Encyclopaedia Britannica [14, 14 ed.]

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THE

ENCYCLOPADIA BRITANNICA

FOURTEENTH

EDITION

ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA FIRST

SECOND

EDITION

EDITION

1777 1788

FOURTH

1801

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FIFTH

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1815

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SIXTH EDITION

1823

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SEVENTH EDITION

1830

EIGHTH

1853

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NINTH EDITION

1875

TENTH EDITION

1902

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ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA FOURTEENTH EDITION

ANEW SURVEY OF UNIVERSAL KNOWLEDGE

VOLUME 14 LIBIDO TO MARY QUEEN

OF SCOTS

THE ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA COMPANY, LTD. LONDON

ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA, INC. NEW YORK

COPYRIGHT IN ALL COUNTRIES TO

THE

BERNE

SUBSCRIBING CONVENTION

BY THE

ENCYCLOPAEDIA

BRITANNICA

COMPANY,

LTD.

COPYRIGHT IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA,

1929, 1930, 1932

BY THE ENCYCLOPEDIA

BRITANNICA,

INC.

Note: Pages 730, 731, 806 and 807 were missing from the original digital version of this volume. Replacements were inserted from the 1929 edition.

INITIALS AND NAMES OF CONTRIBUTORS IN VOLUME WITH THE ARTICLES WRITTEN BY THEM. A. B.

AUBREY FITZGERALD BELL.

Lopes, Fernao (in part);

Author of Portugal for the Portuguese; etc.

A. C.

XIV

Manuel de Mello, Dom Francisco (in part).

ALBERT CALMES. Professor, University of Frankfurt, Germany.

Conducted an enquiry into the eco-

nomic and financial situation of Albania for the League of Nations.

Luxembourg.

A. C. S.

ALGERNON CHARLES SWINBURNE.

A. D. I.

English Poet. Author of Poems and Ballads; Age of Shakespeare; etc. See the biobp," , Mary Queen of Scots (in Á A graphical article: SWINBURNE, A. C. part), A. D. Ixus, M.A., D.Sc.

Marlowe, Christopher (in

Chief Entomologist, Rothamsted Experimental Station, Harpenden, Hertfordshire, England. Formerly Forest Zoologist to the Government of India and Professor of Locust.

A.E. J.R.

Biology, University of Allahabad.

Rev. A. E. J. Rawson, D.D.

Author of A General Textbook of Entomology; etc. -—S A

University Lecturer in Biblical Studies, Oxford, since 1927. Sometime Student and Tutor of Christ Church, Oxford. Author of The Gospel According to St. Mark, in the

A. E. L.

A. E. P.

Mark, Gospel of. Westminster Commentaries. l — Ana E. Leverr, M.A. Reader in Economic History, King’s College, London. Late Vice-Principal and Tutor in Modern History, St. Hilda's Hall, Oxford. Author of English Economic Manor (in part). History; The Black Death on the Estates of the Bishop of Winchester; etc. — Atrrep E. Popsam, B.A. Assistant Keeper, Department of Prints and Drawings, British Museum.

of Drawings of the Early Flemish School. A. Es.

A. G. D. W. A. G. P.

A. J.G. A. J. Pa.

A. K. ‘A. L. K.

A. L. L. A. Lov.

A. L. S.

Author

Line Engraving.

y

ARUNDELL ESpAILE, F.S.A. Secretary of the British Museum. Editor of The Library Association Record. Lec-}_ turer in Bibliography, University of London School of Librarianship. Sandars Libraries (in part). Reader in Bibliography, University of Cambridge, 1926-7. Author of A List of English Tales and Prose Romances; The Sources of English Literature; etc. —_,-—_—“~

ARTHUR GILBERT Drxon WEsT, M.A., B.Sc.

Loud Speaker. Chief Research Engineer, British Broadcasting Corporation. ARTHUR GEORGE Perkin, D.Sc., F.LC., F.R.S. Emeritus Professor, formerly of Colour Chemistry and Dyeing; Dean of the Faculty Logwood. of Technology, 1922-4, University of Leeds. Davy Medallist of the Royal Society, 1925. Joint-Author of The Natural Organic Colouring Matters. REV. ALEXANDER JAMES GRIEVE, M.A., D.D. Principal of Lancashire Independent College, Manchester. Lecturer in Church Logos (in part). History at Victoria University, Manchester. ARTHUR Josan Parkes, M.C., A.M.Inst.C.E., A.M. Inst.Mrcu.E. Lock. Captain, Royal Engineers Reserve of Officers. Sır ARTHUR Kerta, M.D., F.R.C.S., D.Sc., F.R.S. Conservator of Museum, and Hunterian Professor, Royal College of Surgeons of Man, Evolution of. England. Author of Antiquity of Man; etc. A. L. Krorser, Pu.D. Professor of Anthropology, University of California, Berkeley, Calif. Author of Mandan. Zuni Kin and Clan; Anthropology; etc. A. LAWRENCE LowELL, LL.D., Px.D., Lrrr.D. } President of Harvard University. Trustee of the Lowell Institute of Boston. Cor- Lowell Institute. responding Fellow of the British Academy.

te a !: A. LOVEDAY. Lithuania (in part). Economic and Financial Section, League of Nations, Geneva. ANDRÉ L. SIMON. a Of Messrs. Pommery and Greno, Ltd. Author of The Blood of the Grape; Wine and Madeira Wines. the Wine Trade.

A. L. Sm.

A. L. W.

B A. LORRAINE Smita, F.L.S. Sometime Acting Assistant, Department of Botany, British Museum of Natural -Lichens. History. l Rev. A. Luxyn Wittrams, D.D. Mammon. Hon. Canon of Ely Cathedral.

INITIALS

AND

NAMES

OF CONTRIBUTORS

A. P. W.

COLONEL ARCHIBALD PERCIVAL WAVELL, C.M.G., M.C.

ARC.

ALEXANDER Ross CLARKE, C.B., F.R.S.

A. R L.

Late the Black Watch. General Staff Officer, War office, London. British Military |Lodz, Battle of; Attaché on the Caucasus Front, Nov., 1916—June, 1917. General Staff Officer, {Luck or Lutsk, Battles of. and Brigadier General, General Staff, with Egyptian Expeditionary Force, 1917-20. Royal Medal of Royal Society, 1887. In charge of Trigonometrical Operations of the }Map (iz part). Ordnance Survey, 1854-81. A. R. Line, F.I.C. Editor of the Journal of the Institute of Brewing. Lecturer on brewing and malting Malt at the Sir John Cass Institute, London. Vice-President of the Society of Chemical ° Industry.

A. Sc.

A. Scott. On the staff of Lloyd’s Register of Shipping, London.

A. Sh.

ARTHUR SHERWELL.

eo Register Shipping.

Member of Parliament for Huddersfield, 1906-18. Thirty years’ research work and

study of social and industrial questions.

Author of Life in West London; Taxation

of the Liquor Trade; Public Control of the Liquor Trade; State Prohibition and Local Option. Joint-Author of the Temperance Problem and Social Reform; etc.

A. Sy.

A. T. T.

of

pLicensed Victualler.

ARTHUR SYMONS. English poet and critic.

Author of Days and Nights; Studies in Two Literatures; ~Mallarmé, Stephane Charles Baudelaire; etc. See the biographical article: Symons, ARTHUR. 7 , , ALFRED T. THORSEN.

,

Official in Life Saving Service, United States Coast Guard, Treasury Department, Life Boatand Life-Saving

A. W. Hu.

Washington. Rev. ArtTHUR WoLrLaston HurTTON, M.A.

A. W. Ma.

Life of Cardinal Manning; etc. ALEXANDER W. Marr, Lirt.D.

A. Wo.

Apranam Wo tr, M.A., D.Litt.

ervice (in part).

. Manning,Henry Edward Formerly Rector of Bow Church, Cheapside. Author of Life of CardinalNewman;| in part). Pe

Late Professor of Greek, Edinburgh University. Lecturer, Aberdeen University, Ann 1898-9; Edinburgh University, 1899-1903. Classical Examiner to London Uni- men : Marcus apaa versity, I919-23. Author of Hesiod, Iniroduciion, Translation and Appendices; ? an e tius: Martial 2 ? Callimachus; etc.

Professor of Logic and Scientific Method in the University of London. Sometime | Lopic: Fellow of St. John’s College, Cambridge. Fellow of University College, London. L 8 ’ Hist

Author of The Oldest Biography of Spinoza; Textbook of a

ophy and Psychology section, 14th Edition, Encyclopedia

A. W. R.

SIR a uisne

Waon Justice,

A,

Supreme

Court, an

Editor of the Philos- | ¥O81C,

Britannica,

e KC; E

z

rocureur an

vocate-General,

£ (i

History ot

s

i)

Un puri).

y Mauritius,

.

1901~5; Ceylon, 1905-15. Chief Justice, 1914; etc. Author of Law and Practice of Lodger and Lodgings. Lunacy. Editor of Encyclopaedia of English Law; etc.

A. W. Wa.

B. F. C. A.

B. H. L. H.

Sir ADOLPRUS WILLIAM WARD.

Late Professor of History and English Literature in Owens College, Manchester,

Lodge, Thomas.

London. Editor of the Military section, 14th Edition, Encyclopedia Britannica.

Marne, Second Battle of the.

Vice-Chancellor of Victoria University, Manchester, and Master of Peterhouse, Cambridge University. B. F. C. ATKINSON, PH.D. lM Under-Librarian, University Library, Cambridge. j Chea B. T LIDDELL PRT rE i i een À Mantineia; ilitary Historian and Critic. Military Correspondent to the Daily Telegraph,

B. Ma.

BRonistaw Marrinowsx1, Pu.D., D.Sc.

C. A. M.

CARLILE AYLMER MACARTNEY.

C. B. Ph.

C. Chr.

Professor of Anthropology in the University of London.

Marriage.

Scholar of Trinity College, Cambridge. H.B.M. Acting Vice-Consul for Austria, , , 1921-6. Passport Control Officer for Austria, 1922-5. Intelligence Officer, League of Ludendorff, Erich. (in part). Nations Union, 1926. Author of The Social Revolution in Austria; Survey of International Affairs for 1925, part II. (in part); etc. CATHERINE BEATRICE PHILLIPS, B.A. iMarie Antoinette. Sometime Associate of Bedford College, London. CHARLES CHEREE, M.A., Sc.D., LL.D., F.R.S. , Superintendent, Kew Observatory, 1893-1925. Awarded James Watt Medal, oats We

C. C.N.

tution of Civil Engineers, 1905; and Hughes Medal, Royal Society, 1919. C. Cartyon NicHo.t, B.A., F.LA., F.F.A.

C. C. Tay.

CHARLES CARLISLE TAYLOR.

C. C. Wi.

Cares C. WiLiramson, Pu.D.

C. E W.

CHARLES EArt Wertz, B.E.E.

C. F. A.

CHARLES FRANCIS ATKINSON.

Compania de Seguros “La Mundial” Valparaiso. Late British Vice-Consul at New York.

National Lamp Works of General Electric Company, Nela Park, Cleveland, 0. The Wilderness and Cold Harbour.

Life Insurance (in part).

Author of The Life of Admiral Mahan; a Mahan, Alfred Thayer.

Director of Libraries and of the School of Library Service, Columbia University, New York. Author of Training for Library Service.

Major, Late East Surrey Regiment.

f agnetometer.

ae

pLibraries (in pari).

Lighting and Artificial

Tilumination (in part).

Scholar of Queen’s College, Oxford. Author of pLong Island (in part).

INITIALS C. F. Cl.

AND

NAMES

OF CONTRIBUTORS

vii

COLONEL SIR CHARLES FREDERICK Crose, K.B.E., C.B., C.M.G., F.R.S.

President, Royal Geographical Society. Head of the Geographical Section, General , Staff, 1905-11. Director-General, Ordnance Survey, 1911-22. President, Geo- >Map (in part).

graphical Association, 1927. Victoria Research Medal, R.G.S., 1927. Author of Text-book of Topographical Surveying; The Early Years of the Ordnance Survey; etc.

C. G Cwi M.A., E.R.S. ait Professor of Natural Philosophy in the University of Edinburgh. Formerly Fellow of Christ’s College, Cambridge. £ z CHARLES GABRIEL SELIGMAN, M.D., F.R.C.P., F.R.S. Professor of Ethnology in the University of London. President, Royal Anthropological Institute, 1923-5.

Light. en +Lotuko.

Author of The Melanesians of British New Guinea; etc.

CHARLES Hoss, F.R.G.S., F.R.C.I., F.R.S.A.

Hon. Fellow, Jesus College, Cambridge. Formerly in Service of Rajah of Sarawak. Member of the Supreme Court of Sarawak, 1904. Member of the Sarawak State Advisory Council at Westminster, 1919. Director of Agricultural and Industrial Exhibits, Sarawak Pavilion, British Empire Exhibition, Wembley, 1924. CARLTON HuntTLEY Haves, A.M., Pu.D.

Professor of History, Columbia University, New York.

O

. H. L. J.

= NA . M.

Member of the American

Historical Association.

CHARLES Haven Lapp Jounston, A.B. Author and Lecturer. Author of Famous Cavalry Leaders; Famous

CHARLES JAMES.

|

Rev. CHARLES MICHAEL Jacoss, A.B., D.D. Professor of Church History and Director of the Graduate School, Lutheran Theological Seminary, Philadelphia.

pLucius (tm part).

McClellan, George Brinton.

Frontiersmen.

Professor of Chemistry, University of New Hampshire, Durham, N. H.

J.

Malay Archipelago (in part).

Editor of Luther's Correspondence.

iL utecium. , Lutherans (in part).

CHARLES Otto BiacpENn, M.A., D.Litt, M.R.A.S., F.R.A.I. Dean of the School of Oriental Studies; Reader in Malay, University of London.

oo

Malay Language (in part).

to various papers on the Languages, Folklore and History of the Malay

eninsula; etc,

CHARLES SEYMOUR, PH.D., Lirr.D., LL.D.

Provost and Sterling Professor of History, Yale University. Author of Electoral Reform in England and Wales; The Diplomatic Background of the War; The Intimate Papers of Colonel House; etc.

CHARLES WRIGHT.

7 Meer: Henry Head and Co, Ltd., Brokers, London.

Lodge, Henry Cabot.

Author of A History of >Lloyd’s.

oyd's.

Luxury;

CLAUDE W. GUILLEBAUD.

Lecturer in Economics in the University of Cambridge. Formerly Fellow of St. |Luxury Taxes (in part); John’s College, Cambridge. Served as the Secretary of the Supreme Economic Council, |Malthus, Thomas Robert;

Paris, 1919-20.

Dorotuy Cocks, A.B.

.

Marshall, Alfred. .

`

Director of Advertising for the Marinello Company, Etiquetie of Beauty.

New York.

Author of The

Manicuring.

DonaLp Francis Tovey, M,A., Mus.Doc. Reid Professor of Music in Edinburgh University.

Author of Essays on Musical adrical: Analysts comprising The Classical Concerto, The Goldberg Variations and analyses of M £ M

many other classical works.

D. H. D. K.-P.

Editorial Adviser, Music section, 14th Edition, Emcyclo- |

pedia Britannica. Davip HANNAY.

Formerly British Vice-Consul at Barcelona. Author of Short History of Royal Navy, 1217-1688; Life of Don Emilio Castelar. Dovcras Kınc-PAGE. Annual Subscriber to Lloyd's. Member of the Institute of Journalists. Writer on Marine Insurance. Marine Insurance Correspondent of the Dazly Telegraph, The

$s:

“*45S 1m

is

usic (i part).

Lissa.

Marine Insurance (in part).

Journal of Commerce; etc. Joint-Editor of Marine Insurance.

COLONEL Davip Lyett, C.M.G., D.S.0., M.Inst.C.E. Director of Pauling & Co., Ltd., London. Chief Railway Construction Engineer to the British Army in France during the World War. Teori a ei ee rie r Doris Mary

. ae

: a

ın part).

oe Military

Lecturer in History in the Universityof Reading. Hon. Secretary an itor of the Pipe Rolls Society. Author of The Earliest Lincolnshire Anise Rolls; The Retgn of Magna Carta. Henry II.; etc.

Davin Mzrevitu SEARES Watson, M.Sc., F.R.S.

e

Jodrell Professor of Zoology and Comparative Anatomy, University College, London. Author of many papers on Vertebrate Palaeontology and connected subjects in Proceedings of the Zoological Society; Journal of Anatomy; etc.

Mammoth

i

i

,

D. Wi.

Dron WILLIAMS.

E. A.

Captain Epwarp ArtHam, C.B., R.N.

E. A. Ba.

Edition, Encyclopedia Britannica. Ernest A. Baker, M.A., D.Litt. Director, University of London School of Librarianship and Lecturer in English, Libraries (in part). University College, London. Author of The Public Library; The Uses of Libraries.

Brigadier General, United States Marine Corps, Washington.

Author of Naval pMarines (in part).

Reconnatssance; etc.

a:

. Secretary and Chief Executive Officer, Royal United Service Institution, since 1927. Senior Naval Officer, Archangel River Expeditions, 1918-9. Secretary and Editor of Log, Maritime. the Journal of the Royal United Service Institution. Editor of the Naval section, 14th

yiii E. A. J.

E. Be.

E. Bn.

E. C. B. E.C.S.

INITIALS

AND

OF CONTRIBUTORS

NAMES

E. A. JONES.

Author of Old English Gold Plate; Old Church Plate of the Isle of Man; Old Silver Sacramental Vessels of Foreign Protestant Churches in England; Illustrated Catalogue of Leopold de Rothschild's Collection of Old Plate; A Private Catalogue of the Royal Plate at Windsor Castle; etc.

Mace (in part).

EDUARD BENEŠ.

| Minister of Foreign Affairs of the Czechoslovak Republic. Prime Minister of Czecho-|_ slovakia, 1921-2, and one of the leading figures in the Little Entente. Author of Little Entente. Political Partisanship; Problems of New Europe and the Foreign Policy of Czechoslovakia; Difficulties of Democracy; etc. EDUARD BERNSTEIN. Marx, Karl Heinrich (zn Member of the German Reichstag, 1902-16. Author of Zur Theorie und Geschichte part). des Sozialismus; etc. See the biographical article: BERNSTEIN EDUARD.

Rt. Rev. EDWARD CUTHBERT BUTLER, M.A., D.Lirt. Abbot of Downside Abbey, Bath, 1906-22. EDMUND CLIFTON STONER, PH.D.

Reader in Physics at the University of Leeds.

}Mabillon, Jobn. Magnetism.

Research Fellow, Emmanuel College,

Cambridge. Author of Magnetism and Atomic Structure.

E. C. Sh.

E. D. E. D. R.

ee

Epmunp C. Smorry, A.M., D.Sc. Senior Biochemist,

Bureau of Chemistry and Soils, United States Department of Liming (in part).

Agriculture, Washington. Author of The Principles of the Liming of Sozls; etc. EDWIN DELLER, LL.D. }London University. Academic Registrar, University of London, and University Extension Lecturer. Sir Epwarp Derntson Ross, C.I.E., Pu.D., F.R.G.S., M.R.A.S., F.S.A.B. Director, School of Oriental Studies, London, and Professor of Persian in the Uni- >Manchu Language. versity of London.

Lombok;

E. E. Lonc, C.B.E. Formerly Director of Eastern

Propaganda. Foreign Office, as Officer-in-Charge, Eastern Section, News Department, 1918-21. The Times (London) Correspondent in Northern India. Formerly Editor of The Indian Daily Telegraph; The Rangoon

Macassar; Madura; Malay Archipelago (in part).

Times; ete.

E. E.T. E.G. R.

E. E. Tuum, E.M.

Associate Editor, The Iron Age, New York.

ERNEST GEORGE RAVENSTEIN, M.A., PH.D.

Professor of Geography at Bedford College, London,

1882-3.

eye

Sometime in Topo-

graphical (now Intelligence) Department of the War Office. Author of The Russians on the Amur; A Systematic Atlus; etc.

E. I. J.

Manganese Steel.

Author of Elementary Metallurgy.

Map (in pari). ~~

E. IeBETSON James, O.B.E., M.A.

Sometime British Consul Officer, Allied Supreme Economic Council. Later, Member of Secretariat of League of Nations and International Labour Office, Geneva. Member of the Editorial Staff, London, 14th Edition, Encyclopedia Britannica.

Lloyd, Marie.

E. J. R. L

Evita J. R. Isaacs. Editor of Theatre Arts Monthly, New York, and Theatre.

E.J.T

Pu.D. J. Tuomas, Epwaro Translator, Vedic Hymns.

E. N. McG.

E.tsworth Newcoms McGuire,

E. P.

Peeni Maia

E. R. B.

; Epvwyn Rosert Bevan, O.B.E., M.A., D.Lrrt. Hon. Fellow of New College, Oxford. Lecturer on Hellenistic History and Literature Lysimachus. at King’s College, London. Epwarp Ricowarps Botton, F.1.C., F.C.S. i Analyst and Technical Consulting Chemist. Past Vice-President of the Institute of Chemistry of Great Britain and Ireland. Managing Director, Technical Research > Margarine (in part),

E. R. Bo.

E. R. Pe.

(in part).

TENE

Author of The Life of Buddhu as Legend and History.

M.A., Be

Mai aca”

?Loree, Leonor Fresnel. iu

7

eer

;

University of | Lopes, Fernão (in purt): istory in the Literature an Language, Portuguese rofessor of London. Commendador, Portuguese Order of S. Thiago. Corresponding Member Montel de FR Nr Francisco (in art) of Lisbon Academy of Sciences, Lisbon Geographical Society; etc. Editor of Letters part). ee Portuguese Nun; Asurara’s Chronicle of Guinea; Author of Life of D. Francisco anuel de Mello in Hispanic Society's Portuguese series; etc.

Works, Ltd., and Director of Loders and Nucoline,

E. Ro.

}Little Theatre Movement

Ltd. Joint-Author of Ozls, Fats,

Waxes and Resins. EDWARD ROBERTSON, M.A. iMarash. Professor of Semitic Languages, University College, North Wales. ELIZABETH ROBINS PENNELL. Author of Life of Mary Wollstoncraft; Feasts of Autolycus. Co-Author of Lithography pLithography (in part). and Lithographers.

E. S. E. Tr. E.

vV.K.

EDWARD SaLmon, O.B.E. Editor of United Empire, Journal of the Royal Empire Society. Formerly on the pMalay Archipelago (in part). staff of The Saturday Review. Author of Life of General Wolfe; etc. : ETHEL TRUMAN. }Lorentz, Hendrik A. Bedford College for Women, London. , E. V. KNOX. Humorist in verse and prose. On the Staff of Punch. Author of Parodies Regained; pLimericks. etc.

E. W. B. N.

Epwaro WiLLiams BYRON NICHOLSON, M.A. Late Librarian of the Bodleian Library, Oxford. tendent of the London Institution, 1873-82.

Principal Librarian and Superin-

Author of Keltic Researches.

Mandeville, Jehan de (in part).

INITIALS

AND

NAMES

F. A. M. W.

CAPTAIN F. A. M. WEBSTER.

F. Ca.

FLORIAN CAJORI, P.D., LL.D., Sc.D.

OF CONTRIBUTORS

1X

tMarathon Race.

Joint-Editor of The Blue Magazine, London, and writer on athletics.

Professor of History of Mathematics, University of California, Berkeley, California. Late President Mathematical Association of America. Author of A History of Logarithms. Mathematics; History of Mathematical N otaitons; etc.

F. C. B.

FRANCIS CRAWFORD Burxirt, F.B.A., D.D., D. THEOL.

F. G. M. B.

FREDERICK GEORGE MEESON BEcK, M.A.

F. G. P.

Norrisian Professor of Divinity in the University of Cambridge, and Fellow of >Mandaeans. Trinity College.

ae

Formerly Fellow and Lecturer in Classics, Clare College, Cambridge. FREDERICK GYMER Parsons, F.R.C.S., F.S.A.

(in part);

Lothian. ‘

Professor of Anatomy, University of London. President, Anatomical Society of |Liver, Anatomy of; Great Britain and Ireland. Lecturer on Anatomy at St. Thomas's Hospital and the Lymphatic System. London School of Medicine for Women.

F. H.

FRED HORNER. Consulting Engineer. ang; Machinery.

F. H. C.

Contributor to The Times Engineering Supplement;Engineer. | Machine Tools (in part).

FRED H. Corvin. Editor, American Machinist, New York. Member, American Society of Mechanical Engineers. Author of American Machinist's Handbook; Aircraft Handbook; Machine

Machine Tools (in part).

Shop Operations; The Working of Steel. F. H. Ha.

FREDERICK Henry Hatcu, O.B.E., Pa.D., M.Inst.C.E. Past President, Institute of Mining and Metallurgy. Adviser on Metalliferous Mining | _

to the Mines Department. Author of The Mineral Resources of Natal (Report to Natal i Government); The Iron and Steel Industry of the U. K. under War Conditions; The Past, Present and Future of the Gold Mining Industry of the Witwatersrand, Transvaal.

F. H. Sh.

Francis H. SHEPARD.

|

Director of Heavy Traction, Westinghouse Electric and Manufacturing Company,

New York.

F. J. D.

ENG.-CAPpTAIN F. J. DRovER, R.N.

fLocomotive

(in part).

|

Author of Marine Engineering Practice; Coal and Oil Fired Boilers; Marine Engineer- Marine Engineering. ing Repairs. J

F. J. G. Du.

FRANK J. G. Ducx, B.S., Cu.E. Of the Worthington Pump and Machinery Corporation,

American Institute of Chemical Engineers. Miner's Handbook.

F. Kle.

F. M. S.

Fritz Kiem, Po.D. . Member of the staff of the Deutsche Allgemeine Zeitung. F. M. STENTON. Professor of History, University of Reading.

section, 14th Edition, Encyclopedia Britannica.

F. R. C.

Member,

}Luther» Hans. I

Editor of the History (Mediaeval)

FRANK RicHARDSON CANA, F.R.G.S.

Editorial Staff, Encyclopedia Britannica, 1903-11 and 1914-5.

London, since 1916.

F. W. Ha.

New Jersey.

Co-Author of original edition lof Coal Lithophone.

Staff of The Times,

Author of South Africa from the Great Trek to the Union; etc.

FRANK W. Harrtpay, A.M.

>Mark System.

Madagascar (in part).

}

Major, Judge Advocate General’s Department, United States Army, Washington.

;

,

Martial Law (i part).

F. W. R.

FREDERICK WILLIAM RUDLER, I.S.O., F.G.S.

G. B. T.

Curator and Librarian of the Museum of Practical Geology, London, 1879~I902. Marble (i part). GIRARD B. TROLAND, B.Sc. i gr Railways, Military (2 Captain, Corps of Engineers, United States Army, War Department, Washington. part).

G. C. Mi.

G. C. MILLER.

G. D. H. C.

si

,

.

Printer for many etchers and lithographers in America, including George Bellows rLithography (in part). and Albert Sterner. GEORGE DoucLas Howarp Coreg, M.A. University Reader in Economics, Oxford. Author of The World of Labour; Self Marx, Karl Heinrich

part).

Governmeni in Indusiry; Guild Socialism Restated; Social Theory; etc.

(in

G. E. B.

GEORGE EARLE BUCKLE, M.A., LL.D.

G. E. Be.

Miss G. E. BEHRENS.

}Mah Jong, The Game of.

G. F. Sh.

GEORGE F. SHEE, M.A.

iLife-Boat and Life-Saving

G. F. Z.

GEORGE FREDERICK ZIMMER, A.M.Inst.C.E.

G. G.

Editor of The Times, London, 1884-1912. of The Life of Disraeli.

Editor of Letters of Queen Victoria. Author} McKenna, Reginald.

Secretary of the Royal National Life Boat Institution.

Service (in part).

Consulting Engineer and Joint-Editor of Engineering and Industrial Management.

GEORGE GLASGOW.

Author and Publicist.

| Author of The Minoans; Ronald Burrows: a Memoir; etc.

?Locomotive Coaling (in part). }Locarno, Pact of.

G. G. A.

MAJOR GENERAL Sır GEORGE G. AsTON, K.C.B. ae (in part); Lecturer on Naval History, University College, London. Formerly Professor of : Fortification at the Royal Naval College, Greenwich. Editor of The Study of War, |Malay States (in part).

G. G. S.

GEORGE GRECORY SMITH, M.A., LL.D.

G. R. Pu.

Lyndsay, Sir David. Professor of English Literature at Queen’s University, Belfast. Grorce R. Putnam, M.S., D.Sc First Commissioner of Lighthouses, United States Lighthouse Service, Washington. Lighthouses (in part). ,

Author of Lighthouses and Lightships of the United States; etc.

OF CONTRIBUTORS

NAMES

AND

INITIALS

X

:

G. S. L.

GEORGE SOMES LAYARD.

G. T. M.

GILBERT T. Morcar, O.B.E., D.Sc., F.I.C., F.R.S.

Linton, William James.

Author of Charles Keene; Shirley Brooks; etc.

Barrister-at-Law, Inner Temple.

Director, Chemical Research Laboratory, Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, London. Formerly Mason Professor of Chemistry, University of Birmingham; Professor in the Faculty of Applied Chemistry, Royal College of Science |T ithium : for Ireland; Professor of Applied Chemistry, Technical College, Finsbury. Author of Organic Compounds of Arsenic and Antimony. Contributor to Thorpe’s Dictionary of Applied Chemisiry. Editor of the Chemistry section, 14th Edition, Encyclopedia Britannica.

:

GEOFFREY WHITWORTH.

Art Editor to Messrs. Chatto and Windus, | Little Theatre

Founder of the British Drama League.

(tn part).

1908-28. Publications include many articles on the theatre in various periodicals; also The Art of Nijtnsky; etc.

H. Bar.

SIr HERBERT ATKINSON BARKER.

H. B. H.

Specialist in Manipulative Surgery. HENRY BEETLE Hovcs, B.Lit. Publisher, Vineyard Gazette, Martha’s Vineyard, Mass.

H. C. Hy.

Rev. Horace Carter Hovey, A.M., D.D.

H. Cl.

|Manipulative Surgery. iMartha’s Vineyard.

Fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, Geological Society of America, National Geographic Society and Société de Spéléologie (France). Author of Celebrated Americans; Handbook of Mammoth Cave of Kentucky; etc.

Governor of the Straits Settlements. High Commissioner for the Malay States and |Malay Literature (in part); Further India and many other works.

Dictionary of the Malay Language.

a Sieben o inistry ae

1 and d riculture

ae

Eee

airman of the

Malay States (in part).

Journal London. Editoritor ofof Journal Fisheries, London. Fish

oe

M.Pp. Department of

Author of Malay Peninsula (in part);

Governor of Ceylon, 1925-7.

Joint-Author with Sir Frank Swettenham of a | Malays;

Agriculture and Fisheries. Author of Common Weeds of the Farm and Poisonous to Livestock; Poisonous Plants on the Farm.

H. E. A.

Luray Cavern.

pee

Sie Hucu Currrorp, G.C.M.G., G.B.E., F.R.G.S. British Agent for Borneo, since 1927,

H. C. L.

Movement

Garden; Plants

.

k

Mangel-Wurzel (in part).

cig

sea

Marketing,

of Ministry of

New

York

University School

of Com-

merce, Accounts and Finance. Author of Co-Operative Advertising by Competitors; Market Index. etc.

,

,

H. E. B1.

GENERAL Sır H. E. BLUMBERG, K.C.B.

H. E. Du.

HENRY Ernest DUDENEY,

H. E. 5.

Horace EvrsHa SCUDDER. Late Editor of The Atlantic Monthly. Author of Life of James Russell Lowell; History Howell, James Russell. of the United States; etc,

H. Fr.

HENRI FRANTZ.

H. H. Jo.

Heren Harman Joseru, B.A.

H. H. L. B.

Hues Harz Leicw Berror, M.A., D.C.L.

H. J. C.

H. J. CADBURY. Professor of Biblical Literature, Bryn Mawr College, Bryn Mawr, Pa. HERBERT JENNINGS Rose, M.A.

H. J. R.

E of Legion of Honour, arines.

Mathematical Puzzle Expert. Mathematics; etc.

Marines (in part).

Hon. Colonel Commandant, Chatham Division, Royal ;

.

Author of The Canterbury Puzzles; Amusements in Magic Square.

Manet, Edouard.

Art Critic, Gazette des Beaux Arts, Paris.

Director of Helen Haiman Joseph Marionettes.

iMarionettes or Puppets.

Author of Book of Marionettes.

Late Associé de l'Institut de Droit International; Honorary Law Association and Grotius Society; Acting Professor University of London, and Secretary, Breaches of the Law of of Commerce in War; The Pharmacy Acts; Permanent Court

Secretary, International of Constitutional Law, War Committee. Author of International Justice.

| Lord High Chancellor. Luke, Gospel of.

Professor of Greek, University of St. Andrews, Fife. Fellow and Lecturer‘of Exeter Professor of Latin, University College of Wales, Aberystie College, Oxford,

pLycaon.

Author of The Roman Questions of Plutarch; Primitive Culture in wyth, 1919-27. Greece; Primitive Culture in Italy; A Handbook of Greek Mythology.

H. L. Sti. H. M. L.

} Henry L. Struson, LL.D. London Naval Conference, 1930, The (in part). United States Secretary of State; Chairman of U. S. Delegation to the London Naval Conference, 1930.

j

Library. A Public Library. of the D Director rot he NewNew YorkYork Public ssistant Library: Life of John Shaw Billings. Editor of Diaries and Drawings of Archibald (Uibtaties (in pori). Author of The New York Public \ y>

>

a

Roberison in America, 1762, 1776-1780.

H. M. Ro. H. M. T.

H. N. H. Or.

Henry M. ROBINSON.

President of First National Trust and Savings Bank, Los Angeles, Calif. President and Trustee, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena. Horace M. Towner, LL.B. Governor, Porto Rico.

H. Nisser, F.T.I. Textile Technologist and Consultant. Author of Grammar of Textile Design. Mrs. Hitpa Ormssy, B.Sc. Lecturer in Economic Geography, London School of Economics.

Vice-

Los Angeles. }Manati.

r }Marocain.

} London (im part).

INITIALS

AND

NAMES

OF CONTRIBUTORS

xi

Sir Humpury Davy

Rotzzston, K.C.B., M.A., M.D., Hon.D.Sc., LL.D. Physician-in-Ordinary to the King. Regius Professor of Physic, University of Cam-

E.

bridge. Consulting Physician to the Royal Navy. Examiner in the Universities of Longevity Oxford, Cambridge, London; etc. Formerly President of the Royal College of i Physicians. Author of Clinical Lectures; etc., and Joint-Editor (with Sir Clifford Allbutt), of 2nd Edition of A System of Medicine. o SPENDER, LL.D. ormerly on the Staff of The Pall Mall Gazette, The Westminster Gazette, The Daily Chronicle, The Manchester Guardian and The Daily News. Author of A Briton in

America; The Cauldron of Europe and biographies of David Lloyd George; Herbert Heury Asquith; etc.

n

part).

: David.

(i

HERBERT THOMAS ANDREWS.

Author of “The Commentary on Acts” in the Westminster New Testament; Hand->Logia (in part).

H. W. BI.

book on the Apocryphal Book in the “Century Bible,” HERBERT WILLIAM Brunt, M.A. Student, Tutor and Librarian, Christ Church, Oxford. Souls, Oxford.

H. W. C. D.

Formerly Fellow of aut HLogie, History of (in part).

Henry Wittiam Cartess Davis, C.B.E., M.A.

Mandeville, Geoffrey de

Late Director, Dictionary of National Biography, Regius Professor of Modern History

(im part);

and Fellow and Tutor of Balliol College, Oxford.

Marsh, Adam.

H. W. FLOREY. H. W. P.

IL

h

Jop Huddersfield Lecturer in Special Pathology, University of Cambridge. H. W. PARKER, B.A. eee Department of Zoology, Natural History Museum, South Kensington,Lizard ondon.

Rev. HENRY WHEELER Rosinson, M.A., D.D. Principal, Regent's Park College, London, since 1920. Formerly Professor of Church History and the Philosophy of Religion, Rawdon College, Leeds. Author of Hebrew Psychology in Relation to Pauline Anthropology (in Mansfield College Essays); The Religious Ideas of the Old Testament.

, Malachi,

Sir Henry Vute, K.C.S.1. British Orientalist,

Author of Cathay and the Way Thither; Book of Ser Marco Polo,

Mandeville, Jehan de (in part).

I. A. R.

Irma A. RICHTER

I. H. C.

Irvine H. Crowne, E.E., M.S. Chief Engineer, Splitdorf-Bethlehem Electric Company, Newark, N. J. Author of >Magneto, High Tension. Theory of A.C. Circuits. James A. JOHNSTONE, D.Sc. Professor of Oceanography, University of Liverpool. Author of Conditions of Life >Marine Biology at Sea; British Fisheries. James ALEXANDER ROBERTSON, Pua.B., L.H.D.

J. A. J.

J. A. R.

Lorenzetti;

Artist and Writer.

Kuini Bernardino; Mantegna, Andrea.

Professor of American History, John B. Stetson University, Deland, Fla. Managing Manila Editor, Hispanic-American History Review, Baltimore, Md, Translator and Co: Editor of The Philippine Islands.

J. A. S.

Joun AppINGTON Symonps, LL.D.

J. A, Th.

SIR JOHN ARTHUR THomson, M.A., LL.D. Regius Professor of Natural History in the University of Aberdeen.

|Machiavelli, Niccolo.

Author of Renaissance în Italy; Studies of the Greek Poets.

Gifford Lecturer

St. Andrews, 1915. Terry Lecturer, Yale University, 1924. Author of The Study of Animal Life; Outlines of Zoology; Heredity; Darwinism and Human Life; What is

Man?;

J. B.S.

Joint-Author

(with Professor

Patrick

‘

Prolessor of Mathematics, University of Illinois, Urbana, Ill.

Linear Algebras.

BRIGADIER-GENERAL Srr J. E. Epmonps, C.B., C.M.G., F.R.G.S. jit The Battle of: Officer in Charge of Military Branch, Historical Section, Criminal Investigation -

Department, London

Served in South African and European Wars.

Joun E. MvsrreLD, M.E. Consulting-Engineer.

Locomotives; etc.

J. F. C. F.

of |

AMES B. SHAW.

Official History of the War; etc.

J. E. Mu.

Geddes)

Evolution; Sex; Biology. J

J. E. E.

Concerning Evolution.

Life; Locomotion of Animals,

Author of

,

Author of Locomotives of Great Power; New Era for Steam

ee The First Battle of e.

Locomotive Coaling (in part);

Locomotive (in part).

COLONEL Jonn FREDERICK CHARLES FULLER, C.B.E., D.S.O. Military Assistant to the Chief of the Imperial General Staff.! Chief General Staff |Macedonian Army;

Officer, Tank Corps, 1917-8.

Formerly

Chief Instructor, Camberley.

Author of

Tanks in the Great War; The Reformation of War; Sir John Moore's System of Training,

J. F.-X. J. Gai.

SS James FITZMAURICE-KELLY, Lırt.D., F.R.Hrst.S. Late Gilmour Professor of Spanish Language and Literature, University of Liverpool. Author of A History of Spanish Literature. i James GAIRDNER, C.B., LL.D. English Historian and sometime Assistant Keeper of the Public Records, Editor of the Paston Letters; Letters and Papers Illustrative of the Reigns of Richard III., Henry VII., and Henry VIII. Author of The Houses of Lancaster and York; etc.

J. G. Be.

J. Goutp Brarn, M.Sc., A.I.C

Chemist, Messrs. Walter Carson & Sons, Battersea, London.

Manzikert, Battle of.

, Lull, Raimon. Mary

ary

I

+.

}Luminous Paint.

INITIALS

XU J. G. Br.

AND

NAMES

OF CONTRIBUTORS

SIR JOSEPH GUINNESS BROODBANK. Chairman of the Dock and Warehouse Committee of the Port of London Authority, 1909-20. President of the Institute of Transport, 1923-4. Port of London.

J. G. Sm.

itsui Shea

ham.

Professor ee of

Member

Finance, ee

and d

London (in part)

Author of History of the ‘

Facultyof of C Commerce, U UniversityoffB BirmingDean,Dean, Faculty

of the Warwickshire Agricultural Wages Committee,

Author of

2

;

.

Marketing (in pari).

Organised Produce Markets; etc.

J.H. B.

J. H. H.

Josers H. BONNEVILLE, A.M.

Director of Ethnology, Assam.

{uae Deputy Commissioner,

Naga Hills. Author of The

l E rofessor eeof ca Constitutional 1 Law,Law, U University of f London. London. Reader Reader in in C Constitutiona 1 Law to the Inns of Court. Brigadier-General, Late Deputy Adjutant-General. Editor of the Law section, 14th Edition, Encyclopedia Britannica.

J. H. R.

Joun Horace Round, M.A., LL.D.

J. I. P.

21. Author of Feudal England; Peerage and Pedigree. J. I. Pratt, M.Sc., F.G.S. Lecturer in Geology, University College of Wales, Aberystwyth.

j. J.T.

Late Historical Adviser to the Crown.

President, Essex Archaeological Society, 1916-

Joun James TrGeRT, Ev.D., LL.D., L.H.D., D.C.L.

President of the University of Florida, Gainesville, Fla. United States Commissioner of Education. Author of Philosophy of the World War; Monographs in educational

J.K.

and scientific subjects. Joun Kxine, J.P. Chairman of the National Light Castings Association.

J.L. L.

Joun Livincston Lowes, Pu.D.

J. L. W.

Jessre L. Weston, Lirz.D.

J. L. We.

Josera L. Werner, A.B., LL.B. Late Lecturer in Law, Columbia Law School, New York. James Mackinnon, M.A., Pa.D., D.D., F.R.S.E. Professor of Ecclesiastical History, University of Edinburgh.

J.M.

J. P. M. J. R. B.

Professor of English and formerly Dean of the Graduate School of Arts and Sciences, Harvard University. Author of Convention and Revolt in Poetry.

arquess or Nlarquis. aie (in part); Manchester (in pari). ?

Horace

s

}Liquidation (in part). Author of Luther and

-Luther, Martin. Maintenance and Champerty (in part).

Court of the United States, J. P. Bowen, B.Sc. Engineer-in-Chief, Trinity House, London. James Puitie Mitts, M.A., I.C.S.

lLighthouses (in part). ?Magh.

Assistant Commissioner, Makokehung, Assam. Author of The Lhota Nagas.

J. R. M. J. R. R.

man of the London Naval Conference, 1930. Jonn ROBERTSON RIDDELL.

J. S.

Sm

J. S. F.

Sr

J. Sib.

Revi uae

pMangel-Wurzel

(in part).

n and North Eastern Railway Company, The.

Minister and First Lord of the Treasury; Chief British Delegate to and Chair- London

1930,

Ni Conference,

ine

}

Principal of the London School of Printing and Kindred Trades.

:

Lithography (in part).

Josran Cuartes Stamp, G.B.E., D.Sc., LL.D., F.B.A.

irector of the Bank of England. Member of the British Royal Commission on Income Tax, 1919; of the Committee on Taxation and National Debt, 1927. British |London Midland and Representative on the Reparation Commission’s (Dawes) Committee on German Scottish Railway. Currency and Finance, 1924, and Member of the Committee of Experts, Paris, 1929, Author of Wealth and Income of the Chief Powers; Wealth and Taxable Capacity.

Joun Smite Frert, K.B.E., M.A., D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S.

}Marble (in part).

Director, Geological Survey of Great Britain and Museum of Practical Geology.

ein, DD ee

gi

A

sf

etire issionary of London Missionary iety, after 5144 Madagascar. Author of Madagascar and Its People; etc.

J.S. K.

Donin;

Malory, Sir Thomas (in pari); Map, Walter.

J. M. Lanors, A.B., LU.B., S.J.D.

Prime

yai

ieGreat

Lowell, Amy.

Author of Arthurian Romances.

J. R. Bono, M.B.E., M.Sc., N.D.A. Agricultural Organiser for Derbyshire, Contributor to the Journal of the Ministry of Agriculture. J. R. Hip. Information Agent, London and North Eastern Railway. Rr. Hon. James Ramsay MacDonatp, P.C., LL.D

J. R. H.

: . Martial Law (tn pari).

Mann.

Professor of Legislation, Harvard Law School. Author of The Business of the Supreme

J. P. Bo.

Lolo;

Lycanthropy;

?Light Thin Castings Industry.

the Reformation.

J. M. La.

Margin.

J. H. Hutton, D.Sc., C.LE.

Angami Nagas; The Sema Nagas. J. H. Mo.

Listed Securities;

Department of Banking and Finance, New York University School of Commerce, Accounts and Finance. Author of Elements of Business Finance.

years’ service in

Sır Joan Scorr Krrreæ, LL.D., F.S.A.

J. S. T.

Late Secretary, Royal Geographical Society, and Editor of Statesman's Year Book and The Geographical Journal. Joun Srencer THompson, M.A. Vice-President and Mathematician, Mutual Life Insurance Company.

J. Sw.

Joszpa Swrre, F.R.G.S.

Member of the’Royal Institute of International Affairs, and a Member of the Balkan Committee.

uM

adagascar

a

(

(in

?

part).

i

>Livingstone, David.

Life Insurance (in part). 1 Machado.

Bernadino:

. Ore ets Makonnen, Ras Tafari.

INITIALS

AND

NAMES

J. T. S.

James THomson SHotwett, Pu.D., LL.D.

J. V. B.

JAMES VERNON BARTLET, M.A., D.D.

OF

CONTRIBUTORS

Director, Division of Economics and History, Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, New York, and Professor of History in Columbia University. Professor Emeritus of Church History, Mansfield College, Oxford.

se

k

Apostolic Age.

xili

Louis IX. (in part).

Author of The

Luke;

Mark, St.

J. W. A.

J. W. ALEXANDER.

K. B. M.

KENNETH BALLARD Murpocx, A.M., Pa.D. Assistant Professor of English, Harvard University.

K. C. M. S.

KENNETH CHARLES Morton Sits, M.A., LL.D. }Maine President of Bowdoin College, Brunswick, Maine. ° KINGSLEY GARLAND JAYNE. Sometime Scholar of Wadham College, Oxford. Matthew Arnold Prizeman, 1905. >Malay Archipelago (in part).

K.G. J.

i

Professor of Mathematics, Princeton University.

|Manifolds.

Pe Henry Wadsworth.

Author of Increase Mather; etc.

Author of Vasco da Gama and His Successors.

KILLINGWorTH Hepcss, M.Inst.C.E., M.LE.E. K. S. L.

L. C. M.

Consulting Engineer. Hon. Secretary of the Lightning Research Committee. of Modern Lightning Conductors; etc. KENNETH Scott LATOURETTE, M.A., Po.D., D.D.

E

Author

>Lightning Conductor.

Professor of Missions, Yale University. Formerly Professor of History, Denison University, Granville, Ohio. Author of The Development of China; History of Early Relations between United States and China.

Manchuria (in part).

Sır Lro Cmrozza Money, F.R.STAT.S., F.R.G.S., F.Z.S.

Lloyds Bank Limited;

Author and Journalist. Member of the War Trade Advisory Committee, 1915-8. |London General Omnibus Parliamentary Secretary to the Ministry of Shipping, 1916-8. Chairman of the Co., Ltd.; Tonnage Priority Committee, 1917-8. Editor of the Economics, Engineering and Marconi’s Wireless Industries section, 14th Edition, Encyclopedia Britannica. Telegraph Co., Ltd.

Louis Marre OLivirer DucHESNE, D-&s-L.

French Scholar and Ecclesiastic. Late Lecturer at the Ecole Pratique des Hautes Etudes, and Director of the French School of Archaeology at Rome. See the bio-

L. E. H.

L. R. D.

graphical article: DucHEsne, Lours MARIE OLIVIER, Str LEONARD ERSKINE Hitz, M.B., F.R.S. Director of the Department of Applied Physiology, National Institute of Medical Research, London. Formerly Professor of Physiology, London Hospital. Fellow of University College, London.

DANTEN Head

DIAREE

of Sellars,

Dicksee

T

o.

Ernest

Sir

Professor of

Cassel

Business Organization in the University of London, 1919-26. of Economics in the University of London, 1925-6.

L. R. J. L.

S.

S.

Lu.

t) POr

Light and Radiation in Relation to Health. .

,

eR

ene!

ao

Lucius (in

Accountancy ane

Dean of the Faculty

L. Ropwerz Jones, B.Sc., Px.D.

.

sidat

Liquidation (in part).

i Manitoba.

Professor in Geography in the University of London.

Mrıss L. S. STeBBING, M.A.

Logistic.

Reader in Philosophy in the University of London.

FREDERICK DEALTRY LUGARD, IST BARON LUGARD OF ABINGER, P.C., G.C.M.G., | o. C.B., D.S.O., D.C.L., LL.D. Commander of Legion of Honour, 1917. Governor-General of Nigeria, 1914-9. British Memberof Permanent Mandates Commission, League of Nations, since 1922.

L. W. V.-H.

L. W. VERNON-FLARCOURT.

M. A. H.

MARY AGNES HAMILTON. M. P. for Blackburn.

Barrister-at-Law.

Author of His Grace the Steward and the Trial of Peers.

7 Member of the Balfour Committee on British Trade and |MacDonald, James

Industry. Member of the Staff of The Economist, London; etc. Under the penname| of “Iconoclast,” wrote The Man of Tomorrow; J. Ramsay MacDonald; etc.

M. A. Wa.

Lord High Steward.

ne aa Mary A. Warp (Mrs. Humpury Warp). Author of Robert Elsmere; etc. and contributor to Dictionary of Christian Biography. See the biographical article: Warp, Mary AUGUSTA.

Sn

Max Cary, D.Litt.

Reader in Ancient History in the University of London. Association, 191 1~4.

Ramsay.

Lyly, (Lilly or Lylie), John (in pari).

1 Macedonian Empire;

Secretary to the Classical JManuel I., Comnenus.

Sirt Mervyn Epmunp Macartney, B.A., F.S.A., F.R.I.B.A. Architect to the Dean and Chapter of St. Paul's Cathedral. Editor of the Archi- >London (in part). tecturul Review, 1906-20. Co-Author of Later Renuissance Architecture in England. tae? Louis H. G.; M. GUILLAUME. Mangin, Charles Emmanuel. Managing Director of Le Petit Journal, Paris. . BRESSON. M. MARCELLE part). car (im Madagas in} Assistant Formerly Paris. Metiers, et Arts oire Des A Librarian of Conservat Geography, Sorbonne and Member of the Staff of Annales de Geographie. cus Nresunr Top, M.A. ence

in Greek Epigraphy, University of Oxford.

HLysander. Joint Author of Catalogue of she

Sparta Museum,

M. Pa.

M. T. Bi

v. Marx Parrison, LL.D.

Late Rector of Lincoln College, Oxford. Miuurcent Topp Bincuam, M.A., PH.D.

ae

Corresponding

Member,

See biographical article: Pattison, Marx, ae

Sociedad Geográfica de Lima.

Contrasts; Geographical Controls in Peru.

Saree

(in part). oe

Author of Peru, Land of PA

Thomas B. M.

(Peru)

:

X1V M. W. A. M. W. T.

INITIALS

AND

NAMES

Macnvus W. ALEXANDER, M.S. President, National Industrial Conference Board. Mechanization of Industry; etc.

OF CONTRIBUTORS : ; Machinery and Production Author of Safety i the Foundry;|

Morris WILLIAM TRAVERS, D.Sc., F.I.C., F.R.S. Fellow of University College, London.

Honorary Professor (formerly Professor) and |

Fellow in Applied Physical Chemistry in the University of Bristol. Director, Indian Institute of Science, 1906-14. Author of The Liquefaction of Hydrogen; The Experimental Study of Gases; etc. Nicuotas G. GEDYE, O.B.E., B.Sc., M.Inst.C.E. Consulting Civil Engineer. Formerly Chief Engineer, Tyne Improvement Com-

Liquefaction of Gases.

Lighthouses (in part); Lock.

mission. Served B.E.F. Lieut. Colonel (late R.E.). Acting Director, Civil Engineerin-Chief’s Department, Admiralty. Chief Civil Engineer for Docks, Harbours, and Inland Waterways, Ministry of Transport.

NorMAN Mostrey PENZER, M.A., F.R.G.S., F.G.S.

Author of Cotton in British West Africa; The Tin Resources of the British Empire; The Mineral Resources of Burma; Non-Ferrous Metals and other Minerals; etc. NATHANIEL W. STEPHENSON, A.B., Litr.D., LL.D. Professor of History and Biography in Scripps College and in the Graduate School of Claremont College, Claremont, Calif. Author of An American History; The Day of the Confederacy; Abraham Lincoln and the Union.

pManganese

Lincoln,

O. C. STINE, Pu.D.

(in part).

Abraham

ae

Bureau of Agricultural Economics, United States Department of Agriculture, Washington. Editor of Journal of Farm Economics; Agricultural History. OSBERT Jonn RADCLIFFE HOWARTH, O.B.E., M.A.

>Maize (in part).

Secretary of the British Association for the Advancement of Science. Scholar in London (in part) Geography, Christ Church, Oxford, 1901. Member of the Geographical Section, part). Naval Intelligence Department, London, 1915-9.

OLIVIA ROSSETTI AGRESTI.

Writer, Lecturer and Interpreter to the Assemblies of the League of Nations and the International Economic Conference. Connected with the Founding of the International Institute of Agriculture in Rome. Lecturer in the U. S. on Italian Economic Conditions, 1919, 1920, 1923. Author of Giovanni Costa, His Life and Times. On the Editing Staff of the General Fascist Confederation in Industries, Rome.

O. Sk.

Otis SKINNER, A.M.

P.G.

Actor. Author of Footlights and Spotlights; Mad-folk of the Theatre. PERCY GARDNER, Lrrv.D., LL.D., F.S.A., F.B.A.

P. G. B.

PETER GornpoNn Brown, M.A.

P. G. H. B.

P. G. H. Boswextz, 0.B.E., D.Sc.

P. H. N.

Pau. Henry Nystrom, Pu.D.

P. M. P.

Paut Martin Pearson, A.M., Litt.D.

Professor of Classical Archaeology, Oxford University, 1887-1925. since 1925. See the biographical article: GARDNER, PERCY.

Fellow of the Institute of Actuaries. Department, London.

Mafia

:

{Make-Up r , Professor Emeritus pLysippus.

Assistant Actuary, Government

Actuary’s

Life Tables.

George Herdman Professor of Geology in the University of Liverpool.

Professor of Marketing, Columbia University School of Business, New York.

of Economics of Fashion; Economics of Retailing; etc.

Marl.

ane

2

Author

os

Marketing (in part).

Founder and President, Swarthmore Chautauqua Association, Swarthmore, Pa. Lyceums and Chautauquas. Former President, The International Lyceum Chautauqua Association. Author of | Intercollegiate Debates; Extemporaneous Speaking.

P. M. R.

P. M. Roxsy, M.A.

P. P. Cr.

PAUL PHILLIPPE CRET.

}Manchuria (in part),

Professor of Geography in Liverpool University. Professor of Architectural Design, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia.

American Institute of Architecture.

Fellow,

Library Architecture.

Architect of Pan-American Union, Washing-

ton; Valley Forge Memorial Arch, Philadelphia.

P. Vi.

P. Z. C, R. A. Lo.

sir Paut Vinocraporr, D.C.L., LL.D.

1

a

Late Corpus Professor of Jurisprudence in the University of Oxford. Formerly on Honorary Professor of History in the University of Moscow. Author of Villeinage in England; English Society in the rrth Century; etc. MAJOR-GENERAL Sır Percy Z. Cox, G.C.M.G., G.C.I.E., K.C.S.I

(in part)

Acting British Minister to Persia, 1918-20. High Commissioner in Mesopotamia, pLingeh. 1920-3. Secretary, Foreign Department, Government of India, 1914. R. A. Lone. }Lumbering. Chairman of the Board of Long-Bell Lumber Company, Kansas City, Missouri.

R. An.

ROBERT ANCHEL.

R. C. J.

Sır RICHARD CLAVERHOUSE JEBB, O.M., LL.D., D.C.L.

}Marat, Jean Paul.

Archivist, National Archives, Paris.

Public Orator, Cambridge University, 1869-75, and Professor of Greek, 1889-1905. Author of Translations into Greek and Latin; Homer, an Introduction to the Iliad and Odyssey; etc. See the biographical article: JEBB, Sir R. C.

R. D. Ca.

R. D. CARMICHAEL.

R. E. W.

RosrerT E. Woob.

R. F.

R. Firta, M.A., Pa.D.

Professor of Mathematics at University of Illinois, Urbana, IH.

Lysias (in part).

}Limit.

President, Sears, Roebuck and Company, Chicago. Brigadier-General and Acting pMail-Order Business. Quartermaster-General, United States Army, during the World War.

Member of the Polynesian Society.

Zealand Maori.

y

are

Author of Primitive Economics of the New Magic (in part);

Maori.

,

INITIALS R. G. P. R. H. Ch.

R. H. Ga.

AND

NAMES

OF CONTRIBUTORS

- RUSSELL G. PELLy, F.I.C.

Joint-Author of Oils, Fats, Waxes and Resins. Rev. RoBert Henry Cuarres, M.A., D.D., D.Lirt., LL.D., F.B.A.

XV

|Margarine (tn part).

Archdeacon of Westminster. Formerly Fellow of Merton College and Grinfield Manasses, Prayer of (in Lecturer and Lecturer in Biblical Studies, Oxford. Professor of Biblical Greek at port). Trinity College, Dublin, 1888-1906. R. H. GABRIEL, M.A., Pu.D. Professor of History, Yale University. Author of The Evolution of Long Island. Long Island (in pari). CY OS Editor, Christianity and Modern Thought.

R. H. R.

Sır Henry Rew, K.C.B.

R. H. Ra.

RosBert HERON RASTALL, Sc.D., F.G.S. University Lecturer in Economic Geology and Fellow of Christ’s College, Cambridge.

Board of Agriculture and Fisheries, 1898. Assistant Secretary, 1906-18. President, Royal Statistical Society, 1920-2. Secretary to the Ministry of Food, 1916-7. Liming (in part). Chairman, Inter-Departmental Committee on Unemployment Insurance in Agri- e culture, 1925-6. Author of A Primer of Agricultural Economics; The Economic Resources of Canada; etc.

Member of Council of the Geological Society, 1915, and Mineralogical Society, 1918. Malachite. Attached to War Office, 1915-9. Author of Geology of the Metalliferous Deposits. -l Editor of the Geology section, 14th Edition, Encyclopedia Britannica,

R. L. H. R. McK.

COLONEL RicHARD LIONEL Hippistey, C.B., F.R.A.S., F.R.S. Employed in the Trigonometrical Survey of Cyprus. Deputy Director, Army Signals, Central Force, 1914-6. RODERICK MACKENZIE, M.A. Fereday Fellow of St. John’s College, Oxford, and Assistant Editor of the 9th Edition of Liddell and Scott's Greek-English Lexicon. ROBERT NISBET BAIN. Assistant Librarian, British Museum, 1883-1909. Author of Scandinavia: the Po-

, Linkages. . Lithuanian Language.

litical History of Denmark, Norway and Sweden, 1513-1900; The First Romanovs, pMargaret (1353-1412). 1613 to 1725; Slavonic Europe: 1460 to 1796; etc.

Ro. Rs.

The Political History of Poland and Russia from

Sir Ronatp Ross, K.C.B., K.C.M.G., M.D., D.Sc., F.R.S. Director in Chief, Ross Institute and Hospital for Tropical Diseases, London. Consultant in Malaria, British Ministry of Pensions, London. Formerly Consultant in Malaria, War Office. vention of Malaria.

Nobel Prizeman for Medicine, 1902.

RENÉ POoUPARDIN, D-Ès-L.

oe of the Ecole des Chartes. nale, Paris.

Author of The Pre-

Honorary Librarian of the Bibliothèque Natio-

Sır RICHARD STUDDERT REDMAYNE, K.C.B., M.Sc., M.Inst.C.E., M.I.M.E. Member of Institute of Mining and Metallurgy (past President).

Surveyors’

Institute.

British Coal Industry.

H.M.

Chief Inspector of Mines,

1908-20.

Rospert RANuULPH Marett, M.A., D.Sc., E.R.A.I. Rector of Exeter College, Oxford. University Reader the

on of Anthropology; Psychology and Folklore; etc. Classics.’

Author of The

R. 5. Ratt, C.B.E.

Lignite;

Low-Tem Carb

R. W. C.

Tue Very Rev. Ricardo WiitiamM Cuurcu, D.D.

S. de J.

S. Dé JASTRZEBSKI, F.S.S.

S. D. F. S.

REv. SDs

S. L.

STEPHEN

S. McC. L.

SamuEeL McCune Linpsay, Px.D., LL.D.

St.

GERALD STRICKLAND,

T. A.

Tuomas Asusy, D.Lrrt., F.B.A., F.S.A., Hon.A.R.I.B.A.

History and

braire

p ti

aroonizauon.

| in Social Anthropology. |nana

Professor of Scottish

llistoriographer-Royal for Scotland, 1910-30. Literature in the University of Glasgow.

:

-Lorraine.

Editor of Anthropology and J

R. S. R.

T. D. K.

Hon. Member

ae, pMalaria (în part).

:

Mary Queen of Scots (in part). ; I

Late Dean of St. Paul’s. Author of The Oxford Movement; Life of St. Anselm; etc. Lombards (in part). i See the biographical article: CourcH, RICHARD WILLIAM.

ae

Member, American Academy of Social and Political Science. Registrar-General, Great Britain.

DINGWELL oe

AN

:

i

Formerly Assistant

Marriage-Rate.

a naled

E

: Free Churc United Professorof Systematic Theology and Exegesisof the Epistles, College, Abadeen, 1876-1905. Author of The Parables of Our Lord; etc. Editor of Logos (in pari). The International Library of Theology; etc.

eee eee

eg B.D., Pe

eea

Museum, rator in the University Oxford, since 1919. Professor of Assyriology, Babylonian Section, Philadelphia, 1916-8. Director of the Weld-Blundell and Field Marduk. Museum Expedition to Mesopotamia, since 1922.

Professor of Social Legislation, Columbia University, New York. President Academy of Political Science, New York. Author of Social Aspects of Philadelphia Relief Work; Railway Labor in the United States; Child Labor Legislation.

IST BARON STRICKLAND,

G.C.M.G.

Head of the Ministry and Minister of Justice, Malta, since 1927. Malta Legislative Assembly.

i

Liquor Laws and Liquor Control.

,

Member of the Malta (in part).

ees

Locri;

Formerly Director of the British School at Rome. Author of Turner's Visions of| Loreto; Lucania; Rome; The Roman Campagna in Classical Times; Roman Architecture. Revised and PI ucca: Lucera:` : completed for press a Topographical Dictionary of Ancient Rome (by the late J. B. Magna Graeci . ` Plattner). Author of numerous archaeological articles. i T. D. KENDRICK, M.A. \Malta (in part). Of the Department of British and Mediaeval Antiquities, British Museum,

XVI

T. F. H.

INITIALS

AND

NAMES

OF CONTRIBUTORS

TAaLsgorT F. HAMLIN, B.A., B.ARCH.

Lotus (in part);

Instructor in the History of Architecture, Columbia University, New York. Chairman of City Plan Committee of the Merchants’ Association, New York. Author of The Enjoyment of Architecture; The American Spirit in Architecture.

T. M. Li.

REv. THomas Martin Linpsay, LL.D., D.D.

T. P. Ma.

Tuomas P. MARTIN, A.M., PH.D. Library of Congress, Washington.

Louis Styles; Manor House.

Late Principal of the United Free Church College, Glasgow. Formerly Assistant to Lollards (in part); the Professor of Logic and Metaphysics in the University of Edinburgh. Author of Lutherans (in part).

History of the Reformation; Life of Luther, etc.

Formerly Associate Professor of History, Boston

-McDufiie, George.

University.

T.S.

THOMAS SECCOMBE, M.A. ] Late of Balliol College, Oxford, and Lecturer in History, East London and Birkbeck | Marlowe, Colleges, University of London. Stanhope Prizeman, Oxford 1887. Assistant Editor of Dictionary of National Biography, 1891-1901. Author of The .1ge of Johnson; etc.

