ü r every ten who r e a c h C u b a or Brazil u n d b e c o m e available as slaves 14, at least, are destroyed. Diese mortality arises von folgenden causes: 1) T h e original seizure der slaves. 2) T h e m a r c h to the coast, a n d d e t e n t i o n there. 3) T h e m i d d l e passage. 4) T h e sufferings after capture u n d after landing. 5) Die initiation into slavery, or the „seasoning" as it is t e r m e d by the planters. (49)

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1) Seizure. D i e principal u n d fast einzige Ursache des Kriegs im I n n e r n von Africa, to procure slaves für den traffick, u n d j e d e Art von violence, von der Invasion einer A r m e e bis z u r robbery by a single individual, is h a d recourse to zur E r r e i c h u n g dieses Zwecks. (50) (Lord Muncaster: Historical Sketches of the 5 Slave trade. L o n d o n 1792) | |74| T h e whole, or the greater part o f t h a t i m m e n s e c o n t i n e n t (Africa), is a field of warfare a n d desolation; a wilderness, in which the i n h a b i t a n t s are wolves to e a c h other. (Speech of Bryan Edwards. Dieser selbst a dealer in slaves.) [50, 52] (Chasse aux Nègres, L e o n de L a b o r d e , Paris, 1838. [46]) 10 t h e only difference betwixt the former times u n d d e m present day is this t h a t the mortality c o n s e q u e n t on the cruelties of the system has increased in proportion to the increase of the traffic, der d o u b l e d in a m o u n t verglic h e n m i t der period vor 1790. (72)

2) March.

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N a c h M e n d e z sterben rein o n the j o u r n e y (Ermattung, üble B e h a n d l u n g , A u s h u n g e r u n g etc) from the interior to t h e coast an / des G a n z e n . ([86,] 87) 5

n

3) Detention n ä m l i c h an der coast, bevor sie sind e m b a r k e d u n d dieß occurs meist, w h e n the vessel wofür sie destined, has n o t arrived, or is n o t ready to sail, or m a y be in dread of capture after sailing. (87)

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4) Middle Passage. Die first feature dieser deadly passage ist die evident insufficiency, in point of tonnage, of the vessels employed, for the cargoes of h u m a n beings which they are m a d e to contain. Die allowance in british transports von Sklaven war gesetzlich: 5 m e n für 3 t o n s ; u n d die gesetzliche B e s t i m m u n g by Spain, Portugal u n d Brazil 5 m e n : 3 tons. For british soldiers the regulation is 3 m e n :2 tons. ([96,] 97) D e r extent of a c c o m m o d a t i o n , limited as it was, has b e e n greatly curtailed. (97) Laird sagt: "Instead of the large a n d c o m m o -

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dious vessels which it would be t h e interest of t h e slavetrader to employ, we have by our interference forced h i m to use a class of vessels—American Clippers—of the very worst description, t h a t could have b e e n imagined for t h e purpose, every quality b e i n g sacrificed for speed. In the holds of these vessels the u n h a p p y victims of E u r o p e a n cupidity are stowed literally in bulk." (132) % given, for the average loss on the passage, by the slavedealers themselves on the a m e r i c a n side of t h e atlantic. (146)

5) Loss after Capture.

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In 1830, the C o m m i t t e e of the H o u s e of C o m m o n s c a m e to the following resolution: that captured vessels are, "on an average, upwards of five weeks on their passage from t h e place of capture to Sierra Leone, occasioning a loss of the captured slaves a m o u n t i n g to from % to % of the whole n u m b e r , while the survivors are generally l a n d e d in a m i s e r a b l e state of weakness a n d debility." (154)

6) Loss after Landing and in the Seasoning. the slaves are now subjected to greater hardships in their being l a n d e d a n d concealed as smuggled goods, t h a n they were in former times, when a slavevessel entered the ports of R i o J a n e i r o u n d H a v a n a as a fair trader, and openly disposed of h e r cargo. (154, 5)

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Twice as m a n y h u m a n beings are now the victims des slave trade as w h e n Wilberforce u n d Clarkson entered u p o n their n o b l e task; a n d each individu a l of this increased n u m b e r , in addition to the horrors which were endured in former times, has to suffer from being cribbed up in a narrower space, and on board of a vessel, where a c c o m m o d a t i o n is sacrificed to 25 speed. ... Hitherto we have effected no other change t h a n a c h a n g e in t h e flag u n d e r which the trade is carried on. (173) Bis in die 2 0 J a h r e die french flag covered the villains of all nations, d a n n die Spanish, j e z t die Portuguese (Portugal sells her flag, a n d the greater part of t h e trade is carried on u n d e r it. H e r governors openly sell, at a fixed price, the use of Por30 tuguese papers and flag [I.e.] - E n d l i c h die N o r d a m e r i k a n e r , die d e n Engl ä n d e r n nie das droit de visite gestattet. 177) It is an a x i o m at t h e C u s t o m h o u s e , that no illicit trade can be suppressed, where the profits exceed 30%. „Of the e n o r m o u s profits des Slave trade", sagt der C o m m i s sioner Macleay „the m o s t correct idea will be formed by taking an e x a m er

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Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 • Heft XIV pie. T h e last vessel c o n d e m n e d by the M i x e d C o m m i s s i o n was t h e F i r m . " He gives the cost of H e r cargo—28,000 Dollars, Provisions, a m m u n i t i o n , wear u n d tear etc 10,600, Wages 13,400. Total Expense 52,000 Dollars. Total P r o d u c t 145,000 dollars j|75| there was a clear profit on t h e h u m a n cargo of this vessel of 18,6401. oder just 180 %. ([187,] 188) Mr M a c L e a n (Gover5 n o r at Cape Coast Castle) in e i n e m Brief an B u x t o n M a y 1838 sagt: „A p r i m e slave on that part of the coast with which I have m o s t knowledge, costs a b o u t 50 dollars in goods, oder a b o u t von 2 5 - 3 0 dollars in m o n e y , including p r i m e cost a n d charges; the s a m e slave will sell in C u b a for 350 dollars readily, b u t from this large profit m u s t be d e d u c t e d freight, in- 10 surance, c o m m i s s i o n , cost of feeding during the m i d d l e passage, a n d incid e n t a l charges, which will r e d u c e t h e n e t profit auf 200 dollars on each p r i m e slave; davon weiter a b z u z i e h n , to m a k e up for casualties, to, perhaps 150 dollars per h e a d . " It is remarkable t h a t this calculation by Mr M a c l e a n almost exactly corresponds with that stated by t h e Sierra L e o n e C o m m i s - 15 sioners, giving for the outlay of 100 dollars a r e t u r n of 280 dollars. (189, 90)

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Buxton. (Th. F.) The Remedy; being a Sequel to the African Slave trade. L o n d o n . 1840.

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Africa can never be delivered, till we have called forth the rich productiveness of her soil. She derives some p e c u n i a r y advantage from t h e Slave t r a d e : happily, however, it is t h e smallest possible a m o u n t of revenue, at the largest possible a m o u n t of cost. (XIII) G e s e z t die chieftains verkauften jedes J a h r 250,000 i n h a b i t a n t s , u n d daß - was meist der Fall -41. per Stück in ihre h a n d s honestly gezahlt wird. Also 1 Mill. £ St. A b z ü g e für die E r h a l t u n g der armies i n t e n d e d for the slave trade; the reprisals u p o n t h e m selves u n d das c o n s e q u e n t ravage ihrer l a n d s u n d Destruction ihres Eigent h u m s . Die material items of arms, a m m u n i t i o n u n d ardent spirits, % der in Centralafrica importirten goods u n d deren greater part c o n s u m e d in their horrid slavehunts etc, bleibt clear profit vielleicht £ 300,000; and is £ 300,000 all that c a n be reaped from so extensive a portion of the globe, inferior to n o n e other in wealth? (XIV, XV) An African chief t h u s concisely stated his mercantile views: "We want three things, viz. powder, ball, a n d brandy; and we have three things to sell, viz. m e n , w o m e n u n d children." (XIV note.) M i t d e n Negerchiefs an d e n coasts ist nichts anzufangen. Sie sind »a rabble of petty chiefs, the m o s t ignorant and rude, a n d the greatest vagabonds on earth«. T h e y h a v e b e e n rendered h a b i t u a l d r u n k a r d s by the spirits which slave ships supply: As slave factors, they have b e e n steeled against all c o m p a s s i o n etc. T h e y obtain a twofold advantage from the slave trade. T h e goods they o b t a i n from E u r o p e a n s give a considerable profit when sold to the natives, while the slaves, received by t h e m in return for those goods, yield a profit still m o r e considerable, when sold to the slave captain. ([7,] 8) Beßre disposition on the part der Sultans u n d Sovereigns des Interior, to receive, to treat, and to trade with us. (8) Prelimina-

499

Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 · Heft XIV tory m e a s u r e m u ß sein: a c h a i n of treaties m i t native powers in the interior (von Africa), pledging t h e m to act in concert m i t u s ; to suppress the Slave trade in their own territory; to prevent slaves from being carried t h r o u g h their d o m i n i o n s , and, at the same t i m e to afford all needfull facility a n d protection for the transport of legitimate m e r c h a n d i s e . (17) Eggs n u r in L o n d o n , Liverpool u n d Glasgow allein von Frankreich [und Irland] Feathers von Irland n a c h Liverpool Pigs von Irland n a c h Liverpool D a g e g e n : Total imports, p r o d u c t i o n s of t h e Soil of Central Africa ... (22)

£ 275,000. 500,000 1,488,555. 10 456,014.

Legitimate c o m m e r c e would put down t h e Slave Trade by d e m o n s t r a t i n g t h e superior value of m a n as a labourer, to m a n as an object of m e r c h a n dise. (24) I |76| D e r whole a m o u n t of goods exported direct from G r e a t Britain to all Africa is considerably within 1 Mill. £ St. 1835 t h e declared value of British a n d Irish P r o d u c e a n d M a n u f a c t u r e s exported to the whole of Africa was £ 917,726. Centralafrica sehr fruchtbaren Boden, famose Flüsse, P o p u l a t i o n von 50 Millions. Es takes from us n u r für £ 3 1 2 , 9 3 8 , £ 101,104 davon are m a d e up of the value of arms a n d a m m u n i t i o n , a n d lead a n d shot. (25) D e r estimated W e r t h der Imports von Africa in 1834 war £ 4 5 6 , 0 1 4 (exclusive of gold dust, a b o u t £ 2 6 0 , 0 0 0 ) ; they consisted chiefly of palmoil, teak timber, g u m l a c , ivory, bees wax etc, all extremely valuable, a n d in great dem a n d , b u t o b t a i n e d at comparatively little l a b o u r a n d cost. (26[, 27]) Uebersicht der natural Productions of Africa: Animals. Oxen, sheep, goats, pigs etc G u i n e a fowls, c o m m o n poultry, ducks etc. Grain. Rice, I n d i a n Corn, G u i n e a corn, or millet, wheat, D o u r a h etc. Fruits. Oranges, lemons, guavas, pines, citrons, limes, papaws, plantains, b a n a n a s , dates etc etc. Roots. M a n i o c , i g n a m e , batalee, y a m s , arrowroot, ginger, sweet potato etc etc. Timber Teak, ebony, l i g n u m vitae u n d 40 oder 50 andre species von Holz für alle m ö g l i c h e n purposes. Nuts. Palmn u t , shea-nut, cocoa-nut, cola nut, g r o u n d - n u t , castor-nut, n e t t a - n u t etc. Dyes. Carmine, yellow various shades, blue, orange various shades, red, crimson, brown etc. Dyewoods. Cam-wood, bar-wood etc. Gums Copal, Senegal, mastic, Sudan etc. Drugs Aloes, cassia, senna, frankincense etc. Minerals. Gold, iron, copper, emery, s a l - a m m o n i a c , nitre etc. Sugar-cane, coffee, cotton, indigo, tobacco, I n d i a n rubber, beeswax, ostrich feathers a n d skins, ivory etc. Fish of an i m m e n s e variety, a n d in great a b u n d a n c e . (28[, 29] Note) Burke sagt: "To deal a n d traffic - not in the labour of m e n ,

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b u t in m e n themselves - is to devour the root, instead of enjoying the fruit of h u m a n diligence." (61) C a p t a i n Beaver sagt: „Der H a u p t g r u n d der Africans in m a k i n g slaves ist to p r o c u r e E u r o p e a n goods; slaves are t h e m o n e y , the circulating m e d i u m , with which African c o m m e r c e is carried o n : they have no other. If, therefore, we could substitute another, a n d at t h e s a m e t i m e that other be m o r e certain and m o r e a b u n d a n t , the great object in trading in slaves will be d o n e away. This m a y be d o n e by the p r o d u c e of the earth." (168) t h e Arabic is, to a considerable extent, the c o m m o n language of Central Africa. (219)

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Heeren. (A. H. L.) Handbuch der Geschichte des Europäischen Staatensystems und seiner Colonieen. Dritte Auflage. G ö t t i n g e n . 1819.

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G e s c h i c h t e des europäischen Staatssystems nicht die G e s c h i c h t e der einz e l n e n Staaten, sondern »die Geschichte ihrer Verhältnisse gegen einander«. (6) G r e n z s c h e i d e zwischen der m i t t l e m u n d n e u e r n Zeit: 1) Die E r o b r u n g von Constantinopel u n d G r ü n d u n g des t ü r k i s c h e n R e i c h s i n E u r o p a 1453. 2) E n t d e c k u n g von A m e r i c a d u r c h C o l u m b u s , 1492. 3) Ent- io deckung der Schiffahrt n a c h O s t i n d i e n durch Vasco de G a m a , 1497 u n d d u r c h beide veränderter G a n g des W e l t h a n d e l s . 4) D i e d u r c h d e n G e b r a u c h des Schießpulvers veränderte Kriegskunst. ([6,] 7) In d i e s e m Zeitr a u m e n t h a l t e n Africa u n d A m e r i c a k e i n e n einzigen e i n h e i m i s c h e n Staat von allgemeiner Wichtigkeit; u n d von den 3 grossen R e i c h e n Asiens, d e m 15 Persischen u n t e r den Sofis, d e m Indischen u n t e r d e n Moguls u n d d e m Chinesischen erhielt sich n u r das leztre. D a s Persische Reich der Sofis gegründet d u r c h Ismael Sofi, seit 1500. W a r d am m ä c h t i g s t e n u n t e r S c h a c h Abbas, 1 5 8 5 - 1 6 2 8 , gestürzt durch die Afgahnen 1722, u n d yerfiel seit der Ermord u n g des darauffolgenden Tyrannen, Kuli Chan oder Nadir Schach, 1747, 20 in A n a r c h i e . Das Mogulische R e i c h in I n d i e n gestiftet d u r c h Sultan Babur, e i n e n N a c h k o m m e n Tiburs, seit 1526. Umfaßte allmählig die L ä n d e r am I n d u s u n d G a n g e s u n d die diesseitige Halbinsel; am m ä c h t i g s t e n seit der Regierung von Acbar d e m G r o ß e n 1 5 5 6 - 1 6 0 5 , bis auf d e n T o d von Aureng Zeb 1 1 7 0 7 , w o n a c h es bald in sich selbst zerfiel, d u r c h die E r o b r u n g von 25 N a d i r Schach 1739 u n d die Politik der E u r o p ä e r ||77| meist aufgelöst. Die Revolution in China, d u r c h die Erobrung der Mantschu Tartaren, geschah

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Aus Arnold Hermann Ludwig Heeren: Handbuch der Geschichte ... 1644. (7, 8) Engere Verhältnisse der e u r o p ä i s c h e n Staaten u n t e r e i n a n d e r k a m e n d u r c h gemeinschaftliche Interessen: a) Streitigkeiten ü b e r Italien, b) Religionshändel seit der Reformation. 3) Bedürfniß der Vertheidigung gen die Türken. 4) in d e m wichtiger w e r d e n d e n H a n d e l m i t d e n C o l o n i e e n 5 u n d d e m daraus h e r v o r g e h e n d e n m e r k a n t i l i s c h e n Interesse ü b e r h a u p t . E n d l i c h erleichterte C o m m u n i c a t i o n d u r c h B u c h d r u c k e r e i u n d Posten. (9) Das deutsche R e i c h der Centralstaat, allen wichtig, aber N i e m a n d gefährlich. (11) E i n e H a u p t s t ü t z e fand das europäische Staatensystem in der E n t s t e h u n g von Seemächten, die besonders zur Aufrechterhaltung des politi10 sehen Gleichgewichts am m e i s t e n beigetragen h a b e n . (14) G e s c h i c h t e des n e u e r n Europas zerfällt in 3 P e r i o d e n : V o n Ende des 15. Jh. bis zum Anfang der Selbstregierung Ludwig XIV, 1 4 9 2 - 1 6 6 1 . Zweite von da bis z u m T o d e von Friedrich II, 1 6 6 1 - 1 7 8 6 . D i e leztre von da bis dato. Erstre politisch religiös, zweite merkantilisch militairisch, lezte revolutionär. (17, 18)

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Eigenthümlicher Character dieser Periode die Reformation. (19) H a u p t g l i e der des südlichen Staatensystems: F r a n c e , Spanien, England, Oestreich, das deutsche Reich, der Pabst u n d die Pforte. [20]

Erster

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I.) G e s c h i c h t e der H ä n d e l u n d Streitigkeiten ü b e r Italien. 1 4 9 4 - 1 5 1 5 .

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G e n E n d e des 75 Jh. ward Italien der Z i e l p u n k t der E r o b e r u n g e n u n d dad u r c h M i t t e l p u n k t der e u r o p ä i s c h e n Politik. A u f b l ü h n von K u n s t u n d W i s senschaft. H a u p t s t a a t e n i n I t a l i e n H e r z o g t h u m M a i l a n d u n d R e p u b l i k V e nedig im N o r d e n ; R e p u b l i k Florenz u n d der Kirchenstaat in der M i t t e ; das Königreich N e a p e l im S ü d e n . D a s H e r z o g t h u m Mailand, wozu d a m a l s a u c h P a r m a , Piacenza u n d G e n u a gehörten, deutsches Reichslehn; aber seit Aussterben des H a u s e s Visconti seit 1450 im Besitz des H a u s e s Sforza. Stifter, Franz Sforza 1 1 4 6 6 , sein Sohn Galeazzo Maria, ermordet 1476, dessen Sohn, Johann Galeazzo u n t e r der Aufsicht seines O h e i m s Ludwig Morus, der ihn 1494 verdrängte. Venedigs erbliche Eroberungspläne gerichtet gen

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Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 · Heft XIV R o m a g n a (das es meist i n n e hatte) u n d M a i l a n d . In R o m Pabst Alexander VI ( 1 4 9 2 - 1 5 0 3 ) . In Florenz seit e i n e m J a h r h u n d e r t Principat des H a u ses M e d i c i . Seit 1407 Pisa unterjocht, aber rebellisch. D a s Königreich Neapel (von Sicilien, das zu Aragon gehörte, getrennt) stand u n t e r einer N e b e n l i n i e dieses H a u s e s . Friedrich verlor 1501 sein R e i c h an F e r d i n a n d Catholicus. 1494 Eroberungszug von Carl VIII von F r a n k r e i c h gen Neapel, u m die A n s p r ü c h e des Jüngern H a u s e s Anjou geltend z u m a c h e n . Leichte u n d u n b l u t i g e E i n n a h m e Italiens u n d N e a p e l s 1494 Sept. bis M a i 1495. G e g e n i n t r i g e n von Venedig, R o m , Ludwig M o r u s , M a x i m i l i a n , F e r d i n a n d von S p a n i e n u n d U n t e r h a n d l u n g e n m i t der Türkei. A b z u g von Carl VIII m i t der h a l b e n A r m e e aus N e a p e l 20 M a i 1495. Treffen u n d Sieg bei Forn u a ü b e r die V e n e z i a n e r u n d ihre V e r b ü n d e t e n 6 Juli. K a m p f zwischen Pisa u n d Florenz h a l t e n die italische Aufregung wach. V e n e d i g u n d M a i land hofften dabei zu gewinnen. 7 April 1498 Carl V I I I plötzlich f. Ludwig XII m a c h t a u c h auf M a i l a n d A n s p r ü c h e , von seiner G r o ß m u t t e r Valentina, aus d e m H a u s Visconti her. Verspricht Venedig u n d R o m e i n e n Theil der Beute. M a i l a n d e i n g e n o m m e n Aug. 1499. Ludwig M o r u s gefangen 10 April 1500. Venedig erhält C r e m o n a u n d G h i r a r d ' A d d a . G e h e i m e r Theilungstractat zwischen F e r d i n a n d Catholicus u n d Ludwig XII, 11 Nov. 1500. Neapels König Friedrich leicht überwältigt, stirbt gefangen in F r a n c e , E i n n a h m e des R e i c h s Juli 1501. Z a n k u n d d a n n Krieg ü b e r die T h e i l u n g . Niederlage der F r a n z o s e n bei S e m i n a r a a m 2 1 April u n d a m Garigliano am 27 D e c . 1503. A u f den Waffenstillstand, 31 M ä r z 1504, Beilegung des Streits d u r c h die H e i r a t h F e r d i n a n d s m i t G e r m a i n e de Foix, N i c h t e Ludwig XII, der er gegen eine Million D u c a t e n seine A n s p r ü c h e auf N e a p e l als Mitgift giebt 12 Oct. 1505. So Frankreich in M a i l a n d u n d Spanien in N e a pel. 1503 Julius II Pabst. Sein erstes Project d e n Staat des Cesar Borgia R o m a g n a , Bologna u n d Ferrara - an d e n r ö m i s c h e n Stuhl zu bringen. Die daraus e n t s t a n d n e n Kriege führen z u m Project, die F r e m d e n besonders die F r a n z o s e n aus Italien zu vertreiben. 1508 Ligue zu Cambrai gegen Venedig zwischen Louis XII, M a x i m i l i a n , F e r d i n a n d Catholicus u n d d e m Pabst. ( A m 10 D e c . geschlossen) Niederlage der V e n e t i a n e r bei Agnadello 15 April 1509 u n d Verlust des festen L a n d s , da a u c h der Pabst die R o m a gna w e g n i m m t u n d sie m i t d e m B a n n belegt. Anfang des Zwistes zwischen Ludwig u n d M a x i m i l i a n , n a c h Einnahme Paduas V e r h a n d l u n g e n u n d A u s s ö h n u n g des Pabstes m i t Venedig. I h m bleiben die Städte in der R o m a g n a , F e r d i n a n d die Häfen in A p u l i e n 25 F e b . 1510. 1511 V e r b i n d u n g gen Frankreich u n t e r Leitung von Julius II. Heilige Ligue. Geschlossen am 5 Oct., zwischen Julius II, F e r d i n a n d Catholicus u n d Venedig; d e m Kaiser u n d Heinrich VIII von England der Beitritt freigestellt. Schweizer d u r c h den Pabst gewonnen seit 1510. |

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Aus Arnold Hermann Ludwig Heeren: Handbuch der Geschichte ... |78| Uebergewicht F r a n k r e i c h s u n t e r Gaston de Foix bis auf seinen T o d in der Schlacht bei R a v e n n a , N o v . 1 5 1 1 - A p r i l 1512. Einfall der Schweizer in M a i l a n d , May 1512, von i h n e n zurückgegeben an M a x i m i l i a n Sforza, älteren Sohn von Ludwig M o r u s . N e u e r V e r s u c h L. XII z u r W i e d e r e r o b r u n g 5 vereitelt d u r c h die Schlacht b e i Novara 6 J u n . 1513. Folge dieser Vertreib u n g der F r a n z o s e n aus Italien R ü c k k e h r der 1495 vertriebnen M e d i c e e r n a c h Florenz durch Hilfe der Ligue u n d einer Insurrektion, 31 A u g u s t 1512. Gleichzeitig Erobrung des s p a n i s c h e n Navarra, als v e r b ü n d e t e n Staat von Frankreich d u r c h F e r d i n a n d Catholicus. Einfall H e i n r i c h V I I I in Ar10 tois u n d der Schweizer in Burgund, Aug. 1513. J u l i u s II, 21 F e b . 1513 f. Folgt i h m Leo X. Auflösung der Ligue, da L. X sich m i t F r a n k r e i c h aussöhnt, sobald n u r L . X I I das C o n c i l i u m zu Pisa verwarf. 1515 Ludwig XII f. (1 Januar). W ä h r e n d dieser Periode gutes Fußvolk n u r bei d e n Schweizern zu miethen oder m a n half sich m i t d e u t s c h e n Lanzknechten. ( 2 4 - 3 6 )

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II.) G e s c h i c h t e der E n t s t e h u n g des Colonialwesens. 1492-1515.

