Excavations at Francavilla Marittima 1991–2004: Finds Related to Textile Production from the Timpone della Motta, Volume 5: Spindle Whorls 9781407315409, 9781407344317

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Excavations at Francavilla Marittima 1991–2004 Finds Related to Textile Production from the Timpone della Motta Volume 5: Spindle Whorls

Marianne Kleibrink

BAR International Series 2806 2016

Published in 2016 by BAR Publishing, Oxford BAR International Series 2806 Excavations at Francavilla Marittima 1991–2004 © Marianne Kleibrink 2016 Cover image Truncated conical, globular and polygonal spindle whorls (p. 37, Fig. 29.0) The Author’s moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in  any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher.

ISBN 9781407315409 paperback ISBN 9781407344317 e-format DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9781407315409 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

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Preface This is the fifth volume in a series of publications dealing with the excavations carried out by Groningen University in the period 1991-2004 on the Timpone della Motta, Francavilla Marittima, Calabria (Italy), under the direction of the author.1 It is preceded by volumes on the Oenotrian production of Mattpainted pottery with undulating and cross-hatched band decoration (labelled ‘Undulating Band Style’ and ‘Cross-hatched Band Style’ respectively)2 that were followed by third and fourth volumes, describing ‘Fringe Style’ and ‘Miniature Style’ decoration.3 Pottery fragments decorated in these styles, together with shards of a impasto clay pottery,4 of imported wares from Greece,5 and of local Greek-style pottery,6 are found together with spindle whorls and loom weights. The latter finds related to textile production on the summit of Timpone della Motta will appear in two parts, the current 5th BAR volume on the spindle whorls and the following 6th BAR volume on the loom weights. Textile-related finds associated with the remains of an 8th-century BC apsidal building and its successor on top of the Timpone della Motta (a hill, 280m asl, south of Francavilla Marittima) are sufficiently abundant to justify the name chosen by its excavators: Weaving House (Building V.b). General information on the Timpone della Motta complex of buildings was presented in the first volume of this series and in a number of other publications (see Note 1). The present volume largely consists of a catalogue of spindle whorls. Together with the next BAR volume on the loom weights it discusses in detail the available data pertaining to textile production at Francavilla Marittima from ca. 800BC to circa 650BC. Unless stated otherwise, photographs and drawings (in this volume not to scale) are by the author. We are most grateful to the directors of the National Archaeological Museum of the Sibaritide, Dr Alessandro D’Alessio and Dottoressa Adele Bonofiglio and their staff for the kind assistance rendered during our study sessions in the Museum. Without the constant support of the ‘Archaeological School Lagaria’ at Francavilla Marittima and particularly its director, Professor Giuseppe Altieri, this book could not have been written. Our English text was proofread by Gerre van der Kleij of GrondTaal VerTaalbureau. I extend my warmest thanks to everybody.

Marianne Kleibrink

1 For general information see Kleibrink 1993; 1996; 1997; 2000a; 2000b; 2003; 2004a; 2005; 2006a; 2010; 2011; www.museumfrancavilla.com; De Lachenal 2007. 2 Kleibrink, Barresi & Fasanella Masci 2012; Kleibrink, Fasanella Masci & Barresi 2013. 3 Kleibrink 2015a; 2015b; other volumes are in preparation. 4 Colelli 2013. 5 Tomay 2002; Papadopoulos 2003; Jacobsen & Handberg 2010. 6 Van der Wielen van Ommeren & Kleibrink 2008; Tomay, 2005.

1

Contents PREFACE ......................................................................................................................................................................... 1 THE SPINDLE WHORLS FROM THE TIMPONE DELLA MOTTA .................................................. 5 CHAPTER I 1.1. Introduction ......................................................................................................................................................... 5 1.2. Remarks on spinning in Calabria during the Early Iron Age: sites that produced spindle whorls ........................ 12 1.3. Reconstructing yarn properties through spindle whorl analysis.............................................................................. 19 1.4. The spindle whorls from Francavilla Marittima: context .................................................................................... 23 1.5. Wool and sheep ................................................................................................................................................. 32 1.6. Some remarks on Goddess Athena and her cult on the Timpone della Motta ..................................................... 33 TRUNCATED CONICAL, GLOBULAR AND POLYGONAL SPINDLE WHORLS.......................... 37 CHAPTER II 2.1. Truncated conical whorls, Types A1-A4 ........................................................................................................... 37 2.1.1. Introduction................................................................................................................................................... 37 2.1.2. Catalogue of the truncated conical ‘hollow’ spindle whorls, Types A1 and A2 ................................. 41 2.1.3. Catalogue of the truncated conical spindle whorls with flat top, Type A3 ......................................... 44 2.1.4. Catalogue of the biconical spindle whorls with short and long sides and flat top, Type A4 ........... 44 2.2. Globular to compressed globular, decorated spindle whorls, Type B1 ................................................................... 46 2.2.1. Introduction................................................................................................................................................... 46 2.2.2. Catalogue of the globular, decorated spindle whorls, Type B1 ............................................................. 47 2.3. Globular and compressed globular to biconical plain spindle whorls, Type B2 ..................................................... 52 2.3.1. Introduction................................................................................................................................................... 52 2.3.2. Catalogue of the globular and compressed globular to biconical plain spindle whorls, Type B2 ....... 52 2.4. Biconical polygonal spindle whorls, Type C......................................................................................................... 58 2.4.1. Introduction................................................................................................................................................... 58 2.4.2. Catalogue of polygonal globular to biconical spindle whorls, Type C ................................................. 60 CHAPTER III HEXAGONAL, BICONICAL SPINDLE WHORLS, TYPE D........................................................... 63 3.1. Introduction .......................................................................................................................................................63 3.2. Catalogue of the biconical, hexagonal spindle whorls, Type D ............................................................................. 65 CHAPTER IV PENTAGONAL, BICONICAL SPINDLE WHORLS, TYPE E ......................................................... 72 4.1. Introduction .......................................................................................................................................................72 4.2. Catalogue of the biconical, pentagonal spindle whorls, Type E ............................................................................ 75 STAR-SHAPED PENTAGONAL, BICONICAL SPINDLE WHORLS, TYPE F ..............................105 CHAPTER V 5.1. Introduction .....................................................................................................................................................105 5.2. Catalogue of the star-shaped, pentagonal, biconical spindle whorls, Type F........................................................108 CHAPTER VI TETRAGONAL, BICONICAL SPINDLE WHORLS, TYPE G .......................................................124 6.1. Introduction .....................................................................................................................................................124 6.2. Catalogue of the tetragonal, biconical spindle whorls, Type G............................................................................126 CHAPTER VII FAIENCE AND GLASS SPINDLE WHORLS, TYPES H AND I ....................................................142 7.1. Introduction .....................................................................................................................................................142 7.2. Catalogue of the faience and glass spindle whorls...............................................................................................143 TABLE I: LIST OF THE EXCAVATED UNITS OF THE SCAVI KLEIBRINK 1991-2004 ON THE ACROPOLIS OF THE TIMPONE DELLA MOTTA, WITH CATALOGUE NUMBERS OF THE SPINDLE WHORLS TOGETHER WITH THE MORE IMPORTANT CONTEXTS WITH DATED FINDS ........................................................................155 BIBLIOGRAPHY ..........................................................................................................................................................197 3

CHAPTER I THE SPINDLE WHORLS FROM THE TIMPONE DELLA MOTTA

1a. Spinning raw wool from a distaff held in the left hand, using a low-whorl drop spindle controlled with the right hand (drawing by the author inspired on Mårtensson et al. 2006, fig. 2).