T. S.A.

THOMAS SEWALL ADAMS, A.B., PH.D. Professor of Political Economy, Yale University.

Christopher

part). l

Author of Taxation in Maryland;

(in

pLuxury Taxes (in part).

Outlines of Economics. T.

W.

V. Sn.

THOMAS WOODHOUSE.

Professor of Mathematics,

Tice Cornell University,

Ithaca, N. Y.

President, American

W. A. B.C.

Rev. Wirtiam Aucustus Brevoort Cootinck, M.A., F.R.G.S., Hon. Ps.D.

W. A. P.

W. ALISON Puirires, M.A.

W. B. P.

acture; Manila Hemp.

VIRGIL SNYDER. Mathematical Society.

W. B. A.

ee and Linen Manu-

Head of Weaving and Textile Designing Department, Technical College, Dundee.

Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford. Lecky Professor of Modern bridge Modern History; etc.

}Lugano, Lake of.

Editor of the Alpine Journal, 1880-9; etc.

History, Dublin University.

ee Geometry.

London, Conferences of; _ { Louis Philippe I.; Contributor to the Cam

Magyars;

Mahmud II. (i part).

W. Brouenrton ALcock, M.D., M.R.C.S., L.R.C.P. Director of the Central Laboratory, Ministry of Pensions, London. WriLram BELMONT PARKER, A.B.

W. D. L.

Editor of South Americans of To-day. Wiir1amM Draper Lewis, LL.B., Pu.D., $.S.D.

W. D. M.

WitiramM D. Matrrurw, A.M., Pu.D., F.R.S.

Dean of the Law School, University of Pennsylvania. Lawyers; etc.

Malaria (in part).

López, Francisco Solano.

Editor of Great American

} Marshall, Jobn.

Professor of Palaeontology and Director, Museum of Palaeontology, University of

Machaerodus.

California, Berkeley, California. Author of various scientific treatises and magazine articles on fossil vertebrates.

W. D. M’C.

W.D. M’Cott. Editorial Staff, London, 14th Edition, Encyclopaedia Britannica.

W.E.A. A.

WILLIAM EDMUND ARMYTAGE AXON, LL.D.

W. E. Cx.

W. E. E,

Mac; Local Government.

1

W. EIMER EKBLAW, A.M., PH.D, Clark University, Worcester, Mass.

,

—

ee

Assistant Editor, Economic Geogra phy.

field of research—agricultural geography and arctic geography.

Rev. WILLIAM FAIRWEATHER, M.A., D.D.

Minister of Dunniker, United Free Church, Kirkcaldy, N.B.

Special >Mammoth Cave.

Author of Afaecabecs

(Cambridge Bible for Schools); The Background of the Gospels; etc. Wiii1am Fercusson Irvine, Hon.M.A.

Hon. Secretary and General Editor of Historical Society of Lancashire and Cheshire, 1895-1909. Local Secretary for Cheshire for the Society of Antiquaries, 1909. Author of Liverpool in the Reign of Charles II.; Old Halls of Wirral; etc.

W. Fo.

i

Sometime Deputy Chief Librarian of the Manchester Free Libraries. On Literary -Manchester (in part). Staff of Manchester Guardian, 1874-1905. Author of Annals of Mane hester; ete. J t Lighting and Artificial WARREN E. Cox. Art Editor, r4th Edition, Mucyclopedia Britannica. Wumination (in part).

LIEUT.-COLONEL WOLFGANG FOERSTER. Late General Staff, German Army.

Keeper of Public Records, Potsdam.

J

Wabsaboee:

M

b

accabees,

B

k

Books of.

Liverpool (in purt).

Formerly

Member of the Historical section of the General Staff. Chief of the General Staff pLudendorff, Erich (in part).

of the XI. Corps, 1915. Author of Prinz Friedrich Karl von Preussen; Graf Schlieffen und der Weltkrieg. W.

F. P.

WILLIAM F. PARISH.

Consulting and Lubricating Engineer, New York.

Mechanical Engineers.

W. G. B.

:

;

Member, American Society aean

ubrncanon.

WALTER GEORGE BELL, F.S.A., F.R.A.S.

.

Editorial Staff, Daily Telegraph, London. Author of The Great Fire of London in 1666; pLondon (in part). The Great Plague in London in 1665; Unknown London; etc. Wirrram HAMMOND WRIGHT. Astronomer in the Lick Observatory, University of California. In charge of the Lick pMars. Observatory’s Expedition to the Southern Hemisphere, 1903-6. Wiiiram Kine Grecory, A.M., Px.D. Curator of the Departments of Comparative Anatomy and Ichthyology, American |Mammalia; Museum of Natural History. Professor of Vertebrate University. Author of Orders of Mammals.

Palaeontology,

Columbia { Marsupialia,

INITIALS W. L. B. W. L.F.

AND

NAMES

OF CONTRIBUTORS

Yo LEWI BLENNERHASSETT, D.S.O., O.B.E. oe oe British Vice-Consul at Kovno, Lithuania.

`

W. L.G.

Member of the London

WALTER Lynwoop Fremine, A.M., Px.D.

Dean, College of Arts and Sciences, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tenn. of Documeniary History of Reconstruction.

T

Author

XV11

Lusatia Lithuania (in pari). Lynch Law.

oN Grant, M.A., LL.D.

rincipal of Upper Canada College, Toronto. Professor of Colonial History at . a3 Queen’s University, Kingston, Canada, 1910-5. Formerly Beit Lecturer in Colonial Mackenzie, William Lyon. History at Oxford University.

W. L. W.

Rev. W. L. Warpte, M.A., D.D.

W. M. Sk.

Manasseh (King of Judah); . Manasseh (Tribe of Israel). Manchester. College, Hartley of Principal versity. WARNER M. Sxrrr, B.S. ighti Artificial ee Engineering Department, National Lamp Works of General Eletic| fine ton(inoe). ompany.

wW. N. D.

Wri N. Davey.

iMarine Insurance (i pari).

W, O. E. O.

Rev. W. O. E. OESTERLEY, M.A., D.D.

Manasses, Prayer of (in part). pane and Nashville Railroad Company.

Lecturer in Biblical Criticism and Exegesis of the Old Testament, Manchester Uni-

Adjusting Department, Johnson and Higgins, Insurance Brokers, New York. Professor, Hebrew and Old Testament Exegesis, King’s College, London University.

Author of The Books of the Apocrypha: Their Origin, Conients and Teaching; etc.

W. R.C.

WHITEFOORD R. Cots, B.A.

W. S. L.-B.

WA

W. Sto.

Major W. STORMONT.

W.T. C.

Wiırrram Tuomas CALMAN, D.Sc., F.R.S.

W. W.F.

W. Warve Fow er, M.A.

W. W. P.

W. Wyarr Parme, J.P., F.S.A. Stipendiary Magistrate, East Ham, London, since 1925.

W. Y. S.

WiıLLram Young SELLAR, LL.D. ie ; : Late Professor of Humanity, Edinburgh University. Author of The Roman Poets of pLucilius, Gaius (in part).

Y.K.

Youncuirt Kane, Ep.M., B.S.

President of the Louisville and Nashville Railroad Company, Louisville, Ky. ARN ZR PRT, B.A., M.D., F.R.C.P. ae ve

ember of the Cancer Committee, Ministry of Health. Formerly Professorof Experi> mental Pathology, Middlesex Hospital Medical School, London University. Author Mammary Gland, Diseases of A Manual of General Pathology; Elements of Pathological Anatomy and Histology for Students. Editor for Medical Science, 14th Edition, Encyclopedia Britannica.

Manager, Compagnia Italiana Turismo (Italian State Railways), Official Agency and Steamship Lines.

PON

>Lloyd Triestino Line.

Lobster:

Keeper of the Department of Zoology, British Museum (Natural History). Author of Malac naire an “Crustacea” in Lankester’s Treaitse on Zoology. i Late Fellow of Lincoln College, Oxford. Sub-Rector, 1881~1904. Gifford Lecturer, Edinburgh University, 1908. Author of The City State of the Greeks and Romans; The Roman Festivals of the Republican Pertod; etc.

Mars.

l S Author and editor of pLien (in part).

numerous legal textbooks.

the Republic.

ps

Instructor, Comparative Literature, New York University. _ Poetry at Labor Temple School, New York. Initial used for anonymous contributors,

Lecturer on Chinese

oe

Li Po or Li Tai Po.

THE

ENCYCLOPA DIA BRITANNICA FOURTEENTH

EDITION

VOLUME 14 LIBIDO TO MARY QUEEN OF SCOTS ~

IBIDO (li-bid’o), defined by Freud as “the energy of those instincts which have to do

with all that may be comprised under the word ‘Love’.” Jung enlarged the concept so that for him it describes the energy resident in all instincts. Libido is usually considered to be synonymous with other such vague concepts as élan vital and psycho-physiological energy. It is claimed

that the energy of intellectual processes is measured by intelligence tests in terms of clearness and speed; but the measurement of the conative energy of a “wish” is more difficult, because the wish, which may be considered to be the inner feeling of need together with motor sets appropriate to its appeasement, may fail to find expression in measurable overt conduct on account of opposing repressive (unconscious) and suppressive (conscious) forces.

LIBITINA, Roman goddess of funerals. She had a sanctuary

in a sacred grove (perhaps on the Esquiline), where, by an ordinance of Servius Tullius, a piece of money was deposited whenever a death took place. Here the undertakers (libitinariz), who carried out all funeral arrangements by contract, had their offices, and everything necessary was kept for sale or hire; here all deaths were registered for statistical purposes. By anti-

quarians Libitina was sometimes identified with Persephone, but more commonly (partly or completely) with Venus Lubentia or Lubentina, a mere confusion. Libitina may, however, have been originally an earth goddess connected with luxuriant nature and the enjoyments of life (cf. Iub-et, lib-ido); then, all such deities being connected with the underworld, she also became the goddess of death, and that side of her character predominated in the later conceptions.

rebuilt in 1269, under its present name and on the site and plan it still retains, by Roger de Leyhourne (of Leybourne in Kent), seneschal of Guienne, acting under the authority of King Edward I. of England. It suffered considerably in the struggles of the French and English in the 14th century. The church of St. Jean, restored rsth-century Gothic, has a stone spire 232 ft. high. On the quay a 14th-century clock-tower survives from the old ramparts, and the hétel-de-ville is a quaint relic of the rth century. Libourne is the seat of a sub-prefecture and of tribunals of first instance and of commerce. Trade is in local wines and brandies. Printing and cooperage are carried on.

LIBRA (The Balance), in astronomy, the 7th sign of the zodiac, denoted by the symbol =, resembling a pair of scales, probably in allusion to the fact that when the sun enters this part of the ecliptic, at the autumnal equinox, the days and nights are equal.

LIBRARIES.

A library (from Lat. liber, book) is a collec-

tion of printed or written literature. The earliest libraries of the world were probably temples. The earliest collections of which we know anything were collections of archives. ANCIENT

LIBRARIES

Assyria.—In the course of his excavations at Nineveh in 1850, Layard came upon tablets of clay, covered with cuneiform characters. These varied in size from 1 to 12 in. square. It is estimated that this library consisted of some 109,000 distinct works and documents. The tablets appear to have been methodically arranged and catalogued, and the library seems to have been public. (See BABYLONIA and NIPPUR.)

B.C. (Pausanias v. 10. 3).

Ancient Egyptian Libraries.—At an early date Heliopolis was a literary centre of great importance, with culture akin to the Babylonian. Attached to every temple were professional scribes. We possess a record relating to “the land of the collected works (library) of Khufu,” a monarch of the 4th dynasty, and a similar inscription relating to the library of Khafra, the builder of the second pyramid. At Edfu the library was a small chamber in

arrondissement of the department of Gironde, at the confluence of the Isle with the Dordogne, 22 m. E.N.E. of Bordeaux on the railway to Angouléme. Pop. (1926) 14,184. The river is tidal and vessels drawing 14 ft. can reach the town at the highest tides. Libourne stands on an ancient site. Under the Romans Condate stood a mile to the south of the present Libourne; it was destroyed in the sth century. Resuscitated by Charlemagne, it was

papyri. The most famous of the Egyptian libraries is that of King Osymandyas (Rameses IL., 1300—1236 B.C.), described by Dio-

See G. Wissowa in Roscher’s Lexikon der Mythologie, s.v.

LIBON, 2 Greek architect, born at Elis, who was employed

to build the great temple of Zeus at Olympia (g.v.) about 460

LIBOURNE, a town of south-western France, capital of an

the temple, on the wall of which is a list of books (Brugsch, History of Egypt, 1881, i. 240). The exact position of Ikhnaton’s library (or archives) of clay tablets is known. A library of charred books has been found at Mendes (Egypt Expl. Fund, Two Hieroglyphic Papyri), and we have references to temple li-

braries in the Silsileh “Nile” stelae and, perhaps, in the Harris

2

LIBRARIES

dorus Siculus, was probably in the Ramesseum at Western Thebes. Papyri from the palace, of a later date, have been discovered by Sir W. Flinders Petrie. According to Eustathius there was a great collection at Memphis. At the Persian invasion many books were carried away by the conquerors. Greece.—Amongst known collectors of books were Pisistratus, Polycrates of Samos, Euclid the Athenian, Nicocrates of Cyprus, Euripides and Aristotle (Athenaeus i. 41). At Cnidus there is said to have been a special collection of works upon medicine. Pisistratus is reported to have been the first of the Greeks who collected books on a large scale. Plato is known to have been a collector; and Xenophon tells us of the library of Euthydemus. The library of Aristotle was bequeathed by him to his disciple, Theophrastus, and by Theophrastus to Neleus, who carried it to Scepsis, where it is said to have been concealed underground to avoid the literary cupidity of the kings of Pergamum. It is certain that the libraries of Alexandria were the most important, as they were the most celebrated, of the ancient world. Alexandria.—Ptolemy Soter had, it seems, already begun to collect books, but it was in the reign of Ptolemy Philadelphus that the libraries were properly established in separate buildings. There were two libraries at Alexandria; the larger, in the Brucheum quarter, was in connection with the museum, a sort of academy, while the smaller was in the Serapeum. The number of volumes was very large, although it is difficult to attain any certainty amongst varying accounts, such as those of Tzetzes (42,800 in the Serapeum and 490,000 in the Brucheum), Aulus Gellius

[MEDIAEVAL

Nero. Domitian restored the libraries then destroyed, and he, or Hadrian, founded the Capitoline library. The most famous and important of the imperial libraries was that created by Ulpius Trajanus, known as the Ulpian library, afterwards removed to the baths of Diocletian. The library of Domitian, which had been destroyed by fire in the reign of Commodus, was restored by Gordian, who added to it the 62,000 books bequeathed to him by Serenus Sammonicus. In the 4th century there are said to have been 28 public libraries in Rome. Roman Provincial Libraries—The library which the younger Pliny gave to Comum cost a million sesterces; Hadrian established one at Athens, described by Pausanias, and recently identified with the Stoa of Hadrian. At Ephesus and at Timgad in Algeria, the structural plan of the library buildings is clear (R. Cagnat, “Les Bibliothèques municipales dans l'Empire Romain,” 1906, Mém. de Acad. des Insc., tom. xxxviii. pt. 1). A private library discovered at Herculaneum contained 1,756 rolls on shelves round the room, to a height of about 6 ft., with a central press. The Christian libraries closely followed the classical prototypes. The names of several librarians (generally slaves or freedmen) are preserved to us in inscriptions, including that of C. Hymenaeus, physician and librarian to Augustus. Constantinople.—When the seat of empire was removed by Constantine to his new capital upon the Bosporus, the emperor

established a collection there.

Constantine’s library, which con-

tained 6,900 vols., was perhaps mainly intended as a repository of Christian literature; it was greatly enlarged by Julian and

(700,000) and Seneca (400,000). It should be observed that, as the ancient roll or volume usually contained less matter than a Theodosius, at whose death it is said to have increased to 100,000 modern book, these numbers must be discounted for comparison volumes. Julian not only augmented the library at- Constantiwith modern collections. The first five librarians appear to have nople, but founded others. As Christian literature grew, libraries became part of the ecbeen Zenodotus, Callimachus, Eratosthenes, Apollonius and Aristophanes; they cover about a century. Some of the first experi- clesiastical organization, and it became the rule to attach one to ments in bibliography were the catalogues of the Alexandrian every church. The largest of these libraries, that founded “by libraries. Amongst other lists, two were prepared by order of Pamphilus (d. A.D. 309) at Caesarea, and said to have been inPtolemy Philadelphus, one of tragedies, the other of comedies. creased by Eusebius to 30,000 vols., is frequently mentioned by The rivares of Callimachus formed a catalogue of all the prin- St. Jerome. St. Augustine bequeathed his collection to the library cipal books, arranged in 120 classes. After the time of Aurelian, of the church at Hippo, which was fortunate enough to escape the Serapeum became the principal library. The usual statement destruction at the hands of the Vandals. Even the hermit comvhat the libraries continued to flourish until they were destroyed munities of the Egyptian deserts, out of which developed the later monastic orders, accumulated books. in A.D. 640 can hardly be supported. The Pergamum.—German researches in the acropolis of With the removal of the capital to Byzantium the libraries of Pergamum (1878-86) revealed four library rooms (Al. Conze, Rome ceased to collect the writings of the Greeks, while the Die pergamen. Bibliothek. 1884). Despite the embargo placed Greek libraries had never cared much to collect Latin literature. by the Ptolemies upon the export of papyrus, the library, when The church became increasingly hostile to pagan letters. The reit was transported to Egypt, numbered 200,000 volumes. We peated irruptions of the barbarians soon swept the old learning learn from Suidas that in 221 3.c. Antiochus the Great sum- and libraries alike from the soil of Italy. With the close of the moned the poet and grammarian, Euphorion of Chalcis, to be Western empire in 476 the ancient history of libraries may be said to cease. his librarian. Rome.—It is not until the last century of the republic that MEDIAEVAL PERIOD we hear of libraries in Rome, with the exception of the writings Gaul—During the first few centuries after the fall of the of Mago upon agriculture. The first considerable collections of which we hear in Rome were brought there as the spoils of war. Western empire, in the West, as in the East, few cared for learnThe library of Perseus was all that Aemilius Paulus reserved from ing. Sidonius Apollinaris tells us of the libraries of several private the prizes of victory (167 3.c.) for himself and his sons. Next collectors in Gaul. During the 6th and 7th centuries in the, Irish monasteries there came the library of Apellicon the Teian, brought from Athens by Sulla (86 »B.c.). The zeal of Cicero and Atticus in adding to appear to have been many books. The library of York, which their collections is well known. Tyrannion is said to have had was founded by Archbishop Egbert, was almost more famous 30,000 vols. of his own, and Cicero wrote to M. Terentius Varro: than that of Canterbury, and was described in verse by Alcuin. “Si hortum in bibliotheca habes, nihil deerit.” The honour of The inroads of the Northmen in the oth and roth centuries had being the first actually to dedicate a library to the public is said been fatal to monastic libraries. The correspondence of Lupus by Pliny and Ovid to have fallen to G. Asinius Pollio, who erected Servatus, a pupil of Hrabanus Maurus at Fulda, and afterwards a library in the Atrium Libertatis on Mount Aventine. Augustus abbot of Ferriéres, illustrates the paucity and dearness of books, erected two libraries, the Octavian and the Palatine. The former the declining care for learning, and the increasing troubles of the was founded (33 B.C.) in honour of his sister, the charge of the time. Charlemagne collected a number of choice books for his books being committed to C. Melissus. The Octavian and Palatine private use. Although these collections were dispersed at his libraries perished by fire; the story that the Palatine was de- death, his son, Louis, formed a library which continued to exist

stroyed by order of Pope Gregory the Great in the 6th century is under Charles the Bald. But the greatest private collector of the now generally rejected. ‘Tiberius, the immediate successor of middle ages was doubtless Gerbert, Pope Sylvester II. St. Benedict.—For the next four or five centuries the collectAugustus, established on the Palatine what Gellius refers to as the “Tiberian library.” Vespasian established a library in the ing and multiplication of books were almost entirely confined to Temple of Peace erected after the burning of the city under the monasteries. In each newly-founded monastery there was to

LIBRARIES

MEDIAEVAL]

be a library, eż velut curia quaedam. illustrium auctorum, that is of religious writers. of a long tradition. Carthusians and the literary pursuits. The were remarkable for

Monte Cassino became the starting point Of the reformed Benedictine orders the Cistercians were those most devoted to abbeys of Fleury, of Melk and of St. Gall the splendour of their libraries. The Au-

gustinians and the Dominicans rank next to the Benedictines. The

libraries

of Ste. Geneviève

and St. Victor, belonging to the

former order, were amongst the largest of the monastic collections.

Richard of Bury praises them for their diligence in collecting books. Sir Richard Whittington built a large library for the Grey Friars in London, and they possessed considerable libraries at

Ozford. Monastic Libraries.—In Italy, the earliest and most famous was Monte Cassino, which fell a prey to the Saracens and to fire in

the oth century. The library of Bobbio was famous for its palimpsests; the collection was mainly transferred to the Ambrosian library at Milan. Of the monastic libraries of France the principal were those of Fleury, of Cluny, of St. Riquier and of Corbie. The library of

St. Riquier, in the time of Louis the Pious, contained 256 mss., with over 500 works. Of the collection at Corbie in Picardy we have also catalogues dating from the 12th and from the 17th centuries. In 1638, 400 of its choicest manuscripts were removed to St. Germain-des-Prés. The remainder were removed after 1794, partly to the national library at Paris, partly to the town library of Amiens. The chief monastic Mbraries of Germany were at Fulda, Corvey, Reichenau and Sponheim. The library of Corvey on the Weser, after being despoiled in the Reformation, was presented to the University of Marburg in 181r. The library of Reichenau fell a prey to the Thirty Years’ War. The library at St. Gall, formed as early as 816 by its second abbot, still exists.

England.—In England, the principal collections were those of Canterbury, York, Wearmouth, Jarrow, Whitby, Glastonbury, Crowland, Peterborough and Durham. The library of Christchurch, Canterbury, originally founded by Augustine and Theodore, contained, in the 13th or r4th century, about 5,000 works. It was destroyed by the Danes about 867. Of Whitby there is a' catalogue of the 12th century. The catalogue of Glastonbury has been printed by Hearne in his edition of John of Glastonbury. The library of Crowland perished by fire in 1091; Peterborough was rich; from a catalogue of about the end of the 14th century, it had 344 vols., with nearly 1,700 titles. The catalogues of Durham have been printed by the Surtees Society. (The oldest catalogue of a Western library is that of the monastery of Fontanelle in Normandy [8th century].) Many catalogues may be found in the collections of D’Achery, Martene and Durand, and Pez, in the bibliographical periodicals of Naumann and Petzholdt and the Zentralblatt f. Bibliothekswesen. ‘The Rev. Joseph Hunter has collected some particulars as to the contents of the English monastic libraries; E. Edwards has printed a list of the catalogues (Libraries and Founders of Libraries, 1865, pp. 448~454. See also G. Becker, Catalogi Bibliothecarum Antiqui, [1885].) In the r4th century the Franciscans compiled a general catalogue of the mss. in 160 English libraries, and about 1400, John Boston, a Benedictine monk of Bury, catalogued the libraries of 195 religious houses in England and part of Scotland

(Tanner, Bibl. Brit. Hibern., 1748). Leland’s list of the books he

found during his visitation of the houses in 1539-45 is printed in his Collectanea. The identification of the early provenance of mediaeval mss. has been greatly advanced of late years, especially by the works of M. R. James, both by catalogues of existing collections and publications of surviving monastic catalogues, e.g., those of Canterbury and Dover (1909). (See, generally, J. W.

Clark, The Care of Books [1909], and E. A. Savage, Old English Libraries, 1911.) These catalogues, with many others, afford abundant evidence of the limited size and character of the monkish collections.

3

borrow a book apiece and to read it straight through. In many houses the treasury or spendiment contained two classes of books —one for the monks generally, one more closely guarded. A press near the infirmary contained books used by the reader in the refectory. By the end of the 15th century the larger monasteries found the necessity of a separate library apartment. Libraries were specially built at Canterbury, Durham, Citeaux, Clairvaux and elsewhere, and there grew up increased liberality in the use of books. By the rs5th century, collegiate and monastic libraries were on the same plan, the books being laid on desks or lecterns, and chained to a horizontal bar. As the books increased the accommodation was augmented by one or two shelves erected above the desks. The library at Cesana is still in its original condition. The Laurentian library at Florence was designed by Michelangelo on the monastic model. There were no chains in the library of the Escorial, erected in 1584, which showed, for the frst time, bookcases placed against the walls. Chains continued to be used in England in church libraries down to the early part of the 18th century, as at Wimborne. Triple desks and revolving lecterns, ` raised by a wooden screw, formed part of the library furniture. The English cathedral libraries were fashioned after the same principle. By the end of the 17th century the type of the public library developed from collegiate and monastic prototypes became fixed throughout Europe. The library of St. John’s college, Cambridge (16th century), and the Bodleian at Oxford, are slightly developed from the mediaeval type. In that of Trinity college, Cambridge, the walls are covered with books and the windows are raised. (H. R. Tedder, “Evolution of the Public Library,” in Trans. of and Int. Library Conference, 1897, 1898.) Arabians.—Greek manuscripts were eagerly sought for and translated into Arabic, and colleges and libraries everywhere arose, notably at Baghdad, Cordova, Cairo and Tripoli. The royal library of the Fatimites in Africa, and that collected by the Omayyads of Spain are reported, perhaps with exaggeration, to have contained 100,000 and 600,000 mss. It is said that there were no less than 70 libraries opened in the cities of Andalusia. |

Renaissance.—In the oth century, under Leo the Philosopher and Constantine Porphyrogenitus, the libraries of Constantinople awoke into renewed life. Meanwhile, in the West we find arising outside the monasteries a taste for collecting books. Charles V. of France formed a considerable library of gro vols., including much newer literature, and had a catalogue of them prepared in 1373. Guy, earl of Warwick, formed a collection of French romances, which he bequeathed to Bordesley abbey in 1315.

Richard of Bury, the doubtful author of the Philobiblon, amassed a noble collection. The taste for secular literature and for the classics gave a fresh direction to collectors, and a disposition to encourage literature began to show itself. Cosimo de’ Medici formed a library at Venice while living there in exile in 1433, and on his return to Florence laid the foundation of the great Medicean library. Niccolo Niccoli had already, in 1436, left his library of over 800 volumes for the use of the public. Frederick, duke of Urbino, and Poggio Bracciolini, were among the chief collectors of the Latin mss. buried in monastic libraries. Beyond the Alps, Matthias Corvinus, king of Hungary, amassed a great collection of splendid manuscripts. With printing, the modern history of libraries may be said to begin. MODERN BRITISH LIBRARIES State Libraries, British Museum.—The British Museum ranks in importance before all the great libraries of the world, except the National Library of France, and excels in the arrangement and accessibility of its contents. The library consists of about 3,200,000 printed vols, and 56,000 mss.; the shelves measure about 55 miles. This extraordinary opulence is princi-

pally due to the enlightened energy of Sir Anthony Panizzi (g.v.). The foundation of the British Museum dates from 1753, when effect was given to the bequest (in exchange for £20,000 to be paid to his executors) by Sir Hans Sloane, of his books, manu-

The Development of Library Arrangements.—Modern li- scripts, curiosities, etc., to be held by trustees for the use of the brary methods began with the rule of St. Benedict, early in the nation. A bill was passed through parliament for the purchase 6th century. In the 48th chapter the monks were ordered to of the Sloane collections and of the Harleian mss., costing

4

LIBRARIES

£10,000. To these, with the Cottonian mss., acquired by the country in 1700, was added by George II., in 1757, the royal library of the former kings of England, coupled with the privilege of obtaining a copy of every publication entered at Stationers’ Hall. A lottery having been authorized to defray the expenses of purchases, as well as for providing suitable accommodation, the museum and library were established in Montague House, and opened to the public Jan. 15, 1759. In 1763 George III. presented the Thomason collection (in 2,220 vols.) of Civil War and Commonwealth tracts. The Rev. C. M. Cracherode bequeathed his collection of choice books in 1799, and Sir Joseph Banks his library (16,000 vols.) of natural history and travels, in 1820. Of other libraries since then incorporated in the museum, the most valuable are George III.’s collection, 15,000 volumes of tracts and 65,259 vols. of printed books, which was transferred (for a pecuniary consideration) by George IV. in 1823, and that of the Right Hon. Thomas Grenville (20,240 vols. of rare books, bequeathed in r846). The Cracherode, Banksian, King’s and Gren" ville libraries are still preserved as separate collections. The collections of newspapers, starting with those in the Thomason and Burney collections, are unique; provincial newspapers have, since 1906, been stored at a repository at Hendon. Of newspapers published in the United Kingdom 3,126 are annually filed and bound. The department of mss. is equal in importance to that of the printed books. The collection of European mss. contains 54,000 vols., over 80,000 rolls, a rich series of charters, etc., and a vast quantity of papers, ranging from the 3rd century B.c. down to our own times, and includes the Codex Alexandrinus of the Bible, the old historical chronicles of England, the charters of the

Anglo-Saxon kings, the Arthurian romances, and also unprinted _works by English writers. The famous collections of mss. made by Sir Robert Cotton and Robert Harley, earl of Oxford, have already been mentioned, and from these and other sources the museum has become rich in early Anglo-Saxon and Latin codices, such as Beowulf, the charters of King Edgar and Henry I. to Hyde abbey, which are written in gold letters; or the Lindisfarne gospels (A.D. 700), containing the earliest extant Anglo-Saxon version of the Latin gospels. The museum can boast of an early copy of the Jizad, and one of the earliest known codices of the Odyssey. Among the unrivalled collection of Greek papyri are the unique mss. of several works of ancient literature, such as Aris-

totle, On the Constitution of Athens, the Mimes of Herodas, and the Odes of Bacchylides. Irish, French and Italian mss. are well represented, For illuminated mss. special reference may be made to the Lindisfarne Gospels, the Bedford Hours, the Sforza Book of Hours, and Queen Mary’s Psalter. The collections of local and family history, of maps, and of music are very rich. Oriental

printed books (116,000), and mss. (16,200) form, since 1892, a separate department. The collection includes the library formed by Mr. Rich (consul at Baghdad in the early part of the roth century); the Chambers collection of Sanskrit mss.; and a library of Hebrew mss., including that of the great scholar, Michaelis, and codices of great age, brought from Yemen. The collection of Syriac mss. is important.

The building in which the library is housed was opened in 1857. The reading room is surrounded by book stores placed in iron stacks, the origin of the more modern steel stacks; in these are fitted hanging and rolling auxiliary bookcases. The presses inside the reading-room contain upwards of 60,000 vols.; to those on the ground floor (20,000), readers have direct access. The Natural History Museum, South Kensington, a department of the British Museum under separate management, has a library of books on the natural sciences numbering over 100,000 volumes. Patent Office and other State Libraries.—The finest tech-

nical library in the country is that of the Patent Office in Southampton buildings, London. The library contains 220,000 volumes. Another special library is the National Art Library, transferred to South Kensington in 1856. It contains about 150,000 vols. and 250,000 photographs. For science there is the library of the Science Museum, South Kensington, which was founded in 1857 (170,000 vols.). It is devoted to pure and applied science;

[MODERN

BRITISH

it maintains, besides its own subject catalogue, an index to scien-

tific books and periodicals. The only other State libraries which are open to the public are those of the Board of Education (50,000 vols.), the Ministry of Agriculture, the Imperial Institute and the Imperial War Museum. Among the other State libraries in London may be briefly noted as follows:—Admiralty (1700) 100,000 vols.; House of Commons (1818), ¢. 60,000 vols.; House of Lords (1834) 80,000 vols.; India Office (1800) 130,000 printed books and 15,000 mss. and xylographs; Kew, Royal Botanic Gardens (1853), 40,000 volumes. Outside London the most important State libraries are the national libraries of Scotland, Wales and Ireland. Sir George Mackenzie, of Rosehaugh, may be regarded as the founder of the

National Library of Scotland. In 1684 the first librarian was appointed, and in 1686 the books and furniture were valued at upwards of £11,000, exclusive of donations. The library retains the

copyright privilege conferred upon it in 1709. Of the special collections the most important are the Astorga (Spanish), purchased in 1824; the Thorkelin collection, relating chiefly to the history and antiquities of the northern nations; the Dietrich collection of German pamphlets and dissertations, and the Bambougle Scottish collection, presented in 1928 by Lord Rosebery. , Manuscripts number well over 3,000. There are 13 monastic chartularies which escaped the destruction of the religious houses to which they belonged. The mss, relating to Scottish church history include the collections of Spottiswoode, Wodrow and Calderwood. Sir James Balfour’s collection and the Balcarres papers consist largely of original State papers of James V., Queen Mary and James VI. The Sibbald papers are largely topographical,

The Riddel notebooks illustrate Scottish genealogy. The Magnusson Icelandic mss., purchased in 1825, and some Persian and Sanskrit, with a few classical, manuscripts may be noted. The most important mss. of old poetry are the Bannatyne ms., written by George Bannatyne in 1568, and the Auchinleck ms. In 1922, the Faculty, finding the maintenance of the general library increasingly onerous, offered it to the Government as a national library of Scotland. The Government accepted the offer in 1923, when an institution towards which movements had been made in Scotland since 1870 received a gift of £100,000 from

Sir Alexander Grant, and the necessary act was passed and the library transferred in 1925. The library now contains over 750,000 volumes. The advocates retain the law section. The National Library of Wales at Aberystwyth, founded in 1907, was opened in 1915. It enjoys the copyright privilege, and now contains nearly 500,000 volumes, classified by the Library of Congress scheme. It is very rich in Welsh manuscripts, including the collection of Sir John Williams, and Wynn of the Gwydyr, Peniarth, Crosswood and Carreglwyd papers. Francis Bour-

dillon’s Romances, and C, Thomas-Stanford’s Euclids are among special collections of printed books. The National Library of Ireland, Dublin, was founded in 1877, and incorporates the library of the Royal Dublin Society. It contains about 300,000 volumes, classified on the decimal system, and catalogued in various forms. i University and Collegiate Libraries.—The earliest library of the University of Oxford was in existence in 1337; the second

was founded by Humphrey, duke of Gloucester (d. 1447); these perished, and the Bodleian library was founded in 1598 and en-

dowed in 1611 by Sir Thomas Bodley (¢.v.). He opened the library in 1603 with upwards of z,000 volumes. In 1610 he obtained a grant from the Stationers’ company of a copy of every work printed in the country, a privilege still enjoyed under the Copyright Acts. Other chief benefactors have been Archbishop Laud, Jobn Selden, Richard Gough, Francis Douce, Lord Sunderlin (brother of Edmund Malone) and Richard Rawlinson. The library now contains almost 1,250,000 printed volumes, and about

40,000 manuscripts (other than charters, rolls, etc.). In oriental manuscripts it is, perhaps, superior to any other European library; and it is exceedingly rich in other manuscripts, especially in English literary and local history, and in early printing.

MODERN BRITISH]

LIBRARIES

The Radcliffe library of natural science, founded by Dr. John Radcliffe (d. 1714) and opened, in 1749, in the domed building known as the “Radcliffe Camera,” was transferred to the new University museum and laboratories in 1860, when the trustees offered the use of the Camera to the curators of the Bodleian; the

building was transferred absolutely in 1927. In the Camera are the modern books, and it also serves as a reading-room, especially

for undergraduates and in the evening. Departmental libraries forming part of the Bodleian are the Indian institute, the Law library, Maitland library (social and legal history), and Rhodes house (Colonial history). The Bodleian library is open by right to all graduate members of the university, and to other recommended students. The ordinary expenditure is about £10,000. A large repository has been arranged for book storage underground. Controversy as to extension or new building was acute in 1927—28, but was left undecided by Convocation. The Taylor institution for modern languages is due to the benefaction of Sir Robert Taylor, an architect (d. 1788). The Finch collection (bequeathed in 1830), is kept with it. The libraries of the several colleges vary considerably. That of All Souls was established in 1443 by Archbishop Chichele, and possesses 40,000 printed volumes and 300 mss., and is rich in law.

The library of Christ Church is rich in divinity and topography. Corpus possesses a fine collection of Aldines, with about 400 mss. Exeter college has classical dissertations and English theological

and political tracts. Jesus college has the bequest of Sir Leoline Jenkins and also Welsh mss. Keble college has the mss. of many of Keble’s works. Magdalen college has about 22,500 volumes and 250 mss. with scientific and topographical collections. The old

library of Merton college (see above) now specializes in modern

the bequest made by Archbishop Parker in 1575.

5 The printed

books are less than 5,000 in number; the ancient mss. attract scholars from all parts of Europe. Gonville and Caius college library is of early foundation. The printed books of King’s college include the bequest by Jacob Bryant (1804). The mss. are almost wholly oriental. Magdalene college is remarkable for popular literature and for naval mss., the greater portion of which is in the Pepysian library. (See Pepys, SAMUEL.) The library of Peterhouse, the oldest in Cambridge, possesses a catalogue of some 600 or 700 books dating from 1418. It has a unique collection of ms. music. Queen’s college library contains about 30,000 vols., and is rich in Semitic literature. The library of St. John’s college is rich in early printed books and English history. The library of the University of London, founded in 1837, now at South Kensington, has over 300,000 vols., and includes the Goldsmiths’ Economic (60,000 vols.), and a musical library. Other collections are De Morgan’s collection of mathematical books, Grote’s classical library, etc. University college library, Gower street, established in 1820, has 286,000 vols., including Jeremy Bentham’s library, Morrison’s Chinese library, Barlow’s Dante library, collections of law,

medicine (including medical history), mathematical, theological, art, oriental and other books.

Icelandic,

King’s college library, founded in 1828, has over 70,000 volwmes. In close association with the University of London is the London School of Economics and Political Science (1896), in which is housed the British Library of Political Science, with 250,000 books and 500,000 pamphlets and official reports. The School of Oriental Studies was established in 1916 in the building of the London institution. The library of Sion college (1635) is rich in liturgies, Port-Royal authors, etc., and contains about 200,000 vols. classified on a modification of the decimal system. The copyright privilege was commuted in 1835.

foreign history and philosophy. New college has about 17,000 printed volumes and about 350 mss., including several presented English Provinces.—The Rothamsted Experimental Station by its founder, William of Wykeham. Oriel college has a special collection on comparative philology and mythology. Queen’s has an agricultural library of 20,000 volumes. The other English college is strong in theology, in modern history, and in English universities and colleges have libraries; the chief are: Manchester county histories. St. John’s college library is largely composed of (205,000 vols.); Birmingham (120,000 vols.); Liverpool (100,theology and law before 1750, and medical books of the 16th and 000 vols.); Leeds (98,000 vols.); Sheffield (83,000 vols.); Bristol ryth centuries. Wadham college has the botanical books be- (70,000 vols.), absorbing in 1924 the library of the Bristol Medqueathed by Richard Warner (1775) and Benjamin Wiffen’s ical Chirurgical Society (1831) ; Durham (39,000 vols.) has many collection on the Spanish Reformers, Worcester college has of incunabula. That of Exeter is combined with the City library. late specially devoted itself to classical archaeology. It is also The Association of University Teachers established in 1925, at rich in old English drama and poetry, and drawings by Inigo Birmingham, an enquiry bureau for the University libraries, to act as a centre for mutual lending; this it is intended to transfer Jones. The University library at Cambridge dates from the earlier when possible to the central library for students. The University part of the 15th century. Two early catalogues are preserved, libraries share in the grants made by the Government’s Universithe first embracing 52 vols. and dating from about 1425, the sec- ties Grants committee. A few of the libraries of theological ond a shelf-list, apparently of 330 vols., made in 1473. The li- colleges and public schools are important and have historical colbrary, which contains about 1,000,000 vols. and 19 miles of lections, incunabula, etc., such as Oscott college (1838), 36,000 shelves, has the copyright privilege. It includes a fine series of vols.; Stonyhurst college (1794), ¢. 40,000 vols.; Shrewsbury editiones principes of the classics and of the early productions of school, 7,000 vols., etc. Scotland.—The University library of Edinburgh originated in English and Netherlandish presses. The mss. number over 10,000, in which are included a considerable number of adversaria or a bequest of books made to the town in 1580 by Clement Little, printed books with ms. notes, which form a leading feature in the advocate. In 1831 the books were removed to the present buildcollection. The most famous of the mss. is the Codex Bezae of ing. Modern accessions have been the Halliwell-Phillips (Shakethe four gospels and the Acts, which was presented to the uni- speare), the Laing (Scottish mss.), the Baillie (oriental mss.) and the Hodgson (political economy). The library now consists of versity by Beza himself. There is a library attached to the Fitzwilliam museum, be- about 350,000 vols. of printed books, with over 8,o00 mss. All schools and colleges in Scotland are well equipped with liqueathed to the university in 1816. It contains printed and ms. music, and a collection of illuminated mss., chiefly French and braries. The oldest University Library, St. Andrews (1456) contains well over a quarter of a million volumes. Glasgow (15th Flemish. Catalogues and reprints have been published. Trinity College Library.—The library of Trinity college has Cent.) has 255,000 volumes; Aberdeen (1500) 260,000 volumes. over 100,000 printed and nearly 2,000 ms. volumes. Amongst Among others are New College, Edinburgh (1843), 50,000 volspecial collections are the Capell collection of early dramatic and umes, and Royal Technical College, Glasgow, 16,000 volumes. Ireland.—In 1601 the English army, to commemorate their especially Shakespearian literature, German theology and philosophy, and the Grylls bequest in 1863 of 9,600 vols., including victory at Kinsale, subscribed £1,800 to establish a library in the many early printed books. There are printed catalogues of the University of Dublin. Later bequests and gifts have been Sir Sanskrit and other oriental mss. by Aufrecht and Palmer, of the Jerome Alexander’s (law books and mss.), 1674; Palliser, 1726; incunabula by Robert Sinker, and of the Capell collection by Gilbert, 1736; and Quin (classical and Italian), 1805. In 1802 the collection of 20,000 vols. formed by the pensionary Fagel, was W. W. Greg, 1903. , acquired. The library enjoys the copyright privilege. After the and Italian early Ruggle’s George includes library Clare college Spanish plays. The library of Corpus Christi college is famous for recognition of the Irish Free State the right was confirmed. The

6

LIBRARIES

library now contains 386,000 vols. and over 2,000 mss. There is no permanent endowment. There is a printed catalogue of the mss. (1900) and incunabula (1890). Queen’s college, Belfast (1849), has about 101,000 vols.; Queen’s college, Cork (1849), 100,000; University college, Dublin, 65,000; and St. Patrick’s college, Maynooth (1795) about 55,000. (See L. Newcombe, The University and College Libraries of Great Britain and Ireland, 1927.) Cathedral and Church Libraries.—With one or two excep-

tions, libraries are attached to the cathedrals. Intended for the cathedral or diocesan clergy, they are in most cases open to persons suitably introduced. Many have valuable mss., but most were ravaged in the Civil War, and the printed collections are

the work of antiquarian deans of the 18th century. That of St. Paul’s cathedral was founded in very early times, and now numbers some 22,000 vols. and pamphlets, with a good collection of early Bibles and Testaments, Paul’s Cross sermons, and works connected with the cathedral (catalogue 1893). For the library of Christ Church, Oxford, which belongs alike to the college and the cathedral, see above. That of Durham, 20,000 vols., dates from monastic times, and possesses many of the books which belonged to the monastery. The collection is fairly general, and is kept up to date. It is especially rich in very early mss., written at Durham. The library at York is open to the public, has many valuable mss. and early printed books. It includes Edward Hailstone’s topographical library (catalogue of pr. bks., 1896). The foundation of the library at Canterbury dates probably from the time of Augustine, but nothing of the. pre-Conquest library survives. Many of the mss. originally here were transferred by Archbishop Parker to Corpus Christi college, Cambridge (catalogue 1743 and 1802, of mss. 1911). The present building was erected in 1867. The Lincoln cathedral library (catalogue 1859, of incunabula 1925, of mss. 1927) was refounded by Dean Honeywood, at the Restoration, in a building by Wren. Chichester dates from the Restoration only; Ely is rich in the non-jurors. Exeter possesses many Saxon. mss., including the “Exeter Book” of Old English poetry, the gift of Leofric, the first bishop. At Lichfield the existing library is postRestoration, but includes the famous Evangeliary of St. Chad. The collection at Norwich is chiefly modern. The earlier library al Peterborough being almost destroyed in the Civil War, Bishop White Kennett refounded it, but many of his books have been

lost. Salisbury is rich in incunabula (catalogue 1880). Winchester cathedral library is mainly the bequest of Bishop Morley (r7th century). The library at Bristol was burnt and pillaged in the riots of 1831. At Chester, in 1691, Dean Arderne hequeathed his books and part of his estate “as the beginning of

a public library for the clergy and city.” The library of Hereford (catalogue of mss., 1927) is a good specimen of an old monastic chained library; Worcester has fine mss. (catalogue, 1906, and of incunabula, rg10). The four Welsh cathedrals were supplied with libraries by a deed of settlement in 1709. All are small; the largest, St. Asaph, has about 1,750 volumes. That founded by Archbishop Leighton in 1684 in Dunblane cathedral (2,000 vols.), is the only cathedral library in Scotland of any historic interest. The public library established about 1694 in St. Patrick’s cathedral, Dublin, by Archbishop Marsh, was incorporated in 1707, and endowed by its founder at his death in 1713. The books are chiefly theological and include the libraries of Bishop Stillingfleet and of Elias Bouhereau, the first librarian. In 1849 Beriah Bot-

field published Notes on the Cathedral Libraries of England. The best Catholic libraries in London are those of Brompton Oratory (1849—35,000 vols., 3,000 pamph.) and Westminster cathedral (22,000 vols. and valuable archives). The archiepiscopal library at Lambeth palace (41,000 printed books and 1,300 mss.) has been enriched by the gifts of Laud, Tenison, Manners Sutton, and others of his successors. It is rich in theology and Church history. Of the illuminated mss., and early printed books, catalogues have been issued by S. R. Maitland (1792—1866). The mss.

are described in H. J. Todd’s catalogue, 18x 2, and the older volumes by M. R. James, 1900. Endowed Libraries——In London the Bishopsgate institute

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(1891), founded out of City charities, contains about 50,000

vols., and a fine collection of prints, drawings and maps of London.

The Cripplegate institute (1896) in Golden lane, also founded out of charity monies, has three branches—St. Bride institute; the Queen street, Cheapside, branch; and St. Luke’s institute. The St. Bride Foundation Technical Reference Library (1895) is a very complete collection of about 30,000 vols. on printing and

allied arts. Dr. Williams’s library (over 75,000 vols.), founded in

1716 by the will of Dr. Daniel Williams, is primarily theological,

and has been enlarged to include philosophy, history and literature,

with collections of theosophy and of the works of Boehme, Law,

and other mystics. The mss. include the original minutes of the Westminster Assembly, letters and treatises of Richard Baxter and the journals of Crabbe Robinson. The most notable of the English provincial endowed libraries are those of Manchester. That founded by Humphrey Chetham

in 1653 is still housed in its old collegiate buildings (100,000 vols. and mss.). More important is the John Rylands. In 1928

the John Rylands had 310,000 vols. and 10,000 mss., including the 6,000 Crawford mss. from Haigh Hall, bought in rgor, and 20,000 French Revolution broadsides, etc., presented by the earl of Crawford in 1924. Other considerable endowed libraries are the William Salt, Stafford (20,000 vols. of Staffordshire history) opened 1874; the Solon Ceramic library, Stoke-on-Trent (5,500 vols. and 100 current periodicals); St. Deiniol’s (1894), Hawarden, founded by W. E. Gladstone; and the Shakespeare Memorial (1879), Stratford-upon-Avon. The oldest endowed library in Scotland is the Innerpeffray Perthshire (1680), founded by David Drummond, 3rd Lord Madertie. The most important is the Mitchell in Glasgow, founded by Stephen Mitchell (1874), opened in 1877. It contains valuable collections of Scottish poetry, Burns’ works, Glasgow printing, and art. It contains over 250,000 vols., and is the reference library for the Glasgow public library system. Glasgow also has Stirling’s and Glasgow Public Library (1791), which was amalgamated

with an existing subscription library (60,000 vols.) and Baillie’s Institution Free Reference library (24,000 vols.) established un-

der the bequest of George Baillie (1863), but not opened till 1887. The public library of Armagh, Ireland, was founded in 1770.

Libraries of Societies and Learned Bodies.—Full particu-

lars of most will be found in R. A. Rye’s Libraries of London: a Guide for Students (ard ed., 1927), and a more summary guide, covering the whole country, in the Aslib Directory, 1928. Of the law libraries, that at Lincoln's Inn, London, is the oldest and the largest (72,000 vols.). That of the Middle Temple contains 70,000 vols. The library of the Inner Temple is known to

have existed in 1540.

Its chief collections are William Petyt's

mss., received in 1708, John Adolphus’s historical pamphlets, and the Crawford collection on crime. There are about 62,000

vols. Gray’s Inn library (30,000 vols.) was established before 1555. The Law Society (1828) has 62,000 volumes. The Royal Institution of Great Britain (1803), possessing a general reference subscription library of about 150,000 vols., was closed in 1916, its oriental section remaining to help found the London

University School of Oriental Studies, while its Western books went to the university and college libraries. The best library of archaeology is the Society of Antiquaries’, Burlington House, 60,000 vols., many mss. and early printed books. For natural sciences there are the libraries of the Royal Society (1667), in Burlington House, which contains over 100,000 vols., mainly publications of scientific bodies (the celebrated Arundel bequest, dating from the society’s infancy, has been dis-

persed), Geological Society (1807), 40,000 vols. and maps; the Linnean Society (1788), 50,000 vols.; the Zoological Society (1829), about 36,000 vols. The Royal Society of Medicine (1907), incorporating a number of medical societies, 120,000 vols.; the Royal College of Physicians (1525), 40,000 vols.; the British Medical Association, 20,000 vols.: the Royal College of Surgeons (1800), 60,000 vols.: the Medical Society (1773), largely historical, 20,000 vols.; the Chemical Society (1841), over 30,000 vols, Other important London society libraries are the Royal Geographical Society (1830), 80,000 vols., and numerous

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LIBRARIES

maps, open to the public for reference; the Royal Colonial Institute (1868), 184,000 vols. of British colonial literature; the Royal

United Service institution, Whitehall (1831), 32,000 vols., belleslettres, politics and history. The Gladstone library (31,000 vols. and pamph.) of the National Liberal Club may be used occa-

7

the acts. But 49 urban areas, with a population of 580,000, had then no library service, nor in 1925 had half the rural population of the country.

Building Developments and Equipment.—The Carnegie Trust, in 1917, ceased to make grants, and in 1925 decided to consionally by non-members; the Garrick (a small dramatic collec- sider no further applications. The total sum expended by the trust tion), and the (Senior) United Service Club (Dugald Stewart’s on public library buildings in 1914—26 was £295,600. In every case library) may be mentioned. Very few club libraries are super- “open access” was adopted, and stress was laid upon accommodavised by trained librarians. Libraries are owned by the British tion for children. Good specimens may be seen at Manchester and and Foreign Bible Society (catalogue of Bibles, 1903~I1), the Croydon. Great improvements were effected in design. Card catInstitution of Civil Engineers (53,000 vols.), the Institution of alogue and subject-lists have almost entirely taken the place of Electrical Engineers (25,000 vols.), the Royal Academy (10,500 printed catalogues. Library policy has, also, become far more valuable vols.), the Royal Institute of British Architects (23,000 liberal than it was before the World War. Of the greatest imvols.), and many others. portance to business men has been the establishment in great city The library of the Writers to the Signet (1722), now contains libraries, since 1919, of commercial and technical departments, about 150,000 vols., with early prints and other rare books, espe- notably those of Birmingham, Manchester, Liverpool and Glascially in British topography. gow. The library of the Royal Irish Academy at Dublin (1785, 50,000 There is one important municipal library which is not ratevols. and over 2,000 Irish mss.), is partly supported by a Govern- supported under the Public Libraries Acts. This is the Guildhall ment grant and is freely open. reference library of the Corporation of the City of London. A Among subscription libraries, the London library (300,000) library was established for London by Sir Richard Whittington stands first in order of importance. It was founded in 1841 as a between 1421-26. But it did not remain without accident; about lending library for the use of scholars, largely at the instance 1549 the Lord Protector Somerset carried off three cart-loads of of Carlyle. Author and subject catalogues have been printed, the books, and during the great fire of 1666 the remainder together latter of great value. with the buildings were destroyed. Nothing was done to repair the The first circulating library in Birmingham was opened in loss until 1824; a new library was opened in 1828. 1757, and was followed by Liverpool Lyceum (1758) and WarringThe library (nearly 200,000 printed vols, and nearly 15,000 ton’s (1760), both merged in the museum, and by Leeds (1768). mss. in 1928) includes a special collection ef books, prints and Other proprietary libraries have been established at Leicester, drawings about London, the Solomons Hebrew and rabbinical Liverpool (Athenaeum, 1798), Manchester, Newcastle, Belfast library, the National Dickens library, etc., and the libraries of the (the Linen Hall library), Nottingham and elsewhere. In Scotland Clockmakers’ and Gardeners’ companies and of the Old Dutch the first subscription library was started by Allan Ramsay, the church in Austin Friars. | poet, at Edinburgh in 1725. Commercial subscription libraries British Library Administration.—A brief statement of the have increased greatly, Mudie’s (1841), W. H. Smith’s, and The work and methods of public libraries in the United Kingdom. Times Book Club being typical modern examples. will help to give some idea of the extent of their activities. In Many of the principal clubs possess libraries; that of the 1909 6o million vols. were circulated every year for home-reading,

Athenaeum (London) is by far the most important. It now numbers about 75,000 vols. of choice books. The pamphlets (of which also there is a complete printed catalogue), include those collected by Gibbon and Mackintosh. Next comes the Reform club, with about 60,000 vols. Public Libraries.—The first act of parliament authorizing the establishment of public libraries in England was obtained by William Ewart, M.P., in 1850. In 1853 the act of 1850 was extended

to Ireland and Scotland. The Public Libraries Amendment Act of 1919, besides establishing the county as a library unit, removed the rate-limit in England and Wales. The American library in 1928 was spending roughly four to five times as much per head as the average British library. British Library Legislation.—The main points in British library legislation are as follows:—(a@) The acts are permissive

and not compulsory. (b) Municipal libraries are managed by committees appointed by the local authorities, who may delegate to them all their powers and duties. Glasgow has contracted them out by a special act. In Ireland, committees are appointed much as

in England. (¢) Power is given to provide libraries, museums, schools for science, art galleries and schools for art. (d) The regulation and management of public libraries are entrusted to the library authority, which may either be the local authority or a committee with a full or partial delegation of powers. The London Government Act, 1899, by uniting various vestries or boards, extinguished about 23 library areas. The Metropolitan County of London in 1928 comprised 27 library areas, or,

counting also the City, 28. From 1887 progress has been rapid. An immense stimulus was given from about 1900, when Andrew Carnegie (g.v.) began to present library buildings to towns in England as well as to Scotland and the United States. In 1926, 57 out of 62 counties, 8r out of 82 country boroughs, all metropolitan boroughs, 232 out of 249 municipal boroughs, 732 out of 792 urban districts, and 12,660

out of 12,841 are, by adoption or inclusion, library areas under

54% representing fiction, including juvenile literature. The reference libraries issued over 11 million vols., exclusive of books consulted at open shelves, and to the reading-rooms, 85 million visits are made per annum. It is evident, moreover, that a complete revolution in library practice has been effected since 1882. Very little had been accomplished in the way of scientific classification schemes, although the decimal method of Melvil Dewey had been applied in the United States. Dewey’s system is now in use in 180 public libraries, J. D. Brown’s “subject” classification in 59; the later but important library of Congress system in about five. A complete catalogue of a general popular library contains no addition to bibliography, is costly and is out of date the moment it is printed. Modern libraries therefore compile complete catalogues only in manuscript form, and issue cheap class-lists, supplemented by lists of recent accessions. The idea of using separate clips or cards for cataloguing books, in order to obtain complete powers of arrangement and revision, is not new, having been applied during the French revolutionary period. The card system is perhaps the most generally used, but many improvements in the adjustable binders, called by librarians the “sheaf system,” already begin to make this latter form a serious tival. The card method consists of a series of cards, each bearing one entry, kept on edge in trays or drawers, to which projecting guides are added in order to facilitate reference. The sheaf method provides for slips of a uniform size being kept in book form in volumes capable of being opened by means of a screw or other fastening, for the purpose of adding or withdrawing slips. Both sides of a slip may be used, while a number of entries may be made on one slip. For great research libraries, however, the catalogue in volumes, though expensive to keep up to date, is the easiest to use. “ In the United States, practically every library has its open shelf collection. On the continent of Europe, however, this method is rare. The first “safeguarded” open access municipal lending

library was opened at Clerkenwell (now Finsbury), London, in 1893.

Every year several municipal systems are reorganized in

8

LIBRARIES

this way, and nothing but local lack of funds prevents the universal adoption of the system. In America losses are sometimes enormous, one library having confessed to a loss of 35,000 volumes in a single year. The precautions of the British plan are automatic locking wickets for entrance and exit, and registration of borrowers. The great majority of British and American. libraries use cards for “charging” or registering books lent to borrowers. Various Activities of Libraries.—Other activities of modern libraries which are common to both Britain and America are courses of lectures, drawing attention to the books in the library, book exhibitions, work with children, provision of books for the blind and for foreign residents, travelling libraries and the education of library assistants. In some districts (¢.g., Leicester) the libraries keep public elementary schools supplied with books, over which the teachers are able to exercise supervision. Under the Law of Property Amendment Act, 1924, all manorial documents were placed under the charge of the master of the rolls, who could order their deposit in authorized repositories. Many public libraries and some of local societies were so designated, and the care of archives received a great stimulus; their study had, since

1919, been included in the curriculum of the School of Librarianship, and was added in 1927 to that of the Library Association. Excellent work has been accomplished within recent years by the Library Association and the University of London School of Librarianship in the training of librarians. The report of the departmental committee on public libraries, 1927, is the best suryey of the field since that of 1849. The committee aimed at stimulating backward authorities by showing what is done in more favoured places. They were opposed to putting the libraries under the education authorities. The effect of the report was to outline a co-ordinated national system of public libraries, consisting of the urban libraries and the county libraries, with their village and small town branches, all these working together in regional schemes of co-operation, and beyond them the Central Library for Students acting as a reserve for out-of-the-way books, and acting as the centre for mutual loans between a large circle

of special libraries, and the public libraries. The report obtained general approval, notably that of the Library Association. In the same year the Scottish Library Association appealed to the secretary of State for Scotland to appoint (and the minister of finance

in Northern Ireland appointed) similar committees to make enquiry and report on the library service in those countries. (X.; A. Es.) COUNTY LIBRARIES

Whilst the brary movement made notable headway during the last quarter of the roth century, largely through the generous financial encouragement of Andrew Carnegie, the 28 years that followed have witnessed a greater, and, since 1918, a much more

rapid advance.

Before this date the service was severely handi-

capped by two restrictions: the one penny rate limit, which, except in the largest cities, precluded anything like adequate expenditure on books and salaries, and the almost total impossibility of applying the Public Libraries Acts in the smaller centres of population. An admirable statistical report, setting forth in detail the anomalies and difficulties of the situation, was prepared by Prof. W. G. S. Adams and published by the Carnegie United Kingdom Trust in r915. From this it was manifest that the position in the towns could not be remedied without the removal of the rate limit, and the only hope for the rural areas was in some broad scheme of co-operation. The Library Association had persistently agitated for new legislation, with the former object as the most urgent item. Pending action by the Government, the Carnegie Trustees now set up a number of circulating systems on a regional basis, as an experiment and an object lesson to show how the rural problem should be solved. -° Legislation.—The position of these rural systems was regu-

larized in Scotland by the Education (Scotland) empowering county education authorities to make for children and young persons attending schools for adults. The subject was also dealt with in an

Act of 1918, book provision or classes, and interim report

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by the adult education committee of the Ministry of Reconstruction; and, almost immediately, the Public Libraries Act of 1919 was passed, authorizing county councils to adopt the acts, to levy a rate, and provide a library service through their education committees. Similar powers were granted in Northern Ireland by the Public Libraries Act of 1924, and in the Irish Free State by the Local Government Act of 1925. Success of the County Library System.—Hitherto, such ru-

ral library systems as had been established, were financed by the Carnegie Trustees, who continued to offer to defray the capital expenditure of county councils which were willing to adopt the acts. During the period 1915-27, the grants made by the trustees for this purpose in Great Britain totalled £263,785, with some supplementary grants for the period ending in 1930. Further sums are being allocated to Irish county libraries, and grants are made from time to time for special objects. In their report issued in March

1928, the trustees show that 22 English, three Welsh and six Scottish counties are now independent of their assistance, and will henceforth rely entirely on public funds. Thus it is obvious that the progress of the system has been extremely rapid, only five counties, by the end of 1926, not as yet adopted the Public Libraries Acts, one of these being London, where there is no area not already provided for by previous adoption of the

acts, and the other Westmorland, which has a scheme based on the Kendal public library. The rate of this expansion is indicated by the figures given in the report of the Public Libraries Committee set up by C. P. Trevelyan, then president of the Board of Education, in 1924, which completed its proceedings in 1927. In rgrz the population in England and Wales resident in library areas amounted to 62-5% of the total. The percentage rose to 68-8 by 1921, to 90-4 by 1924, and by 1926 to 96-3. Of this last figure, the urban library service accounts for 64.1%, and the county systems for 32-2%. Thus only 3-7% of the population now reside in areas for which there is as yet no provision and none even contemplated. The committee therefore propose that the remaining county councils should be constituted library authorities for their areas; and, further, that those councils which have excluded certain populous areas, covered by towns or urban districts, should be constituted library authorities for the whole. The result would be to bring in a further population of 1,332,000. The report pointed out, however, that a library area does not necessarily imply a library service, and that, so far as they were able to ascertain, in 1925 only about one-half of the 12 millions dwelling in county library areas were actually enjoying a library service. The system began with the periodical supply of boxes of books to village centres, usually in schools, and the boxes were sent by railway or other carriers. An increasing number of counties now have their own motor-vans, which are fitted with shelves and form small travelling libraries, affording the local volunteer librarian some opportunity of choosing books on the spot. Here and there, local interest or the philanthropy of some well-wisher has resulted in the formation of small stocks of reference books, and even the opening of a village reading-room. Special provision is usually made, so far as resources permit, for adult classes, and special collections are formed for teachers. The problem of the community of ro to 20 million inhabitants embraced by a county area is gradually being solved by the method of differential rating, small libraries of the municipal type being established in such places. Middlesex is an excellent

example of the policy of co-ordinating the municipal library and the rural system. Two other experiments that will be watched with attention are being carried out in Cornwall and Northern Treland. In Cornwall, seven borough and two urban district libraries have been brought into a co-operative scheme for the whole county.

The Belfast library has been encouraged by a

liberal grant from the Carnegie Trustees to become the centre of a regional scheme of co-operation for the whole of Northern Ireland. Merely fractional rates, as low as one-tenth to one-fourth

of a penny were raised by the county authorities in the first instance. In some places these have risen to a half-penny, or even more. But it is admitted that the county services are seri-

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LIBRARIES

ously under-financed, and that as the public realizes the benefits and opportunities within their scope a much more liberal provision will be demanded.