Colonien n e n n t m a n alle Besitzungen u n d N i e d e r l a s s u n g e n der E u r o p ä e r in fremden Welttheilen. Sie zerfallen: 1) Ackerbaucolonieen. D i e Colonisten erwachsen zu einer N a t i o n . 2) Pflanzungscolonieen. Zweck E r z e u g u n g b e 20 s t i m m t e r N a t u r p r o d u c t e in P l a n t a g e n für Europa. Die Colonisten w e n n gleich Landbesitzer, werden weniger h e i m i s c h . Ihre Z a h l bleibt gering. In i h n e n vorzugsweise Sklaverei zu H a u s e . 3) Bergbau Colonieen. 4) Handelscolonieen. Ihr Zweck H a n d e l m i t den N a t u r p r o d u c t e n des L a n d e s oder des Meers (Fischerein) u n d d e n K u n s t p r o d u c t e n der einheimischen Völker. A n 25 fangs n u r Niederlassungen zu Stapelplätzen des H a n d e l s , erweitern sich aber d u r c h List oder Gewalt zu E r o b r u n g e n ... Die westlichen Völker E u r o pas werden n u n statt derer am M i t t e l m e e r e die Sitze des W e l t h a n d e l s ... Anfang der Portugiesischen Schifffahrten (erzeugt d u r c h die Kriege m i t d e n M a u e r n in Africa u n d geleitet d u r c h Prinz H e i n r i c h Navigator f 1463) 30 seit 1410. E n t d e c k u n g von M a d e i r a 1419. Umschiffung von Cap Bojador 1439 u n d des Cap Verde 1446. E n t d e c k u n g der A z o r e n 1448, der Inseln des Cap Verde 1449, von St T h o m a s u n d A n n o b o n 1471, von Congo 1484; wovon die Entdeckungsreise ü b e r L a n d n a c h I n d i e n u n d A e t h i o p i e n v o n Covillam eine Folge war. 1486 Erreichung des Vorgebirgs der g u t e n Hoff35 n u n g d u r c h Diaz 1486 u n d endliche Umschiffung u n d G e l a n g u n g n a c h I n dien über M o z a m b i q u e d u r c h Vasco d e G a m a 1498, u n t e r E m a n u e l d e m G r o ß e n , L a n d u n g in Calicut, u n d erste Festsetzung in Cochin. M i t t e l p u n k t der Herrschaft der Portugiesen Goa, seit 1510 Sitz des Vicekönigs. ... D e r

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Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 • Heft XIV portugiesisch ostindische H a n d e l begriff 1) d e n Z w i s c h e n h a n d e l in I n d i e n . 2) H a n d e l zwischen E u r o p a u n d I n d i e n . D i e F r e m d e n m u ß t e n sich in Lissabon die W a a r e n holen, die Portugiesen verführten sie n i c h t n a c h E u r o p a auf eignen Schiffen. ( 3 7 - 4 4 )

Zweiter Zeitraum. Von 1515-1556.

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Carl V. F r a n z I. S o l i m a n der Prächtige. Rivalität zwischen F r a n k r e i c h u n d Spanien. Reformationshändel.

I.) Rivalität zwischen F r a n k r e i c h u n d S p a n i e n . K a m p f in Italien. D e u t s c h e Kaiserkrone. V e r ä n d e r u n g des türkischen Erobrungssystems u n t e r Soliman II, seit 1519, das u n t e r s e i n e m Vorgänger 10 Selim I gegen Persien u n d Aejypten gerichtet gewesen. E r o b r u n g von Belgrad 1521 etc, H a u p t s t u r m auf U n g a r n , Belagrung von W i e n 1529; A n knüpfung der V e r b i n d u n g m i t Frankreich. Besonders aber die Seemacht der Pforte d r o h e n d . M i t Erobrung des R h o d u s wird ihr die Herrschaft des Mittelmeers zu Theil. U n t e r d e m Schutz der Pforte sich j e z t an der Afrikani- 15 sehen Küste b i l d e n d e n R a u b s t a a t e n . D e r Pforte fast die g a n z e K ü s t e von Nordafrika unterworfen. Die V e r b i n d u n g F r a n k r e i c h s m i t der Pforte, d u r c h Laforest 1535 zuerst u n t e r der F o r m eines H a n d e l s t r a c t a t s (Febr.) zur Reife gebracht. H e i n r i c h V I I I î 28 J a n . u n d F r a n z I 21 M ä r z 1547. ( 4 5 - 6 0 )

II.) G e s c h i c h t e der R e f o r m a t i o n von 1 5 1 7 - 1 5 5 5 . (Religionsfrieden.)

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D u r c h die Religion k a m e n die Völker m i t auf die B ü h n e . Bauernkrieg. Sekularisirung von Preussen. ( H o c h m e i s t e r Albrecht von B r a n d e n b u r g m a c h t sich z u m erblichen Herzog von Preussen, als Vasall von Polen, 1525) Krakehl zwischen d e n t e u t s c h e n F ü r s t e n u n d Karl V. Jesuitenorden gestiftet z u - 25 erst als Privatverbindung 1534; vom Pabst P a u l bestätigt 1540; sehr erweitert 1543 u n d 1549. U n t e r F r a n z I u n d Κ. V E r r i c h t u n g eines regelmässigen Fußvolks. ( 6 2 - 8 7 )

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III.) G e s c h i c h t e des Colonialwesens 1 5 1 5 - 1 5 5 6 .

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Spanier u n d Portugiesen b l e i b e n a u c h i n d i e s e m Z e i t r a u m die einzigen, die jenseits des O c e a n s herrschen. Um die zahllosen Völker, die als Jäger i n d e n u n g e h e u r e n W ä l d e r n u n d E b n e n u m h e r i r r t e n , z u beherrschen, m u ß t e m a n sie civilisiren, i.e. bekehren. So selbst in d e m I n n e r n j e n e r L ä n der Spaniens Obergewalt an die Missionen geknüpft. Streit der Spanier u n d Portugiesen über die Molucken: führte z u r ersten Umschiffung der E r d e . Reise des Portugiesen F e r d i n a n d M a g e l h a e n s , der, beleidigt, in spanische Dienste trat, 1 5 1 9 - 1 5 2 2 . E n t d e c k u n g ||79| der n a c h i h m g e n a n n t e n D u r c h fahrt ins Südmeer. E n t d e c k t die Philippinen, wo er selbst erschlagen 1521. Beilegung des Streits ü b e r die M o l u c k e n 1529. Carl V verkaufte seine A n sprüche an Portugal für 350,000 D u c a t e n . ( 8 8 - 1 0 1 )

Dritter Zeitraum.

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Von

1556-1618.

Elisabeth, Philipp II, W i l h e l m von Oranien, H e n r i IV. D i e ß m a l der H a u p t k ä m p f nicht zwischen S p a n i e n u n d Frankreich, sondern zwischen S p a n i e n u n d England. Insurrektion i n d e n N i e d e r l a n d e n .

I.) Geschichte der E n t s t e h u n g der Vereinigten N i e d e r l a n d e . V o n i h r e m Anfang bis z u m 12jährigen Waffenstillstand 1609.

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Alter R e i c h t h u m der belgischen Städte. F r i e d e zwischen F r a n k r e i c h u n d Spanien zu C h a t e a u Cambresis, 3 April 1559. U n t e r z e i c h n u n g des C o m promisses in Brüssel Nov. 1565. D i e G e u s e n . A u g u s t 1567 langt A l b a an in den N i e d e r l a n d e n . Alba's Schreckensregierung 1 5 6 7 - 1 5 7 3 . Die Einführung des 1 0 Pfennigs 1569 wirkte m e h r als die des Blutgerichts. E r o b r u n g von Briel, 1 April 1572 u n d A u s b r u c h der Insurrection in den m e i s t e n Städten von H o l l a n d ; Seeland. 24 A u g u s t 1572 B a r t h o l o m ä u s n a c h t . 1587 offne F e h d e zwischen Elisabeth u n d Spanien. Abschliessung der U t r e c h t e r U n i o n , 23 J a n u a r 1579, zwischen Holland, Z e e l a n d etc. Zug der u n ü b e r windlichen Flotte u n d ihr Schicksal. (Juli bis Oct. 1588) E n t s t e h u n g der G e n e r a l s t a a t e n seit 1592. Solchen Handelsstaat, solche S e e m a c h t wie die Republik Holland h a t t e E u r o p a n o c h n i c h t gesehn. ( 1 0 2 - 1 2 3 ) ten

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Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 · Heft XIV

II.) Gleichzeitige V e r ä n d e r u n g e n in d e n ü b r i g e n H a u p t s t a a t e n des westlichen Europas. Frankreich. 1 5 6 2 - 1 5 9 4 , ü b e r 30 Jahre, Religions u n d Bürgerkriege. 13 April 1598 Edict von N a n t e s . Französische auswärtige Politik erhob sich stets ü b e r die Religionsverhältnisse. Die D e m ü t h i g u n g der Habsburger n ä c h s t e r Zweck von H e n r i IV, e r m o r d e t 1610. Erst m i t 1624 (Richelieu) F r a n k r e i c h n a c h d e m T o d e von H. IV wieder Einfluß auf die europäische Politik. Spanien. E i n n a h m e Portugals u n d seiner Colonieen n a c h d e m Aussterb e n des dortigen M a n n e s s t a m m e s 1580. 1610 Vertreibung der M a u r i s k e n . England. D e r K a m p f m i t Spanien trieb die N a t i o n aufs Meer. Deutschland. T o d Solimans II w ä h r e n d seines Feldzugs in U n g a r n 4 Sept. 1566. Waffenstillstand auf 8 Jahre, wieder verlängert bis 1593. D e n T ü r k e n blieb n o c h ein grosser Theil von S ü d u n g a r n . Grosse Niederlage ihrer Flotte, n a c h der Erobrung von Cyprus, d u r c h die V e n e t i a n e r u n d Spanier bei L e p a n t o 7 Oct. 1572 r a u b t i h n e n das Uebergewicht zur See. E r n e u r u n g des u n g a r i s c h e n Kriegs 1 5 9 3 - 1 6 0 6 ; die m e i s t e n festen Plätze g e h n an Oestreich über. T ü r k e n b e h a l t e n deren n o c h in d e m 20jährigen Waffenstillstand 1606. In Holland das System der indirekten Abgaben zuerst ausgebildet. D i e Bedürfnisse des langen Kriegs grossentheils d u r c h die Accise bestritten. Diese A b g a b e n werden für das n e u e r e E u r o p a um so wichtiger, da ihr Ertrag in gleichem G r a d m i t d e m e r h ö h t e n L u x u s stieg. System der s t e h e n d e n T r u p p e n in F r a n k r e i c h u n d Holland weiter ausgebildet. Belagrungskunst verv o l l k o m m n e t . Seemacht von E n g l a n d u n d H o l l a n d ganz n e u e E r s c h e i n u n g . In der H o l l ä n d i s c h e n S e e m a c h t wurde bald n e b e n der der Staaten a u c h [die] der grossen Handelsgesellschaften furchtbar. ( 1 2 5 - 1 4 1 )

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III.) G e s c h i c h t e des Colonialwesens von 1 5 5 6 - 1 6 1 8 . Ostindische G e b ä u d e der Portugiesen fällt z u s a m m e n . H o l l ä n d e r g r ü n d e n das ihrige u n d reissen d e n W e l t h a n d e l an sich. D i e E n g l ä n d e r fangen an 30 m i t i h n e n zu wetteifern. D u r c h die Errichtung der grossen privilegirten Handelsgesellschaften wird d e m H a n d e l u n d der Colonialpolitik eine a n d r e F o r m gegeben. Holländischostindische C o m p a g n i e 29 M ä r z 1602. A l l m ä h lig m e h r e der wichtigsten Handelszweige der R e p u b l i k privilegirten Gesellschaften übergeben. M i t Auflebung des fernen auswärtigen H a n d e l s lebte 35 a u c h in England der Geist der M o n o p o l e auf. D i e wichtigsten Zweige des

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auswärtigen H a n d e l s privilegirten C o m p a g n i e e n ü b e r g e b e n . Russische, Afrikanische, Türkische C o m p a g n i e (1554), die der Adventurers für das feste L a n d (1581). Ostindische C o m p a g n i e privilegirt 31 D e c . 1600. L o n d o n u n d P l y m o u t h c o m p a g n i e privilegirt j e n e für Virginien, diese für das nördliche N e u e n g l a n d . A n l a g e von J a m e s t o w n , der ersten Stadt, an der Chesapeake Bay 1607. N o c h waren die h o l l ä n d i s c h e n u n d englischen C o l o n i e e n n u r P r i v a t u n t e r n e h m u n g e n . D a u e r t e n o c h g e r a u m e Zeit, bis F r e i b e u t e reien u n d Feindseligkeiten i n d e n Colonies a u c h Kriege zwischen d e n M u t t e r s t a a t e n zu Folge. Bei d e n N i e d e r l a s s u n g e n der Franzosen im nördlic h e n A m e r i c a (Canada u n d A c a d i e n - 1608 die Anlage von Quebec) n i c h t sowohl A n b a u des L a n d e s als P e l z h a n d e l u n d Fischerei der eigentliche Zweck. ( 1 4 1 - 1 5 4 )

Vierter Zeitraum. Von 1618 bis 1660.

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In d e n langen Kriegen Verflechten des Interesses der europäischen Staaten. Die U r s a c h e n dieser engern Verschlingung lagen: a) in der seit Ferdinands II Thronbesteigung wiederhergestellten V e r b i n d u n g der spanischen u n d östreichischen Linie. J e s u i t e n an b e i d e n Höfen, b) Richelieu's Politik gegen das Habsburgische H a u s . Sein Einfluß in Europa, c) In der d a d u r c h beförderten H e r e i n z i e h u n g der n ö r d l i c h e n M ä c h t e , besonders Schwedens in die H ä n d e l des südlichen Europa. E n g l a n d isolirt sich g e r a u m e Zeit während dieser Periode. I

j801 I) G e s c h i c h t e des dreissigjährigen Kriegs bis z u m W e s t p h ä l i s c h e n u n d Pyrenäischen Frieden. 1 6 1 8 - 4 8 .

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D e r 30jährige Krieg m a c h t e Deutschland z u m M i t t e l p u n k t der Politik E u r o pas. U n t e r den U r s a c h e n zur grossen D a u e r u n d Verbreitung dieses Kriegs: a) die T h e i l n a h m e der d e u t s c h e n Ligue, b) H e r e i n z i e h n der n ö r d l i c h e n M ä c h t e , besonders Schweden seit 1630. c) E r n e u r u n g des gleichzeitigen Kriegs zwischen H o l l a n d u n d Spanien, seit 1621, der sich zulezt m i t d e m D e u t s c h e n verflocht, d) T h e i l n a h m e von F r a n k r e i c h seit 1635. W a l l e n s t e i n ermordet zu Eger 25 Febr. 1634. R i c h e l i e u f 1642. Der d e u t s c h e (deutsche) Staatskörper erhielt seine festen F o r m e n , 1663 d u r c h d e n zu R e g e n s burg fixirten beständigen Reichstag n o c h m e h r b e s t i m m t . D e r Französischspanische Krieg n i c h t b e e n d e t d u r c h den Westphälischen F r i e d e n . Pyrenäischer F r i e d e n 7 Nov. 1659.

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II) Gleichzeitige V e r ä n d e r u n g e n in d e n ü b r i g e n H a u p t s t a a t e n des westlichen Europa. 1668 U n a b h ä n g i g k e i t Portugals von S p a n i e n a n e r k a n n t . In E n g l a n d Periode der grossen i n n e r n S t ü r m e . Es war erst die T h e i l n a h m e an d e n sieb e n b ü r g i s c h e n H ä n d e l n seit 1657, die die T ü r k e n wieder in d e m folgenden Zeitraum i h r e n westlichen N a c h b a r n gefährlich m a c h t e . N e u e Kriegstaktik u n t e r G u s t a v Adolph. ( 1 5 4 - 1 9 2 )

5

III. Geschichte des europäischen Colonialwesens von 1 6 1 8 - 1 6 6 0 . 1653 H o l l ä n d i s c h e Niederlassung auf d e m Vorgebirg der g u t e n Hoffnung. D i e Streitigkeiten der Holländer m i t E n g l a n d ü b e r den Heringsfang an der schottischen Küste trugen sowohl zu d e n politischen H ä n d e l n bei als zu d e n A n s p r ü c h e n Englands auf die Meerherrschaft. Erste N i e d e r l a s s u n g e n der F r a n z o s e n auf St Christoph zugleich m i t d e n E n g l ä n d e r n 1625. V o n da aus auf G u a d a l o u p e u n d M a r t i n i q u e 1635, das schon gen E n d e dieses Zeitr a u m s Z u c k e r producirte. ( 1 9 2 - 2 0 2 )

Erste

Periode.

10

15

1492-1661.

Zweiter Theil. Geschichte des nördlichen Staatensystems. (1523-1660) 5 H a u p t s t a a t e n : Schweden, D ä n e m a r k , Polen, R u ß l a n d u n d Preussen. W i e - 20 deraufrichtung des schwedischen T h r o n s d u r c h die Auflösung der Calmarischen Union; Reformation. Vereinigung D ä n e m a r k s m i t Norwegen zu E i n e m R e i c h 1532. Wiederaufrichtung des T h r o n s von Schweden 1523 d u r c h G u s t a v Wasa. U n t e r Iwan Basilewitz I I I 1 4 6 2 - 1 5 0 5 Rußland d u r c h die Befreiung von der Mongolenherrschaft u n d die Erobrung Nowgorods 25 wieder E i n selbständiges Reich.

510

Aus Arnold Hermann Ludwig Heeren: Handbuch der Geschichte

I.) Händel und Kriege über Liefland bis auf den Anfang des Schwedisch-polnischen Successionskriegs. 1553-1600. Liefland wurde für d e n N o r d e n von E u r o p a ungefähr, was M a i l a n d für d e n S ü d e n . 1525 b e n u z t e Walter von Plettenberg die Reformation, sich d u r c h 5 Unterwerfung der Stadt u n d des E r z b i s t h u m s Riga z u m H e r r n des g a n z e n L a n d e s zu m a c h e n . (Liefland, C u r l a n d u n d Semgallen.) Bisher die Heermeister n u r die H e r r n der westlichen Hälfte des L a n d e s , da die Erzbischöfe von Riga die Herrschaft ü b e r ihr E r z b i s t h u m besassen. Diese T h e i l u n g die Quelle von Streitigkeiten u n d Kriegen, die d e n g a n z e n N o r d e n u m f a ß t e n . 10 1613 erhielt in R u ß l a n d das H a u s R o m a n o w d e n T h r o n . Seit d e m Aussterb e n der Jagellonen in Polen, 1572, dieß ein förmliches Wahlreich.