1b. Maria spinning and Joseph winding, shown by a medieval painting (1410) from Bergh Castle, s’-Heerenberg, The Netherlands (detail).

1.1. Introduction Spindle whorls of a impasto or refined clays similar to the specimens from the Timpone della Motta published in this catalogue are found all over the world, the earliest specimens dating from in the Neolithic period.7 In Italy, probably the earliest finds derive from Terramare settlements in the north.8 These little clay weights pierced at the centre to insert a small stick or shaft point at the use of spindles to produce yarn. Pre-modern paintings show familiar scenes of women handling a spindle in one hand and holding a distaff with raw wool in the other (Fig. 1a). A spindle is a ca. 15 to 30cm-long stick with an attached whorl, while a distaff is another, usually longer stick holding a large quantity of washed and combed, loose wool fibre. Using a distaff is not the only method to handle the raw fibres; the bundle can be placed almost anywhere, as is shown by a medieval painting (1410) from Bergh Castle, s’-Heerenberg (The Netherlands, Fig. 1b) where Maria’s bundle of (probably) flax fibres rests on a column. Women who spin whilst walking usually suspend the fibre bundles from their girdle.

7 See 8

for an overview Barber 1991, 39-68, 303-310. Gleba 2008, 101; instructive is Bianchi 2004.

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In order to spin yarn, several lengths of washed and combed fibre of a quantity of fleece are drawn out and the first section is fastened, sometimes to a hook or wedged in a slit, at the top of the spindle. Then, more wool is drawn out which by the pull of the spindle forms a bundle of fibres that are aligned but not yet twisted. The most difficult part of hand-spinning, and one requiring a lot of practice, is pulling out an even and constant supply of fibres, while keeping the spindle in motion. The spindle is given a flick in order to set it in motion and by its momentum to twist the bundle of fibres. The weight of the whorl allows the spinner to lower, or drop, the spindle while it is spinning, producing a length of yarn that is subsequently wound on the spindle rod. In low-whorl drop spindles this ‘cop’ of yarn is formed on top of the whorl (Fig. 1a). Drop spindles are so called because they are dropped to swing freely from the thread after being set in motion, which allows for a length of yarn to be spun before winding. The drop-spindle technique permits the spinner to move about and combine the spinning process with other tasks (e.g. watching over small children, herding animals). These ambulant activities place restrictions on the size and weight of the spindle and the whorl, for the rotation must be kept fluid and preferably sustained for a long time.9

2a. Low-whorl drop spindle (drawing by the author). 2b. Bronze distaff, 24.9cm, presumably looted from the South Fill of the sanctuary on the Timpone della Motta, Francavilla Marittima (after Papadopoulos 2003, Fig. 155b). 2c. Metal spindle rod with clay spindle whorl, from Cumae, excavation Stevens (after Kilian 1970, Pl. 267, III, 3). 2d. Relatively short, solid-cast bronze distaff with discs and incised decoration on shaft, 18-26cm. Gleba 2006, Type B2; attributed to Campania (after Kilian 1970, Pl. 20, No. 3a). 2e. Long, solid-cast bronze distaff with discs and chain attachments, ca. 40cm. Gleba 2006, Type B3, attributed to Sala Consilina (after Kilian 1970, Pl. 190, No. 7).

2a.

2b.

2c.

2d.

2e.

9 Whilst carrying out a spinning experiment the spinners of the Copenhagen Centre for Textile Research noticed that working with spindle whorls with a weight of 8g was so demanding that combining it with other activities seemed almost impossible: Mårtensson et al. 2006.

6

Drop spindles exist in a high-whorl and a low-whorl version. It is generally assumed that low-whorl drop spindles were preferred in Italy during the Early Iron Age (Fig. 2a).10 In a high-whorl spindle, the whorl is placed near the top of the spindle shaft, which allows it to rotate very fast (Fig. 2c). A hook inserted in the top of the spindle shaft allows the forming yarn to be securely fastened, and the newly spun yarn is wound around the shaft underneath the whorl in a conical shape, called a cop. In a low-whorl spindle, the whorl is placed near the bottom of the shaft, which makes it rotate more slowly but also more evenly, and longer. The newly spun yarn is wound around the shaft just above the whorl (Fig. 1a). Two or more strands of yarn may be twisted together, or twined, to form a thicker thread. Spindles are occasionally used for this, but usually other tools are preferred. Many of the loom weights found on the Timpone della Motta at Francavilla Marittima are decorated with cord impressions made with plied cords (Fig. 21),11 which indicates that the technique was in fact known.

3a. Hexagonal impasto spindle whorl Scavi Kleibrink 1991-2004, AC18.15.203 showing heavy wear around one end of the vertical hole, h. 2.8cm. National Archaeological Museum of the Sibaritide.

3b. Globular spindle whorl Scavi Kleibrink 1991-2004, AC01.21.10 showing some wear around the lower end of (presumably) the vertical hole, h. 3.4cm. National Archaeological Museum of the Sibaritide.

3c. The whorl of Fig. 3b, showing an undamaged, round flat area around the upper end of (presumably) the hole on the decorated side. National Archaeological Museum of the Sibaritide.