Post-war Developments.—In both county and town, progress since the act of 1919 would have been far greater but for

the general anxiety to keep down the rates. That act abolished the rate limit in England and Wales, and next year the limit in Scotland was raised to threepence, and in Ireland the same, with an extension to sixpence in county boroughs. (In Northern Ireland the penny rate limit was re-established in county council areas, with a possible differential rating for urban districts, to a

9

work of the joint standing committee on (university) library co-operation is doing much to facilitate the mobilization of the resources of university and other learned libraries, and the publication of the World List of Scientific Periodicals has materially contributed to the same object. Librarianship.—The Library Association, which for many years had striven to raise the educational status of workers in libraries, and had held lectures, correspondence classes and examinations, with that purpose, appealed in 1917 for the establishment of a day school within the University of London, for the regular training of librarians. With the support of the Carnegie Trustees, who undertook to provide £1,500 a year for the first quinquennium, the School of Librarianship was opened at University college, London. A reduced grant was made for the second quinquennium, the balance required being made up by the university senate. According to the latest report, 549 students have been admitted to the school during the nine years covered, including many part-time students engaged in library work in the London area. A large and increasing number of these were already graduates of various universities. Easter and summer schools have been held both at home and abroad, with excellent results. The influence of the school in raising the educational standard of librarianship, improving salaries, and increasing the proportion of women, relatively to men, employed in libraries, has been considerable. The recent Government report is em: phatic on the need for improved educational qualifications for librarians, and urges that the School of Librarianship, which is performing a national service, should be maintained, and that it “would appear to have a strong claim on the funds which the university receives from the State.” An appeal for a permanent endowment fund has recently been launched. Classes in librarianship have also been started at Manchester, mainly for the benefit of assistants in that neighbourhood, and at Dublin for Irish students. Many library authorities now require a sound standard of general education from entrants to the service, and the Library Association specifies the matriculation standard for candidates for its certificates. Other Library Developments.—The only obstacle to a general advance, after the Government report of 1927, as rapid and epoch-making as that which followed the Government report of 1919, is the present demand for economy. Great events are pending, and will probably, in a few years, be matters of history. The British Museum, in spite of the great extensions of a few years back, is still cramped for space; a large part of the interior is about to be reconstructed, and it is proposed to enlarge the Hendon repository and remove all newspapers there. Cambridge has decided to remove the University Library to a new building. Oxford is about to settle the problem of the Bodleian by erecting an additional building across Broad street and a repository at Jordan Hill for material not in constant request. What is healthiest at the moment is the intense interest aroused by the manysided problems opened up by the growth of libraries, and by the widening consciousness of the immense part they must play in every department of life. The adoption of a more active policy by the Library Association, coupled with the appointment of a full time paid secretary and the acquisition of permanent headquarters, where they will probably soon be joined by other bodies having cognate interests, should help to a concentration of effort in the right direction. (E. A. BA.)

maximum of threepence, with Government consent.) Most of the municipal libraries proceeded to levy rates in proportion to their necessities. But, with the increase in the prices of books, other expenses, and the persistent demand for retrenchment, it has been difficult to maintain efficiency in municipal libraries at the high level desired, and the pay of the assistant is still inconsistent with the idea that he is entering a learned profession. The public libraries committee offer various recommendations for the general improvement. of the service, particularly by schemes of co-operation; but they were not of opinion that the urban libraries should be transferred to the education committees, or that the numerous library districts in the metropolis should be unified under the London County Council. Only one member pressed for the latter reform. The Central Library for Students.—Most important among these schemes for general or local co-operation was the plan for developing the Central Library for Students, as a national library forming a special department of the British Museum, to be a supplemental supply to the municipal and county libraries throughout England and Wales (Scotland and Ireland being supplied from the depéts at Dunfermline and Dublin), and to undertake such other urgent duties as the preparation of a union catalogue, the organization of an information bureau, and the issue of periodical book-lists. This library was started in 1917, largely to provide books for adult classes; but has grown from a collection of 3,000 books to a collection of 37,560, a large proportion of them costly works, supplying, in 1927, no less than 46s libraries with books they were unable to afford. The Central Library is mainly financed by an annual subsidy of £3,000 from the Carnegie Trustees. By a mutual arrangement with a large number of outlier libraries, comprising various public libraries, and such important research libraries as the Science library at South Kensington, those of the London School of Economics, the Linnaean, Folk-Lore, and Royal Asiatic Societies, the Society of Antiquaries, the Royal Colonial and Royal Anthropological Institutes, and the Royal Irish Academy, it is able to satisfy the needs, not only of students, but also of advanced research in all parts of the country. The public libraries committee outline a system of cooperation in which public libraries would be grouped round regional centres, usually the great urban libraries, with a federation of special libraries pooling their resources, and a central library acting as centre of the whole system. They recommend that an interim grant of £5,000 a year should be made by the Government to the Central library to establish it on a sound basis, and that the Science library should have an additional £3,500 a year to enable it to act in co-operation as the central supply for research students in science. The aggregate cost to the national exchequer of their proposals for the development BRITISH DOMINIONS of the Central library and of the Science library, and of the agency for central cataloguing, would not exceed £12,000 a year; and The majority of the British Dominions bave permissive library the benefit to scholarship, research, industry and commerce would laws. The rate limit is not so strict in every case. There is, for be incalculable. example, no rate limit in Tasmania; and South Australia may Co-operation with Special Libraries.—The growth in num- raise a library rate equivalent to threepence in the £. In Africa, bers and extent of special libraries of all kinds has been re- Australia and Canada the Governments make grants to public markable during the period reviewed. The valuable work of the libraries. The Canadian and Australian libraries are administered Association of Special Libraries and Information Bureaux, estab- more or less on American, and those of South Africa, India, etc., lished in 1925, has been a main factor in promoting this; and the on English lines. publication of their Directory, “Aslib” (1928), another work Africa.—There are several important libraries in South Africa. financed by the Carnegie Trustees, is an immense benefit to The oldest library is the South African public library at Cape librarians and users of libraries, since it is the first systematic sur- Town, established in 1818, which enjoys the copyright-privilege vey of the special library resources of the nation. Similarly, the for the Cape (100,000 vols.). This library contains the collections

LIBRARIES

ro

of colonial books bequeathed by Sir George Grey and Felix Mendelssohn. This and the Pretoria State library form together the National library, but the legislatures have libraries, notably the Parliamentary library, Cape Town. The chief public libraries are those of Port Elizabeth, Kimberley, Durban, Bloemfontein, Bulawayo, Germiston, which has a country circulating system, and Johannesburg, the only really free public library in the Union. All charge a subscription for borrowing. The Education Department supports school libraries. The University library of Cape Town was being greatly developed in 1928. That at Pretoria deserves menticn (40,000 vols.). (A summary of the literature of South African public libraries, by P. Freer, will be found in The

[SPECIAL RESOURCES

State helps liberally, and the movement has made progress. In British India hardly any Government help is forthcoming, save for libraries under State management in capital cities.

Library Assistant, 1928.) In North Africa there are considerable collections at Cairo, especially the Royal library (1879) 107,000 vols., 23,000 mss., 500 papyri, and at Algiers, the latter under

Palestine.—The chief library is the Hebrew National and University library (1925), 136,000 vols., which contains the Goldzieher Hebrew and Kiein mathematical collections, and publishes a quarterly review, Kiryath sefer. Canada.—The most important public library is that of Toronto (1883), which has over 400,000 vols., and includes a notable children’s department in a separate building, and which compiles the annual Canadian Catalogue of new books since 1921-22 (published 1923); the central reference building was, in 1928, about to be rebuilt. There were in 1909, 413 public libraries described as 131 free and 234 not free. The other most important libraries in Ontario

French control.

are:—Queen’s university, Kingston (1841), 150,000 vols., rich in

Australia.—The

various States legislate for libraries inde-

pendently, and maintain libraries. The Commonwealth library at Canberra was founded in 1927. The State public libraries circulate books to institutes, etc., in the country; Victoria subsidized local libraries. The local public libraries are those of Victoria at Melbourne, 1853 (421,000 vols.); of New South Wales, at Sydney,

1867 (401,000 vols., including the Mitchell library); this was an old subscription library bought by the Government; of South Australia, at Adelaide (139,000 vols.) ; of Queensland, at Brisbane, 1896 (34,200 vols.); and of West Australia, at Perth, 1860 (142,000 vols.). ‘The university libraries are Sydney (180,000 vols., including the fine Fisher collection, 1885); Adelaide (70,000 vols.), which assists in control of the public library; Mel-

bourne (60,000 vols.); and Brisbane (30,000 vols.). Tasmania.—Only Hobart (Tasmanian Public library, 1849) had in 1925 used the large powers given by the act of 1867. New Zealand.—In New Zealand there are 13 public libraries,

established under acts dating from 1869 to 1877, which allow a penny rate. At Auckland the Turnbull Free Public library (1880) has Sir George Grey’s Australasian collection and many rare books (140,000 vols.), Christchurch, 1859 (44,000 vols.) and Wellington, 1893, are the next largest. Wellington has the General Assembly library. The university library of Otago, Dunedin, 1872, is the chief academic library. India and the East.—The chief library in India is the Imperial library at Calcutta (152,000 vols.). At Calcutta the Sanskrit college has 1,652 printed Sanskrit vols. and 4,000 Sanskrit mss., and many Jain mss.; Madras University library has a new and handsome building. The library of the Asiatic Society of Bengal was founded in 1784 (35,000 vols. and 20,000 mss.). The Geological Survey’s library has 50,000 vols. The Bombay branch of the Royal Asiatic Society (1804) has 100,000 printed vols. and 2,000 mss. The Moolla Feroze library (bequeathed 1831) is chiefly of mss., in Arabic and Persian. There are libraries attached to Elphinstone college and the Universities of Allahabad and Lahore (54,000 vols. each), Dacca (46,000 vols.), and Bombay (1864, 35,000 vols., including the Fawcett Economic library). The library of Tippoo Sahib, consisting of 2,000 mss., fell into the ‘hands of the British (catalogue 1809). Perhaps the most remarkable library in India is that of the raja of Tanjore, which dates from the end of the 16th or beginning of the 17th century.

There are now about 18,000 mss.

written in Devanagari, Nandinagari, Telugu, Kannada, Granthi, Malayalam, Bengali, Panjabi, or Kashmiri, and Uriya; 8,000 are

on palm leaves. Dr. Burnell’s printed catalogue describes 12,375 articles. The Royal Asiatic Society has branches, with libraries attached, in many of the large cities of India and the Far East. At Rangoon there are several good libraries. The Raffles library at Singapore collects books relating to the Malayan peninsula and archipelago. In Ceylon there is the Museum library at Colombo (1877, with 15,000 vols.). The All-India Public Library Association, formed in 1923 to spread the public library movement throughout India, by means of provincial library associations, a quarterly journal, periodical conferences, the issue of pamphlets, and the training of librarians. In Baroda, Travancore, Pudukottai and Mysore the

Canadian history; Library of Parliament, Ottawa, about 300,000 vols., Legislative Library of Ontario, Toronto (1867), about 150,000 vols.; University of Toronto (1856), 220,000 vols. and 77,000 pamphlets.

In the province of Quebec, there are several large and important libraries, among which may be mentioned the Fraser institute, Montreal (1885), 103,000 vols.; McGill university, Montreal (1855), 268,000 vols., comprising many important collections; the Seminary of St. Sulpice, Montreal, about 223,000 vols.; Laval university, Quebec, 173,000 vols.; and the Library of the Legislature (1792). In the province of British Columbia, under an act of 1919, 2 public library commission governs the six public libraries, 23 “public library associations,” and 386 travelling libraries, and in 1928 was surveying the system (Report for 1926-27). In Nova Scotia there is a system of circulating books among the school libraries. The Legislative library at Halifax incorporates that of the Nova Scotia Historical Society (1878). The school law of New Brunswick provides for grants to school libraries; in the West Indian islands, the Institute of Jamaica,

Kingston (1879) and the Trinidad Public library (1841) should be mentioned. X.; A. Es.) LIBRARY

SCHOOLS

The first school in the world established solely for the professional training of librarians was started at Columbia college, New York city, in 1887, by Melvil Dewey, then librarian of the college. Dewey’s plan for a school for the training of librarians had been presented to the American Library Association as early as 1883, but was opposed by some of the leading librarians. Opposition gradually gave way, however, as the value of formal professional training for library workers was demonstrated, and other schools were established in various parts of the country, beginning with the Pratt Institute School of Library Science in 1890. In 1915 the Association of American Library Schools was organized, with ten charter members, for the purpose of maintaining standards of instruction. By 1921 three additional schools had been admitted to the association. Only five of these schools were conducted under the auspices of a college or university of standard grade, and with some of them the university affiliation was merely nominal. About 1920 a demand for university standards became perceptible, and culminated, in 1924, in the creation by the American Library Association of a board of education for librarianship, one of the principal functions of which was to be the formulation of minimum standards for library schools. Under the standards recommended and adopted by the American Library Association in 1925, the schools were classified as junior undergraduate, senior undergraduate, graduate and advanced graduate.

All but one of the 13 schools have been accredited by the board, and, in addition, two others. About 8,500 students have completed at least the first year’s work in the accredited schools. For admission to a junior undergraduate school one year of

college study is required, and three years for the senior undergraduate, while a bachelor’s degree, in addition to other qualifications, is required by the graduate schools. The junior undergraduate schools grant a certificate on the completion of a oneyear course. For three years of college study and one year of

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II

the regent’s death in 1435. Charles VII. did little to repair the loss, but under Louis XI. another library was created; the first librarian was Laurent Paulmier, and Jean Foucquet of Tours was named the king’s enlumineur. Charles VIII. enriched it with many fine mss. executed by his order, and also with most of the library of the kings of Aragon, seized by him at Naples. Louis XII. incorporated the Bibliothèque du Roi with the fine Orleans library at Blois, and further enriched it by plunder from Pavia, and by the purchase of the Gruthuyse collection; it was described at this time as one of the four marvels of France. François I. enlarged and removed it to Fontainebleau in 1534. He set the fashion of fine bindings, which was still more cultivated by Henri II., and which has never died out in France. During the librarianat least five schools. (C. C. W.) ship of Amyot the library was transferred from Fontainebleau SPECIAL LIBRARIES to Paris. Henri IV. removed it to the Collège de Clermont, but in 1604 another change was made, and in 1622 it was installed in With a view to greater accessibility of special resources, the Rue de la Harpe. Under J. A. de Thou it acquired the library the American Association of Special Libraries was formed in 1909, the Bald. In and has issued a directory (2nd ed. 1925). The formation of a of Catherine de’ Medici, and the Bible of Charles of ordered two deposit 1617 decree the a every new copies of corresponding British Association has already been recorded, and publication, but this was not enforced till Louis XIV.’s time. a similar directory was published by this body in 1928. was finished in 1622, In Great Britain, during 1910-26 there was a great development The first catalogue worthy of the name 6,000 some describing chiefly vols., Many additions were mss. of scientific, technical and commercial libraries and bureaux of that of the Dupuy notably reign, Louis XIII.’s during made information. The same movement has developed in America, Louis XIV. Colbert, one probably to an even larger extent, though in that country the collection, but a new era dawned under public library has, until recently, undertaken a larger proportion of the greatest of collectors, so enlarged the library that it became It was therefore, in 1666, of this kind of service. Of great importance in this connection necessary to make another removal. The departments are compilations like the World List of Scientific Periodicals installed in the Rue Vivien (now Vivienne). now created, and were soon were medals and engravings of (1926-27), and the Subject Index of Periodicals (1915). Mercantile Marine.—The British Sailors’ Society has at- important. Nic. Clément made a catalogue in 1684 according to each designated by a tempted this service for more than a century. Since 1920 it has the arrangement still used (in 23 classes, index. After Colbert’s alphabetical an with alphabet), the of letter revived and developed its arrangements under the stimulus of Thevenot and others to proa Carnegie Trust subsidy. The Seafarers’ Education Service death Louvois employed Mabillon, the world. A new catalogue of parts all from etc., books, cure (founded 1920), also with the aid of a trust grant, and contribuscholars. Towards the several by vols. 8 in 1688 in compiled was tions from the owners and the men’s unions, has succeeded in end of Louis XIV.’s reign it contained over 70,000 volumes.

library school study a bachelor’s degree is usually given by the senior undergraduate schools. Most of the graduate schools give a certificate for the first year’s work, although two grant a second bachelor’s degree for the first year of library school study. Four university schools grant the degree of M.A. or M.S. The curricula are made up of three types of subjects, the bibliographical, technical and administrative. While many other courses are given, from one-half to two-thirds of the student’s time is devoted to bibliography and bibliographical method, reference service and book selection. The first year course is largely prescribed, although some of the ‘schools offer elective courses. Specialized courses in library work with children were offered in

placing substantial libraries of a more advanced kind upon ships.

to its present The Carnegie Corporation of New York has similarly financed Under the Abbé Bignon the library was removed 1739 a catalogue and 1735 Between Richelieu. Rue the in home the American Merchant Marine Library Association. In Great In Louis XVI.’s Britain a system of supply to lighthouses and lightships was in 11 vols. was printed, and duplicates were sold. accessions. A valuable many yielded sale Valliére La the reign initiated by the Carnegie Trust, with the aid of the public the printed books numbered Revolution the before years few authorities concerned. the Libraries for the Blind, etc.—In Great Britain the needs of over 300,000 vols. and opuscules. The Revolution increased and the other Nationale, Bibliothéque the called now library, the blind have been met by the establishment of the National with the forfeited collections of the émigrés, Library for the Blind in London, founded in 1882. It was severely State libraries, suppressed religious communities, which by the of as well as damaged by the Thames flood of 1928. Books in Moon or were gathered into “dépôts littéraires.” 1789—92 of enactments individual and libraries, public to freely lent are Braille type of provincial libraries.) In the account of opening below (See readers. A sectional library for deaf education was set up in the numerous acquisitions Van Praet showed such by made difficulties colHospital 1920. in Manchester of University the of library Napoleon increased the Governlections are distributed under the auspices of the Red Cross himself a great administrator. of the law of deposits, Society. A collection for the use of nurses and health visitors has ment grant; and by the strict enforcement library progressed, the collections, of acquisition the by as well as been set up by the College of Nursing (1921). under him, towards his idea of universality. At the beginning of FRANCE the century it held 250,000 printed vols., 83,000 mss., and After 1815 the mss. which he had taken Besides the unrivalled libraries of the capital, France possesses 1,500,000 engravings. had to be returned. After the World capitals conquered from were there 1857 In a remarkable number of provincial libraries. value of the franc, the library was the in fall the with War, 340 departmental libraries with an aggregate of 3,734, 260 printed administrator, P. Roland-Marcel, new A impoverished. seriously increased had books printed the vols. and 44,436 mss. In 1908 (1) a “consortium,” under means: various by poverty mitigated to over 20 million and are now probably 30 million at least. library with the other chief Parisian the of council, joint a Bibliothèque (formerly Nationale Paris.—The Bibliothèque i.¢., the Mazarine (which became the 5th departdu Roi, Royale, or Imperiale), is, perhaps, the finest library in the national libraries, the Sainte-Geneviéve, and the Arsenal, Nationale), the of ment date to said be may institution the of foundation real world. The Paris, by decrees of Aug. 29, 1923, and of University the later, and from the reign of King John, the Black Prince’s captive, who and periodicals being divided bequeathed his “royal library” to his successor, Charles V. Dec. 28, 1926, purchases of books then the group, were by laws and library, the (2) them: between the to Cité la Charles V. removed the library from the Palais de given the status of “civil 1928, 5, March and 1927, 28, April Louvre, where it was arranged on desks in a large hall of three of (3) the loi du dépot funds, hold to right the carrying personality,” the Mallet, Claude storeys by the first librarian and cataloguer, enlarging the regreatly of result the with amended, was légal king’s valet-de-chambre. His Inventaire des Livres du Roy nostre of accessions catalogue weekly the books; French current of ceipts the as well as extant, is Seigneur estans au chastel du Louvre new publiof list the with amalgamated was books French new of inventories made by Jean Blanchet in 1380, and by Jean le (4) France”); la de (“Bibliographie trade the by issued cations of hundreds some added VI. Charles Begue in r411 and 1424. imless rendered publique,” lecture de “salle or ovale” “salle the mss. to the library, which, however, was sold to the regent, duke of the arronlibraries public the of development the by portant inventhe by established been had valuation a after of Bedford, into a periodical tory of 1424, transferred to England, and finally dispersed at dissements of Paris, was, in 1928, being converted

I2

LIBRARIES

room, equipped with (5) a bureau of information, the main feature

of which is an index of the special collections in all French

libraries; (6) a “service de prêts,” or central exchange for loans of books between libraries, whether in France or between France and other countries, established in 1927; (8) an “Office de documentation et de recherches bibliographiques,” established by the Society of Friends of the Bibliothéque Nationale. These developments greatly increased the library’s effectiveness. But the sum available for purchases of printed books in 1927 (130,228 fr.) did not allow of any purchases of old or rare books.

Riches of the Bibliothéque Nationale.—According to the

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who confided the direction to Gabriel Naudé; it was open to the public in 1642. Dispersed during the Fronde, it was reconstituted with 40,000 vols. after Mazarin’s death, in 1661, and left to the Collége des Quatre-Nations, which, in 1691, made it again public. It is now one of the libraries of the national “consortium,” and forms a sth department of the Nationale; it has 300,000 printed vols., including 1,900 incunabula, and 4,600 mss. The first library of the Genovéfains

had nearly disappeared

when Cardinal Francois de la Rochefoucauld, who had charge of the reformation of that order, constituted, in 1642, a new library

with his own books. The Bibliothéque Ste.-Geneviéve, in 1716. possessed 45,000 vols. It became national property in 1791, and was called the Bibliothéque du Panthéon and added to the Lycée Henri IV. under the Empire. In 1926 it contained 510,000 printed vols., 1,225 incunabula, 3,872 mss., 40,000 prints and 4,000 maps and plans. There is a special Scandinavian section under the patronage of the Governments of the four Scandinavian countries, which, in turn, appoint the librarian. The general

statistics for 1926-27 the riches of the Bibliothéque Nationale may be enumerated as follows:—(1) Imprimés: more than 4,400,000 vols., accessions in 1927, 13,215 vols. (apart from maps, music, periodicals, etc.); maps and plans, 500,000 in 28,000 vols. (2) Manuscrits: 122,000 mss. (3) Estampes: 3,015,000 pieces. (4) Médailles, 248,500 pieces. Admittance to the “salle de travail” is obtained through a card procured from the secretarial office. The slip catalogue catalogue of printed books (1891, and suppl. to 1910), of mss. bound in volumes dates from 1882, and gives a list of all acces- (1894—96, and suppl. 1913), and others are printed. Official——-The Bibliothèque du Ministère des affaires étransions since that date; it is divided into two parts, one for the names of authors and the other for subjects. Of the Catalogue gères contains 90,000 vols., 300,000 pamphlets and 500,000 docugénéral des livres imprimés (authors only), 91 vols., A.-Lecompte, ments. The Bibliothèque du Ministère de la Guerre, formed by The Ecole had appeared in 1928. It is expected to be completed in rr years. Louvois, possesses 180,000 vols. and 86r mss. Anonyma, periodicals, etc., are reserved for later treatment. supérieure de la Guerre (70,000 vols.) and other institutions The preface to vol. i., by L. Delisle, is a valuable historical account come under this department. The Bibliothéque et Musée de la of the library. The place of the unpublished volumes was, from Guerre, founded after the World War, has 110,000 vols., apart 1925, supplied by a photographic issue of the ms. slips of the from periodicals, documents, maps, etc. The Bibliothéque du classed catalogue. Other exceptionally important catalogues, out Ministère de la Marine is of old formation (catalogue 1838-43); of very many, are: Catalogue de l’histoire de France (1885-89, it contains 60,000 vols. and 376 mss.; the catalogue of manuscripts 11 vols.); Table des auteurs, Catalogue général des incunables was compiled in 1907. The Service hydrographique has 70,000 des bibliothéques publiques de France, by M. Pellechet and L. vols., and 391 mss. The Bibliothéque de la Chambre des députés Polain, t. i.—iii. A.~. (1897—1909); Livres d’ Heures imprimés au (1796) possesses 350,000 printed books and 1,622 mss. (printed XVe siècle conservés dans les bibliothèques publiques de Paris, catalogue of law and political economy, 1883, and of mss., 1907). by P. Lacombe (1907), etc. L. Vallée’s Catalogue des cartes et The Bibliothèque du Sénat (1818) contains 170,000 vols., and plans relatifs @ Paris et aux environs de Paris (1908); Bibliog- 1,345 mss. There are also the following law libraries: Office de raphie générale des travaux historiques et archéologiques publiés législation étrangére (80,000 vols.); Faculté de droit of the par les sociétés savantes de la France, by R. de Lasteyrie in University (172,000 vols.); Cour d’appel, Ordre des avocats collaboration with d'E. Lefévre-Pontalis, $. Bougenot, A. Vidier, (1871), 80,000 vols. (printed catalogue, 1880-82); avocats de la t, i—vi. (1885—1908); H. Omont’s Catalogue général des manu- Cour de Cassation, and Cour de Cassation. The City of Paris scrits français (1895—1918, 13 vols., and index in the press, 1928). owns, among other libraries, the Bibliothéque Historique de la For the Greek collection important catalogues have been made Ville de Paris, destroyed in 1871 but restored in 1872 (about half by H. Omont, the present keeper of the manuscripts, and for the a million vols.); the Forney (industrial art), and those of preLatin by Delisle, M. Omont and others. For many oriental fectures, hospitals and schools. The arrondissements have each languages catalogues have been compiled; and those of manu- from three to six popular libraries, the stocks ranging from 2,000 scripts in modern languages are nearly all completed. The to 17,000 vols., and averaging about 6,000. A few have children’s Départements des Médailles et des Estampes possess excellent libraries. The Association des Bibliothécaires Frangais in 1928 catalogues. The former department includes vases, bronzes and urged a development of popular public libraries in France generally. Educational.—The library of the university is that of the gems; the catalogues of the Greek and Early French series are remarkable. The Département des Estampes has been described Sorbonne (1762), originally including only arts and theology. In in the vicomte H. Delaborde’s Le Département des Estampes à r800 it was the Bibliotheque du Prytanée, in 1808 des Quatres la Bibliothèque Nationale (1875); it includes drawings. F. Lycées, and in r8r2 de l’Université de France. The faculty Courboin’s Catalogue sommaire des gravures et lithographies sections now are: (1) Sciences et des Lettres à Ja Sorbonne, composant la Réserve (1900-01) is supported by many fine (2) Médecine, (3) Droit, (4) Pharmacie. Before the separation special catalogues. A list of works on and of the catalogues of Church and State there was also (5) Protestant Theology. of the Bibliothéque Nationale, and most other French libraries, After the Bibliothéque Nationale, it is the richest, and above all may be found in A. Vidier, Annuaire des Bibliothéques et des in the fields of classics, archaeology and literature, philosophy, Archives, 1927, pp. 13-38. The second copy of every new French mathematics and physics. Installed since the year 1897 in the publication deposited by the printer is allotted by the Council New Sorbonne, it is a library of the very first rank. The section ot of the National Libraries to one of the other institutions repre- Sciences et Lettres has 700,000 printed books and 1,590 mss. sented upon it. Amongst important bequests are those of Leclerc, Peccot, Lavisse, The Bibliothéque de l’Arsenal was founded by the marquis de Derenbourg and Beljame (the last including an important ShakePaulmy (Antoine-René d’Argenson) in the 18th century; in 1786 spearian library). it received 80,000 vols. from the duc de La Valliére’s library. It At the Sorbonne are also to be found the libraries of the contained, in 1926, about 950,000 vols., 11,462 mss., with the laboratories, notably the geological. The section relating to Bastille collection (2,500 portfolios) of which the inventory is medicine, housed since 1891 in the new buildings of the Faculté complete, and 120,000 prints; it is the richest library for the de Médecine, includes 337,000 vols. and 85 mss. The Bibliothéque literary history of France and has more than 30,000 theatrical de la Faculté de Droit (1772), contains 172,000 vols. The fourth pleces, including the Auguste Rondel collection, added in 1922, section, Faculté (formerly Ecole supérieure) de Pharmacie, and, accordingly, it receives belles lettres in the allotment of greatly developed since 1882, now contains 61,000 vols. The deposited books. section of art and archaeology contains 100,000 vols., recently The Bibliothéque Mazarin owes its origin to the great cardinal, enriched by the gift of the Jacques Doucet library.

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The other libraries connected with higher education include that of the Ecole des Beaux-Arts (40,000 vols., 100,000 reproductions, 14,000 drawings); Ecole normale supérieure (1794), has a portion of Cuvier’s library, there are 400,000 vols.; Ecole des Chartes (50,000 vols.). The library of the Muséum d'histoire naturelle (18th century) has 225,000 vols., 2,300 mss., 8,600 original drawings on vellum from 1631. The Bibliothèque de l’Ofâce et Musée de l'Instruction publique (formerly Musée pédagogique), 1880, has 100,000 volumes. The other principal museums (Louvre, Cluny, Guimet, etc.) have large working libraries for the curators and students. In 1760 was founded the Bibliotheque de l'Institut de France, which is very rich; its acquisitions come particularly from gifts and exchanges (600,000 vols., 4,369 mss.), especially the modern one, the Fondation Thiers (75,000 vols. and 1,000 mss.), 1s attached to the Institut. Among other libraries may be mentioned those of the Conservatoire National de Musique et de Déclamation (1775); Observatoire (25,000 vols.); Institut Catholique (180,000 vols.); Conservatoire national des arts et métiers (60,000 vols.); Polonaise (attached to the Académie

polonaise des sciences et lettres) containing the musée Adam Mickiewcz (120,000 vols., 12,000 mss. and autographs, 30,000 prints); and the Comédie Française (30,000 vols. and 1,700 mss.). Before the Revolution there were, in Paris alone, 1,100 libraries with two million volumes. In 1791 more than 800,000 vols. were seized in Parisian religious houses and transferred to eight “dépôts littéraires,” while, in the provinces, six million vols. were seized and transferred to similar local depositories. The organization

of the central libraries (decree of 3 Brumaire An IV.—Oct. 25, 1795), came to nothing, but the consular edict of Jan. 28, 1803, organized the local depots, and the library system was reconstituted, alike in Paris and the provinces. Many precious books and mss. were burnt, since by the decree of 4 Brumaire An II. (Oct. 25, 1793) the Committee of Instruction ordered, on the proposition of its president, the deputy Romme, the destruction or modification of supposedly feudalist books and objects of art. The books in public provincial libraries, numbered, in 1910, over 9,200,000 vols., 15,540 incunabula and 93,986 mss., and the number of printed books was probably nearly doubled by 1928. The number in the colonies and protected States outside France

be mentioned that at Lyons, possesses 600,955 vols., 897 catalogues printed). In the ryth century were Abbeville, by Charles Sanson

I3 founded by François I. in 1527; it incunabula and 9,730 mss. (many

established the following libraries: in 1685; Besançon, by Abbé Boisot in 1696; La Rochelle, by the Consistoire Réformé in 1604; St. Etienne, by Cardinal de Villeroi. The principal libraries founded during the 18th century are the following: Aix-en-Provence (1705); Bordeaux (1738); Chambéry (1736); Dijon (1701); Grenoble (1772); Marseilles (1799); Nancy (1750); Nantes (1758); Nice (1786); Nimes (1778); Niort (1771); Perpignan (1759); Rennes (1733); Toulouse (1782). The World War wrought very great havoc among the libraries of the northern departments. The libraries of Arras, Douai, Péronne, Rethel, Saint-Quentin, Compiégne, Noyon, Verdun, and many other places were wholly or largely destroyed; that of Reims was mainly removed to safety. Nearly all the other municipal libraries date from the distribution of the dépôts littéraires in 1803. Those of Avignon, Montpellier, Caen, Rouen, Tours, and Versailles are specially important; in a second rank come Amiens, Auxerre, Beaune, Brest, Douai, le Havre, le Mans, Orleans, Pau, Poitiers, Toulon. The Ministry of Public Instruction has published joint catalogues of certain classes, e.g., Catalogues des mss. des bibliothéques de Paris et des Départements (1885), and the Catalogue Général des Incunables des Bibliothéques Publiques de la France, by Marie Pellechet and M. L. Polain (vols. i-iii., a. H.). The old university libraries, scattered and thrown into the depôts at the Revolution, were re-established by acts of 1875, 1879 and 1882, when Jules Ferry united the faculty libraries in each of the 17 academic districts in one university; civil personality, carrying financial autonomy, followed in 1896. The Bibliothéque Nationale et Universitaire, formerly the Universitäts und Landesbibliothek, of Strasbourg, founded in 187z to replace that burned in the Franco-Prussian war, is the largest provincial university library (1,700,000 vols., 1,900 incunabula, 4,759 mss., 5,000 papyri), Others are: Aix, Algiers, Besangon, Bordeaux, Caen, Clermont, Dijon, Grenoble, Lille, Lyons, Marseilles, Montpellier, Poitiers, Rennes, Toulouse. That of Nancy was totally burned ten days before the Armistice of 1919. The library profession is organized by central legislation, starting from a royal ordinance of 1839, which assigned one-third of the higher posts to trained “archivistes-paléographes.” Municipal librarians are appointed by the mayors. The prefect of the Seine appoints those of the City of Paris, since 1904 exacting certain technical training. The “classed” libraries are seeking complete nationalization, on the lines of the organization of the archives, and the establishment of a single

is uncertain, but in 1910 was over 200,000 vols.; to this must be added the 2,428,954 vols. then contained in the university libraries, now, doubtless, more than doubled, even without reckoning that of Strasbourg, transferred from Germany. There are over 300 departmental libraries, and as many belong to learned societies. Nearly all are administered under State control by municipalities. The collections distributed from the depots after 1803 remain State property, dnd the 42 libraries in which these “fonds d’Etat” preponderate are “classed” by the Ministry of certificate of training (Ch. Mortet, “The Public Libraries of Public Instruction; the librarians of these have higher qualifica- France,” in Library Assoc. Record, 1925, pp. 145-159). The Association des Bibliothécaires Francais (founded in 1906, tions and are less subject to local control than those of the “unclassed.” They are organized by a law of 1897, and, like the its bulletin, 1907, now forming part of the Revue des Bibliouniversities, are subject to the inspectorate of the Ministry and théques) actively promotes library reform. its consultative commission, established in 1909. This body GERMANY (WITH AUSTRIA AND SWITZERLAND) controls professional qualifications, and publishes collective cataGermany is emphatically the home of large libraries; there is logues (as of mss. and incunabula) and technical instructions. Old Municipal Libraries——In most towns there are, besides no law of deposit wider than the individual States, and Saxony the learned and historical “bibliothèque de Ja ville,” popular and some less important parts of the Reich have no law of deposit lending libraries, privately founded, but since 1874 subsidized, at all. To supply the lack of a single library, where all German supplied with books and inspected by the Ministry. In one or books may be preserved, the national book-~trade union, ‘the two departments there is the beginning of a rural circulating Börsenverein der Deutschen Buchhändler, established one, the system. Most municipal libraries date but a short time before Deutsche Biicherei, in Leipzig in 1913; this is subsidized by the the Revolution, but there are exceptions. Thus Angers owes its Reich, the Saxon State, and the city, and the books are deposited first collection to Alain de la Rue about 1376; it now contains freely by a voluntary agreement of the publishers. It had 675,000 the Verein 92,170 vols., 7x incunabula and 2,120 mss. That of Bourges vols. in 1928. There is an active professional body, deutscher Bibliothekare, which, since 1902, has published a valuThat mss.). 485 incunabula, 325 vols., (45,900 dates from 1466 of Carpentras was established by Michel Anglici between 1452 able year book, In 1921 the Austrian association joined the Germultiply and 1474 (83,000 vols., 184 incunabula, 2,154 mss.), Mathieu de man. The number of German universities has tended to by P. registered were libraries 1,617 collections; considerable la Porte is said to be the founder of the library at ClermontBibliotheken for deutschen der Jahrbuch The 1891. in Schwenke more rather contained it century; 15th the of end the at Ferrand, than 49,000 vols. at the time of its union with the Bibliotheque 1927, which gives statistics and administrative details of 395 German libraries, makes a total of 41,000,000 vols.; in 1909 W. Universitaire. Amongst the libraries which date from the 16th century must Erman had reckoned 190 libraries and 23,500,000 volumes.

14

LIBRARIES

The State and university libraries are under State control. The earlier distinction between these two classes has become less and less marked; thus the university libraries are widely used and books are borrowed extensively, especially in Prussia. In 1924 was promulgated the Leihverkehrsordnung für die deutschen Bibliotheken, which authorized and organized mutual lending between all libraries in the country. Owing to financial exhaustion and the depreciation of the currency under 1918, German libraries were unable to acquire foreign publications, and in 1920 there was founded the Notgemeinschaft der deutschen Wissenschaft (emergency union of German learning); to secure files of recent foreign journals, to organize exchange, and to distribute foreign publications among the German libraries. By edict of Jan. 5, 1926, a national exchange bureau (Reichaustauschstelle) was formed in the Ministry of the Interior, to serve the same purposes as the Smithsonian institution.

Popular libraries (Volksbiichereien) exist in most towns, Karl

Preusker formed a plan for setting them up in 1839, and four were founded in Berlin in 1850. After 1890 a number of popular libraries were established, some by municipalities, but many by associations and firms. In 1907 the Berlin City library was founded; it now has 20 districts and 90 branches, with 400,000 books. Hamburg also has a large system. Most of the States have a consultative office for popular libraries, and the Deutsche Zentralstelle fiir Volkstiimliches Biicherelwesen acts as a centre. The Verband Deutscher Volksbibliothekare (founded in 1922 as the Deutscher Biichereiverband) publishes an annual directory (1926). Very few Volksbuchereien, however, attempt the work of the public library of English-speaking countries, and the expenditure on them is only a halfpenny per head. In Prussia since 1907, and in Baden since 1928, a council deals with library matters at the Ministry of Public Instruction. Generally, the State does not concern itself with the town libraries and the popular libraries, but there is much in common between these two classes. Sometimes popular libraries are under the supervision of a scientifically administered town library, as in Berlin, Danzig, etc; elsewhere, as at Magdeburg, we see an ancient foundation take up the obligations of a public library. In Prussia from 1893, and in Bavaria, regulations are in force as to the professional education of librarians. This regulation has been in force as regards librarians in Bavaria from 1905. Throughout Germany librarians are divided by qualifications into three grades. There are schools of librarianship at Berlin (1921, founded at Göttingen in 1886), Munich, Leipzig, Freiburg and

[GERMANY

where any particular book may be consulted), and the Kommission für den Gesamtkatalog der Wiegendrucke (a complete catalogue of books printed before 1500), of which 3 vols. out of 12 or more, appeared by 1928. For most of these improvements and for many others credit is due to Friedrich Althoff, for 25 years Prussian minister for education. The University library (1831) numbers 381,000 vols., exclusive of dissertations. The library possesses the right to receive a copy of every work published in the province of Brandenburg. Some of the governmental libraries are important, mostly those of Berlin, especially those of the War Office (363,000 vols.), Statistisches Landesamt (260,344 vols.); Reichstag (277,500 vols.); and Patent-Amt (257,000 vols.). The Prussian University libraries outside Berlin include Bonn (511,380 printed vols., 2,140 mss.), Breslau (545,305 printed vols., 4,570 mss.), Göttingen, from its foundation, in 1736-37, the best administered library of the 18th century (734,949 vols., 8,134 mss.), Kiel, Königsberg, Marburg, Münster. Largely in consequence of the impoverishment of the years after 1918 the university libraries practise a division of the field of knowledge:

according to Dr. Balcke. (C. Balcke “The German Library World,” in The Library Association Record, 1927, pp. 1oI—-121, the only recent general account of German libraries; this section is in part based upon it.) Bonn collects Romance, Göttingen English, Kiel Scandinavian, Breslau Slavonic, Heidelberg art and archaeology, Königsberg philosophy, Leipzig Italian and oriental, Tübingen theology and oriental, Berlin German and foreign academica, and Griefswald Low German. Under provincial administration are the (formerly) Königliche und Provinzialbibliothek at Hanover (232,000 printed vols., 4,083 mss.), and the Landesbibliothek at Cassel (230,000 printed vols., 4,400 mss.). Frankfurt a/M., Cologne and other large towns possess excellent municipal libraries. Munich.—The libraries of Munich include two of great importance. The State (formerly Royal) library was founded by Duke Albrecht V. of Bavaria (1550-79), who made numerous purchases from Italy, and incorporated the libraries of the Nuremberg physician and historian Schedel, of Widmannstadt, and of J. J. Fugger. The number of printed vols. is estimated at 1,580,000 and about 50,000 mss. The library has 16,000 incunabula, many from the monastic libraries closed in 1803. The oriental mss. are numerous and valuable, and include the library

of Martin Haug. The catalogue of the printed books are in manuscript; printed catalogue of mss. (1858). The University library Bonn. (850,000 vols., 4,000 incunabula, 4,000 mss., 45,000 vols. on Libraries in Berlin.—Berlin is well supplied with libraries, reference shelves) was originally founded at Ingolstadt in 1472, 268 being registered by P. Schwenke and A. Hortzschansky in and removed with the university to Munich in 1826. After these 1906, with about five million printed volumes. The largest of two the most noteworthy is the Bayrische Armee-Bibliothek them is the State (formerly Royal) library, which was founded (156,950 vols.). and made public by the “Great Elector,” Frederick William, in The chief Bavarian libraries outside Munich are the State r66r. From 1699 the library became entitled to a copy of every (formerly Royal) library at Bamberg (400,000 vols., 4,320 mss.) book published within the royal territories, and it has received and the University library at Würzburg (600,000 vols., 1,750 many valuable accessions by purchase and otherwise. It now in- mss.). The University of Erlangen, Augsburg and Nuremberg cludes 2,128,707 printed vols. and 56,810 mss. Current catalogues have large libraries; at the last is also that of the Germanisches of accessions since 1892, and of the Prussian University libraries, National museum (300,000 vols., 4,000 mss.}. also since 1898, of academic publications of German universities, Dresden.—In 1906 there were in Dresden 78 public libraries etc., are printed. The catalogues of mss. are mostly in print, vols. with about 1,495,000 volumes. The Sächsische (formerly KönigI-13, 16-23 (1853-1905). The library is specially rich in oriental liche) Landes-bibliothek in the Japanese palace was founded in mss. The musical mss. are very remarkable and form the richest the 16th century, specializes in history and literature, and has collection in ‘the world as regards autographs. The building, 694,800 vols. and 460,000 pamphlets, with 7,000 mss. erected about 1780 by Frederick the Great, rebuilt in 1909 and Leipzig University library has 675,000 vołls.; the Pädagogische since added to, houses the University library and the Academy of Central-Bibliothek der Comenius-Stiftung (283,010 vols.) is perSciences. There is a regular system of mutual lending, established haps the largest educational library in the world. The Deutsche by ministerial edict of Jan. 27, 1893, between the State library Bücherei has already been mentioned. The University library of and a great number of Prussian libraries. This is the same in Tübingen (713,589 vols, and 4,409 mss.) is the largest library in Bavaria, Wiirttemberg and Baden; the oldest system is that be- Wiirttemberg. tween Darmstadt and Giessen (dating from 1837). Stuttgart.—The Royal Public Library of Stuttgart (1765) Conducted by the State library are the Gesamtkatalog der possesses 481,236 vols., 263,041 pamphlets, and 6,797 mss., with Preussischen wissenschaftlichen Bibliotheken (describing the a famous collection of Bibles. The library also enjoys the copyprinted books in the Royal library and the Prussian University privilege in Württemberg. The former Royal private library, libraries in one general catalogue upon slips), the Auskunftsbiiro founded in 1810, contains about 105,000 vols. der Deutschen Bibliotheken (founded in 1905 to give information Darmstadt.—The former Grand-ducal library of Darmstadt,

CENTRAL EUROPE]

LIBRARIES

now the Hessische Landesbibliothek, was established by the grand

I5

(830) and Einsiedeln (946), are of great historical interest. The

duke Louis I. in 1819, on the basis of a 17th century library, and includes 678,651 vols. and 3,857 mss. Among the other libraries of Hesse the chief are the University library at Giessen and the Stadtbibliothek at Mainz (including the Gutenberg museum). In the Grand Duchy of Baden are the Badische (formerly Hof- und) Landes-Bibliothek at Carlsruhe (276,947 vols., 4,830

League of Nations has its library at Geneva; The Rockefeller foundation made, 1927, a large gift to the League for a library building. OTHER EUROPEAN COUNTRIES

bibliothek), made public since 1648 (680,000 vols., 12,652 mss., among them many Mexican). Hamburg has also, in the Kommerzbibliothek (175,000 vols.), a valuable trade collection. Austria.—The Adressbuch der Bibliotheken der Oesterreichungarischen Monarchie, by Bohatta and Holzmann (r900), de-

Osvéta (1904), helped to spread a knowledge of Anglo-American popular library methods. By this each community was to establish a public library, administered by special locally-elected

Hungary.—Information about the chief libraries in Hungary under the dual monarchy was given annually up to rorz in the Hungarian Statistical Year Book. The largest library in Hungary mss.), the University libraries at Freiburg i/B. (420,000 vols., is the Széchenyi-Nationalbibliothek at Budapest, founded in 1802 7oo mss.), and Heidelberg (1386), the oldest of the German by the gift of the library of Count Franz Széchenyi. It contains University libraries. In 1623 the whole collection of the last 400,000 printed vols. and 16,000 mss., and has 11 lending and four named was given to the pope, and only the German mss. were reference branches. The University library of Budapest (1635) returned. The library was re-established in 1703, and after 1800 includes 543,572 printed books and 3,4or mss. Since 1897 there enriched with monastic spoils; it now contains 928,301 vols., has been in Hungary a chief inspector of museums and libraries. apart from dissertations etc., 3,721 mss., and about 5,200 papyri, He has charge of a general catalogue of all the mss. and early for the most part of great value. printed books in Hungary. In other German States should be mentioned Jena, Rostock, After the war, the central bureau of public libraries organized Schwerin, Weimar, all possessing rich collections of mss. exchange, distributing the literature received in this way from The Ducal library of Gotha was established by Duke Ernest abroad. It also produces a general catalogue of accessions (which the Pious in the 17th century, and contains many valuable books serves as a current national bibliography). and mss. from monastic collections. It numbers about 250,000 The library of the Benedictines at St. Martinsberg (11th cenvols., with 7,728 mss. The catalogue of the oriental mss., chiefly tury) is the central library of the order in Hungary, and contains collected by Seetzen, and forming one-half of the collection, is nearly 170,000 vols. Its principal treasures were, on the secularione of the best in existence. zation of the monasteries, distributed among the State libraries The Herzog August (formerly Landes) library at Wolfenbüttel, in Budapest. founded in the second half of the 16th century by Duke Julius, Czechoslovakia.—The most considerable libraries in the Rewas made over to the university of Helmstedt in 1614, whence public are the University library, Prague (1366:1773) with sor,the most important treasures were returned to Wolfenbiittel in 245 vols., the National library at Prague (1918) with over 70,000 the roth century; it now numbers 350,000 vols., and 8,400 mss., vols. and many State documents, and the Central library (1891) and is exceptionally rich in incunabula. with 378,562 volumes. The chief libraries of the Hanse towns are those of Bremen, During the roth century, free libraries were founded by the Liibeck and Hamburg (Staats- und Universitats- formerly Stadt- clergy and school teachers, while the library periodical, Céskd

bodies; a minimum library tax of 50, 60, 70 or 80 hellers (0.7sd., o.gd., 1.05d., or 1.2d.) per head is levied in towns of less than 5,000, 10,000 or 100,000, or of over 10,000 inhabitants respectively. All libraries thus established are controlled by the Ministry of Education, which issues statistics. In 1920 there were 3,343 libraries with 1,644,558 vols., 310,880 borrowers, 3,180,509 issues for home use, and a total income of 3,211,026 Czech crowns; in 1927 there were 15,355 libraries with 5,444,844 vols., 880,326 borrowers, 14,440,593 home issues, and income 16,275,308 Czech crowns. The average of readers to a library was 860, and one book to every two readers. The expenditure per head was 1.55 Czech crown (2.33d.) as against the sum of one Czech crown (1.5d.) laid down by the law of rọrọ.

scribed the libraries of the Austro-Hungarian empire. The largest library in Austria, and one of the chief in Europe, is the Nationalbibliothek (before 1920 Hofbibliothek) (1440), including a portion of the library of Matthias Corvinus. Since 1808 the library has also been entitled to the copy-privilege. The number of printed vols, is 1,210,000; 9,000 incunabula. The mss. amount to 27,000 (2,360 oriental), with 100,000 papyri of the collection of Archduke Rainer. The main room is one of the most splendid in Europe. The collection of prints was separated from the books in 192r and annexed to the Albertina. The University library of

Vienna (1775) 1,050,000 vols., was established by Maria Theresa, and is open to all; this library also lends.

Italy.—As the former centre of civilization, Italy is the home

The number of libraries in Vienna enumerated by Bohatta and

of the oldest libraries. The Vatican at Rome and the Laurentian Holzmann is 165; 25 of the chief are described by R. Teichl, at Florence are sufficient in themselves to give Italy primacy in Wiener Bibliotheksftihrer und Plan (1926). respect of rare and valuable mss., and for antiquity there are the The number of monastic libraries in Austria is very consider- venerable relics at Vercelli, Monte Cassino and La Cava. The able. They possess altogether more than 2,500,000 printed vols., local rights which so long impeded the unification of Italy created 25,000 incunabula and 25,000 mss. The oldest library in Austria and preserved many libraries which would have been lost under is that of the monastery of St. Peter at Salzburg (785-821), a Central State. Italy is still, in spite of war and collectors, rich 70,000 vols., nearly 1,500 incunabula, Kremsmünster (100,000), |in books. Official statistics of 1896 gave particulars of 1,831 Admont (86,000) and Melk (70,000), date from the 11th cen-| libraries, of which 419 are provincial and communal. In 1893 tury. Account of their mss. appear from time to time in Zentral- there were 542 popular and circulating. A Bollettino for these blatt fiir Bibliothekswesen. Many of their librarians are trained biblioteche popolare was commenced in 1907, and a congress held in the great Vienna libraries. at Rome in 1908. Switzerland.—Among the Swiss libraries, which numbered Govetnmental Libraries—Governmental libraries (bibli2,096 in 1868, there is none of the first rank. The University oteche governative) are under the minister of public instruction. library at Basle (1460) the Cantonal library at Lausanne, and the The pre-Fascist Regolamento controlling them was issued in the Stadtbibliothek at Berne, which, since 1903, is united to the Uni- Bolletino Ufficiale, Dec. 5, 1907. They consisted of the national versity library of that city, the Landes-Bibliothek (Bibliothéque central libraries of Rome (Vittorio Emanuele) and Florence, of Nationale) at Berne, and the City library of Geneva, are consider- the national libraries of Milan (Braidense), Naples, Palermo, able. All the Swiss literature since 1848 is collected by the Turin and Venice (Marciana); the Biblioteca governativa at Landes-Bibliothek at Berne, established in 1895 for this special Cremona; the Marucelliana, the Mediceo-Laurenaiana and the object. There is now no legal, but only a voluntary, deposit of Riccardiana at Florence; the governativa at Lucca; the Estense Swiss books, Older Helvetiana are collected in the subsidized at Modena; the Brancacciana and that of San Giacomo at Naples; Biirgerbibliothek at Lucerne. The monastic libraries of St. Gall the Palatina at Parma; the Angelica, the Casanatense, and the ae an n

16

LIBRARIES

[ITALY

and Pius VI. in 1775, were also benefactors. After Lancisiana at Rome; the university libraries of Bologna, Cagliari, |XIV. in 1769, of uninterrupted growth the Vaticana was to centuries Catania, Genoa, Messina, Modena, Naples, Padua, Pavia, Pisa, three blow. In 1798, after the Treaty of Tolentino, Rome and Sassari; the Ventimiliana (with the university library undergo a severewere sent to Paris, These, however, were chiefly mss. at Catania); the Vallicelliana and the musical library of the R. 500 picked 1815, though most of the Palatine mss. found their Acad. of St. Cecilia at Rome; the musical section of the Palatine restored in to Rome, but to Heidelberg, Pius VII. acquired not back, at Parma: and the Lucchesi-Palli (added to the national library | way Cardinal Zelada in 1800, and among important of library the | a by assisted is on at Naples). The minister of public instructi a

s of the roth century were the splendid Cicognar technical board. Each library was to possess a general inventory, purchase ogy and art, 1823); Cardinal Mai, 40,000 vols, (1856), (archaeol a| and talogue author-ca al an accessions register, an alphabetic Borghese mss, from the papal library of Avignon, the 300 some | subject-catalogue. Catalogues of the special collections were next library and the Borgia collection, De Propaganda Fide. to be compiled. A general catalogue of the mss. was, in 1910, | Barberini books in the Vaticana number some 350,000, the printed The and being issued together with catalogues of oriental codices 53,000, and the incunabula about 6,000 with many incunabula; books are chosen by the librarians in Government | mss, about 500 Aldines and a great number of bibliographical copies; vellum | al profession a libraries, and in the university libraries partly by very many presentation copies. Among the council. The rules (Boll. Ufficiale, Sept. 17, 1908) allow lending to| rarities, including are some of the most ancient and valuable mss. Latin and Greek other countries under special circumstances. biblical Codex Vaticanus of the 4th famous the e.g., The 36 biblioteche governative annually spent, in 1908, about | in the world; 4th and 5th centuries, the Bembo the of Virgils two the century, | were there 142,930; 300,000 lire in books. Their accessions were Republica of Cicero. De t palimpses the and Terence, 1,176,934 readers. Out of 1,700 libraries confiscated from sup- | special classes of mss. and im; of catalogues important Many volumes,| half a and million pressed monasteries, containing two published in facsimile. A new been have volumes single portant | about 650 were added to public libraries already in existence; the

catalogue of the printed books was made in 1927-29 to make remainder served to form new communal libraries. available the library’s rich treasures. This catalogue, made easily deThe Fascist Government supervises, not only the libraries by the aid of the Carnegie Endowment, was worked out possib:e | corand special , provincial , communal also pendent upon it, but to the code of the American Library Associaaccording mainly | ce, poration libraries, by means of 12 Soprentendenze bibliografi librarians and four American librarians. with headquarters at the chief libraries of each region, and inspec- | tion by four Vatican s—-The most important library in Librarie Roman Other tors in all library centres. is the Nazionale Centrale Vittorio nts requireme modern Two publications, the Bollettino della pubblicazioni italiane and | Italy for 300,000 pamphlets and 5,223 vols., (495,000 (1875) Emanuele bibdalle acquistate Bollettino delle opere moderne straniere maior o secreta of the Jesuit biblioteca the contains This lioteche governative, for many years issued from the national | mss.). of the Provincia Romana, libraries cloister the and Rome of college | a of place the take ly, respective Rome libraries of Florence and books. Noteworthy Italian new of copies to right the has collective catalogue of accessions. The former is the current and the Sessoriani of Santa Croce and Farfensi the are mss. the among national bibliography. of these last being of the 6th to the 8th cenThe Vittorio Emanuele library at Rome acts as an information in Jerusalem, some was reorganized in roo. It is rich in the library The turies. reference. of works with equipped well bureau, as it is especially topography, and generally in books of refRoman in e, renaissanc | created newly the in Vatican.—The Bibliateca Vaticana (now A monthly Bollettino is issued of modern Vatican State [1929]) stands in the very first rank among Euro- | erence and in journals. by the libraries of Italy. The library received literature foreign | can We mss. of pean libraries as regards antiquity and wealth bibliographical information for Italy. of bureau central trace it back to the earliest records of the Scrinium Sedis Apos- | acts as the founded by Cardinal Casanate in se, Casanaten Biblioteca The Turris the in partly on later tolicae, kept first at the Lateran, and incunabula, with many Roman 2,086 vols., printed (131,778 1698 | (Chartularia; but one, the doubtful survival, is the Codex Amiatimss., some of the 8th~zoth 6,124 and editions, Venetian and | inventory an remains There library. nus now in the Laurentian history, law and the mediaeval theology, in rich is , centuries) made under Boniface VIII. The library was moved to Avignon, the printed books by of catalogue e An incomplet where it was renewed and was increased, but this collection has | social sciences. model. a remains still 761~88) (x Audiffredi A. | the of Library only in part, and in later times, been taken into the The Biblioteca Angelica, founded in 1614 by Angelo Rocca Vatican. The latter is a new creation of the rs5th century. printed vols. and 3,000 mss.) was the first library in (120,000 | real the was V. Eugenius IV. planted the first seed, but Nicholas the public. The library of the University of founder of the library, to which Sixtus IV. consecrated an ornate | Rome to be opened to na, founded by Alexander VII. in 1661, Alessandri the is Rome | presthe erected V. Sixtus abode, in the Court of the Pappagallo.

part of the printed books belonging to the dukes ent magnificent building in 1588, and greatly augmented the col- | with the greater in 1676. In 1815 Pius VII. granted to it opened and Urbino, of | Cervini Marcello were librarians y lection. The most noteworth of every book printed in the States copy a receive to right the | (the first Cardinale Bibliotecario, later Pope Marcel IT.), Sirleto was continued by Italian law but grant which Church, the of | n acquisitio the by enriched further was it and A. Carafa. In 1600 The library possesses 200,000 Rome. of province the to limited | sepaof the library of Fulvio Orsini. Pope Paul V. (1605—21)

rated the library from the archives and added the two “Pauline” | printed books.

The library of the Senate, established at Turin in 1848, contains halls, for the new codices. Under him and under Urban VIII. in the history and statutes of Italian cities. many mss. were purchased from the Convent of Assisi, the Mi- | 130,289 vols. rich of Deputies (1848) contains 250,000 vols., Chamber the of That Rossano, the all above and nerva at Rome, the Capranica college, modern history, law and politics. The more in specializes of Bobbio (g.v. above, under “Mediaeval Period”). Gregory XV. | and by the R. Societé Romana di controlled (x581), ana Vallicelli | valuthe Bavaria, of duke I., n (1622) received from Maximilia including one attributed to mss., important some has Patria Storia | the able library of the Elector Palatine, seized by Count Tilly at

is valuable for its medical colcapture of Heidelberg. Alexander VII. (1638) added the mss. of | Alcuin; the Lancisiana (1711),Luca possesses a good art library; San di a Accademi the lections; | the dukes of Urbino. The Libreria della Regina, i.e., of Christina Centrale (1893) has 100,000 printed vols. of Sweden, of ancient mss., some from French monasteries, | the Biblioteca Militare Biblioteca della R. Accad. di S. Cecilia the and maps; 72,000 and | French for e from St. Gall and elsewhere, and others of importanc of 150,000 vols. and 6,000 mss.; the collection musical a (1875), pre-| part great in was Petau, of collection the from literature XII., is rich in incunabula and Clement by founded , Corsiniana | purwere XI. Clement sented by Alexander VIII. in 1689. Under to the Accademia dei Lincei. belongs 1884, since chased 54 Greek mss. which had belonged to Pius II., and also | prints, and, and British and American Francaise Ecole Institut, Deutsches The | Capponi the d bequeathe was oriental mss. Under Benedict XIV. of Agriculture may be Institute nal Internatio the and library, rich in Italian books; and by purchase, the Biblioteca Schools, libraries are open, Roman other many and these All . mentioned after was, mss. Hebrew and Latin Ottoboniana, which, in Greek, the Vatican, the richest in Rome, Clement XTII, in 1758, Clement | at least to advanced students,

ITALY]

LIBRARIES

Subiaco.—At Subiaco, about 40 m. from Rome, the Benedictine monastery of Santa Scolastica has only 6,000 printed vols.

and 400 mss., but it is remarkable as having been, in 146s, the first seat of typography in Italy, and students may inspect the series of Sweynheim and Pannartz’s original editions preserved in their first home. Florence.—The Biblioteca Nazionale Centrale of Florence, formed from the union of Magliabechi’s library with the Palatina, is the largest after the Vittorio Emanuele at Rome. The Magliabechiana became public in 1714, and in 1861 Palatina (formed by Ferdinand IIL, grand duke of Tuscany), was joined with it. It had long had a right to a copy of every work printed in Tuscany, a right maintained more rigorously since 1860. Since 1870 the Nazionale receives, by law, a copy of every book published in the kingdom. Its monthly Bollettino is the current bibliography of the national literature. The mss. include the most important extant codict of Dante and later Italian poets and historians. The

17

Zecca (the Mint). University Libraries—Among the university libraries under Government control some deserve special notice. First in historical importance comes that of- Bologna, founded by U. Aldrovandi (1605). Count Luigi F. Marsili in 1712 increased the library and established an Istituto delle Scienze, reconstituted as a public library by Benedict XIV. in 1756. The printed books

number

214,991 vols., and the més. 5,400, the oriental being

noteworthy. The grand hall, with its fine furniture in walnut wood, merits particular attention. The Biblioteca della Universita

at. Naples, established by Joachim Murat in 1812 in the buildings

of Monte Oliveto, and thence sometimes called the “Biblioteca Gioacchimo,” was transferred to the Royal university and opened in 1827. It is strongest in médicine and science; its chief mss. and early printed books were transferred about the middle of the roth century to the Nazionale. Other important university libraries are those of Catania (1755); Genoa (1773); Pavia (1763); Padua Galileo collection numbers 308 mss. Of the 25 mss. portolani, the (1629) (314,000 vols.), which in roro was housed in a new buildoldest is dated 1417, and several seem to be the original charts ing; Cagliari and Sassari. Messina was destroyed in the earthexecuted for Sir Robert Dudley (duke of Northumberland) in quake of 1908, but the more important part of the furniture was the preparation of his Arcano del Mare. Amongst the early printed saved, and by rọġro the library was already restored to active books is a great number of 16th century Rappresentazioni, books work, Chief among the remaining Government libraries comes the printed on vellum, municipal histories and statutes, testi di lingua and maps. The library contains 750,000 printed vols., 22,207 mss., world-famed Biblioteca Mediceo Laurenziana at Florence, formed and 3,60r incunabula, besides prints and maps. A new building from the collections of Cosimo the Elder, Pietro de’ Medici, and Lorenzo the Magnificent. It was made public by Clement VII., was completed on the Corso dei Tintori in 19209. Milan.—The Biblioteca Nazionale of Milan, better known as who charged Michelangelo to construct a suitable edifice for its the Braidense, founded in 1770 by Maria Theresa, has 500,000 reception. Opened by Cosimo I. in 1571, it has steadily grown. printed vols., 2,000 mss., 2,500 incunabula and 913 Aldines. The accessions in the 18th century alone were enough to double Amongst the mss. are letters of Galileo, poems in Tasso’s auto- it. Its printed books number probably only 11,000, and though graph, and a fine series of Italian illuminated service-books, 12th almost all of the highest rarity and interest, the 16,017 mss. give its chief importance to this library. More than 700 are earlier to 16th centuries. Naples.—The Biblioteca Nazionale at Naples (founded in 1734 than the xrzth century. Some of them are the most valuable and opened in 1804) is the largest library of that city, and has codices in the world—the famous Virgil of the 4th or sth century, recently been splendidly re-housed. To the collection of Cardinal Justinian’s Pandects of the 6th, a Homer of the roth, and several Seripando were added, especially in 1848 and 1860, many private other very early Greek and Latin classical and biblical texts, as and conventual libraries. The biblical section is rich. Other feat- well as copies in the handwriting of Petrarch, about roo codices ures are the collections of testi di lingua, and of books on vol- of Dante, a Decameron copied by a contemporary from Boccanoes, the best in existence of the publications of Italian learned caccio’s own ms., and Benvenuto Cellini’s ms. of his autobiography. societies and a nearly complete set of the Bodoni press. The mss. Administered with the Laurentian is the Riccardiana, rich in mss. include many illuminated books, the autographs of Leopardi, and of Italian, and especially the Florentine literature. The Biblioteca portolani. The library contains about 1,000,000 printed vols., Marucelliana (founded 1703, opened 1753) is remarkable for its 11,868 mss. and 4,625 incunabula. Annexed to it is the Officina early woodcuts and engravings; the printed volumes number 310,000 and the mss. 2,000. dei Papiri Ercolanesi. Modena.—At Modena is the Biblioteca Estense, founded by The Biblioteca Nazionale of Palermo, founded from the Jesuits’ libraries, is rich in rsth century books (catalogue printed in 1875), the Este family at Ferrara in 1393; it was transferred to Modena in Aldines, and Sicilian 16th century books, many being unique. by Cesare D’Este in 1598. Muratori, Zaccaria and Tiraboschi were librarians here. The printed vols. number 151,057, the inThe library contains 283,227 printed volumes. Turin.—The Biblioteca Nazionale Universitaria of Turin took cunabula 3,600, the mss. 8,567, besides the 4,958 mss. and the its origin in the private library of the House of Savoy, given in 100,000 autographs of the Campori collection. The oldest library at Naples is the Brancacciana, founded in 1720 to the university by Vittorio Amedeo II. The fire of 1904 destroyed about 24,000 out of 300,000 vols., and of the 4,138 mss. 1647 by Cardinal F. M. Brancaccio, and opened by his heirs in there survive but 1,500, and those in a damaged condition. Among 1675. The Regia Biblioteca di Parma was founded definitely in those that perished were the palimpsests of Cicero, Cassidorus, 1779 by the grand-duke Philip, who employed Paciaudi to organize _ the Codex Theodosianus and the famous Livre d’Heures. The it. It contains 323,208 vols. and 5,290 mss., including De Rossi’s 1,095 incunabula escaped. Since the fire the library has been biblical and rabbinical mss. Also worthy of note are the Bibl. anriched by new gifts, notably Baron A. Lumbroso’s of 30,000 Pubblica or governativa of Lucca, and that of Cremona, The Ambrosiana.—Among the great libraries not under Govvols., principally on the French Revolution and Empire, The library was, in rgro, transferred to the premises of the Palazzo ernment control, the most important is the Ambrosiana at Milan, founded in 1609 by Cardinal Fed. Borromeo. It contains 400,000 əf the Debito Publico. Venice.—The Biblioteca Marciana, or library of St. Mark, at printed vols., 3,000 incunabula and 10,000 mss. Amongst the mss. Venice, was traditionally founded in 1362 by Petrarch’s gift of are a Greek Pentateuch of the sth century, the famous Peshito nss. (all now lost) and opened by Cardinal “Bessarione in 1468. and Syro-Hexaplar, a Josephus on papyrus, supposed to be of the [t has 330,000 printed books, 12,106 mss. of great value (more sth century, several palimpsest texts, and a 7th century copy of han 1,000 Greek codices given by Bessarione), collections on St. Jerome’s commentary on the Psalms, full of contemporary Venetian history, music and theatre, and on early geographical glosses in Irish, Gothic fragments of Ulfilas, and a Virgil with ‘esearch, a codex of the laws of the Lombards, and the autograph notes in Petrarch’s handwriting. Cardinal Mai and Pope Pius XI. ns. of Sarpi’s History of the Council of Trent. Since the fall of were former custodians here. At Genoa the Biblioteca Franzoniana he republic and the suppression of the monasteries, many private (40,000 vols.), founded about 1770 for the instruction of the md conventual libraries have been incorporated first in the poorer classes, is noteworthy as being the first European library „ibreria del Sansovino, from which the library was transferred lighted up at night for the use of readers. Monte Cassino.—The monastery of Monte Cassino (529) is n 1812 to the Palazzo Ducale, and in 1904 to the Palazzo della

18

LIBRARIES

due to St. Benedict, and is the prototype of all Western religious houses. The library now extends to about 70,000 vols., and that belonging to the monks contains about the same number. But the chief glory of Monte Cassino consists of the archivio, which is quite apart; and this includes more than 30,000 bulls, diplomas, charters and other documents, besides 1,000 mss. dating from the 6th century downwards. There are good written catalogues, and descriptions with extracts are published in the Bibliotheca Casinensis. The monastery was declared a national monument in 1866. At Ravenna the Biblioteca Classense has a roth century codex of Aristophanes. At Vercelli the Biblioteca dell’ Archivio CapitoJare comprises nothing but mss., all of great antiquity and value, amongst them an Evangeliarium S. Eusebii, supposed to be of the 4th century; also a famous codex of Anglo-Saxon homilies.