II.) Geschichte des Schwedisch Polnischen Successionskriegs bis zum Frieden von Oliva und Copenhagen. 1600-1660. (204-221)

Zweite

Periode.

Von

1661-1786.

15

Vorherrschend Verflechtung des Geldinteresse m i t der Politik. I m m e r größre B e d e u t u n g der F i n a n z e n . Merkantilisches Isolirungssystem. H a n delsverträge. Handelskriege. Capereien. A u s d e h n u n g des Kriegs n a c h d e n Colonieen. B e s c h r ä n k u n g e n u n d B e d r ü c k u n g e n des n e u t r a l e n H a n d e l s . S t e h e n d e Heere.

20

Erster Zeitraum. Von 1661 bis 1700. Ludwig XIV siècle.

I. Staatshändel in E u r o p a von 1661 bis 1700. Tripleallianz zwischen England, Holland und Schweden 23 J a n . 1668 gegen Frankreich. 2 M a i 1668 F r i e d e n zu A a c h e n . 1677 Eröffnung des Congres25 ses zu Nymwegen. 20jähriger Stillstand 15 A u g . 1684. Congress zu Ryswik, 1697. W ä h r e n d derselben Periode Türkengefahr sehr groß für D e u t s c h l a n d ; die Streitigkeiten über Siebenbürgen, die östreichische Tyranney in U n garn, Hessen es hier den T ü r k e n an A n h ä n g e r n n i c h t fehlen etc. F r i e d e zu Carlowitz 26 Jan. 1699.

511

Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 • Heft XIV

II. Gleichzeitige H a u p t v e r ä n d e r u n g e n in d e n H a u p t s t a a t e n des westlichen Europa. Statt der 14,000 M a n n von Heinrich IV, hielt Ludwig X I V seit d e m N y m weger F r i e d e n 140,000 M a n n . Mit der L a n d m a c h t wuchs die M a r i n e in Folge des Mercantilsystems. Die französische M a r i n e sich n i e wieder zur d a m a l i g e n H ö h e erhoben. |

5

| 8 1 | III. Geschichte des Colonialwesens von 1661 bis 1700. N u r Pflanzungscolonieen u n t e r d e n F r a n z o s e n gediehn. Privilegirte C o m pagnieen. Wesentliche V e r ä n d r u n g des ostindischen H a n d e l s d u r c h d e n 10 grossen Eingang, d e n seit 1670 die I n d i s c h e n M u s s e l i n e u n d Seidenzeuge in E n g l a n d finden. D ä n e m a r k in die R e i h e der Colonialstaaten getreten. Schon in d i e s e m Z e i t r a u m erstreckten sich die Kriege der E u r o p ä e r n a c h ihren Colonieen; aber erst später erregten die Streitigkeiten in d e n Colon i e e n Kriege in Europa. ( 2 2 2 - 2 9 0 ) 15

Erster Zeitraum. 1661-1700. Zweiter

Theil.

Nördliches Staatensystem.

Seit Polen Wahlreich u n d selbst Einstimmigkeit auf den Reichstagen erfordert - 1652 - Polnische Königswahl Thronversteigerung. Schweden n o c h die erste M a c h t des N o r d e n s . Schweden verkauft seine Politik d e m Meistb i e t e n d e n , bald an Spanien, bald an Frankreich. 1683 entsezt Sobiesky Wien.

20

Zweiter Zeitraum. 1700-1740. Erster

Theil.

Südlicheuropäisches

Papiergeld. Credit. Schuldenwesen.

512

Staatensystem. 25

Aus Arnold Hermann Ludwig Heeren: Handbuch der Geschichte

I.) S t a a t s h ä n d e l in E u r o p a . Spanische Succession b e i d e m b e v o r s t e h e n d e n A u s s t e r b e n der spanischhabsburgischen Linie m i t Karl II die grosse Cabinetsfrage seit d e m Ryswiker Frieden. Grosse Allianz im H a a g 7 Sept. 1701. Spanischer Erbfolgekrieg. 5 1 7 0 1 - 2 9 Jan. 1712 Eröffnung des Congresses zu Uetrecht. 7 Sept. 1714 a u c h F r i e d e m i t Kaiser u n d R e i c h . D i e spanischen N i e d e r l a n d e k a m e n a n Oestreich. N u n die Leitung der e u r o p ä i s c h e n A n g e l e g e n h e i t e n lange Z e i t i n d e n H ä n d e n Englands. D i e wichtigsten Handelsbewilligungen w u r d e n Bedingungen des Friedens für die S e e m ä c h t e . Zwei N e u e Königshäuser. 10 Savoy en u n d Preussen.

II. V e r ä n d e r u n g e n in d e n e i n z e l n e n Staaten. 1707 E n g l a n d m i t Schottland vereint. 4 d e u t s c h e Fürsten, B r a n d e n b u r g , Hannover, Sachsen, Hessenkassel erhielten in d i e s e m Z e i t r a u m fremde Königskronen. 15

20

I I I . Colonialwesen. V o n 1700 bis 1740. Grosses W a c h s e n des C o n s u m s u n d P r o d u c t i o n von Colonialproducten. F r a n z o s e n besitzen n o c h C a n a d a u n d L o u i s i a n a i n N o r d a m e r i c a . Besetzen 1690 Isle de F r a n c e u n d 1720 Isle de B o u r b o n . Die Bewilligung des Assientotractats an E n g l a n d (im Utrechter F r i e d e n von Seiten Spaniens) wovon grosser Schleichhandel m i t den spanischen Colonieen die Folge, führten zu A n s t a l t e n gegen dieses u n d die H ä n d e l m i t d e n Garda-Costas 1739 zu e i n e m Krieg. Dieser Krieg verschmolz sich n a c h h e r m i t d e m östreichischen Successionskrieg. ( 2 9 1 - 3 6 4 )

Zweiter 25

30

Theil.

Nördlicheuropäisches

Staatensystem.

1700-1740.

Dieser Z e i t r a u m e n t s c h e i d e n d wichtig für die n ö r d l i c h e n Staaten. Peter der Grosse u n d Karl XII. Seit 1689 Peter I in R u ß l a n d . Carl XII in Schweden seit 1697. Polen seit 1696 u n t e r der Herrschaft von August II, Churfürst von Sachsen. D ä n e m a r k von 1 7 0 0 - 1 7 3 0 u n t e r Friedrich IV. N o r d i s c h e r Krieg von 1 7 0 0 - 1 7 2 0 . R u ß l a n d wird die erste n o r d i s c h e M a c h t . N o r d i s c h e Krieg gab d e n L a u s p r e u s s e n G e l e g e n h e i t z u r Vergrößrung in P o m m e r n . (365-395.)

513

Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 • Heft XIV

Dritter Zeitraum. Von 1740-1786. Erster

Theil.

Südliches Europäisches Staatensystem.

Friedrich II, die Preußische Litteratur. W e s t e n u n d N o r d e n v o n E u r o p a i n dieser Periode tiefer verschlungen als früher.

I. Staatshändel von 1 7 4 0 - 1 7 8 6 .

5

Schlesischer Krieg 1 7 4 0 - 4 2 . Sonstfige] Kriegswirren d a u e r n von 1740 bis 15 April 1748 Congress zu A a c h e n . V e r b i n d u n g Oestreichs u n d Frankreichs bis z u d e n F r i e d e n z u Paris u n d H u b e r t u s b u r g 1 7 5 6 - 1 7 6 3 .

II.) V e r ä n d e r u n g e n in den einzelnen H a u p t s t a a t e n des westlichen Europas. 1 7 4 0 - 1 7 8 6 .

10

Portugal, 1 7 5 0 - 1 7 7 7 , P o m b a i . 1747 in H o l l a n d die Erbstatthalterwürde hergestellt zu G u n s t e n von W i l h e l m IV.

III. Colonialwesen von 1 7 4 0 - 1 7 8 6 . G r o ß b r i t a n n i e n wird die H a u p t m a c h t u n t e r d e n Colonialstaaten. D u r c h d e n Pariser F r i e d e n ganz C a n a d a u n d Florida an E n g l a n d abgetreten. A b - 15 fall der N o r d a m e r i k a n e r 1776, 4 Jul. Erklärung der U n a b h ä n g i g k e i t der Vereinigten Staaten bis 1782. Im Z e i t r a u m des 7jährigen Kriegs gründet die Ostindische C o m p a g n i e ihr ausgedehntes R e i c h . Stiftung der Colonie zu Sidney Cove in Ν. Süd Wales J a n . 1788.

Zweiter Theil. Nördliches Staatensystem. 1740-1786. 1762 Catharina an der Regierung in R u ß l a n d . 5 August 1772 Erster T h e i lungsvergleich Polens zwischen R u ß l a n d , Oestreich, Preussen. ( 3 9 5 - 5 6 7 )

514

20

Aus Arnold Hermann Ludwig Heeren: Handbuch der Geschichte

Dritte

Periode.

Von

1786

bis

1815.

II.) Colonialwesen von 1786 bis 1804. Tippo Saib, Sultan von Mysore, er u n d sein R e i c h fällt vor d e n Britten 4 M a i 1799, Belagerung u n d E r s t ü r m u n g von Seringapatam. [ 6 2 9 - 6 3 1 ] 5

A u s d e m beschränkten e u r o p ä i s c h e n Colonialsystem wird ein Weltstaatensystem hervorgehn. (822)

515

Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 • Heft XIV

|82| William Howitt. Colonization and Christianity. A popular History of the Treatment of the Natives by the Europeans in all their Colonies. L o n d o n . 1838. T h e barbarities u n d desperate outrages of the socalled Christian race, t h r o u g h o u t every region of the world, a n d u p o n every people t h a t they have b e e n able to s u b d u e , are n o t to be paralleled by those of any other race, however fierce, however u n t a u g h t , a n d however reckless of mercy a n d of s h a m e , in any age of the earth. (9) H e i n r i c h von Portugal erhielt schon e i n e n Schenkungsakt von Pabst E u g e n IV auf all the countries which the Portuguese should discover from Cape N o n to India. [19] A l e x a n d e r VI app o i n t e d that a line, supposed to be drawn from pole to pole, a 100 leagues to the westward of the Azores, should serve a limit zwischen der portugiesischen u n d spanischen K r o n e ; and, in t h e p l e n i t u d e of his power, bestowed all to the east of this imaginary line u p o n the Portuguese, a n d all to the west of it, u p o n the Spaniards. (20)

Spaniards

in

Hispaniola.

C o l u m b u s wandte hier schon in seiner Unterjochung der »naked u n d t i m i d I n d i a n s « large dogs an ... J e d e Person, die in d e n golddistricts lebte, obliged to pay quarterly as m u c h golddust as filled a hawk's bell; from those in other parts of the country, 25 p o u n d s of cotton were d e m a n d e d . (36, 7) Die natives were driven to despair by the labours u n d exactions i m -

516

Aus William Howitt: Colonization and Christianity posed u p o n t h e m . F o r m e d a s c h e m e ihre oppressors d u r c h famine zu vertreiben. F l ü c h t e t e n in die Gebirge, aber hier ging ihrer selbst % caput. Fresh succours arrived von Spain u n d bald Spain, at the suggestions of Col u m b u s too, emptied all her gaols, a n d vomited all h e r malefactors auf die 5 K ü s t e n der Insel. Die Folgen dieses Systems bald conspicuous in den distractions, contentions u n d disorders der colony u n d u m sie n i e d e r z u s c h l a gen, vertheilte C o l u m b u s die l a n d s u n t e r his m u t i n o u s followers u n d gab away the i n h a b i t a n t s - the real possessors - along with t h e m as slaves. So war er der originator der Repartimentos oder D i s t r i b u t i o n der I n d i a n s t h a t 10 b e c a m e t h e source of s u c h universal calamities to t h e m , a n d of t h e extinction of m o r e t h a n 50 millions of their race. (39, 40) Bovadillo der Nachfolger von C o l u m b u s , only bestowed a l l o t m e n t of I n d i a n s with a m o r e liberal h a n d . G e t r i e b e n to labour so mercilessly in t h e m i n e s that they m e l t e d as rapidly as snow in the sun. E r h e b u n g der I n d i a n s . It was only to perish by 15 the sword instead of t h e m i n e . (43) G e s c h i c h t e von A n a c o a n a , female cazique u n d Ovando. (46) In 15 J a h r e n sank die Bevölkerung von 1 M i l l i o n auf 60,000. Als Isabella starb Loos der I n d i e r n o c h schlechter. F e r d i n a n d conferred grants of I n d i a n s on his courtiers, as the least expensive m o d e of getting rid of their importunities. O v a n d o , der governor, gab seinen eignen 20 friends u n d creatures similar gifts of living m e n . N o b l e s at h o m e , farmed out these I n d i a n s given by F e r d i n a n d to those who were going o u t to take part in the nefarious deeds. Die small u n d almost n o m i n a l s u m früher d e n natives für ihre Arbeit gestattet n u n d e n i e d t h e m ; wurden m a d e absolute u n d u n c o n d i t i o n a l slaves. E n o r m e s Q u a n t u m wealth i h n e n ausgepreßt. O b 25 gleich Ovando die royal portion auf % reducirt hatte, betrug es d o c h 100,000 l. St. jährlich. Zu alle d e m n o c h das sugar-cane introduced. Plantations u n d sugarworks were established a n d b e c a m e general. ([47,] 48) Bei dieser raschen Zerstörung of h u m a n life H e r r O v a n d o stattet eine Flotte for the benighted Lucayos'mseln aus u n d d e n i n h a b i t a n t s weißgemacht von d e n 30 Spaniards, that they c a m e from t h e h e a v e n of their ancestors etc u n d d a ß diese ihr arrival erwarteten. 40,000 decoyed by this hellish artifice u n d a d d e d to the r e m a i n i n g n u m b e r s der H i s p a n i o l a n wretches in t h e m i n e s u n d plantations. ([49,] 50) C o l u m b u s h a t t e die Perlfischerei von Cubagua entdeckt. Als sein Sohn D o n Diego h e r ü b e r k a m als Viceroy der n e u e n 35 Welt, brachte er e i n e n n e u e n Schwärm v o n Hidalgos m i t sich. Vertheilte u n t e r sie, was n o c h von I n d i a n s existirte u n d etablirte auf der S a n d b a n k von C u b a g u a a colony of perlfishers, wo die I n d i a n s u n d besonders die v o n den Lucayos were compelled to find in diving the last extremity of their sufferings. (51) In less als 50 J a h r e n n a c h d e m arrival der Spanier k e i n e 40 200 I n d i a n s m e h r zu finden in Hispaniola u n d als Francis Drake t o u c h e d there in 1585 not o n e was r e m a i n i n g . (53) Urn die Colonie m i t I n d i e r n zu

517

Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 • Heft XIV supply k i d n a p p i n g cruizes der Spanier along every shore of t h e new world. So der bulk des people von C u m a n a carried off as slaves to H i s p a n i o l a ... D o n Diego eroberte Cuba. ([53,] 54) |

1831

Spaniards

in

Jamaica

and other West Indian Islands.

5

T h e story of o n e W e s t i n d i a Island, is t h e story of all. W h e t h e r Spaniards, F r e n c h or English took possession, the slaughter a n d oppression of the natives followed. (56) Zu der Zahl von 60,000 auf J a m a i c a . (Indians) K e i n e r von either sex lebte n o c h w h e n t h e English took t h e island in 1655. (58) D e r I n d i a n der W e s t i n d i s c h e n Inseln, zu Las Casas Z e i t e n n o c h 6 Mil- 10 lions, ganz reduced to nothing. (59)

Spaniards

in

Mexico.

Cortez erzählt d e m E i n e n m e x i c a n officer that „the Spaniards h a d a disease of t h e h e a r t which could only be cured by gold". (74)

Spaniards in Peru.

15

K a m p f der spanischen A b e n t h e u r e r u n t e r sich, n a c h d e m sie Peru unterjocht. R o b e r t s o n sagt: "It is only where m e n are far r e m o v e d from the seat of government, where the restraints of law a n d order are little felt; where the prospect of gain is u n b o u n d e d , a n d where i m m e n s e wealth m a y cover the crimes by which it is acquired, t h a t we c a n find any parallel to the 20 cruelty, the rapaciousness, the perfidy a n d corruption prevalent amongst t h e Spaniards in Peru." ( 1 1 6 - 1 8 )

Spaniards

in

Paraguay.

1534, the powerful a r m a m e n t of D o n Pedro de M e n d o z a , consisting of 11 ships a n d 800 m e n entered the Plata, a n d laid the f o u n d a t i o n of B u e n o s Ayres. A b e r er so wenig wie J u a n Diaz de Solis (1515), Cabot u n d Diego G a r c i a w u r d e n fertig m i t diesen kriegerischen u n d k a n n i b a l i s c h e n Einwohn e r n . M u ß t e unverrichteter Sache h e i m k e h r e n . (123, 4) Er ließ Ayolas zurück in c o m m a n d . Dieser advanced n a c h Paraguay u n d n a h m die town of

518

25

Aus William Howitt: Colonization and Christianity A s s u m p c i o n . (124) D i e J e s u i t e n eingeladen v o n Peru u n d Brazil n a c h Paraguay 1586. (126) Krieg besonders der Paulistas gegen die R e d u c t i o n s der J e s u i t e n um I n d i e r zu fangen u n d als Sklaven abzuführen. (135 sqq.) T h e Jesuits were compelled to retreat southward from o n e place to a n o t h e r with 5 their wretched n e o p h y t e s . T h e magistrates a n d governors gave t h e m no aid ... u n d they were, even in the central g r o u n d between the P a r a n a a n d Uruguay, compelled to train their people to arms, a n d defend themselves. (139) D i e Spanier: »In all their colonies, the natives, whether of I n d i a n blood, or the Creoles d e s c e n d e d of their own, were carefully excluded from 10 the direction of their own affairs, a n d t h e e m o l u m e n t s of office. Spaniards from the m o t h e r country were sent over in rapacious swarms, to fatten on the vitals of these vast states, a n d r e t u r n w h e n they h a d sucked t h e i r fill.« (143)

Portuguese

in

Brazil.

15

Die features des settlement of Paraguay d u r c h die Spanier u n d of Brazil durch die Portugiesen ganz similar. T h e natives were of like character, bold and warlike, and were treated in like fashion. They were destroyed, enslaved, given away in E n c o m i e n d o s etc. (145) E i n e r der first acts der Portugiesen to ship thither as colonists t h e refuse of her prisons. (146) M a r i a 20 G r a h a m sagt: (1824) In Brazil „the natives entweder e x t e r m i n a t e d or wholly s u b d u e d . T h e slavehunting, systematisch on the first o c c u p a t i o n of the land u n d besonders n a c h der discovery der m i n e s , h a t t e die I n d i a n s so vermindert, d a ß Negereinführung n ö t h i g : they (die N e g e r ) n o w people t h e Brazilian fields; a n d if here a n d there an I n d i a n aldea is to be found, the 25 people are wretched, with less t h a n negro comforts, a n d m u c h less t h a n n e gro spirit or industry: the I n d i a n s are n o t h i n g in Brazil." Sie erzählt (Voyage to Brazil, p. 9) "In the Captaincy of Porto Seguro, within these 20 years, an I n d i a n tribe h a d b e e n so t r o u b l e s o m e t h a t the C a p i t a m M ô r resolved to get rid of it. It was attacked, b u t defended itself so bravely, t h a t t h e Portu30 guese resolved to desist from o p e n warfare; b u t with u n n a t u r a l ingenuity exposed ribbons a n d toys, infested with smallpox matter, in t h e places where the poor savages were likely to find t h e m . T h e plan succeeded. T h e I n d i a n s were so t h i n n e d t h a t they were easily overcome." D a s résultat des bloodshed ||84| u n d crime beschreibt Sir F. B. H e a d in den „ R o u g h N o t e s 35 on the Pampas", 1826. Splendid countries overrun with a m o s t l u x u r i a n t vegetation u n d m i t countless troops of wild horses and herds of wild cattle, b u t thinly peopled, partly m i t I n d i a n s u n d partly m i t d e n G a u c h o s , or descendants der Spaniards, existing in a state of t h e m o s t h i d e o u s hostility

519

Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 · Heft XIV and h a t r e d o n e towards another. (166, 7) In d e n R e p u b l i c s von S ü d a m e r i k a in d e n towns we find the people indolent, ignorant, superstitious, u n d m o s t f i l t h y ; u n d i n d e m country n a k e d I n d i a n s o n horseback, scouring the wilds, a n d m a k i n g use of the very animals by which the Spaniards subjugated t h e m , to scourge u n d e x t e r m i n a t e their d e s c e n d a n t s . Leztre n u r a n o t h e r k i n d of savages. (170)

Portuguese

in

5

India.

Die Portugiesen l a n d e t e n in Calicut u n t e r G a m a 1498 ... ihre conquests u n d cruelties in I n d i e n nothwendig confined chiefly to the coasts u n d Gewürzinseln. (174, 5) W i t h less t h a n 40,000 troops the Portuguese struck 10 terror into the empire of Morocco, the barbarous n a t i o n s of Africa, the M a m e l u c s , the Arabians, and all the eastern countries from the island of O r m u z to China. (177) T h e r e prevailed überall in d e n m a n n e r s der Portugiesen a m i x t u r e of avarice, debauchery, cruelty u n d devotion. (181)

The Dutch in India.