Only one distaff, made of bronze, was found in the sanctuary of the Timpone della Motta (Fig. 2b);12 further indications for metal spinning tools are completely lacking. It is therefore likely that the spindles to which the many impasto and terracotta whorls were attached were made of perishable materials; probably they were simple wooden sticks. The bronze distaff has been catalogued as a spindle, but this function is unlikely because the circular offset disk terminals at either end would prohibit the attachment of a spindle whorl (cf. the smooth and tapering ends of the spindle from Cumae, Fig. 2c). The bronze shaft has many traits in common with the metal-plated wooden sticks and with the fully metal rods identified by Margherita Gleba as distaffs (Figs 2d-e).13 The specimen from Timpone della Motta carries a neatly executed engraving of patterned bands: vertical lines, chevrons, two rows of dots, chevrons, two rows of dots. The bulbous part of the shaft is decorated with six parallel rows of dots. A more or less similar Gleba 2008, 100. Hopefully, the cord-impressed weights will be published in the next volume in this series. One example has been included in the present volume in order to demonstrate the suspension of the Francavilla Marittima loom weights (Fig. 21). 12 Papadopoulos 2003, No. 441. 13 Gleba 2008, 109ff. 10 11

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distaff was found in Tomb 410 of the Incoronata necropolis, deposited along the left side of the body, presumably next to or in the hand.14 The fact that so few metal spinning tools have been identified at the sanctuary of the Timpone della Motta makes it likely that the whorls and their spindles were meant to be used, rather than votive objects dedicated to a deity. The same conclusion can be drawn from the many wear marks around the vertical holes through the spindle whorls. Exceptions are perhaps the faience/glass-paste whorls (Chapter VII) found in the Timpone della Motta sanctuary and also in many Greek sanctuaries. These glass whorls are generally thought to be votive offerings, but since they are fully functional they must be catalogued here as spinning tools. As was remarked earlier, many of the spindle whorls found in the sanctuary on the Timpone della Motta have wear marks, showing that they were once actually used on spindles (Figs 3a-b). Most whorls are biconical, with the sections above and below the carina being almost equal in height. The diameter of the vertical hole through the centre is often very slightly larger at one end. It is not always easy to determine whether the wear marks are at the top or the bottom of a whorl. However, on decorated whorls (e.g. Chapter II, cat. nos. 12-14; 16-28) the wear marks surround the hole in the undecorated side (Fig. 3b), while no wear marks are visible on the meander-decorated opposite side (Fig. 3c). If we assume that the decorated side represents the top of the whorl, facing the spinner, the undecorated side represents the bottom. In theory, the damage around the lower, narrower hole on this side could have been caused by variations in pressure as the top of the rotating spindle filled with yarn and became heavier, while the pressure would be less at the top where the yarn accumulated. However, a decorated bottom section would make equal sense since the upper part would be quickly covered by the yarn cop.

4. The contents of Tomb 55 in the Torre Galli necropolis, a female burial of the ‘complex’ type, with impasto spindle whorl (No. 5) and a set of 7 impasto spools (Nos. 6-13), pottery and personal ornaments (after Pacciarelli 1999).

14

Chiartano 1994, Pl. 102.

8

.

1

2a

2b

3a

3b

4

5

6a

6b

6c

6d

6e

1 Compressed globular, Torre Galli phase IB: e.g. T167 (simple), 15 T199 (complex), 16 2a. Truncated conical, convex and compressed, Torre Galli phase IA, IB, e.g. T186, T189 decorated (inverted; simple), T192 (complex), T218 (simple), 2b. Truncated conical, tall, Torre Galli phase IA and IB, e.g. T126 (simple), T142 (simple), 3a. Biconical plain, Torre Galli phase 1A, IB: e.g. T92 (complex), T131 (simple), T153 (complex), T174 (simple), T122 (complex), T211 |(complex), T216 (complex), T225 (simple), T270 (complex), T273 (simple), T274 (simple), T297 (simple), 3b. Biconical decorated, Torre Galli phase IA, IB, 4. Pear shaped, decorated, Torre Galli phase IB: e.g. T16 (complex), T207 (simple), 5. Rounded biconical and polygonal, Torre Galli phase IA, IB: e.g. T48 (simple), T55 (complex), T133 (simple), T152 (simple), T205 (simple), T213 (complex), T235 (complex), T275 (simple), T293 (simple), 6a. Globular and pentagonal, Torre Galli phase 1A, e.g. T241 (simple), 6b. Biconical and hexagonal, Torre Galli phase IA, IB: e.g. T53 (complex), T108 (simple), 6c. Biconical and heptagonal, Torre Galli phase IA, IB: e.g. T20 (complex), T41 with studs (complex), T49 (complex), T145bis (complex), T176 (simple), T187 (complex), T214 (simple), T218 |(simple), T219 (simple), T220 (complex), T242 (simple), 6d. Biconical and octagonal, Torre Galli phase IB: e.g. T33 (complex), T47 (simple), T63 (complex), T118 (complex), T122 (simple), T202 complex), T221 (complex), T332 (simple), 6e. Biconical and polygonal, Torre Galli phase IA, IB: e.g. T45 (complex), T60 (simple), T230 (simple).

5. Spindle whorls from tombs in the Torre Galli necropolis (after Pacciarelli 1999, 41).17

‘Simple’ here indicates a female burial with a spindle whorl, but no spools. ‘Complex’ here indicates a female burial with a spindle with whorl and a set of spools, and usually also with many personal ornaments. 17 Types 2a and 2b are inverted; these spindle whorls were probably used on a low-whorl drop-spindle, with the wider side facing up. 15 16

9

Torre Galli, tomb No.

Diameter in Height in Type cm cm

9.3

3.2

2.4

truncated conical

Torre Galli, Tomb No.

Diameter in cm

Height in cm

Whorl type

33-7

3.2

2.4

Octagonal

41-5

3.2

2.4

heptagonal with studs

18-3

3.8

3.4

biconical decorated

45-5

3.3

2.8

Polygonal

20-4

3.2

4.4

heptagonal

55-5

3.6

2.2

Polygonal

26-5

2.8

3.2

polygonal

56-7

3

2.8

heptagonal

39-4

3.4

2.8

hexagonal

63-4

3

2.4

Octagonal

40-7

3.2

3.4

octagonal

92-6

3.8

3

biconical plain

47-4

3.6

3

octagonal

118-6

3.2

2.5

Octagonal

145.4

3.2

2.4

heptagonal

48-6

2

1.8

heptagonal

153-4

3

2.6

biconical plain

52-2

3

2.6

polygonal

187-7

3

1.6

heptagonal

62-3

3.6

2.6

192-5

3

2.4

truncated conical

66-3

4

3

pentagonal, biconical

202-8

3.4

2.6

Octagonal

69, 69-5

3.4

2.8

biconical decorated

211-6

2.6

2.1

biconical plain

1-4

3.4

2.4

globular decorated

213-4

3

3

globular polygonal

108-4

3.8

2.8

hexagonal

216-3

2.8

2.8

biconical plain

121-5

3,6

3.4

truncated conical

220-3

3

2.5

heptagonal

114-4

4

2.2

polygonal

221-3

2.1

3

Octagonal

122-5

4

2.8

octagonal

226-6

3.4

2.8

Polygonal

123-5

3.8

2.8

polygonal

231-4

3.6

3.6

biconical plain

125-3

2.6

2.1

biconical plain

307-5

3.8

2.6

biconical, plain?