La Cava.—The Monastero della S. Trinità, at La Cava dei Tirreni, in the province of Salerno (beginning of the 11th century), has only some 10,000 vols., but these include mss. from the 8th to the 14th century, amongst them a Codex Legum Longobardorum, dated 1004, besides a well-known geographical chart of the 12th century, over roo Greek mss., and about 1,000 charters beginning with the year 840, more than 200 of which belong to the Lombard and Norman periods. The library is now national property, the abbot holding the office of keeper of the archives. Not a few of the communal and municipal libraries are of great extent and interest: Bologna (1801); Brescia, Civica Quiriniana (1747); Ferrara (1753); Macerata, the Mozzi-Borgetti (1783~ 1835, united 1855); Mantua; Novara, Negroni e Civica (1847

and 1890); Padua; Palermo (1760); Perugia (1852), founded by P. Podiani; Siena (1758), founded by S. Bandini, fine art collection; Venice, Museo Civico Correr (1830); Verona (1792, public since 1802); Bertoliana (1708). Italian librarians are organized and there is a school for professional training in the Archiginnasio at Bologna Spain and Portugal—Most of the royal, State and university

libraries of Spain and Portugal have Government control and support.

The chief library in Spain is the Biblioteca Nacional (formerly Real) at Madrid (1716), with 1,210,520 printed books, including 2,412 incunabula, 30,172 mss. and 120,000 prints. Theology, canon law, history, etc., are very complete. The collection of prints was

principally bought from Don Valentin Carderera in 1865. Other Madrid libraries are Biblioteca de la Real Academia de la Historia,

1738 (50,000 vols., and 8,400 mss.), which contains Spanish books of great value, including the Salazar collection. In 1808, the year the Escorial contained approximately 30,c00 printed vols. and 3,400 mss., Joseph removed the collection to Madrid, but

when it was returned by Ferdinand 10,000 vols. were missing. There are now about 40,000 printed volumes. The Biblioteca Provincial y Universitaria of Barcelona (1841) contains about 100,000 vols., and that of Seville (1767) has 110,000 volumes. Among

ae oe

and yniversity libraries is that of Salamanca

[SPAIN AND

PORTUGAL

Much interest in libraries has not been shown in Latin America Most of the libraries which exist are national or legislative libraries. Cuba.—The chief are in Havana, and the best is the Biblioteca Nacional (1901), 256,000 vols., the Biblioteca Publica. The Biblioteca Publica is one of the most actively-managed libraries in Latin America. Mexico.—Of the 29 States the territories of the Mexican republic, many possess rare and valuable books from the libraries of the suppressed religious bodies, but few have much modern literature. Many scientific and literary associations in the republic possess books. The Society of Geography and Statistics in Mexico City (founded 1833, reorganized 1851), the most important of them, owns a fine museum and library. The ecclesiastical libraries of Mexico City were amalgamated as the Biblioteca Nacional; this now possesses over 200,000 voiumes. Two copies of every book printed in Mexico must be deposited in it. Most of the libraries of Mexico, city or provincial, are subscription, and belong to societies and schools of various kinds. The American Library Association is spreading Anglo-American library technique in Mexico, and also in the Philippines. Argentina.—There are more than 200 public libraries in Argentina. They are due to benefactions, but the Government adds an equal sum to endowments. A central commission exists to facilitate the acquisition of books and to secure good administration. The most considerable is the Biblioteca Nacional at Buenos Aires (1810), which is passably rich in mss. concerning the early history of the Spanish colonies and has 350,000 printed volumes. The Biblioteca Popular del Municipio (1879) has about 80,000

volumes.

There are also libraries attached to colleges, churches

and clubs. Brazil, Chile and Peru.—The chief library in Brazil is the

Biblioteca Nacional at Rio de Janeiro (1810), now comprising over 488,000 printed vols, with many mss., largely on South America. Other libraries of the capital are those of the Faculty of Medicine, Marine library, National museum, Portuguese Literary club, Biblioteca Fluminense, Benedictine monastery, and the Biblioteca Municipal (60,o00 vols.). There are provincial and town libraries throughout Brazil. The Biblioteca Nacional at Santiago (1813) is the chief library in Chile. It possesses about 232,000 volumes. There is also a university library at Santiago (40,000 vols.) and the Biblioteca Publica at Valparaiso (50,000 vols.). The Biblioteca Nacional at Lima was founded by a decree of the liberator, San Martin, in 1820, from those of the university of San Marcos and of several monasteries, and books presented by the liberator; it is rich in the history of Peru. Netherlands.—Since 1900 there has been considerable progress made in both Belgium and Holland in the development of public libraries, and many towns in the latter country have established popular libraries after the fashion of the municipal libraries of the United Kingdom and America, Belgium.—tThe national library of Belgium is the Bibliothéque Royale at Brussels, based on the Bibliothéque des ducs de Bourgogne, the library of the Austrian sovereigns of the Low Countries in 1772. In 1794 a number of volumes were transferred to Paris, the majority being returned in 1815; in 1795 the remainder,

1254). Among the libraries of Portugal the Biblioteca Nacional at Lisbon (1796) naturally takes the first place. In 1841 it was largely increased from the monastic collections, and now has 800,000 vols. of printed books, largely on theology, canon law, history and Portuguese and Spanish literature, 16,000 mss., and 40,000 coins and medals. The Academia das Sciencias (1779), in were formed into a public library under the care of La Serna Santhe suppressed convent of the Ordem Terceira da Penitencia, in tander, who was also town librarian, and who was followed by 1836 acquired the library of that convent (30,000 vols.) which van Hulthem. At the end of the administration of van Hulthem has since been kept apart. The Archivo Nacional was brought a large part of the precious collections of the Bollandists was here in 1749. acquired. In 1830 the Bibliothéque de Bourgogne was added to The Biblioteca Publica Municipal at Oporto, founded during the State archives. Van Hulthem died in 1832; his private library the siege of 1833, and till 1874 styled the Real Biblioteca do Porto, (catalogue printed 1836), mostly relating to Belgian history, was is one of the largest in Portugal (about 300,000 vols.). The regent purchased in 1837, and, having been added to the Bibliothéque de gave to the town the libraries of the suppressed convents in the Bourgogne and the Bibliothéque de la Ville (open since 1794), northern provinces. The important Camoens collection is de- formed the Bibliothéque Royale de Belgique. The printed volumes scribed in a printed catalogue (1880), and the mss. by H. da now number over 800,000, with 31,200 mss., 34,600 maps, 1,267,Cunha: Rivara (1850-70). The University Library of Coimbra 700 prints and 80,000 coins and medals, There are printed cata(1591) 300,000 vols., the Instituto Juridico, Coimbra (1912) logues of special collections of mss., of accessions, etc. There is 53,000 vols., and the Biblioteca Provincial, Cadiz 40,000 vols., no free legal deposit of books in Belgium; the Government purmay be mentioned: '*” chases new books from the publishers and deposits them in the

NETHERLANDS]

LIBRARIES

19

Royal library. The financial crisis after 1918 led to proposals, by ; placed here in 1877, Legatum Warnerianum of oriental mss., and a governmental committee of economics, to divide the foreign | the collection of maps bequeathed in 1870 by J. J. Bodel Nyenaccessions of the library among those of various ministries; but | huis, are noteworthy. Published catalogues are: books and mss., in 1928 the scheme had been severely animadverted on and 1716; supplements of books added in 1814-47, and of mss., 1850; seemed unlikely to be pressed. There are libraries attached to and oriental mss., 1851—77. The Bibliotheek der Rijks Universimost of the departments of the Government. Other important teit (1575) at Leyden contains about 800,000 vols. and 3,400 libraries are the Bibliothéque Collective des Sociétés Savantes oriental mss., many of value. (1906), with a union catalogue on cards, and the Bibliothéque du The University library at Utrecht (292,500 vols.) is based on Conservatoire Royal de Musique (1832) with 31,000 volumes. conventual collections brought together in x58r. The public The popular or communal libraries of Brussels (1842) and of library thus formed was soon enriched by books bequeathed by the suburbs are distributed through the schools. At Antwerp the Hub. Buchelius and Ev. Pollio, and was transferred to the unitown library (1505) has now 500,000 volumes. The valuable col- versity on its foundation in 1636. Among the mss. is the famous lection of books in the Musée Plantin-Moretus (1640) should also “Utrecht Psalter,” which contains the oldest text of the Athanbe mentioned. It contains 427 mss. and 20,000 printed books, asian creed. Printed catalogues are of printed books of 1834 comprising the works issued by the Plantin family and many (supplement 1845, index from 1845-55, and additions 1856-1870), rsth century books, besides the archives of the firm. and of mss., 1887. Titles of accessions are printed. The University library at Amsterdam is based on a 15th century The university library of Ghent (declared public in 1797, opened in 1798), was known successively as the Bibliothéque de collection. Since 1877 the collection has been known as the Unil'École Centrale and Bibliothèque Publique de la Ville. On the versity library, and in 1881 it was removed to a building modelled foundation of the university in 1817 the town placed the collec- on the British Museum library. It includes the best mediaeval tion at its disposal, but it has since remained under State control. collection in Holland, and the Bibliotheca Rorenthaliana of The printed volumes now amount to 450,000 and the mss. to Hebraica (30,000 vols., catalogue 1875). The libraries of the 2,650. The Bibliothèque de l’Université Catholique of Louvain Dutch Geographical and other societies are preserved here. The (1636) is based upon the collections of Beyerlinck, bequeathed library contains about 800,000 volumes. There are popular subin 1627, and of Jacques Romain, professor of medicine. There scription libraries with reading-rooms in all parts of Holland, and were over 211,000 vols. in 1914, when the library was totally de- in Rotterdam there is a society for the encouragement of social stroyed by fire at the German occupation. On the foundation of culture which has a large library. At The Hague, Leyden, Haarlem, the University of Liége (1817) the old Bibliothèque de la Ville Dordrecht and other towns popular libraries have been estabwas added to its library (now 454,000 printed vols., 184,500 lished, but ecclesiastical divisions hamper free development. pamphlets, and 2,140 mss.). The Liége collection, bequeathed by Dutch librarians are organized in a professional body. The library of the Genootschap van Kunsten en Wetenschappen M. Ulysse Capitaine and the Bibliothèques Populaires of Liége (1862), are circulated among the school children. The Biblio- at Batavia contains books printed in Netherlandish India, or thèque publique of Bruges (1798) contains 145,000 printed books relating to the Indian archipelago. Denmark.—Owing largely to so many Scandinavian librarians and mss. housed in the old Tonlieu (1477). Every town has a communal library, mostly small and open only part of the day; having been trained and employed in American libraries, a greater the chief are those of Alost, Arlon (1842), Ath (1842), Courtrai, approach has beén made to Anglo-American library ideals in NorMalines (1864), Mons (1797), Namur (1800), Ostend (1861) way, Sweden and Denmark than anywhere else on the continent of and Tournai (1794, housed in the Hotel des Anciens Prétres, Europe. A survey of 384 Danish libraries in 1915 (Dansk Biblioteks1755); those of Ypres and other towns in the war area were destroyed in 1914-18. A complete list will be found in the Annuaire foerer) was published by Svend Dahl; and a statistical list of popular libraries appears yearly in Bogens Verden. de la Belgique scientifique, artistique et litteraire (1908). The beginning of the national library, the great Royal library By a law of Oct. 17, 1921, communes may singly or in conjunction establish public libraries, and if complying with certain con- (Kongelige Bibliothek) at Copenhagen may be credited to Christian III. (1533-59); but to Frederick III. (1648—70) is mainly ditions receive State subsidies. The “Union des villes et communes belges” at Brussels is plan- due the collection of Icelandic literature and the acquisition of ning a national scheme of federation and mutual lending between Tycho Brahe’s mss., and also the present building (in the Chrispublic libraries; and similar associations at Louvain, Antwerp, tiansborg castle), begun in 1667. In 1793 the library was opened Bruges, Ermeton, near Namur (for the Walloon districts) are sim- as the national library. Two copies of every book published in ilarly engaged. Rural circulating libraries are brought by the Denmark must be deposited here. The incunabula and block books law of 192x under the same control as those of the communes. form an important series. In foreign literature it specializes in the humanities. There are printed catalogues of the de Thott (See J. van Meel, Bibliothèques publiques, 192.) Holland.—Informatién on Dutch libraries can be obtained collection (1789-95); French mss., Oriental mss. (1846); the from J. D. C. von Dukkum and G. A. Evers, Nederlandsche Bib- Danish collection (1875), etc. There are now 850,000 printed books and 30,000 mss. The Royal library has nearly completed lioteekgids, 2nd ed., 1924. The national library of Holland is the Koninklijke Bibliotheek publication of Bibliotheca Danica, a bibliography of Danish at The Hague (1798). The library of the princes of Orange was books, 1482-1830. The University library (1482), destroyed by fire in 1728, but then united with those of the defunct Government bodies to form the national Bibliotheek. In 1805 the present name was adopted; soon re-established, receives, since 1894, a copy of every Danish and since 181s it has become the national library. In 1848 the publication, and has 430,000 vols. and 7,000 mss., including the Baron W. Y. H. van Westreenen van Tiellandt bequeathed his Arne-Magnean colleçtion, specializing in the natural sciences. The library and antiquities to be preserved in his former residence as Statsbiblioteket of Aarhus (1894) possesses about 270,000 vols. a branch of the royal library. There are now about one million and the Landsbokasafn Islands (National library) of Reykjavik. printed books and over 6,000 mss. Books are lent all over the Iceland, about 118,000 printed books and 7,830 Icelandic mss. A country. The library is the richest in the world in books on State library commission supervises the State-supported libraries. chess, Dutch incunabula, Elzevirs and in Spinozana. In 1800-11 a An association for promoting public libraries was formed in 1905, printed catalogue was issued, and since 1866 a yearly list of and in 1909 the minister of public instruction appointed a special adviser. additions. Modern developments show, perhaps more clearly than elseThe next largest library is that of the Academia ‘LugdunoBatavia, which dates from the foundation of the University of where in Europe, a tendency to co-ordinate all the libraries. Norway.—The Norsk Bibliotekforening in 1924 published a Leyden in 1575. Valuable additions include those from the libraries of Golius, Joseph Scaliger, Isaac Voss, Ruhnken and Hem- statistical account of 266 libraries (Handbok over norske Bibliosterhuis. The library of the Society of Netherland Literature, teker). SS ET ST D e A ATS PT EN E A a E ef rm etn rep SNA ND IR AAS

LIBRARIES

20

The chief library in Norway is the University library at Oslo

(Christiania), founded in 1811 by Frederick II., with a large

donation of duplicates from the Royal Library at Copenhagen. There are now over 700,000 vols. in the collection. The Deichmanske Bibliotek at Oslo was founded by Carl Deichmann in 1780 as a free library, and is maintained by endowments and by the city. It now contains about 195,000 volumes. The Free library

[EASTERN EUROPE

mss. (notably the historical) are of great value.

The Biblioteka

Vsemirnoj Literatury (1919) has about 90,000 and the University library (1925) 711,000 volumes. The library at the Hermitage was founded by the empress Catherine II.’s purchase of Voltaire’s and Diderot’s books and

mss. In 186r it possessed 150,000 vols., of which nearly all but those on the history of art were then transferred to the Imperial at Bergen (1874) has 163,758 vols. and has been re-housed. The library. There are many large and valuable libraries attached to Kongelige Norske Videnskabers Selskab at Trondhjem has also a the Government departments in Leningrad, and most of the academies and colleges and learned societies are provided with large library. Sweden and Finland.—Swedish libraries were surveyed in libraries. The national library published in 1928 material for a directory of the learned libraries of the city. 1924 in Einar Sundstrom’s Svenska Bibliotek. The second largest library in Russia is the Lenin Memorial The first Royal library at Stockholm, established in 1585, was given to the University of Uppsala by Gustavus II, Charles X.’s Library in Moscow (formerly Rumyantzov Museum collection, library was burned in 1697, and the present library was organized renamed after Lenin’s death in 1924). It has over three million shortly afterwards. The Benzelstjerna-Engestrom library (rich in volumes, is rich in early printed books, Russian history, and mss. Swedish history) is now annexed to it. Natural history, medicine The latter number 5,000, including many ancient Slavonic codices, and mathematics are left to other libraries. Among the mss. the historical documents and the archives of the masonic lodges in Codex Aureus of the 6th or 7th century, with an Anglo-Saxon Russia between 1816 and 1821; catalogues of the mss. and of inscription, is noteworthy. The library contained, in 1924, 460,000 some special collections are printed. The University at Moscow printed books and over 12,000 mss. The Karolinska Institutet, in (1753) has a library of over 310,000 vols., and the Duchovnaja Stockholm, contains a library of medical books numbering over academy has 120,000 volumes. The (formerly Imperial) Russian

Historical museum (1875-83) in Moscow contains nearly 200,000

60,000,

The University library at Uppsala was founded as mentioned above by Gustavus Adolphus in 1620, from the remains of convent libraries, and endowed. The mss. chiefly relate to the history of the country, but include the Codex Argenteus of the Gothic gospels of Ulfilas, published in facsimile by the library in 1928. Printed catalogues are: general (1814), foreign accession lists (annually from 1850), and Arabic, Turkish and Persian mss. (1846). The library now contains about 600,000 printed books

volumes.

Among Russian

university libraries mention

may be

made of Kazan (1804), Kharkov (1805), Kiev (1832) and Odessa (1865). There are also communal or public libraries at Kharkov

(1886), Odessa (1830) in the Ukraine, and many other towns. The Soviet Government has established many popular libraries.

There are about 145,385 vols. in

The Lenin Institute of Library Science at Moscow trains librarians and has published text-books. Poland.—The Jagiellonska library at Cracow (1400) 524,000 vols. and 6,711 mss., at present serves as national library for Poland. As the headquarters of the Government is at Warsaw, however, it is now debated whether all publications concerning

about 240,000 vols., and has a printed catalogue. Finland has the University library of Helsingfors (1640~1827), about 500,000 vols, and the parliamentary library (1872), 58.500 volumes.

91,532 vols., or whether they should be divided between the two cities, It is suggested that the Jagiellonska library be made into a historical collection containing books to the year 1918, the date of the reconstitution of the Polish State, and that the Warsaw

and mss. The University library at Lund (1668) was based upon the old cathedral library. The mss. include the de la Gardie archives, acquired in 1848.

the library. The Stadsbibliotek of Gothenburg (1890) contains

Poland should be housed in the National Library there (1917)

library be confined to accessions since that date, and organized on the lines of the Deutsche Biicherei at Leipzig. A bibliographical institute will be attached to the Warsaw collection and will disseminate information through a special bureau, the functions of which are at present fulfilled by the Jagiellonska and by the of maps, autographs, photographs, etc. It is now said to contain Warsaw section of the libraries of the Ministry of Public In4,566,645 printed books and 240,000 mss., and autographs. It struction. The National Library at Warsaw has also been enoriginated in the books seized by Peter the Great in Courland in riched by the famous Zaluski collection, described in the para1714; the library, however, only attained to the first rank in 1795, graph on Russian libraries. The Warsaw university library (1817) hy the acquisition of the famous Zaluski collection. The Zaluski has 730,000 volumes. Besides the Cracow and Warsaw libraries, library was formed by the Polish count, Joseph Zaluski, who col- that of Posen (formerly Kaiser Wilhelm Bibliothek) may be menlected 200,000 vols., added to by his brother Andrew, bishop of tioned. Lemberg (Lwow) has three noteworthy collections housed Cracow. At his death it was left to the Jesuit college at Warsaw; in the University library, the Ossolinsky library and Museum and on the suppression of the order it was taken by the Commission the Bavorovsky library. Chwalewik’s Les Collections polonaises of Education; and in 1795 it was transferred by Suvarov to St. (2 vols.) gives a complete list of Polish libraries, and 427 libraries Petersburg ag a trophy of war. It then had 260,000 printed vols. are listed in the Mianowski Foundations Year Book (1927), pp. and 10,000 mss., but in consequence of the dispersal of many 162—221. There is no general catalogue, but its place is taken at J works among other institutions, hardly 238,000 vols. remained in present by Charles Estreicher’s Bibliografia Polska (1870t810, After the World War the Zaluski collection was returned The Lett city of Vilna also has a public library (1856). Russia.—-The

Gosudarstvennaya

Publichnaya

Biblioteka

at

Leningrad, formerly the Imperial public library at St. Petersburg, the State library of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, is perhaps the largest library in the world. In rọro it had about 1.800,000 printed vols. and 34,000 mss., as well as large collections

to Poland. By a law passed in 1810 two copies of every Russian publication must be deposited in the library. Very many valuable _ special collections have been added, such as the Tolstoy Slavonic

‘ collection (1830), Tischendorf’s mss. (1858), the Dolgorousky oriental mss. (1859), and the Firkowitsch Hebrew (Karaite) collection (1862-63), and the national mss. of Karamzin (1867). Some departments are thus exceedingly rich, while others are comparatively meagre. The glory of the mss. is the Codex Sinaiticus of the Greek Bible, brought from the convent of St. Catherine on Mount Sinai hy Tischendorf in 1859. Other important biblical and patristic codices are to be found among the Greek and Latin mss.; the Hebrew mss. include some of the oldest extant, and the Samaritan collection is one of the largest; the oriental mss . and the French

Elsewhere in Eastern Europe.—Latvia has the city and university libraries of Riga (with 375,000 and 60,000 vols.). Estonia has the university library of Tarfu (Dorpat 1806) with 270,000 vols., and the city library of Tallinn. The university libraries of Belgrade and Sofia (1888), 192,039 vols., and the national library at Sofia (1924), over 200,000 printed books and 5,500 mss., are the chief in the Balkans. There

is a Bulgarian State Library Commission, which organizes local libraries and trains librarians. At Athens the national library (1842) possesses about 400,000 vols., 3,800 mss., and 200,000 historical documents.

Constantinople has a National library (1925) and a public

library, the Oumoumiye, of about 300,000 volumes. There are over 120,000 vols. in the University library (1910), and there are

LIBRARIES

CHINA]

2

hf

I

also libraries at the Greek literary society and the Theological ` important journal. There are two associations in Germany, the school. The mosque of St. Sophia contains a library of some Verein deutscher Bibliothekare, and the Verein deutscher Volksthousands of mss., of which a printed catalogue is obtainable, con- bibliothekare, which issues a year-book giving information consisting mostly of Korans and service books. The old Seraglio cerning the libraries of the country; a similar organization in contains many important books. Austria-Hungary is now merged into the former. An Association of Archivists and Librarians was formed at Brussels in 1907, and THE FAR EAST there are similar societies in France, Italy, Spain, Holland, DenChina.—The earliest notice of a library in China is that of the mark, Norway, Sweden, and, since 1927, in China also. In every imperial Chou dynasty whose capital was at Loyang in the modern country there is now some kind of library association. The movement, since the World War, partly because of the province of Honan. According to a tradition preserved in Ssu-ma Ch’ien’s “Historical Record” the philosopher Lao-tse, who lived financial crisis in Europe, and partly because of the increased in the seventh century before Christ, was keeper of books in this consciousness of each other among the nations, has been one of library. National collections of books in the modern sense, how- | co-operation and closer organization, so that the world’s library ever, originated with the attempts made to recover the books |resources are far better utilized. scattered or destroyed by the so-called “First Emperor” in 220 ! Two agencies further international co-operation between libraB.C. Hence the earliest catalogue of Chinese books is preserved ries: (1) The Institut International de Bibliographie, founded in in the “History of the Former Han Dynasty” (206 B.c.-23 AD.) | 1897 at Brussels by Paul Orlet and Henri Lafontaine, but and written in the first century of our era. The histories of nearly | shortly to be moved to Geneva, aims at amalgamating the cataall succeeding dynasties have likewise left catalogues of books | logues of the world’s chief libraries into an universal card bibliog-

preserved in their libraries or known to their times. After the

raphy. It has also produced a more thorough (decimal) classification for books and papers. (2) The Institut International de

numerous. From time to time these were destroyed or dispersed, but catalogues of many of them remain. There are still some

Co-opération Intellectuelle at Paris, an institution of the League of Nations, by its committee of library experts (mostly the heads of the great national libraries), has brought into mutual relations the national bureaux of bibliographical information, and publishes reports from them. It has been calculated by E. Sparn (El Crecimiento de las grandes Bibliotecas de la Tierra) that the larger libraries of the Old World were doubled, and those of North America trebled, in

invention of printing in China private libraries became increasingly

fourteen large private libraries in various parts of China some of which contain as many as two hundred thousand volumes. According to a survey made by the Library Association of China in 1927 there were then 503 public and private libraries

in China proper and Manchuria. Of this total the province of Kiangsu has 145; the city of Shanghai 60, Peking 42, and Nanking 20. The largest single collection of books is found in the Metro-

content in the first quarter of the 2oth century.

politan Library, Peking. Each provincial capital also has its own library. The following universities boast large and rapidly growing collections of both Chinese and western books: Peking National University, Sun Yat Sen University (Canton), Tsinghua University (Peking), Yenching University (Peking), Amoy University, and Nanking University. The most common classification of books in Chinese libraries—the so-called Ssu K’u system which has been in vogue for fifteen centuries—divides all Chinese literature into four classes: classics, history, philosophy, and belles lettres. A few of the modern Chinese libraries have discarded this system entirely, but most of them combine with it a modified Dewey or Library of Congress classification. (See the files of the Library Science Quarterly, Tu Shu Kuan Hsiieh Chi K’an, the official organ of the Library Association of China which was founded in 1925.) Japan.—The ancient history of libraries in Japan is analogous to that of China. Perhaps the most extensive library of the empire is that of the Imperial Cabinet (1885) at Tokyo with 507,600 vols., consisting of the collections of various Government departments. The Imperial library at Uyeno Park (1872) contains 387,208 vols., of which some 297,000 are in Japanese or Chinese. At Tokyo there is also the Ohashi library (1902), 81,154 vols., the Hibiya library (1908), 153,000 vols., and the Nanki library (1899), 87,000 vols. The library of the Imperial University of Kyoto

BiBLioGRAPHY.—There is no considerable bibliography of libraries or librarianship. Current lists appear in Zentralblatt für Bibliothekswesen (Leipzig), and annual bibl. from these by R. Hoecker and T. Vorstius, Internationale Bibliographie der Bibkothekwissenschaft (1926, etc.); previous vols. as Bethefte of the Z. f. B., by J. Vorstius alone. A very full bibl. of articles in periodicals in English only is H. G. T. Cannon, Bibliography of Library Economy, 1876-1920 (1927). Directories (see also under the yarious countries); Minerva: Jahrbuch der Gebehrien Welt (1800, etc.), the source of many of the statistics for particular libraries in the foregoing article. A supplement for libraries is now appearing. See also L. Haffkin-Hamburger, “Library Directories” (annotated list) in Tke Library Journal (Nov. 1, 1928); Index Generalis: Annuaire Général des Universités, Bibliothèques, etc. (1926—27); E. Sparn, Las Bibliotecas con 50,000 y mas volumenes y su distribución geografica sobre la Tierra (Cordova, 1924),

(1899) contains nearly 650,000 vols., of which a large proportion

are in European languages. Kyoto and other towns have considerable municipal libraries. Kasan in Korea has a library (1804) of about 250,000 vols. LIBRARY ASSOCIATIONS AND TRAINING

The first and largest association established for the study of librarianship was the American Library Association (1876), which includes Canada. The Library Association of the United Kingdom was formed in 1877, as an outcome of the first International Library Conference, held at London, and in 1898 it received a

royal charter. It publishes a Year Book, the quarterly Library Association Record. It also holds examinations. The Library

Assistants’ Association was formed in 1895 and has branches in different parts of England, Wales and Ireland. It issues a monthly magazine entitled The Library Assistant. The Association des Bibliothécaires Francais was founded in 1906 and publishes an

and El Crecimiento de las grandes Bibliotecas de la Tierra durante el

primer cuario del Siglo XX. (1925-26); Institut International de Co-opération Intellectuelle, La Co-ordination des bibliothèques: rapports sur les centres nationaux de renseignements (1928). History: J. W. Clark, The Care of Books (1909); C. Castellani, Le Biblioteche d’Antichitd (1884). Manuals of Librarianship: H. B. Wheatley, How to Catalogue a Library (1889); C., H. Cutter, Expansive Classification (1891-93), and Rules for a Printed Dictionary Catalogue (1904) ; M. Dewey, Rules for Author and Classed Catalogues (1892), and Decimal Classification (12th ed., 1928) ; A. Main, Manuel pratique du bibliothécaire (1896); J. D. Brown, Manual of Library Classification (1898) and Subject Classification (1926) ; E. C. Richardson, Classification, Theoretical and Practical (1901); A. Graesel, Handbuch der Bibliothekslehre (latest ed., 1902); M. Pellisson, Les Bibliothéques populaires a Vétranger et en France (1906); E. A. Savage, Manual of Descriptive Annotation (1906) ; A. L. Champneys,

Public Libraries: A Treatise on their Design (1907) ; American Library

Association, Cataloguing Rules: Author and Title Entries (1908), Manual of Library Economy (r911, and reprints of single chapters} and Board of Education for Librarianship: Annual Reports (1924, etc.)}; J. D. Stewart, The Sheaf Catalogue (1909); J. C. Dana, A Library Primer (1910); The Bodleian Staff Manual (1913, etc.); J. H. Quinn, Library Cataloguing (1913); W. W. Bishop, Praatical Handbook of Modern Library Cataloguing (1914); J. D. Stewart and others, Open Access Libraries (1915); Library of Congress: W. B. Sayers, Canons of Classification (1915); Carnegie United Kingdom Trust, Reports (dealing with county libraries which the r9z5 report brought into being, 1915) ; J. D. Brown, Manual of Library Economy (3rd ed. W. C. Berwick Sayers, 1920); D. Gray, County Librury Systems (1922); R. D. McLeod, County Rural Libraries (2923); EA Baker, The Public Library (1923) ; Svend Dahl, Bibliothekshandbok (edit. S. E. Bring, 1924) ; G. Rees, Libraries for Children: A History and a Bibliography (1924) ; L. R. McColvin, Theory of Book Selection for Public Libraries (1925); H. C. Lang, County Library Service (1925); C. C. Williamson, Training for Library Service (1925) ; Tse-Chien-T4i, Professional Education for Librarianship (19253);

22

LIBRARIES

[BIBLIOGRAPHY

W. C. B. Sayers, A Manual of Classification (1926) ; British Museum, ! Bibliothèques municipales de la ville de Paris (1896) ; Instruction du Rules for Compiling the Catalogue (1927); Cambridge University i 7 Mars 1899 sur organization des bibliothèques militaires (1899); H library, Rules for the Catalogue (1927); J. A. Lowe, Public Library | Martin, Histoire de la bibliothéque de l’Arsenal (1899); A. Franklin, Administration (1928) ; J. L. Warner, Reference Library Work (1928) ; Histoire de la bibliothéque Masavine (1901) and Guzde des suvants, E. S. Fegan, Sckool Libraries: Practical Hints on Management (1928); des littérateurs et des artistes dans les bibliothéques de Paris (1908) : L. E. Fay and A. T. Eaton, Instruction in the Use of Books and F. Chambon, Notes sur la bibliothéque de l'Université de Paris de Libraries (as school libraries, Boston, 3rd ed., 1928); Institut Inter- 1763 @ 1905 (Ganat, 1905) ; H. Marcel, Rapport adressé au Ministre de national de Bibliographie, Classification bibliographique décimale VInstruction Publique, sur Vensemble des services de la bibliothèque (Brussels, 1928, etc.). A large work, edit. by F. Milkan, it was expected nationale en r905 (Journal Officiel, 1906); H. Marcel, H. Bouchot, would begin to appear in 1920. E. Babelon, P. Marchal and C. Coudere, La Bibliothéque Nationale Periodicals (London): The Library Assistant (1898, etc.); The (2 vols., 1907); M. Poète, E. Beaurepaire and E. Clouzot, Une visite Library Association Record (1898, etc.); The Library World (18098, à la bibliothèque de la ville de Paris (1907); E. Morel, Bibliothèques: etc.); The Library (1899, etc., now amalgamated with Transactions Essai sur le développement des bibliothèques publiques et de la librairie of the Bibliographical Society); The Library Journal (New York, dans les deux mondes (1909) and Lu Librairie Publique (1910). See 1876, etc.) ; Special Libraries (New York) ; Libraries (formerly Public also La Librairie des Papes d’Avignon 1316-1420 (Ecoles francaises Libraries, Chicago, 1896, etc.); Bulletin of the American Library | d'Athènes et de Rome, 2 vols., 1886-87). ey (Boston, 1907, etc.); The Library Review (Coatbridge, Germany: Information was given for the edition of 1910 by Dr. 1927, etc.). A. Hortzschansky. See also K. Dziatzko, Entwicklung und gegenParis: Bulletin du bibliophile (1834, etc.) ; Bulletin des Bibliothèques 1 wdrtiger stand der wissenschaftlichen Bibliotheken Deutschlands mit et des Archives (1884-89); Revue des bibliothéques (1891, etc.). besonderer Berücksichtigung Preussens (Leipzig, 1893) ; E. Lande, “Les Brussels: Bulletin de Vinstitut international de bibliogruphie (1895, Bibliothèques universitaires allemandes,” in Revue des bibliothéques etc.) ; Revue des bibliothéques et des archives de Belgique (1903-09) ; (vol. x., 1900); A. Graesel, Handbuch der Bibliothekslehre (Leipzig, Archives et bibliothéques de Belgique (1923, etc.); Bibliotheeksgids 1902); C. Nörrenberg, “Volksbibliotheken und Lesehallen,” in Hand(1922, etc.) ; Tijdschrift voor boek und bibliothekweyen (Hague, 1903, wörterbuch der Staatswissenschaften (vol. viii., 3rd ed., Jena, rorr); etc.); De Boekzaal (Hague, 1907, etc.) ; Het Boek (Hague, 1911, etc.); P. Ladewig, Politik der Bücherei (Leipzig, x912); F. Milkau, “Die Bibliotheken,” in Die Kultur der Gegenwart (and ed., 1912); “ArbeitsOpenbaare Leeszaal en Biblioteek (Amsterdam, 1918, etc.); Bogsamlingsbladet (Copenhagen, 1906, etc.); Bogens Verden (Copenhagen, methoden und Organisationsfragen der deutschen Bibliotheken” in 1918, etc.); Bogvennen (Copenhagen, 1926, etc.); For Folkesplysning Zentralblatt (vol. 31, 1914); G. Fritz, Volksbildungswesen (and ed., (formerly For Folke-og-Barnboksamlinger, Oslo, 1906, etc.); Biblio- 1920, in series Aus Natur und Geisteswelt, vol. 266); W. Hoffmann, lheksbladet (Stockholm, 1903, etc.); Nordisk Tidskrift för Bok-och Die Praxis der Volksbiicherei (Leipzig, 1922) and Der Weg sum Biblioteksvdsen (Uppsala, 1913, etc.); Ceska osvéta (Prague, 1904, Schrifttum (1922); O. Glauning, “Ein Jahrhundert bibliothekarischer etc.); Časopis Českosloven ských Krihovnlkú (Prague, 1921, etc.); Vergangenheit” in Zentralblatt (vol. 40, 1923) ; and Die gegenwärtige Lage der deutschen wissenschafilichen Bibliotheken (Munich, 1926); Curtea (Bucharest, 1926, etc.). Leipzig: Zentralblatt fiir Bibliothekswesen (1884, etc.) ; Blatter fiir F. Milkau and G. Fritz, “Bibliotheken” in Politisches Handwörterbuch Volksbibliotheken und Lesehallen (1899, etc., occasional supplement to (vol. xxr., Leipzig, 1923); E. Ackerknecht, Büchereifrugen (1924); the preceding) ; Das Jahrbuch der deutschen Bibliotheken (x902, etc.) ; G. Fritz and O. Plate, Volksbückereien (Sammlung Göschen series, Leipzig, 1924); R. Pietschmann, “Bibliotheken” in Handwörterbuch Bibliographie des Bibliotheks- und Buchwesens (edit. A. Hortzschansky, 1904; issued in the Zentralblatt) see Internationale Bibliographie, der Stuatswissenschafien (vol. ii, 4th ed., Jena, 1y24); A. Hessel, supra, p. 21; Archiv für Bibliographie (Linz, 1927, etc.). Mitteilungen Geschichte der Bibliotheken, especially valuable because of its statistics des österreichischen Vereins für Bibliothekswesen (Vienna, 1896, etc.), (Gottingen, 1925); Jahrbuch der deutschen Volksbiichereien (1926, Florence: Revista delle biblioteche e degli archivi (1890, etc.); etc.). For local guides to libraries of German cities, see HaffkinBibliofilia (1898, etc.); Annali degli Accademie e Biblioteche (1927, Hamburger op. cit. etc.); Bollettino delle biblioteche popolari (Milan, 1907, etc.); El Italy: Information has been given for this account by Dr, Staderini Consultor bibliográfico (Barcelona, 1925, etc.); Anuario de las of the Biblioteca Casanatense, Rome. See also F. Bluhme, Za Italicum bibliotecas populares (Barcelona, 1926, etc.); Revista de Archivos, (Berlin, 1824-36); Notisie sulle biblioteche governative del regno Bibliotecas y Museos (Madrid, 1907); El Libro y el Pueblo (Mexico, d'Italia (Roma, 1893); Statistica delle biblioteche (2 pts., 189396) ; 1922, etc.) ; Cartel (Buenos Aires, 1926, etc.), Annuaire du conseil des Le biblioteche popolari in Italia; relazione al Ministro della Pubblica bibliothèques de Latvie (Riga, 1926, etc.); Library Science Quarterly Istruzione (1898); Le biblioteche governative Italiune nel 1898 (1900); Bollettino delle biblioteche popolari (Milan, 1907, ete.); E. (in Chinese, Peking, 1927, etc.); Bulletin of the Library Association of China (Peking, 1925, etc.) ; Gakuto (Tokyo, 1897, etc.) ; The Indian Fabietti, Manuele per le biblioteche popolari (20d ed., Milan, tylo). Library Journal (Bagwada, 1924, etc.). Le biblioteche popolari al 1° Congresso Nusionule tyu (roio) and Great Britain: Select Committee of the House of Commons on Elenco delle biblioteche d'Italia (1926); G, Bognetti, Le biblioteche Public Libraries, Report (1849); Edward Edwards, Memvirs of milanese (1914), and the reports, regulations and journal issued by the Ministry of Public Instruction, Section of Academies and Libraries. Libraries (1859), and Lives of the Founders of the British Museum (2 vols. 1870); D. Macray, Annals of the Bodleian (1868); Other Countries: J. Bohatta and M. Holymann, Adressbuch der l. Faren, Life of Sir A. Panizzi (2 vols., 1880) ; G. F. Chambers and Bibliotheken der Gsterreich-ungarischen Monurchie (Vienna, 1900); H. W, Fovargue, The Law relating to Public Libraries (4th ed., 1899); R. Kukula, Die österreichischen Studienbibliatheken (1905); A. Hübl, Die österreichischen Kilosterbibliotheken in den Jahren 1848—1008 E, A, Savage, Old English Libraries (1911) ; H. W. Fovargue, Summary (1908); O. Smital, Die Hofbibliothek (of Vienna, 1920); R. Teichl, of the Law relating to Public Libraries (1922); The John Rylands Library; A Record of Its History (1924); C. R. Sanderson, Library Wiener Bibliotheksfühkrer und Plan (1926); P. Gulyas, Das ungarische Law (1928); Public Libraries Committee, Report on Public Libraries Oberinspektorat der Museen und Bibliotheken (1909); Die über

in England and Wales (1927); The Uses of Libruries (edit. E. A. Baker, describing the chief libraries and their contents, 1927); L. Newcombe, The University Libraries of Great Britain and Ireland (1927) R. A. Rye, The_Student’s Guide to the Libraries of London 1927); Association of Special Libraries: G. F. Barwick, The Aslib Directory (1928); The Libraries, Museums and Art Galleries of the British Isles (last ed., 1928) ; Royal Commission on National Museums and Galleries, Interior Report and Notes of Evidence (1928). United States of America: In addition to American works cited above, see A. E. Bostwick, The American Public Library (1910); W. 5S. Learned, The American Public Library (1924). The directories of American libraries quoted in previous editions are superseded by

M. Wilson, Special Libraries Directory (1921, 1925) and R. R. Booker and F, A. Huxley, The American Library Directory (1923-27). See also the Reports, Bulletins, etc., of the American Library Association. The Annual Reports of the Library of Congress are published separately. France: Books and articles on particular libraries are entered, with historical information, in A., Vidier, Annuaire des Bibliothèques et des Archives (new ed., 1927) and J. B. Labiche, Notice sur les Dépôts littéraires (1880). See also A. de Bougy, Histoire de la bibliothéque

10,000 Bände zählenden öffentlichen Bibliotheken Ungarns, im Jahre rọ08 (Budapest, 1910); H. Escher, “Bibliothekswesen,” in Handbuch der Schweizer Volkswirtschaft (vol. i., x903) and the Bulletin of the Swiss National Library at Berne (in French and German, roor, etc.); J. van Mecl, Bibliothèques publiques (Antwerp, 1924); P. Recht, Les bibliothèques publiques en Belgique (Brussels, 1928); S. Dahl, Dansk Biblioteksfoerer (1915); Norsk Biblioteksfarening, Handbok over

norsker Biblioteker (1924); E. Sundström, Svenska RRT :

on

A.

(x ea Es.

THE UNITED STATES The earliest libraries in the colonial period of America were private. Among the notable libraries of this kind were those of

Elder William Brewster of Plymouth, Gov. Winthrop of Connecticut, Dr. Cotton Mather of Boston, Col. Ralph Wormeley of Virginia and the Rev. John Harvard, Toward the end of the 17th century the so-called Bray parish libraries began to appear. ‘These were collections mainly of religious books sent to America through the efforts of the Rev. Dr. Thomas Bray of London, designed Sainte-Genevidve (1847); Th. Mortreuil, La Biblothéque nationale, particularly for the use of the clergy, though open to the public. son origine et ses accroissements (1878); L. V. Pécheur, Histoire des The first subscription library in the colonies was projected by bibliothèques publiques du département de l'Aisne existant à Soissons, Benjamin Franklin in 1731 in Philadelphia. Many of the early Laon et Saint-Quentin (Soissons, 1884); H. Jadart, Les Anciennes subscription and proprietary libraries have become the foundabibliothèques de Reims, leur sort en r7ọo-gr, et la formation de la

bibliothèque publique (1891); B. Subercaze, Les Bibliothèques populaires, scolaires et pédagogiques (1892); E. de Saint-Albin, Les

tions of public libraries. A few of them, however, still flourish. The Boston Athenaeum (1807) had in 1928 a collection of 305,000

UNITED STATES]

LIBRARIES

volumes and was especially rich in historical material. The Providence Athenaeum (1753) had 104,000 volumes. The New York

Society library (1754) had a general collection of 125,000 volumes.

its special strength being in fine arts, early fiction and Americana.

' Endowed Libraries.—The gift or bequest of great private

libraries or large sums of money for the erection of library build-

ings and the organization and maintenance of libraries for free public use has been a favourite form of philanthropy in America. In New York the Astor library, founded by a bequest of John Jacob Astor, was incorporated in 1849 and opened to the public in 1854 as a reference library of the most valuable books on all subjects. The Lenox library was established in 1870 by James Lenox, a New York merchant and one of America’s greatest book collectors. In

addition to funds for a library building and endowment amounting to $1,247,000, he gave his valuable collection of books and art treasures. From the estate of Samuel J. Tilden, the City of New York in 1892 received the private library of the former governor of the State and about $2,000,000 for library purposes. In 1895 the Astor library, the Lenox library and the Tilden Trust were consolidated under the name of the New York Public library, Astor, Lenox and Tilden Foundations, which was soon to become the largest public library system in the world (2,971,209 volumes and pamphlets). In r90z the New York Free Circulating library, with 11 branches, and later other circulating libraries, were consoli-

dated with the new system as the Circulation Department of the New York Public library. In 1901 also Andrew Carnegie gave $5,200,000 for the construction and equipment of free circulating

libraries in Greater New York. Chicago has two important endowed reference libraries, the Newberry library (1887), with 443,757 volumes and pamphlets, and the John Crerar library (1894),

with 820,000. The Enoch Pratt Free library (1886) of Baltimore and the Providence (R.I.) Public library (1878) are typical of the numerous endowed public libraries, many of which are supported in part by municipal appropriations. At the head of the list of library benefactors stands the name of

Andrew Carnegie, whose first library gift was made in 1881 to Dunfermline, his native town in Scotland. His second gift of a library was made in 1890 to Allegheny, Pa. Pittsburgh received a large central building in 1895 and later eight branches. The total amount given by Carnegie and the Carnegie Corporation for library building in the United States and Canada, was $43,665,oo0. In its gifts for library buildings the corporation, organized in

torr, followed the wishes of its founder, until its gifts for libraries were discontinued in 1917. College and University Libraries.—The history of college and university libraries is also a record of generous gifts from private collectors and friends of education. Harvard college library dates from 1638, when John Harvard bequeathed to it his collec-

tion of 330 volumes. By 1764 the library had grown to 5,000 volumes, when all but one of the original volumes were destroyed by fire. The library of Yale college was founded in 1700, but grew so slowly that even with the 1,000 volumes received from Bishop Berkeley in 1733 it had only 4,000 volumes in 1766, and some of these were lost in the Revolutionary War. The library of King’s college, renamed Columbia college after the Revolutionary War, dates from 1756, when Joseph Murray, a governor of the college, bequeathed to it his private library. It is estimated to have had only about 2,000 volumes at the outbreak of the Revolution.

‘Though stored in the city hall for safe keeping, many of the books were carried off by British soldiers and the rest scattered and never recovered except for a few volumes which are now in the library of Columbia university. The rehabilitation of the library after the Revolution was accomplished very slowly. In 1863 it had only 14,941 volumes. The Harvard college library has about doubled in size every 20 years for over a century, and this rate of growth has been equalled or exceeded by most of the larger college and university libraries,

23

Minnesota, 501,507; University of Pennsylvania, 635,070; Princeton university, 594,195. Library of Congress.—The Library of Congress has become in fact if not in name the national library of the United States. It was established in 1800 by Act of Congress as a legislative library and was housed in the Capitol until 1897 when it was moved to its own building which is the largest, most ornate and most costly library building in the world. It occupies 3% ac. of ground, contains over 10,000,000 cu.ft. of space, and has a floor area of over 134 acres. The original cost was $6,347,000—including the site, close to $7,000,000. On June 30, 1927, the Library of Congress contained 3,556,767 books and pamphlets, making it the third largest library in the -world. The principal sources of growth’have been deposits under the copyright law, exchanges of official publications with foreign Governments, and the Smithsonian exchanges which add extensive files of the transactions of foreign learned societies. The main. collections are strongest in bibliography, history, political and social sciences, public law and legislation, the fine arts, American local history, biography and genealogy. Besides its research and other services for members of Congress and the Government Departments, it offers excellent facilities for serious scholars. It is also performing the functions of a national library by extending bibliographic and other services to all the libraries of the country. It stands at the head of a recognized inter-library loan system, by lending to college, university, State, municipal and other libraries books which they do not possess and cannot obtain elsewhere. Public Libraries—-The modern public library, maintained by the municipality or some other unit of local government from the proceeds of taxation, was scarcely known before 1850 and has developed for the most part since the formation of the American Library Association in 1876. The earliest tax-supported library is supposed to have been the town library of Salisbury, Conn., established in 1803. The oldest existing library of this kind is said to be the one at Peterborough, N.H., which dates from 1833. Legislative sanction for the use of taxation to maintain public libraries was given in New York in 1835, the school district being the library area. By the Michigan Constitution of 1835 the legislature was given power to establish a library in every school district. In 1848 the Massachusetts general court authorized the city of Boston to raise $5,000 a year to maintain a public library, and in 1851 this Act was applied to all towns in the State. Similar laws were soon passed in other States. In 1928 legislation authorizing the establishment and maintenance of municipal public li-

braries was found in every Stale except Delaware, where the school district was the only unit recognized for this purpose. The latest statistics show about 6,000 public libraries in the United States, with an average per caput income of $0.33 and an annual per caput circulation of 2-13 volumes. It is estimated, however, that 5% of the urban population and 82% of the rural population live in areas with no local public library service at all. Most of the well organized city library systems spend from $0.75 to $1.00 or more per caput. In 1926 Cleveland led all other cities, with a per caput library expenditure of $1.69, followed by Boston

with $1.42, Indianapolis with $1.14, Los Angeles with $1.05 and Minneapolis with $1.00. One of the ways in which the modern public library attempts to make its service of value to the community is by specialization in its service and organization. Specialization by subject is frequently represented by separate departments, in charge of specialists, of business, technology, art, music, education, etc. In some of the recent central library buildings book stacks and reading rooms are arranged to facilitate departmental organization, Specialized service such as work with children and co-operation with schools is usually not confined to the central library but operates also

through different kinds of distributing agencies. Branch libraries especially in recent decades. In 1927 the number of volumes in and sub-branches have their own collection of books and are lothese libraries were: Harvard, 2,622,400; Yale, 1,838,099; Co- cated near the centre of the local business or residence area to be lumbia, 1,092,343; University of California, 665,680; University served. It is assumed in the best library systems that there should of Chicago, 768.559; Cornell university, 787,127; University of | be one branch to every 25,000 to 40,000 population, In less Illinois, 708,850; University of Michigan, 649,912; University of | densely populated districts a branch cannot effectively serve so

24

LIBRARIES

[UNITED STATES

large a number. Deposit stations are located in stores, schools, the League of Library Commissions was organized “to promote factories, clubs, etc., and ‘are provided with collections of from by co-operation such library interests as are within the province one to several hundred volumes which are changed frequently. of library supervision by the State.” In 1928 39 States had a Delivery stations have no books on hand but fill orders from a library extension agency in operation, three more had laws providcentral stock. Tiavelling libraries consist of small collections of ing one, leaving seven States that had no extension agency nor books, 25 or 50 to several hundred, lent to factories, stores, clubs, legal provision for one. In 13 States, as noted above, the State etc. In many communities the public library has undertaken to library is the extension agency; in 12 the function is performed supply books needed in the public schools by furnishing classroom by the State board or department of education; and in 14 there libraries. In some cities the school and library authorities co- is an active library commission. The functions actually performed operate in providing what are known as school libraries, and in by library commissions or other State agencies responsible for a few cities branch libraries are established in school buildings. library extension include aid in improving local public library The governing body of the municipal public library supported service; establishment of new libraries where needed; promotion wholly or in part by public funds is usually a board of trustees, of co-operation between libraries; assistance in providing library appointed by the mayor or some other official or body designated service for schools, and for State charitable, penal and reformatory by law. In a few cases the library board is self-perpetuating. In institutions; provision for library service where local service is imsome States the public library is operated under the board of edu- practicable; distribution of State documents; library service for ‘cation, and in certain cities which are under the city manager or the blind; and legislative reference work. the commission form of government there is no library board at The travelling library represents one of the earliest forms of

all, the public library being administered as a department of the | State library extension. In 1892 a system of travelling libraries city government with the librarian directly responsible to the | was created in New York under the leadership of Melvil Dewey.

mayor or city manager. Travelling collections of books were used in 1928 in 35 States. A special library for children was established in New York city | The State travelling library is a collection varying from so to as early as 1885. In 1890 a separate room for children was opened several hundred volumes for general reading, although special colin the public library at Brookline, Mass., and in the next few| lections are sent out in some States. “Package libraries,” consistyears public libraries began generally to provide special rooms or ing of pamphlets and magazine and newspaper clippings on current other facilities for children. By 1900 a separate children’s room, events and topics on which there are no books, are sent out with specially trained children’s librarians to give skilled and through the mail by some extension agency in several States for sympathetic guidance in the use of books and periodicals, had the use of high school debaters, club women, discussion groups, come to be considered an essential part of every well conducted etc. Nearly all the extension agencies make a practice of mailing public library. To-day in public libraries in which organized work one or several volumes directly to individuals. with children is carried on the juvenile circulation amounts to County Libraries——The most effective form of library exfrom 30 to 50% of the total. From one-quarter to one-third of tension being carried on is the development of county library its total book fund is considered a reasonable proportion for the systems. The county library is a tax-supported library serving an

average public library to devote to children’s books. In libraries which combine the children’s department and work with schools, the children’s librarians select books to be sent to classrooms, visit

entire county (excluding in some cases the larger towns and cities which have their own library service) through a central library, usually located at the county seat, and a system of branches and schools to talk to the children, give talks to parents and teachers, deposit stations, all served and directed by skilled librarians, To and give instruction in the use of books and libraries to classes | reach the more isolated sections book automobiles are used by sent to them regularly from the schools. some county libraries. From the middle of the rgth century State Libraries.—In the beginning the State library was essen- | sporadic efforts were made to establish county libraries, and some tially a law and legislative library for State officials. The State | of them met with a fair degree of success; but it was in California library of New Hampshire was started in 1770 as a colonial li- beginning about 1909 that the first real system of county libraries brary. The New Jersey State library dates back to 1796. A developed. The California library law of ror11r gave that Stale legislative library was established in South Carolina in 1814. The the leadership in the county library movement and has had much largest and best State library, that of New York at Albany, was influencé on county library legislation in other States. Thirtyfounded in 1818. While the State library is primarily a special three States have laws authorizing county library service in some reference library for the legislative or executive departments of form. Management is usually in the hands of a county library the State Government, or for both, it is generally open to the board. In a few States, California for example, the county library public for reference purposes. About 1887 State libraries began system is managed directly by the county supervisors. To main-

to assume leadership of the State commission movement and in 13 States library extension work is now a function of the State library. In 13 States the State law library is separate from the State library. In nine States the legislative reference bureau is also separate. In certain States miscellaneous functions have been assumed, such as historical research and the care of museums. The term library extension is usually applied to the efforts of some State authority to aid in providing local public library service, or some substitute for it, in the smaller towns and rural districts. Over 90% of the population living in towns and cities of more than 2,500 population in the United States enjoy the service of a local public library of some sort, while less than 20% of the population in the smaller towns and in the open country have any kind of local public library service. The first

tain the highest standard of service the county library system

should be under the supervision of some State agency. In 1928 public funds were being appropriated for county public library service in only 25x out of the 2,806 counties in the United States. California headed the list of States with 46 counties out of a total of 58, less than 3% of the population being outside public library service areas. School Libraries.—The new curriculum of the high school and the newer methods of teaching have made the school library a necessity. The first modern high school libraries were started by

the librarians of public libraries, and all of them have appeared since 1905, when full time high school librarians began to be appointed. Strictly speaking, a library even though located in a school building is not a school library unless maintained and adState to attack this problem was Massachusetts, which in 1890 ministered primarily for the benefit of pupils and teachers. Adcreated a State board known as the Free Public Library Com- ministration of school libraries of this kind may be undertaken mission, whose function was to aid in establishing and developing by the school authorities themselves or turned over to the public free libraries throughout the State. New Hampshire followed in library. The importance attached to the school library in modern 1891. In 1892 the New York State library was made a central education is reflected in the State laws and the regulations of hureau for promoting, stimulating, aiding and directing local li- State education authorities. The standards prescribed usually apbraries. A commission similar to that in Massachusetts was cre- ply only to high schools and cover such matters as the annual ated in Connecticut in 1893, in Vermont in 1894 and in Wisconsin appropriation, the initial cost or value of the books. the expendiin 1895. Other States quickly followed their examples. In roog ture per pupil, the number and kind of books selected. the housing

LIBRARY

ARCHITECTURE

25

and equipment of the library and the qualifications, education,

appointed by the mayor, city manager, council, or some similar training and duties of the librarian. In some States the standards officer or board. A few libraries are controlled by the local schooi adopted are not compulsory but are merely recommended to local boards, and a smaller number are administered by self perpetuschool boards. It is usually assumed that a full time librarian is ating boards related to the city by contract or agreement. Frerequired in schools of 500 or over. In the smaller high schools quently the size, tenure of office, duties, and responsibilities of a a teacher—most frequently the teacher of English—-serves as board receiving public funds are specified by State law. teacher-librarian. The trustees are charged with the duty of fixing the policy for Special Libraries.—Specialization in all fields of endeavour the institution, establishing principles governing the staff, deternecessarily has its counterpart in library service. A very large mining the kind of library best fitted for the community. They tax-supported public library can specialize its collections and usually have committees for more immediate and intimate superservice to some extent, particularly in the direction of some vision of current work than is possible by means of the whole dominant industrial or other interest of the community. Endowed board. Their tenure of office and length of service may differ in public libraries have more freedom to neglect certain fields and detail, but the aim and intent generally seem to be the choice of concentrate their efforts on others, Public libraries, on the other a middle ground between changes so frequent and rotation in hand, may build up special collections in various subjects and pro- office so constant as to make impossible continuity of policy, and vide specialized service for schools, for children, for the blind, for so infrequent as to suggest danger of dry rot. The librarian is business men, for Government officials, etc., but it is seldom possi- usually recognized as executive officer of the board. ble for them to carry specialization in either collections or servThe spirit of current rules seems to emphasize fair play for ice to the extent that is required by the educational, business, all users of books, equitable treatment for the public, rather than professional and other interests of the community. Professional convenience for the staff. How many volumes may be taken and other groups, therefore, find it desirable to organize and main- at one time, length of withdrawal before renewal, fines for failure tain their own libraries so that in populous centres are to be to return books for renewal, regulations for summer or vacation found privately supported libraries of law, medicine, engineering, privileges, special consideration for teachers or other classes of etc. Some of these are for the use of members or subscribers readers, these and similar administrative controls differ so widely only; others are open to the public. Educational institutions re- because of varying local conditions that generalization, is dangerquire libraries that are built up and administered to meet the ous, Most libraries limit loans for ordinary books to two weeks, special needs of students and teachers, With the development of set fines of one or two cents a day for books not renewed, grant the modern business corporation the need arose for a specialized special privileges when general harm or inconvenience will not library service which could not ordinarily be furnished by the follow. public library. The result has been the rapid development since In most cases support comes from public funds granted as a about r9ro of collections of printed matter in special fields, in result of request to the committee or board fixing the local tax charge of persons familiar with the subject matter, for the use of levy. In some cases money thus granted is turned over to the a more or less limited group. In 1909 a Special Libraries Associa- library board for spending under proper accounting and supertion was organized and began publishing the monthly journal vision; in other cases it is paid from the office of the local disSpecial Libraries. While the association draws its membership bursing agent when warrants are presented bearing proper authorfrom many types of special libraries, the business interests pre- ization and certification by the library officials. Some boards select new books themselves or by a committee, dominate. It has now become quite common to find special libraries maintained by banks and investment houses, insurance but in the larger systems this task is usually turned over to the companies, advertising agencies, newspaper offices, public service librarian. Occasionally books must be bought by public bids and corporations and a great variety of industrial and commercial tenders, but the tendency seems towards giving the librarian

companies.

|

The American Library Association, organized in 1876, is an association of libraries, librarians, trustees and other friends of libraries, pledged to carry out the purpose of its founders “by disposing the public mind to the founding and improving of libraries.” It had in 1927 a membership of more than 10,000. Its total budget in the fiscal year 1927 was more than $325,000, the largest items

of expenditure being for the promotion of professional library education and the publication of text-books, professional literature

and aids to book selection. Headquarters are located in Chicago. During the World War, the association provided libraries for soldiers, sailors and marines, sending more than 2,000,000 books overseas from 1917 to 1920. Other associations affiliated with the A.L.A. are the American Association of Law Libraries, the League of Library Commissions, the National Association of State Libraries, and the Special Libraries Association. Nearly every State has its own library association or joins with neighbouring States in a regional association. Library clubs are found in many of the larger cities, (C, C. Wr.) Brerrocrapay.—American

Library Association, Library Extension:

A Study of Public Library Conditions and Needs by the Committee on Library Extension (1926), School Library Year Book (1927);