15

W i r k o m m e n jezt zu e i n e m »Protestant« people. (185) T h e dutch, d e n i e d I n d i a n goods in Portugal, d e t e r m i n e d to seek t h e m in I n d i a itself. 1594 gab Philipp die order that they should n o t be p e r m i t t e d to receive goods from Portuguese ports u n d u m 1602, u n d e r their admirals, H o u t m a n u n d V a n N e c k , they h a d visited Madagascar, t h e Maldives, a n d t h e isles of S u n d a ; 20 etablirt Factories i n verschiednen der M o l u k k e n u n d b r o u g h t h o m e a b u n d a n c e of pepper, spices u.d.g. N u m e r o u s trading c o m p a n i e s organisirt, alle vereinigt, durch die Politic der G e n e r a l s t a a t e n , in die E i n e der East I n d i a C o m p a n y . (190) Die D u t c h kämpften glücklich gegen die Portugiesen. Sonst aber they sought to win their way by duplicity, rather t h a n by deci- 25 sive daring. So rotteten sie ihre rivals n a c h u n d n a c h aus of their m o s t i m portant stations in Java, d e n M o l u c c e n , Ceylon, an d e n C o r o m a n d e l u n d M a l a b a r Coasts. Ihre lucrativsten Posten waren zu Java, B a n t a m u n d d e n M o l u c c a s . A b e r so bald sie überlegen fearful m e t a m o r p h o s i s . Ihre rapacity, perfidy u n d infamous cruelty k a n n t e n keine G r ä n z e n . B e r ü h m t e s Massacre 30 der English in Amboyna, wo sie 5 factories h a t t e n d u r c h die D u t c h . W a n d ten die gemeinsten Torturen an; n u r um zu h e r r s c h e n als sole kings ü b e r die islands of cloves u n d c i n n a m o n , n u t m e g s u n d m a c e , c a m p h o r u n d coffee, areca u n d betel, gold, pearls u n d precious metals. ( 1 9 1 - 1 9 3 ) There are few things in history m o r e darkly horrible als ihr k i d n a p p i n g system of the 35

520

Aus William Howitt: Colonization and Christianity Celebes, um Sklaven für Java etc zu h a b e n . (194, 5) D i e m a n s t e a l e r s were trained to the purpose. D e r thief, der interpreter, der seller die H a u p t a g e n ten in d i e s e m H a n d e l . Die magistrates u n d princes die chiefdealers in it. D a z u die secret Prisons in Celebes wo versteckt bis reif to be sent to t h e 5 slave ships. (195, 6) E i n officieller R e p o r t sagt: „Z. B. diese eine town of Makâsar, filled m i t prisons, t h e o n e m o r e d i s m a l t h a n the other, w h i c h are stuffed mit h u n d r e d s of wretches, the victims of avarice u n d tyranny, who, chained in fetters, a n d t a k e n away from their wives etc" ... S u c h was t h e terror universally existing in these islands w h e n t h e English c o n q u e r e d 10 t h e m , that the i n h a b i t a n t s did n o t dare to walk the streets, work in t h e fields, or go on a journey, except in c o m p a n i e s of 5 or 6 together, a n d well armed. (197) Desirous of b e c o m i n g masters of Malacca, sie b e s t a c h e n d e n portugiesischen Governor. Er führte d e n e n e m y in die city 1641. T h e y hastened to his h o u s e u n d massacred h i m to save t h e bribe of 500,000 livres 15 = 21,875 /. St. (198) Sir Stamford Raffles h a t die G e s c h i c h t e der H o l l ä n d e r in Java gegeben. Es ist one of the m o s t extraordinary relations of treachery, bribery, massacre u n d m e a n n e s s . (199, 200) | |85| So ihre B e h a n d l u n g der natives, d a ß die Population Einer Provinz, Banyuawngi, 1750 an 80,000, in 1811 reducirt auf 8000. U e b e r a u u n t e r 20 i h n e n Depopulation. (200)

The

25

30

35

English

in

India.

Erst von 1708, als die different chartered c o m p a n i e s , in die E i n e ostindische verwandelt, the english affairs in the east a s s u m e d an imposing aspect. (206) The first step in the english friendship with the native princes, has generally b e e n to assist t h e m against their n e i g h b o u r s with troops, or to locate troops with t h e m to protect t h e m from aggression. For these services such e n o r m o u s r e c o m p e n s e was stipulated for, that the unwary princes, entrapped by their fear of their native foes rather t h a n of their p r e t e n d e d friends, soon found they were utterly u n a b l e to discharge t h e m . Dreadful exactions were m a d e on their subjects, b u t in vain. W h o l e provinces, or the revenues of them, were soon obliged to be m a d e over to their grasping friends; b u t they did n o t suffice for their d e m a n d s . In order to pay t h e m their debts or their interest, the princes were obliged to borrow large s u m s at an extravagant rate. T h e s e s u m s were eagerly advanced by t h e English in their private and individual capacities u n d securities again t a k e n on lands or revenues. At every step the u n h a p p y princes b e c a m e m o r e a n d m o r e e m barrassed, a n d as the e m b a r r a s s m e n t increased, the claims of the C o m p a n y b e c a m e proportionably pressing. In the technical phraseology of m o n e y l e n d -

521

Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 · Heft XIV ers „the screw was t h e n t u r n e d " ... K e i n e andre Ausflucht als sich ganz der mercy der inexorable creditors zu überlassen or to break o u t into a r m e d resistance. W e n n Erstres, so jedes vestige ihrer power i h n e n abgestrippt, ihre revenues u n d die Verwaltung ihrer territories diesen creditors übergeben, schließlich sie gezwungen, to cede their territories u n d b e c o m e pen5 sioners on t h e i r usurpers. Im a n d r e n Fall d u r c h Gewalt der Waffen destroyed or deposed als traitors etc. S u c h t e n sie Hülfe bei e i n e m a n d e r n state, that b e c a m e a fortunate plea to attack t h a t state too ... It did n o t suffice that a province merely refused an alliance, if the proper t i m e was d e e m e d to be arrived for its s e i z u r e — s o m e plea of danger or suspicion was 10 set up against it. ... Die Prinzen, die e i n m a l subjected der british power or friendship, bald set u p , bald pulled down wie es i h n e n gefiel. If necessary, t h e m o s t o d i o u s stigmas were fixed on t h e m to get rid of t h e m — t h e y were declared weak, illegitimate dissolute. If a prince or princess was Suspected of having wealth, some villanous s c h e m e was h a t c h e d to p l u n d e r h i m or 15 h e r of it. F ü r m e h r als ein J h d t d a u e r n dieses shocking system, every day growing m o r e daring in its action, a n d m o r e wide in its extent. ... every british subject nicht belonging zur C o m p a n i e u n d d a h e r an i h r e n operations interessirt, was rigidly excluded from the country. ( 2 1 3 - 1 5 ) Sie m a c h t e n stets conquests on the plea of aiding their allies. In the end the al- 20 lies were themselves swallowed u p , with all the a d d i t i o n a l territories thus gained. (243) (It was a system of fattening allies as we fatten oxen, till they were m o r e worthy of being devoured. I.e.) T h e East I n d i a C o m p a n y , after fighting a n d c o n q u e r i n g in I n d i a for 2 centuries, have found themselves, at t h e dissolution of their charter, nearly 50 millions in debt; while their trade 25 with China, wo sie keinen foot of l a n d besitzen, h a d b e c o m e t h e richest c o m m e r c e in the world. (251) D e r private trade was a great source of reven u e . T h e public trade d. h. der transit of goods to a n d from Europe, was the peculiar m o n o p o l y of the C o m p a n y ; b u t all coasting trade, trade to a n d between the isless, ||86| and in the interior of India, b e c a m e a m o n o p o l y of 30 the higher servants of the Company, who were at o n c e engaged in the C o m p a n y ' s concerns a n d their own. T h e m o n o p o l y of salt, o p i u m , betel u n d a n d r e n W a a r e n b e c a m e a m i n e of wealth. T h e C o m p a n y ' s servants could fix the price at whatever rate they pleased, a n d t h u s e n h a n c e it to the u n fortunate people so as to occasion t h e m the most intense distress. F o r t u n e s 35 were m a d e in a day by this m o n o p o l y u n d o h n e advance of a single shilling. T h e very Governor-general himself engaged in this private trade; u n d contracts d e n favourites given on s u c h terms, t h a t 2 or 3 fortunes were m a d e o u t of t h e m before they reached the m e r c h a n t . In e i n e m case, der o u t k a m bei d e m trial von W a r r e n Hastings, a contract for o p i u m h a d b e e n 40 given to Mr. Sullivan, t h o u g h he was going into q u i t e a different part of In-

522

Aus William Howitt: Colonization and Christianity

5

10

15

20

25

30

dia, a n d on public business; this, of course, he sold again, to Mr. B e n n for 40,000 1.; u n d dieser verkaufte es again für 60,000 1., clearing 20,000 I. by the m e r e passing des contract von einer H a n d in die a n d r e ; u n d der purchaser t h e n declared t h a t he m a d e a large s u m by it. (255, 6) T h e C o m p a n y could, indeed, with a very bad grace, c o n d e m n bribery in its officers, d e n n sie selbst ü b t e sie stets at h o m e aus in order to obtain its exclusive privileges from g o v e r n m e n t ; u n d so early as 1693 it appeared from p a r l i a m e n tary inquiry, that its a n n u a l e x p e n d i t u r e u n d e r t h e h e a d of gifts to m e n in power vor der Revolution selten ü b e r 1,200 1., aber von dieser période bis 1693 erreichte sie fast 90,000 /. jährlich. D e r D u k e of Leeds was i m p e a c h e d for a bribe of 5,000 l. u n d 10,000 l. d e m king selbst. A u s s e r d e m , so oft e i n e n e u e rival c o m p a n y im Feld erschien, g o v e r n m e n t was t e m p t e d m i t d e n loans of e n o r m o u s s u m s , at t h e lowest interest. D i e s e m entsprechen d a n n wieder die u n g e h e u r e n »presents« die sich die C o m p a g n i e selbst u n d j e d e r ihrer B e a m t e n in I n d i e n m a c h e n ließ. Wo n a c h aus d e m P a r l a m e n t vorgelegten Liste von d e n P r i n z e n u n d a n d r e n N a t i v e n von Bengal allein, von 1 7 5 7 - 1 7 6 6 , g e m a c h t e n G e s c h e n k e n etc an 6 Mill. /. St. ( 2 5 7 - 6 0 ) extortion, n a c h Clives A u s d r u c k selbst, wo simple corruption could n o t keep pace m i t der rapacity der B e a m t e n der C o m p a g n i e . (262) H u n g e r s n o t h 1769, 70 m i t d u r c h die Engländer, buying up all the rice u n d refusing to sell any of it except at the most exorbitant price. (268) T h e I n d i a n government had, in fact, instead of discouraging s u c h practices in t h e natives (wie d e n Dienst des Juggernaut u n d die Prostitution i n n e r h a l b seines Tempels) t a k e n up the trade of public m u r d e r e r s , a n d keepers of h o u s e s of ill fame, u n t e r d e m Vorwand religiöser Toleranz, in W a h r h e i t aber, weil es Steuern zog on all pilgrims going to the temples in Orissa u n d Bengal u n d h a d appointed british officers, british g e n t l e m e n to s u p e r i n t e n d the m a n a g e m e n t of this h i d e ous worship and the receipt of its proceeds. (295) Erst jezt n e u l i c h »the Indian government has b e e n s h a m e d o u t of trading in m u r d e r a n d prostitution in the temples of Juggernaut«. (296) I n d o s t a n is the Ireland of the East. (300) Die ryots bilden % des Volks. (308)

The

35

French

in

their

Colonies.

No E u r o p e a n n a t i o n h a s b e e n so u n f o r t u n a t e in t h e loss of colonies. (313) Sieh »Colden. History of the five nations«. It is to the eternal disgrace of b o t h F r e n c h a n d english that they instigated and bribed the I n d i a n s to massacre a n d scalp their e n e m i e s — b u t it seems to be the peculiar infamy of the F r e n c h to have i m i t a t e d the I n d i a n s in their m o s t b a r b a r o u s cust o m s , a n d have even prided themselves on displaying a higher r e f i n e m e n t

523

Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 • Heft XIV in cruelty t h a n the savages themselves. T h e N e w Englanders, indeed, are distinctly stated by Douglass, to have h a n d e d over their I n d i a n prisoners to be t o r m e n t e d by their N a r a g a n s e t allies, b u t with the french this savage practice seems to have b e e n frequent. N a m e n t l i c h berüchtigt the old govern o r F r o n t e n a c . V o n 1 6 9 1 - 5 nothing was m o r e c o m m o n t h a n for his i n d i a n prisoners to be given up to his i n d i a n allies to be t o r m e n t e d . (324) |

1871

The

English

in

5

America.

F ü r a b o u t a century nichts als wretchedness, failure, famine massacres by t h e I n d i a n s , were the news from the a m e r i c a n Colonies. D i e m e h r n ö r d lichen, wie N o v a Scotia, C a n a d a u n d Newyork, we took from the F r e n c h 10 u n d the D u t c h ; the m o r e southern, wie Florida u n d Louisiana, were o b tained später von d e n Spaniards. E c h t englische settlements die central eastern states, besonders Virginia, N e w E n g l a n d u n d Pennsylvania. (336) D i e P u r i t a n e r l a n d e t e n 11 N o v e m b e r 1620 an der coast of M a s s a c h u s e t s , at a spot, d e n sie N e w P l y m o u t h n a n n t e n . (343) (Douglass's S u m m a r y of t h e 15 first Planting of N o r t h America.) D i e M a s s a c h u s e t s assembly, 1703, voted 40 I. p r e m i u m for e a c h I n d i a n scalp or captive. In t h e former war the p r e m i um was 12 I. (348) 1722 das p r e m i u m for scalps was 1 0 0 / . ; 1744 war es risen auf 400 1.; für die years 1745, 6 u n d 7 stand es zu 1000 I. per h e a d to volunteers, scalp or captive, u n d 400 I. per h e a d to impressed m e n , wages 20 a n d subsistence m o n e y to be deducted. (I.e.) In 1744 the Cape-Sables u n d St. J o h n ' s I n d i a n s being at war with the colonies, Massachusets Bay declared t h e m rebels ... u n d offered for their scalps - males 12 years old, a n d upwards, 100 1. new tenor; for such as captives, 105 1., for women und children 50 I. scalps! 55 I. captives. T h e assembly soon after, hearing t h a t t h e 25 Penobscot a n d Noridgwoag I n d i a n s h a d j o i n e d the F r e n c h , e x t e n d e d p r e m i u m s for scalps a n d captives to all places west of N o v a Scotia, a n d advanced t h e m to 250 I. new tenor, to volunteers; a n d 100 I. new t e n o r to troops in pay. (348) Dieser Krieg hieß Governor D u m m e r ' s war; d o c h der b e r ü h m teste der von Philip von Pokanoket, brach aus 1675 u n d d a u e r t e ganzes 30 Jahr. (350) (Adair: History of the A m e r i c a n I n d i a n s . [368]) In d e m Krieg m i t d e n F r a n z o s e n u m C a n a d a d u r c h alle Mittel die I n d i e r gegen sie gehezt u n d auf Seite der Engländer gebracht. A b e r k a u m C a n a d a reduced, a n d the services of the I n d i a n s no longer n e e d e d , als sie ebensosehr e n c r o a c h e d u p o n u n d insulted as ever. Einige ihrer blutigsten Kriege gegen die Set- 35 t l e m e n t s fanden Statt between der Conquest von C a n a d a u n d d e m a m e rikanischen Unabhängigkeitskrieg. It was the long course of injuries a n d insults which the I n d i a n s h a d suffered from the settlers that m a d e t h e m so

524

Aus William Howitt: Colonization and Christianity

5

ready to take up the t o m a h a w k a n d scalping-knife at the call, a n d i n d u c e d by the bloodmoney, of the m o t h e r c o u n t r y against h e r a m e r i c a n children. E m p l o y m e n t u n d instigation der I n d i a n s to t o m a h a w k the settlers ... s u c h enormities called im brittischen P a r l a m e n t „ m e a n s which god a n d n a t u r e have p u t into our h a n d s " u n d Lord Cornwallis, o u r general t h e n employed gegen die A m e r i c a n s , sagte, 1780 his satisfaction t h a t t h e I n d i a n s h a d p u r s u e d a n d scalped m a n y of the e n e m y " . (378, 9) In Newfoundland h a b e n die Engländer die I n d i a n s ausgerottet völlig. (380)

Behandlung 10

15

20

30

35

Indier

in

den

United

States.

T h e fire waters, gin, r u m , a n d brandy, have b e e n introduced to intoxicate, a n d in intoxication to swindle t h e I n d i a n s o u t of their furs a n d lands. N u m b e r s of claims to lands have b e e n g r o u n d e d on d r u n k e n bargains, which in their soberness the I n d i a n s would n o t recognize; a n d t h e consequences have b e e n bloodshed a n d forcible expulsion. (394) T h e m o s t singular feature of the t r e a t m e n t der I n d i a n s by the A m e r i c a n s is, t h a t while they assign their irreclaimable n a t u r e as t h e necessary cause of their expelling or desiring to expel t h e m from all t h e states east of t h e Mississippi, their m o s t strenuous u n d m o s t recent efforts have b e e n directed against those n u m e r o u s tribes, that were n o t only extensive b u t rapidly advancing in civilization, the Choctaws, Chickasaws, Creeks, u n d Cherokees, were fast conforming b o t h to the religion a n d the habits of the A m e r i c a n s etc. (405)

The

25

der

English

in

South

Africa.

(Pringles African Sketches.) "There is scarcely an instance of cruelty said to have b e e n c o m m i t t e d against t h e slaves in t h e W e s t i n d i a n islands, t h a t could n o t find a parallel from t h e D u t c h farmers towards the H o t t e n t o t s in their service." ([422,] 423) Dr Philip: „Researches in South Africa" publicirt 1828, publicirte zuerst die Sauerein, die gedauert seit (1797) die E n g länder Besitzer des Caps der g u t e n Hoffnung statt der Holländer. (424) D a d u r c h bewirkt daß die H o t t e n t o t e n emancipirt von England. (I.e.) (1828 u n d 29) [429] | |88| Im Cap gegen die b u s h m e n u n d caffern die commandoes, a sort of military b a t t u (Treibjagd) set on foot gegen sie. T h e i n h a b i t a n t s of a district assemble at the c o m m a n d of an officer, civil or military, to clear the country ... they take in a vast circle, beating up the b u s h e s and thickets, while they gradually contract the circle, till the whole m u l t i t u d e find t h e m -

525

Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 • Heft XIV selves inclosing a small area filled with the whole savage p o p u l a t i o n of the n e i g h b o u r h o o d , on which they m a k e a s i m u l t a n e o u s attack, a n d slaughter t h e m in o n e p r o m i s c u o u s mass. Diese c o m m a n d o e s u s e d from t h e first day of discovery. They were c o m m o n in the Spanish a n d Portugueses colonies u n d u n d e r the s a m e n a m e . (434)

5

Cafferland. ... T h e e n c r o a c h m e n t s der colonists u p o n t h e Caffres, w h e n they c a m e in contact with t h e m on t h e banks of t h e G a m t o o s river; their expulsion from the Rumfield, now Albany, in 1 8 1 1 ; the c o m m a n d o e s of Colonel Brereton, in 1818; our c o n d u c t to Gaika, o u r ally, in 1819, in depriving h i m of the country between the F i s h a n d K e i s k a m m a Rivers; the 10 injury inflicted u p o n M a c o m o u n d Gaika, by the ejectment of M a c o m o a n d his people, with m a n y of the people of Gaika, from the Katriver, in 1829; the m a n n e r in which the Caffres were expelled from the westbank of t h e C h u m i e a n d K e i s k a m m a , in 1833, and, subsequently, again (after having b e e n allowed to return) in 1834; a n d the working of t h e c o m m a n d o s y s - 15 t e m , down to D e c e m b e r 1834—were sufficient in themselves to a c c o u n t for t h e Caffrewar (1837 o d e r 38!) if the Caffres are allowed to be h u m a n beings, a n d to possess passions like ourselves. (462)

The

English

in

New

Holland

and the Islands of the Pacific.

20

We have totally cleared V a n D i e m a n ' s L a n d u n d die natives of N e w Holl a n d r e d u c e d to misery. (475) Till lately the tattooed h e a d s of N e w Zealanders were sold at Sidney as objects of curiosity; a n d Mr Y a t e says he has known people give property to a chief for the purpose of getting t h e m to kill their slaves, that they m i g h t have some heads to take to N e w S o u t h Wales. 25 This degrading traffic prohibited by G e n e r a l Darling. (490) Mr Yate o n c e took from the h a n d of a N e w Zealand chief a packet of corrosive sublimate, which a captain h a d given to the savage in order to enable h i m to poison his e n e m i e s . (491)

526

Aus Juan Sempere y Guarinos: Considerations sur les causes de la grandeur

Sempéré (ancien magistrat espagnol) Considérations sur les causes de la grandeur et de la décadence de la Monarchie Espagnole. 5

2 t o m . Paris 1826.

t.I.