126-4

3.4

2.6

truncated conical

307-5

3.6

2.4

pentagonal, rounded

142-4

3.8

3

truncated conical

Averages Torre Galli, complex tombs

3.172

2.586

152-4

3.8

3

polygonal

167-4

3.2

2.6

compressed globular plain

174-5

4

3.6

biconical plain

10

6a. Torre Galli: elite, 'complex' tombs18

18 19

176-7

3

3.2

heptagonal

177-4

3.2

2.6

hexagonal

189-5

3.2

2.6

non-specific

200-5

3.4

3

globular decorated

201-4

3

3

globular polygonal

207-4

3.4

3

globular decorated

214-3

3.6

2.4

heptagonal

218-3

3

2.4

heptagonal

219-4

3.4

3.2

heptagonal

225- 3

3.4

2.4

biconical plain

230-4

3.6

3

polygonal

241- 4

3.2

2.4

pentagonal

242-4

3.8

3.4

heptagonal

271-2

3.8

3

polygonal

273-3

3.8

3.2

biconical to globular, plain

279-4

3.4

2.6

polygonal

296-3

3.2

2.4

octagonal

330-3

3

2 .6

biconical plain

297-3

3.6

3

biconical plain

332-5

3

2.6

octagonal

241-4

3.4

2.4

pentagonal

Averages Torre Galli, simple tombs

3.433

2.824

6b. Torre Galli, standard, 'simple' tombs19

The measurements in this table are taken from illustrations in Pacciarelli 1999, which are given as 1:2. The measurements in this table are taken from illustrations in Pacciarelli 1999, which are given as 1:2.

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1.2. Remarks on spinning in Calabria during the Early Iron Age: sites that produced spindle whorls In South Italy, wooden spindle shafts (which evidently did not survive) with attached a impasto clay whorls (which mostly did) are found in the graves of almost all women dating from the first period of the Early Iron Age, while the custom of placing spindles in female burials continued for several centuries. In Austria and at Sala Consilina spindle whorls were cremated together with the deceased and subsequently deposited next to the ash-urns.20,21 In combination with the fact that spindle whorls are in many necropoleis such common grave goods, this suggests that women were either cremated while holding a spindle or that spindles were part of a woman’s costume and for example always hung from their belts. Because spindle whorls are such common grave goods in the earliest Iron Age cemeteries Klaus Kilian’s conclusion that: “die tonernen Spinwirteln haben einen Trachtbestandteil der Frau gebildet...”22 is the more probable option. The gravefields with burials instead of cremations show that spindles disappeared from female dress and that they changed from general addition into a specific gravegift, because the tool was placed in one of the hands of the deceased woman (cf. Fig. 14) or among other goods that her family deposited in order to indicate her place in the community and her family. An example in point of the first type is the necropolis of Torre Galli, a few kilometres from modern Tropea along the Calabrian Tyrrhenian coast and excavated by Paolo Orsi between 1922 and 1923.23 The majority of the 139 female burials discovered at the site contained a spindle whorl (Fig. 4),24 in various combinations with groups of clay spools, pots, knives and jewellery like fibulae and arm rings and/or amber beads (Fig. 4). The Torre Galli burials date from the first period of the Italian Early Iron Age, and two phases could be distinguished, Torre Galli IA and IB. Marco Pacciarelli, the scholar who re-examined the Orsi excavations, placed the start of period IA around 960BC. One of his interesting observations regarding spindle whorls and spools in this necropolis is that female burials with spools, spindle whorls, knives and precious ornaments were concentrated in the northern part of the cemetery while the - many more - burials with only a single spindle whorl in addition to pottery were more dispersed and clearly belonged to women of less affluent families. The spindle whorls from wealthy, more complex graves are on average only 3mm smaller than the single whorl placed in the simpler burials (Figs. 6a-b), so there is nothing to indicate that wealthier women were spinning different yarn (e.g. finer wool or linen for garments, or coarser yarn for large tapestries) than the other spinners did. Although the dimensions of the spindle whorls are more or less similar,25 the conical whorl decorated with impressed circles from T192, the decorated biconical spindle whorl from T16 and especially the spindle whorl with metal studs from T41 do show that the spinning tools of elite women could be more refined. As Marco Pacciarelli stated, the presence of spools, spindle whorls, knives and other textile-related objects in the graves of the wealthier class suggests a household production of quantitatively and qualitatively important textiles.26 A leading position of elite women in this production is also suggested by burials in the San Onofrio necropolis in Calabria near the Ionian Coast, ca. 50km from Torre Galli. Marco Pacciarelli pointed out the presence of spinning and weaving equipment in a number of the more richly outfitted female graves at this necropolis, and their absence in most other tombs, which may indicate a difference in dress or/and status. It is impossible to know whether the women buried at Torre Galli with only one spindle produced yarn for their own use or for textiles woven in the elite households. However, the remarkable uniformity of the spindle whorls at Torre Galli (Figs. 6a-b) and the absence of spindles in most of the non-elite tombs

Grömer 2013, 40. Kilian 1970, 198. 22 Kilian 1970, 198. 23 Orsi 1926 is a partial publication; his data and finds were re-analyzed and published by Marco Pacciarelli in 1999. 24 See the list in Figs. 6a-b. 25 The exact discrepancies will become evident and conclusions based on more solid ground once the Torre Galli spindle whorls have been analyzed. 26 Pacciarelli 1999, 89-99. 20 21