A Survey of Libraries in the United States (1927) and American Li-

greater discretion as to purchase of books and supplies, The preliminary steps and the details of control up to the time of purchase of books and supplies are in many cases regulated by statute or local ordinance, but once the books have passed this stage their administrative processes are fairly uniform, thanks to standardizing of methods and processes resulting from the influence of the library schools and the training classes. Cataloguing, accessioning, subject heading, classifying, charging to borrowers,

registration of borrowers, inventory work, reading the shelves are

all coming to show little variation from one end of the country to the other. One important element in uniformity of cataloguing is the growing use of printed cards supplied by the Library of Congress. Several classification schemes had ardent advocates a generation ago; today the Dewey decimal system is almost universal among the more popular libraries, and the Library of Congress system bids fair to equal it among the larger college, university, and reference libraries. A similar tendency toward uniformity in the reporting of activities is shown by the growing use of the system recommended by the A_L.A. (H. M. L.) BIBLIOGRAPSY.—A Survey of Libraries in the United States conducted

by the American Library Association

(1926, 4 volumes) ; Free Public

Libraries: suggestions on their foundation and administration, published for the American Social Science Association (1871) ; J. C. Dana. Library Primer (1920, and earlier) ; Mary W. Plummer, Hints to Small Libraries (1911); A. E, Bostwick, American Public Library (1929).

brary Directory (1927); A. E. Bostwick, The American Public Library (1923); H. C. Long, County Library Service (1925); D, A. Plum, A Bibliography of American College Library Administration, 1896— LIBRARY ARCHITECTURE, Architecturally, the li1926 (1926); J. L. Wheeler, The Library and the Community (1924)3 brary is a modern problem. There were, of course, many famous G. A. Works, College and University Library Problems (1927). libraries before modern times, but from the description that we

Administration.—In the United States details of administration differ because of varying requirements from local and State governments, with marked tendency toward uniformity due to the influence of library schools and the A.L.A.

have of those of antiquity, and from the examples still existing of libraries of the Renaissance on to the end of the 18th century, it is clear that the great collections of books were kept simply in

rooms or galleries furnished with shelves or cupboards, and someIn general the public library is administered by a board of times with heavy, pulpit-like counters on which the ponderous trustees or directors elected by the community or chosen or folios could be rested. Aesthetically, the treatment of these

LIBRARY

26

ARCHITECTURE

rooms was often masterful, as in the Vatican, the Biblioteca problem, a solution so modern in his frank treatment of structural Lorenziana in Florence and the old Ste. Geneviève library (now` elements that this building remains one of the prototypes of in the Lycée Henri IV.) in Paris; but it was never developed as; modern architecture. the solution of a peculiar problem, and differed in no special way | Later, in the plans for the Bibliothèque Nationale in Paris from the treatment of other equally delightful examples of |(1854), where he was less hampered by the exigencies of space, domestic architecture of the time. For private libraries, or | Labrouste gave another remarkable building. The main reading libraries open only to a selected public, such as those of clubs, room is square, with an apse, where the librarians are installed, facing its entrance and commanding that to the stacks. The reading room is surrounded by three tiers of shelves, with the light coming through a large opening on the north side, and from nine domes which each rest on four light steel columns. The atmosphere of the rooms is quiet and restful and the light is excellent. The most remarkable part of the composition, however, is the book-stack (magasin des imprimés), a huge room, 9o ft. by 120 feet. Here the principle of the modern book-stack is first evolved. The shell of masonry is covered by a glass skylight, which allows daylight to penetrate every corner, while inside this shell, the metal framework of the book tiers and the passages between is an entirely independent construction resting on the basement floor. These are the essentials of the modern book-stack, the invention Mahdin TNT of which has been attributed quite incorrectly to W. H. Ware

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FIRST FLOOR PLAN OF THE BIBLIOTHEQUE NATIONALE, PARIS scientific institutions and special departments in our modern universities, the old scheme, in which the shelves of books provide a decoration for the walls rivalling the finest tapestries, can hardly be improved. But for the requirements of the modern public library, which has to meet demands peculiar to modern conditions, the old plan cannot serve. The modern problem first presented itself early in the roth century, with the tremendous growth in the number of books published and the development of the democratic desire to place well-classified collections at the service of the general public. The mere extension of the type of libraries as then existed was found to be no solution. We have the record of such a scheme in

the library project of Boulée (1729-99), entitled Memoir on the Means to Secure for the King’s Library the Advantages Required

for this Monument (1785). This memoir is accompanied by a drawing showing a gigantic gallery covered by a barrel vault, supported on two colonnades which vanish in the distance at a terminal apse, and admitting the light only through a rectangular opening in the centre. Under the colonnades there are three platforms, each supporting a tier of books. Aesthetically, the design is not without merit in its severity, and it shows, moreover, an

appreciation of the magnitude of the new problem. But the solution was not to be found in a mere increase in size; rather in a frank segregation of the public in reading rooms and of the creation of separate store-rooms for the books. These storerooms are what we now call the “stacks,” where in general the

public is not admitted and an intensive use of space can be made. As early as 1835, the French architect, Benjamin Delessert, suggested for the proposed Bibliothéque Nationale in Paris, a circular reading room, with the book-stacks surrounding it, lying radially to the centre. The old Wolfenbuttel library (1706), and

its derivative, the Radcliffe library at Oxford, had already been built on a circular plan, but without the separate book-stacks. This circular reading room recommended itself by allowing the librarian (installed on a raised platform in the centre) an easier supervision of the readers. Delessert’s plan probably suggested

and Bernard Green; the only improvement contributed by these gentlemen, many years later, was the closer packing of the shelves

and the elimination of such woodwork as remained. MODERN

LIBRARY PLANNING

The three types of libraries represented by the two works of Labrouste and the British Museum, are the elementary types on

which virtually all large modern libraries are based. To the type of the Ste. Geneviève; że., with a reading room lighted on both sides, with books along the walls or in alcoves, and with a storage under the reading room, belong the New York public library

(Carrère and Hastings, architects, 1897), the library of the University of Chicago (Shepley, Rutan and Coolidge, architects, 1910) and the Philadelphia free library (H. Trumbauer, architect, 1915-27). To the type of the Bibliothèque Nationale; że., with a reading room parallel or perpendicular to the stacks, belong the project for the library of Berlin by Hosfield (1875), the Widener Memorial library at Harvard, the Toronto library and many university libraries. To the type of the British Museum; i.¢., with

a circular reading room surrounded by the book-stacks and lighted by high windows or skylights, belong the Columbia university library, New York (McKim, Mead and White, architects, 1897). the library of Strasbourg (Hartel and Neckelmann, architects, 1895) and the library of Congress, Washington, D.C. (Smighmeyer, Pelz and Casey, architects, 1886-97). The original scheme

for this last library had radiating book-stacks, like the Delessert scheme, but it was abandoned for a block entirely filling the light courts. The economy of space which this effects cannot be questioned, but opinions differ widely as to the advisability of packing the book-stacks so closely without

IT ATRAVEHGNAGAA * MHBHAARALEIN

allowing other than artificial light. Local customs, and special locations and purposes have necessarily effected many from these types of most characteristic is American library. In

variations which the that of the the United

States the number of people who

borrow books for home reading SECOND FLOOR PLAN OF THE INDI. that of the reading room of the British Museum (R. and S. ANAPOLIS exceeds the number of those who CENTRAL LIBRARY Smirke, architects, 1852) where, however, the stacks are rather use the reading rooms in the library. This has given rise to a new service, the essential feature awkwardly arranged around the central dome. When Henri Labrouste was appointed architect for the new Ste. of which is the delivery room with its desk in direct communicaGeneviéve library in Paris (1843) the site selected, being long and tion with the stacks, and its catalogues and open shelves so narrow, almost forced the solution of a reading room occupying arranged that the readers in the reading rooms need not be disthe entire upper floor of the building and containing many of the turbed. A recent interpretation of this programme is the Central books, as in the old libraries, but with other spaces for books library of Indianapolis, Ind. (Paul Cret and Zantzinger, Borie beneath,—a scheme that in recent years has been used in many and Medary, architects, 1914). Here the floor levels are regulated important libraries. Although the shape of the lot unfortunately by the unit of height of the tiers in the book-stacks, which are made it necessary to divide the book storage into two sections, placed at the rear of the building. Thus, the delivery room, Labrouste had, nevertheless, evolved a masterly solution of his which is in the centre of the composition, corresponds in height

LIBRATION—LICENCE EXTERIOR AND INTERIOR TREATMENT

27

to the lowest floor of the stacks, and is surrounded by shelves ! from which the home readers can select their books, register In the large libraries, the exteriors of the buildings have been them at the desk or call at the desk for any book taken from the treated either in the modernized classic tradition, or, as in some stack. The next floor, 74 ft. above, is occupied by the reading | university libraries, in the general style of collegiate Gothic rooms, which are in direct communication with the stacks, and by ! architecture adopted for the group. As remarkable studies for a gallery containing more open shelves and alcoves in which casual elevations may be mentioned the Ste. Geneviéve library, the readers may sit and read. Everyone, book borrower, or visiting ! library of the Ecole de Medecine, by Ginain, both in Paris, the reader, passes the central desk. The four tiers of stacks are| New York public library, the Boston public library and the lighted from two long sides, and can be enlarged either vertically ! Columbia university library, the last two by McKim Meade and or horizontally in H-shape. Economy of space and expense has White and the Detroit public library. In the smaller libraries in been achieved by the elimination of the monumental stairs, which the United States, there is a is aia one of the features in two-storeyed libraries of thus wider range in the styles of the ind. facades, which are often inspired Large Libraries.—In the larger libraries, the card-catalogue by the dominant note in the has developed to such an extent as to require a special room. In suburban architecture (e.g., colthe plan of the New York public library: the catalogue room onial types or Spanish mission). appears on the third floor where readers must pass it on their way In Europe, where the branch lito the reading room. In this library, the seven tiers of the bookbraries are for the most part stacks are under the main reading room, in the centre of which annexes to public buildings and are the book lifts. The room with open shelves for home readers schools, there has been less opis on the street level, while special reading rooms (periodicals, portunity for the creation of distechnology, fine arts, music, library for the blind, etc.) and the tinctive types. administration suites occupy the two front wings and their The technical equipment of lireturns. braries has followed the general The American type of public library, i.¢., with the delivery trend of the times in the progresroom as the central feature and the reading rooms secondary to sive elimination of all woodwork it, has some excellent examples, such as those at Washington, in the shelving, unless kept for D.C., and Denver, Colo., both by Albert R. Ross, and those at St. FROM THE “ARCHITECTURAL FORUM” decorative reasons, in the effort Louis, Mo., and Detroit, Mich., both by Cass Gilbert. BASEMENT AND FIRST FLOOR PLAN to utilize a maximum of space for A special type of university library was evolved for Johns OF SHARON (MASS.) LIBRARY storing books, and in the simHopkins university, Baltimore, Md., by Parker, Thomas and Rice plification of service by book-lifts, conveyors, etc. The lighting, (1914). In this case, special emphasis was laid on affording the by day-time, is more satisfactory when obtained by windows on small groups of advanced students working in classes in the build- one or two sides of the reading room rather than by skylights, ing (seminar groups) an easy access to the stacks. For this pur- while the lighting of stacks in the majority of cases must depend pose the stacks, in two units, are placed in the centre of the block largely on electricity. Obviously, provision should be made in opening into the corridors of the seminar rooms, which are on library planning for future extension of stacks. The very large the outer sides of the building. The main reading room is at the libraries in Europe are at present crowded by the huge collections end of the composition. they are obliged to maintain, and are contemplating the necessity Small Libraries.—In the United States, a standard type has of dividing into separate departments, in separate buildings. been evolved for the libraries of smaller communities or for the (P. P. Cr.) branch libraries in the cities (e.g., branch libraries in Detroit and LIBRATION, a slow oscillation, as of a balance; in astronomy especially the seeming oscillation of the moon around her axis, by which portions of her surface near the edge of the disc are alternately brought into sight and swung out of sight.

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Philadelphia, and Carnegie libraries in England). Although the plan of such may vary slightly to admit some special requirement such as a lecture or picture gallery, it is generally that of a one storey, rectangular building over a basement and standing free or a lot, in order to insure lighting from every side. The entrance, on the long side, leads directly to the delivery desk, while the spaces to right and left are devoted to the adult reading room

and to the children’s reading room, separated, in the majority of cases, only by a low enclosure, to afford general supervision by a

small staff from the delivery desk.

(Odyssey, iv. 85). It did not include Egypt, which was considered part of Asia and first assigned to Africa by Ptolemy, who made the isthmus of Suez and the Red Sea the boundary between the two continents. The name Africa came into general use through the Romans. The old name was reintroduced by Diocletian, by whom Cyrenaica was divided into Marmarica (Libya inferior) in the east and Cyrenaica (Libya superior) in the west. A further distinction into Libya interior and exterior is also known. The

former ( évrés) included the interior (known and unknown) of

the continent, as contrasted with the N. and N.E. portion; the latter 4 é&w was called simply Libya. See AFRICA, ROMAN.

LICATA, seaport, Sicily, province of Girgenti, 24 m. S.E. of

SCALE aeiia

THIRD

(it., dim. of libro, a book), term for the text,

or “book” of an opera.

Girgenti direct, or 54 m. by rail. Pop. (1921), 25,473. The river Salso, east of the town, is the ancient Himera meridionalis. On the promontory, which has the town at its foot, and is called the Poggio di Sant’ Angelo, the Ecnomus of the Greeks, is the site of the town Phintias of Aeragas built after the Mamertines destroyed Gela (281 B.c.). It was off this promontory that the Romans defeated the Carthaginian fleet in the spring of 256 B.c., while in the plain to the north, Hamilcar defeated Agathocles in 310 B.C. The modern port refines and exports sulphur.

LICENCE,

permission, leave, liberty, hence an abuse

of

liberty; in particular, a formal authority to do some lawful act. Such authority may be either verbal or written; when written, the

28

LICENSED

document containing the authority is called a “licence.”

VICTUALLER

Many

sporadic and intermittent and they had no appreciable effect in re-establishing the public-house as a “victualling house.” The intention of the law, nevertheless, remained clear and it was the LICENSED VICTUALLER. A “licensed victualler,” in reassertion of this intention in the notorious Tippling Acts of the original English meaning of the term, was the keeper of what James I. (1603-4 and 1623-24) and Charles I. (1625) that gives the old licensing statutes called a ‘‘victualling house.” As a descrip- these futile acts their historical significance. The object of this tive term the name is one of considerable historical interest special legislation was made plain in the preamble to the first and importance. It bears clear witness to the intention and purpose of the Tippling Acts. It was to restore the “ancient, true and of the State in the institution of the liquor licensing system, and principal use of inns, ale-houses, and victualling houses” as places also to the character of the social service which the licensee was “for the receit, relief and lodging of wayfaring people travelling

acts, lawful in themselves, are regulated by statutory authority, and licences must be obtained. (See Liquor Laws, etc.)

expected and required to render to the community.

He was not,

and was not intended to be, a mere dram-seller, z.e., a retailer whose primary and practically exclusive business it was to supply alcoholic liquors to the public, but a victualler, z.e., a retailer of food and drink other than, and in addition to, the alcoholic beverages commonly consumed, the sale of which by the licensed victualler was merely an ancillary part of his victualling trade. The idea, like other institutional ideas, did not long endure in practice, although until the 17th century at least it continued to

represent the intention and object of the State. Lax and negligent administration and—much later—fiscal and legislative changes obscured the idea until it ceased to govern or even to influence the trading methods of the licensee. The “licensed victualler” became

a publican whose primary and practically sole business was and

is the retailing of alcoholic beverages.

The name has lost its

ancient and specific meaning. In modern (and accepted trade) usage it applies only to the holder of an ordinary “full” (publi-

can’s) licence, and is so restricted in the rules of the Incorporated Society of Licensed Victuallers, the oldest and most prosperous of “trade” benevolent societies, Changes in the connotation of names and terms are not uncommon in the history of social institutions, but such changes are usually changes of expansion, involving an enlargement and improvement of the scope of the service rendered, In the case of the public-house (the licensed “victualling house”) the change has been of a different kind. It has not been, in the strict sense, an evolutionary change, but a departure from a governing idea which was the raison d’être of the institution itself, and it has involved not an enlargement, but an unhappy restriction, of the social service which the institution was intended to render. In the process of the change the “victualling house” hecame, against law and State intention, a “drinking house,” That the State subsequently, but not until the beginning of the 18th century, ac-

cepted and accelerated the change by legalizing the worst form of dram-shop is true, but the “victualling house” by that time had disappeared, and the name alone survived in the statute-book. It

from place to place, and for such supply of the wants of such people as are not able by greater quantities to make their pro-

vision of victuals and not meant for entertaining and harbouring of lewd and idle people to spend and consume their money and time

drew upon them repeated admonitions from the Privy Council

mary measures of licence suppression. These suppressions were

A ee ee wo

in lewd and idle manner.” The Tippling Acts notoriously failed. Prolonged inefficiency in regulative control and widespread maladministration of the licensing statutes had gone too far to make a summary cure possible; but the clearly avowed object of the Tippling Acts is of great historical importance in a survey of the original purpose and intention of the English licensing system. The ultimate

responsibility for the final departure from the original idea of a victualling house rests, however, with the State, which, by its unhappy fiscal and legislative policy at the end of the seventeenth and in the early decades of the eighteenth century, took the first of two steps, each of which had demoralizing social effects, which finally sealed and disastrously aggravated a departure in aim and policy which heretofore had casually developed from administrative negligence.

The Gin Shops.—The economic and fiscal policy of William and Mary at the end of the 17th century, continued as it was by

Anne in 1704, brought in its train a flood of gin shops which established in England a new and immeasurably worse type of ‘tippling” house whose increase and activities put a vicious stamp upon the character of the English public-house which it has never wholly lost. In the Gin Acts, the old idea and ideal of the

“victualling house” was not merely ignored but destroyed. The

evil wrought by these acts was further aggravated, a century later, by the Act of 1830, which established the beer-houses—a new form of drinking saloon—which, although subsequently restricted, but endowed with a vested interest, still exist in large numbers. It is to these departures from the original aim and purpose of

the English licensing system that we owe the difficulties and

complexities of the public-house problem as it exists in England to-day. It is these departures, due partly to negligence and partly to lamentable mistakes in fiscal and legislative policy, that have is only in recent years that the name itself has fallen into legal saddled Great Britain with a “drink problem.” Their effects are (legislative) disuse. manifest. They have created a problem of redundancy which is Why “Victualling” Disappeared.—This was not, as is not disputed but which is buttressed and beset by legal interests sometimes assumed, due to changes in social and economic con- which make an equitable adjustment of facilities for sale to ditions. These emerged as co-operating causative factors at a public need and demand difficult and slow. A return to the idea much later stage in British social history. It was due primarily of the “victualling house,” which, if preserved, would automatito the play and pressure of commercial motives and was made cally have determined and controlled the supply of facilities, is possible by the default of the controlling authority. The incen- not easy, Modiñcation of the original requirement and long pertives were plain. The victualling trade was, in the nature of mitted departure from the “victualling house” idea have stimuthings, a limited trade with natural bounds set to its expansion. lated and fostered a habit of dram and “bar” drinking which Tt ministered to a limited demand. Profits were relatively small cannot be summarily suppressed. Sweden is the one country in and not easily earned, The sale of liquor, on the other hand, was Europe which has slowly but progressively retraced its steps and, a simple trade; the expenses were small, the profits ample and by eliminating private profit interests in the sale of spirits (the quickly earned, and the demand was one which was easily fos- national beverage), has been able to substitute the “victualling tered and dependable, The liquor business drew a larger, surer, house” for thẹ dram-shop by compulsorily coupling the “on” more profitable patronage than a strictly victualling business. sale of spirituous liquors with the sale of food. The British Parliament in 1910 made it a ground of refusal Given facilities, it provided a livelihood for a much greater number of sellers. of the renewal of an “old on-licence” (other than an ante-1869 Even so, the incentives, powerful as they were, could not, unless beer-house licence) that the holder of the licence has persistently tolerated and encouraged, have prevailed over the intention of and unreasonably refused to supply suitable refreshment (other the law, They found their opportunity in lax administration of than intoxicating liquor), at a reasonable price. The Act of r921 the law. Licences were granted by justices in many districts with went a step further. By abolishing the old-time “closing-hour,” a careless and often a shameless disregard of local needs which but limiting the sale of intoxicants to what are called “permitted and from judges of assize, and required frequent resort to sum-

IA oe Sm Saath ROG SORE eiaa =EO UNE YE

hours,” it leaves the publican free to keep his premises open for the sale of food and non-intoxicants at any hour of the day or

night. The privilege has not so far (1928) been used.

(A. Sut.)

i

LTT ay OS, CL EIS IO FP SOTT LENTIL TEENIE OLE ES SON OLosNEL S

:

f

f

LICHENS LICHENS

are, with few exceptions, land plants of simple

structure. They grow almost everywhere, spreading over soil, rocks, the trunks, branches and leaves of trees, etc., as flat crusts,

leafy expansions, shrub-like tufts or pendulous filaments in va-

rious colour shades of white, grey, yellow, brown or almost black. The term lichen, a word of Greek origin, was first definitely given to lichens as we know them by Tournefort (1700).

Lichens are of unusual interest in that the vegetative body or thallus is a composite plant formed by the interdependent growth of unicellular or flamentous green or bluegreen algae Myxophyceae or Chlorophya-

ceae (fig. 1), with the filaments (hyphae) of one of the higher fungi—Ascomycetes or, in oné or two genera only, Basidiomycetes. On this basis of combination or sym-

biosis there has been evolved a great series of distinctive plants, capable of vigorous life and of reproduction from generation to generation. Phycolichens signify those that contain blue-green, Archilichens those with

bright-green algae, designated as lichen gonidia. The fungus is the dominant partner

as

it provides

the

fruiting bodies.

FIG.

1.—LICHEN

HYPHAE

Lichen Gonidia.—For long it was ac- AND GONIDIA. ASSOCIAcepted that the green bodies in the licheri TION OF LICHEN HYPHAE plant were cells budded off from the col- AND GONIDIA X 250.

ourless hyphae that gradually acquired (AFTER BONNIER)

a green colour.

It was known that minute portions of a lichen

plant-——-the soredia—each composed of a few green cells with entangled colourless filaments were agents of propagation. Wallroth (1835), for that reason, coined for the green cells the term gonidia

to signify their reproductive function (fig. 2). In most lichens there is a gonidial zone near the surface and to that he gave the name stratum gonimon. In a lesser number thé gonidia are distributed through the thallus (fig. 3). These two types he distinguished as heteromerous with distinctive layers, and homoimerous where there is no such diversity. The belief in the genetic origin of the green cells within the thallus held sway for many years, though observations of a disturbing character were not lacking. Agardh (1821) had suggested

that they were transformed algae as he had followed the development of the blue-green alga, Nostoc, to the complete thallus of the lichen, Collema. The view gradually gained ground that the bright-green gonidia of many lichens were comparable to the alga Protococcus. The explanation given was that these free growing algae were lichen gonidia es=

E)

caped from the thallus that had continued

independent

7 SIGs ON SYH "sat q ae \\ D d\ yN

growth.

Wallroth spoke of them as “unfortunate brood cells” that could not again form a lichen plant. Finally in 1867 Schwendener published his bold theory that lichen gonidia were true algae impris-

eo)

6 KY 3

G ¢

la NNEaJANSoA IKES o

ivy aV

Sy f

robs K

comed by many as enlightening

Others, arnong

whom were the renowned Finnish Fic. 2,—THALLUS WITH GONIDIAL lichenologist, W. Nylander and ZONE. SECTION OF HETEROMEROUS

the British J. M. Crombie, scorn- aa

term and it is now generally accepted as a mutual symbiosis. This view has been confirmed by culture experiments. In general the alga supplies carbohydrates by photosynthesis, the fungus provides salts and water storage. Symbiosis in lichens is a fairly stable life-balance which may tip, however, to the detriment of one or other of the organisms: there arè instances, perhaps more frequent than we have supposed, of gonidia perishing in the grip of the fungi, but there are also cases where owing to some unfavourable condition, the fungus has succumbed while the algae increased enormously. There is no doubt as to the normal healthy condition of the thallus and of both symbionts. The interest in lichen gonidia has of late centred in the globose bright-green alga for many years considered to be a species of Protococcus, but that alga multiplies by cell division and is now recognized as the gonidium of only a few lichens. The ordinary lichen gonidium was found by Paulson and Somerville Hastings (1920) to have a massive parietal chromatophore, and to multiply freely and abundantly in the thallus by the free cell formation of aplanospores. The season of greatest increase was from February to April, or after heavy rain following a season of drought; zoospores were not seen in the gonidial state. The sporulating gonidia were most abundant in the actively growing regions. More recently Puymaly (1924) has proposed a new genus, Jvebouxia, for the alga without and within the lichen thallus. He describes it, however, as possessing a massive stellate chromatophore. In view of Paulson’s observations, again renewed, it is impossible to regard the gonidium chromatophore as of stellate form.

Lichen Algae.—-The algal constituents of the thallus belong to

two classes. I. Myxophyceae (blue-green algae) and II. Chlorophyceae (bright-green algae). They are, in general, aerial forms and in a free condition inhabit moist shady situations. Though GONIDIAL ZONE X 500

ES 9000, BSN

e

S TEENS OC (ay

EN

I

Q WLU

PLECTENCHYNA OF CORTEX

AMS

PSS 5 CeaESS OQ (2 aes) oe@uexs OCR Sak

MEDULLARY HYPHAE CAFTES SOHWENDENER)

FIG. 3.—-THALLUS WITH DISPERSED GONIDIA. SECTION OF HOMOIOMER~ OUS THALLUS X 250. (AFTER B. M. HANDBOOK OF BRITISH LICHENS)

the determination of algal species is somewhat genus can be more easily recognized. I. Myxophyceae associated with Phycolichens and other families. The algae of most frequent Gloeocapsa, Nostoc, Scytonema and Stigonema. II. Chlorophyceae associated with Archilichens. importance are the globose algae belonging to the

uncertain, the

in Collemaceae occurrence are Those of most Protococcaceae

and Trentepohlia, a filamentous alga. The alga may become modified in the gonidial state: Gloeocapsa loses colour, Nostoc chains, and Trentepohlia filaments may be

oned and parasitized by fungal hyphae. The statement was wel-

and convincing.

29

X D00: (AETER-SCHWEND;

fully rejected the new view. The theory was, however, successfully tested by cultures of lichen

spores with free-growing algae—first by Rees (1871), then by Bornet (1872) and others who followed the development from spore to fruiting stage, a slow growth of several years’ duration.

Symbiosis.—The relation between the two organisms was regarded at first as'a parasitism of the fuńgus on the alga, or as

helotism, Reinke (1873) pointed out the insufficiency of a con-

dition of parasitism to explain the healthy lichen, and he there-

fore proposed the term consortium as a truer conception. A few years later de Bary (1873) suggested symbiosis as an adequate

broken up into cell units. Lichen Hyphae.—These undergo considerable modification as lichen symbionts. The fruiting form indicates their origin as ° ascomycetous or basidiomycetous, and their affinity can be traced to ancestral groups of fungi. Bonnier (1889) in describing their development from the spores in synthetic cultures noted three distinct types:—(1) clasping filaments with repeated branching which surround and secure the alga; (2) filaments with short swollen cells destined to form several lichen tissues and (3) towards the periphery, searching filaments that form the hypothallus and annex new algae. In five days after germination the clasping hyphae had laid hold of the alga and symbiotic growth had begun. In the growing regions the hyphae remain comparatively thin-walled. In other parts—especially in the cortex, etc. —the walls frequently become thick and gelatinized, In lichens as in fungi there is no true cell structure or parenchyma, but in the cortices of many lichens a pseudo-parenchyma or plectench-

LICHENS

30

yma arises by the closely packed growth of the septate tips of the hyphae. Plectenchyma also occasionally appears in other parts of the thallus. Cultures in artificial media apart from gonidia have been made by several workers: by Moller (1887) with Lecanora subfusca; by F. Tobler (1909) and by Killian (1925) with Xanthoria partetina. Also by Killian and Werner (1924) with the spores of Cladonia squamosa. In all cases the results were fairly similar: growth was slow and finally ceased—in Xanthoria parietina in eight or ten months. A series of tissues was however observed in the last culture: (1) a dense layer of filaments representing the medulla; above that (2) a looser tissue in the position of the gonidial layer; and (3) a second dense tissue representing the cortex from which arose aerial hyphae. Tobler further records that growth became more lichenoid when the gonidial alga was introduced and the yellow acid parietin appeared in the tissues. Werner (1927) tested hyphal growth on various media and found that galactose was the most advantageous food supply. Organic nitrogen was added as peptone and asparagin, inorganic as nitrate of ammonium. Growth was slow, but the addition of gonidia to the culture retarded it yet more, so that the algae gained in numbers. MORPHOLOGY

The main interest in morphology lies in tracing the effect of symbiosis on development. The fungus as the dominant partner provides the structure of the thallus but the variety of forms evolved is due to the necessity of securing light and air to enable the alga to carry on the work of photosynthesis. General Structure of Ascolichens.—In these there are two

main types of thallus:—(x) the stratose which includes flat spreading plants, crustaceous or foliose, in which the upper surface alone is exposed to light; and (2) the radiate which in the lichen competition for sunlight and space has developed upwards from a rooting base to shrub-like branching fronds or pendulous filaments. (1) The simplest stratose lichens consist of a film of loose hyphae with scattered gonidia. In further advanced species there is a more bulky thallus formed of an upper cortical protecting layer, generally of dense hyphae with more or less swollen walls

and with the lumen of the cells almost obliterated (decomposed

cortex); beneath the cortex a gonidial zone of massed gonidia and intermingled slender hyphae, the latter passing downwards to form

a loose medulla, Projecting hair-like hyphae anchor the plant to the rock, tree or soil. Fig. 4. The upper surface may be smooth or uneven, or seamed and cracked into small compartments called areolae. Not infrequently the crustaceous thallus is wholly embedded in the substratum as in Graphidaceae. Such lichens on

trees are termed Aypophloecdal in contrast to the surface or epipkioeodal forms, a stain on the bark usually indicating their presence; the fructifications are formed on the surface, Similarly: rock lichens are epilithic or endolithic. The latter live in limestone, which they penetrate to various depths. Friedrich (1906) noted in an imtrhersed species, Biatorella simplex, a slight

cortical layer, below that a zone of gonidia 600~700 p in thickness, while the medullary hyphae reached a depth of r2mm. An in‘stance has been recorded of a lichen penetrating to 30mm. below the surface. Still AFTER B, M. HANDBOOK OF BRIThigher in development are the squamulose ISH LICHENS 4.—CRUSTACEOUS thalli of tiny leaflets and the larger foliose FIG. LICHEN (LECANORA VA(fig. 5) forms in both of which the thallus RIA) X 50 is raised from the substratum partly or entirely and in which the free under-surface also acquires a protecting

cortex which generally repeats that of the upper-surface—either of

the spreading hypothallus—the travelling ground hyphae. Foliose forms are attached at irregular intervals by rhizinae. (2) Radiate lichens, upright fruticose forms (fig. 6), start from a rooting base; the fronds are exposed to sun and air on all sides and the structure is alike round the whole surface. The cortex is of several types:—of decomposed cells, of densely packed, fastigiate hyphae or of longitudinal, thick-walled fibres. All these variations give strength and pliancy to the fronds. Other strengthening structures are the “sclerotic” fibres which extend up the frond either just within the gonidial zone as in Ramalina or, as in Usnea, in one strong chondroid central strand of great toughness and strength. Growth in radiate lichens is apical or intercalary. Fronds of Rocellae, Ramalinae, etc., reach a height of several inches; pendulous lichens often grow in long streamers: a length of ten metres has been recorded for Usnea longissima in the tropics. In Cladoniae, the cup lichens, there is a double thallus: leaflet squamules of stratose AFTER B. M. HANDBOOK OF ERITstructure, with upright stalks or podetia, ISH LICHENS frequently widening to a cup or scyphus at

FIG, 5.—-FOLIOSE LICHEN (PARMELIA CAPERATA)

the top (fig. 7). The podetium becomes hollow in time but is firm and strong owing to the sclerotic fibres that line the central tube. Fructifications are borne on the tips of the podetia, or on the edges of the scyphus, which seems to indicate that the podetium originated as a fruit stalk. There is great variety of form, texture and colour in each of these main groups. Special Lichen Structures.—Cyphellae. There are no stomata in lichens, but ample provision is made for aeration and for

gaseous exchange. Definite aeration structures (fig. 8), cyphellae or pseudo-cyphellae pierce the thick under-cortex of the Stictaceae. They are small and cup-like, in cyphellae with an overarching margin; the base rests on the medulla and the cup is filled with small loose cells. Pseudo-cyphellae lack the cup margin. In other lichens there occur dot-like openings; the lines between the areolae admit air, or the surface is seamed by cracks and delicate’ reticulations; soredial openings are present in many species, and in Parmelia exasperata there are true breathing-pores—minute conelike outgrowths, open at the summit. Cephalodia.

These

occur as excrescences

on the thallus of

Archilichens (with bright green gonidia), and always contain bluegreen cells, mostly Nostoc or Scytonema. They are small bodies of various form and size from the minute pustules on the surface of Peltigera aphthosa (fig. 9) to the coralloid masses on Lobaria laciniata. Bluegreen cells alight by chance on the thallus and the cortical hairs grow out and gradually form a cortex round them. In a few instances there are groups of blue-green cells which are absorbed into the thallus by the under-surface, and a layer of bluegreen algae, below the normal bright green zone in Solorina crocea, also rank as cephalodia. These alien bodies seem to indicate an ancestral association of the particular lichen with blue-green gonidia, bem.. —

the power to combine having persisted A77*F P.M. HANDBOOK oF BRir.

along with the presumably more recent Fig. 6.—FRUTICOSE LIsymbiosis with the bright-green alga. CHEN (RAMALINA FRAX-

Soredia. As already indicated these are INEA), REDUCED 12 minute portions (hyphae and gonidia) that break away from the parent thallus and serve for propagation of species. The simplest types are diffuse soredia that in certain conditions of shade or moisture cover the surface of the plant. More defined forms are termed

decomposed cells, of plectenchyma, or of hyphae parallel with the surface (fibrous cortex). Stratose lichens start from a centre, the growing tissue is situated in the gonidial zone and the greatest soralia which arise by the upward push of hyphae in the gonidial increase is at the periphery, the lichen gradually enlarging on all zone, and emerge as roundish or oblong bodies packed with soredial sides, in some to a size of one foot or more in diameter. Growth | granules. These multiply and, as they become detached, are easily Is continuous, but divisions may arise that are imbricate and leaf- |dispersed. Soralia are more or less specifically constant in form and like. In squamulose forms the squamules arise in succession from size and in their position on the surface or margins of the lobes.

LICHENS

31

Isidia, Many lichens are rough on the surface owing to small outgrowths called isidia. So noticeable are they that Acharius

epithecium, generally coloured; the surrounding sterile filaments represent the parathecium; the thalline margin when present established the genus Isidium to include isidiose lichens. They forms the amphithecium. are cortical structures and begin generally as a small swelling or Perithecia.—These differ from the apothecia in being comwart: they are upward extensions of the tissues and the cortex is paratively small, globose or pear-shaped, closed bodies immersed continuous over their surface; sometimes they are darker in colour or semi-immersed in the thallus, and opening above by a pore, than the normal thallus as in Evernia furfuracea. the ostiole. When the outer dark wall is continuous it is described Structure of Basidiolichens.—There are three genera reas entire, and when absent at the corded in this group of tropical lichens: Cora, Corella and Dicbase as dimidiate. In some gentyonema. The gonidia, Chroococera the paraphyses dissolve as the cus or Scytonema are Myxoasci mature. phyceae. Cora and Dictyonema Apothecia and perithecia are are of a thin bracket-like form; long lived like the thallus and they grow on the trunks and may produce spores continuously branches of trees, very rarely on or at definite seasons for several pror Qe ee the ground, and are attached by years, in Solorina saccata, for inde iTE rhizinae. No proper cortex is stance, over a period of two to four years, as observed by Hilformed, but in Cora the hyphae itzer (1926). FROM ENGLER AND PRANTL, “PFLANZENF Ae take an upward direction towards MILJEN,” AFTER A. ZAHLBRUCNER (ENGELSpermogonia or Pycnidia. the surface where they become MANN) horizontal, so that a compact pro- FROM J. BABIKOFF, “DU DEVELOPPEMENT DES —These are small closed bodies FIG. 7.—-SQUAMULES AND PODETEA SUR LE THALLUS DU LICHEN outwardly resembling perithecia; tective tissue lies over the top; CEPHALODIES PELTIGERA APHTHOSA,® HOFFIN BULLETIN OF CLADONIA PYXIDATA the hyphae that line the interior the gonidia (Chroococcus) from (ACADEMY OF SCIENCE, U.S.S.R.) a zone at the base of the upward hyphae. In Corelle and Dictyo- FIG. 9.—CEPHALODIUM OF PELTI- walls bud off minute pycnidioGERA APHTHOSA EARLY STAGE, nema the Scytonema trichomes retain their form and are surspores. As spermogonia they MUCH MAGNIFIED rounded by the lichen hyphae. were considered of great imporBasidiolichens are related to the fungal family Thelephoraceae: tance as the male organs that produce the spermatia. There is the fructification is by basidiospores borne on the under-surface no reliable evidence of their sexual nature and they are now genof the thallus. erally classified as pycnidia resembling similar bodies that form a secondary stage in the fruit cycle of the Ascomycetes. It has been REPRODUCTION Lichens with few exceptions (Basidiolichens and primitive in- proved that the spermatia germinate and produce hyphae, a chardeterminate forms) are Ascolichens, their method of reproduction acteristic of spores. corresponding to that of Ascomycetes, i.e., by the production of Cytology.—This aspect of reproduction has excited great ascospores in open or closed ascophores—apothecia or perithecia. interest since Fuisting (1866) observed in a crustaceous Lecidea In the slow-growing symbiotic plants these fruit bodies have been the fruit primordium or ascogonium as a coiled hypha. Stahl provided with special protective tissues that secure prolonged (1877) announced the further discovery in a Collema of a spore formation, differing in this respect from the fugitive trichogyne, a filament that travelled upwards from the ascoascophores of fungi. gonium and emerged above the surface. He noted also an empty Apothecia.—In lichens these are of several forms to which spermatium (pycnidiospore).adhering to the tip of the trichogyne special names have been given:—ardellae, the irregular spot-like after presumed fertilization. Other workers made similar obfruit of Arthoniaceae; lirellae, elongate, slit-like, dark-coloured servations both in gelatinous and in non-gelatinous lichens, and bodies in Graphidaceae; in the larger majority of lichens open in open and. closed fruits. Copulation with the spermatium has discoid apothecia. Those surrounded by a protective thalloid also been demonstrated but the behaviour of the spermatial numargin are called lecanorine (fig. 19), such as occur in the genus cleus has escaped observation. The ascogonium may be a coiled

i" 0 ACCSELIN

Those consisting solely of hyphal tissue surrounded

Lecanora.

by a hyphal or “proper margin’ ‘only as in Lecidea are described as lecideine (fig. 11). If that margin is obscure with the disk often brightly coloured they are biatorine, as in the sub-genus, Biatora. These are true distinctions, and

hypha or simply a complex of cells distinguished by their richer woe HYMENIUM

Cuitoso.—oaatcae | are of value in the determination

ee

We

fe ein

aee

aoe;ae

of genera and species. The differ-

Geyceey|

the thallus: in the lecanorine series

O

PROPER MARGIN OR PARATHECIUM

ence is. due to their origin in

een} gonidia are carried up with the

Aeee ie LICHENS

a

STICTA,

WITH

MONOGRAPH

OF

BRITISH

developing fruit, and algal cells

THALLINE MARGIN OR AMPHITHECIUM

extend along the base and, entering into the “thalline margin,” surround the apothecium. The lecideine tissues, solely hyphal,

X 30 (AFTER REINKE)

FIG. 8.—-SECTION OF THALLUS OF pass up through the gonidial zone, CYPHELLA

ON

UN-

pierce

the

cortex

and

expand

DER-SURFACE MUCH MAGNIFIED = shove it, the outer sterile hyphae forming the protective “proper margin:” Minor differences in growth occur, with different types of apothecia—sessile or stalked, etc., and in size from a minute body to one of over three centimetres in width according to the genus or species of lichen. The disk or thecium is composed of a compact series of filamentous upright simple or branched paraphyses and of asci—club-like structures within which eight spores (fewer or more numerous) are produced by free cell formation. These, constituting the hymenium, are subtended by a layer of tissue, the hypothecium; the tips of the paraphyses projecting above the asci form the

BY COURTESY OF MESSRS. BORNTRAGER FIG. 10.—SECTION OF LECANORINE APOTHECIUM,

(LECANORA SUBFUSCA)

contents, and changes in these cells have been observed that seem to imply spermatial fertilization. It may be that in some lichens fusion takes place between neighbouring cells in the ascogonium: F. Bachmann (1912) found that copulation took place deep down in the thallus of Collema sp. between, an internal trichogyne and a free spermatial cell. Apogamy, however, undoubtedly prevails in many lichens: either no trichogynes are formed or they fail to reach the surface and fertilization by spermatia is ‘doubtful. Zahlbruckner (1924) has expressed the opinion that reproduction

LICHENS

32

by sexual organs—present in the more primitive lichens—tends to die out in more developed forms. The whole subject bristles not only with the difficulties of observation in these slow growing plants, but also with the perplexities of interpretation: the function of the lichen trichogyne, a multispetate hypha of vigorous growth, is not understood; but it may be of some service to the deep seated ascogonium. From the ascogonium arise the hyphae that are destined to form the asci. As in fungi the nuclei of two adjacent cells at the tips of these hyphae fuse and become the definitive nucleus of the ascus. There are normally eight spores,

but the number varies in different genera and species from one, as in Varicellaria, to the large FROM A. L. SMITH, LICHENS (UNIVERSITY numbers in Acarospora. They are PRESS, CAMBRIDGE) colourless or brown, and simple, FIG. 11.—SECTION OF LECIDEINE variously septate or muriform, APOTHECIUM (LECIDEA PARASEMA) and they differ in size from a few (AFTER B. M. HANDBOOK OF BRIT. microns in Acarospora, etc., to ISH LICHENS) the large one-septate spore in Varicellaria (350X115u). Large simple spores, as in Pertusaria, are multinucleate. Spore ejection is brought about by pressure of the paraphyses when moistened. PHYSIOLOGY

AND

BIONOMICS

Cells and Cell-contents.—In the study of lichen physiology attention must be given to the activities of the symbionts as well as to those of the symbiotic plant. Gonidia do not greatly differ from the allied algae growing in the open: they possess chloroplasts, and form starch by photosynthesis. Mameli (1920) and Tobler (1923) demonstrated minute granules of starch on the

outside of the gonidia—a ready food for the fungus. The hyphal

cine derivatives. The colourless orceine contains the colouring principle of commercial orchil. In the anthracine derivatives some of the acids are also coloured, such as parietin from Xanthoria parietina and solorinic acid from Solorina crocea. The question has been debated as to the service rendered by the acids: to some extent they protect the plants from wholesale destruction by snails, insects, etc., as they render the thallus more

or less unpalatable.

Goebel (1927) has demonstrated that they

are also a protection against water-logging.

He found that out-

growths of hyphal hairs, cilia, etc., formed efficient water conductors, but if acids were abundant they remained dry: when the acids were removed by chemical means saturation was easily achieved. As acids are present on all aerated portions, they must be a powerful aid in keeping the air-channels open and thus serve a useful purpose. General Nutrition.—Water is supplied by rain, mist or dew, mist being the most favourable for lichen requirements (Stocker 1927). Dew is important in extremely dry localities such as deserts. Inorganic substances are obtained to some extent from the substratum but mainly from air borne particles. Organic food is provided by the algae or may be procured by the hyphae from humus, etc. Lichens show marvellous

resistance as regards heat or cold. They survive the high temperatures of direct illumination and they endure seasons of extreme cold on mountains or in the polar zone. It is to their power of drying up to a condition of latent vitality that they owe this resistance. Light that can penetrate the

thickened cortex and reach the gonidial zone is essential, but the same dense cortex protects the gonidia from too intense sunlight as do the acids and pigments. Light is of first importance in fruit formation, and the fruit bodies are therefore situated on well

lighted portions of the thallus. Colour of Lichens.—Soft grey colours predominate, the thick cortex and the underlying gonidia combining to produce this effect; when wetted the cortex becomes transparent and the green colour

cells have been more affected by symbiosis, and a much slower growth than in fungi has become a fixed character as proved by artificial cultures. The cell-walls, as in fungal tissues, are formed is more evident. Acids and pigments, the latter usually some shade of hemi-celluloses, chitin being present in nearly all lichens. There of brown, give various colours from yellow to brown or almost is no true cellulose, but a substance, lichenin (CsHO;), allied to black. Strong sunlight induces the formation of both acids and starch, has been demonstrated as well as a slightly different sub- pigments, and intensifies colour as seen in exposed situations. stance, isolichenin, the latter proved by Ziegenspeck (1924) to be Blue, violet or red colours occur more rarely, and generally in cona reserve material, Amyloid hyphae giving a blue reaction with nection with the fruiting bodies. Some lichens become rust-coliodine are present in the medulla of several species. Swollen cells oured by infiltration from an iron soil. It is only when we comfilled with oil, probably an excretory substance, occur in many pare untouched nature with the ugly gash of recent quarrying that. lichens especially in limestone species. Oxalic acid is also fre- we realize the beauty given to the rocks by the variety of lichen quently found in lichen tissues in the form of crystals, small gran- colouring. ules, or in large clear masses as in Pertusaria communis, Bionomics,—The response of lichens to their environment is Lichen Acids.—These are the most interesting and character- intimately associated with their physiological properties. Their istic of lichen products. They are deposited on the outside of the scanty subsistence entails slow development though a few may be hyphal cells as minute coloured specks or as colourless substances, ranked as relatively quick growers—mostly soil lichens in touch and show a wide range of chemical formulae and a great variety of with moisture. Such are Peltigera canina that spreads over damp crystalline form. They are the product of the symbiotic plant as lawns, etc., and crustaceous forms such as Baeomyces spp. Lecanwas proved by Tobler (1909) in his cultures of lichen tissues, ora tarterea, and Lecidea uliginosa; the latter has been known to Many of them are bright yellow, orange or red, and give the clear spread over an area several feet in diameter in one season, and has pure tone of colour to many familiar lichens. They are strongly been reported as a pioneer plant forming a dark film over sand influenced by light: Xanthoria parietina, a brilliant yellow plant dunes in Alberta. But in many lichens growth is often almost stain full exposure, becomes grey green in the shade, with a small acid tionary: the large foliose Loberia pulmonaria and the crustaceous content. Some of these acids are rare, others are widely distrib- Rhizocarpon geographicum have been observed to make practiuted, ¢.g.—-usninic acid, found in some 70 widely diverse species; cally no advance during a period up to so years. Accurate measatranorin, first discovered in Lecanora atra, in about 70 species; urements of more active Parmeliae, etc., have given a general salazinnic acid is equally common. They are abundant chiefly on increase of icm. per annum; their fruiting bodies require in well-aerated portions of the thallus—the soredial hyphae, the general four to eight years to develop. outer cortex, the loose medullary tissue, and on the disc of the Lichens do not grow on friable rocks or on peeling bark. They apothecia. require, for the first stages at least, a substratum to which they can Chemical Grouping. The acids have been arranged by Zopf be firmly attached by filaments or by rhizinae. In fruticose (1907) in 1, the fat series and 2, the benzole series. branching and straggling forms compactness is often secured by 1. The fat series. Zopf includes five groups in this series: three haptera, which form a bridging connection between the fronds of of the series are colourless substances; the coloured include vul- the same lichen or to other vegetation, as for instance, Cladonia pinic acid from the yellow lichen, Letharia vulpina, stictaurin sylvatica, which becomes detached from the soil and adheres to the

deposited in orange-red crystals on the hyphae of Sticta aurata, and rhizocarpic acid obtained from the yellow lichen Rhisocarpon

growing heather, thus securing not only attachment but light and

geographicum,

they drift about as erratic lichens. Several Parmeliae, Alectoriae, and Lecanora esculenta, etc., are erratic forms.

a, The benzole series, with two subseries—orceine and anthra-

air, Some few species become loose and continue growth while

LICHENS PHYLOGENY

AND

CLASSIFICATION

Phylogeny.—It would be interesting to know when the sym-

biotic plant originated and whether the first association of the fungus was with Myxophyceae or Chlorophyceae, but lichens,

owing to the gelatinous nature of the thallus, become soft in water

and there is little or no evidence in the rocks as to their antiquity: there is only a doubtful record of an Opegrapha in Mesozoic chalk. It is concluded from their elaborate morphology and physiology that they are very old plants, but the symbiotic organism—the

lichen—is obviously of more recent descent than its component

ancestors.

Both symbionts are polyphyletic in origin: the algae

are blue-green or bright green; the hyphae belong to various phyla of the fungi from which they are late derivatives. Basidiolichens are related to one fungus family, Telephoraceae; Ascolichens to

Ascomycetes and to several distinct phyla within that class. There is no haphazard agglomeration of forms in the lichen group, but a closely related and easily recognized series of plant phyla. The ascophore, which marks-the phylum, has undergone considerable

alteration which is recognized in classification. Phylogenetic development has, however, mainly taken place in the thallus which presumably began as a loose association of straggling hyphae with algal cells. It progressed to the definite crustaceous structure, and finally to the foliose and fruticose lichen. The greatest advance must have occurred when the thalline particle took an upward ee small outgrowth that was to develop into numerous orms. The intimate relation between lichens and fungi is evident in the species that have remained on the border line. Some with scanty thallus appear to lose the algal symbiont as the ascophore matures, and the hyphae apparently revert to saprophytism as exemplified, for instance, in Calicium, a lichen genus, with Mycocalicitum, the fungal counterpart, Others classified now as lichens

and now as fungi live on an alien lichen thallus though not always as simple parasites; in a number of cases their hyphae

penetrate the thallus and draw sustenance by symbiosis with the algal cells: these have been designated half-parasites, Lichen thalli are, however, a favourite host for many micro-fungi. The main divisions of Ascolichens are traced to their fungal ancestors by the form of the ascophore:— Lichen Series

I. II. III. IV.

Pyrenocarpineae ltoPyrenomycetes Coniocarpineae Graphidineae to Hysteriaceae Cyclocarpineae to Discomycetes

Within these series is represented a number of phyla with an orderly progression of thalline structure. Both types of gonidia are sometimes represented in the same phylum and even in the same family ¢,g., Stictaceae. The leading phyla of the different series are :-— I. PYRENOCARPINEAE. lichens and Archilichens.

In this are included phyla of PhycoIn the former crustaceous only; in the

latter advancing from the crustaceous Verrucariaceae to the squamose or lobed Dermatocarpaceae: a large and varied series. II. CoNIOCARPINEAE, An isolated group characterized hy the mazaedium type of ascophore—half closed and filled with loose spores at maturity-—mostly crustaceous with a few rare squamu-

lose genera, and a world-wide fruticose genus, Sphaerophorus. III. GRAPHIDINEAE. A large series with Trentepohlia as gonid-

ium. The progression is from crustaceaus forms toa the fruticose Rocellae. IV. CycrocarriyeaE. With phyla both of Phycolichens and

Archilichens. There is a somewhat limited type of thallus in the Phycolichens; the foliose structure is not however uncommon and reaches high development in Sticta and in Peltigera; fruticose structure is rare.

In the Archilichens there are three great phyla:— I. Lecrmeates.

These are distinguished by the discoid fruit

with proper margin only, and include many crustaceous genera, foliose Gyrophoraceae and the almost fruticose Cladoniaceae.

33

special thalline structure. See section, “Morphology,” p. 30). II. POLARILOCULARES. A phylum including all types of structure but with a distinctive and characteristic spore—ellipsoid and mostly one-septate, with the median septum becoming so thick that the spore loculi are often relegated to minute spaces at the tips, hence the name polarilocular. A delicate canal passes through the thickened septum and forms a connection between the polar cells. Classification.—Basidiolichens are few in number and now present no problems. It is mainly with Ascolichens that workers have been concerned. Before the true nature of lichen plants was understood, many attempts had been made to classify them in relation to each other and to other members of the plant kingdom—to mosses, hepatics or algae. Tournefort (1700) placed them all in one genus Lichen, and was followed by Linnaeus (1753). Knowledge of their number and variety increased, and Acharius (1803) gave diagnoses of 23 genera with their included

species. Nylander (1854) issued what he considered a final statement on lichen families and genera and of their relationships. His arrangement began with those nearest akin to algae, gelatinous blue-green forms, and wound up with those he considered to be most like fungi—the Pyrenocarpineae. Later students have worked on this basis and now a system of classification has been achieved that largely satisfies modern views. The arrangement of lichens in a natural order has presented great difficulties: it is by following the lines of development as outlined above that a way through the maze of forms—like and unlike—has been reached. The four series of Ascolichens, for instance, are marked by fruiting characters. These are subdivided into families (58 in number) largely on the structure of the thallus. The genera in these families are distinguished by minor differences of thalline though mainly of fruiting characters.

DISTRIBUTION AND ECOLOGY Distribution.—Lichens are widely distributed: members of nearly all the different families are to be found in every quarter of the globe. Winds or other agencies carry the spores of thalline particles immense distances, and these grow to full stature when they alight on a favourable substratum. It is impossible at the present stage of faulty co-ordination of knowledge to reckon their numbers, but many thousands have been recorded, and new families, genera and species are constantly being discovered. Some lichens flourish best in temperate zones, others in tropical regions, a few are restricted to polar areas, the same species appearing both in the Arctic and Antarctic. They grow best where they can secure light: they are abundant on the tundra or on rocks and walls with a sunny exposure; but a few are shade-plants and grow even in caves. Some can withstand the heat and scanty rainfall of the desert and others advance’to the limits of perpetual snow. A fairly large number are cosmopolitan; a lesser number are endemic in larger or smaller areas. Ecology.—Though self-supporting, lichens exhibit a considerable choice of habitat and form more or less constant associations of lichens only or with other plants. They are the pioneers of

vegetation and soil-formation.

By their delicate filaments they

cling to the rock surfaces which they gradually penetrate and disintegrate. By mechanical action due to alternate wetting and

drying of the gelatinous hyphae a sucker-like detachment of minute rock particles is constanily taking place (Fry 1924; 1926); by chemical action the acids discharged by the hyphae (carbonic, oxalic or lichen acids) dissolve the hardest rocks and even old window glass. The detached particles and the humus of cast-off portions of the thallus, together with blown dust, form a nidus for other vegetation-—mosses and flowering plants—and mixed

associations arise. The chief ecological factors are the types of substratum: the associations or communities are therefore naturally divided into:—1, arboreal and lignicolous, 2, terricolous, 3,

saxicolous and 4, localised communities such as maritime lichens. Within these great groups there are minor associations influenced

II, Lecanorares. Fruit, with a thalline margin; the most by the kind of bark, the nature of the soil (sand, clay or humus) numerous and most highly developed phylum, from the lowest to the character of the rock, (siliceous or calcareous) and also by the highest development not only in foxm and size, hut in, the conditions of temperature, moisture and exposure. A very dis.

34

LICHFIELD—LICH-GATE

tinct association is that of nitrophilous lichens:

it constantly

occurs on any kind of habitat in places frequented by birds and small mammals, and near to farm-yards or on road-sides where the dust is mixed with nitrogenous animal matter. As in other plant communities there is a struggle for place and light. Crustaceous species are invaded and ousted by those of thicker or squamulose thallus or by the larger foliose species. Some mischance may in time dispossess them all and colonization begins afresh. Leaf lichens so abundant in the tropics also form distinctive associations. Lichens are rare or absent in the neighbourhood of large towns or industrial areas owing to the impure and smoke-laden atmosphere.

de France, 2 fasc. (Paris, 1897-1903); A. Lorrain Smith, Monogr. Brit. Lichens (London, 1918-26); P. Sydow, Flechten Deutschlands

(Berlin, 1887); A. Zahlbruckner, Lichenes, B. h

T i . L. Sm.

LICHFIELD, a city, county of a city, and municipal borough in Staffordshire, England, 118 m. N.W. from London. Pop. (1931) 8,508. The town is situated on a stream draining eastward to the Trent, with low hills to the east and south. There is a tradition that ‘“Christianfield” near Lichfield was

the site of the martyrdom of 1,000 Christians during the persecutions of Maximian about 286. At Wall, 3 m. distant, there was a Romano-British village of Letocetum (“grey wood”), from which the first half of the name Lichfield is derived. The first authentic notice of Lichfield occurs in Bede’s history, where it is mentioned as the place where St. Chad fixed the episcopal see of the Mercians. After the foundation of the see by St. Chad in

ECONOMIC AND TECHNICAL Lichens occupy a not unimportant place in the economic field. Mites and other small insects, caterpillars and slugs feed on them especially when they are moist and the acids not too 669, it was raised in 786 by Pope Adrian to an archbishopric, but pronounced. Petch has stated that they are the staple food of in 803 the primacy was restored to Canterbury. In 1075 the see the black termites in Ceylon. Abbé Hue considered that the of Lichfield was removed to Chester, and thence a few years later to Coventry, but it was restored in 1148. At the time of abundance and perfect development of lichens in the Antarctic the Domesday Survey Lichfield was held by the bishop of Chester. was due to the absence of insect life. In northern latitudes several kinds, for example Cladonia alpestris, are of great service as The lordship and manor of the town were held by the bishop until provender for domestic animals. Cladonia rangiferina, the rein- the reign of Edward VI., when they were leased to the corporadeer moss, is the special food of the reindeer. In times of scarcity tion. Richard II. gave a charter (1387) for the foundation of the it has been found advantageous to grind up lichen thalli after gild of St. Mary and St. John the Baptist; this gild obtained the whole local government, which it exercised until its dissolutionelimination of acids, and to mix the powder with meal for human by Edward VI., who incorporated the town (1548). The only consumption. Lecanora esculenta, a rock lichen and often erratic, existing fair is a small pleasure fair of ancient origin held on Ashis abundant in eastern deserts and has been similarly used: it Wednesday; the annual féte on Whit-~Monday claims to date has been considered that that lichen was the manna of the Israelfrom the time of Alfred. In the Civil Wars Lichfield was divided. ites. Species of Umbilicaria and Gyrophora called tripe de roche The cathedral authorities were for the king, but the townsfolk have been used by Arctic explorers to stay the pangs of hunger. Gyrophora esculenta, an eastern maritime rock lichen is greatly sided with the parliament, and this led to the fortification of the

close in 1643. The close yielded to the parliament and was reesteemed as an edible plant both in Japan and in China. taken by Prince Rupert; but on the breakdown of the king’s Their value in medicine rested in the past on a somewhat cause in 1646 it again surrendered. fanciful basis—that of the “doctrine of signatures”: certain charThe cathedral is small, and stands near the Minster Pool. The acteristics of form by their resemblance to organs of the body, present building dates from the 13th and early rath centuries. The were considered to indicate curative properties. Some very bitter fine exterior of the cathedral has a lofty central and two lesser species such as Pertusaria faginea served as a substitute for quinine. Cetraria islandica, the “Iceland Moss,” owing partly to western spires, of which the central, 252 ft. high, is a restoration its gelatinous consistency has been used with good effect in chest attributed to Sir Christopher Wren after its destruction during the Civil Wars. The west front is composed of three stages of troubles, and is now the only lichen recognized in the British ornate arcading. Within, the south transept shows simple Early Pharmacopeia. English work, the north transept and chapter house more ornate Their use as dye-plants has been known from the earliest times, work of a later period in that style, the nave, with its geometrical and before the discovery of aniline dyes the rich and varied colornament, marks the transition to Decorated, while the Lady ours obtained from lichens were highly valued. The colouring chapel is Decorated. The west front falls in date between the principle of the dyes is contained in the peculiar lichen-acids. nave and the Lady chapel. Here is the “Sleeping Children,” a Treatment with an alkali is generally necessary to extract the masterpiece by Chantrey (1817). Among numerous monuments colour; mordants are frequently used. With some lichens, boiling are memorials to Samuel Johnson, a native of Lichfield, and to the plants with the material to be dyed is sufficient to secure the David Garrick, who spent his early life and was educated here, and desired colour. The dyes can be used only on animal fibres such a monument to Major Hodson, who fell in the Indian mutiny and as wool and silk; they have no effect on linen or cotton. Purple whose father was canon of Lichfield. lichen dyes—orchil, litmus or cudbear—-are obtained from RocThe bishop’s palace (1687) is adjacent to the cathedral, The cella tinctoria, a maritime lichen, Lecanora tartarea and a few diocese covers the greater part of Staffordshire and about half others. Other serviceable colours are the varied yellows and browns so much used in home or village industries. But abundant the parishes in Shropshire, with small parts of Cheshire and Derbyshire, The church of St. Chad is ancient though extensively though dye lichens are, they can only furnish a limited quantity restored. There are many half-timbered and other old houses. and could never meet any large demand. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—Lichens are discussed in general text-books, espe- among which is that in which Johnson was born. Brewing is the cially in those devoted to cryptogamic botany. Only the publications principal industry, but there is some metal-working, and in the concerned exclusively with lichenology are cited here. In most of neighbourhood are large market gardens. these will be found lists of books and papers that deal with various aspects of the subject as outlined above. General; M. Fiinistiick, Lichenes, A, Allgemeiner Teil, in Engler and Prantl’s Die Naturlichen Pflanzenfamilien VIII. (Leipzig, 1926); Albert Schneider, Text-book of Lichenology (Binghampton, N-.Y., 1897); A. Lorrain Smith, Lichens (Cambridge Botanical Handbooks, Camb. xr921); F. Tobler, Biologie der Flechten (Berlin, 1925); W. Zopi, Die Flechten Stofe (Jena, 1907).

Floristic: Incomplete Floras. Among these may be cited Th. Fries, Lichenographia Scandinavica (Uppsala, en J. Harmand, Lichens de France, five fascicles (Paris, r90s~13); W. Migula, Flora Deutschlands, Osterreichs und der Schweiz, Abt. II, Krypt. Flora XII, Die Flechten, Lief. I. (in course of publication). Complete Floras.—Bruce Fink, The Lichens oj Minnesota (Washington, 1910); A. Jatta, Flora Italica Botanica, Pars. II., Lichenes (1909-11); H. Olivier, Exp. Syst. Descr. Lich. de Ouest et N. Ouest

LICH-GATE

or Lycn-Gare,

the roofed-in

gateway

to

churchyards (O.E. lic, “a body, a corpse”; cf. Ger. Leiche). Lichgates existed in England thirteen centuries ago, but comparatively few early ones survive, as they were almost always of wood. One at Bray, Berkshire, is dated 1448. Here the clergy meet the corpse and some portion of the service is read. The gateway served to shelter the pall-bearers. In some lich-gates there stood large flat stones called lich-stones upon which the corpse was laid. The most common form of lich-gate is a simple shed composed of a roof with two gabled ends, covered with tiles or thatch. At Berrynarbor, Devon, there is a lich-gate in the form of a cross, while at

Troutbeck, Westmorland, there are three lich-gates to one churchyard. Some elaborate gates have chambers over them.

LICHNOWSK Y—LICTORS LICHNOWSKY,

KARL

MAX,

Prince

(1860-1928), | of a brief epitome of Roman history based upon Livy. Accounts

German diplomatist, was born at Kreuzenort, Upper Silesia, on March 8, 1860, the son of the 6th Prince Lichnowsky and of Princess Marie de Croy. He entered the German Foreign Office in 1884, and served in various legations until 1889, employing his vacations in travel in America and the Far East in order to study

political

and

economic

conditions

outside

Europe.