10

15

20

25

Der père C h a r e n t o n , Uebersetzer der s p a n i s c h e n G e s c h i c h t e des M a r i a n a , zählt 179 révolutions survenues dans les états chrétiens de la Péninsule. (4) le G o u v e r n e m e n t des G o t h s n ' é t a i t q u ' u n e m o n a r c h i e t h é o c r a t i q u e . (7) Casiri publia les capitulations convenues entre le général m a h o m é t a n A b d a l a ziz et le prince G o t h T h é o d o m i r . 712 (14) les M a u r e s d o m i n è r e n t la P é n i n sule plus de 700 ans ; et s'ils ne s'étaient point désunis et divisés en petits états e n n e m i s les u n s des autres, p e u t être q u e leurs bannières y flotteraient encore. (21) Im 10' u n d 1 1 ' Jh. die c o u r o n n e (die m o n a r c h i e chrét i e n n e de la Péninsule), d'élective qu'elle était, devint héréditaire, et m ê m e p a t r i m o n i a l e ; et les rois qui, sous le régime de la m o n a r c h i e des G o t h s , n ' a u r a i e n t pu aliéner a u c u n e partie de leurs d o m a i n e s , j o u i r e n t sous le g o u v e r n e m e n t féodal du droit de les partager d a n s leurs familles, et m ê m e de les d o n n e r aux étrangers. Im 11* Jh. F e r d i n a n d I theilte seine r o y a u m e s u n t e r ses 3 fils u n d 2 filles. (28, 29) Im 12 Jh. als Abwehr gegen die A n a r chie, die h o h e Geistlichkeit u n d die F e u d a l e n « tous les paysans, les laboureurs et autres prolétaires se r é u n i r e n t et conspirèrent contre leurs seigneurs, um i h n e n die services zu refüsiren. Ils n o m m è r e n t ces congrégations confréries, et ils publiaient d a n s les m a r c h é s u n d d e n bourgs u n d ||89| villages : sachez que d a n s un tel lieu et tel j o u r i n d i q u é , la confrél

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Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 • Heft XIV rie doit se réunir, et q u e les maisons de ceux qui ne v o u d r o n t pas, seront démolies. Ils se soulevèrent» etc. Die confréries v e r m e h r t e n sich so, d a ß sie schließlich u n e partie de la constitution politique de ces t e m p s bildeten. Schlich sich in sie der G e b r a u c h ein, de n o m m e r des alcades ou juges particuliers p o u r les affaires des confrères; der heilige F e r d i n a n d verbot 5 alle deren direkter u n d einziger Zweck nicht q u e l q u e s exercises de piétés. D o c h b i l d e t e n sich andre in ä h n l i c h e n Fällen, besonders w ä h r e n d der m i norités des rois. ( 4 4 - 4 7 ) Auffindung der Pandecten Waffe gegen die Päbste. Da sie a b o n d e n t in lois favorables au despotisme, les souverains en protégèrent la propagation, fondèrent des écoles p o u r leur e n s e i g n e m e n t , et ac- 10 cordèrent des grands h o n n e u r s a u x jurisconsultes. ([50,] 51) (wählten sie für ihre conseils, G e s a n d t e u n d wichtigsten affaires.) K a m p f daher zwischen d e n légistes u n d canonistes. (52) Le droit de cuissage, d . h . celui qu'avaient quelques seigneurs in F r a n k r e i c h de déflorer les filles avant leurs maris, la première n u i t de leurs noces, fut en usage en Catalogne, bis 15 F e r d i n a n d le catholique es abschaffte 1486. (97) D i e Vereinigung der beiden K r o n e n von Castilien u n d Aragon - u n t e r F e r d i n a n d u n d Isabella Heilige H e r m a n d a d geschaffen; Zerstörung des größten Theils der chât e a u x u n d forteresses vieler seigneurs u n d chevalier, nicht m e h r nöthig p o u r la défense du r o y a u m e ; ils a n n u l è r e n t viele aliénations de bourgs, al- 20 cavalas u n d andrer biens de c o u r o n n e , faites p o u r des services supposés ou exagérés. Ils r é u n i r e n t aussi à la c o u r o n n e les maîtrises des ordres militaires, qui a n t é r i e u r e m e n t étaient a u t a n t de principautés. Ils dépouillèrent les grands du droit d o n t ils avaient j o u i jusqu'alors d'être conseillers nés des rois, et de souscrire les privilèges; ils d o n n è r e n t u n e nouvelle forme à 25 l'ancien Conseil, en le c o m p o s a n t en grande partie de Jurisconsultes etc. Begünstigten die savans u n d die instruction littéraire de la noblesse. Errichteten die Inquisition. ( 1 0 1 - 3 ) Besonders gerichtet gegen die J u d e n , im A n fang n u r gegen die Getauften, die n o u v e a u x chrétiens. Zugleich H a u p t m i t tel d e n Schatz zu füllen. Bis 1507 ü b e r 11,000 c o n d a m n é s . (124) Die In- 30 quisition lieferte d e n K ö n i g e n die Kriegskosten gegen die F e u d a l e n . A u s s e r d e m vermieden sie d a d u r c h die guerres de religion. (126, 7) Zu dieser Epoche u n d selbst m e h r e J a h r e n a c h h e r , die Castillans considéraient c o m m e étrangers les Espagnols nés d a n s les états de la c o u r o n n e d'Aragon. Die A r a g o n e s e n werden von Isabella ausgeschlossen von d e m c o m m e r c e 35 u n d profits tirés des I n d e s . D e n Castiliens wurde das M o n o p o l gegeben. Aber grade die aragonesischen Provinzen, besonders die Catalans u n d Valenciens waren n o c h les plus industrieux de t o u t e la Péninsule. Barcelone le disputait encore à Venise et à G è n e s . (152, 3) Cette distribution et ce service des I n d i e n s s'appela c o m m a n d e r i e , et leurs maîtres e n c o m e n d e r o s . 40 (160) 1503 F e r d i n a n d u n d Isabella publicirten un décret, par lequel on per-

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m e t t a i t à tous ceux qui voudraient faire de nouvelles découvertes, de les effectuer, en d o n n a n t c a u t i o n et sous de certaines conditions. (163) A v a n t les découvertes de C o l o m b , le trafic des nègres était déjà b i e n c o n n u et très usité en Espagne. Les Portugais faisaient ce c o m m e r c e en a c h e t a n t les n è gres en Afrique, se servant d'eux, et r e v e n d a n t à d'autres n a t i o n s c e u x d o n t ils n ' a v a i e n t pas besoin. (173, 4) D a s blé, le vin, le sucre, les oranges et autres fruits délicieux, les chevaux, les bœufs, les m o u t o n s et b e a u c o u p d'autres a n i m a u x très utiles p o u r l'agriculture etc von den S p a n i e r n eingeführt. (192) 1520 Krieg der C o m m u n e r o s . H ä t t e n sich die nobles i h n e n réuni, so die réforme ou nouvelle constitution m o n a r c h i q u e projetée par les confédérés, se fût peutêtre réalisée. (199, 200) Im 16' Jh. n o c h 3 insurrections, die der C o m m u n e r o s von Castilien, die der M a u r e s q u e s zu G r e n a d a u n d die der Aragonesen, m a i s elles furent étouffées bientôt. (211) Da die Spanier nicht die J u d e n zurückriefen, wie d'autres souverains, sie M a n g e l an C a p i t a l i s t e n u n d t o u t leur c o m m e r c e passa entre les m a i n s d'étrangers, n o n m o i n s usuriers, et b e a u c o u p plus nuisibles q u e les juifs. (216) Grosses Vorherrschen, u n t e r Karl V, der flandrischen M a n u f a c t u r e n in Spanien. Carl V o r d o n n a par u n e p r a g m a t i q u e de 1552, q u e les étrangers qui exporteraient des laines de la P é n i n s u l e , s'obligeraient d'y i m p o r t e r pour c h a q u e d o u z e balles qu'ils en retireraient, d e u x pièces de drap et u n e balle de toile ... (223) | [90| Malgré la p r é p o n d é r a n c e du c o m m e r c e étranger, les m a n u f a c t u r e s espagnoles ayant dans les A m é r i q u e s un d é b o u c h é assuré et avantageux, leurs fabriques ne laissèrent pas de prospérer à un tel point, qu'il y avait des négocians q u i a c h e t a i e n t leurs produits 2 ou 3 a n n é e s à l'avance, ainsi que le dirent les Cortès de 1552 dans leur pétition. ([224,] 225) D i e d u m m e n Cortès von 1552, voyant l'accroissement des prix des comestibles, des draps, des soies, des m a r o q u i n s et de toutes les autres m a r c h a n d i s e s du c o m m e r c e avec les A m é r i q u e s , d e m a n d è r e n t la prohibition de leur exportation de la Péninsule pour ce continent. (226) So wollten sie Ueberfluß von Gold u n d Silber einerseits, stürzten deßwegen n a c h A m e r i c a etc; a n derseits on déclamait contre l ' a u g m e n t a t i o n d e r Preisse der W a a r e n . D i e Cortez von 1532 avaient r e m a r q u é q u e 3000 maravédis von 1480 valaient a u t a n t als 15,000 d'alors, also argent baissé i n % J 5fache seines Werthes. (226, 7) So verloren die in den alten Criminalgesetzen festgesezten Strafen - z u m grossen Theil a m e n d e s de sous, ou maravédis - diese peines pécuniaires ihre rigueur en proportion de l'énorme différence q u i existait entre les m o n n a i e s en circulation au t e m p s de leur promulgation, et les m o n n a i e s postérieures à la découverte des A m é r i q u e s . (227, 8) In d e m F u e r o royal, publié par A l o n z o X, 1254, on prohibait les appels des justices ordinaires d a n s les procès q u i ne passaient pas 10 m a r a v é d i s ; a b e r ß

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Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 • Heft XIV die galten d a m a l s so viel wie 1000 r é a u x jezt. In einer O r d o n a n z desselben Königs, wo die Preisse aller comestibles b e s t i m m t , der beste b œ u f 5 m a r a védis u n d ein b o n t a u r e a u nicht ü b e r 4 ; jezt n i c h t u n t e r 1000 r é a u x z u kaufen. In d e n premiers réglemens du Conseil royal verordnet keine appels von d e n sentences des t r i b u n a u x zuzulassen, à m o i n s q u e les appelans ne consignassent 1500 doubles, qu'ils p e r d a i e n t si leurs sentences étaient confirmées par le Conseil. H ä t t e m ü s s e n verzehnfacht werden. Da dieß nicht geschah die appels so häufig qu'il fallut créer au Conseil u n e c h a m bre particulière pour en connaître. H e i ß t n o c h C h a m b r e des 1500. (228, 9) Les églises p o u v a n t acquérir des bienfonds, et leur aliénation é t a n t prohibée, le clergé d u t n a t u r e l l e m e n t a c c u m u l e r d ' i m m e n s e s trésors. A b e r die substitutions ecclésiastiques, heissen h e u t e a m o r t i s s e m e n t , n i c h t so gefährlich für d e n état civil in d e n premiers siècles, wo diese G ü t e r n i c h t e x e m p tes des contributions u n d wo die Pfaffen m i t k ä m p f e n u n d m i t z a h l e n m u ß ten, als in d e n spätren J a h r h u n d e r t e n , wo sie v o n all d i e s e m eximirt. Vergeblicher K a m p f von G e s e t z e n gegen diese A c c u m u l a t i o n in d e n H ä n d e n der Pfaffen. ( 2 2 9 - 2 3 1 ) Alle équipages u n d armes e m b a r q u é s von Cortez 508 soldats, 110 pilotes u n d mariniers, 16 chevaux et j u m e n s , 32 arbalétriers, 13 fusiliers, 10 pièces d'artillerie de bronze, quatre f a u c o n n e a u x avec les provisions de p o u d r e , balles et vivres nécessaires p o u r q u e l q u e t e m p s . Un seul der h e u t i g e n navires de h a u t - b o r d est d ' u n e plus grande capacité et renferme plus de forces que t o u t e cette escadre, avec laquelle les Castillans c o n q u i r e n t un territoire 6 x plus é t e n d u que t o u t e la P é n i n s u l e , ein R e i c h von 100 cités, 3000 seigneurs d'autres peuplades, résidant dans u n e capitale de plus de 60 000 maisons et palais etc. D i e c o m p a g n o n s wom i t Pizarro (François) die Erobrung von Peru u n t e r n a h m n i c h t ü b e r 250. (167, 8). Bis z u m 13' J h d t keine Spur der Majorate in der Halbinsel. D e r législateur du code appelé Partidas führte sie zuerst ein, in Castilien. Diese Gesetze erlaubten zwar d e n E i g e n t h ü m e r n ihren E r b e n d e n Verkauf ihrer G ü t e r zu verbieten, aber n o c h w ä h r e n d der 2 siècles suivants, | | 9 1 | bedurfte es zur Stiftung von Majoraten eines b e s o n d e r e n Privilège du roi bis durch die lois de Toro, publiées en 1505, allen propriétaires gestattet de substituer leurs biens, wenn o h n e Kinder, u n d wenn solche, d'instituer un majorat sur l'un d'eux, du tiers des biens, avec la prohibition de l'aliénation. Unsäglicher S c h a d e n für d e n fisc, die Agricultur u n d die m o r a l e p u b l i q u e . (235) M a n verdankt in Spanien den Majoraten [daß sie] verhinderten, was die Cortez von Valladolid befürchteten en 1523, l'absorption de la plus g r a n d e partie des biens du r o y a u m e par les églises et les couvens. (238) Karl V courbé sous les poids de ses i n n o m b r a b l e s dépenses, consulta son conseil d'état en 1555, sur les m o y e n s d'acquérir les fonds nécessaires p o u r soutenir la dignité de la c o u r o n n e . D e r b e r ü h m t e d u c von A l b a m a c h t e

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darauf folgende A u s e i n a n d e r s e t z u n g : « C o n s i d é r o n s d o n c de grâce, et faisons m û r e m e n t réflexion q u e les sujets de S. M. sont de d e u x ordres, ecclésiastiques et séculiers ; ceuxci sont v é r i t a b l e m e n t épuisés, tant les nobles q u e les roturiers. T o u t au contraire les ecclésiastiques vivent t r a n q u i l l e m e n t et à leur aise, ou dans les monastères, ou d a n s leurs m a i s o n s , ou d a n s les dép e n d a n c e s de leurs églises, et possèdent des revenus i m m e n s e s q u i absorb e n t presque tout le p a t r i m o i n e royal. Il faut venir, Sir, au tronc et à la racine de l'arbre. Q u e V. M. considère, t a n t p o u r ses intérêts propres q u e p o u r ceux des peuples etc, q u e d a n s ses seuls r o y a u m e s d'Espagne, les ecclésiastiques possèdent p o u r plus de d e u x millions de ducats en fonds de terres, soit comtés etc p e n d a n t q u ' à p e i n e il reste à V . M . impériale un p o u c e de terre p o u r gratifier le grand n o m b r e de ses fidèles capitaines q u i emploient sans cesse leurs biens, leurs sueurs, et leur sang m ê m e , p o u r son service et pour sa gloire. M a i s que sert a u x ecclésiastiques d'avoir des sujets, et d'être de si grands seigneurs? à les r e n d r e fiers et superbes, qualités incompatibles avec l'état sacré où ils sont engagés, état qui ne doit respirer que m o d e s t i e et h u m i l i t é , et q u i doit être e x e m p t des troubles de la vanité, et du faste du siècle, q u i sont inséparables de ceux qui gouvernent les p e u ples. Q u ' o n ôte d'entre les m a i n s des prêtres et des m o i n e s , t a n t de b a r o n nies, t a n t de fiefs, et q u ' o n les réunisse au d o m a i n e de V. M. afin de p o u voir, par cette a u g m e n t a t i o n si considérable et des richesses si i m m e n s e s , n o n s e u l e m e n t c o m b a t t r e , m a i s aussi abattre les e n n e m i e s de l'église.» ( 2 4 6 - 4 8 citirt aus Leti, Vie de Ch. V. part V, 1.1) Alles, v o m Bauer u n d Handwerker an, suchte also par l'éducation à porter leurs enfans vers l'état ecclésiastique régulier ou séculier, als das einträglichste H a n d w e r k u n d das die weitesten A u s s i c h t e n für alle eröffnete. ([250,] 251) V a i n c u e , et son roi prisonnier à Madrid, la F r a n c e d a n s le traité p o u r son rachat, avait seulem e n t consenti à l'entrée des draps catalans sur son territoire, m a i s p o u r passer en d'autres lieux, et n o n p o u r y être v e n d u s . (251) Selbst im 16* Jh., E p o c h e seiner größten M a c h t , h a t t e S p a n i e n n i c h t ü b e r 1 0 ½ M i l l i o n e n Einwohner. (266) Die j ä h r l i c h e n R e v e n u e n von Philipp II 25 millions de ducats, o h n e e i n z u r e c h n e n die richesses des I n d e s , wovon er zog in d e n 45 J a h r e n seiner Regierung 300 millions de ducats ... Die produits u n d m a n u f a c t u r e s péninsulaires transportés d a n s les A m é r i q u e s g a b e n gewöhnlieh den négocians espagnols die bénéfices exorbitans von m e h r als 4 - 5 0 0 %. On lit d a n s u n e relation écrite an 1549, par Diego de Ordas, c o m p a g n o n von Cortez, daß die fanègue de blé die in Spanien kostete k a u m 1 piastre (5 fcs) sich 70 verkaufte in der Nouvelle Espagne. L'arrobe d'huile u n d celle de vin zu 50 piastres, die des eau-de-vie ||92| 112, ein Pferd 315 etc. Diese Profits w u c h s e n n o c h im M a a ß als die E u r o p ä e r G e s c h m a c k fand e n an d e n Colonialproducten, wie cacao, Tabak, Caffe, Indigo, Coche-

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Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 • Heft XIV nille, les plantes médicinales, weil im Anfang die retours sich n u r in Gold u n d Silber m a c h t e n , später der größre Theil derselben in B o d e n p r o d u c t e n , achetés à vil prix, et v e n d u s en E u r o p e p o u r d'autres plus chers. Die m a n u factures de laine et de soie v e r m e h r t e n sich w u n d e r b a r in der Halbinsel. M a n zählte zu Toledo, zu Segovia, zu der M a n c h a 127,823 fabricans de draps, de toiles, de b o n n e t s , de r u b a n s et autres articles de ce genre. M a n fabricirte j ä h r l i c h zu Segovia 25,500 pièces de d r a p ; Sevilla renfermait 3000 m é t i e r s à soie, d a n s lesquelles s'alimentaient 30,000 p e r s o n n e s . On récoltait à G r e n a d e un million de livres de soie. N a c h Louis de M a r m o l die droits q u e recevait le d o m a i n e royal sur les premières ventes de cet article, vor der R e b e l l i o n des M a u r e s , affermés 181,500 ducats d'or. ... Père Mercado schreibt 1568 v o m c o m m e r c e espagnol: « L e c o m m e r c e , tel qu'il se fait aujourdhui, particulièrement d a n s cette province, (celle de Seville) excite m o n é t o n n e m e n t , s e n t i m e n t q u e j e n ' a i pas c o u t u m e d'éprouver pour les choses vulgaires et c o m m u n e s . Il est si grand et si universel, qu'il faut à la fois un grand j u g e m e n t et u n e grande intelligence p o u r l'exercer, et m ê m e p o u r l'examiner : Du temps de nos aïeux, les h o m m e s du c o m m u n avaient seuls cette connaissance, m a i s a u j o u r d ' h u i le c o m m e r c e est m o n t é à un tel degré, qu'il ne faut être rien m o i n s q u e grossier et stupide p o u r s'en occuper. Les négocians ont aujourdhui le c o m m e r c e le plus é t e n d u d a n s toutes les parties de la chrétienté, et m ê m e en Barbarie. Ils portent des laines et des huiles en Flandre, et en exportent toute espèce de m e r c e rie, de tapisserie et de librairie. Ils envoient à F l o r e n c e de la cochenille et des cuirs, ils en retirent de l'or filé, des brocards, des perles et u n e q u a n t i t é considérable de tissus. Ils font au Cap-Vert le c o m m e r c e des nègres, trafic de grand profit et d ' u n grand intérêt. Ils envoient dans toutes les I n d e s de n o m b r e u s e s cargaisons de toutes sortes d'étoffes, et en rapportent de l'or, de l'argent, des perles, des grains et des cuirs, en i n n o m b r a b l e s quantités. En outre, et pour assurer leurs chargements (qui o n t des millions de valeur) ils sont obligés de p r e n d r e des assurances à L i s b o n n e , à Burgos, en F r a n c e et en F l a n d r e , car leurs cargaisons sont si n o m b r e u s e s q u e les assureurs de Seville et de 20 villes c o m m e elle, ne suffiraient pas p o u r les assurer. Les négocians de Burgos ont à Seville leurs facteurs, q u i chargent en leur n o m , assurent les chargeurs, et reçoivent et v e n d e n t ce q u ' o n leur porte de F l a n dre. Les négocians d'Italie ont également besoin des nôtres p o u r le m ê m e effet; en sorte que nos p r i n c i p a u x négocians c o m m e r c e n t a u j o u r d h u i dans toutes les parties du m o n d e , et ont partout des correspondants qui accord e n t crédit et foi à leurs lettres et les paient, parce qu'ils o n t besoin d'argent partout ; en Cap Vert pour les noirs, en Flandres p o u r la mercerie, à Florence pour les étoffes c o m m u n e s , à Tolède et à Ségovie p o u r les draps, à L i s b o n n e p o u r les articles de Calicut. T o u s d é p e n d e n t les u n s des autres, et