12

at S. Onofrio suggests that the spinning activities of the female population of Torre Galli were interconnected. Other important information from Torre Galli comes from the imprints of yarn on spools from Tomb 145bis and from textile pseudomorphs preserved on several iron objects from Tombs 33, 34, 37 and 114.27 The textiles in question include twills,28 a high-quality weave that was part of the European and Near Eastern weaving traditions, the two areas with which the Torre Galli population maintained contacts. Albert Nijboer of Groningen University emphasized that even the 10th-century BC Torre Galli tombs already contain amber and iron objects. The amber most likely came from the north,29 while the early production of iron is believed to have been Phoenician, possibly connected with actions in the south of Spain.30 It is generally acknowledged that twill, a more elastic and denser weave in wool than tabby, and produced on looms with multiple sheds, requires expert weavers.31 Twill imprints from Torre Galli and from Sala Consilina32 demonstrate that this new technique was practiced in South Italy soon after the emergence of Iron Age cultures, and it must have contributed significantly to their rise in prosperity, as it did at Torre Galli.33 The function of the clay objects generally labelled spools, such as those from the elite Torre Galli tombs, is not immediately apparent. They may indeed have been spools for yarn,34 but they are usually interpreted as weights for tablet weaving.35 The weight of the spool-shaped objects found in tombs at Verucchio ranges from 5 to 55g, with clusters in the 20-30g and 35-45g ranges.36 At Torre Galli the majority of the tombs with these objects are comparatively ‘rich’, which may be tentative evidence that elite women were entitled to make special ceremonial garments with tablet-woven borders.37 It is not known whether these spool-shaped objects, which in the Early Iron Age are generally much lighter than the pyramidal or trapezoidal loom weights, could also be used for twill, which does not require very heavy weights because fewer warp threads are attached to each individual weight than in tabby weaving, due to the larger number of sheds. In any case, whether as evidence of tablet weaving or of twill weaving, the presence of these spoolshaped objects strongly points towards elite production of special forms of textile. In that context it is significant that for example the graves in the Macchiabate necropolis at Francavilla Marittima or the Oenotrian necropoleis in Basilicata have so far produced no such objects. In these Oenotrian areas a few sets of loom weights were deposited in ‘complex’ female tombs in addition to spindle whorls, which, moreover, are far less common than at Torre Galli and in other west-coast necropoleis. Usually in these cases at S. Maria d’Anglona and in the Metapontino the loom weights are truncated pyramidal or trapezoidal, and often they are so small that they may be explained as miniature loom weights specifically produced for burial contexts.38 In a number of tombs the loom weights are deposited near the hands of

Pacciarelli 1999, Pl. 189. Weistra 2016. 29 Although it is still uncertain whether the amber is of Baltic or Sicilian origin: Pacciarelli 1999, 101. 30 Nijboer 2008. 31 E.g. Barber 1991, 168ff.; Bender Jørgensen 1992. 32 Gleba 2008, 61 no. 70. 33 Weistra 2016. 34 Pacciarelli 1999. 35 Gleba 2008, 140f. with further references. 36 Raeder Knudsen 2002, 228. 37 Gleba 2008, 175 with further references. 38 E.g. Frey 1991, Tomb 94 (weight decorated with incised images of deer, piercing only indicated); Tomb 97 (three loom weights, deposited next to the body, near the hands); Tomb 118 (five loom weights, in front of the head); Tomb 120 (eight loom weights, above the head); Tomb 124 (three loom weights); Tomb 134 (six loom weights, next to the body, perhaps near a hand); Chiartano 1994, Tomb 209 (three loom weights with spindle whorls, along the body near the hands); Tomb 235 (ten loom weights, next to the shoulder); Tomb 236 (one loom weight); Tomb 253 (three loom weights, next to the body, near the hands); Tomb 255 (five loom weights); Tomb 258 (four loom weights, next to the body, near the hands); T275 (three loom weights); T308 (three loom weights); Chiartano 1996, Tomb 462 (nine loom weights and six spindle whorls, deposited on the bottom of the grave). 27 28

13

the deceased woman. At Francavilla Marittima, the weights are nicely decorated (cf. Figs. 20-21)39 as are most specimens from Canale Ianchina.40 The clay spinning and weaving tools from the latter necropolis, excavated early on by Paolo Orsi, come from a grotticelle tombs in which many members of a family were interred together, so that the weights cannot be attributed to a specific individual.41 A preliminary reissue of a publication on textile manufacturing tools mentions many spindle whorls. It also contains the important observation that in addition to decorated loom weights many clay spool-shaped objects were present.42 This shows that clay spool-shaped objects and loom weights were not always separated, as they seem to have been at Francavilla Marittima and in the Oenotrian female graves of Basilicata. Another large and well-known Calabrian Early Iron Age necropolis with female burials, dating from a later period than the Torre Galli burials, is that of Torre del Mordillo (mostly Early Iron Age IIA, 860-790BC with a smaller, later group of period IIB, 790-720BC)43 on the river Coscile. The Torre del Mordillo tombs were excavated during the years 1887-’88, shortly after the unification of Italy and even before Orsi’s excavations at Canale Ianchina and Torre Galli.44 Although the publication of the Torre del Mordillo excavations was prompt and of high quality, considering the early date of excavation, the contents of the individual graves later became dispersed. This makes it impossible to draw social conclusions regarding the textile production at Torre del Mordillo on the basis of the grave goods. However, the weights and dimensions of the spindle whorls that were recently published in the new catalogue of the ‘Museum of the Brettii and Enotri’ (Fig. 7)45 allow a comparison with those from Francavilla Marittima (Fig. 8) and with the spindle whorls from the necropoleis of Torre Galli and Sala Consilina.46 Whorls from Torre del Mordillo are on average 3 to 5g heavier than identically shaped specimens from Francavilla Marittima (Fig. 8), although the fact that there are more specimens from Francavilla may have influenced these results. At Torre Galli and Sala Consilina the compressed globular to biconical polygonal – or multifaceted – 47 spindle whorl was the most popular type. The average dimensions of the whorls are very similar (Fig. 8).

Compressed globular (no. 1080)

Biconical (no. 1081)

Biconical, pentagonal (no. 1084)

Biconical hexagonal (no. 1091)

Biconical polygonal (no. 1097)

7. Types of spindle whorls from tombs at the Torre del Mordillo necropolis (after Vanzetti & Cerzoso 2014). 39 The

loom weights will be published in volume 6 in this BAR Francavilla Marittima excavation 1991-2004 series. 2002. 41 Orsi’s excavations took place in 1909 and 1912: Paciarelli 1999. 42 Benedetti 2002. 43 The calendar dates given here are based on the high chronology preferred by e.g. Italian scholars R. Peroni, A. Vanzetti, M. Pacciarelli, A.-M. Bietti Sestieri and the Groningen Institute of Archaeology; for a debate on the high and low chronologies for the Mediterranean Early Iron Age cf. Bartoloni & Delpino 2005. 44 The excavations were carried out by Luigi Viola and quickly published by Pasqui, cf. Pasqui 1888. 45 Vanzetti & Cerzoso 2014. 46 The measurements are taken from the drawings in the publications: Pacciarelli 1999 for Torre Galli (drawings 2:1) and Kilian 1970 for Sala Consilina (drawings 2:1); cf. Figs. 6 and 9 in the Catalogue chapters. 47 In the case of Sala Consilina, the drawings do not always allow an exact count of the number of facets. Those drawn with many vertical lines have therefore been classified as ‘more than seven facets’. 40 Benedetti

14

Polygonal

number

Torre Galli Torre del Mordillo Sala Consilina Francavilla Mma

30 3

diameter in cm 3.28 3.1

25 5

Hexagonal Torre Galli Torre del Mordillo Sala Consilina Francavilla Mma Pentagonal Torre Galli Torre del Mordillo Sala Consilina Francavilla Mma

weight in g 20.5

height in cm 2.65 2.66

3.35 2.88

17.6

2.63 2.1

4 7

3.4 3.157

25.785

2.25 2.642

1

3.6

19

3.1

20.736

2.8 2.327

3 5

3.66 3.22

25.8

2.53 2.5

100

3.291

20.67

2.22

8. Average dimensions and weights of polygonal, hexagonal and pentagonal impasto spindle whorls from Torre Galli, Torre del Mordillo, Sala Consilina and Francavilla Marittima.