In 1889

Biilow, who reposed complete confidence in him, recalled him to the Foreign Office, where he had charge of the personnel. He re-

tired in 1904 to give attention to his estates, but was recalled to the service in 1912 to become ambassador in London. During his stay in London he worked hard for pacific relations between England and Germany;

and the colonial agreement which was ready

for signature in 1914 was largely his work. When the Serbian crisis arose in the summer of that year Lichnowsky urgently recommended the acceptance in Berlin of Sir E. Grey’s mediation proposals. He had repeatedly warned Berlin of the dangers underlying the Anglo-German rivalries, but he had ceased to

possess the complete confidence of his government, and his warnings were neglected. At the supreme crisis he was not in possession of all the facts. On the outbreak of war he returned to

Berlin a broken man, and found that in some quarters he was held guilty of not having done his utmost to prevent British intervention. He wrote an apologia, Meine Londoner Mission, of his conduct of affairs in London for private circulation, which fell into the hands of German pacifists who printed it in 1918. He was then excluded from the Prussian Upper House, and found refuge in Switzerland. After the Revolution he returned to Germany, and in 1927 wrote Auf dem Wege zum Abgrund (Eng. trans. 1928), dealing with the origins of the World War. He died at his estate of Kuchelna on Feb. 27, 1928. LICHTENBERG, GEORG CHRISTOPH (1742-1799), German satirical writer and physicist, was born at Oberramstadt, near Darmstadt, on July 1, 1742. In 1763 he entered Gottingen university, where in 1769 he became extraordinary professor of physics, and six years later ordinary professor. This post he held till his death on Feb. 24, 1799. As a physicist he is best known for his investigations in electricity, more especially as to the so-called

Lichtenberg figures. As a satirist and humorist Lichtenberg takes high rank among the German writers of the 18th century. His biting wit involved him in many as Lavater, Voss, whose satire, Uber

35

controversies with well-known contemporaries, such whose science of physiognomy he ridiculed, and views on Greek pronunciation called forth a powerful die Pronunciation der Schöpse des alten. Griechen-

landes (1782). In 1769 and again in 1774 he resided for some time in England and his Briefe aus England (1776-78), with admirable descriptions of Garrick’s acting, are the most attractive of his writings. He contributed to the Géttinger Taschenkalender from 1778 onwards, and to the Géttingisches Magazin der Literatur und Wissenschaft, which he edited for three years (1780-82) with J. G. A. Forster. He also published in 1794-99 an Ausfuhrliche Erklérung der Hogarthschen Kupferstiche.

Lichtenberg’s Vermischte Schriften were published by F. Kries in 9 vols. (1800-05; new editions in 8 vols., 1844-46 and 1867). Selections by E. Grisebach, Lichtenbergs Gedanken und Maximen (1871); by F. Robertag in Kiirschner’s Dewtsche Nationalliteratur (vol. 141, 1886); and by A. Wilbrandt (1893). Lichtenberg’s Briefe have been published in 3 vols. by C. Schiiddekopf and A. Leitzmann (1900-02) ; his Aphorismen by A. Leitzmann (3 vols., 1902-06). See also R. M. Meyer, Swift und Lichtenberg (1886); F. Lauchert, Lichtenbergs schriftstellerische Tdtigkeit (1893); and A. Leitzmann, Aus Lichtenbergs Nachlass (1899).

LICHTENBERG, formerly a small German principality on

the Rhine, enclosed by the Nahe, Blies and Glan, now belonging to the district of Trier, Prussian Rhine province. The principality includes parts of the electorate of Trier, and Nassau-Saarbriicken. Originally called the lordship of Baumholder, it owed the name of Lichtenberg and its elevation in 1819 to a principality to Ernest, duke of Saxe-Coburg, to whom it was ceded by Prussia, in 1816. The duke restored it to Prussia in 1834, in return for an annual pension. The area is about 210 sq.m.

LICINIANUS, GRANIUS, Roman annalist, probably lived

in the age of the Antonines (2nd century 4.D.). He was the author

of omens and portents apparently took up a considerable portion of the work. Some fragments of the books relating to the years 163-178 B.c. are preserved in a British Museum ms. Editions by C. A. Pertz (1857); seven Bonn students (1858); M. Flemisch (1904); see also J. N. Madvig, Kleine philologische Schriften (1875), and the list of articles in periodicals in Flemisch’s edition (p. iv.).

LICINIUS

(Fravrus

GALERIUS

VALERIUS

LiIcrINIANvs),

Roman emperor, A.D. 307—324, of Illyrian peasant origin, was born probably about 250. After the death of Flavius Valerius Severus he was elevated to the rank of Augustus by Galerius, his former friend and companion in arms, on Nov. 11, 307, receiving as his immediate command the provinces of Illyricum. On the death of Galerius, in May 311, he shared the entire empire with Maximinus, the Hellespont and the Thracian Bosporus being the dividing line. In March 313 he married Constantia, half-sister of Constantine, at Mediolanum (Milan), in the following month inflicted a decisive defeat on Maximinus at Heraclea Pontica, and established himself master of the East while his brother-inlaw, Constantine, was supreme in the West. In 314 his jealousy led him to encourage a treasonable enterprise on the part of Bassianus against Constantine. When his perfidy became known a civil war ensued, in which he was twice severely defeated—firrst near Cibalae in Pannonia (Oct. 8, 314), and next in the plain of Mardia in Thrace; the outward reconciliation, which was effected in the following December, left Licinius in possession of Thrace, Asia Minor, Syria and Egypt, but added numerous provinces to the Western empire. In 323 Constantine again declared war against him, and, having defeated his army at Adrianople, succeeded in shutting him up within the walls of Byzantium. The defeat of the superior fleet of Licinius by Flavius Iulius Crispus, Constantine’s eldest son, compelled his withdrawal to Bithynia, where a last stand was made; the battle of Chrysopolis, near Chalcedon, finally resulted in his submission. He was interned at Thessalonica and executed in the following year on a charge of treasonable correspondence with the barbarians. See Zosimus ii. 7~28; Zonaras xiii. 1; Victor, Caes. 40, 44; Eutropius X. 33; Orosius vii, 28.

LICINIUS

CALVUS

STOLO, GAIUS: see Rome, His-

tory.

LICINIUS MACER CALVUS, GAIUS (82-47 3..), Roman poet and orator, the son of the annalist Licinius Macer. As a poet he followed his friend Catullus in style and choice of subjects. As an orator he was the leader of the opponents of the florid Asiatic school, who took the simplest Attic orators as their model and attacked even Cicero as wordy and artificial. Calvus held a correspondence on questions connected with rhetoric, perhaps (if the reading be correct) the commentarii alluded to

by Tacitus (Dialogus, 23; cf. also Cicero, Ad Fam. xv. 21). Twenty-one speeches by him are mentioned, amongst which the most famous were those delivered against Publius Vatinius. Calvus was very short of stature, and is alluded to by Catullus (Ode 53) as Salaputium disertum (eloquent Lilliputian). For Cicero’s opinion see Brutus, 82; Quintilian x. 1. 115; Tacitus, Dialogus, 18. 21; the monograph by F. Plessis (Paris, 1896) contains a collection of the fragments (verse and prose).

LICTORS

[Lat. lictores], in Roman antiquities, a class of

the attendants (apparitores) upon certain Roman and provincial

magistrates. As an institution they went back to the regal period and continued to exist till imperial times. The majority of the city lictors were freedmen; they formed a corporation divided into decuries, from which the lictors of the magistrates in office were drawn; provincial officials had the nomination of their own. In Rome they wore the toga; on a campaign and at the celebration of a triumph, the red military cloak (sagulum); at funerals, black. As representatives of magistrates who possessed the imperium, they carried the fasces (see Fasces). They were exempt from military service; received a fixed salary; theoretically they were nominated for a year, but really for life. They were the constant attendants of the magistrate to whom they were attached. They cleared a passage for him (summovere) through

LIDCOMBE—LIE

36

the crowd, and saw that he was received with the marks of respect due to his rank. They stood by him when he took his seat on the tribunal; mounted guard before his house, against the wall of which they stood the fasces; summoned offenders before him, seized, bound and scourged them, and (in early times) carried out the death sentence, Directly a magistrate entered an allied, independent state, he was obliged to dispense with his lictors. Each of the consuls had 12 lictors; the dictator, as representing both consuls, 24; the emperors 12, until the time of Domitian, who had 24. The Flamen Dialis, and each of the Vestals were also accompanied by lictors. These lictors were probably supplied from the lictores curiatii, 30 in number, whose functions were specially religious, one of them being in attendance on the pontifex maximus, They originally summoned the comitia curiata, and when its meetings became merely a formality, acted as the representatives of that assembly. BiBLIOGRAPHY,—-For the fullest account of the lictors, see Mommsen,

Römisches Staatsrecht, i, 355, 374 (3rd ed., 1887), cf. J. E. Sandys, Companion to Latin Studies (1921).

LIDCOMBE: see Sypwey (New South Wales, Australia). LIDDELL, HENRY GEORGE (1811-1898), English

scholar and divine, was barn at Binchester, near Bishop Auckland, on Feb. 6, 1811. He was educated at Charterhouse and Christ

and he succeeded in popularizing the opinions which, in the hands of Pusey and Keble, had appealed to thinkers and scholars. His forceful spirit was equally conspicuous in his opposition to the Church Discipline Act of 1874, and in his denunciation of the Bulgarian atrocities of 1876. In 1882 he resigned his professorship, He travelled:in Palestine and Egypt, and showed his interest in the Old Catholic movement by visiting Déllinger at Munich. In 1886 he became chancellor of St. Paul’s, and it is said that he

declined more than one offer of a bishopric. He died on Sept. 9,

1890,

Liddon’s great influence was due to his personal fascination and the beauty of his pulpit oratory rather than to any high qualities of intellect. See J. Johnston, Life and Letters of Dean

Liddon. LIE, JONAS

LAURITZ

i EDEMIL

(1833-1908), Nor-

wegian novelist, was born on Nov. 6, 1833, close to Hougsund

(Eker), near Drammen. In 1838, his father being appointed sheriff of Tromsö, the family removed to that Arctic town. Here Lie gained acquaintance with the wild seafaring life which he

was afterwards to describe. where Ibsen and Bjérnson completing his studies he Kongsvinger. In 1860 he who collaborated with him his first book, a volume

He studied at Christiania (Oslo), were among his fellow-students, On began to practise as a solicitor at married his cousin, Thomasine Lie, in his works. In 1866 he published of poems. Financial embarrassment

Church, Oxford, became a college tutor, and was ordained in 1838. In the same year Dean Gaisford appointed him Greek reader in Christ Church, and in 1846 he became headmaster of drove him to Christiania to try his luck as a man of letters,

Westminster school. As early in 1834 he and Robert Scott had

begun the great Lexicon (based on the German work of F. Passow) which became his life work, and the rst edition was published in 1843. It is still the standard Greek-English dictionary (revised ed. by H. S. Jones in 1925). In 1855 he became dean of Christ Church, and took an active part in the first Oxford University

Commission.

As a journalist he had no success, but in 1870 he published a melancholy little romance, Den Fremsynie (Eng. trans., The

Visionary, 1894), which made him famous.

Lie proceeded to

Rome, and published Tales in 1871 and Tremasteren “Fremtiden” (Eng. trans., The Barque “Future,” Chicago, 1879), a novel, in

1872. Lodsen og hans Hustru (The Pilot and his Wife, 1874) He resigned the deanery in 1891 and retired to placed him at the head of Norwegian novelists, and brought him

Ascot, where he died on Jan. 18, 1898, He also published History of Ancient Rome (1855, abridged edition as Students’ History of Rome). See H. L. Thompson, Henry George Liddell (1899).

LIDDESDALE, the valley of Liddel Water, Roxburghshire,

Scotland, extending 21 m. from the Peel Fell to the Esk. The Waverley route of the L.N.E.R. runs down the dale, and the Çatrail, or Picts’ Dyke, crosses its head. At one period points on the river were occupied with freehooters’ peel-towers, but many have disappeared, Larriston Tower belonged to the Elliots, Mangerton to the Armstrongs and Park to “little Jock Elliot,” the outlaw

who nearly killed Bothwell in 1566. Hermitage Castle, a massive H-shaped fortress and one of the oldest baronial buildings in Scotland, stands on a hill overlooking Hermitage Water, a tributary of the Liddel. It was built in 1244 and captured by the English in David IL’s reign. It was retaken by Sir William Douglas, who received a grant of it from the king. In 1492 Archibald Douglas, sth carl of Angus, exchanged it for Bothwell castle on the Clyde with Patrick Hepburn, rst earl of Bothwell. It passed to the duke of Buccleuch. It was here that Sir Alexander Ramsay of Dalhousie was starved to death by Sir William Douglas in 1343, and that James Hepburn, 4th earl of Bothwell, was visited by Mary, queen of Scots, after the assault referred to.

LIDDON, HENRY PARRY (1829-1890), English divine,

a small government stipend. Lie spent the next few years partly in Dresden, partly in Stuttgart. He then returned to Norway for a short time, and there wrote some novels of contemporary Norwegian life. But he was back in Germany very soon. From 1882 to 1891 he made Paris his headquarters. His later years

were spent in Norway, and he died at Christiania on July 5, 1908. Two of the most successful of his numerous novels were The Commodore’s Daughters (1886) and Niobe (1894), both of which were included in the International library. Im 1891-1892 he wrote, under the influence of the new romantic impulse, twentyfour folk-tales, printed in two volumes entitled Trold. Some of these were translated by R. N, Bain in Weird Tales (1893), illus-

trated by L. Housman. His Samlede Vaerker were published at Copenhagen in 14 vols. (1902-1904). As a novelist Jonas Lie

stands with those rary manners who with Mrs. Gaskell relation with that

minute and unobtrusive painters of contempodefy arrangement in this or that school. He is or Ferdinand Fabre; he is not entirely without old-fashioned favourite of the public, Fredrika

Bremer, LIE, MARIUS SOPHUS (1842-1899), Norwegian mathematician, wag born at Nordfjordeif, near Bergen, on Dec. 17, 1842, and was educated at the University of Christiania (now Oslo). In 1869 he went to Berlin and there met Klein, in conjunction with whom he afterwards published several papers. In 1871 he was appointed assistant tutor in Christiania university,

was the son of a naval captain and was born at North Stoneham, Hampshire, on Aug. 30, 1829. He was educated at King’s College in the same year submitting for his doctor’s degree his famous school, London, and at Christ Church, Oxford. As vice-principal memoir Ueber Complexe, insbesondere Linien- und Kugel-Comof the theological college at Cuddesdon (1854-59) and as vice- plexe, mit Anwendung auf die Theorie partieller Diferentialprincipal of St. Edmund’s Hall, Oxford, he withstood the liberal Gleichungen, in which he advanced the theory of tangential transreaction against Tractarianism, which had set in after Newman’s formations. He was appointed extraordinary professor in 1872, secession in 1845. In 1864 he became prebendary of Salisbury and the following year began his researches on transformation cathedral. In 1866 he delivered his Bampton Lectures on the groups, and discovered his transformation, making a sphere corDivinity of Our Lord (13th ed., 1889), which established his fame. respond to a straight line (Comptes Rendus, vol, Ixxi.). In 1884 In 1870 he was made canon of St. Paul’s Cathedral, London, Engel went to assist Lie, and after nine years’ work was published where his preaching attracted vast crowds, In 1870 he had also Theorie der Transformationsgruppen (3 vols., Leipzig, 1893), 2 been made Ireland professor of exegesis at Oxford, and the com- work of wide range and great originality. In 1886 Lie succeeded bination of the two appointments gave him extensive influence Klein in the chair of mathematics at Leipzig, Engel being apover the Church of England. With Dean Church he may be said | pointed his assistant. In 1898 he returned to Christiania to accept to have restored the waning influence of the Tractarlan school, ! a special post created for him, but his health was already broken

LIEBER—LIEBIG and he died on Feb. 18, 1899. Besides his development of transformations, Lie made contributions to differential geometry, but his primary aim was the advancement of the theory of differential equations. An analysis of Lie’s works is given in the Bibliotheca Mathematica (Leipzig, 1900).

LIEBER, FRANCIS

(1800~1872), German-American pub-

licist, was born at Berlin on March 18, 1800. He served with his two brothers under Blücher in the campaign of 1815, fighting at Ligny, Waterloo and Namur, where he was twice dangerously wounded. Shortly afterwards he was arrested for his political

sentiments, the chief evidence against him being several songs of liberty which he had written. After several months he was discharged without a trial, but was forbidden to pursue hig studies at the Prussian universities. He accordingly went to Jena, continuing his studies at Halle and Dresden. He subsequently took part in the Greek War of Independence, publishing his experiences in his Journal in Greece (Leipzig, 1823, and under the title The German Anacharsis, Amsterdam, 1823). In 1827 he went to the United States and as soon as possible was naturalized. He settled at Boston, and for five years edited The Encyclopaedia Americana. From 1835 to 1856 he was professor of history and political economy in South Carolina college at Columbia, S.C., and during this period wrote his three chief works, Manual of Political Ethics (1838), Legal and Political Hermeneutics (1839) and Civil Liberty and Self Government (1853). In 1857 he was elected to a similar post in Columbia college, New York, where in 1865 he became professor of constitutional history and public law. Dur-

ing the Civil War Lieber rendered services of great value to the Government. Upon the requisition of the president, he prepared the important Code of War for the Government of the Armies of the United States in the Field. This code suggested to Bluntschli his codification of the law of nations, as may be seen in the preface to his Droit International Codifié. During this period also, Lieber wrote his Guerilla Parties with Reference to the Laws and Usages of War, He died Oct. 2, 1872. His Miscellaneous Writings were published by D. C. Gilman (Philadelphia, 1881). See T. S. Perry, Life and Letters (1882), and

biography. by Harby Lieber,

(1899).

Consult

also. Ernest Nys, “Francis

His Life and Work,” Am. Jour. Internat. Law, vol. v., pp.

84—117, 335-393 (1911); Chester Squire Phinmy, Francis Lieber’s Influence on American Thought (1918); and Louis Martin Sears, “The Human Side of Francis Lieber,” So. Atlantic Quar., vol. xxvii.

p. 42-61 (1928), LIEBERMANN,

MAX

(1847~

), German painter and

37

which are now in the National gallery, Berlin. In 1884 he settled in Berlin, where he became president of the Academy. He became a member of the Société nationale des Beaux Arts, of the Société royale belge des Aquarellistes, and of the Cercle des Aquarellistes at The Hague and a corresponding member of the Institut de France. Liebermann is represented in most of the German

and other continental galleries. The new section of the National gallery in the former palace of the crown prince contains a representative collection of his work showing his development; the Munich Staatsgalerie, “The Woman with Goats”; the Hamburg gallery, “The Net-Menders”; the Hanover gallery, the “Village Street in Holland.” “The Seamstress” is at the Dresden gallery; the “Man on the Dunes” at Leipzig; “Dutch Orphan Girls” at Strasbourg; “Beer-cellar at Brandenburg” at the Luxembourg museum in Paris, and the “Knépflerinnen” in Venice. Among his portraits are those of F. Maunann, Gerhart Hauptmann and E. Meyer. His etchings are to be found in the leading print rooms of Europe. See Hans Rosenhagen, Liebermann (Bielefeld and Leipzig, 1900).

LIEBIG,

JUSTUS

VON,

Baron

(1803—1873),

German

chemist, was born at Darmstadt in May, 1803. His father, a drysalter and dealer in colours, used sometimes to make experiments in the hope of improving his processes and thus the son early acquired familiarity with practical chemistry. For the theoretical side he read all the text-books which he could find. At the age of fifteen he entered the shop of an apothecary at Appenheim, near Darmstadt; but he soon found how great is the difference be-

tween practical pharmacy and scientific chemistry. He next entered the university of Bonn, but migrated to Erlangen with the

professor of chemistry, K. W. G. Kastner (1783-1857). He then went to Paris, where, by the help of L. J. Thénard he gained admission to the private laboratory of H. F. Gaultier de Claubry (17921873), professor of chemistry at the Ecole de Pharmacie, Paris, and soon afterwards, by the influence of A. von Humboldt, to that of Gay-Lussac.

There he concluded, in 1824, his investiga-

tions on the composition of the fulminates. On Humboldt’s advice he determined to become a teacher of chemistry, and after overcoming many difficulties he was appointed extraordinary professor of chemistry at Giessen in 1824, becoming ordinary professor two years later. His most important work was accomplished at Giessen. He persuaded the Darmstadt government to provide a chemical laboratory in which the students might obtain a proper practical training. This laboratory, unique of its kind at the time, in conjunction with Liebig’s unrivalled gifts as a teacher, soon rendered Giessen the most famous chemical school

etcher, was born in Berlin on July 20, 1847. After studying under Steffeck, he entered the school of art at Weimar in 1869. Though in the world. In it were trained many accomplished chemists and the straightforward simplicity of his first exhibited picture, it gave a great impetus to the progress of chemical education “Women plucking Geese” (Berlin, National gallery) in 1872, pre- throughout Germany. Liebig remained at Giessen for twenty-eight sented already a striking contrast to the conventional art then in years, until, in 1852, he became professor of chemistry at Munich vogue, it was heavy and bituminous in colour. In his course he university. He died at Munich on April 10, 1873. Work on Pure Chemistry includes improvements in techwas confirmed by Munkacsy’s influence in Paris in 1872. A summer spent at Barbizon in 1873, where he became acquainted with nique of organic analysis, his plan for determining the natural Millet and studied the works of Corot, Troyon and Daubigny, alkaloids and for ascertaining the molecular weights of organic résulted in the clearing and brightening of his palette. He subse- bases by means of their chloroplatinates, his process for determinquently went to Holland, where the example of Israels confirmed ing the quantity of urea in a solution, and his invention of the him in the method he had adopted at Barbizon; on his return to simple form of condenser known in every laboratory. His conMunich in 1878 he caused much unfavourable criticism by his ‘tributions to inorganic chemistry were numerous, including invesrealistic painting of “Christ in the Temple,” which was con- tigations on the compounds of antimony, aluminium, silicon, etc., demned by the clergy as irreverent. Henceforth he devoted him- on the separation of nickel and cobalt, and on the analysis of self exclusively to the study of light and to the painting of the mineral waters, but they ate outweighed in importance by his life of humble folk. He found his best subjects in the orphanages work on organic substances. In this domain his first research and asylums for the old in Amsterdam, among the peasants ın the was on the fulminates of mercury and silver, and his study of fields and village streets of Holland, and in the beer-gardens, fac- these bodies led him to the discovery of the isomerism of cyanic and fulminic acids. Further work on cyanogen and connected tories and workrooms of his own country. Liebermann has done for his country what Millet did for France. substances yielded a great number of interesting derivatives, and His pictures hold the fragrance of the soil and the breezes of he described an improved method for the manufacture of potasthe heavens. His people move in their proper atmosphere and sium cyanide. In 1832 he published, jointly with Wöhler, one of the most their life is stated in all its monotonous simplicity. His work being at variance with the academic tradition he became the leader famous papers in the history of chetnistry, that on the oil of of the Secession, His first success was a medal awarded him for bitter almonds (benzaldehyde), wherein it was shown that the “An Asylum for Old Men” at the 1881 salon. Then followed “The radicle benzoyl might be regarded as forming an unchanging con-

Cobbler’s Shop” (1882) and “The Flax Spinners” (1887) both of | stituent of a long series of compounds.

Berzelius hailed this dis-

38

LIEBKNECHT

covery as marking the dawn of a new era in organic chemistry. | he established the Handwörterbuch der reinen und angewandten A continuation of their work on bitter almond oil by Liebig Chemie. After the death of Berzelius he continued the Jahresberichi

and Wöhler resulted in the elucidation of the mode of formation of that substance and in the discovery of the ferment emulsin as well as the recognition of the first glucoside, amygdalin; another and not less important and far-reaching inquiry in which they collaborated was that on uric acid, published in 1837. About 1832 he began his investigations into the constitution of ether and alcohol and their derivatives. These on the one hand resulted in the enunciation of his ethyl theory, by the light of which he looked upon those substances as compounds of the radicle ethyl (C:Hs5); on the other they yielded chloroform, chloral and aldehyde, as well as other compounds, and also the method of forming mirrors by depositing silver from a slightly ammoniacal solution by acetaldehyde. In 1837, with Dumas, he published a note on the constitution of organic acids, and in the following year an elaborate paper on the same subject appeared under his name alone; by this work T. Graham’s doctrine of polybasicity was extended to the organic acids. Liebig also did much to further the hydrogen theory of acids. Animal and Vegetable Physiology.—These and other studles in pure chemistry mainly occupied his attention until about 1838, but the last thirty-five years of his life were devoted more particularly to the chemistry of the processes of life, both animal and vegetable. In animal physiology he attempted to trace out the operation of chemical and physical laws in the maintenance of life and health. To this end he examined such vital products as blood, bile and urine; he analysed the juices of flesh, establishing the composition of creatin and investigating its decomposition products, creatinin and sarcosin; he classified the various articles of food in accordance with the special function performed by each in the animal economy, and expounded the philosophy of cook-

with H. F. M. Kopp. The following are his most important separate publications, many of which were translated into English and French almost as soon as they appeared: Anleitung zur Analyse der organischen Korper (1837); Die Chemie in ihrer Anwendung auf Agrikultur und Physiologie (1840) ; Die Thier-Chemie oder die organische Chemie in ihrer Anwendung auf Physiologie und Pathologie (1842); Handbuch der organischen Chemie mit Riicksicht auf Pharmazie (1843) ; Chemische Briefe (1844) ; Chemische Untersuchungen über das Fleisch und seine Zubereitung zum Nahrungsmittel (1847); Die Grundsätze der Agrikultur-

Chemie

(1855);

Über

Theorie

und Praxis in der Landwirthschaft

(1856); Naturwissenschaftliche Briefe über die moderne Landwirthschaft (1859). A posthumous collection of his miscellaneous addresses and publications appeared in 1874 as Reden und Abhandlungen, edited by his gon George (b. 1827). His criticism of Bacon, Uber Francis von Verulam, was first published in 1863 in the Augsburger allgemeine Zeitung, where also most of his letters on chemistry made their first appearance. See also The Life Work of Liebig (London, 1876), by his pupil A. W. von Hofmann, which is the Faraday lecture delivered before the London Chemical Society in March 1875, and is reprinted in Hofmann’s Zur Erinnerung an vorangegangene Freunde; also W. A. Shenstone, Justus von Liebig, his Life and Work (1895); and Tilden’s Famous

Chemists (1921).

LIEBKNECHT, KARL (1871-1919), German socialist, was born in Leipzig on Aug. 13, 1871.

The son of Wilhelm Lieb-

knecht (g.v.), he qualified as a lawyer, and became a prominent member of the extreme Left wing of the Social Democrat party. After serving a sentence of 18 months’ imprisonment for high treason, in 1908 he was elected to the Prussian chamber of deputies, and in 1912 entered the Reichstag as a Social Democrat. He was one of a small group who refused to vote war credits in 1914. He violently opposed the war and the successive votes of credit. He organized anti-war demonstrations, and in 1916 gave the police the desired opportunity for arresting him, by shouting “down with the war” to some troops passing through the Pots-

ing. In opposition to many of the medical opinions of his time he taught that the heat of the body is the result of the processes of combustion and oxidation performed within the organism. A damer Platz. He was condemned to two years’ penal servitude, and secondary result of this line of study was the preparation of his was only released on Oct. 22, 1918. Before his imprisonment he had founded the international group, later the Spartacus Union, food for infants and of his extract of meat. Vegetable physiology he pursued with special reference to agri- the policy of which was based on the full execution of the Erfurt culture. His first publication on this subject was Die Chemie in programme. Liebknecht's condemnation was the signal for a threr Anwendung auf Agricultur und Physiologie in 1840, which strike of the metal workers in Berlin organized by the Spartacists was at once translated into English by Lyon Playfair. Rejecting independently of the trade unions. On his release in 1918 he placed the old notion that plants derive their nourishment from humus, himself at the head of the Spartacists, and demanded a “frec he taught that they get carbon and nitrogen from the carbon socialist republic,” hut the independent socialists had joined hands dioxide and ammonia present in the atmosphere, these compounds with the Ebert party, and Liehknecht’s efforts failed. During the being returned by them to the atmosphere by the processes of pu- Insurrection of the Spartacists in January 1919 Liebknecht was trefaction and fermentation, while their potash, soda, lime, sul- arrested; ancl while being conveyed from military headquarters in phur, phosphorus, etc., come from the soil. Of the carbon dioxide the west end of Berlin to the prison at Moabit on Jan. rs, he was and ammonia no exhaustion can take place, but of the mineral con- brutally murdered. on the usual pretext of attempted escape. His stituents the supply is limited because the soil cannot afford an comrade, Rosa Luxemburg. perished the same night. Their bodies indefinite amount of them; hence the chief care of the farmer, and were thrown into the canal: Liebknecht’s was recovered, and rethe function of manures, is to restore to the soil those minerals ceived a public funeral. which each crop is found, by the analysis of its ashes, to take See his Militarismus und Antimilitarismus (1908, Eng. trans. 1918) ; up in its growth. On this theory he prepared artificial manures Briefe aus dem Felde, aus der Untersuchungschaft und aus dem Zuchthaus (1919); and H. Schumann, Karl Liebknecht, ein unpocontaining the essential mineral substances together with a small litisches Bild (1919). quantity of ammoniacal salls, because he held that the air does not supply ammonia fast enough in certain cases, and carried out LIEBKNECHT, WILHELM (1826-1900), German socialsystematic experiments on ten acres of poor sandy land which’ ist, was born at Giessen on March 29, 1826, and educated at the he obtained from the town of Giessen in 1845. But in practice the universities of Giessen, Bonn and Marburg. His political activities results were not wholly satisfactory, and it was a long time before which resulted from socialistic convictions acquired m his he recognized one important reason for the failure in the fact that youth, led to his expulsion from Berlin, and in 1846 he left Gerto prevent the alkalis from being washed away by the rain he had many for Switzerland where he earned his living by teaching. Retaken pains to add them in an insoluble form, whereas, as was turning in 1848, he endeavoured to found a republic in Baden and ultimately suggested to him by experiments performed by J. T. after suffering eight months’ imprisonment, was again forced to Way about 1850, this precaution was not only superfluous but fiee the country. He went to Geneva, where he came into interharmful, because the soil possesses a power of absorbing the sol- course with Mazzini; but being expelled from Switzerland he went uble saline matters required by plants and of retaining them, in to London, where he lived for 13 years in close association with spite of rain, for assimilation by the roots. Karl Marx. He endured great hardships, but secured a livelihood Liebig’s literary activity was very great. The Royal Society’s Cata- by teaching and writing; he was a correspondent of the Augslogue of Scientific Papers enumerates 318 memoirs under his name, burger Allgemeine Zeitung. The amnesty of 1861 opened for him exclusive of many others published in collaboration with other investi- the way back to Germany, and in 1862 he accepted the post of gators. In 1832 he founded the Annalen der Pharmazie, which became the Annalen der Chemie und Pharmazie in 1840 when Wohler be- editor of the Norddeutsche Allgemeine Zeitung. Only a few months came joint-editor with him, and in 1837 with Wéhler and Poggendorff elapsed before the paper passed under Bismarck’s influence, but

LIECHTENSTEIN—LIEGE Liebknecht remained faithful to his principles and resigned his editorship. He became a member of the Arbeiterverein, and after

the death of Ferdinand Lassalle he was the chief mouthpiece in Germany of Karl Marx, and was instrumental in spreading the influence of the newly-founded International. Expelled from Prussia in 1865, he settled at Leipzig, and it is primarily to his activity in Saxony among the newly-formed unions of workers that the modern social democrat party owes its origin. Here he conducted

39

tion, and from 1815-66 in the German Confederation. Since 1866 it has been independent. Prince Johann II. (b. 1840) succeeded his father in 1858. The Constitution has, since 1921, provided a Landtag of 15 members elected by direct vote; suffrage is universal. The standing army was abolished in 1868, and there is no national debt. Until rọrọ Liechtenstein was closely allied with Austria; in 1921 it adopted Swiss currency, and since 1924 it has been included in the Swiss Customs Union. Switzerland administers its telegraph and postal services, though it has a distinctive postage stamp issue. Prince Johann II. died Feb. 11, 1929.

the Demokratisches Wochenblatt. In 1867 he was elected a member of the North German Reichstag, where he opposed Lassalle’s See Tätigkeits- und Rechenschaftsberichte der fürstlichen liechtenpolicy of compromise. von Falke, Geschichte des Liebknecht was strongly influenced by the “great German” steinischen Regierung (Vaduz Annual); J.1868-83) ; J. C. Heer, VorarlHauses Liechtenstein (Vienna, traditions of the democrats of 1848, and distinguished himself by fürstlichen berg und Liechtenstein Feldkirch (1906); A. Helbock, Quellen zur his attacks on the policy of 1866 and the “revolution from above,” Geschichte Vorarlbergs und Liechtenstein (Berne, 1920). and by his opposition to every form of militarism. His adherence |. LIED: see Sonc. to the traditions of 1848 are also seen in his dread of Russia, LIEDERTAFEL (Ger., lit. “song table”), a type of musical which he maintained to his death. His opposition to the war of society formerly very popular and numerous in Germany, devoted 1870 exposed him to insults and violence, and in 1872 he was con- to four-part singing for male voices, and combining refreshments demned to two years’ imprisonment in a fortress, for treasonable and social intercourse with its music, whence the name. In recent intentions. The union of the German Socialists in 1874 at the con- years the older Liedertafeln have been more or less superseded by gress of Gotha was a triumph of his influence, and from that time the larger male voice choirs, though the name has been retained for he was regarded as founder and leader of the party. From 1874 the public invitation concerts given by the latter. till his death he was a member of the German Reichstag, and for LIÉGE, one of the nine provinces of Belgium, the successor many years also of the Saxon diet. He was one of the chief spokes- of the old prince-bishopric, touching on the east Dutch Limburg men of the party, and he took an important part in directing its and Rhenish Prussia. Its towns are Liége, Verviers, Spa, Seraing, policy. In 1881 he was expelled from Leipzig, but took up his Huy, etc. The Meuse fiows through the centre, and its valley residence in a neighbouring village. After the lapse of the Socalist from Huy to Herstal is one of the most productive mineral dislaw (1890) he became chief editor of the Vorwärts, and settled tricts in Belgium. Agriculture in the Condroz district south of the in Berlin. If he did not always find it easy in his later years to Meuse has been much developed. There are 26 cantons and 374 follow the new developments, he preserved to his death the ideal- communes, and the districts of Eupen, Malmedy, St. Vith and ism of his youth, the hatred both of liberalism and of state social- the former neutral district of Moresnet are now within the provism; and though he was to some extent overshadowed by Bebel’s ince. Area 971,750ac. or 1,518 square miles. Pop. (1925) greater oratorical power, he was the chief support of the orthodox 949,301 or 625 per square mile, Marxian tradition. Liebknecht was the author of numerous pam-

phlets and books, of which the most important were: Robert Blum und seine Zeit (Nuremberg, 1892); Geschichte der Fran-

zosischen Revolution (Dresden, 1890); Die Emser Depesche (Nuremberg, 1899) and Robert Owen (Nuremberg, 1892). He died at Charlottenburg on Aug. 7, 1900. See Kurt Eisner, Wilhelm Liebknecht, sein Leben und Wirken (1900).

LIECHTENSTEIN,

one

of

the

smallest

independent

sovereign States of Europe (see San Marino and Monaco), 65 sq.m. in extent, and bounded by the right bank of the Rhine a few miles above Lake Constance. Westward lies the canton of St. Gallen (Switzerland). The eastern border marches with Austrian Vorarlberg, and southwards are the western crests of the Rhitikon, between Liechtenstein and Graubunden (Switzerland). The country, geographically, is more Austrian than Swiss—politically its interests have oscillated between both countries. The major physical divisions are: (1) A small narrow strip along the Rhine valley, widening northwards into the tri-

LIEGE (Walloon, Lige, Flemish, Luik, Ger. Lüttich), capital

of the Belgian province of Liége, on the Meuse, long the seat of a prince-bishopric, the centre of the Walloon country. The great cathedral of St. Lambert was destroyed in 1794, and in 1802 the church of St. Paul, dating from the roth century but rebuilt in the 13th, was declared the cathedral. The law courts are installed in the old palace of the prince-bishops, constructed between 1508 and 1540. The university has separate schools for mines and arts and manufactures. Liége had a population in 1921 of 165,096, and is the centre of the iron and armament manufacture of Belgium and of a coalmining district. The production of zinc and of motor-cars has also become important. Of the 56 blast furnaces in the country in 1925 Liége had 20. There is also a large cattle market. Suburbs have arisen on the heights to the north, and a circular boulevard has been laid out with connecting roads. HISTORY

Liége first appears in history about the year 558, at which date angular lowland of the confluence of the Rhine and the Austrian Ill. (2) The much larger upland area, practically bisected by the St. Monulph, bishop of Tongres, built a chapel near the confluence Samina which feeds the II. The highest peaks lie southward, of the Meuse and the Legia. A century later the town, which with Falkais (8,401 feet), central south, and Naafkopf (8,432 had grown up round this chapel, became the favourite abode of feet), south-east, at the meeting points. of the three frontiers. St. Lambert, bishop of Tongres, and here he was assassinated. The chief settlements are at the western foot of the uplands His successor, St. Hubert, raised a splendid church over the tomb and not on the Rhine itself. In order from the south, they are of the martyred bishop about 720 and made Liége his residence. Balzers, Triesen, Vaduz (capital and seat of government, pop. It was not, however, until about 930 that the title bishop of 1,405), Schaan and Nendeln. They are linked by the road joining Tongres was abandoned for that of bishop of Liége. The episcoRagaz (Switzerland) with Feldkirch (Austria). Two small settle- pate of Notger (972-1008) was marked by large territorial acments, Eschen and Mauern, lie in the northern triangular low- quisitions,-and the see obtained recognition as an independent land. lLiechtenstein’s only railway crosses the centre of the principality of the empire. The popular saying was “Liége owes western frontier from Buchs (Switzerland) and then parallels Notger to God, and everything else to Notger.” By the munificent the road through Schaan and Nendeln. Pop., about 11,500, is encouragement of successive bishops Liége became famous durlargely German in origin and speech, Roman Catholic in religion ing the 11th century as a centre of learning, but the history of and agricultural in interest. Corn, wine and fruit are grown and the town for centuries records little else than the continuous cattle are reared. There are also small manufactures of cotton, struggles of the citizens to free themselves from the exactions of their episcopal sovereigns, the aid of the emperor and of the leather and pottery. The principality, founded in 1719, consisted of the lordships dukes of Brabant being frequently called in to repress the popular of Schellenburg and Vaduz, and formed part of the Holy Roman risings. The long episcopate of Eberhard de la Marck (1505-38) was a empire. From 1806-15 it was included in the Rhine Confedera-

LIEGE—LIEN

4.0

time of good administration and of quiet, during which the town regained something of its former prosperity. The outbreak of civil war between two factions, named the Cluroux and the Grignoux, marked the opening of the 17th century. Bishop Maximilian Henry of Bavaria (1650-88) at last put an end to the eternal strife and imposed a regulation (réglement) which abolished all the free institutions of the citizens and the power of the guilds. The French revolutionary armies overran the principality in 1792, and from 1794 to the fall of Napoleon it was annexed to France, and was known as the department of the Ourthe. The Congress of Vienna in 1815 decreed that Liége, with the other

erty to which it might otherwise have been subject. The possessory right conferred by lien is not a right ad rem, that is to say it does not convey to the person in possession of goods any prop-

erty in them, it merely gives him a legal right to retain them until his demand is satisfied. Consequently, apart from statute or legal

process authorizing him so to do, he is not entitled to sell the goods to recover what is due to him. If the goods be not in possession of the claimant of lien, as in the case of the furniture of a tenant owing rent to a landlord, the law will indeed assist the landlord to seize the property and enable him to sell it in due course in order to pay himself out of provinces of the southern Netherlands, should form part of the the proceeds, but it will not give him any property in the furninew kingdom of the Netherlands under the rule of William I., ture itself.

of the house of Orange. The town of Liége took an active part in the Belgian revolt of 1830, and since that date the ancient principality has been incorporated in the kingdom of Belgium. | On Aug. 6, 1914, immediately after the outbreak of the World War, the 3rd division of the Belgian army retired on Liége, trusting to the fortifications of the town to withstand attack. For ten days Liége was subjected to terrific bombardments, and on Aug. 16 the town was occupied by the German troops. Although finally defeated, the Belgians, by their sustained resistance, gave the Allies time to make plans of campaign and to reassemble their forces.

There are two descriptions of lien recognized by the English law: particular and general. Particular liens exist where persons have a right to retain possession of property in respect of labour or money expended by them on the identical chattel which con-

stitutes the ves gestae or subject matter of the dispute. Liens of

this description are usually favourably regarded by the court, General liens are claims made in respect of a general balance of account between the parties. Liens are created in three ways, either (1) by express contract, (2) by usage of trade, or (3) by some legal relation between the parties, where there is no express contract, nor any usage of Brsriocraray.—Theodore Bouille, Histoire de la ville et du pays trade. The term legal relation applies either to those persons on de Liége (1725-32); Baron B. C. de Gerlache, Histoire de Liége whom the law throws an obligation to perform certain services (1843); L. Polain, Histoire de ancien pays de Liége (Liége, 1844-47) ; Ferdinand Henaux, Histoire du pays de Liége (Liége, 1857); A. whenever required so to do by any member of the public, such as

Borgnet, Histoire de la revolution liégeoise (Liége, 1865); J. Daris, Histoire du diocèse et de la principauté de Liége (Liége, 1868-85); A. de Schrijver, La Bataille de Liége (Liége, r922). For full bibliography see Ulysse Chevalier, Répertoire des sources historiques. Topobibliographie, s.v. (Montbéliard, 1900).

LIEGE, an adjective of uncertain derivation which seems originally to have meant “simple,” “unconditioned.”

The word

is historically important because it was early used as a qualification of legal terms such as homage. In feudal law, liege homage is the homage due from a tenant to his chief lord. In course of time the

idea prevailed that liege homage was due to the king, above and beyond the homage done to any immediate lords. From this idea is ultimately derived the employment of the abstract noun “allegiance,” to denote the subject’s duty to his sovereign. See Pollock and Maitland, History of English Law (2nd ed., 1898), i. 298-300.

LIEGNITZ, a town in the Prussian province of Silesia, situated on the Katzbach, just above its junction with the Schwarzwasser, and 40 m. W.N.W. of Breslau, on the main line of rail-

way to Berlin via Sommerfeld. Pop. (1925) 73,153. Liegnitz is first mentioned in an historical document in the year 1004. In 1163 it became the seat of the dukes of Liegnitz, who greatly improved and enlarged it, and who are buried in the church of St. John. On the death of the last duke of Liegnitz in 1675, the duchy came into the possession of the Empire, which retained it until the Prussian conquest of Silesia in 1742. On Aug. 15, 1760 Frederick the Great gained a decisive victory near Liegnitz over the Austrians. It consists of an old town, and several suburbs, The palace, formerly the residence of the dukes of Liegnitz, and rebuilt after a fire in 1835, is now used as the administrative offices of the district. The Ritter Akademie, founded by the emperor Joseph I,, was reconstructed as a gymnasium in 1810.

The church of SS. Peter and Paul (restored in 1892-1894) dates from the 14th century.

The manufactures are considerable, the

chief articles made being cloth, wool, leather, tobacco, pianos, clogs, sugar, carriages and machinery. Its trade in grain and its cattle-markets are likewise important. There are large market gardens in the suburbs. LIEN, The word lien signifies the right of a person in possession of property belonging to another to detain such property until some debt or demand in connection with the property detained is satisfied. This right of lien arises either by implication of law or by express contract. Where, however, an express contract for security is made between parties such agreement ex-

cludes, to the extent of the express contract, any lien upon prop-

an inn-keeper or a common carrier, or else to a person who use

fully expends time, work or money on the reparation of the chattel of another, such as a jobbing tailor, a boot repairer, a furrier, a calico printer, or indeed any person to whom goods are delivered in order to have some service performed in connection with them

for which such delivery is necessary. But the mere safeguarding of the article, apart from work done upon it, will convey no right to lien in this particular form of deposit. Again, a ship-master (on behalf of the owner) has a lien upon cargo for freight; and if, upon landing, notice of such lien is given to the wharfinger or warehouseman, the cargo is bound thereby in his hands, and may be subsequently sold by him upon compliance with statutory conditions (Merchant Shipping Act, 1894, secs. 494-498). And a like rule applies to passengers’ luggage (except wearing apparel actually in use) for unpaid passage money. A claim to general lien, though, as already stated, not regarded with favour by the courts, may be established by special or necessarily implied agreement, or by the custom of a certain trade. By virtue of accepted custom of trade or profession, wharfingers,

bankers, insurance brokers and solicitors have a lien upon the property of their employers, not only for debts arising out of the particular transaction for which the property was delivered to them, but also for a general balance of account between the parties, and this rule has been held to apply to statute barred

debts (Courtenay v. Williams, 3 Hare at p. 542). A similar principle as to general balance of account has been held applicable to the lien of calico printers and packers, and locally (by the custom of Exeter) to fullers. The right to general lien is, however, incapable of transference. Maritime Lien differs from all other forms of lien in that it neither includes nor requires actual physical possession of the ship in respect of which a maritime lien arises. It presupposes the giving of a credit coupled with a postponement intentionally made of the right to enforce it. It follows as a necessary conse-

quence that unless the creditor has forfeited the right because of his own laches he can take legal proceedings against the ship notwithstanding any change there may have been in the

ownership, and he has priority over all other titles to the ship which are not based on superior or equal liens, including mortgages already existing. It is otherwise with an existing possessory ip - a ship repairer, (Carver’s Carriage by Sea, 55. 320, 92. The principal instances in which the law recognizes maritime liens are bottomry (g.v.} (że. mortgage of ship’s keel), salvage

LIEPAJA—LIERNE wages, master’s wages, disbursements, liabilities, damage from collision, in which case the lien attaches to the wrong-doing ship. Right of Sale or Transference of Lien.—Apart from statute a mere lien confers no right of sale on the party entitled to retain the chattels against the true owner, even if the detention be attended with trouble and expense (Thames Iron Company v. Patent Derrick Company, 1860, 29 L.J., Ch. 714). A statutory right of sale, however, of any goods left by a guest in his custody enures, after six weeks, to an innkeeper for the amount of his bill, by virtue of the Innkeepers Act, 1878 (sec. 1). By the Merchant Shipping Act, 1894 (secs. 497-498), a wharfinger or warehouseman, at the expiration of go days from the time when goods

AI

vested in the Federal as distinguished from the State courts, and these Federal courts have not been liable to have their jurisdiction curtailed by prohibition from courts of common law, as the court of Admiralty had in England up to the time of the Judicature Acts; consequently the maritime lien in the United States extends further than it doés in England, even after recent enlargements; it covers claims for necessaries and by material men, as well as collision, salvage, wages, bottomry and damage to cargo.

are placed in his custody (or a shorter time if the goods be per-

Difficulties connected with lien occasionally arise in the Federal courts in Admiralty cases, from a conflict on the subject between the municipal law of the State where the court happens to sit and the Admiralty law; but as there is no power to prohibit

ishable) is entitled to sell them by public auction; and sec. 97 of the Railway Clauses Act, 1845, authorizes railway companies to detain and sell any goods delivered to them for carriage upon default of payment of their tolls. Neither the custody of the chattel nor the accompanying lien is capable of legal transfer-

civil law prevails. More serious difficulties arise where a Federal court has to try inter-State questions, where the two States have different laws on the subject of lien; one for example, like Louisiana, following the civil law, and the other the common law

ence to a third party, who is consequently, after demand and re-

fusal, liable in trover to the true owner of the goods. The lien of an unpaid vendor for the price of the article which

he has sold to an insolvent purchaser subsists until the chattel

the Federal court, its view of the Admiralty law based on the

and equitable practice of Great Britain. The question as to which law is to govern in such a case can hardly be said to be decided. ‘The question whether equitable liens can exist to be enforced in Louisiana by the Federal courts, notwithstanding its restrictive law of privileges, is still an open one” (Derris, Con-

has either been actually or constructively delivered into the hands of the latter. This lien for the price of specific goods is not tracts of Pledge, 517; and see Burdon Sugar Refining Co. W. determined by the mere delivery of the chattels to a carrier for Payne, 167 U.S. 127). the purpose of conveyance. Consequently, if the vendor can LIEPAJA (Libau), à seaport of Latvia in 56° 32’ N., 23° arrest the goods at any stage of the transit before they reach the 2’ E., at the northern extremity of a narrow sandy peninsula hands of the purchaser or his agent the vendor reverts to the same which separates Lake Libau (12 m. long and 2 m. wide) from position as if he had not parted with the possession of the goods. the Baltic sea. Pop. (1923) 77,000. There are four harbours, The right is not de-vested by the purchaser endorsing over a the Commercial, with stone quays, storehouses for merchandise bill of lading of the goods by way of security or for valuable and three large grain elevators, the Winter, with numerous timber consideration to a third party, with notice of the consignee’s in- yards round the quays, the Avant pier or New Harbour, northsolvency, or by a purchaser’s sub-sale of the goods before the west of the Commercial harbour, where regular passenger steamtermination of the transitus, without delivery of the documents ers berth, and the War harbour, with two dry dotks, each 600 of title to an innocent third party. ft. There are three entrances, but the southern one is at present Waiver and Determination of Lien.—A lien may be waived, closed for navigation, being blocked with sunken wrecks; the midand the right to assert the claim lost, by conduct on the part of dle entrance is now comparatively clear, but some wreckage rethe holder of the goods obviously inconsistent with the existence mains, marked by a gas buoy; the northern entrance is now clear. of such a right. A lien is determined by actual payment or tender Vessels drawing more than 28 ft. cannot enter. The port is of the full amount of the legal claim for which the goods are practically open all the year round with the help of its icebreakers. detained, but part payment of such demand is not sufficient, The port is a coaling and oil station. The chief imports are neither is a general tender or offer to discharge the claim without coal, iron, salt, herrings, grain, cotton, machinery, chemical manure actual tender or what, in point of law, is equivalent thereto. and phosphates. The exports include rye, barley, oats, wool, (W. W. P.) linseed, sleepers, deals, pit-props, pulp-wood, ply-wood, skins and U.S. Differences.—In the United States, speaking gener- hides, wheat and eggs. War conditions and the severance from ally, the law relating to liens is that of England, but there are Russia have much reduced its trade which is only to to 15% of some considerable differences occasioned by three principal that in 1913. Its industries before 1913 included iron and steel causes. (x) Some of the Southern States, notably Louisiana, works and engineering yards, veneering, flour-milling, bacon-curhave never adopted the common law of England. When that ing, tobacco manufacture, the making of vegetable oils, colours State became one of the United States of North America it had and varnishes, brewing, distilling and leather works. Many of (and still preserves) its own system of law. In this respect the the factories were ruined during the war and await capital for law is practically identical with the Code Napoleon, which, again repair and development. The port of Libau, Lyra portus, is mentioned in 1263, when it speaking generally, substitutes privileges for liens, z.¢., gives certain claims a prior right to others against particular property. belonged to the Livonian order or Brothers of the Sword. In These privileges being strictissimae interpretationis, cannot be 1418 it was burned by the Lithuanians and in 1560 mortgaged extended by any principle analogous to the English doctrine of by the grandmaster of the Teutonic order, to which it had passed, equitable liens. (2) Probably in consequence of the United to the Prussian duke Albert. In 1701 it was captured by Charles States and the several States composing it having had a more XII. of Sweden, and in 1795 annexed to Russia. After 1872, democratic government than Great Britain, in their earlier years when it was brought into railway connection with Moscow, Orel at all events, certain liens have been created by statute in several and Kharkov, Liepaja became an important port and developed States in the interest of the working classes which have no rapidly. The Russians constructed an extensive naval port, proparallel in Great Britain, e.g., in some States workmen employed tected by moles and breakwaters in 1893-1906. The Latvian govin building a house or a ship have a lien upon the building or ernment removed here when Riga was in German occupation in structure itself for their unpaid wages. This statutory lien par- 1gt7-10, and Liepaja itself was occupied by German troops in takes rather of the nature of an equitable than of a common-law 1919. Evidences of war destruction remain still, though many lien, as the property is not in the possession of the workman, repairs have been carried out. and it may be doubted whether the right thus conferred is more LIERNE, in architecture, a small, subordinate vaulting rib, beneficial to the workman than the priority his wages have in which runs between the more important structural ribs. With the bankruptcy proceedings in England. Some of the States have English tendency to sub-divide vaulting areas during the 14th also practically extended the maritime lien to matters over which century, the invention and development of the lierne was a neces~ it was never contended for in England. (3) By the constitution sary consequence. Uséd more for decorative than for structural of the United States the Admiralty and inter-State jurisdiction is reasons, liernes are especially grouped near the vault ridges, where

LIERRE—LIFE

42

they form extremely rich and complicated intersecting patterns. These generally fall into two types, that known as reticulated, or

net-work patterns, as in the choir of Gloucester (completed 1377); and star patterns, as in the nave of Canterbury cathedral (c. 1400). The intersections of liernes with each other or of liernes with the major ribs, are usually decorated with carved, projecting bosses.

LIERRE, a town in the province of Antwerp, Belgium, 9 m. S.E. ot Antwerp. Its church of S. Gommaire (completed 1557) has three fine windows, given by Archduke Maximilian to celebrate his wedding with Mary of Burgundy. The cutlery industry is very important and a little silk is manufactured. Pop. (1925), 26,991.

LIESTAL,

the capital of the half canton of Baselland, Switz-

erland. Pop. (1920) 6,327.

LIEUTENANT, one who takes the place, office and duty of and acts on behalf of a superior or other person. The word in English preserves the form of the French original (from lieu, place, tenant, holding), which is the equivalent of the Lat. locum tenens, one holding the place of another. The usual English pronunciation appears early, the word being frequently spelled lieftenant, lyeftenant or luftenant in the 14th and 15th centuries. The modern American pronunciation is Jewtenant, while the German is represented by the present form of the word Leutnent. In French history, lieutenant du rot (locum tenens regis) was a title borne by the officer sent with military powers to represent the king in certain provinces. With wider powers and functions, both civil as well as military, and holding authority throughout an entire province, such a representative of the king was called lieutenant général du rot. The first appointment of these officials dates from the reign of Philip IV. the Fair (see CONSTABLE). In the 16th century the administration of the provinces was in the hands of gouverneurs, to whom the eutenants du rot became subordinates. The titles lieutenant civil or criminel and lieutenant général de police have been borne by certain judicial officers in France (see CHATELET and Barrırr: Bailli). As the title of the representative of the sovereign, “lieutenant” in English usage appears in the title of the lords lieutenant of the counties of the United Kingdom. (See

County; Mirita: Uiliha in England.)

The most general use of the word is as the name of a grade of naval and military officer. In Italy and Spain the first part of the word is omitted, and an Italian or Spanish officer bearing this rank is called tenente or feniente respectively. In the British and most other navies the lieutenants are the commissioned officers next in rank to commanders, or second class of captains. Originally the

lieutenant was a soldier who aided, and in case of need replaced, the captain, who, until the latter half of the 17th century, was not necessarily a seaman in any navy. At first one lieutenant was carried, and only in the largest ships. The number was gradually increased, and the lieutenants formed a numerous corps.

Lieuten-

ants now often qualify for special duties such as navigation, or gunnery, or the management of torpedoes. In the British army a lieutenant is a subaltern officer ranking next below a captain and above a second lieutenant. In the United States of America subalterns are classified as first lieutenants and second lieutenants. In France the two grades are lieutenant and sous-lieutenant, while in Germany the Leutnant is the lower of the two ranks, the higher being Ober-leutnant (formerly Premier-leutnant). A “captain lieutenant” in the British army was formerly the senior subaltern who virtually commanded the colonel’s company or troop, and ranked as junior captain, or “puny captain,” as he was called by Cromwell’s soldiers.

LIFE, the kind of activity characteristic of living creatures. No doubt this activity is, in its objective aspects, an integration of numerous chemical and physical processes, and there is no warrant for postulating any mysterious “vital force.” On the other hand, it must be allowed that life is a unique kind of activity, for the formulae of matter and energy, electrons, protons and electro-magnetic radiations or ether-waves, as at present understood, do not suffice to describe (a) the everyday functions of the body in their orchestration, (b) the self-preservative activities of any organism at any grade of being, (c) the purposive be-

haviour of higher animals well-endowed with brains, (d) the phenomena of development and heredity or (e) the facts of evolution Everyone allows that living is in part analysable into chemical and physical processes, yet these are modifed by their occurrence in the colloidal medium

of the chemically

very

complex

protoplasm. In conditions of extreme complexity, a new aspect of reality—Life—emerges. Moreover, when the chemical and physical ledger is added up, it does not give a unified description of what has actually occurred when, e.g., a migrant bird makes its journey. For to describe this it is necessary to introduce concepts beyond physics and chemistry, such as enregistration of the past, awareness of the present and purposiveness towards the

future.

In at least the higher reaches of the animal kingdom,

behaviour is correlated with psychical activity, incommensurable

with physical processes. Thus life is an activity of organisms which requires for its description concepts transcending those of mechanism. This view does not in any way contradict the theory that living organisms may have arisen on the earth from nonliving materials. When the materials were complex enough and in an appropriate collocation, living organisms may have emerged. Characteristics of Organisms.—(a) The self-preservative persistence of an organism is associated with the building-up and breaking-down of proteins, which have large complex molecules, representing an accumulation of potential chemical energy. Anabolic processes counterbalance the katabolic, repair counteracts waste; rejuvenescence wards off senescence. The organism is like a clock that winds itself up as it runs down. No doubt this quality is to be analysed as far as may be,—in terms, for instance, of the characteristic fermentations and their reversibility. Much depends on the fact that the proteins are always colloidal, admitting of intensity and rapidity of chemical reactions on the surface of the multitudinous ultra-microscopic particles or droplets suspended in

the liquid phase.

Another feature is the chemical individuality

everywhere manifest, for each distinct type of organism seems to have some distinctive protein of its own, and some characteristic rate or rhythm of metabolism. Thus under the general quality of persistence amid unceasing metabolism, there is a triad of facts: (1) the building-up that compensates for the breaking-down of proteins, (2) the occurrence of these proteins in a colloidal state and (3) their specificity from type to type.

(b) A second triad of qualities includes the organism’s characteristic powers of growing, multiplying and developing. A surplus of income over expenditure is the primal condition of organic growth. As contrasted with the growth of a crystal, an organism can grow at the expense of materials more or less different from those of the growing body; it implies active assimilation, not mere passive accretion; and it 1s a definitely regulated process— regulated from within. Growth naturally leads to the simplest forms of multiplication or reproduction, for persistent growth tends to bring about organic instability, which may be intracellular as in unicellular organisms and in ordinary cell-division, or localized along a line of weakness or low vitality, as in the fragmentation of some lower multicellular animals. Asexual multiplication is a regularized form of discontmuous growth, and sexual reproduction by liberated germ-cells 1s a secondary specialization, anticipated in the spore-formation of many of the Protozoa and Protophyta (see REPRODUCTION). Development is the progressive attainment of full-grown complexity from comparatively undifferentiated simplicity, whether that be in stump or fragment, in leaf or bud, in spore-cell or germ-cell. It implies an expression of hereditary initiatives in appropriate nurture, and often in such a way that the individual stages in the ontogeny can be correlated with great steps in the racial history or phylogeny. Development, with its central fact of progressive differentiation and integration, is particularly to be thought of in connection with the building up of the embryo, but it cannot be separated from the everyday repair of worn-out tissue, the replacement of periodically deciduous structures (like

leaves parts, (c) living

and hair), and the frequent regeneration (¢.v.) of lost thus linking back with reproduction and growth. In the third place living creatures stand apart from nonthings in their purposive behaviour, mn their power of en-

LIFE-BOAT

AND

LIFE-SAVING

registering experience, and in their capacity for giving rise to the new—a third triad. Many non-living things, such as explosives, react forcefully to outside stimulus, but organisms are marked

by the self-preservative efficiency of their reactions, Only the higher big-brained animals can be credited with perceptual purpose, but the quality of purposiveness seems to be co-extensive with life. The organism is an agent that gets things done, at various levels of behaviour—intelligent, instinctive, tropistic, reflex, and so forth. The mental aspect may in many cases be subordinated to the bodily, but in the majority there is the bent bow of endeavour, even though the creature’s awareness of that en-

deavour may be dim. The mental aspect seems to be struggling for expression throughout, and the organism appears as a psycho-

physical being, now (mind)-BODY and again (body)-MIND (see BIoLocy). A bar of iron is never quite the same after it has been severely jarred; a violin suffers from mishandling. But these are hardly more than vague analogies of the distinctive power that living creatures have of enregistering the results of their experience, of establishing internal rhythms, of forming conditioned reflexes and habits, and of remembering. Individual experience is built into the individual organism and influences subsequent reactions. Finally, it must be recognized as characteristic of organisms that they give origin to what is new; they have evolved in the past, and the evolution of many is still going on. Variability and evolvability must be ranked as fundamental characteristics of living beings. The organism selects stimuli from its environment and often moves from one environment to another; the organism is often experimental, moulding itself by its efforts; it tests the newness of its inheritance in its ceaseless trafficking with circumstances. The central secret of life is missed if the organism is not recognized as in some measure a struggling sub-personality. To sum up, the characteristics of organisms are:—(a) Persistence of integrity amid ceaseless change, there being (1) a self-preservative compensation of down-breaking by up-building, (2) a metabolism of proteins and other complex substances in a

colloidal state, (3) a chemical individuality; (b) a triad of linked capacities, namely, (4) growth, (5) multiplication, (6) development; and (c) the crowning triad of (7) effective behaviour, (8) enregistration of experience, (9) evolvability. Aspects of Life.—The biologist works with three co-ordinates—the organism, its functions and the environment. These are the three sides of the biological prism. At times what is observed is the insurgent organism acting on its environment, both animate and inanimate; and this may conveniently be summed up by using the first letters, O-+f— se, giving the Organism a capital. But at other times, and just as familiarly, the Environment closes in upon

the organism, stimulating and inhibiting, fostering and weathering, warming and cooling, feeding and starving. This may be formulated again H-»>f—o0, reversing the capitals. Thus, as Patrick Geddes points out, living implies an ever-changing ratio

Ofe, Efo

Most animals are less in the grip of their environment than most plants, and sedentary corals more than pelagic medusae, the very

young more than the resiliently mature, and the summer hedgehog

more than the hibernater. In the article Brorocy it has been suggested that since an organism without its everyday functions is

rather an empty abstraction, the term function in the O—fe:

E—+f— o formula, should rather read “functionings,” z.e., the work or on-goings, the actions and reactions of the organism as a whole. The Drama of Life-—What has been said gives too cold an impression of life, which must be envisaged as a drama on a crowded stage. (1) Whatever the secret of vital activity may. be, it must be thought of as an overflowing spring. Organisms accumulate energy acceleratively and must multiply. Life is like a

river that is often in flood. (2) From the ant-hill, the bee-hive,

the rookery, the rabbit warren, there comes the impression of urge and endeavour. Whether the urge be vegetative, appetitive, tropistic, instinctive or intelligent, organisms are almost always

after something—never satisfied, The more they get the more

they want.