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tous retirent et t i e n n e n t en respect a u j o u r d h u i les I n d e s , St. D o m i n g u e , St M a r t h e , la Terre-Ferme, et le M e x i q u e , c o m m e des lieux où va la plus forte partie de nos m a r c h a n d i s e s , et d ' o ù vient t o u t e la richesse du m o n d e . » ( 2 6 7 - 7 1 ) Der Krieg gegen die H o l l ä n d e r kostete Philipp allein 150 millions de ducats. (272) D i e Cortez 1593 m a c h t e n P h . I I folgende Vorstellung: «Les Cortèz de Valladolid de l'an 48, supplièrent V. M. de ne plus p e r m e t t r e l'entrée dans le r o y a u m e , des bougies, verres, bijouteries, c o u t e a u x et autres choses semblables q u i y v e n a i e n t du dehors, p o u r échanger ces articles si inutiles à la vie h u m a i n e , contre de l'or comme si les Espagnols étaient des Indiens. ||93| M a i s si cette s u p p l i q u e se basait alors sur des objets de cette qualité et de si p e u de valeur, c o m b i e n sa r e p r o d u c t i o n n'a-t-elle pas plus de force a u j o u r d ' h u i q u e ces r o y a u m e s p e r d e n t de si grandes s o m m e s d'or et d'argent par l ' i n t r o d u c t i o n des produits d'alchimie, de faux or de F r a n c e façonné en chaînes, filigranes, chapelets, pierres fausses, verres teints et autres articles qu'ils v e n d e n t d'abord à chers deniers à cause de l'invention et de la n o u v e a u t é , et d o n t ils n o u s p r o u v e n t ensuite le p e u de valeur par les bas prix a u x q u e l s ils les d o n n e n t etc.» (275, 6) Philipp II verbot effectiv die entrée dieser W a a r e n in die Halbinsel, aber erfolglos. D i e Français führten hier n a c h wie vor ihre quincaillerie ein. (277) Ce qu'il y a de certain, c'est q u e la m o n a r c h i e espagnole, ayant c o m m e n c é le 1 6 siècle avec t o u t e la prospérité et la splendeur d ' u n siècle d'or, vit, en 1575, Philippe II écrire, à son trésorier Garnica, u n e lettre tracée en entier de sa m a i n , d a n s laquelle il lui disait qu'il ne voyait pas la veille c o m m e n t il vivrait le l e n d e m a i n . On vit ce prince, accablé de dettes, faire b a n q u e r o u t e . (314) 1595 un conseiller des finances présenta au roi divers projets pour faire des ressources. Philippe II les fit s o u m e t t r e à l'exam e n d ' u n e c o m m i s s i o n etc. Il résulta de cet e x a m e n q u e tous les produits des c o m m a n d e r i e s des ordres militaires, étaient consignés p o u r 10 ans à la c o m p a g n i e des riches n é g o c i a n s a l l e m a n d s : q u e dans les dix m o i s a n t é rieurs on avait v e n d u 200,000 ducats de droits de rentes viagères: q u e t o u t l'or venu par les dernières flottes des I n d e s et celui à venir par les 3 autres q u ' o n attendait, était déjà c o n s o m m é , et qu'enfin, on avait aussi d é p e n s é toutes les rentes de cette a n n é e , celle de la suivante, et partie de celles de l ' a n n é e 1597. (316.) è m e

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Philippe III Zu keiner a n d r e n E p o c h e so viele fondations de couvens, de chapellenies et autres œ u v r e s de piété q u e sous ce règne. (2) N i e die Scham- u n d Sittenlosigkeit grösser. (3) lois somptuaires. (5) Z u r selben

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Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 · Heft XIV Z e i t (1609) wo die spanische Regierung sich m i t d e n H o l l ä n d e r n aussöhnt, 400,000 M a u r e n von G r e n a d a u n d Valencia, alle artizans ou laboureurs, verbannt. (6) N a c h Navarete die Totalzahl der M a u r e s u n d Juifs chassés de la P é n i n s u l e 5 millions. (9) % des c o m m e r c e de l'Espagne u n d / du c o m m e r c e m a r i t i m e furent faits par les étrangers „en sorte, disait M o n c a d e à 5 Ph. I l l , q u e les I n d e s sont pour e u x et q u e V. M. n ' a q u e le titre de possesseur". (12) Les Espagnols vaniteux, enorgueillis de leurs sources et de leurs i m m e n s e s territoires, ne rougissaient pas de n ' ê t r e q u e des simples commissionnaires, et de prêter leurs signatures à ceux qu'ils m é p r i s a i e n t d'ailleurs, p o u r les aider à e m b a r q u e r et d é b a r q u e r leurs m a r c h a n d i s e s fraudu- 10 l e u s e m e n t . Ces services si préjudiciables à la n a t i o n , et si h u m i l i a n s étaient o r d i n a i r e m e n t payés de 9% de la valeur des m a r c h a n d i s e s . (I.e.) Ph. III h a t t e n u r n o c h jährliche R e v e n u von 14 mill, de ducats, d a z u n o c h grevé d ' u n e dette n a t i o n a l e de plus de 100 millions. (13) M o n c a d e sagt: «la troisième cause de la dépopulation du pays provient de ce la q u a t r i è m e ou 15 troisième partie est composée d'ecclésiastiques et de religieux, d o n t le n o m b r e ne fait q u ' a u g m e n t e r c h a q u e j o u r progressivement.» (14) W ä h r e n d die Pfaffen u n t e r Carl V jährliche revenu von 2, j e z t von 8 M i l l i o n e n D u c a ten R e v e n u . (16) In e i n e m Avis des Conseils von Ph. III (1619, ein J a h r vor s e i n e m T o d e ) heißt es, daß M a s s e n eingehn in Klöster u n d religiösen 20 Stand „plus pour fuir la misère, et avec le goût de la tranquillité et de la paresse, q u e par la dévotion". ( 1 6 - 1 8 ) | 9

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|94| Philippe IV. (beginnt zu herrschen âgé de 16 J a h r e , 1621) [20, 21] Beständige V e r m i n d e r u n g der Bevölkerung. Verfall des H a n d e l s u n d der Agricultur. D i e Cortez von M a d r i d von 1626 klagen wieder: „que les ordres religieux étaient en grand n o m b r e , les m e n d i a n s hors de t o u t e m e s u r e , et le clergé en g r a n d e m u l t i t u d e . In Spanien gäbe es 9088 m o n a s t è r e s , die der religieuses nicht eingeschlossen, lesquels s'emparaient i n s e n s i b l e m e n t de t o u t le r o y a u m e par des donations, des confréries, des chapellenies, ou par des achats." Die Pfaffen étant e x e m p t de tailles, c o n t r i b u t i o n s et gabelles, logemens et autres charges majeures de guerre, il était inévitable q u e faisant t o u t supporter die Laien, il s u c c o m b â t etc. Q u ' e n m ê m e t e m p s q u e la b a l a n c e des biens ecclésiastiques haussait, celle des biens séculiers devait n é c e s s a i r e m e n t baisser. ( 2 7 - 2 9 ) 1662 die K r o n r e n t e n e r h o b e n sich auf m e h r als 36 millions de ducats! W o h e r diese V e r m e h r u n g ? 1621 le dom a i n e royal gagna 13,152,000 ducats par l ' a u g m e n t a t i o n de valeur, d o n n é e à la m o n n a i e de billon. A b e r die F r e m d e n ü b e r s c h w e m m e n n u n die H a l b insel m i t m o n n a i e de cuivre ihrer Fabrik, qu'avilit la m o n n a i e d'Espagne, de sorte qu'elle finit par perdre plus de 40 % de change p o u r de l'argent, et q u e pour lui r e d o n n e r son a n c i e n n e valeur, il fut nécessaire de c o m p e n s e r la perte de sa baisse au m o y e n de n o u v e a u x impôts. Im selben J a h r die

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Aus Juan Sempere y Guarinos: Considerations sur les causes de la grandeur Z i n s e n der N a t i o n a l s c h u l d reducirt von 7 auf 5 % u n d so die Staatsgläubiger fraudirt um fast % ihrer rentes. Selbst n a c h dieser R e d u c t i o n zahlte die Regierung während quelques a n n é e s ihre G l ä u b i g e r nicht. Le g o v e r n e m e n t profitait f r é q u e m m e n t de l'argent q u i venait des I n d e s , en faveur de quel5 ques personnes, en les subrogeant p a r des nouvelles créances contre le trésor public. Z u r selben Zeit die droits de c o n s o m m a t i o n auf einige articles imposés d a n s les règnes antérieurs ausserordentlich a u g m e n t é s . D i e droits auf la viande, früher 1 m a r a v é d i auf das Pfund, stiegen auf 7. Die droits sur le vin auf 64 maravédis par arroba, die des vinaigre auf 32, die des Oels auf 10 50. On inventa le papier timbré, on m i t en ferme le tabac, et on a u g m e n t a les prix des autres articles q u i étaient déjà affermés. Le prix de la soie en r a m e vermehrt um % de sa valeur c o m m u n e . On vendit b e a u c o u p de titres de noblesse, de droits seigneuriaux, et plus de 60 mille charges de régidors, notaires, receveurs etc. N u r die Pfaffen, obgleich etwas gezwickt d u r c h m e 15 sures fiscales u n t e r d e m n o m de »subsides«, w u c h s e n täglich m e h r an R e i c h t h u m ... et plus le clergé était riche, plus le s t i m u l a n t était fort p o u r engager les laïques à s'y introduire. ( 3 2 - 3 5 ) D a b e i von Carl V an die span i s c h e n Könige stets chicanirt von d e n Päbsten. [ 3 5 - 3 8 ] »tous les efforts des m o n a r q u e s espagnols pour la défense de leurs droits les plus légitimes 20 furent vains! Ils avaient eux m ê m e s forgé les chaînes q u i les assujétissaient le plus à la cour de R o m e . Sie selbst avaient fondé et protégeaient l'inquisition composée de théologiens, de décrétalistes, de qualificateurs et de familiers tout i m b u s d'opinions u l t r a m o n t a i n e s . « (38, 9) Toledo, wo 435,000 Pf. Seide manufakturirt, h a t t e schon p e r d u son travail, die früher 25 erhielt 38,484 personnes. Seine P o p u l a t i o n v e r m i n d e r t um % u n d 25 m a i sons de ses familles les plus illustres passées d a n s le d o m a i n e de divers couvens. Die Verluste von Toledo z u s a m m e n m i t d e n e n der Seiden u n d Wollenfabriken zu Ségovie u n d in der M a n c h a h a t t e n 127,823 familles der Arbeit beraubt u n d 4 x so viel p e r s o n n e s occupées jadis à préparer ces m a 30 tières pour les tissus, deren W e r t h an 5,621,736 D u c a t s . Burgos von 6000 auf 600 familles reducirt, m e i s t pauvres u n d misérables. M e d i n a - d e l - | |95|Campo, wo, in seinen foires fameux, se négociaient plusieurs m i l l i o n s de ducats u n d das n o c h eine Bevölkerung von m e h r als 5000 r e i c h e n familles hatte, reducirt auf 500 pauvres h a b i t a n t s . M e h r als 400 villages du 35 r o y a u m e de G r e n a d a reducirt auf 260 u n d die Million Pfund Seide q u ' o n y récoltait n u r n o c h 100,000 livres. E b e n s o R u i n des o p u l e n t e n Sevilla. Seine 3000 métiers (de soie) reducirt auf 60, % seiner Bevölkerung vers c h w u n d e n et elle avait perdu / o des vignes et des oliviers qu'elle cultivait sur son territoire, lorsque son c o m m e r c e était florissant. Leztre 2 faits, p u i 40 ses in e i n e m Bericht fait au roi par les Cortez de 1662, publié d u r c h A l o n s o N u n e z d e Castro. ( 5 0 - 5 2 ) 19

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Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 • Heft XIV Charles II Fortlaufende V e r a r m u n g u n d R u i n . Z u m Verlust H o l l a n d s gesellt sich der Portugals, du Roussillon u n d vieler Plätze, soit d a n s l'intérieur, soit hors de la P é n i n s u l e et d a n s les I n d e s . (54) D i e R e v e n u s dieses r o y a u m e , in d e n ersten J a h r e n von Ph. II grösser als die von allen europäischen F ü r s t e n z u s a m m e n , jezt k a u m / der revenus de la F r a n c e ; n u r 5 n o c h 7 - 8 millions de fcs, während die von Louis X I V ü b e r 117 mill. (56) U n t e r Ch. II on revient sur l'utilité de rendre navigables les d e u x rivières du Tage et du Manzanares. E i n e Commission niedergesezt zur n e u e n Prüfung dieses Plans. Sie objecta: « Q u e si d i e u avait voulu q u e ces d e u x rivières fussent navigables, il n ' a u r a i t pas été nécessaire q u e les h o m m e s entrepris- 10 sent ce travail, parce q u ' a u m o y e n d ' u n seul fiat qui serait sorti de sa b o u c h e , cette œ u v r e eût été m i s e à fin. D i e u ne l'ayant p o i n t p r o n o n c é , il n ' a pas j u g é l'œuvre convenable; ainsi ce serait attenter a u x droits de la Providence, q u e de vouloir améliorer ce qu'il a voulu laisser imparfait, par des motifs que sa sagesse s'est réservés.» (62, 3) 15 l

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Philippe V (von Anjou) Die Pfaffen in ihren z a h l r e i c h e n K i r c h e n etc b o ten überall i m m u n i t é locale um à couvert zu setzen les voleurs de grands c h e m i n s et les assassins sur les routes etc. (87) In S p a n i e n war multiplication i m m e n s e dieser asiles, vermehrt durch églises rurales, Ermitages etc. (90) D a z u fréquentes discordes entre les jurisdictions ecclésiastique et ci- 20 vile, sur la j o u i s s a n c e des asiles, et la remise des criminels réfugiés dans les églises a u x juges séculiers. (90, 1) Ph. V se c o n t e n t a de supplier d e n Pabst q u ' a u m o i n s les biens acquis par les églises depuis le c o m m e n c e m e n t de son règne, continuassent à payer les m ê m e s contributions dont ils étaient grevés avant d'entrer dans le d o m a i n e desdites églises. (93) U n t e r Ph. V 25 schrieb Ustariz sein Buch. Théorie etc. (99) Ferdinand VI Der M a r q u i s E n s e n a d a war sein Colbert. (100) (F. VI k a m 1747 z u m T h r o n . 1737 h a t t e Philipp V m i t C l e m e n s X I I das Concordat abgeschlossen) Concordat m i t Benedict X I V (1752) worin R o m eine Masse seiner R e c h t e etc gegen baares G e l d abtritt. [110] 30 Charles III Les abus q u e c o m m e t t a i e n t les juges ecclésiastiques en c o n n a i s s a n t de causes p u r e m e n t profanes et hors de la c o m p é t e n c e de leur jurisdiction, étaient très fréquens. (127) 1767 die J e s u i t e n vertrieben. (140) U n e des m a x i m e s de la politique espagnole avait été celle de m a i n t e n i r u n e guerre perpétuelle contre les m a h o m é t a n s , m ê m e après la c o n q u ê t e de 35 G r e n a d e . (159, 60) W a c h s e n der Industrie, aber a u c h von 1768 bis 1788 V e r m i n d e r u n g des clergé séculier u n d régulier um 28,335 p e r s o n n e s . (162, 3) Philipp V fand n u r 7 % millions de sujets in der Halbinsel, am E n d e des 18' Jh. an 11 Mill. Die Kronrevenus im Anfang du règne von F e r d i n a n d VI 26,707,349 ecus, u n t e r Ch. III 60 mill, oder 600 mill, réaux, die der I n d e s 40 von 4 - 5 millions gestiegen auf m e h r als 12 oder 15 u n t e r Ch. III. V o n

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Aus Juan Sempere y Guarinos: Considerations sur les causes de la grandeur 1 7 7 8 - 1 7 8 8 die Coloriialproduits von 75 m i l l i o n s de livres en m a r c h a n dises ||96| auf 210 u n d in n u m é r a i r e von 110 auf 170 millions. E b e n s o 1751 die spanische M a r i n e b e s t a n d aus n u r 18 vaisseaux de ligne u n d 15 a n d r e n . U n t e r Ch. III 74 Linienschiffe, m e h r als 200 frégates briks u n d andre 5 kleine Kriegsschiffe. Die L a n d a r m e e ü b e r 148,000 M a n n . (163, 4) (Unter Ch. III Aufklärung, V e r k o m m e n der I n q u i s i t i o n . [122-126]) Charles IV. Französische Revolution. D o n M a n u e l Godoy. [166] M u ß t e im Basler F r i e d e n d e n F r a n z o s e n i h r e n A n t h e i l cediren an D o m i n g o . 1796 s c h m ä h l i c h e r traité von St. I l d e p h o n s e . Offensiv u n d Defensivallianz m i t 10 d e n F r a n z o s e n . Krieg daher m i t den E n g l ä n d e r n . 1799 die revenus ordinaires der K r o n e n i c h t ü b e r 493,884,418 réaux, dépenses 1,823,544,368. Vermehrung der Staatsschuld. Diese hinterließ Ph. V. von 1,260,521,565 réaux. Ch. III, épuisé par les guerres m a r i t i m e s u n d d u r c h öffentliche Arbeiten wie arsenaux, constructions navales, c h e m i n s etc ver15 m e h r t e sie um ein Capital von 804,441,325 réaux. G o d o y fügte 5 millions de r é a u x h i n z u . [ 1 6 6 - 1 6 9 ] Spanische M a r i n e vernichtet im Krieg gegen die Engländer. [170] Ferdinand VII P r o c l a m a t i o n einer n e u e n Constitution zu Cadix 1812. [174]

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Du caractère espagnol. Das gothische, vor allem kriegerische G e n i e , wurzelte ein d u r c h die langen Kriege gegen die M a u r e n . W ä h r e n d derselben die Profession des armes b e i n a h e das einzige Mittel sich zu bereichern. A u s s e r d e m diese Profession in Spanien einträglicher als anderswo. D i e Spanier führten den Krieg, nicht als salariés d ' u n souverain, pour lui en céder tous les profits, sondern sie kriegten de concert et à leurs propres d é p e n s u n d h a t t e n folglich das R e c h t die Profits u n t e r sich zu theilen, im Verhältniß zu d e n dépenses et des services de c h a c u n . Beim Schluß einer militairischen Expedition erste Sorge de réparer les d o m m a g e s éprouvés par les soldats, soit d a n s leur personne, soit d a n s leur é q u i p e m e n t . B e s t i m m t e r é c o m p e n s e für die W u n d e n n a c h ihrer gravité, stärkre S u m m e für den T o d eines fantassin oder cavalier, gezahlt an seine Erben. Bei Vertheilung der Beute % für den König, der Rest vertheilt u n t e r fantassins u n d cavaliers, nicht n a c h d e m Willen der chefs, sondern n a c h d e n déclarations des experts et des juges etc. Am E n d e des 15 Jh. n e u e r R u h m d u r c h E r o b e r u n g G r e n a d a s , Triumpfe in Italien, Eroberungen in A m e r i c a , P r ä p o n d e r a n z in Europa. 16* Jh. R u h m ihrer Litteratur. Ihre E r o b r u n g e n in A m e r i c a vermehrten die Sphäre der m e n s c h l i c h e n K e n n t n i s s e durch eine Masse n e u e r objets u n d sehr n ü t z l i -

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Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 • Heft XIV eher für d e n Fortschritt der Geographie, Botanik, andrer Naturwissenschaften, u n d d u r c h le plus grand e n c o u r a g e m e n t des arts. Ihre Sprache wurde die h e r r s c h e n d e . D i e ß alles erklärt ihren Stolz u n d R u h e n auf d e n Lorbeeren. ( 1 9 2 - 6 ) Ausser d e m leichten U n t e r k o m m e n i m Pfaffenstande d'autres fondations i n n o m b r a b l e s d'œuvres pieuses pour le secours des pauvres. D e n n o c h w i m m e l t e Spanien von vagabons u n d m e n d i a n s . Charles V avait o r d o n n é j e d e r Stadt de régler la police des pauvres de son district en secourant les vrais nécessiteux, et en p r o h i b a n t la m e n d i c i t é a u x vagabons. Dagegen viele Theologen. Pater Soto ließ ein B u c h d r u c k e n betittelt: Deliberatio in causa pauperum, de non inhibendo, secundum misericordiae praeeeptum, publico mendicabulo. Die o p i n i o n der défenseurs de la m e n d i c i t é prévalut. U n e n d l i c h e V e r m e h r u n g daher der Bettler u n d m i t i h n e n die aversion pour le travail etc. D a h e r Hessen sie die F r e m d e n s'emparer des professions les plus lucratives. M a n zählte 120,000 F r e m d e die in S p a n i e n exercèrent die professions d'aubergistes, cabaretiers, pâtissiers, charcutiers, c h a u d r o n n i e r s u n d andre, u n d m e h r als 7 Mill. D u c a t e n die sie jährlich exportirten o h n e die viel größren Profite zu r e c h n e n die diese F r e m d e n rétiraient ||97| des objets m a n u f a c t u r é s dans leur pays par leurs compatriotes. ( 2 0 1 - 4 ) Die u n e n d l i c h e Z a h l der Festtage vermehrte n o c h die spanische Trägheit. Der c h a n o i n e Navarrète sagt von Castilien: «La multitude des fêtes a produit encore la hausse à des prix excessifs, de tout ce qu'on vend; car la grande d i m i n u tion du travail force à l ' a u g m e n t a t i o n du prix des j o u r n é e s , et c'est ainsi q u ' o n a ouvert la voie aux préférences accordée a u x produits des r o y a u m e s étrangers, qui ayant plus d'artisans et m o i n s de fêtes, p e u v e n t d o n n e r à plus bas prix les fruits de leurs travaux, et enlèvent ainsi à l'Espagne les produits d ' u n e foule de m a r c h a n d i s e s nécessaires ou superflues, anéantissent son industrie manufacturière, et absorbent tout l'or et l'argent qui sont les p r i n c i p a u x produits de l'Espagne.» (Conservation des M o n a r c h i e s ) (205, 6). D a n n die vielen Stiergefechte an Werkeltagen. (206) G e g e n diese helfen alle Blitze der Päbste u n d Concilien nicht. In G r e n a d a il y a selbst u n e n i c h e avec l'image de N o t r e - D a m e et quatre lanternes, q u ' o n a l l u m e p e n d a n t la durée de ces divertissemens, et devant laquelle les gladiateurs, ou toreros, vont faire leurs prières avant de c o m m e n c e r leurs tours d'adresse. (208)

Notes. 16 rois assassinés ou déposés d a n s le court espace de trois siècles q u e dura la m o n a r c h i e gothique. (216)