A

A.1

A.2

A.3

B

C

C.1

C.2

D

D.1

E

G

Type A, truncated conical, Sala Consilina phase I, Type A.1, truncated conical c.q. ‘bell shaped’, Sala Consilina phase IIA, Type A.2, truncated conical, concave, Sala Consilina Oenotrian Geometric, Type A.3, truncated conical, rounded, Sala Consilina, phases IB and IIC, Type B, disc shaped, Sala Consilina phase IIA, Type C, from truncated and compressed globular to biconical, facetted, Sala Consilina, phases I and II and continuous into Oenotrian Geometric, Type C.1, facetted globular, with twist, Sala Consilina phase I and a few in phase IIA, Type C.2, globular to squarish, decorated with 4 ‘eyes’ (imitation of glass beads), Sala Consilina IIB, Type D, biconical with short and long side, Sala Consilina phase I; early Oenotrian Geometric, of low weight, Type D.1, plain biconical, Sala Consilina phase IIA - IIC = Oenotrian Geometric (beads?), Type E, truncated conical with concave top, Sala Consilina phase IC, Type G, truncated conical with concave top and facetted, Sala Consilina, early Oenotrian Geometric.

9. Spindle whorl types found in tombs in the southeast necropolis at Sala Consilina (after Kilian 1970)48

Compared to the publication, types A and B are here inverted; because these whorls were probably used on a low-whorl drop spindle, with the wider side facing upwards.

48

15

Averages conical (solid) Torre Galli, 8 Sala Consilina, 3 Francavilla Marittima, 4

diameter in cm 3.22 3 3.5

height in cm 2.68 2.7 2.65

Weight

10. Average dimensions and weights of truncated conical spindle whorls from Torre Galli, Sala Consilina and Francavilla Marittima.

32

Some of the Sala Consilina whorls are more elaborate than others, with twisted facets near base and top (Fig. 9 type C1). The Torre del Mordillo whorls resemble those from the earlier necropoleis, rather than the Francavilla Marittima whorls which, as was mentioned above, are lighter by 3-5g. One spindle whorl from Sala Consilina in Kilian’s publication could be identified as hexagonal; it is 2/5mm larger than whorls of that shape from Torre Galli and Torre del Mordillo (Fig. 8). All spindle whorls from the older necropoleis as well as the pentagonal whorls are slightly larger (again by ca. 5mm) and thus presumably heavier than those from Francavilla Marittima. Thus, the preliminary outcome of these admittedly superficial comparisons (as the whorls from Torre Galli and Sala Consilina could not be weighed or physically studied) is that spindle whorls became slightly lighter through time. This slight decrease by 3 to 5g and 0.5cm in size may reflect a change in the length of the staple fibres, in the dimensions of the resulting thread, or in spinning skills, but certainly no great changes in the type of fleece or in the way it was prepared, while the techniques by which the spinners achieved the desired yarn thickness are also unlikely to have changed much. Because the differences between the spindle whorls of the four necropoleis are slight and the same biconical, facetted shapes continued to be used over a long time it is highly unlikely that completely different types of yarn were spun, or very different types of wool or perhaps even flax fibres. It seems rather that Early Iron Age yarn production, as practiced at for instance Torre Galli, changed very little during the 10-8th centuries BC. The truncated conical whorl type, which is fundamentally different from the facetted types, at Sala Consilina is represented by relatively many specimens (Fig. 9, types A-A3, D-G), but the deviation in their dimensions (and possibly their weight) is insufficient to allow the conclusion that they represent a different spinning tradition, although the possibility cannot be excluded. Compared to Torre Galli and the later development at Francavilla Marittima the spindle whorls of Sala Consilina are showing a wider variety of types, which leads to the possibility that spinning practices were more varied and of different tradition than in the South.

11a. Polygonal spindle whorl from Pontecagnano, Tomb 2057, No. 5 (after Gastaldi & Agostino 1988).

11b. Hexagonal and pentagonal spindle whorls from Pontecagnano, Bisogno 8 and 9 (after Gastaldi & Agostino 1988).

16

11c. Hexagonal spindle whorls from Pontecagnano, Stanzione 9 and 10 (after Gastaldi & Agostino 1988).

The rounded, truncated conical spindle whorl, concave at the top and carefully facetted, which is encountered at Sala Consilina (Fig. 9 type G.) has not been attested at the other necropoleis here discussed. The five specimens in Kilian’s 1970 publication average 3.2cm in diameter and 1.6cm in height, which approaches the averages of 2.8cm in diameter and 2cm in height of the hollow truncated conical whorls from Francavilla Marittima, although in this case we may be comparing like with unlike. All in all, however, the spindle whorls from the necropoleis of Torre Galli, Torre del Mordillo, Sala Consilina and Francavilla Marittima do not suggest any great variation or changes in spinning practices during the Early Iron Age. The spindle whorls from Pontecagnano (Figs 11a-c), of polygonal, hexagonal and pentagonal biconical shapes, seem to confirm that impression. The spindle whorls may have been used to spin flax fibres as well as short-haired wool fibres, but whorl size or weight do not bear that out and rather point to medium-length wool fibres (see below). The absence of spool-shaped objects and loom weights from the Torre del Mordillo graves – with a few exceptions - tentatively suggests that the social significance of textile production was less pronounced here, but this conclusion depends entirely on how reliable the 1888 excavation results are.49 Unfortunately we are not any better informed on Oenotrian 9th and 8th-century burial customs at Amendolara, 22km north of Francavilla Marittima.50 Those of the grandchildren and further descendants of these people are better known, thanks to the recent publication of the Uomo Morto necropolis excavated by Juliette de la Genière.51 The spindle whorl types found in only five of the many tombs of that necropolis (first half of the 7th century BC) are identical to those found at Francavilla Marittima (Fig. 12). It is likely that at Amendolara spindles were initially used, as they were at Francavilla Marittima, but that in a later period they were only offered as grave goods to the few women that still represented the old Oenotrian tradition of home spinning and weaving. The other female burials at Uomo Morto completely lack any spindle whorls, loom weights or spools, an indication that textile production was perceived differently.52 Domestic production must still have existed but it was no longer relevant in symbolic grave contexts, which points to a changed relation between the status of women and textile production. Amendolara, Uomo Morto necropolis, tomb No. T22

Spindle whorl type

Diameter

Date

Publication

impasto, biconical plain, with traces of iron in the hole

3cm

circa 600BC

La Genière 2014, 20-21.