(3) But the quality of life rises to what may be called

SERVICE

43

insurgence. Animals in particular are full of daring and adventure. As Goethe said, they are always attempting the next to the impossible and achieving it. This is well illustrated by gossamerspiders making aerial journeys, or by Arctic terns within the Antarctic Circle; but it finds many an unsensational expression. (4) Another quality, so universal that it must be called characteristic, is adaptiveness. Practically every organism is a bundle of adaptations or fitnesses. As Weismann said, “If all the adaptations are taken away from a whale, what is there left?” (5) It is perhaps an expression of this adaptiveness that so many living organisms form linkages with others. There is no aloofness in the realm of organisms; nothing lives or dies to itself. Thus animate nature is characteristically a system,—a fabric that changes in pattern and yet endures. Though the individual threads of the web are always dying, they are replaced without a discontinuity. There is wear, but no tear, except when man carelessly interferes with the loom, or when some physical violence, like flood or fire, causes an inevitable rent. (6) But this leads to another characteristic of the biosphere that marks it off from the cosmosphere: there is continual sifting. A new star often appears in the sky, but there is no indication of any struggle for existence or selection of the relatively more fit. But who can describe the advancement of life and leave out winnowing? There is cosmic flux and there is organic flux, but only in the latter is there discriminate elimination. (7) Another characteristic of living creatures is their beauty. All independently-living organisms are artistic unities, with protean wealth of beauty in form and colour, in pose and movement, expressing a harmonious life from which the discordant has been more or less completely eliminated. Apart from exceptions, like parasites, which prove the rule, organisms are like works of art. (8) Nothing can be said as to the mental aspect of a woodanemone and only alittle about that of a sea-anemone, but a picture of life must include the fact that in organisms there is the promise and potency—and in higher animals the epiphany—of “Mind.” Perceptual inference is a relatively late achievement; conceptual inference or reason is man’s prerogative; but throughout the animal kingdom there is a stream of inner life, of feeling and purpose, even when there is not very much in the way of intelligence. The probability is that “Life” and “Mind” are coextensive. (9) But the crowning characteristic of life is its progressiveness. No doubt there have been eddies and stagnant pools, but on the whole there has been a flow in the stream of life, and it has been uphill! As epoch has succeeded epoch for inconceivably long ages, life has been slowly creeping—sometimes swiftly leaping—upwards, towards greater fullness and freedom. The whole process must be envisaged in the light of its outcome, organic evolution in the light of man,

BIBLIOGRAPHY.—J. Joly, “The Abundance of Life,” Proc. R. Dublin Soc. (1891), reprinted in The Birthtime of the World (1915); H. Driesch, The Science and Philosophy of Organisms (1908); F. W. Gamble, Animal Life (1908) ; H. Bergson, Creative Evolution (191 Ll); G. A. Jobnstone, The Philosophy of Biology (Cambridge, 1914); J Arthur Thomson, The Wonder of Life (1914) ; The System of Animate Nature (1920); H. F. Osborn, The Origin and Evolution of Life (1918) ; F. O. Bower, Botany of the Living Plant (1919); A. E. Shipley, Life (Cambridge, 1923) ; E. S. Goodrich, Living Organisms (Oxford, 1924); E. S. Russell, Tke Study of Living Things (1924); P. Geddes and J. A. Thomson, Biology (1925); J. von Uexkiill, Theoretical Biology (1926) ; J. B. S. Haldane and J. S. Huxley, Animal Biology

(1928), (See also BioLocy, ProTorLasm, Zoorocy, BOTANY, PHYSIOL-

OGY, EVOLUTION.)

(J. A. TR.)

LIFE-BOAT AND LIFE-SAVING SERVICE. The article on DROWNING AND LIFE-SAVING (g.v.) deals generally with the means of saving life at sea, but under this heading it is convenient to include the appliances connected specially with the lifeboat service. The ordinary open boat is unsuited for life-saving in a stormy sea, and numerous contrivances, in regard to which the lead came from England, have been made for securing the best type of life-boat. The first experimenter in England was Lionel Lukin, a London coach-builder, later Master of the Worshipful Company of Coachmakers. Encouraged by the prince of Wales (George IV.), he converted a Norway yawl into what he called an “‘unimmergible” boat, which he patented. Buoyancy he obtained by means of a project-

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LIFE-BOAT

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LIFE-SAVING

SERVICE

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FIG. 1.—TYPES

OF MODERN

LIFE-BOATS

Top; self-righting life-boat, 40 ft. by 10 ft. 6 in., with 40 h.p. motor, also fitted with motor life-boat, with 80 h.p. motor

ing gunwale of cork and air-chambers inside—one of these being at the bow, another at the stern. Stability he secured by a false iron keel. The self-righting and self-emptying principles he seems not to have thought of; at all events he did not compass them. Lukin was thinking rather of making all boats safer than of constructing a boat for the special purpose of life-saving, but he was associated with the earliest known attempt at establishing a LifeSaving Service when, in 1786, he converted a coble into a “‘safetyboat” for Archdeacon Sharp. This boat was employed for some years at Bamborough in saving life from shipwreck, the village becoming thereby the first life-boat station.

Public apathy in regard to shipwreck was temporarily swept away by the wreck of the “Adventure” of Newcastle at the mouth of the Tyne in 1789. This vessel was stranded only 30oyd. from the shore, and her crew dropped, one by one, into the raging breakers in presence of thousands of spectators, none of whom dared to put off in an ordinary boat to the rescue. An excited meeting among the people of South Shields followed; a committee was formed, and premiums were offered for the best models of a lite-boat. This called forth a number of plans, among those who submitted them being William Wouldhave, a house painter and a teacher of singing, and Henry Greathead, a boat builder, both of South Shields. Wouldhave’s model was so constructed that, if capsized, it would immediately right itself, and Wouldhave

is entitled to be considered the discoverer of that principle, which is now used in more than half the life-boats round the British coasts. But the committee did not adopt this principle, nor was it entirely satisfied with Wouldhave’s design. It gave him half the reward and then, from this and the other designs submitted, prepared a model of its own from which Greathead built the first life-boat, The First Life-boat.—This boat was rendered buoyant by

rowlocks for oar propulsion.

Below:

Watson

type cabin

still used on that part of the coast. In spite of these efforts, however, by individuals and local societies acting independently of one another, public interest in life-boats was not thoroughly aroused until 1823, when an appeal to the nation was made by Lt.-Col. Sir William Hillary, Bt., a resident in the Isle of Man. It is to him that we owe the establishment of a national life-boat service. He saw many terrible wrecks on the stormy coasts of the Isle of Man, and he helped to save no fewer than 305 lives. His appeal was a carefully thought out plan of what a life-boat service should be, of those to whom it should look for support, and how it should carry on its work. As Sir William Hillary planned the service more than a century ago so, in all the main features of its work, it is to-day.

These main features were: That a life-boat service must be a matter for national concern; that those who Carried out the dangerous work of rescue should not only be rewarded, but should be certain that, if they lost their lives, their dependents would be provided for; that the life-boats should be at the service of all in peril round the coasts, whatever their nationality; and that the service should be maintained by voluntary contributions. Within a year, and with the help of two members of parliament— Mr. Thomas Wilson and Mr. George Hibbert—Hillary had founded the “Royal National Institution for the Preservation of Life from Shipwreck.”

The Royal National Life-boat Institution,—This, perhaps the grandest of England’s charitable societies, and now named the “Royal National Life-boat Institution,” was founded on March 4, 1824. It began its career with a sum of only £9,826. In the first year twelve new life-boats were built and placed at different stations, besides which thirty-nine life-boats had been stationed on the British shores by benevolent individuals and by independent associations over which the institution exercised no control, though nearly 7cwt. of cork, and had very raking stem and stern-posts, it often assisted them. In its early years the institution placed with great curvature of keel. The total cost was just under £150. the mortar apparatus of Captain Manby at many stations, and This life-boat, the “Original,” served until 1830 and rescued provided for the wants of sailors and others saved from shiphundreds of lives. No other life-boat was launched till 1798, wreck,—a duty subsequently discharged by the “Shipwrecked when the duke of Northumberland ordered Greathead to build Fishermen and Mariners’ Royal Benevolent Society.” At the date him a life-boat which he endowed. This boat also did good of the institution’s second report it had contributed to the saving service, and its owner ordered another in 1800 for Oporto. In the of three hundred and forty-two lives, either by its own life-saving same year Mr. Cathcart Dempster ordered one for St. Andrews, apparatus or by other means for which it had granted rewards. where, two years later, it saved twelve lives. Thus, the value of In the year 1849, came another tragedy at the mouth of the life-boats began to be recognized, and before the end of 1803 Tyne. The life-boat “Providence,” when out on service, capsized, Greathead had built thirty-one boats—eighteen for England, five and of her double crew of 24 no fewer than 20 were drowned. for Scotland and eight for foreign lands. In this work he was Tragic though this event was, it yet served to re-direct public materially helped by Lloyds. Four years later Lukin, the coach- attention to the needs of the life-boat service, and as such marks huilder, again appeared on the scene, being invited by the Suffolk a turning point in its history. These first twenty-five years of Humane Society to superintend the building of the first sailing the institution’s history had been years of great national stress, life-boat. This boat, launched at Lowestoft at the end of 1807, and the institution had inevitably suffered. In 1849-50 its income was the forerunner of the Norfolk and Suffolk type of life-boat had fallen as low as £354, and the majority of the life-boats were

LIFE-BOAT

AND

LIFE-SAVING

no longer seaworthy. Public interest in it had almost ceased. The Tyne disaster helped to recall the public to the importance of their life-boat service and the need to support it. In 1850 the Prince Consort became vice patron of the institution in conjunction with the king of the Belgians, and Queen Victoria, who had been its patron since her accession, became an annual contributor

to its funds. In 1851 Algernon, fourth Duke of Northumberland, became the institution’s president.

He was known as the “Sailor

Duke.” He entered the Navy in the year of Trafalgar, was now a Rear Admiral, and a little later became First Lord of the Admiralty. He brought a new spirit to the work, and from that day to this the institution has never looked back. It has gone from strength to strength, and it is many years now since it was first able to say that a life-boat had been stationed at every point on the coast where it was required, and where an efficient crew could be found.

In 1850 its committee undertook the immediate superintendence of all the life-boat work on the coasts, with the aid of local committees. Periodical inspections, quarterly exercise of crews, fixed rates of rewards for coxswains and men, ona sliding scale according to the season of the year, and the day or night, were instituted; and the duke of Northumberland, realising that the “first and most obvious step was to endeavour to introduce an improved life-boat,’”’ offered a prize of one hundred guineas for the best model, and appointed a committee of experts to report on those sent in. In reply to the offer no fewer than two hundred and eighty models were sent in, not only from all parts of Great. Britain but from France, Germany, Holland and the United States. The prize was gained by Mr. James Beeching of ‘Great Yarmouth, whose model, slightly modified by Mr. James Peake, one of the committee of inspection, was adopted by the Institution. Mr. Beeching’s model embodied most of Wouldhave’s ideas with improvements of which he had never dreamed, and, coming sixty-two years later, was the model for the first genuine self-right-

ing boat ever built. This boat, with minor alterations, is prac-

SERVICE

45

trols not only simple but easy to distinguish by touch, so that they could be worked in the darkness, It had to run and to lubricate itself with certainty at any angle. At the same time, when the capsizing point was reached it had to cut itself off automatically, for, otherwise, if the boat were of the self-righting type, she would right herself and be carried away by her engine, leaving the crew in the water. In addition to all this, the engine must interfere

neither with the self-righting quality of the boat, nor with its sailing powers, The first life-boat to be converted to motor power was completed in 1904, and sent to Tynemouth. She had a 12 h.p. twocycle motor. The Institution has now sixty-five motor life-boats in its fleet, and it is hoped in the next few years to increase this

number to over a hundred. By its ability to attain a speed and to cover distances impossible for boats which depend upon sails and

oars; by its power to force its way in the face of winds and seas, before which rowing and sailing boats would be helpless, and, above all, by its great manoeuvring power when close to the wreck, the motor life-boat can save lives which, without it, would be beyond the reach of human aid.

Greathead’s life-boat was an open rowing boat, 30 feet long.

She had no other source of buoyancy than cork could give her, no other means of ridding herself of water than by baling, no other means of propulsion than by oars. That the largest of the modern motor life-boats are twice as long is the smallest part of the difference. Instead of baling tins they have automatic valves which empty out the water as fast as the sea can pour it in. Instead of cork they have as many water-tight compartments as 4 modern

battle-cruiser. Twenty holes might be knocked in each side, and they could still go on with their work. They are practically unsinkable. Instead of oars they have engines so designed that they

can go on running when completely submerged, so long as the

air-intake is above water. They have cabins; electric searchlights; line-throwing guns, with a range of 80 yards; and oil-sprays for spraying oil on heavy seas. The largest of these life-boats, the Barnett Twin Screw type, has two engines, each of 76 h.p. She has 15 main and roo minor water-tight compartments, and two

tically the type of the self-righting life-boat of to-day. The Watson Life-boat.—Another important step was taken in cabins with accommodation for between 50 and 60 people, In a 1887, following on an accident at the end of 1886 to two self- calm sea she could take 300 people on deck. Under most condirighting life-hoats on the Lancashire coast, in which twenty-seven tions of bad weather she could in safety carry 150 people in addiout of twenty-nine of the two crews were drowned. A permanent tion to her crew. She carries enough petrol to be able to travel technical sub-committee was appointed by the Institution whose soo miles at a cruising speed of 8 knots, and her maximum speed object was, with the help of an eminent consulting naval architect is 94 knots. This may not seem a high speed, but a life-boat is —a new post created-~and the Institution’s technical officials, to not built for high speed, but so that she can maintain her speed give its careful attention to the improvement of the design of under practically any conditions of weather. All the Institution’s engines for motor life-boats use petrol for life-boats. The immediate result was the designing of a new type of life-boat, by Mr. G. L. Watson, the famous yacht designer, fuel in order to obtain the greatest power for a given weight. The who had been appointed consulting naval architect, and held that earliest types were adaptations of various designs of commercial post for many years. The Watson life-boat did not self-right. engines, the most successful being an adaptation of an engine It was a larger and more stable boat than the self-righter, had built by Messrs. Tylor and Company for lorries. It was, however, beautiful lines, was safe, weatherly, quick in stays and with a soon found that a water-tight engine was essential in order that good turn of speed. With the design of this type a new principle it might continue to work even when the life-boat had been holed was introduced, the principle on, which the Institution’s life-boats ir. the engine-room, As there was no such engine on, the market are still built. Broadly speaking, it is that with large lite-hoats the Institution produced a design of its own for a six cylinder intended to go well out to sea, it is better to set aside the self- -6 hyp. engine, and the first was built in 1923. This has heen righting principle and aim at great buoyancy and stability, followed by an improved type, of which there are two variants, and the Besides the Watson boats there are six other types of life-boat one being a four cylinder engine producing 4o b.p. of these two, or one, h.p., o producing engine cylinder six a other which do not self-right, in the Institution’s fleet. More than half and size its to according life-boat, a in installed being engines Watson of quarter a than, more self-righters, of consists fleet ‘the type. A light 35 h.p, engine has also been adapted to the Instiboat of choice boats, and the remainder of these other types. The of lifeis largely determined by the conditions of the coast on which it tution’s requirements for use in the specially light type boat built for launching from the beach, is crew no and consulted, will be placed, but the crews are always Life-boat Houses and Slipways.—tThe largest type of motor given a new life-boat unless it has already inspected it and exlife-boats lie afloat, and in one or two cases the life-boats lie on was life-boats Watson the of pressed itself as satisfied. The first designed in 1890, and in the same year the first steam life-boat, the open beach, but for the most part they are kept in houses, named “Duke of Northumberland,” was stationed at Harwich. various methods of launching being used according to the type of The Motor Life-boat,—The first experiments with an internal foreshore. The most effective, because the quickest, is down a combustion engine were made during the year 1903. With these slipway. For a slipway to be built, however, it is necessary that experiments began the modern era of life-boat work. To design an the shore should be steep enough to give a sufficient depth of engine which should comply with the stringent requirements of the water for launching the boat at any state of the tide. Slipways, longest, at service might well seem an insoluble problem. Such an engine had for the most part, are built of reinforced concrete, the Porthdinllaen, Carnarvonshire, being 351 feet in length. The usual conall under run to able and air-tight, not but to be water-tight ditions of night and storm without attention. It had to have con- slope is x in 5. The great majority of houses with slipways fcr

4.6

LIFE-BOAT

AND

LIFE-SAVING

motor life-boats are provided with power winches for hauling up the boats. On flat sandy beaches life-boats are still launched off a carriage which is taken out into the sea, until a sufficient depth is reached to float the boat, and a specially light type of motor lifeboat is built for such stations. Instead of horses, motor caterpillar tractors are now used at an increasing number of stations; these tractors not only drag the life-boat down to the water’s edge, but push it out into the sea. Modern Life-Boat Equipment.—-All motor life-boats are provided with a line-throwing gun, specially designed for the Insti-

SERVICE

of eighteen, twelve were over fifty years of age and two of the twelve were men of seventy-two. Relations with the Government.—lIn 1893 a representative of the Institution moved a resolution in the House of Commons that, in order to decrease the serious loss of life from shipwreck on the coast, the British Government should provide either tele-

phonic or telegraphic communication between all the coast-guard stations and signal stations on the coast of Great Britain; and that where there are no coast-guard stations the post offices near-

est to the life-boat stations should be electrically connected, the object being to give the earliest possible information to the lifeboat authorities at all times, by day and night, when the life-boats are required for service; and further, that a Royal Commission

END COMPARTMENTS

should be appointed to consider the desirability of electrically connecting the rock lighthouses, lightships, etc., with the shore.

BY COURTESY OF THE UNITED STATES COAST-GUARD FIG. 2.—PROFILE AND MIDSHIP SECTION

OF

26-FT.

SURF

BOAT

tution by the Birmingham Small Arms Company. The gun is similar to a carbine, with Martini Henry breech action. The line is coiled up in a tin cylinder which fits over the barrel. One end of it is attached to a hollow steel projectile, and this projectile has a rod down the centre, the rod having the diameter of the bore of the gun. The gun is “loaded” by slipping the projectile over the muzzle so that the rod goes inside the barrel, while the rest of the projectile fits outside it, in the space between the barrel and the cylinder holding the line. The projectile is fired with a small cordite cartridge, which has a very small recoil, and as the weight of the gun, complete with projectile and line, is only r4lb. it can be easily handled. There is no need for firing sights, and the correct angle at which the gun should be held is automatically obtained by a small plumb-bob suspended from a leaf-sight fixed at

The resolution was agreed to without a division, and though its intention has never been entirely carried out, the development of wireless should, in due course, provide a simple and efficient means by which, eventually, all lighthouses and lightships will be connected with the shore. Finance.—When the Institution was founded, it was laid down as one of its chief objects to reward those who rescued life from shipwreck, and give relief to the widows and families of those who lost their lives in attempting to save others. In carrying out these

objects the Institution has long since worked on a carefully prepared scheme of rewards and pensions. In 1898 a pension and gratuity scheme was introduced by the committee of management. under which life-boat coxswains, bowmen and signalmen of long and meritorious service, retiring on account of old age, accident, ill-health or abolition of office, receive special allowances as a

reward for their good services. This was followed in 1917 by a

pension scheme for the widows and dependent children of life-

boatmen who lose their lives as a result of rescuing or attempting to rescue life from shipwreck.

For many years before that date

it had been the practice of the Institution to pay a gratuity of at least £100 to the widow, and £25 for each dependent child. The financial obligation assumed by the Institution towards those who

risk their own lives in attempting to rescue life from shipwreck may be summarised as follows:—It gives retaining fees to coxit can be thrown a distance of sixty to eighty-five yards, according swains, second coxswains, etc., and wages to motor mechanics; it to the conditions of the weather. gives rewards for every rescue or attempted rescue from shipwreck The majority of motor life-boats are provided with electric round the coasts of Great Britain and Ireland by whomsoever persearchlights, specially designed to be water-tight and simple to formed; it compensates life-boatmen injured on service, It pays manipulate. They are of two kinds, a portable searchlight of pensions or gratuities to coxswains, bowmen and signalmen of long too candle-power, and a mounted searchlight of 2,000 candle- and meritorious service; it pensions the widows and dependent power, the latter being used only on the largest type of boats. children of life-boatmen who lose their lives on service. The largest type of life-boat, the Barnett twin-screw, is provided The 40 years after the duke of Northumberland reorganized with a net, stretched amidships, into which those on board the the Institution were years of many experiments and immense wreck can jump as the life-boat lies alongside. developments. In 1851 there were only 30 life-boats on the The Crew.—All pulling and sailing life-boats are launched for coast, and the Institution’s income was under £800. In 1890 an exercise once a quarter, and all motor life-boats once a month, there were 300 life-boats, and the ordinary income of the Instifor testing the machinery and once a quarter for drilling the crew. tution was over £42,000, Unfortunately, developments outstripped A crew varies in number from 6 and 8 in the case of motor life- the increase in income, great as this had been, and in the year, boats to 13 and 17 in the case of pulling and sailing life-boats. 1891, the total expenditure was over £75,000, nearly double the The Life-boats in the World War.—At the beginning of income. Once again the life-boat service was in the greatest need the World War there were already nineteen motor life-boats on of increasing public interest in its work, and it found the means in the British coast. For four and a half years all construction the Life-boat Saturday Fund, which was founded by Sir Charles was suspended. Boats already begun were left unfinished until W. Macara, Bt., in 1891. This fund was started as a result of the the war was over. Even the work of repairing damaged boats public interest aroused by the disaster, already mentioned, to the was sometimes impossible. But though the war came at a time two life-boats on the Lancashire coast in 1886. It remained in of critical development in the life-boat service, and delayed that existence until roro, when its work and organization were taken development for over four years, it found the service ready for over by the Institution, and during those 19 years it raised nearly every emergency. The brief chronicle of its war-rescues is that £300,000. from the outbreak of war in Aug. 1914, to the signing of peace The use of mechanical power wherever possible, while it has in July 1919, the life-boats were launched 1,808 times and 5,322 greatly increased the efficiency of the service, has necessarily inlives were rescued. The boats were launched 552 times to the creased its cost. At the end of the roth century a thousand help of ships or aircraft of the navy, or to merchant vessels pounds was sufficient not only to build but to endow a Jife-boat, wrecked or in distress on account of the war. Besides those 5,322 so that, out of that sum, it could be replaced in perpetuity. Tolives the life-boat saved 186 boats and vessels. The bulk of the day a motor life-boat costs, to build alone, from £4,500 to £14,000, crews who did such fine work in the mine-sweepers, trawlers and while the boat house and launching slipway cost, on an average, drifters were drawn from the fishing population which, for gen- as much as the boat. At the beginning of the century the Instierations, has manned the life-boats. On one occasion, of a crew tution required annually, to provide and maintain the service,

an angle of 30 degrees. The line used isin. in diameter, and

LIFE-BOAT AND LIFE-SAVING SERVICE

ah

PrareI

ESB aweer Pea hee

Pon K we oar tT a awet -a Mg akon on oe

piin

yaen woot

Ps

4

HA a

:

BY

COURTESY

OF

THE

U S

COAST

GUARD

UNITED

STATES

COAST GUARDSMEN USING FLARES LIFEBOATS FOR RESCUE WORK

1. Hauling surfboat to beach abreast of wreck for launching. Boat is mounted on a specially constructed cradle chassis, and is hauled by a tractor, or ordinary truck, horses, or members of the crew

2. Launching the surfboat.

Steersman

(extreme

left)

is the last to enter

the boat when it is afloat and the oarsmen in their places. member of the crew is required to wear a lifebelt

3. Surfboat

at Rockaway

Every

Point station, New York, just after launching

through the surf

4. Surfboat just entering the surf, the men in their places and the captain in the act of leaping aboard. Skill and strength, with steady nerves and trained teamwork, are required to launch or land a boat through

AND

LAUNCHING

a surf such as that shown

5. Surfman, upon discovery of a vessel in distress burning a rocket flare, answering with the Coston light or beacon signal, to let the sailors know that help is at hand

6. A life-saving

crew

burning flares to illuminate

the scene

of a wreck.

Stations are supplied with powerful acetylene searchlights for this purpose, which are practically wind and waterproof, and afford an intense diffused light over the entire field of operations at a wreck. The hand lights are generally used only for signalling to warn vessels standing into danger, or to notify a stranded vessel that it is dis-

covered and help is at hand

LIFE-BOAT

AND

LIFE-SAVING

£100,000. It now requires £250,000. In order to obtain this much larger sum it has greatly extended its methods of appeal. In 1921 the Ladies’ Life-boat Guild was formed, to unite in one body the many hundreds of women who were working for the Institution. In addition to over 200 life-boat stations, the Institution has over a thousand financial branches and guilds, with thousands of voluntary workers attached to them. It is one of the remarkable features of the Institution’s work that, in spite of the great

SERVICE

States is not surpassed by any other institution of its kind in the world. Notwithstanding the exposed and dangerous nature of the coasts stretching between the approaches to the principal seaports, and the immense amount of shipping concentrating upon them, the

changes and developments which have been made in the course

of over a century, it is still maintained by voluntary means. National and International Aspects.—It is still more remarkable that even those who believe in nationalization would not nationalize the life-boat service, and one of the best tributes to its success as a voluntary organization was paid by a leading exponent of socialist theory, Mr. Sidney Webb, when he was president of the Board of Trade. He said that “one of the Institution’s glories is that it is entirely voluntary,” and to that he added an interesting analysis of the reasons why the Institution has succeeded as a voluntary body. “One of the advantages of voluntary

organization is that it can initiate and experiment, which is- very difficult for a Government department.” The British life-boat service has been the acknowledged *model of the other life-boat services of the world, and of the fourteen other countries which have national services, Holland, Belgium, the United States, Germany, Denmark, Norway, Sweden, France, Russia, Spain, Japan, Portugal, Latvia and Iceland, only four are maintained by the State, those in the United States, Belgium, Denmark and Russia. Four of the remaining nine—those in Germany, Norway, Sweden and Spain—were originally State-services, but they have since been handed over to voluntary organizations, or such organizations have been set up to supplement the Stateservice. In 1924, by which year it had given rewards for the rescue of nearly 60,000 lives, the Institution celebrated its centenary, and those celebrations showed what a secure place it holds in the pride and affection of the British people. The King personally decorated with the Medal of the Order of the British Empire the eight men still living out of the eighty-seven who during the century had won the Institution’s Gold Medal, the Victoria Cross of the Life-boat Service. On its hundredth birthday, March 4, the Institution held a centenary meeting at the Mansion House. Shortly afterwards an international conference was held in London, attended by delegates from eight foreign countries, while five of

them sent life-boats, so that, for the first time, an international life-boat fleet lay on the Thames. At this conference it was unanimously decided that an international life-boat organization, on the lines of the Red Cross Society, ought to be formed, and that it was desirable to have some organization for saving life from shipwreck in all the maritime countries of the world. This resolution was brought to the notice of the governments of all maritime countries and of the League of Nations. It was discussed at a meeting of the League’s sub-committee on Ports and Maritime Navigation in the following year, at which the Institution was represented by its secretary, and the sub-committee decided that it could best encourage the promotion of life-boat services by asking governments to induce their national life-boat organizations to keep in constant touch with one another. For this purpose the sub-committee placed its own secretariat at their disposal. Thus, a little more than a century after Sir William Hillary launched his appeal for a national life-boat service, the international value of such services, and the duty of all maritime countries to provide them for the succour of the seafarers of their own and other nations, were fully and formally recognized. For the use of rockets in life-saving, see ROCKET AND ROCKET APPARATUS. (G. F. Sx.) THE UNITED

STATES

The Life-Saving Service of the United States was merged with the Revenue Cutter Service in 1915, the combined service taking the name of the Coast Guard (g.v.). The Life-Saving System, while an integral part of the Coast Guard, retains its distinctive organization, equipment, and methods of operation.

47

Extent of Operations.—In the extent of coast-line covered, the magnitude of operations, and the extraordinary success which has crowned its efforts, the Life-Saving Service of the United

DECK COMPARTMENTS WATERTIGHT DECKS

ete NS WATER BALLAST TANK FILLING PUMP

WATERTIGHT COMPARTMENTS DECK

ea

FREEING TRUNKS

OMPARTMENTS WATER BALLAST TANK

BY COURTESY OF THE UNITED STATES COAST-GUARD FIG. 3.——PROFILE AND TWO SECTIONS SURF BOAT (MODEL H)

OF

=

N) WC

25

FT.

6-IN.

WATERNGHT a

SELF-BAILING

loss of life, out of a total of 178,741 persons imperilled by marine casualty within the scope of operations of the service, from its organization in 1871 to June 30, 1914, was 1,455—less than 1%— and even this small total is made up largely of persons washed overboard immediately upon the striking of vessels and before any assistance from shore could possibly reach them, or lost in attempts to land in their own boats, and persons thrown into the sea by the capsizing of small craft. In the service, next in importance to the saving of life is the saving of property from marine loss. During the period named, vessels and cargoes to the value of nearly $300,000,000 were saved, while considerably less than a quarter as much was lost. Separate statistics of the operations of this branch of the service subsequent to its incorporation in the Coast Guard in 1915 are not available; but with the marked improvement in equipment following the perfection of motor-propelled boats, and the greatly extended radius of operation made possible thereby, the efficiency of the service has kept pace with the rapidly increasing volume of maritime commerce. Brief statistics of the operations of the Coast Guard as a whole during the year ending June 30, 1927, are given in the article on the Coast Guarp. The number of persons aboard vessels assisted during that year alone was 14,496, and the value of the vessels and cargoes was nearly $40,000,000.

The Massachusetts

Humane

Society,

as early as

1789,

began the erection of rude huts along the coast of Massachusetts for the shelter of any destitute persons who might escape death in the sea. At first no attempt was made to provide means of rescue, but in 1807 a station, equipped with a boat for use by volunteer crews, was erected at Cohasset, Mass., and additional stations were placed at exposed points along the coast from time to time. The Federal Government, soon after its organization at the close of the Revolutionary War, commenced the erection of lighthouses, which were placed under the charge of the Treasury department; but it was not until 1838 that it was suggested, by two officers of the navy who had been assigned to make a general inspection of the lighthouse system, that life-boats be added to the equipment of seven of the lighthouses, and it is not recorded that this suggestion bore any immediate fruits. However, on March 3, 1847, Congress appropriated the sum of $5,000 “for furnishing the lighthouses on the Atlantic coast with means of rendering assistance to shipwrecked mariners.” No steps having been taken to expend this sum, the Massachusetts Humane Society in the following year made application to the secretary of the Treasury and was granted the use thereof. The society at that time represented that it was maintaining “16 or more life-boats on the coast at the most exposed places, also a number of houses on exposed beaches.” During the period from 1849 to 1870 this society secured additional appropriations aggregating $40,000 from Congress for the prosecution of its work. The society today maintains twenty-one stations on the Massachusetts coast.

4.8

LIFE-BOAT AND LI FE-SAVING

First Government Efforts.—The first Gov ernment life-saving stations were plain boa t-houses, a few of which were erected along the coast of New Jersey in 1848, each equipped wit surf-boat, a mortar h afisherman’s for firing a li

- In 1849 the service was in 185¢ one station was DECK COMPARTMENT ‘WATERTIGHT DECK

ULKHEADS WATERTIGHT COMPARTMENTS

FREEING TRUNKS WATERTIGHT

DECK COMPARTMENTS

3 WATERTIGHT

WATERTIGHT COMPARTMENT BY

COURTESY

QF THE

UNITED

COAST-GUARD FIG, 4.—PROFILE Two SECTIONS OF 26 FT, ING SURF BOAT (MOAND MOTOR SELF-BAILDEL H) placed on the Rhode Isl verging on the princi and coast, thus protecting the coasts conpal American seaport, New York city. No provision was made for crews or even for responsible caretakers, and as a result the bui ldi from the ravages of the ngs and equipment rapidly deteriorated stolen or destroyed. In elements, and much of the equipment was 1854 provision was mad ment of paid keepers for the New Jersey and e for the appointand a superintendent Long Island stations, for each of these coasts , marking the beginVolunteer crews were depended upon until authorized crews at each alternate Statio 1870, when Congress n for the three win months, ter The present extensive and thoroughly organi inaugurated in 187r zed system was by appointed chief of the Sumner I. Kimball who in that year was Revenue Cutter Servic e which, some years STATES

|

SERVICE

pointments and promotion s was inaugurated, and tions for the governmen effective regula. t of the service and training of the crews were adopted and enforc

the hours of

ed. A beach patrol mai ntained throug

darkness and in thick and hout stormy wea time, for the warning of vessels standing int ther in the day. prompt discovery of o danger and the such as were cast ash ore, was instituted. result of this transformati The on was immediate and str end of the year not iking. At the a life had been lost wit hin the domain of the

ministration was pla ced appointed by the presid in the hands of a general Superintendent ent and ot office being limited only by confirmed by the Senate his term the will

ball, who bad displayed

of the President. Mr. Kim.

suc energy and ability in ment, was appointed its develop. to this position, which Saving Service was united with the Revenuhe held until the Life e Cut 1915, when, in recogniti on of his distinguished ter Service in Service, he was with 277 stations of Whi

points upon the sea and ch 252 were active, situated at selected and Gulf coasts contai lake coasts, Fight districts on the Atlant refuge ‘on the coast ofned 193 Stations, including eight houses ic Without crews: three Florida, each in charge of a keeper onl of y, dis Stations, including one tricts on the Great Lakes contained 63 Ky.; and two districts at the falls of the Ohio river at Louisv ille, on the Pacific coast contained ay Stations, e k Each district is in co mm and of a district co 4 commissioned office mmander, who is tive examination fro r of the Coast Guard, selected by compet m i. the war rant officers in charge The district commande of stations, r has imm edi ate sup tion of the stations, ervision over the ope the ratheir assignment, the selection and enlistment of the crews and enf orc ement of discipline, of supplies and equ the procureme ipm He is held responsib ent, and the payment of compensat nt ion le for the efficienc y of the Stations in . his

Beersdau

DECK COMPARTMENTS

WATERTIGHT COMPARTMENT

given charge of the emb ryo system, He Secure rom Congress an app d| rop the employment of cre riation of $200,000, and authority for district, and is a bonded disbursing off icer, District comman | are assisted in the ws for all stations for ders the year as were de Per such periods during | em warrant officers (boats formance of these duties by one or more The existing stations thoroughly Overhaule ed necessary. wai ns) selected from the Were | in charge of d and put in condit Corps of officers stations, ion for the housing crews; the best availa of € Maintenance of the inefficient station kee ble boats and equipment were provided; Property, buildings, per wharves, lau Political influence » Wer s, who had secured appointment throug | ways, sea walls, etc., is in the hands of a civil engineer att nchh | to headquarters e succeeded by men in Washington, With ached their skill and experienc carefully selected for a all were manned by e; additional Stations were established, and immediate persona] charge of extensive number of assistants in capable surimen; the sec tions of the coast The merit system of ap- | general administration of the service is con mandant of the Coast Guard With headquartducted by the com-

ers at Washington.

1 { f

LIFE-BOAT

W OA WON aA

n y hdppa e ne

BY COURTESY

OF

British

LIFE-SAVING

THE

U S.

COAST

steamer

WORK

IN PROGRESS

‘‘Thistlemore’’

ashore,

Peaked

AND

VESSELS

Hill Bar, Cape Cod,

British

ship

‘‘Glenesslin’

ashore

on

Oregon

coast.

Many

vessels were lost along dangerous coasts during earlier days before the establishment of life saving stations. Sailing vessels were par-

ticularly

liable

to disaster on a lee shore

breeches

rigged

buoy,

between

a life-saving the disabled

vessel

and

travels

the shore.

AND

AFIRE

AFTER

LIFESAVING

sists of a cork life-preserver having breeches attached. Suspended by a pulley on the lifeline, the apparatus holds occupant securely. Ropes to ship and shore control passage 4. Schooner “Annie C. Ross’? stranded on sandy beach near Pensacola, Florida. Hull of ship rests on sand, lessening chance of breaking up

5. A steam trawler or fishing vessel ashore, resting on her port side.

This

in

on

a hawser

The

buoy con-

6. Steam freighter “Cabo Hatteras” afire at sea. Crew was rescued and the ship, which had become a menace to navigation, was later sunk by gunfire and mines from U.S. Coast Guard Cutter “Seminole”

because of difficulty

device which

ASHORE

type of vessel operates largely outside of regular ship lanes, where the danger of running ashore is increased by the absence of lighthouses

manoeuvring

3. The

PLATE IT

GUARD

Mass., Feb. 1922. Coast guardsmen on the beach have shot a lifeline to the ship by means of the Lyle line-throwing gun. Persons are taken from the ship in life car or breeches buoy (see fig. 3)

2. Full-rigged

SERVICE

w

RESCUE 1. The

AND

LIFE-BOAT

AND

LIFE-SAVING

SERVICE

WATERTIGHT

49

WATERTIGHT

ENGINE COMPARTMENT

DEC

J

WATERTIGHT BULKHEADS

ee

FREEING TRUNKS SIDE DECK COMPARTMENTS WATERTIGHT COMPARTMENTS

WATERTIGHT

WATERTIGHT | COMPARTMENT

DECK

WATERTIGHT COMPARTMENT

CAST IRON KEEL

BY

COURTESY

OF

THE

UNITED

STATES

COAST

GUAR

FIG. 6.—-THREE

SECTIONS

OF A 36 FT. SELF-BAILING,

Station crews are composed of an officer in charge holding the rank of a boatswain, and, at a majority of the stations, from six to eight surfmen, with a larger number, up to as many as fifteen, at certain stations where the service is particularly arduous. The number of men in each crew is determined principally by the

number and kind of boats, the extent and nature of the coastline to be served, the climatic conditions at various seasons, and the amount of shipping in the locality. Nearly all stations are now equipped with motor-powered boats. One or more of the members of the crew are trained in the care, operation and repair of these engines, those so qualified being rated motor machinists.

For this purpose there is maintained, at the ship repair and boat building yard of the service, at Baltimore, Md., a school for the special instruction of men who show an aptitude for this work. The surfmen are enlisted for periods of from one to three years,

SELF-RIGHTING

MOTOR

LIFE-BOAT

mounted on boat-wagons by which they are drawn to a point abreast of a wreck and launched directly from the beach. Beach Patrol.—The system of beach patrols maintained at all stations is of distinctly American origin, and has proved of great value in the saving of life and property. A fixed beat or patrol is laid out in each direction along the shore, varying according to the conformation of the coast with respect to inlets, headlands, etc., from one-half to two, three or four miles in length. The station crew is divided into regular watches of two men each, who during the hours from sunset to sunrise, and during thick and foggy weather in the daytime, patrol these beats, keeping a sharp lookout seaward. The usual schedule is: first watch, sunset to 8 P.M.; second watch, 8 P.M. to midnight; third watch, midnight to 4 A.M.; fourth watch, 4 A.M, to sunrise.

Positive evidence of the integrity of the patrol and watch is

after a thorough medical examination. All stations on the ocean required. Where stations are sufficiently close to one another to coasts are in commission and fully manned throughout the year. permit the entire intervening distance to be patrolled, a half-way The floating station at Louisville, and a number of stations on point is established, at which point each patrol-man must deposit the Great Lakes situated at harbours where shipping is in opera- a brass check bearing the name of his station and his number in tion during the winter months, are in continuous commission. the crew. This is taken up on the next visit by the patrol-man Stations.——The stations contain, as a rule, suitable living from the adjacent station, who in turn leaves his check. The quarters for the officer in charge and members of the crew, and first patrol-man at night returns all checks of the previous night. a boat and apparatus room. Many of the stations, particularly Where the patrols do not connect the patrol-man carries a watchon the Lakes, have living quarters for the family of the officer man’s clock or time detector, in which there is a dial that can be in charge. Each station has a look-out tower for the day watch, marked only by means of a key which registers the exact time on the station building proper, or separately placed at a point of of marking. This key is secured in a safe embedded in a post vantage. In some places the dwelling and boat-house are built at the limit of the patrol, and the patrol-man must reach that point separately, and a number of stations also have additional boat- in order to obtain the key with which to register his arrival. In some cases telephones are placed in half-way houses or at houses situated at danger points distant from the main station. Those equipped with the larger life-boats have launchways or the end of patrols, by means of which the patrol-man reports marine railways for the launching of the boats directly into deep to his station. In other cases the patrol-man is provided with a water, with power winches and cradles for launching and hauling small portable telephone set with which he can communicate with out. The Louisville station guards the falls of the Ohio river, the station from any point along his patrol. The Coast Guard where life is much endangered from accidents to vessels passing owns and operates a telephone line system consisting of 183 over the falls, and to small craft which are liable to be drawn into separate lines, with a total mileage of approximately 2,650, inthe chutes. It consists of a dwelling with look-out tower, appara- cluding nearly 500 m. of submarine cable. Practically all of its tus room, and ways for small boats, the whole mounted on a stations, 160 lighthouses, and a number of other Government scow-shaped hull. Its equipment includes several river skiffs agencies such as naval radio compass stations, weather bureau which can be quickly launched directly from the ways at one end stations, etc., are served by these lines, which are connected with of the station. These skiffs are modelled much like surf-boats, commercial exchanges for both local and long distance service. Assistance and Rescue.—Qn discovering a vessel standing designed to be rowed by one or two men. Equipment.—The equipment of the stations consists of the into danger the patrol-man burns a pyrotechnic signal which emits beach apparatus—line-throwing guns, hawsers, breeches-buoys a brilliant red flare, to warn the vessel of her danger. The number , and life-car—flag and pyrotechnic signals, heaving sticks and lines, of vessels thus warned averages over 200 annually. The extent life-preservers and life-boats, surf-boats and other special types of the loss of life and property thus averted can never be known. of boats. The outfits are practically the same at all stations, but When a stranded vessel is discovered, the patrol-man’s Coston the boats are of various types, depending upon their suitability signal apprises the crew that they are discovered and assistance for rescue work on the different coasts. The larger life-boats are is at hand. He then notifies his station, either by telephone or by too heavy to be launched from the beach into the surf, and launch- an electric hand flash using the telegraphic code. When such ing ways are provided for them where comparatively smooth notice is received at the station, the officer in charge determines water prevails—on rivers, bays and inlets. The surf-boats are the means by which to attempt a rescue, whether by boat or beach

50

LIFE

GUARDS—LIFE

apparatus. If the beach apparatus is chosen, the apparatus cart is hauled to a point directly opposite the wreck by motor tractor or truck, by horses, or by the members of the crew. The breechesbuoy gear is unloaded and while it is being set up the officer in charge fires a line over the wreck with the Lyle gun, a small

bronze cannon weighing, with its 18 lb. elongated iron projectile to which the line is attached, slightly more than 200 1b., and having an extreme range of about 700 yd., though seldom available at wrecks for more than 4oo yd. This gun is the invention of Col. David A. Lyle, retired, U.S. army. Shotlines are of three sizes, sts, gy, and % of an inch in diameter, designated respectively, Nos. 4, 7 and 9. The two larger are ordinarily used, the No. 4 only for extreme range. A line having been fired within reach of the persons on the wreck, an endless rope rove through a

INSURANCE

ing trunks, which give it the self-bailing feature. Although not self-righting, it can be readily righted by means of righting lines provided along the sides, which enable the crew easily to roll it right side up, when it quickly clears itself of water through the

bailing trunks.

It is fitted with a water-ballast tank filled by

means of a hand pump, which increases the stability and Sailing qualities of the boat. This type of boat is light and handy for use in launching through the surf directly from the beach, and is an exceptionally able boat when used in rescue work in broken waters, It is generally mounted on a specially built boat-wagon on which it can be quickly transported along the beach to a point abreast of

a stranded vessel. Sails and centreboard are embodied in the design, and are very effective when the boat is called to a considerable distance from the station. This type of boat is also tail-block is sent out by it with instructions, printed in English used extensively as a ship’s life-boat. and French on a tallyboard, to make the tail fast to a mast or Special Service Boats.—Another type of boat in general use other elevated portion of the wreck. This done, a 3 in. hawser along the New England coast is an open whaleboat commonly is bent on to the whip and hauled off to the wreck, to be made known as the Monomoy surf-boat. This boat is neither self-rightfast a little above the tail-block, after which the shore end is ing nor self-bailing. It is propelled by oars and sails, and is a hauled taut over a crotch by means of tackle attached to a sand very seaworthy craft. A number of stations are supplied with anchor. fast motorboats especially designed for law enforcement duties, From this hawser the breeches-buoy or life-car is suspended as distinguished from those here described, of heavier construcand drawn between the ship and shore by means of the endless tion and less speed, provided for rescue work under adverse con- whip-line. The life-car can also be drawn like a boat between ditions of weather and sea in which the paramount consideration ship and shore without the use of a hawser. If any of the rescued is seaworthiness and reliability of operation. Others, situated in persons are frozen, as often happens, or injured, first aid and sheltered harbours, where the principal source of danger is from simple remedies are furnished. Dry clothing, supplied by the accidents to pleasure craft, are provided with light skiffs or with Women’s Nat. Relief Assn., is also furnished to survivors. small motorboats designed more particularly for oe Boat Equipment.—All stations are equipped with boats A. T. T.) adapted to the special requirements of the different localities and LIFE GUARDS: see Guarps anp Hovsexotp Troops. occasions. The three principal types of life-boats used in rescue LIFE INSURANCE, a contract insuring the payment of work are a self-righting and self-bailing motor life-boat, a self- money on the happening of any contingency, or one of a variety bailing motor surf-boat and self-bailing pulling boat. of contingencies, dependent on human life; as this definition The motor life-boat is 36 ft. in length with an overall beam would, however, include contracts for annuities or pure endowof 9 ft. 54 in., and an approximate draft of 2 ft. 8 inches. Its ments, it should be limited by the condition that one of the conweight with full equipment, not including fuel and crew, is about tingencies should be death (except death by accident only). The 14,300 pounds. It is constructed of wood with 14 in. planking. It sum insured is agreed upon at the outset and may be added to is fitted with numerous water-tight compartments and has a from time to time, out of profits or otherwise; life insurance water-tight deck, end compartments and a house over the engine, therefore differs in character from other forms of insurance, the A cast iron keel weighing 1,800 lb. extends the full length of the essence of which is indemnity to the insured for actual loss bottom and protects the propeller and rudder from injury. A incurred. semi-tunnel for the propeller is provided in order to obtain The word assurance is more commonly used than insurance shallow draft. This boat develops to the highest degree the self- in connection with life contracts, the latter word being applied in bailing and self-righting qualities so essential to a life-boat. It general to contracts of indemnity; it is not, however, incorrect is equipped with a 44 h.p. gasolene engine, driving a 3-bladed to use either word in any context.

propeller of 22 in. diameter, and 16 in. pitch, and has a speed of Primitive Form of Life Insurance—The principle that about 9 m. p.h. under usual service conditions. Sails and oars groups of persons should agree to make common cause against are also provided for auxiliary use when needed. This type of dangers which threaten all, but are individual in operation, is an boat is used at practically all stations on the Great Lakes, and old one. Action of this nature was moreover, in its origin, dictated along the ocean coasts in localities where sheltered inlets are avail- by the interest of the group rather than by the interests of its able in which it can be safely launched or moored. It is an ex- members. As communications became more widely organized, the tremely able craft and will go through practically any surf and character of the group granting the benefit naturally tended to live In any sea. hecome that of a class or trade union, but until what are historiThe power surf-boat has a length of 26 ft., a beam of 7 ft., cally known as modern times, insuring associations were assoand is equipped with a 20 h.p. gasolene engine. Like the larger ciations of persons, not of capital, and insurance of members life-boat, this type is also provided with self-bailing features, but would only have been one of their reasons for existence. Modern is not self-righting. The construction, in general, follows that of life insurance, mainly by companies, is concerned only with the the larger boat except that water-tight end compartments and risk to be insured against, and even institutions which were, in a house over the motor are not fitted. A small water-tight en- their origin, distinguished by some bond of class or calling among closure protects the motor from spray and seas. The boat is rather their members, are usually open to do business with all comers, lightly but strongly constructed, and a semi-tunnel and shoe and retain but a shadow of their earlier exclusiveness. provide protection for the propeller when the boat is grounding. The beginnings of true life insurance, that is to say, the payNo sails are fitted, but oars and thwarts for the crew are pro- ment of certain benefits on death, against certain periodical subvided. This type of boat is used generally at stations where it scriptions, are to be found in the Roman Collegia. The gilds of can be launched into the water on a carriage. It is also issued mediaeval times would, in many cases, make provision for the to the larger coast guard vessels for use as a life-boat. decent burial of a member, but the extent of such assistance would A third type of life-boat which is generally used is the self- depend on the actual needs of the dead man’s dependants and was bailing pulling surf-boat, 25 ft. 6 in. in length, and weighing about not, therefore, life insurance in the full sense. 2,200 lb. This boat has no engine, but is manoeuvred under Marine insurance is generally believed to have an earlier origin oars and sails only. The construction is very similar to that of than life insurance and it is therefore natural that the first definite the life-boat and power surf-boat already described, having water- contracts of life insurance, made with underwriters as a matter of tight compartments and deck above the load water line with free- business, should have been on the lives of mariners. The earliest

LIFE

INSURANCE

contract of this type, recorded to have been made in England, was effected in 1583.

The First Companies.—An important step was the foundation in England of the first insurance companies. The Amicable Society for a Perpetual Assurance was founded in 1705, but provided merely for the dividing up of certain sums between the representatives of those members who died each year. The Royal Exchange Assurance Corporation and the London Assurance Corporation,

both incorporated by royal charter in 1720, were, however, true life insurance institutions, and, with the Amicable, held the field for 40 years. During this period they effected only a moderate amount of life insurance business; also the contracts were still of

the simplest nature, being as a rule for a term of one year. The period of scientific insurance began with the foundation of the Equitable society in 1762. Until that date there had been no endeavour to graduate premium rates according to the age of the person insured, despite the obvious fact that such differentiation was called for. The material for calculating rates was, however, in existence, although it was imperfect: Dr. Edmund Halley’s tables, based on the deaths in the city of Breslau in the years 1687—91, and the death rates derived from the London bills , of mortality of the period, were the foundation of the society’s first table of premiums. It is moreover notable that in addition to differentiating rates, the society introduced the principle of making a policy renewable from year to year throughout life. The success of the new venture was soon apparent: in 1776 it made

its first actuarial valuation of assets and liabilities and returned part of the premiums paid to the insured by way of bonus; this was the beginning of the with-profit system, which might have been much longer in making its appearance, had it not been for the fact that the rates charged by the Equitable were decidedly on the safe side, although in most cases substantially less than the £5 to £6 per £100 for a year’s insurance which had been the general rule until 1762. The Gambling Act.—The Life Assurance Act of 1774, usually referred to as the Gambling Act, is a highly important landmark in the history of life insurance. Speculation in the lives of other persons, particularly public men, had become something of a scandal. `

The Act forbade the issue of policies in which the names of the persons interested did not appear and also prohibited the

insuring of lives in which the insured had no interest; the path was thus cleared for the development of life insurance for provident purposes only—its principal function. The Equitable had the field to itself until towards the end of the century when the Westminster society was founded. This society instituted the principle of paying commission to agents for the introduction of business. Many offices came into existence in the first half of the 19th century—a natural concomitant of the growth of the joint stock enterprise which marked that period: incidentally the Joint Stock Companies’ Registration Act of 1844 brought in a number of recruits, but many of these were mushroom concerns and most of the leading offices had commenced business before that date. Events Leading to Act of 1870.—There was little restraint or check on the earlier operations of the companies (the Act of 1774 was a check on the insured, not the insurer) and it is therefore not a matter of surprise that concurrently with many carefully-managed institutions, there should have grown up others whose existence was undesirable. The description given by Dickens in Martin Chuzzlewit of the business methods of the Anglo-Bengalee Disinterested Loan and Life Assurance Company suggests what may have been the state of affairs with certain offices; but it was not wholly a caricature. Matters were brought to a head by the disclosure of the difficulties of two companies, the Albert and the European. Both these offices had been active in absorbing lesser concerns, and, in their greed for large figures, had in many cases paid unjustifiable prices to the shareholders of the companies absorbed, without regard to the interests of the original policy-holders or those to whom they subsequently became responsible. The Albert closed its doors in 1869, and although the European did not do so for another three years, its position was

51

a factor in hastening much needed legislation. The provisions of the Life Assurance Companies’ Act of 1870 are essentially those which have governed the business in Great Britain ever since. Like most acts of parliament, it has beeri subject to amendment as the result of experience and it will probably be further amended in certain important respects by the bill of 1927. The Scottish Widows Fund Life Assurance Society, established in 1815, was the first life insurance office founded in Scotland, where the business has, in proportion to the population, acquired even greater importance than it has in England. Development

Outside the United Kingdom.—Life

insur-

ance on the Continent, and in America, developed later than in Great Britain. The first successful venture in France was made in 1819, when the Compagnie d’ Assurances Générales sur la Vie was founded. In Germany, branches of English offices were operating before the end of the 18th century, but the first German company was not founded until 1828. As for the rest of the Continent, just as the English companies had extended branches into Germany, Holland and Scandinavia, so the French companies pushed theirs into Italy, Spain, Belgium and Switzerland, and the existence of these branches gave an impetus to the formation of companies of national origin. In addition to being served by English and Scottish offices, most of the British dominions and colonies have developed life insurance institutions of their own and the dominion offices have also carried their operations with vigour into the mother country. The Contract and the Policy.—The first step in the taking out of a life insurance policy is the submission to the insuring company of a written statement called a proposal, setting out particulars as to the proposer’s age, health, past illnesses and family history. The proposer warrants the correctness of his statements and the contract is voidable by the insurer should any of them prove untrue. In practice it is unusual for an office to make use of this power unless there has been a deliberate intention to defraud. If there is a medical examination, the truth of the statements made to’ the doctor is also warranted. In legal terms, an insurance contract is uberrimae fidet, that is to say based on the utmost good faith between the parties, and the proposer is bound to disclose all circumstances material to the risk, not excluding any in regard to which he may not be specifically questioned. The necessity for this arises from the fact that many matters essential to the contract can be only within the private knowledge of the person desiring to be insured. Insurable Interest.—Another condition precedent tothe granting of a policy is that the person effecting it should have an interest in the life to be insured, known as an insurable interest. This arises mainly from the provisions of the Act of 1774. Every adult person has, of course, an unlimited insurable interest in his or her own life. A wife has an unlimited insurable interest in the life of her husband, and it was decided in 1909 (Griffiths v. Fleming) that a husband has a similar interest in the life of his wife. Except in the cases named the interest must be pecuniary, e.g., the interest which a creditor has in the life of his debtor for the amount of the debt. The proposal, the warranted statements to the doctor, and the policy, constitute the entire contract between insurer and insured. Modern British policies are simple in form, the essential facts and figures being incorporated in a schedule. Of the many restraints formerly in vogue, the only one in common use is the restraint on suicide during the first 12 months of the policy. Surrender Values, etc.—Under whole life and endowment assurance contracts, where the annual premium is more than sufficient in the early years to cover the yearly risk, the office will return, after, on the average, two years’ cash payments, a sum known as the surrender value. As current risk and expenses have to be allowed for, this is for policies of short duration considerably less than the total of the premiums paid. An alternative is to obtain a policy for a reduced amount, free from further premiums; this is known as a paid-up policy. Offices are as a rule prepared to lend back to the insured a proportion of the surrender value, 90% to 95%; the maximum amount which can be thus lent is the loan value. Under the laws of the State of New York, insurance com-

52

LIFE INSURANCE

panies are bound to state in their policies the surrender value for each of the first 20 years, and this is also done voluntarily by many British companies, What are known as non-forfeiture regulations provide for the continuance in full force, for a period, without payment of premiums, of policies carrying surrender values under which a certain number of years’ premiums have been paid. The period may be for a year or it may be for a number of years until the surrender value is exhausted; a provision of the former type is common in Great Britain, while the last mentioned plan is usual in America. Proof of age, usually by the production of a birth certificate, is required, and this is best done at the outset, though it may be left until the policy becomes a claim. Extra Risk.—In between those risks which an office can accept at its tabular rate of premium and those which are unacceptable lie a large body of risks which can be accepted on special terms. In Great Britain these are usually dealt with: (1) by an addition to the premium, (2) by the deduction, for a period of years, of a level or diminishing sum from the amount insured— described as a debt. The assessment of these risks is a matter of great difficulty, but special researches into the question of over and under weight, cancer, phthisis, circulatory disease, etc., are by degrees making the treatment of the problem less empirical. In America the question is usually decided by a system of numerical rating, positive and negative marks being given for different qualities and defects, while in certain Continental countries underaverage lives are sometimes dealt with by reinsurance companies or pools, created ad hoc. Extra risk due to the surroundings or occupation of the insured, as distinct from his individual peculiarities, is of a different nature. Extra premiums are charged for certain tropical countries, removable as a rule on return to a healthy climate, and in any case after a period of years; these are known as climate extras, but the portion of the world to which they apply is an ever contracting one. The additional risk for the army and navy can usually be covered by a moderate extra, 5s to ros per £100 per annum, payable in peace time: no further extra is then demanded on the

Options.—A term assurance premium may be increased so as to allow the insured to continue the policy at the end of a certain

period as a whole life or endowment assurance at normal rates, whatever may then be his or her state of health. Deferred Assurance-—~Children’s lives may not be insured except for small sums under industrial policies. A deferred assurance policy may, however, be effected under which premiums are returnable in the event of the child’s death before age 21, and which the child can continue after 21 as a whole life or endowment assurance, irrespective of health. Group Assurance.—Insurance for a certain sum on the life of each member of a group of employees, usually term assurance renewable yearly, the sum insured often being one year’s wages. Certain special benefits are sometimes offered concurrently with life insurance. Disability benefit involves the suspension of premium, payments during permanent disability, and in its most developed form, the payment in addition of a monthly sum to the insured, usually 1% of the sum insured, without prejudice to the ultimate payment of the sum insured in full. Free medical overhaul at intervals and financial assistance towards surgical treatment are further examples of special benefits offered by certain offices. Pure endowments, payable on survival over a certain period, are not strictly life insurance, but the granting of these forms part of a life insurance company’s business. Institutions Granting Life Insurance.—Muytual life m-

surance institutions are without shareholders and all profits go to the participating policy-holders. Proprietary life insurance institutions are by shareholders, who, however, only receive to 10% of the profits, the remainder going policy-holders. Composite offices are those which transact

of insurance; they are, as a rule, proprietary.

nominally controlled as a rule about 5% to the participating

more than one kind

Mortality Tables.—As this subject is dealt with under the heading Morrauity Statistics (g.v.), the following remarks will

be confined to a brief description of the principal tables used in connection with life insurance. outbreak of war. The extra to be charged for the Air Force is ’ Breslau Table-—Used by the Equitable society for its first prestill in process of evolution. Other occupations regarded as extra- mium tables. Northampton Table——Based on deaths in Northampton, 1735hazardous are the liquor trade, and to a less extent, seafaring. Formerly it was usual to charge an extra to women under 4o. 80. Constructed on unsound basis, but erring on the safe side A person who has no definite prospect of going abroad or when issued in connection with insurance contracts. The standard engaging in a hazardous occupation is given a policy which is table till 1815. Carlisle Table-—Based on census and death records in two partermed world-wide and indisputable, and no climatic or occupation extra can thereafter be charged under such a policy, no ishes of Carlisle, 1779-87. The standard table till 1872, and used after that for valuing reversions, etc. matter where the insured goes or what he does. Seventeen Offices Table-—Constructed in 1838 from the expeDifferent Types of Insurance.—Life insurance policies may be for a definite sum throughout, or they may share in the profits rience of insured lives, but used more in America than Great of the company, such profits being allotted in the form of cash, Britain. H™, (Healthy Males) Table.-—Based on experience of insured additions to the sum insured, or reductions of the premiums. In the following brief descriptions of the principal types of policy lives till 1863. The standard British table for 30 years from 1872. O™, (Office Males) Table-—-Based on experience of insured the word assurance is employed as being that in common use. Whole Life Assurance.—If the term is used without qualifica- lives 1863-93. The standard table from 1903 onwards. American Experience Table.—Published in 1867. Adopted as tion, the sum insured is payable at death, and the premiums standard in several States of the U.S.A. throughout life, Thirty American Ofices Table—Based on the experience of 30 Whole Life Assurance by Limited Payments——The sum insured is payable at death, and premiums cease at death or at the American offices and published in 1881. end of an agreed period. American Medico-actuarial Mortality Investigation-—An inEndowment Assurance.—The sum insured is payable at death vestigation into the mortality of special groups, based on the experience of American and Canadian life insurance companies. or at the end of a fixed period, when premiums cease. Double Endowment Assurance—As above, except that the sum Deviations due to climate, race, height and weight, and various payable on survival of the agreed period is double that payable diseases and occupations, were analysed and published in 1903 and IQI2. on death. Among the best known Continental tables are the A.F. (France) Joint Life Assurance-—The sum insured is payable when the first death arises out of a group of two or more persons. Effected and the Gotha (German). by partners in a business to provide a fund on the death of either Sundry tables relating to the experience of residents in the of them. tropics, both native and European, have been compiled. Term Assurance.—The sum insured is payable only if death The construction of a mortality table from the crude data is a arises within a period agreed upon. School fees policies are term complex process, but the tabulation of particulars taken from assurances for sums payable annually until the expiry of a certain office records is greatly facilitated by mechanical devices as the Powers and Hollerith calculating, sorting, and tabulating maperiod, corresponding to that of a child’s education.

LIFE

INSURANCE

chines. Graduation, that is to say the removal or smoothing down of irregularities not inherent in the data, is the next step, and the

tables in use by actuaries are eventually compiled by associating

the graduated rates of mortality with various rates of interest to form what are technically known as commutation functions, the

shaped bricks of the actuary’s stock-in-trade, the combination of which in various ways enables him te compute his rates and value

his risks. Select tables, as distinct from aggregate tables, are those

in which the duration of the policy as well as the age of the in-

sured is taken into account, effect being thus given to the light

mortality resulting in the earlier years of insurance elimination of unfit lives.

from the

New life insurance tables are in course of preparation which will unquestionably render the O™. table obsolete.

Life Insurance Legislation.—The following are the principal

British The ance. The by the

Acts relating to life insurance:— Life Assurance Act, 1774, which stopped gambling insur-

Life Assurance Companies Act, 1870, which was amended Assurance Companies Act, 1909, is to be further amended by the Insurance Undertakings Bill, r927 (drafted by Departmental Committee, but not yet [1928] introduced to Parliament). The essential provisions of the Act of 1909 are (1) deposit of £20,000 with the High Court, (2) annual balance sheets and revenue accounts in form prescribed, (3) valuation returns in form prescribed at least once in five years, (4) separate funds for life business, fire business, etc. The most noteworthy additions of the 1927 bill are (1) separation of assets of different classes of business as well as separation of funds, (2) more detail and greater uniformity in returns, (3) powers enabling the Board of Trade to initiate steps for winding up an apparently insolvent company. The Policies of Assurance Act, 1867, regulates the notification of dealings with policies to the insurance company.

The Married Women’s Property Act, 1882 (Clause rr) and the Married Woman’s Policies of Assurance (Scotland) Act, 1880 confer certain powers on married women enabling policies to be effected for their benefit on their own lives or those of their husbands. The Life Assurance Companies (Payment into Court) Act, 1896 enables life assurance companies to pay money, the ownership of which is doubtful or in dispute, into Court in certain cases. The principle of British legislation is freedom combined with publicity. The legislation of most of the British dominions and colonies is modelled on the Act of 1870 and amending acts. An additional provision met with in dominion legislation is the protection of the first £1,000 to £2,000 of life insurance, unless specifically pledged, against a deceased man’s creditors. Canada follows the American model. In Australia insurance is regulated by the laws of the

different States; in 1928 there was still no Commonwealth legislation, but the Government had announced its intention to remedy this defect. It may be noted that New South Wales had no specific legislation regulating life insurance up to 1927. Legislation on the Continent of Europe is as a rule more restrictive than that of Great Britain; in general it imposes a basis of valuation and places limits on investments.