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Vor der-Eroberung der spanischen H a l b i n s e l d u r c h die R ö m e r , à l'exception des côtes fréquentés par les P h é n i c i e n s , les Grecs et les Carthaginois, fast ganz peuplé von plusieurs tribus barbares et i n d é p e n d a n t e s . ... Im M a a s s e wie die R ö m e r ihre Herrschaft a u s d e h n t e n , ils fondaient des colonies et des m u n i c i p e s , en partageant les terres conquises, les d o n n a n t , sei es als freies E i g e n t h u m , sei es m i t cens, b a u t e n Wege, producirten u n d civilisirten die Barbaren d u r c h das Beispiel. ... Im 5' Jhdt errichteten die Barbaren die m o n a r c h i e Visigothe, m i x t e des lois et des m œ u r s g e r m a n i q u e s et r o m a i n e s . ... N a c h einiger Zeit, sagt der archevêque Rodrigo, „ c o m m e ces barbares voyaient, q u e les p r o d u c t i o n s et les m o y e n s de subsister ven a i e n t à m a n q u e r , par la d i m i n u t i o n des laboureurs du pays, et q u e la disette était nuisible pour eux m ê m e s , ils c o m m e n c è r e n t à plaindre, n o n la misère des habitants, m a i s celle qu'ils éprouvaient. Ainsi, les ayant convoqués, ils partagèrent avec eux les provinces et les terres, sous la c o n d i t i o n de leur payer quelques revenus". ... Die Könige im 5 u n d 6' Jh. (6 u n d 7) nicht m e h r gewählt von der g a n z e n (jezt schon m i t d e n Spaniern vermischt e n visigothischen) N a t i o n , s o n d e r n n u r von d e n grands u n d évêques. ... Das Volk n ' é m e t t a i t plus ses suffrages a u x conciles, sondern n u r die Prälats u n d einige p e r s o n n e s attachées à la cour, q u ' o n appelait alors l'office palatin. ... Adel verfiel in seinen R e c h t e n , n u r die der Pfaffen erhalten u n d vermehrt. Die Bischöffe nicht n u r grosse Autorität in d e n conciles, s o n d e r n die conseillers nés des rois u n d die s u r i n t e n d a n s de tous les t r i b u n a u x . ... N a c h d e m Tod von D. Rodrigo, die kleine Z a h l der Spanier, die sich nicht d e m muhamedanischen J o c h unterwerfen wollte, flüchtete in die Asturischen Gebirge u n d die Pyrenäen, lebten hier u n t e r ihren G e n e r a l e n , o h n e Könige. Sobald sie aber wieder d e n M a h o m e t a n s einige territoires a b erobert, bildeten sie n e u e Staaten m i t einer n e u e n Constitution, der feudalen. Bei d e m beständigen Krieg m i t d e n M a h o m e t a n s die grands oder neos hombres wurden so mächtig, q u ' o n les distinguait k a u m de leurs rois m ê m e s . Ausser d e n esclaves u n d colons, worüber sie autorité illimitée, des vassaux ... K o n n t e n T r u p p e n a u s h e b e n u n d sie führen wohin sie wollten, avec leurs d r a p e a u x et leurs m a r m i t e s ... Besassen d e n größten Theil der territoires u n d villes, sei es en propriété, en l i e u t e n a n c e , ||98| ou en fief. N u r z u m Militairdienst verpflichtet, sonst a u s g e n o m m e n von allen contributions ... Sehr grosse Prärogative u n d Privilegien der rico-hombria. ... E i n H a u p t r e c h t war celui d'entrée et de voix d a n s les assemblées n a t i o n a l e s a p pelées conciles, curies ou Cortès. D i e Cortès der 4 ersten J h d t e der restauration Spaniens hiessen conciles, wie u n t e r der gothischen M o n a r c h i e . A u x conciles de L é o n en 1120, de Coyanca, en 1050, de Palencia en 1129, de (

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Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 · Heft XIV S a l a m a n c a en 1178, assistèrent tous les grands, les évêques et les abbés. A b e r u n t e r d e n Visigothes, les grands assistirten d e n Pfaffen n u r als tém o i n s , in d e n feudalen ils votaient et approuvaient les actes et les décrets. ... C e u x die in der m o n a r c h i e visigothe hiessen m a g n a t e s , optimates, proceres u n d h e u t e G r a n d e n , hiessen d a m a l s ricos-hombres u n d die nobles hidalgos, d. h. des h o m m e s riches. La richesse so u n e n t b e h r l i c h für gentilsh o m m e s d a ß von Brüdern von d e m s e l b e n Vater u n d M u t t e r die E i n e n n o bles, die a n d r e n plébéiens, n u r weil der E i n e reich u n d die a n d e r n arm. ... Les M a u r e s , en détruisant les villes qui leur résistèrent, die Spanier die ihn e n w i d e r s t a n d e n gezwungen de vivre dispersés à l'abri de q u e l q u e s chât e a u x ou de quelques forteresses. Die Christen selbst zerstörten die wenigen Städte die die m a h o m é t a n s geschont h a t t e n , d a m i t ihre F e i n d e n i c h t versucht sie w i e d e r z u h a b e n u n d zu befestigen. D. A l o n s o I dépeuplait u n d dévasta die s.g. Gothischen campagnes bis an d e n D u e r o . D a m a l s H a u p t m i t t e l de défense à détruire et à ravager les c a m p a g n e s et les villes limitrophes, p o u r d i m i n u e r les vivres à l ' e n n e m i . D i e i m m e n s i t é des m o n tagnes u n d des c h a m p s incultes u n d die dangers continuels d e n e n m a n h i e r ausgesezt m a c h t e n ihre Wiederbevölkerung sehr schwer. U m d a z u z u e r m u n t e r n die fors, wodurch den h a b i t a n s vieler Städte u n d villages certaines franchises u n d privilèges gegeben. Das b e d e u t e n d s t e d a r u n t e r R e c h t der h a b i t a n s des villes sich zu versammeln, conseils de ville zu bilden, Wälder, terres, revenus für die dépenses publiques zu besitzen. ... U n t e r Alonso VI etc grosse A n a r c h i e . D i e nobles m ê m e s firent certaines ordonn a n c e s p o u r ne pas se tuer perfidement, sans un duel et d'autres formalités propres à réprimer les premiers m o u v e m e n t s de la colère et de la vengeance. Z u m selben Zweck bildeten sie confréries oder ligues, par le m o y e n desquelles b e a u c o u p d ' h o m m e s réunis pouvaient contenir les m é c h a n s . D i e Städte m a c h t e n i h n e n das n a c h , von den K ö n i g e n d a b e i begünstigt. Die force u n d die considération des tiers état vermehrt de plus en plus d u r c h d e n effet des fors et des confréries, lui facilitèrent l'entrée d a n s les Cortès. Assistirten zuerst zu Leon, 1188. Ihre admission also ans E n d e des 12' Jh. zu setzen. Grosser Lokalgeist durch die fors, confréries u n d a d m i s sion des tiers état. N u n , bei d e m Z a n k u n t e r d e n Mitgliedern des königlic h e n H a u s e s , die Cortes zahlreicher als im 13* u n d Theil des 14' Jh. Confédérations der Städte unter sich. Der tiers état ne fut j a m a i s si considéré q u ' a u X I V siècle. Das règne von H e n r i III sah die Agogen des tiers état, b e g a n n aber a u c h seine d é c a d e n c e zu sehn im Anfang des 15' Jh. So lange der tiers état viel considération in der castilinischen Constitution h a t t e n die Städte ihre D e p u t i r t e n selbst gezahlt. Sobald ihr Einfluß v e r m i n d e r t u n d ihre pétitions u n d r e m o n s t r a n c e s verachtet, wollten m e h r e Städte n i c h t m e h r diese A u s g a b e n m a c h e n . D i e Cortès von O c a n a von 1422 r e m o n t r è r e n t à

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Aus Juan Sempere y Guarinos: Considerations sur les causes de la grandeur D. J e a n II die d o m m a g e s der Städte v o m Z a h l e n der Kosten der D e p u t i r t e n u n d der König verordnete daß sie aus den fonds du trésor gezahlt. N u n u n ter d e m Vorwand de d i m i n u e r les charges de l'état verminderte m a n die Z a h l der censeurs du g o u v e r n e m e n t q u i les payait. Die Cortes 1425 gehal5 ten, urn Henry IV als prince héritier die K r o n e a n z u e r k e n n e n , n u r n o c h zus a m m e n g e s e z t aus d e n D e p u t i r t e n der 12 Städte Burgos, Toledo, Leon, Sevilla, ||99| Cordova, Murcia, J a e n , Z a m o r a , Segovia, Avila, S a l a m a n c a u n d C u e n c a ; d e n a n d e r n Städten o r d o n n é d'envoyer leur p r o c u r a t i o n à un des députés q u i s'y t r o u v a i e n t ; et c'est la m a r c h e q u ' o n suivait par la suite, les 10 rois s'étant réservé le droit d'accorder als grâce particulière das privilège de vote a u x Cortès, das n u r d u r c h grosse Opfer e r h a l t e n wurde. Bis z u m 16' Jh. n u r 6 Städte, Toro, Valladolid, Soria, M a d r i d , Guadalajara u n d G r e n a d a erhielten ce privilège. Einige Z e i t n a c h h e r q u e l q u e s villes d e m a n d è r e n t à rentrer in den G e n u ß ihres droit de vote a u x Cortès, fanden d e n H a u p t w i 15 derstand von d e n députés m ê m e s des villes qui l'avaient conservé, die hätten sein sollen die protecteurs du tiers état, aber i h m gegenüber ihre besond e r e n städtischen Privilèges b e h a u p t e t e n . ... So die Z a h l der v o c a u x a u x Cortès vermindert, leichter sie zu b e s t i m m e n u n d zu bestechen, wie a u c h d'obliger les électeurs des députés, par des voies directes ou indirectes, de 20 choisir les personnes les plus a d o n n é e s au parti et aux prétentions du gouv e r n e m e n t . U n t e r d e n rois catholiques die Cortès selten z u s a m m e n b e r u f e n u n d i m m e r e n p r e n a n t d'avance b e a u c o u p d e m e s u r e s , e t d e précautions. N a c h 1538 weder Ch. V n o c h seine Nachfolger ne convoquèrent ni la n o blesse ni le clergé à ces assemblées n a t i o n a l e s . Sondern n u r die d é p u t é s der 25 18 oder 20 privilegirten Städte. ... G r a d e die députés des villes, q u i devaient être les plus zélés défenseurs de leurs droits, conspirèrent ouvertem e n t contre le tiers-état. ... D i e Cortès von Cordova, 1570, verlangen daß die échevins u n d autres m e m b r e s des conseils m u n i c i p a u x adlig seien; d a n n sagen sie: « P a r ce m o y e n , les peuples obéiront, sans se déshonorer, à 30 des personnes q u i n ' a u r o n t p o i n t de parens fermiers ou n é g o c i a n s à favoriser et à protéger. » Diese B e s t i m m u n g würde d e n Einfluß des tiers état ganz vernichtet h a b e n . »La m o i t i é des places o c c u p é e s d a n s la p l u p a r t des conseils m u n i c i p a u x par les plébéiens, avait jusqu'alors b a l a n c é en quelq u e m a n i è r e la p r é p o n d é r a n c e de la noblesse.« ... G e n E n d e des 1 7 ' J h . les 35 Cortès se c o m p o s a i e n t des d é p u t é s von 20 Städten. Ni les provinces vascongades, ni celles des Asturies n ' a v a i e n t des députés a u x Cortès : et l'Aragon, Valence, Catalogne et Navarre avaient c h a c u n e ses Cortès s é p a r é m e n t de celle de Castille, bis Philippe V, ayant aboli leurs fueros, y convoqua quelques villes de ces provinces, hors celles de la Navarre qui conserve en40 core son droit de les célébrer elle m ê m e à P a m p e l u n e . ( 2 4 3 - 2 7 8 ) 1

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Brougham. (Henry) An Enquiry into the Colonial Policy of the European Powers. 2 vol. E d i n b u r g h 1803.

Vol. I.

Book I. Of the Relations that subsist between a State and its Colonies. Bis das J a h r U . C . 620, no colony b u t o n e , which never flourished, h a d b e e n planted b e y o n d the confines of Italy. D i e military colonies, eingeführt von Sylla u n d sehr begünstigt von A u g u s t u s z e i c h n e n sich n u r aus d u r c h m e h r strikt militairische Regierungsform. (17) T h e objects der R o m a n s , in planting their colonies, were conquest and plunder. T h u s , d e t a c h m e n t s of e m i grants incorporated with, a n d governed, the old possessors of the soil. (18) Die carthagischen Colonies waren trading correspondents to the m o t h e r country. (20) W a h r s c h e i n l i c h d a ß Carthago received das Surplus der R o h products von Sicilien, Sardinien u n d Spanien u n d M a n u f a c t u r w a a r e n dah i n lieferten. Anderseits begünstigt d u r c h ihre Ueberlegenheit in der Schiffahrt, ihre alten ||100| connexions m i t der Levante, speziell m i t Tyrus u n d Smyrna etc ihre centrale Lage, lieferten d e n colonies oder provinces die asiatischen W a a r e n , wovon Carthago das n a t u r a l entrepot für den W e sten des m i t t e l l ä n d i s c h e n Meers. A u c h die C o m m u n i c a t i o n zwischen diesen Settlements carried on by the m o t h e r country. D e r Colonial or provincial m a r k e t sehr wichtig für die c o m m e r c i a l o c c u p a t i o n ersterer. D a h e r Mercantilsystem. Die 2 treaties of c o m m e r c e , zu finden im Polybius, m i t d e n R ö m e r n , conceived in d e m true spirit des m o d e r n colonial system. Im Anfang erheischte das distant settlement keine restraint, s o n d e r n alle Pro-

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tection des M u t t e r l a n d s . In dieser Periode die Colonie sich selbst überlassen. Carthago b e s c h ü z t e sie vor fremder Invasion, b u t neglected its c o m m e r c e . W u r d e so rasch wichtig. D i e C a r t h a g i n i a n m e r c h a n t s begünstigten colonial speculations by furnishing a ready d e m a n d for the r u d e p r o d u c e . In d i e s e m stage of progress, we find the colony trade left free ... In i h r e m origin u n d political relations die greek colonies verschieden von den röm i s c h e n u n d Carthaginiensischen. D i e Territorien von A t h e n , Sparta, Cor i n t h u n d Argos of sehr limited extent; der increase der Population m a c h t e d a h e r Emigration nöthig. U n t e r n o m m e n d u r c h Privatindividuen, generally gerichtet n a c h distant u n d t r a n s m a r i n e settlements, w ä h r e n d die a t t e n t i o n der parent states vollständig beschäftigt m i t d e n boisterous politics of G r e e c e ; da das Exil d e m die emigrants sich u n t e r z o g e n , die Folge von want u n d discontent at h o m e : leicht zu begreifen wie slight stets die c o n n e x i o n der colonies m i t ihren original countries. Leztre keine substantial authority; n u r N o m i n a l r e s p e c t u n d s u b m i s s i o n yielded von den colonists. Sie r e m e m b e r e d das land ihrer Väter m i t filial respect u n d affection; ehrten its gods, by offerings of first fruits to their t e m p l e s ; sie retained a predilection für its customs and laws wie für its religion a n d language; yielded seinen citizens d e n place of distinction at public games, u n d seinen priests t h e holy h o n o u r of taking the first look der entrails der sacrifices. Im war folgten sie generally d e n fortunes der metropolis als allies, u p o n equal t e r m s : aber da sie perfectly i n d e p e n d e n t , keine Protection von ihr empfingen u n d oft ihr gleich in resources, they always refused to c o m e forward as auxiliaries, w h e n unfair terms were proposed. ... M a n c h m a l , w e n n das M u t t e r l a n d sonst unbeschäftigt u n d sich stark genug d a z u fühlte, versuchte es zu exact von d e n colonies, as m a t t e r of right, the u s u a l m a r k s of filial a t t a c h m e n t . So Corinth suchte d u r c h force die u s u a l tokens of r e m e m b r a n c e von seiner Colonie Corcyra zu erhalten. Die Colonists appealed an A t h e n , das ihre Parthei ergriff u n d sie als n ü t z l i c h e allies behielt, besonders w ä h r e n d des peloponnesischen Kriegs. N a c h d e n Siegen von Plateae u n d Mycale, die griechisch asiatischen colonies - as they despaired of being able to retain ihre i n d e p e n d e n c e von d e n Persern allein - entered into a strict alliance m i t A t h e n s ; a n d she took the opportunity of the general alarm, to propose an universal contribution from all h e r colonies a n d allies, for the great purpose of resisting the persian power. Zuerst die s u m levied n u r 460 talents. (103,500 /. St.) Die A t h e n i a n s entrusted m i t d e m m a n a g e m e n t of it u n d b o u n d to deposit it im T e m p e l von Delos. V o n hier, u n t e r verschiednen pretexts der treasure removed n a c h der Acropolis von A t h e n : Die s u m of a n n u a l contribution erst raised to 600 (135,000 1.), d a n n 1200 (270,000 I.) u n d 1300 talents. (292,500 I.) Die allies originally i n d u c e d d e n citizens von A t h e n das c o m m a n d der u n i t e d forces zu überlassen; der Piraeus w u r d e

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Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 • Heft XIV rasch befestigt, die athenische fleet vermehrt, u n d das C h e f c o m m a n d o wurde Theil des a t h e n i a n prerogative. Sie levied supplies in m o n e y or in kind or c o m m u t e d t h e m for recruits to the military or naval force of t h e republic. By intriguing with o n e allied state, they r e n d e r e d the others tributary a n d s u b o r d i n a t e . W e n n das J o c h fest etablirt, they concluded, by ext e n d i n g it to those allies who h a d assisted in imposing it. D i e supplies n u n exacted als Tribut; a ||101| refusal p u n i s h e d as disobedience or treason. M i t A u s n a h m e der Samier, die rebellirten, alle colonies blieben faithful or enslaved von der Invasion des Xerxes bis z u m 5' J a h r des peloponnesischen Kriegs. D a m a l s revoltirten die Lesbier. G e n E n d e des Kriegs die a t h e n i a n colonies s u b m i t t e d to the u n n a t u r a l u n i o n of Persia a n d Sparta; they were finally yielded up to the d o m i n i o n of the former by the p e a c e of Antalcidas. ( 2 0 - 3 1 ) Das l a n d e d interest existirt n i c h t in W e s t i n d i e n . An seiner Stelle theils proprietors loaded with debt, who are little m o r e als c o m m i s sioners für die e u r o p e a n creditors, theils factors, properly so called, acting for the n o n r e s i d e n t proprietors. (47) Das object der emigrants n a c h Westi n d i e n n o t to live, b u t to gain, n o t to enjoy b u t to save, n o t to subsist in the colonies, b u t to prepare for shining in the m o t h e r country. (48) D i e W e i b e r sehr wenig zahlreich, fast n u r von den n i e d r e n Klassen. Marriage held in no repute. Also diese Colonien n i c h t d u r c h sich selbst ihre Bevölkerung erh a l t e n d ; j e d e r sucht möglichst rasch von dort f o r t z u k o m m e n ; d a h e r constant interchange of i n h a b i t a n t s is thus carried on, the n u m b e r s wachsen m i t d e m progress der c o m m u n i t y , from the overflowings a n d offscourings of which they are derived, constant intercourse zwischen d e m M u t t e r l a n d u n d d e n distant provinces, m o r e powerful u n i t e d to her in this m a n n e r , als d u r c h die effects of political institutions, or even of m e r c a n t i l e c o n n e x i o n s . (49, 50) B. s a g t m i t Bezug auf die n o r d a m e r i k a n i s c h e n Colonieen: »In a country where bodily labour bore a m o n o p o l y price, the labour of the m i n d (coupled with idleness of body) could not be afforded.« (63) D i e northern states von d e n U n i t e d States besonders ausgezeichnet d u r c h religious bigotry. Die m i t t l e m states modificirt d u r c h die greater m i x t u r e of different n a tions. In i h n e n der mercantile spirit am m e i s t e n Platz gewonnen. D i e Verschiedenheit der R a c e m a c h t e n Patriotisme u n d Freiheitsliebe less ardent, während die variety der religions d e n fanaticism prävenirten. In d e n southern states gibt der contrast der servitude Art von aristocratical spirit u n d das Clima, by promoting the growth of an article belonging to the class of luxuries, has given rise to a species of agriculture bordering u p o n the great gains a n d u n c e r t a i n prospects of c o m m e r c i a l speculation. (66, 7) In Westi n d i e n w a n d e r t e n Personen aus, m i t d e m spirit of adventure, which has for its object, either the rapid increase of stock, with proportionate risk (Risico an Capital u n d G e s u n d h e i t ) or the acquisition of s o m e fortune, without the