T50

impasto, biconical, pentagonal

3.4cm

second half 7th century BC

La Genière 2014, 22.

T161

impasto, globular, decorated with incised meander

2.4cm

associated with 7th century-BC or older?

La Genière 2014, 83-84.

T197

impasto, plain globular

2.5cm

7th century BC

T209

impasto, plain biconical

3.3cm

first half of the 7th century BC.

La Genière 2014, 115-116. La Genière 2014, 125-126.

12. Spindle whorls from graves at the Uomo Morto necropolis at Amendolara.

In the Basilicata Oenotrian tombs (e.g. Incoronata and San Teodoro near Metaponto, or Santa Maria d’Anglona near Siris-Herakleia) loom weights are far more common as indicators of an elevated social

49 The 50 The

excavation seems to have been a hasty affair, and clay textile-production tools have never been priorities at any excavation. finds from the Early Iron Age necropolis of Agliagostro were stolen and have not been recovered since: e.g. La Genière

2014. 51 La Genière 2014. 52 Gleba 2013, 11.1.

17

status in female graves than spindle whorls.53 Only Tomb 209 at Incoronata, an elite female grave, contained both categories; the four spindle whorls in this grave are of the familiar biconical, pentagonal and hexagonal types.54 The pentagonal spindle whorl, no doubt part of a spindle, in Tomb 115 of the Santa Maria D’Anglona necropolis is the only one at this site and probably does not signify anything other than a recognition by the deceased’s family that the woman spent most of her life spinning.55 Spindle whorls of impasto and refined clay from the settlement excavations at Incoronata show that although the Oenotrian women of Basilicata were seldom buried with a spindle, they did in fact spin. They used whorls of types similar to those found in the necropoleis of Calabria and Lucania: biconical hexagonal and pentagonal, in addition to a few globular and truncated conical specimens.56 The Calabrian textile production as an element in growing social stratification which ultimately led to the ‘urban revolution’ was not unique.57 There is ample evidence that textile production also played a considerable role in the development of an elite in Campania (e.g. Pontecagnano)58 and Lazio (e.g. Osteria dell’ Osa),59 as it did in Etruria and further north.60 The distribution of spindle whorls and spools in combination with various other grave goods in the female tombs of Osteria dell’ Osa resembles that of Torre Galli but seems even more differentiated, although this may only be the effect of the more detailed information on the burials at Osteria dell’ Osa that is available, thanks to their painstaking excavation and publication by Anna Maria Bietti Sestieri.61 Sanna Lipkin has analysed the age and status of the 258 female burials from Osteria dell’ Osa and the 132 tombs with textile tools from the Quattro Fontanili necropolis at Veii on the basis of textile-related grave goods.62 Lipkin concluded that in these burials and at Tarquinia, Vulci, Bisenzio and San Giuliano the presence of spindle whorls is not dependent on the rank or age of the deceased, since even the richest burials include only one spindle whorl. This suggests that almost every woman was buried with a spindle, which like in the cases of Torre Galli and Sala Consilina suggests that spindles were part of a woman’s costume. The position of spindle whorls in a fossa graves, often near one of the hands suggests that this custom changed. In Etruria and Lazio, however, multiple sets of textile tools and metal distaffs are exclusively found in the wealthier graves, where they are interpreted as indicators of high rank.63 In life, distaffs in general will have been far more important than spindles; several literary sources tell us so and paintings show that the high-held distaff is more prominent in view than the low spindle.64 We may probably imagine these longer rods finely adorned with incised patterns and maybe carved figures. In fact, the decoration on some of the bronze distaffs (e.g. the specimen from the Timpone della Motta; see Fig. 2b) is reminiscent of such a practice.65 We may therefore assume that not only spindle whorls but also wooden distaffs were deposited in the Early Iron Age female graves. Unfortunately, the perishable nature of these long shafts, which had to be light and portable and therefore preferably of wood, obviates any proof of this hypothesis. Calabrian textile production may have influenced textile production at Osteria dell’ Osa; grave goods of women buried at Osteria dell’ Osa suggest that “groups of people of South Italian origin were fully integrated in the community of Osteria dell’ Osa throughout period II”, to cite the excavator, Anna-Maria Bietti Sestieri.66 David 53 Chiartano

1994; Chiartano 1996; Frey 1991; see also Quercia & Foxhall 2012, 369-371. 1994, Pl. 22. 55 Frey 1991, Pl. 22A. 56 Pizzo 1986, 179-180 (Greci sul Basento). 57 Pacciarelli 2001; 2010; Riva 2005. 58 D’Agostino & Gastaldi 1988. 59 Bietti Sestieri 1992a; 1992b. 60 Cf. Gleba 2008 with further references. 61 Bietti Sestieri 1992. 62 Lipkin 2013. 63 Gleba 2008, 174 with further references. 64 Bietti Sestieri 1979, 142; Torelli 1984; Bartoloni 2008; Jannot 2004; Gleba 2004. 65 See Note 12. 66 Bietti Sestieri 1992, 185ff. 54 Chiartano

18

Ridgway interpreted the famous earliest inscription in Greek letters found in Italy (ca. 775BC), incised on an impasto pot from a burial at the Osteria dell’ Osa necropolis and transcribed as EULIN, as an abbreviation of eulinos, a Greek epithet meaning ‘spinning well’; others however have read this inscription differently.67 Ridgway’s interpretation would tie in with the role suggested by the spinning implements from burials for women in general and elite women in particular. Margarita Gleba proposed that at a mere 9.6g, the mean weight of the 441 spindle whorls found at Murlo (Poggio Civitate) near Siena, would be sufficient for spinning short, fine wool fibres. Most of these whorls also have the truncated conical shape that is best suited to spin medium-twisted yarn. Gleba associated the whorls with the remains of (a) workshop(s) active around 650-625BC, while the presence of 580 spool-shaped objects and only 69 loom weights suggests that this workshop/these workshops specialized in the production of the patterned borders which are so characteristic of Etruscan elite garments.68 The situation at Murlo matches that of Francavilla Marittima, in that a large number of spindle whorls and more moderate number of loom weights were discovered. Another similarity between the two sites is the fact that the spindle whorls are fairly uniform in their proportions, which Gleba sees as evidence of organized and specialized spinning in the Poggio Civitate workshops.