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ordinary m e a n s of toil a n d h a r d s h i p . Dieser Geist in t h e class w h i c h possesses capital ist allied to the love of deep play; in t h e class which has nothing to lose, it gives birth to m e a n n e s s u n d dishonesty. (68) T h e D u t c h who grovel after every kind of profit, whose spirit for gain is t e m p e r e d by no dignity of character, and, p r o m p t e d by t h e c o m p e t i t i o n of large capitals, are, of all the n a t i o n s in the Westindies, t h e m o s t i n h u m a n masters, a n d the most pliable in worming themselves into the various habits of gainful speculation. (75, 6) D e r Portuguese character, in E u r o p e , m u c h less respectable t h a n the Spanish. T h e m i x t u r e of Jewish blood is general, t h r o u g h the whole population of that country; however m u c h it m a y be held in a b horrence. D e r old D u k e of Sidonia - als J o h n IV befahl daß alle m i t dies e m Blut befleckte P e r s o n e n should wear a slouched hat, as a m a r k of dist i n c t i o n - presented that impolitic prince with o n e hat, a n d p u t a n o t h e r on his own head, in the royal presence. (85) In der n e u e n Welt diese m i x t u r e n o c h stärker, da die Verfolgungen viele ||102| Jews n a c h Brazil trieben. (85) the same circumstances (modified by various accidental peculiarities a n d events) which have p r o m o t e d the circulation of t h e i n h a b i t a n t s between the old a n d new world, a n d enabled the m a n n e r s of e a c h part to affect those of the other, have also given those colonies the worst m o r a l and political character: whiîe, unfortunately, the tribes, deren m a n n e r s simpler u n d lives purer have, by the n a t u r e of that situation to which they owed those advantages, always r e m a i n e d , in a great degree, insulated from the country of their ancestors; a n d are now, by the farther operation of the same causes, entirely separated from their filial c o n n e x i o n . (89) Die n a t u r a l ties zwischen d e m M u t t e r l a n d u n d d e n colonies sind: 1) die circulation of capital; 2) der intercourse of c o m m e r c e ; 3) the weakness of the r e m o t e r parts; 4) die relations of a c o m m o n origin, similarity of customs, a n d identity of language. (92) Selbst wenn die colonies der U n t e r s t ü t z u n g v o m M u t t e r l a n d aus bedürfen, doch ihr Besitz so wichtig als der andrer Theile des empire die amply repay it: 1) T h e provinces of a state t h a t lye contiguous, do by no m e a n s furnish supplies, either of m e n or m o n e y , in proportion to the b e n e fits of defence and security which they receive from t h e government. Ein Theil des state always contributes m o r e t h a n its protection costs; t h e surplus goes to protect a n o t h e r part which contributes less. (108, 9) W h i l e the colonies, then, are only viewed as distant provinces of the s a m e country, it is absurd to represent their defence a n d g o v e r n m e n t as a b u r t h e n , either to treasury, or to the forces of the other provinces. (117) 2) the wars which a state u n d e r t a k e s scheinbar für die Vertheidigung seiner colonial d o m i n i o n s , sehr selten die C o n s e q u e n z des Besitzes dieser distant territories. (118)

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Commercial relations between a state and its colonies. the m a r k e t afforded by countries newly settled u n d e r favourable circumstances, is n o t only extensive and advantageous to the industry of the older provinces, b u t it continually a n d rapidly increases. (159) the extent of the market, whose d e m a n d s call forth the industry, is of less i m p o r t a n c e t h a n its progressive state. (160) Die Entfernung der Colonialmärkte das Vortheilhafte, daß sie befördert the breed of s e a m e n . (174) A navy is necessary sei es für die defence of a m a r i t i m e country u n d seine military operations gegen a n d r e Länder, sei es für d e n Schutz seines H a n d e l s ... the services r e n d e r e d by the trade a n d the navy reciprocal u n d die effects ihres progrèssive i m p r o v e m e n t m u t u a l . (190, 1) Die n a t u r a l t e n d e n c y of great capitals towards those quarters whence great profits m a y be expected, a n d of small capitals towards those parts where quick returns are to be obtained, distributes the stock of the n a t i o n in a certain way, i n d e p e n d e n t of colonial possessions. (209) T h e wealth of G r e a t Britain appears, from several sympt o m s , to be arriving at the state of overgrown magnificence; a n d , of course, to require m o r e and m o r e the outlet of new colonies. (215) W h e n t h e p o p u lation of a c o m m u n i t y has b e c o m e very great in proportion to its m e a n s of subsistence, the price of labour is diminished, a n d a large a c c u m u l a t i o n of i n h a b i t a n t s is always to be found floating ... in ||103| the country: ready to shift from o n e profession to another; often inclined, in their idleness a n d exigencies, to adopt vicious m e a n s of procuring relief; a n d always prepared to serve the state in the army or navy. In like m a n n e r , w h e n the wealth of a country has greatly increased, a n d the lines of e m p l o y m e n t for stock are n o t multiplied at the same t i m e ; the profits are d i m i n i s h e d , a n d a great part of the n a t i o n a l capital floats about, shifting from o n e o c c u p a t i o n to another, in order to obtain higher profits. A sort of revulsion often takes place. I n s t e a d of each c h a n n e l retaining a separate portion of capital constantly in it, all the channels overflow; a n d some capital c o m e s from each, into a shifting mass ready for any speculation of trade or loans, or loans to the state. V e r m e h r t sich die Population n o c h m e h r , so discontent etc. W a n dert aus long before actual want has compelled t h e m to a b a n d o n their h o m e . E b e n s o m i t d e m Capital. T h e colonies where the spirit of mercantile speculation prevails, are always preferred to those worin agriculture is the staple occupation. But m u c h m o r e of the population of E u r o p e has b e e n p o u r e d into the c o n t i n e n t a l colonies, t h a n of the national capital, weil die negro slavery in den islands has proportioned the labouring population to the d e m a n d arising from the capital employed etc w ä h r e n d die c o n t i n e n t a l colonies furnish a d e m a n d for labour adapted to all constitutions, a n d o p e n

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a field for m e n who have no stock at all. B i e t e n also die colonies no outlet to the a b u n d a n t p o p u l a t i o n of a country, a n d to its overflowing stock, b o t h the o n e and the other will naturally seek e m p l o y m e n t in foreign countries or foreign colonies which are u n d e r s t o c k e d in h a n d s a n d in capital. Also abgeschmackt die Surrender von Colonial possessions sei es an die colonists als i n d e p e n d e n t power, sei es an foreign states in order to k e e p the people a n d capital at h o m e . ( 2 1 8 - 2 2 ) the restrictions imposed u p o n the a m e r i c a n settlements, by the policy of m o d e r n Europe, have consisted in t h e m o n o p o l y of trade a n d the m o n o p o l y of labour. (239) Die prohibitions or discouragements given to certain k i n d s of colonial industry, have rather b e e n superfluous t h a n b u r d e n s o m e : framed urn to prevent was o h n e h i n nicht passirt wäre. Fabrikindustrie, u n m ö g l i c h in early settlements. (240) A b e r dieß gilt nicht bei d e m Verbot für die W e s t i n d i e s d e n Z u c k e r zu raffiniren. (241) Die french islands stets frei von dieser oppression. (I.e.) Dafür anderseits das Tabackbauen in E n g l a n d verboten. Erst Steuer darauf. D a n n gänzlich prohibirt. I n U e b e r e i n s t i m m u n g m i t d e m Geist der die M a n u f a c tur einiger feinrer Fabrikwaaren in A m e r i c a verbot, England ought to have laid a heavy duty u p o n t h e cultivation of the cotton plant a n d sugar c a n e in England. T h e statute 21 G e o II c. 30 granted a b o u n t y on the i m p o r t a t i o n of indigo raised in the colonies, while t h e statutes 23 G e o . II c. 29 u n d 30 G e o . II c. 16 prohibited the colonists from erecting slitmills u n d furnaces, which i m p e d e d the clearing of lands. (242, 3) Exclusive companies at different times, obtained the m a n a g e m e n t of colonial trade, in every country of E u r o p e . At first, Spain u n d Portugal, statt c o m p a n i e s : confinirten den | |104| colonial trade to certain ports des M u t t e r l a n d e s u n d der colonies. (249, 50) Die D u t c h C o m p a n y wie die ostindischenglische, ü b t e stets aus die politische sowohl als mercantile Regierung der in ihrer charter begriffn e n colonies. Spanier u n d Portugiesen erlaubten nie diese politische Herrschaft der C o m p a g n i e n . (251)

H o l l ä n d i s c h e Colonialpolitik. T h e necessary c o n s e q u e n c e of extensive opulence, acquired by a people who have not a proportionably great territory, is, that the m e a n s of advantageously employing capital will b e c o m e m o r e and m o r e difficult; the profits of its e m p l o y m e n t m o r e confined, and its a c c u m u l a t i o n m o r e slow. ... Obgleich high wages ein G r u n d von small profits, yet, if the c q m p e t i t i o n of capitals diminishes the profit, the wages m u s t fall mit d e n profits a n d n o t rise m i t d e m extent of capital. Der h o h e rate of wages in Holland n u r apparent, occasioned d u r c h die severity of the taxes. T h e w o r k m a n actually

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Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 • Heft XIV enjoys less t h a n in any other free state, obgleich er n o m i n e l l m e h r erhält. (294, 5) Als die V e n e t i a n e r grossen R e i c h t h u m erworben d u r c h das M o n o pol des eastern c o m m e r c e , sie deprived of the m e a n s of profitably employing it, d u r c h die E n t d e c k u n g der Capepassage. T h e i r territories being extremely confined u n d a n d r e n a t i o n s getting t h e start of t h e m in t h e science of navigation, they h a d only one m e a n s of investing t h e m o n e y which they h a d h e a p e d together: p u m p t e n es aus to foreign countries für ein P r ä m i u m , w u r d e n die brokers of E u r o p e . ... N a c h d e m die Dutch i m m e n s e n wealth erreicht, by engrossing the carrying trade of E u r o p e u n d der Fortschritt der a n d r e n N a t i o n e n i h n e n a great part dieses e m p l o y m e n t r a u b t e , ihr overgrown capital forced into various speculations in t h e m o s t r e m o t e b r a n c h e s of foreign t r a d e ; in loans to foreign g o v e r n m e n t s ; u n d to individuals in for­ eign c o u n t r i e s . (296, 7) W a h r s c h e i n l i c h d a ß die D u t c h oft waren creditors, at o n e t i m e , v o n viel ü b e r 300 millions £ St. to their own g o v e r n m e n t u n d to foreign states. (299, 300) H o l l a n d bedurfte also vor allem foreign colonies in order to o b t a i n a new opening, of whatever kind, for t h e stock which could n o t be employed at h o m e , and in order to secure t h e possession of this o p e n i n g at all times u n d e r its own c o m m a n d . ... the english u n d french colonies sehr i n d e b t e d d e n wealthy m e r c h a n t s of H o l l a n d , at their first e s t a b l i s h m e n t s ; a n d the D a n i s h colonies owed their f o u n d a t i o n entirely to D u t c h capital. (301) H o l l a n d c a p u t d u r c h das A u f k o m m e n der a n d r e n Staaten. W e i l : the staple of H o l l a n d is of a kind n o t peculiar to any o n e country: it belongs to one state of society in every country: it is extent of capital a n d m e r c a n t i l e skill. (304) Bei Eröffnung des H a n d e l s in fremd e n e n t l e g n e n L ä n d e r n , w e n n die Z a h l der large capitals h i n r e i c h e n d , ein T h e i l d a v o n drawn p e r m a n e n t l y t o t h e operations des n e u e n M a r k t s u n d employed exclusively in t h e tasks of collecting and assorting cargoes, which t h e other capitals m i g h t circulate u n d transport. Daher das establishment of factories in distant countries deren n a t i o n s little o c c u p i e d by trade. Die E r r i c h t u n g derselben das primary object aller trading c o m p a n i e s m i t j o i n t stocks. (318, 19) Die I n s t i t u t i o n der c o m p a n y , at first, drew to t h e dist a n t trade m e h r capital als sonst d a h i n gegangen, in order to benefit a small class of stockholders. D i e addition des M o n o p o l s kept out capitals that would have gone thither, in order to preserve die Existenz der C o m p a g n i e : die acquisition of political power oft prejudicial d e m M u t t e r l a n d ; generally r u i n o u s to t h e association itself; and always fatal to t h e distant provinces over w h i c h its d o m i n i o n was suffered to extend. D i e ß die G e s c h i c h t e der Dutch East India Company. Ihre a n n u a l dividends für die 6 J a h r e e n d e n d 1610: 3 6 % . In a short time die |[105[ actions rose von 3000 auf 15,000 u n d at o n e t i m e s t a n d e n sie so h o c h wie 24,000 florins, 8 x ihre P r i m e Cost. Die C o m p a g n i e erhielt das M o n o p o l d a d u r c h d a ß sie die R e g i e r u n g in ih-

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ren Kriegsverlegenheiten m i t Geld u n t e r s t ü z t e . 1602 ihr diese charter first granted exclusive right of trading to the East u n d die Sovereignty ( u n d e r s u p e r i n t e n d a n c e der States-General) aller territories die sie dort erwerben m ö c h t e n durch Kauf-Vertrag, c o n q u e s t ; Volle M a c h t of appointing their own servants; j e d e force zu raise für die Vertheidigung ihrer Territorien; a n d of m a k i n g whatever laws they m i g h t t h i n k proper for the internal adm i n i s t r a t i o n of their d o m i n i o n s . ... Die great c o m m e r c i a l cities der R e p u blik, interested in t h e j o i n t stock, n a m e d e a c h of t h e m a certain n u m b e r der 60 directors, d e n e n die c o m p a n y ' s affairs c o m m i t t e d in the first instance. 17 davon entrusted m i t d e m ordinary m a n a g e m e n t der c o m m o n concern, erhielten good salaries, besides t h e patronage a n n e x e d to their places. W e n n i m m e r ein settlement a d d e d z u d e n c o m p a n y ' s d o m i n i o n s , die Regierung davon gegeben in die h a n d s eines captain-general, der c o m m a n d e d die forces u n d presided im council; a director general, entrusted m i t d e m m a n a g e m e n t des C o m p a n y ' s stock u n d der s u p e r i n t e n d a n c e ihrer c o m m e r c i a l interests; a major general, der second in council u n d 5 select councillors. Die u n i o n dieser 8 officers bildete d e n grand council, invested with full deliberative u n d executive powers in all matters of government, war, negotiation u n d trade. 1616 schon h a t t e die C o m p a n y 45 large vessels engaged in war u n d c o m m e r c e , m i t 10,000 soldiers u n d sailors in their service u n d 4000 pieces of artillery. ( 3 2 0 - 4 ) Am E n d e des 18 Jh. 80 vessels, carrying von 3 0 - 6 0 guns u n d 25,000 m e n , soldiers included; w ä h r e n d die whole d o m i n i o n s in Java u n d its d e p e n d e n c i e s were farmed for 361,260 dollars. (326) Bis 1780 der gain gefallen auf 2 ¾ % für die A k t i e n besitzer. (332) T h u s , instead of profiting by their possessions in the East, to secure an opening for the overflowing c a p i t a l . . . the U n i t e d Provinces have, by m e a n s of their East I n d i a C o m p a n y , almost entirely r u i n e d the East India trade, stunted the growth of their settlements, alienated m a n y of the n a tive powers, and, at the expence of all the G r e a t capitalists u n d industrious adventurers in the republic, have obtained, for the indolence of s o m e petty stockholders, a paltry annuity, a n d for the avarice of some great adventurers i m m e n s e fortunes. (332, 3) Die charter granted für das 8' m a l 1762; u n d das D u r c h s c h n i t t s p r ä m i u m paid für diese renewals an 270,000 /. St. oder 3 mill, florins. Sie zahlte uniformly a c o m p o s i t i o n von 16 000 florins per a n n u m in lieu of customs on exports; u n d der a m o u n t der customs on East I n d i a n imports 425 000 fl. im D u r c h s c h n i t t . Die C o m p a g n i e p u m p t e oft d e m Staat Geld, besonders im spanischen Krieg. Supported häufig die declining m a n u f a c t u r e s in verschiednen H a u p t s t ä d t e n der provinces; allotted stets a considerable yearly revenue to the Stadtholder, which secured the favourable influence dieses officer u n d granted gewöhnlich der R e g i e r u n g a percentage on the prime cost of the actions, besides furnishing at a low l

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Londoner Hefte 1850-1853 · Heft XIV price a b u n d a n c e of saltpetre for the service der army u n d navy. D u r c h diesen u n b e d e u t e n d e n dodge blieb die C o m p a n y populär sie »by far m o s t hurtful c o m m e r c i a l institution that ever arose a m o n g m e n « . (335, 6) In H o l l a n d : T h e m e r c h a n t who receives an a p p o i n t m e n t as agent u n d consignee of a planter, gives public notice, that, at a certain t i m e , a certain s u m will be required for the plantation, by way of loan; daß die d o c u m e n t s der valuation u n d produce deposited with h i m ; t h a t he has received credentials as director of the affair u n d die nöthige Z a h l of acts of hypothecation, w o d u r c h der planter wie er selbst b e c o m e b o u n d , personally, u n d to the u t m o s t extent ||106| of their property, to repay, in a certain t i m e die loans advanced in der F o r m von p u r c h a s e m o n e y u n d to discharge the interest at certain t e r m s . So das public eingeladen to buy diese b o n d s oder actions, bearing interest u n d transferable from h a n d to h a n d . D i e holders allowed to m e e t u n d erwählen aus ihrer Mitte c o m m i s s i o n e r s , d e n e n der Director verpflichtet jährlich R e c h n u n g abzulegen u n d to exhibit docum e n t s ü b e r d e n state der plantation u n d d e n progress des loan, the m o n i e d m e n eagerly buy up the actions of s u c h private copartneries u n d geben ihn e n a currency like that der british Exchequerbills. W h e n this mercantile e x p e r i m e n t zuerst tried, unbegreiflich m i t what rapidity die shares were seized by all u n d wie viele new loans, on similar terms, were i m m e d i a t e l y o p e n e d m i t der expectation of a similar success. D i e smallest capitalists did not scruple to risk part of their stock in each of those adventures ... So die smaller capitals of Holland attracted to the colonial cultivation. Der a m o u n t der colonial debts war e n o r m . N a c h M a l o u e t allein die S c h u l d e n von S u r i n a m 1776, an 80 Millions fl. Er schäzt d e n Theil des n e t p r o d u c e which c o m e s to the planters zu n u r Y ; % goes an die Regierung. % to insurance, freight u n d c o m m i s s i o n ; / als Zins of debts u n d to casualties. V o n 400 h o u s e s of proprietors, 1776, n u r 20 schuldenfrei u n d e n o r m reich; 100 h a t t e n S c h u l d e n zu zwischen % u n d % ihres Werths, 150½, der Rest von % bis z u m G a n z e n u n d mehr. Die avidity of all m o n e y h o l d e r s in the m o t h e r country to engage in colonial loans, induced the planters, who wished to overtrade or relieve their desperate circumstances, to transmit to E u r o p e estimates of their property higher t h a n t h e truth. W a r u s u a l to send a b o u t dasselbe slaveship u n d cattle von einer Plantation z u r a n d r e n zur Zeit des m a k i n g up der Inventarien u n d valuations u n d das p r o d u c e oft ausgeschmuggelt of the settlement in foreign ships, to t h e prejudice des directorconsignee in Holland, who, on his part, during seasons of misfortune, exh a u s t e d his own funds a n d credit in advancing to the stockholders the interest d u e from the colonists u n d oft war ganz bankrutt, w ä h r e n d die Aktien were all the while selling at a p r e m i u m . Die failure of a great W e s t Indiahouse frequently shook the whole ' C h a n g e at A m s t e r d a m u n d wurde ge-

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Aus Henry Brougham: An inquiry into the colonial policy fühlt over the R e p u b l i c like the shock of a n a t i o n a l bankruptcy. Anderseits evils arise oft den planters von d e m h a r s h t r e a t m e n t einiger Creditors, die, observing the strict letter of the law, have agents ready u p o n the spot, to force a sale of the plantation, on the failure of p a y m e n t s , the m o m e n t they 5 are d u e . In this case, t h e creditor or a friend is generally the purchaser, u n d stets buys at a very low price. ( 3 5 3 - 7 ) h ö c h s t e n s 500,000 M a n n die emigrated n a c h den Spanish colonies w ä h r e n d a period of 3 centuries. (387) Mesta ... Die proprietors of flocks in den n o r t h e r n provinces das R e c h t to drive t h e m through the k i n g d o m s of Castile u n d Leon n a c h d e n provinces 10 of E s t r e m a d u r a u n d A n d a l u s i a fur winter pasture. On their way, these flocks have the free use of all t h e c o m m o n or u n e n c l o s e d lands, which are very extensive; and no enclosures can be m a d e in the two tracks t h r o u g h which they pass, without leaving a space of 90 yards wide for their accomm o d a t i o n . Ja, selbst in d e n bestcultivirten districts, their pasture is fixed at 15 a very low price; they have the use of all t h e olive grounds, a n d the shepherds have certain privileges of woodcutting. D i e Z a h l der Schaafe wechselte in den different ||107| t i m e s ; im 16' Jh. 7 m i l l i o n e n , jezt 5. All these animals, begleitet von 25 000 a t t e n d a n t s , e b e n s o viel dogs u n d beträchtliche Zahl von horses, during 40 days, 2 x a year, ravage by law, the finest 20 provinces of Spain. (407, 8)

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Book II Of the foreign relations of Colonies.

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Bei den Alten nie solche Verhältnisse der Sklaven zu den Freien, wie in W e s t i n d i e n . Der D u r c h s c h n i t t in d e n british colonies war, 1790, = 10 (Sklaven):l (Freien), exclusive of Barbadoes, the B e r m u d a s u n d die B a h a m a s . In d e n french colonies = 1 4 : 1 ; in d e n d u t c h = 2 3 : 1 . D e r average von ganz W e s t i n d i e n = 10:1. Statt wie bei d e n Alten besonders zahlreich in den towns zu sein, wo die freemen are most n u m e r o u s u n d das governm e n t am stärksten, wie in d e n a n c i e n t states, die negroes besonders distributed over the country. Die capital of J a m a i c a enthält % oder % der g a n z e n weissen Bevölkerung der Insel u n d n u r % Neger. (74)

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Book IV. Of the Domestic Policy of the European Powers in their Colonial Establishments. Voluntary labour for hire, however simple it m a y appear to us who are acc u s t o m e d to it, is nevertheless a refinement wholly u n k n o w n a m o n g the savage tribes of Africa. ... No such thing as a m a n working for another, from the i n d u c e m e n t of hire or reward, or from any voluntary bargain, was ever heard of in that continent. N o t h i n g t h e n , b u t c o m p u l s i o n c a n there effect that division of l a b o u r and reward which is so r e p u g n a n t to n a t u r a l j u s tice. (419, 20)

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