1.3. Reconstructing yarn properties through spindle whorl analysis Three main spindle whorl types are known from the Timpone della Motta: conical, round and biconical. These basic forms each have sub-types in which the basic shape was modified, resulting in respectively hollow-conical and biconical types with a shorter and a taller section (conical); globular or biconical/globular types (globular); and polygonal, hexagonal, pentagonal, pentagonal star-shaped and square forms (biconical) (Fig. 15a). Several of these types are also found elsewhere in Calabria and/or beyond, but the popularity of square (Fig. 15a.G) and pentagonal star-shaped (Fig. 15a.F) spindle whorls seems to be a purely local phenomenon. Especially star-shaped whorls are pleasing to the eye, and so are the older meander-decorated specimens which raises the question whether preferences for certain types were traditional, esthetical or functional. Did the spinner for instance chose a certain whorl type because it was the type customarily used in her family, or because different kinds of whorls were preferred for different types of raw fibre? Archaeologists studying textile production have often stated that large, heavy whorls – up to 100/150g - were used for coarser, longer fibres while lighter ones were preferred for lighter and shorter fibres.69 The diameter of a whorl affects its rotational speed. Often the analogy of an ice skater is used to illustrate this point; when performing twirls a skater can increase the speed of her rotation by tucking her arms in, thus redistributing her weight closer to the axis of rotation, while to slow down she extends her arms, redistributing her weight away from the axis. It is likewise with spindle whorls: a broad whorl produces a long, slow spin, a whorl of smaller diameter spins faster but stops sooner. The effects of increasing whorl thickness are variable and depend on the location on the whorl’s radius of the maximum thickness. Closer to the axis it will increase rotational speed, and the speed will be lower further away. A growing interest in archaeological textile research and a desire to use the large number of spindle whorls and loom weights that are available to us to try to reconstruct past textiles have produced the insight that a spindle whorl’s main characteristics are its rotational properties, which influence the degree of twist when spinning of raw wool or flax fibre. Spinning short fibres requires a fast rotating, light spindle 67 Ridgway

1996; Bietti Sestieri 2000. 2004, 5. 69 Barber 1991, 52: repeating weights given by Ryder for spinning in Afghanistan as 8g spindles for short, fine wool and a medium-light whorl for long staple medium-heavy wool, which in her own conclusion would have resulted in a fine thread. 68 Gleba

19

whorl; if a whorl that is too heavy is used it would break the thread.70 Whorl size and weight are therefore closely related to the raw material that is to be spun. Several scholars have advocated the application of the ‘moment of inertia’ (MI) in studies of spindle whorls, a unit which in physics expresses the effectiveness of a rotating object. In functional analysis of spinning tools, moment of inertia provides an indication of the relative efficiency of a spindle in terms of its ability to maintain motion. Since MI combines the diameter and weight of a whorl into one number, groups of whorls of varying shapes can be compared. Varying the radius of a disc has a much greater effect on its rotational speed than varying its weight. Doubling the weight by a constant diameter doubles the MI, while doubling the diameter by a constant weight results in a quadruple MI. The diameter of a spindle whorl is therefore very important, in particular in relation to the type of fibre. A high MI means less speed but higher rotation, low MI means greater speed but less rotation. The relation between whorl weight and diameter also determines the degree of twist of the resulting yarn. Twist may be measured as the twist angle or alternatively (in the English speaking world) as TPI, which is the number of twists per inch (2.54cm).The twist angle is the angle at which the fibres are positioned in the spun thread. If a light spindle whorl with a large diameter is used the thread will be more tightly twisted than with a smallerdiameter whorl; the reason is that a large-diameter whorl will maintain rotation for longer period than a smaller specimen. High inertia is desirable, because it allows the spindle to maintain a constant speed for a long time. For a spinning disc of constant thickness, inertia is calculated by the following formula: I = ½ MR 2 (I = moment of inertia; M=disc weight; R = disc radius). Inertia can also be calculated for whorls that are not flat but vary in thickness, provided the variation is regular. The MI formula in that case is slightly different, a formula for sub-globular spindle whorls is: MI= 1/4MR2 and one for spindle whorls of truncated conical or biconical shapes: MI = 1/2MR2 x 0.75.71 The formulas used by Andrè Verhecken include more factors relating to spindle whorl shape.72 In his conclusion, however, Verhecken states that no obvious patterns emerged from his many MI calculations for groups of spindle whorls from excavations. This was also the outcome of our own calculations regarding mass and diameter, for most of the biconical pentagonal spindle whorls from the sanctuary at Francavilla Marittima (Chapter IV, Fig. 31,3). Perhaps more studies are needed, as Verhecken himself stated; the relation between spindle whorls and possible yarn characteristics needs to be further explored. A more serious obstacle is the doubt that is expressed regarding the relation between whorl weight and shape and the properties of spun threads. According to Katrin Kania, the latter rather depend on the spinners. A hand-spinning experiment set up by Kania demonstrated that it is indeed the spinner who has the most influence on yarn properties.73 Deducing the thickness and length of the raw fibres from the mass and dimensions of the whorl also produces unreliable results, because the thickness of processed flax and wool fibres may be similar. In fact, much depends on the preparation of the fibres (selecting, cleaning and combing). Because the relation between whorl properties and spun yarn is as yet uncertain and comprehensive MI calculations are open to multiple interpretations, such calculations seem pointless for the time being. A relation between spindle whorls and yarn that is undeniable is that between whorl weight and the tension a resulting warp thread with attached loom weight can tolerate before breaking. The present publication therefore concentrates on whorl weight, rather than MI. Elisabeth Barber quotes a 1978 study as her source for the following minimum and maximum weight of spindle whorls across cultures: 70 Barber

1991, 52; Grömer 2005, 112. Mistretta 2004, 171-175; Bertocco s.d., 425-431. 72 Verhecken 2010, Table 44.6, with the following abbreviations: D= whorl diameter; d=diameter of central bore; H=whorl height, measured parallel to the central axis; L= length of spindle shaft (estimated); m= whorl mass; rho = density of the material; RPM = rotations per minute; rad=radius (circumference of a circle divided by 2π); s=second. 73 Kania 2013. In a recent article Verhecken lists no less than 30 different parameters that influence yarn qualities and only 5 are influenced by the spindle (Verhecken 2013). 71

20

minimum weight =