53

(relatively to the assumptions on which the premiums are based), provide the main profits; to these there may be added certain extraneous profits, such as those arising from non-profit business. The different methods of allotting surplus have already been described, and there are various plans for dealing with bonus which is distributed by the reversionary bonus method, that is to say by way of additions to the sum insured. The principal of these are:—(1) The simple bonus plan, which provides additions at a given rate for each £100 of original insurance and each year

(within the valuation period) of duration;

(2) the compound

bonus plan, providing additions at a given rate to the sum assured and previously declared bonuses; (3) various contribution plans, which aim in theory at a return to the insured of the surplus actually contributed. The tendency is for the valuation period to shorten; prior to the Act of 1909 the maximum was seven years, but that Act reduced it to five, and there is a growing inclination towards triennial and yearly distributions. It is obvious that while in non-profit business the rate charged is the main consideration, with-profit rates should be judged in relation to prospective bonus results, and that a high rate for a withprofit premium is not necessarily an uneconomic one. Finance and Investments.—The investment of the funds of a life insurance office is one of the most important duties of its administration, and it is on the successful accomplishment of this function that its bonus earning power, and, in the long run, its general prosperity, depend. The primary essential is security of the capital, and, subject to this, the earning of the highest rate of interest practicable. Formerly it was held that a life insurance company should keep a small proportion of its assets in readily convertible securities, but under normal conditions this Is not really necessary, as the income of a progressive company exceeds its outgo and it is moreover in a position to obtain without difficulty all the credit it is likely to require to enable it to meet an individual emergency or to take advantage of an investment opportunity. In this respect its position differs from that of a bank and also from that of a fire office, which must always be in a position to meet the loss occasioned bya big conflagration, such as the San Francisco fire of 1906. The analogy in the case of life insurance would be an epidemic comparable to the plague, a negligible risk. Mortgages are highly suitable investments and generally absorb on the average rather more than a quarter of the funds. British government securities also account (1927) for about a quarter of the funds of all companies combined, but this is largely a result of the war and the proportion is diminishing. Home railway debenture and preference stocks are much favoured and sound industrial debentures are also bought to a certain extent. There are, moreover, certain types of security which give little or no immediate yield from interest but are certain to appreciate in value, such as low yielding redeemable stocks standing at a heavy discount, and reversionary interests: these are unsuited to the

private investor, but thoroughly adapted to the needs ofa life

insurance office. As the funds commonly run to many millions of pounds, those responsible for their investment are of course able to effect the saving which arises from being able to underwrite new issues, and to take up large lines of stock on preferential terms. Ordinary stocks and shares are engaging a certain Premiums, Reserves and Bonus Distribution.—Although amount of attention but only figure to a modest extent in life in practice his functions are much wider, the primary business of office balance sheets. the actuary of a life insurance company is to calculate premiums, Amalgamations.—The amalgamation and transfer of British value risks, and deal with the distribution of profits. The basis life insurance business is regulated by legislation. The tendency of an office’s tabular premiums is a pure or net premium, “loaded” of recent times has been for companies not to absorb other conto provide for expenses, and, in the case of with-profit premiums, cerns but rather to secure control of them by acquisition of shares for bonus additions also; the margin for contingencies is, from and so to avoid the amalgamation procedure necessary under the the nature of things, larger for non-profit than for with-profit Act of 1909. A provision of the Insurance Undertakings Bill is premiums. The annual premium for a whole life or endowment that investments in and loans to controlled companies must be assurance is, owing to the fact that the risk increases from year shown separately in the balance sheet; the sanction of court must to year, larger at first than is required to meet the bare risk (z.e., be obtained for any, fresh purchases of insurance stock or shares. Expenses.—The expenses of a life insurance company are the policy’s contribution to the claims expected in the year) and from this there arises the necessity to set aside and invest the usually measured by comparing them with the annual premium balance; the amount so accumulated is called the reserve. The income. The percentage thus arrived at is the expense ratio and excess Interest earned, and the saving of mortality and expenses it is generally in the neighbourhood of 15%. The expense ratio

54

LIFE

INSURANCE

may be unduly lowered when the year’s income includes a large proportion of single premiums, or where bonuses are used extensively to reduce premiums; on the other hand, a high expense ratio, where business is large and increasing, does not necessarily indicate extravagance. To avoid misleading comparisons, allowance should therefore be made for these factors. Life Insurance and Income Tax.—Formerly a distinction was made between the method of tuxing a purely life office and that of taxing the life insurance section of a composite office, but in 1915 this was altered, and the basis is the interest earned, less expenses. Should the profits exceed this they become the basis of assessment, but this is rarely the case. A policy-holder is entitled to a rebate on the premiums paid by him on a life insurance policy. The scale of rebate depends on the date of the policy, e.g., on insurances effected up to June 22, 1916 (inclusive), if the income does not exceed £1,000, half the standard rate; if the income exceeds £1,000 but does not exceed

Post-War Developments.—Post-war currency depreciation proved disastrous in many Continental countries. In Germany and Austria it eventually became useless to collect premiums and the efforts of the companies were devoted to converting such assets as remained into forms which would not depreciate in proportion

to the currency. After the achievement of stabilization, it was, however, possible to do justice to the older policy-holders under various valorization schemes and to start building up reserves again on a sound foundation. The recovery of the British offices from the effects of the war has been remarkable. All war losses have been dealt with, and as the companies are actually able to invest, after allowing for income tax, at a higher rate than before the war, and mortality becomes steadily lighter, bonuses are on a higher scale than at any time in life insurance history. Expenses have been brought down nearly to the pre-war level. The temporary withdrawal of the American offices from the United Kingdom has resulted in an

increase of business to Canadian and British offices. The failure of the City Life Assurance Company in 1923 (and of the City Equitable Fire Insurance Company) emphasized the fact that although the Board of Trade might be fully aware that a company was in difficulties, it could take no action of itself, and that it might be difficult in practice to get the policy-holders to do so. To remedy this and other defects in the Act of rg09 a departmental committee was appointed in 1924 and its report resulted in the Insurance Undertakings Bill, already referred to. Group insurance, disability benefit business, and insurance without medical examination, have all developed rapidly since the war. A policy without medical examination is no longer subject to any special restrictions, and the amount of insurance which companies are prepared to grant on any given life under this plan to four times those of Great Britain. The colossal dimensions of is Increasing. An extension is also taking place in insurances on the leading American offices may be gauged from the fact that the lives of women. A notable symbol of the restoration of normal working in life the Metropolitan Life Insurance Company of New York had (1927) funds of nearly £500,000,000—the largest aggregate of insurance was the holding in London, in June 1927, of the eighth International Congress of Actuaries, the first held since 1912. capital in the world. Life insurance in the Crown colonies is extending and in India These congresses had previously been held at intervals of three insurance on the lives of natives, both by British and Indian years. The papers read on this occasion were therefore of great interest and value, embodying, as they did, the experience of all companies, is on an increasing scale. On the Continent of Europe the practice of life insurance is the leading countries of the world over a period of unprecedented not so widespread as it is amongst the English-speaking peoples. changes. BrBLIOGRAPHY.—See the Institute of Actuaries Textbook; C. J. Sums insured per head vary from about £25 to £30 in Holland Bunyon, The Law of Life Assurance (4th ed., x904); E. J. Macand Scandinavia to a few pounds in Germany, France, and Italy, Gillivray, Insurance Low (1912); A. F. Jack, Introduction to the where other forms of thrift are favoured. It is, however, probable History of Life Assurance (1912); T. D. Lister, Medical Examinathat the average amount insured would have been considerably tion for Life Insurance (1921); R. C. Simmonds and J. H. Matthews, larger in all of the last mentioned countries had it not been for Insurance Guide and Handbook (1922); S. G. Warner, “The Effect on British Life Assurance of the European War (1914-1918) ,” War the currency depreciation caused by the World War. and Insurance (London, Oxford and New Haven, 1927). See also ' Life Insurance and the World Wat.—A large proportion of the Journal of the Institute of Actuaries, the Transactions of the £2,000, three-quarters of the standard rate; if the income exceeds

£2,000, the full standard rate. As regards insurance made after June 22, 1916, for all incomes subject to tax, half the standard rate. The proportion of the premium subject to rebate is limited to one-sixth of the income and 7% of the amount guaranteed by the policy to be paid at death. Life Insurance Outside the United Kingdom.—Although life insurance owed its early development to the efforts of British companies, the extent to which it is practised in the United States and certain of the British dominions is greater than in the country of origin. In 1924, for example, it was estimated that the average amount of insurance per head of the population was £109 in the United States, £84 in Canada, and £44 in Great Britain. Moreover, the aggregate funds of the American offices are from three

the policies actually in force on the lives of civilians who joined

His Majesty’s forces were indisputable, and British insurance offices decided to make no extra charge even in cases where they were entitled to do so. Extras for new insurances ranged from

£7 7s. per £100 at the outbreak of hostilities to as much as £20 per £100 per annum, and many offices declined to undertake the risk. There were three main sources of war loss. Mortality in excess of the pre-war ratio cost the offices about £3,000,000 a year. Excess depreciation of investments—which was partly the result of increased income tax, and partly due (e.g., Russian bonds) to actual default—accounted for approximately £4,000,000 a year. Increased income tax added £500,000 a year to the loss. These losses rather more than absorbed the normal profits of the period. The change in the character of life office investments was

marked.

United States railway bonds, which were largely held

before the war, were sold freely, and replaced by war issues, and the holdings of British government securities rose from about 1% to a maximum of 38% of the total funds. The geographical field for securities has of course been greatly narrowed, the United States and Canada being unsuitable on account of the relatively low yield of investments there, while other portions of the world have had to be avoided on account of the insecure conditions prevailing.

Faculty of Actuaries (the Scottish body), the Journal of the Institute of Actuaries Students Society, the Transactions of the Actuarial Society

of America, the Journal of the Chartered Insurance Institute and the Transactions of the Assurance Medical Society, in which the technical literature of the subject is mostly contained. Useful year-

books are, the Post Magazine Almanack, the Insurance Blue Book and Guide, Bourne's Insurance Directory, and the AssekuranzJahrbuch (Vienna and Leipzig) which gives a survey of insurance in the principal countries of the world. (C. C. N.) UNITED STATES

The first American companies were stock companies which have since given up the insurance and annuity business and have devoted their attention exclusively to banking or to execution of trusts—the Pennsylvania Company for Insurance on Lives and Granting Annuities, organized 1809, New York Life Insurance and Trust Company, 1830 (renamed Bank of New York and Trust Company, 1922) and Girard Insurance, Annuity and Trust Company, 1836. The first mutual company was the Mutual Life In-

surance Company of New York which received a charter April 1842 and began business on Feb. 1, 1843; its first premium rates were based on the Carlisle and Northampton Tables and were those used previously by the New York Life Insurance and Trust Company. The New England Mutual, though chartered as early as 1835, did not begin the issuance of policies until Dec. 1843. The Nautilus Insurance Company was chartered 1841 as a joint

LIFE TABLES stock company, was changed to mutual 1843, began business 1845

and was renamed

New York Life Insurance

Company

1840.

Other early companies were the Mutual Benefit, 1845 and Con-

necticut Mutual, Penn Mutual and State Mutual, all 1847. Growth and Institutions.—There are now (1928) over 300

companies with assets, as of Dec. 31, 1927, of over $1 5,;000,000,000 and insurance in force of over $90,000,000,000; in 1927 the pre-

mium income was nearly $3,000,000,000 and the new insurance issued about $19,000,000,000. All but about 50 are stock com-

panies but the list of mutual companies includes almost all the very large companies so that about $61,500,000,000, or over twothirds of the total insurance, is carried by these mutual organizations. In addition to the regular stock and mutual companies are fraternal associations, primarily social or fraternal in character, with about $10,000,000,000 in force and assessment associations and stipulated premium companies with relatively small amounts, Types of Insurance.—The life insurance now in force in the

regular companies is made up of (1) ordinary, (2) industrial and (3) group. “Ordinary,” issued by every company, includes policies for $1,000 or more with premiums payable annually, semi-annually or quarterly (or in rare instances, monthly). “Industrial,” most of which is in three large companies, is that paid for by a weekly premium of a multiple of five cents, collected at the policy-holder’s home. “Group,” the greater part of which is transacted by ten companies, is that issued to an employer to cover‘a stated minimum number of employees on some underwriting plan precluding individual selection. The insurance in force at Dec. 31, 1927, may be roughly sub-divided into $67,000,000,000 ordinary, $15,000,000,000 industrial and $8,000,000,000 group. State Legislation and Supervision.—An outstanding feature of the life insurance business in the United States has been

the growth and character of State (as distinguished from Federal)

55

extent, preferred stocks and, to a still more limited extent, common stocks of the corporations referred to in (5) and (7) policy loans.

Taxation.—State taxes, aside from licence fees, usually consist of a tax on premiums collected in the State of from 1% to 3% (2% is used by about half the States) with varying interpretations as to what constitutes “premiums.” Reciprocity usually affects the application of such laws as between States. Massachusetts is unique in levying a tax (4%) on reserves. The Federal tax is an income tax, now (1928) 12% of the total income from interest, dividends and rents after deducting tax-exempt interest, 4% of mean reserve fund for year, dividends on stocks, investment expenses paid, taxes and other real estate expenses and minor items. War and Post-War Experience.—War mortality was not serious even for the few companies with extensive foreign business. For the latter the depreciation of foreign currencies more than offset extra losses. The influenza mortality of 1918-19 was extremely severe, amounting to about $110,000,000 in the companies doing business in New York State. Post-War developments have included an enormous expansion in volume of business, the lowest mortality ever experienced, and a progressive decline (since about 1920) in the interest rate with corresponding appreciation of security values. BrstiocraPHy.—National Fraternal Congress Table, based on experience of some of the largest and oldest fraternals and largely used in valuing liabilities of fraternal societies (1898); Standard Industrial Table, based on industrial experience of Metropolitan Life, 1896—r905, recognized by, New York as the valuation standard for industrial policies (1907); American-Canadian Mortality Investigation, compiled by a joint committee of Actuarial Society of America, American Institute of Actuaries and National Convention of Insurance Commissioners in response to a request of the latter for a table exhibiting

recent mortality among American insured lives and based on experience, 1900-15, of new and old standard business of about 60 American and Canadian companies (1918~19). Many tables were derived. (See

legislation and the degree of supervision implied thereby. Each State has power to prescribe the terms and conditions upon which the mortality tables listed in the article on p. 52.) the insurance business may be conducted in the State and as a re- | Chief repositories of both technical and general articles of current and permanent interest are: Transactions, Actuarial Soc. of Amer.: sult insurance departments and codes of laws have evolved. The Record, Amer. Inst. of Actuaries; Proceedings, Ass. of Life Insurance administration of the insurance department and the execution of Presidents; Proceedings, Association of Life Insurance Medical Directhe State law are in the hands of an insurance commissioner or tors; Proceedings, American Life Convention. For statistical sumsuperintendent of insurance whose powers and duties are defined maries:—Reports of the insurance departments of New York, and Connecticut; Life Insurance Year Book, Spectator by law. The general objectives are safety and equity to policy- Massachusetts Company of New York. For information regarding policy forms and holders and economy of operation. other details of company operations, including current dividend scales: Character of State Laws.—The New York Law (see leading Handy Guide, Spectator Company; Unique Manual-Digest, National article for salient features) is of special significance because about Underwriter Company. For critical review of company operations: Insurance Reports, Alfred M. Best Company. For actuarial text90% of the insurance in force in the United States companies and Life books and reports: H. Moir, Life Insurance Primer; J. B. Maclean, 85% of their assets are in companies authorized to operate in Life Insurance; Actuarial Studies, reports of specialized, medicoNew York. The limitations on amounts of new business and of actuarial and American-Canadian mortality investigations, Actuarial contingency reserve are peculiar to New York. Wisconsin also Society of America. For investments: L. W. Zartman, Invesiments of has an expense limitation and some other distinctive provisions. Life Insurance Companies. For insurance law: A. J. Parker, Insurance Law of New York; Corpus-Juris and Cyclopedia of Law and ProceColorado and Oregon permit the full preliminary term. method of dure, American Law Book Company. (J.8. T.) valuation which allows a large margin for initial expenses and reduces the reserve. Illinois and several other States recognize a LIFE TABLES. It has long been recognized that there are modified preliminary term method which produces smaller margins certain influences which normally affect the duration of life, and and larger reserves on the higher-priced policies. Texas requires that for a large number of individuals of a homogeneous class it companies doing business therein to invest in Texas at least 75% is practicable to frame an estimate of their mortality experience. of the reserves on Texas business. Minnesota policies must pro- Such estimates at first were based on conjecture rather than vide that the company may defer a policy loan not more than six on the scientific analysis of observed facts. This appears to have months from the time application is made therefor. These speci- been the case amongst the Romans who had tables for calculating men provisions will illustrate the diversity of State laws. the values of life interests, and no more authentic bases seem to Agency Methods.—The growth of life insurance in America have been discovered until towards the end of the 17th century. is largely due to the development and effectiveness of the agency The first approximately accurate mortality tables were compiled systems, of which there are two types, (1) general agency, under by Edmund Halley, and were based on the records of baptisms ° which the total field agency expense is paid to a general agent for and deaths in the city of Breslau in Germany. About half a a specified territory—city, county, State or group of States— century later, De Parcieux published his Essai sur les probabilités who pays all expenses including sub-agents’ compensation, the de la Durée de la Vie Humaine in which were incorporated several margin being his profit and (2) branch office or managerial, where- mortality tables which were for many years in general use in under the compensation of sub-agents and all other organization France. Meanwhile De Moivre had propounded his well-known expenses are paid by the company through a salaried manager. theory of the law of mortality, “that the number of lives existing Finances and Investments.—Investments, being governed by at any age is proportional to the number of years intercepted State laws, differ widely but in general are limited to (1) real between the age given and the extremity of old age.” As he estate, (2) mortgage loans, (3) collateral loans, (4) Government, assumed that 86 was the limiting age, according to his table the State, county and municipal bonds, (5) mortgage bonds of railway number living at any age x was 86—x. l and other commercial and industrial enterprises, (6) to a limited In 1762 the Equitable Society (London) was formed and th

LIFE TABLES

56

Sex is another element to be taken into consideration. Female business of life assurance began to develop. It was not, however, until the publication in 1772 of a table, prepared by Dr. Price for mortality is generally lighter than that of males. Certain special the records of baptisms and deaths in the parish of All Saints, classes of lives are subject to abnormal mortality rates. Race, Northampton, that the science of the construction of mortality climate, social status, occupation, degree of urbanization or tables can be said to have been founded. A revived form of this density of population, housing conditions and other aspects of table, published in 1783, afterwards became famous as The North- environment, geographical situation, types of various diseases, are also factors which affect vitality. Of the utmost importance in ampton Table. A Mortality Table.—This consists of two columns showing connection with the experience of assured lives is the variation of the numbers, out of an assumed number of births, surviving and mortality according to duration of assurance. Before a life dying at each subsequent year of age. The term kife table in assurance policy is issued, the proposer is usually required to actuarial phraseology designates any collection of columns of undergo a medical examination or at least to furnish satisfacfunctions involving life contingencies. The two terms are, how- tory evidence of good health. At entry into insurance the policyholder is, therefore, a “select” life. Select rates of mortality vary ever, commonly used indiscriminately in either sense. There are two main sources from which material for the according to age at entry and duration of contract, and a “select construction of a mortality table is obtainable, (a) the census returns and death registers of a community, and, (b) the records of assurance companies and other bodies whose operations involve the duration of life. The statistics relating to the general

population are subject to misstatement of age and other inaccuracies, and it frequently happens that the information is available only in groups of ages, a circumstance which necessitates the subdivision of the group figures into numbers at individual ages The numbers both of the population and the deaths are invariably recorded according to age last birthday. On the other hand, the data obtained from assurance companies are compiled from the individual records of policy-holders who are usually required to furnish evidence of their age before the contract is completed. The numbers living at each age, known as “the exposed to risk,” can therefore be scheduled according to nearest age, age last birthday, or any other arrangement that may be convenient. The functions most usually included in a life table and their

When it is desired to compare the results of different investi-

the probability of a person aged x living a year,

the probability of a person aged x dying in a year, or

by a suitable adjustment of the annuity values. Standard Tables.—Brief reference may now be made to the

_ dg=the deaths in the year of age x to x-+1 among the J, per-

sons who enter on that year, lst m v

p=%

only with age. When the effects of selection are ignored and all

the data irrespective of duration are combined in one mortality experience, the table is designated an “aggregate” table. Separate tables have sometimes been constructed by excluding the first five years’ experience from the data obtained for the aggregate tables, and are called “truncated aggregate” tables. gations of mortality experience, several criteria may be adopted, e.g., (a), the rates of mortality at selected ages throughout the table, (b) the number of survivors at selected ages, (c) the probability of surviving a specified term of years from the attainment of selected ages, and (d) the expectation of life at selected ages. Of these criteria (c) is, perhaps, most generally satisfactory. One feature which has been disclosed by successive investigations of the mortality experience of lives of the same class is the progressive improvement in vitality, the later investigations almost invariably revealing the lighter rates of mortality at all ages. There are no indications of any retardation in this tendency, and in several instances endeavours have been made to forecast its effects, in the one case by a definite modification of the rates of mortality directly deduced from the experience, and in the other

relations to one another are :—l~==the number of persons surviving at exact age x,

bo=

table” is arranged in a form showing the select rates converging towards and finally running into the “ultimate” rates which vary

x

the rate of mortality at age x, peteti

y,

the complete expectation of life, or the total

T

future life-time which, on the average, will be passed through by a person aged exactly x. Actuaries frequently use tables involving other decremental forces operating in conjunction with mortality, e.g., marriage, widowhood, remarriage and withdrawal. The construction of a mortality table is carried out by obtaining from the observation of a number of persons over a limited

period the rates of mortality, gz, to which they have been sub-

principal mortality tables. The Northampton Table was constructed by a method which gave unduly heavy rates of mortality, particularly at the higher ages. It was, however, the only authoritative measure of mortality available for many years, and the assurance

companies which

perforce had to adopt it as the basis of their scales of premium were enabled to accumulate large profits. The Government adopted it in 1808 for the grant of annuities, and thereby incurred a loss estimated at two million pounds before discarding it 20 years later. It was gradually superseded by the Carlisle Table, formed by Joshua Milne. This table was a great improvement on previous ones, and the extensive monetary tables which were based upon it are even now referred to. The compulsory registration of births, marriages and deaths was introduced into England and Wales in 1837. The statistics which have thus become available, taken in conjunction with the successive decennial censuses, have led to the publication of a most valuable series of English Life Tables. The earliest tables were prepared by Dr. William Farr, whose services in the development of the science of vital statistics are pre-eminent,

ject at each age. The values of qs having been obtained, the mortality table is formed by selecting a suitable radix, usually taken for convenience as 100,000 at the youngest age in the table, and obtaining successive values of J, by the formulae eX qs = dr, ly—dg=le+1, or, since qr=1I— po, by the formula l:* po=le+1. The other columns of the table can then be completed by means of the appropriate formulae. Jf the recorded numbers of the population and of the deaths were free from irregularities and errors, the rates of mortality Simultaneously with the publication of the national tables directly derived from them would, if plotted graphically, be various sectional tables have usually been prepared, e.g., the capable of being represented by a smooth curve. These condi- three successive Healthy English Life Tables, derived from the tions are never fulfilled in actual experience and it is necessary to experience of the districts showing a low death rate. The most submit the data, or the rates derived from the data, to a process recent national table is the English Life Table No. 9, based on of adjustment, technically known as graduation. the 1921 Census and the deaths in the years 1920, 1921 and Factors Affecting Mortality.—Various factors influence the 1922. rate of mortality. Age, of course, is a fundamental cause of variIn the United States of America the first important tables ation, as the form of a mortality table implicitly indicates. At prepared by the Government were based on the roro Census and birth, the rate of mortality is high, but it immediately drops, and the deaths In r909, roro and rọrr in certain States situated steadily decreases until about age ro or rr, when it is at a mainly in the north-eastern section of the country. Numerous minimum. Thereafter it increases, slowly at first, but more rapidly tables have been prepared from the records of life assurance with advancing age. companies, the earliest being those of Griffith Davies, based on

LIFT— LIGHT experiences of the Equitable Society of London. Tables in general use have, however, been compiled from the combined experience

of a number of Life Offices. The first table of this nature was the Seventeen

Offices, or Actuaries’?

Table.

The date of the close

of the observations was Dec. 31, 1837. It was a weakness of this

table that it was based on contracts a large proportion of which were of short duration. A more extensive investigation, that of the combined experience of 20 British Offices up to the end of 1863, was carried out

by the Institute of Actuaries. Two very important tables were obtained from this investigation, those relating to healthy male lives, the aggregate H™ table, and the truncated aggregate H™®) table. Dr. Thomas Bond Sprague later prepared a select table,

the H'™!, based on the assumption that the experience of the first five years of assurance could be linked up with the H™®) experience. Assurance business in Great Britain was for many years conducted on the basis of these tables. The most recent investigation of the experience of assured lives in Great Britain is that known as the British Offices Experience, compiled from the experience of 60 British Offices during the period 1863-93. This investigation was carried out on a most elaborate and comprehensive scale, and the volume describing “The Principles and Methods” adopted is an indispensable handbook for all students of life tables. The principal tables were

the O'™ select and the O™ and O™) aggregate tables, and the Olm] select and aggregate tables, based on the experience of participating and non-participating policies respectively. The mortality of other types of policies was also investigated, and indicated that generally the contracts with the lowest rates of premium showed the highest rates of mortality. The mortality of annuitant lives was also examined, and the

results published in the O%™ and Ol! tables, which displaced the tables derived from the earlier Government Life Annuitant

investigations as the authoritative standard for annuity contracts. These tables are, in turn, being superseded by the Life Office

Annuitants 1900-1920 Tables A™! and A"!, and those based on the contemporaneous mortality experience of Government Life Annuitants. In the United States the most recent authoritative

table for annuitants is the “American Annuitants’’ table, compiled from the experience of 20 companies carried down to the year

1918. (See ANNUITY.)

In the United States the table which in addition to the Seventeen Offices or Actuaries Table is used as a standard mortality table is the American Experience Table, 1868, compiled by Mr. Sheppard Homans. It was intended to represent the death rate among insured lives in America after the effects of medical selection were eliminated, and has been universally employed for valuation purposes. The most recent American investigation produced in 1918 the American Men Mortality Table, derived from the experience of 59 companies during the period rgoo-1915, which has already had a great influence on the operations of American insurance companies.

57

volumes on the investigation of mortality experience, and the Transactions of the Society include many important papers. Other works on life tables are included in the publications of the Spectator Company

of New York.

(P. G. B.)

LIFT: see ELEVATORS. LIGAMENT, anything which binds or connects two or more parts; in anatomy a piece of tissue connecting different parts of an organism (see CONNECTIVE TISSUES; JOINTS AND LIGAMENTS). LIGAO, a municipality (with administration centre and 17 barrios or districts), near the centre of the province of Albay, Luzon, Philippine Islands. It is situated on the railway running to Albay. To the east is the Mayon volcano, which has the most perfect cone known, and which in June 1928 was once more in a state of eruption. The rich volcanic soil produces great quantities of abaca, rice and cocoanuts. In 1918, it had three manufacturing establishments, five rice mills and 50 household industry establishments with outputs valued at 37,000, 145,500 and 30,500 pesos. Of the four schools, three were public. The language spoken is Bikol. Pop. (1918), 21,467. |

LIGGETT, HUNTER

(2857—

_‘+), American soldier, was

born at Reading, Pa., on March 21, 1857. He graduated from the U.S. Military Academy in 1879, and saw service in the west against the Indians. In the Spanish-American war in 1898 he served on the staff of the adjutant general, and later was in the Philippines where, as major of volunteers he served for three years. In 1902 he was appointed a major in the regular army and spent several years with the department of the lakes and at Fort Leavenworth. In 1909 he attended the War college, and on being graduated in 1910 was appointed a director there, and in 1913 president, becoming brigadier general in the same year. From 1915 to 1917 he was again in the Philippines, being for one year commander of the department. In 1917 he was made major general and commander of the western department, but in September went to France as commander of the 41st Division of the American Expeditionary Force. He was at the second battle of the Marne, at St. Mihiel and in the Argonne, commanding the I. Army Corps and later the I. Army, and commanded the III. Army of Occupation on the Rhine. In rọrọ he was commander of the Western Division, and in 1920 commander of the IX. Corps area, retiring on March 21, 1921, with the rank of major general.

LIGHT, subjectively, the sense impression formed in the eye. (See Viston.) The present article deals with it purely objectively and is concerned with the more fundamental characteristics of light and optical instruments. For the more practical applications, which are not here discussed in detail, see Optics; TELESCOPE; MICROSCOPE; INTERFEROMETER; PHOTOMETRY. The subject is conveniently still further subdivided according as to whether we are more interested in how the light originates or how it behaves after it has been emitted. The first subject is treated under

RADIATION, THEORY OF; and Spectroscopy; the present article

is chiefly concerned with the behaviour of light after it has been emitted, a branch of the subject often called Physical Optics, dealing almost entirely with the Wave Theory of Light.

INTRODUCTION It might perhaps be expected that we should begin by saying what light “really” is, and should then develop its characters from such a starting point; but this procedure is not possible, since light is essentially more primitive than any of the things in terms of which we might try to explain it. The nature of light is only describable by enumerating its properties and founding them on the simplest possible principles. As these principles transcend our ordinary experiences they must be cast in a purely logical, that is to say mathematical, form. But that is never enough, for, though

BIBLIOCRAPAY.—-T he Institute of Actuaries, Text Book, Part II., by Mr. George King has for nearly half a century been recognized throughout the world as the standard work on life contingencies. Life Contingencies, by Mr. E. F. Spurgeon, is a more recent textbook, published by the Institute of Actuaries as the successor to Mr. King’s work. There are numerous papers in the Journal of the Institute of Actuaries, and in the Transactions of the Faculty of Actuaries. The Theory of the Construction of Tables of Mortality, by the late Sir G. F. Hardy, deals particularly with graduation. The Principles and Methods volume gives an account of the British Offices experience, and in Mortality of Annuitants, rọoo-r920, selection and future improvement in vitality are discussed. All these as well as numerous volumes of life tables are published by C. and E. Layton, London. A useful non-technical work, “The Construction of Mortality and Sickness Tables—a Primer,’ by W. P. Elderton and R. C. Fippard, is published by A. and C. Black, London. The English Life Tables are contained in successive Decennial Supplements to the Reports of the Registrar General, published by the Stationery Office. The English

incomplete, but without which no proper understanding of the

Alfred W, Part I. of ment Life tion. The

subject can be acquired. We shall therefore describe, largely by means of analogies, the behaviour of light, and this zs the “real” nature of light. Types of Radiation.—Light would be taken strictly speaking

Life Table No. 9, together with a Report on Life Tables, by Sir

Watson, K.C.B., the Government Actuary, is contained in the 192r Decennial Supplement. The Mortality of GovernAnnuitants, 1900-1920, is also a Stationery Office publicaActuarial Society of America has published a number of

logic tells us what deductions must be right, it does not tell us

what will be interesting, and so gives no guidance as to the direction the theory will take. In choosing this direction much help is derived from analogies and models, which are often loose and

LIGHT

58

to mean only that which is seen, but it is customary to include in the term various types of invisible radiation, because, though they cannot be seen, in all other respects their behaviour is similar. These are the ultra-violet and infra-red radiations which are adjacent to the visible, and, more remotely, on the side of the ultra-violet, the X-rays or Röntgen rays, y-rays (see RADIOACTIVITY) and the extremely penetrating cosmic rays; while on the side of the infra-red we have the electromagnetic vibrations of wireless telegraphy. All these radiations have one property in common, an equal speed of propagation. The most accurate measures of the velocity of light (see VeLocrry or LicuT) assign it the value 2-99796&4X r0 cm. per sec. The distinction between the various types of radiation depends on wave-length, and the following list shows roughly their wave-lengths measured in centimetres, Electric Waves.

Wireless telegraphy . Beam wireless .

1X10 5X 102

Shortest electric waves

Infra-red Rays.

Longest heat waves .

Longest “‘rest-rays”’ . Average “rest-rays” Infra-red down to . Visible Light. Limit of red Yellow Green . Blue... Limit of Violet Ultra-violet Rays. Limit of transparency of glass Limit of transparency of quartz . Lyman region. . . ...

“Hot spark” region .

X-Rays. Longest X-rays.

21072

.

3X10

. 15 xX107* 5xX1073 4 xn’/n there is no angle 6’ for which the equation nsin# =n’sin@’ can be satisfied, and so there can be no progressive wave in the second medium. The appropriate solution involves instead a real exponential factor. If the boundary is the z plane, and if the incident wave is at angle 6, its phase will be given by am / ct

.

:

cos-—( ANA— —xsinĝ —zcos® ),’ and the appropriate Pprop

.

:

second medium is e~'27/\)sV(sin’e—n

,

cos

2T

fE

;

r

solution in the

.

.

ae sing-e), which

evidently fits the boundary condition and may be verified to satisfy the wave equations. The real exponential implies that the disturbance only penetrates a very short distance into the second medium, roughly not much more than a wave-length. When the amplitudes are worked out, the reflected wave is found to have amplitude equal to the incident, but with a changed phase,

and the change is unequal for the two polarizations. Thus, if incident plane polarized light is totally reflected, the emergent light is polarized elliptically. Working on this principle Fresnel devised an instrument which turns plane into circularly polarized

light.

°

For water and air the angle of total reflection is about 49°. Thus, when the surface of a glass of water is viewed obliquely from below, it looks like mercury. Total reflection has a ‘curious effect on the field of view of a fish, for however close it is to the surface, everything outside the water must be crowded into a cone of angle 49°, the edge of which will represent the horizon; while, on account of the total reflection, the fish will be able to see the bottom, except for parts nearly underneath, quite as well reflected in the surface as directly. Total internal reflection is much used in optical instruments, as it provides more perfect reflection than any silvering. In many types of binocular the rays are internally reflected no less than four times between the two lenses of each telescope (see BINOCULAR INSTRUMENT).

73

Refraction in Absorbing Media.—To discuss the passage of light through metals, we take both a dielectric constant and a conduction current and, by Ohm’s law, the latter will be proportional to the electric force. The first electromagnetic equation is now

-e c

ôi

p

c

E=curlH,

while the remainder are unchanged. The presence of the conduction term has an effect something like what we found in total internal reflection, for it compels us to introduce a real exponential. For a wave of frequency v going along z a solution can be found in which

Ez = e-2"«2/¢cosamy(t—nz/c), provided that ~ and x satisfy the equations

W—e=6

nk=a/d;

n is the refractive index, and x is called the absorption coefficient. Considered at a given instant of time, the wave is a damped sine-curve of wave-length c/nv and the amplitude decreases to a fraction e¢~*/* of itself for each successive crest. For actual metals x/n is quite large, so that the light can only penetrate a very short distance. The value of n could be determined experimentally from the deflection of light by a prism, if one could be made so thin as to transmit light, and « could be determined by finding how much the light is attenuated in passing through a plate; but in view of the extreme opacity of metals such methods are very troublesome, and it is more convenient to deduce n and x from experiments on reflection. The principle of reflection is just the same as for transparent media, but the details are very different on account of the real exponential in the internal wave. There is a change of phase in the reflected wave, and it is different for the two polarizations. Consequently, if plane polarized light is reflected, it becomes elliptic, and the study of this ellipticity is the most powerful method of evaluating n and x. In the case of perpendicular incidence it can be shown that the intensity reflected is (n? 4K? —22)/(n?-+-x2-L1-4-2n). For all metals x is considerably larger than n, and so the reflection is not far from complete. We see how it comes about that strong absorption, or large K, means strong reflection. The refractive indices of metals vary over a much wider range than those of transparent substances. Thus, while the latter range roughly speaking between 1 and 2-4, silver has refractive index 0-18, associated with absorption coefficient 3-67. More remarkable still is sodium, which, if it can be used untarnished, is an even better reflector than silver. Here n=0-005 and x=2-61, and 99-7 per cent of the light is reflected at perpendicular incidence. In so far as wave-velocity has a meaning in such a substance, the wave-velocity is two hundred times the

velocity of light.

It is hardly too much to say that there is no theory of the optics of metals. There is a general resemblance between their optical and electrical qualities in that the best conductors are the best absorbers, and therefore the best reflectors. But in all cases «x is greater than n, and this implies that the dielectric constant e is negative, which has no meaning in electrical theory. Other substances are opaque besides metals, quite apart from the opacity due to the repeated scattering of light. Indeed ordinary transparent substances are always opaque for light of some part of the spectrum, and for such light they behave much like metals. In particular, light which is strongly absorbed will be strongly reflected. Rubens took advantage of this fact in his

study of “rest-rays,” which consist, of light in the extreme infrared. For example rock-salt absorbs light of wave-lengths round

50 p, and so reflects it strongly, although it is transparent to other wave-lengths. If then the light from a lamp emitting all wave-lengths is reflected to and fro several times by rock-salt mirrors, the other wave-lengths will be eliminated, and: the reflected light will be nearly pure. After the last reflection its wave-length is determined by means of a grating. Unlike the case of metals, here the process of absorption has been fairly

LIGHT

74

completely explained with important consequences for the theory Thus one wave has velocity independent of the direction; this is the ordinary wave, and its light-vector lies in the plane perof the solid state. Double Refraction.—In crystals the atoms are packed to- pendicular to the axis. The other, the extraordinary wave, is gether in a regular manner, and this packing implies that they will polarized in a direction contained by the axis and the wave fall into rows in certain directions. Consequently the physical direction,.and its velocity depends on the wave direction and characters of the crystal will differ for different directions, and it ranges between ‘y and a. The values of the wave velocities for different directions can is said to be anisotropic. The geometrical theory of crystallography only permits of certain definite types of packing, and these be best appreciated by constructing the normal surface. This is a two-sheeted surface constructed are classified according to the types of symmetry they Possess. by laying off in every direction For purposes of electricity and optics we need to know the way in from an origin two radii proporwhich the anisotropy will affect the relation between electric force tional to the two wave velocities. and dielectric displacement. It can be shown that in general the Its general form can be seen from displacement need not be in the same direction as the force, but fig. 18 which shows a perspecthat there must always be three mutually perpendicular directions tive drawing of a portion of it, in the crystal for which they are in the same direction. We take which is repeated by reflection in these directions for our axes, and have the principal planes. The figure D= &Ez, Dy= &Ey, D= 63Ez. FIG. 18.—NORMAL SURFACE RE- is drawn on the assumption that But the crystal symmetry may make a further restriction. Thus PEATED BY REFLECTION IN THE g>§>vy, and it will be seen in the regular system of crystals, the three mutually perpen- GAMER QUADRANTS that the two sheets meet in four dicular axes are equivalent to one another, so that all physical conical points one in each quadrant of the plane of xz, that is in properties in these three directions must be the same and there- the plane perpendicular to the intermediate axis. Waves going fore €1, €&, €; must be equal. For electrical and optical purposes in the directions of these conical points will have the same therefore, though not for others, the regular system is isotropic. velocity whatever their polarization, and so for these directions In the hexagonal, tetragonal and trigonal systems there is an axis light will not be polarized. These are the two optic axes which of 6-, 4- or 3-fold symmetry, and, if this is taken as the z-axis, give rise to the name biaxial. Uniaxial crystals may be regarded it follows that «= «e, though they need not equal ez. Calcite and as a degenerate case in which the two optic axes have approached quartz both belong to this type. In all other crystal classes all one another; the normal surface becomes a sphere and an oval three e’s may be different. We thus have three types of crystal, surface, which touch along the direction of the axis. The normal the regular, the uniaxial and the biaxial. The regular behaves for surface does not show how the waves corresponding to the two light as though it were isotropic and we shall deal with the uni- sheets are polarized, and for this Fresnel gave a very convenient axial as a special case of the biaxial (see CRYSTALLIZATION). construction. The ovaloid is an oval surface obtained by laying For a transparent crystal the electromagnetic equations assume off a radius in each direction J: m: m according to the rule the form = a0}? 4-B?m?+ dan’.

- OD _cutlH,

=

div D =o;

r ð

:

H curl E, divH=o;

together with Dz= e.£,, Dy= eEy, D.= e3Ez. The whole question can be discussed with either Æ, H or D as the primitive quantity, and of course exactly the same results would emerge, but it is most convenient to take D. This is the lightvector used by Fresnel in his original theory, before it was given an electrical meaning. The process of solution consists first in eliminating Æ and H in terms of D, and then fitting a plane wave of arbitrary direction so as to satisfy the equations for D. If l:m:n are the direction cosines of the wave front and L:M:N

those of the light-vector, and if the wave-velocity is V, the wave will be of the form

D,=LS, Dy=MS, D.=NS, where

S = Acos

(Vi—le—my—nz).

In giving the results of the substitution we shall write a*, 62, y?

for c?/e,, /e, c*/es. Then it is found that the wave-velocity V

must satisfy the equation P

V?—a? +

m?

Pg

n?

a yiL Te

This is a quadratic equation in V?, and we conclude that for a

given direction of the wave-front there are two wave-velocities. Associated with each of these: values there are definite values of L:M:N, and these determine the polarizations of the two waves. They are at right-angles to one another and to the direction of the wave. A simple example is given by a wave going along the direction of z, where the two velocities are œ and 8 and the directions of polarization x and y. Another example is given by a uniaxial crystal where w= 8. The wave-velocities are then given by V=a and V?=a%x?+-

(Pm).

When this surface is cut by a plane parallel to the wave front, the longest and shortest radii of the section give the two values of the wave-velocity, and their directions give the polarizations. This construction shows among other things that the wave-velocity is fixed when the polarization is given, without reference to the direction of the wave-front. The phenomena we have so far described suffice to explain many of the features of crystal optics, in particular they are all that is required to understand the action of quarter-wave plates, nicols and other polarizing instruments, but they do not explain the fundamental fact that things seen through a crystal look double. To understand this we have to consider rays, not plane waves of indefinite breadth. In making Huygens’ construction it would be wrong to draw the normal surface round each point and base the construction of fig. 3 on this, for the normal surface is only a diagram describing how plane waves can go, and does not represent the front of a wave emitted from a point. To find the form of this wave-front, we imagine that at every point of the normal surface a plane is drawn perpendicular to the radiusvector. All these planes will envelop a surface of two sheets, and this we call the ray surface. In general shape it resembles the normal surface, and has four conical points lying in the same plane, but now at different angles; these are called the jay axes. Huygens’ construction is done with the ray surface, not the normal surface. For uniaxial crystals the ray surface degenerates to a sphere and a spheroid touching the sphere at the ends of the axis. It will be readily believed that double refraction involves much complicated geometry, and the complete conquest of the subject by Fresnel is one of the greatest feats ever performed in physics. Effects can be obtained by illuminating crystals with suitably polarized light. Plate fig. 4 shows the effect obtained in the case of a uniaxial crystal, cut at right angles to the crystal axis; and fig. 5 that in the case of a biaxial crystal, cut at right angles to the bisector of the angle between the optic axes. We must omit their explanation, which requires a detailed discussion. We can only refer to the curious phenomenon of conical refraction which was discovered theoretically by Hamilton and after-

LIGHT

75

metry, though the principal wave-velocities may vary with the colour. In biaxial crystals of the monoclinic and triclinic systems the principal axes may vary in position as well, and the most complicated colour patterns may be produced. Some crystals, such as

light through the medium and seeing how an analyzing nicol must be placed in order to extinguish the light. The gyrational constant is the rotation produced by a thickness of 1 cm. of the substance. In quartz the gyration is very strong, being 217° per cm. for yellow light, but is complicated by double refraction of the uniaxial type, and it is only for light going very nearly along the crystal axis that it can be observed. There are also crystals of the regular system which exhibit the effect, for example sodium chlorate, and here it is present for all directions. It is also shown by liquids when their molecules contain a chemically asymmetric atom; such a liquid is isotropic in that all directions are equivalent, but is not, molecularly speaking, identical with its mirror image, and so it can and does refract the two types of circularly polarized light differently. Since many sugars contain an asymmetric carbon atom, measurement of the gyration is a very convenient method of estimating the strength of a sugar solution,

tourmaline, show a selective absorption, so that one of the two

and great practical use is made of it.

wards verified. When a narrow beam is sent along the axis of a biaxiai crystal, the direction for the ray becomes indeterminate so that it can be anywhere on a certain cone. On emergence at

the other side this cone is made into a cylinder by the surface refraction, and if this falls on a screen we get a ring of light. Double refraction is invariably present in crystals which are

not of the regular system, but is often quite small. Even in a strongly doubly refracting crystal like calcite the two principal indices are 1-66 and 1-49 so that their difference is considerably less than the refractive effect of either (which may be represented

by its difference from unity). In uniaxial crystals and in biaxial of the orthorhombic system the axes are fixed by the crystal sym-

polarized waves cannot penetrate far into the crystal, and the THE ATOMIC THEORY OF REFRACTION light emerges from the other side plane polarized. Double refraction also occurs when an isotropic solid is in a We have so far treated refraction as an effect of matter in bulk state of strain, and indeed the chance strains in badly annealed without enquiry as to how it comes about. The gross effect must glass are sometimes a cause of trouble in experiments with polar- be a superposition of the effects of the separate atoms and moleized light. On the other hand advantage has been taken of the cules, and we shall now consider how this superposition takes effect, for by making a transparent model, say of a girder, it is place. The light arising from an atom may have a great variety of possible to find the strains set up in it by the appropriate forces characters, but whatever these are it must have one feature, that in cases where the shape is too complicated for direct calculation. the wave is a spherical wave with the atom in its centre. We Another occurrence of double refraction is the Kerr effect,—an shall therefore first investigate what types of spherical wave are ambiguous name, as there is a second effect of magnetic type, also possible. In discussing diffraction we described a spherical wave named after this investigator. When light is sent through the glass emerging from a point source with amplitude inversely proporof a charged electric condenser, double refraction occurs, so that tional to the distance. Though that sufficed to give the outline of the component polarized in the direction of the electric force has the theory, it took no account of polarization, and it must be wave-velocity slightly different from that transversely polarized; further refined for our present purpose. We naturally build the the effect is proportional to the square of the electric force across complete theory by considering what types of electromagnetic the condenser. Yet another case, predicted and discovered by waves can emerge from a point. Voigt is a very small double refraction when light traverses Types of Spherical Waves.—The transverse nature of light matter placed in a strong magnetic field at right angles; this is makes it impossible to have a wave going out uniformly in all associated with magnetic gyration which we shall discuss later. directions. We give the mathematical form of the simplest possiNatural Optical Gyration.—Double refraction is not the ble wave. Let only optical effect exerted by crystals. The symmetrical properties of a crystal are of two different kinds, corresponding to S= Acos (ci—r)/r, where r = y (x22?+y2 +2?) rotation and reflection respectively. Most crystals have some symmetry elements of both types, but there are some which only and A is a constant. Then the electric and magnetic forces are have rotations, so that the crystal is not identical with its mirror given by image. The simplest geometrical form possessing this peculiarity is the screw, which cannot be superposed on its mirror image, and r ð ð> 8? ð? we therefore liken this type of crystal to a screw. Quartz is such a reer 5; faa tae aos a substance, and there exist two types of quartz crystals, which | r 0? I ð? we may call right- and left-handed. Now circularly polarized light has the same quality of a screw, and we should therefore expect that a right-handed quartz crystal would react differently to right- and left-handed circularly polarized light respectively. If these are worked out they lead to expressions which are rather It is in fact found that the wave-velocities are different, and this complicated in general, but simpler for points at a great distance from the source, and it will suffice to discuss the latter case. Conis the basis of the theory of optical gyration. Let us suppose that nr and n; are the refractive indices for the sider a large globe, surrounding the source, marked with circles two types of circularly polarized light of frequency v. Then the of latitude and longitude, the pole being the axis of x. The observer is on this sphere at angular distance 8 from the pole. Then right-handed wave will be the wave that reaches him will have its electric force polarized so E= Acoszrv(t—mz/c), E= —Asinzrv(t—mz/c), as to vibrate in the north and south direction, and the magnetic force will be east and west and equal in magnitude. -The electric and the left-handed "2s force is inversely proportional to the radius of the globe and to

Beo:

E,=Acosarv(i—nyz/c),

Ey=+Asinerv(t—mz/c).

Suppose that at the plane zo we have light polarized along the direction x. This is given by simply adding these two solutions together, and then at any value of z we shall have

mrt z Ez = 2Acoszry| i— ptn 2|cosrvm—nr)s/ C,

Mym

age,

S arg

the square of the wave-length, but, most important of all, it varies as sinf, vanishing at the pole and having its maximum at the equator. The actual value is

aT ct— E a(= AG AsinOcos-(ct—r)/r. In fig. 19 (a) the observer takes up various positions on the

Ny TN, 21.

y= 2Acoseny| t— a

2 |sine (m—ns)2/ C.

This means that at the point z we can regard the light as plane polarized in a direction inclined to x at angle rv(m—m,)2/c. The phenomenon is actually observed by sending plane polarized

globe (marked by his co-latitude), and looks towards the centre; then the diagram shows the vibration of the electric force that will reach him.

In the classical electromagnetic theory this is the wave which would be emitted by an electron of charge e vibrating with fre-

70

LIGHT

quency c/X and small amplitude a along the x-axis at the ongin, provided that A=ea. If the observer were to watch this motion, he would see it in perspective, and the electric force at the observer is proportional to and in the same direction as the apparent motion of the electron. It is very convenient to have a name for

emission of waves of the same frequency and having a definite

phase relation to the incident light, and this process, to which we shall limit the name of scattering, is responsible for refraction, both ordinary and double, and for gyration. In order that all these effects may be explained, we can see one property which the scat.

this type of wave, including the complete distribution in all tered waves must always have. The various refractive effects are directions round the source, and in view of the motion of the emitting electron we shall call it a line-wave. If the emitting electron describes a small circle instead of a line we have what we may call a circle-wave. ‘This can be regarded as two superposed line-

all due to an interference between the original and the scattered

waves, and, since the refraction is independent of the brightness of the light, it follows that the wave scattered by an atom, whatever its other characters, must be proportional in amplitude to the incident force. Another of its properties depends on the fact

that for ordinary light the wave-length of the light is always fay greater than the size of the atom; hence at any instant the atom is practically in a uniform field of force, and so the scattered wave will depend only on the polarization and frequency of the waves with their poles at right incident wave, but not at all on the direction of its wave-front, angles and phases differing by a These conditions must hold for any atom, but apart from them quarter wave-length. The pole there is great liberty of choice for the form of the scattered of the circle is perpendicular to spherical wave. We shall see that for some purposes we have to the poles of both lines. Fig. 19 assume circle-waves and screw-waves, but both ordinary and (b) shows the electric force as FIG. 19.—SPHERICAL WAVES double refraction are fully accounted for by means of ordinary seen by the observer for various observer, on a sphere in co-latitude line-waves; moreover for transparent substances the line-wave is positions on the globe. Its form The on the left, looks toward the centre. again resembles the perspective The amplitude and polarization of exactly in phase with the incident. All these results can be deview he would have of the elec- light received are shown. (a) Line- duced by assuming completely general types of spherical waves tron. At either of the poles he wave, (b) circle-wave, (c) screw-wave and then seeing what limitations will give rise to the various rereceives circularly polarized light, and it is important to notice fractive effects, but here we shall pursue the opposite course and that they will be of opposite types, one right-handed and the shall assume the form of the scattered wave and show that our other left-handed. For other directions the light is elliptically assumption is verified. For the most important case, that of the repolarized and becomes plane polarized at the equator. The in- fraction of a transparent medium, we can summarize our assumptensity is twice as great at the poles as at the equator. tions in the form that under incident light of amplitude Ky the We must also consider a third type of wave which is not so wave scattered by an atom is a line-wave of the form we gave simple. In the electromagnetic equations there is a mathematical with pE» written for A, and with pole along the direction of Ey. symmetry between the electric and magnetic forces, so that we Then p, which depends only on the nature of the atom and on can obtain a solution by interchanging their roles. If we con- the frequency of the incident light, is the scattering constant of struct a wave by adding to the ordinary line-wave a small “mag- the atom. The Light of the Sky.—The most primitive exhibition of netic” line-wave with the same pole and same frequency, we obtain a wave in which the light is everywhere of the same intensity scattering is not found in refraction, but in such phenomena as as for a line-wave, but is elliptically polarized with axes in con- the light of the sky (g.v.), and it is therefore appropriate to disstant ratio and lying in the directions of the circles of latitude cuss this first. Supposing that the observer looks at a point not and longitude. Such a wave is illustrated in fig, 19 (c). It is im- very near the sun, the light that he sees will have been ‘scattered portant to notice that in this case, unlike the circle-wave, the through a broad angle, and the phase of the light-path, sun—atom light-vector turns in the same direction in both hemispheres. —observer, will be different for each atom. Consequently the Thus the whole wave has the same screw character and we shall waves from the separate atoms do not reinforce one another. If call it a screw-wave. The screw-wave cannot be emitted by any the atoms were arranged with perfect regularity their waves would motion of an electron. It would be emitted if there were a single arrive at the eye with regular differences of phase and would magnetic pole moving with the electron, but such a thing does not destroy one another so that the sky would look black; however exist and in fact the wave can only arise from a system itself the uniform density of gases is not due to systematic regularity, having the screw character, such as a molecule with a chemically but to the unsystematic regularity produced by the enormous asymmetric atom in it. number of atoms. The atoms of a gas have no ordered positions, The Scattering of Light.—When light falls on an atom it as they have in a crystal, hence the brightness of sky light will sets the electrons in motion and they therefore re-emit light, and depend on compounding a large number of similar waves of quite the character of this scattered light will depend on the nature of arbitrary phases and taking the average value of the result. Conthe atom as well as the incident light. But the effect of a single sider a set of n atoms each of which is giving a wave of the same atom is too small to be observable, so that we always have to magnitude, but with phases €, €2, . . . €n. The resultant ampliuse a large number and the compounding of their effects produces tude will be proportional to cose;+-coses-+. . . -+cosen, and the complications. In fact the scattering of light by matter is a more intensity is the square of this. Now the square will consist of primitive quality than is refraction, and it is therefore best to terms like cose, and others like 2cose,cosez. The latter of reduce everything into terms of scattering before we approach the these are as likely to be negative as positive, so that they will theory of the behaviour of the single atom. There are several average out, but the former has average value 4 for each separate different ways in which an atom may emit light under the stimu- term. Thus the average intensity scattered by the n atoms is just lus of light, but we can exclude some of them from consideration. n times that scattered by one. If then we want to know the brightThus certain substances respond by fluorescing, that is to say ness of the sky we only require to calculate the intensity scatemitting light of a different wave-length, and again there is the tered by a single atom and multiply by the number of atoms in important phenomenon of resonance radiation (g.v.) where the the field of view. wave-length of the light is unaltered, but where it appears that We will suppose that NW is the total number of atoms in a there is no phase relation between the incident and the scattered small solid angle, the illumination from which is to be found. light. (See PHOSPHORESCENCE AND FLUORESCENCE.) Both these Then, from the formula for line-waves, we shall have an intensity phenomena are extremely interesting, but from the present point proportional to NE,’ p/d*, and here E,? is the intensity of the of view they may be regarded as an absorption and simultaneous direct sunlight. Now in fact p, the scattering constant of the re-emission of the light, and so they belong to the theory of the atom, does not depend very much on the wave-length, as long emission of light and are outside our scope. aS We only consider visible light and we can therefore say that the The most universal way in which atoms react to light is by the light scattered is inversely proportional to the fourth power of

LIGHT the wave-length. This explains why the sky is blue even though sunlight is rather weaker in the blue part of the spectrum than the red, for the wave-length of red light is about 1-8 times that of blue, and so factor X~ is about 10 times as large for blue light as for red. Another property of the sky-light is its polarization. Consider a point of the sky at right-angles to the sun.

poles, and so will give no light towards him. He will therefore only receive the light of the other component, and this will be

polarized in the direction perpendicular to the line joining the sun to the point observed. At other angles both polarized components are present, one in constant intensity and the other proportional to the squared cosine of the distance from the sun. If the sky is actually observed at right-angles to the sun with a nicol, it will be found that the polarization is not complete. This is partly to be attributed to rays that have been scattered several times on their way to the eye, and also to the fact that, though we have spoken only of atoms, the air is mostly composed of diatomic molecules, and for these the line-wave need not have its pole exactly coincident with the direction of the incident force. There is also usually a complication due to dust, which acts by direct reflection aa makes the sky much brighter near the sun than at broad angles. A most interesting application of the theory of' sky-light was made by Lord Rayleigh (3rd baron). The barometer shows the mass of the atmosphere, and so, by a direct comparison between the brightness of the sky and that of the sun, it is possible to deduce how much light is scattered by one cubic centimetre of air at ground level. In fact, if N is the number of atoms in 1 cu.cm., we can evaluate Np’. Now, as we shall see, we can also find Np by a study of refraction, and hence we can estimate N. The process led to one of the earliest good determinations of the fundamental constant of Avogadro, the number of molecules in a gram molecule. Similar processes have since been applied in the laboratory, with the advantage that the incident light can be itself polarized, and similar results are obtained. Scattering As the Cause of Refraction.—When we deduce refraction from scattering we are dealing with an incomparably greater effect than in sky-light, because here there will be phase relations between the original and the scattered waves, so that we compound the effects of the separate atoms by amplitudes instead of by intensities. We suppose that light-waves as they traverse matter have the same velocity as light in free space, but that they set up secondary waves from the atoms which, also proceeding with the velocity of light, interfere with one another and with the original wave. When the compound effect has been calculated, it is found that it can be expressed by altering the wave-velocity of the original wave and disregarding altogether the scattered waves, and in this way refraction is explained. Take a thin sheet of atoms spread over a plane on which monochromatic light falls perpendicularly. The diagram of fig. 7 will describe the process, provided that we now regard the plane as composed of matter. Each atom will emit a line-wave, and the effect at P will consist of the superposition of these waves on the original beam, which is supposed to arrive at P undisturbed. The process is very like Fresnel’s discussion of diffraction, though there we imagined that the original wave was suppressed at the plane AB. Suppose that there are NV atoms per unit volume, in a thin sheet of thickness Z spread over the z plane, and let the incident wave be

E;= Feos—* (ct—z). The effects that all the atoms produce at P can be summed just

as in Fresnel’s construction, and the result is an amplitude 27

À

quarter wave-length from that of the original wave; this is due to the fact that the scattered waves are in phase with the incident, and is in contrast with Fresnel’s construction, in which, in order to get the right result, the phase had to be advanced by a quarter wave-length. We now add the two waves together, and, taking advantage of the smallness of the scattered wave, we find

The unpolarized

light from the sun may be broken into two polarized components, one of which has electric force pointing at the observer. The linewaves induced by this component will have the observer at their

—2nrF Nip

|

sin— (ct—2).

The important point to notice is that the phase differs by a

Foos

[c¢—z+20N lp].

If we adopt the ordinary process of refraction and attribute the change of phase to the changed wave-velocity during the passage through the thickness / of the sheet of matter, we should say the emergent wave was

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LOCOMOTIVE

DEVELOPMENT] STEAM

LOCOMOTIVE

DEVELOPMENT

in America.

Although there were numerous predictions and suggestions of

steam-propelled carriages, notably those of Sir Isaac Newton, in 1630, Cugnot’s steam-driven road wagon in 1769 and Murdock’s in 1784, there is little authentic information as to when actual locomotion by steam power first occurred, but there is definite record of the first success in heavy haulage, obtained on a prepared track, in England,

when Richard

Trevithick,

over the fire door.

There

was

only one

cylinder, which was 8 in. diameter, by 54 in. long. Trevithick

found that smooth tread wheels had sufficient adhesion, and that

the exhaust steam, when turned back in the stack, could be

effectively utilized to promote combustion in the fire-box.

The Rocket.—Between Trevithick’s first engine (1803), and

the “Rocket” (1829), came the Blenkinsop colliery locomotive,

built by Fenton, Murray and Wood of Leeds in 1812, Hedley with his “Puffing Billy” in 1813, Stephenson’s “Blucher” in 1814 and various other developments. After George Stephenson produced his first locomotive his energies were devoted to the improvement

of the steam locomotive by the various stages which led up to the “Rocket.” The Stockton and Darlington Railway Company, the first public railway, was opened in 1825, and Stephenson was

the engineer of the “Locomotive,” which was built by him in that

year.

Several other locomotives

were

built, but none

were

entirely satisfactory. In 1829, the directors of the Liverpool and Manchester railroad offered a prize of £500 for the best locomotive engine. There were originally ten competitors, but the number

was reduced on the morning of the trials to five: “The Novelty,” “Sans Pareil,” the “Rocket,” the “Cycloped” and the “Perseverance.” The trials lasted seven days, after which on Oct. 26, 1829,

Stephenson’s “Rocket” which was the only engine that fulfilled the conditions of the competition, was awarded the prize. When drawing a load equivalent to three times its own weight, the “Rocket” travelled at the rate of 124 m. per hour; and with a carriage and passengers at the rate of 24 m. an hour, with the cost per mile for fuel about 3 pence. Its success was due to the combination of the tubular boiler, suggested by Henry Booth, and a suitably proportioned blast pipe, first used by Richard Trevithick, and a simple power transmission mechanism in the direct drive between the cylinder piston and the driving wheels. The principal characteristics of the “Rocket” were: boiler pressure 50 lb.; cylinders 8 by 164 in.; one pair drivers, 3 ft. 84 in. diameter; boiler, 3 ft. 4 in. diameter, by 6 ft. long; fire-box, 3 by 2 ft.; boiler tubes, 23 ft. 3 in.; fire-box heating surface, 63 sq.ft.; boiler tube heating surface, 7 sq.ft.; total heating surface, 138 sq.ft.; weight of engine, about 9,500 pounds. Other Early Developments.—The early canal, quarry and coal mining engineers in the United States favoured the building of railroads as the result of their investigations in England -at about the time that public opinion was being influenced in that direction there. About 1800 the American people began to realize the need of highway and other inter-communication as a means for developing the extensive unsettled districts of the country.

The difficulty of constructing artificial waterways, the slowness of canal boats and the freezing of transportation channels for a con-

siderable part of each year, gave impetus to the movement.

In

1828, John B. Jervis, chief engineer of the Delaware and Hudson Canal Company, convinced of the feasibility of rail motive power, presented a plan to the management, with the result that

Horatio Allen, assistant engineer, was sent to England, to study railroad operation

and to contract

for rails and locomotives.

Jervis planned to bring the anthracite coal of the Susquehanna valley, by rail, into the valleys of the Delaware and the Hudson rivers, and on to the ocean. Allen in 1828 contracted for four

locomotives.

The locomotive

“America,”

other

three

locomotives

built

by

Foster,

Rastrick and Company, of Stourbridge, England, were the “‘Stourbridge Lion,” “Delaware” and “Hudson.” The “Stourbridge Lion” reached New York on May 13, 1829. It was transported up the

Hudson to Rondout, and by canal to Honesdale, Pa. It was set up and made a trial trip on Aug. 8, 18209, this being the first

operation of a locomotive in the Western Hemisphere. The second a Cornish and third locomotives from Foster, Rastrick and Company arrived

mine captain had his first locomotive built in 1801. Trevithick’s frst locomotive (1803), had four wheels, all drivers, 4 ft. 6 in. diameter, and the boiler was 6 ft. long and had a return flue, bringing the stack

279 The

furnished by Robert

Stephenson and Company, arrived in New York on Jan. 15, 1829. It was transported up the Hudson river and through the canal

from Rondout and cleared Eddyville on July 16, 1829. There

its record is lost, and so far as, is known, it was never operated

in New York on Aug. 9 and Sept. 17, 1829, respectively. Their subsequent history is obscure. The “Peter Cooper,” the first locomotive built in the United States, was successfully operated on the Baltimore and Ohio railroad, as early as Aug. 28, 1830. A speed of from 5 to 18 m. per hour was attained with a car and 23 persons, and the average tractive force developed represented about 1-43 h.p. or more than three times as much as the “Rocket” developed. This improvement was due to the higher pressure

steam used by the “‘Peter Cooper.” On Jan. 4, 1831, the Baltimore and Ohio offered $4,000 for the best American engine of 34 tons, to pull 15 tons, on level track at a speed of 15 m. an hour. Phineas Davis won the prize with the “York,” a vertical engine with four 30 in. wheels. In 1832 the “Ironsides”—Matthew Baldwin’s first engine—was put into service in the United States. After a trial and some imperfections had been remedied, it was put into regular service and did duty on the Philadelphia, Germantown and Norristown railroad and others for over 20 years. The Baltimore and Ohio Railroad Company was a pioneer in the United States, it having been chartered by the State of Maryland on Feb. 27, 1827, and incorporated on April 24 of the same year. Its centenary pageant and exhibit held near Baltimore, Md., during 1927, gave a graphic exhibition of transport since the first settlement of the nation. For this exhibit the “Tom Thumb,” built by Peter Cooper, of New York in 1829-30, to prove the practicability of steam operation, was reproduced and operated. The original “Tom Thumb” ran successfully on the rails of the Baltimore and Ohio and was followed by the “Thomas Jefferson,” 1834; “Winans Camel Back,” 1848; “William Mason,” 1856, and the “J. C. Davis,” 1875, first passenger engine of the Mogul type used by the Baltimore and Ohio. The first Mallet type locomotive built in the United States in 1903-04, Baltimore and Ohio No. 2,400, named “John E. Muhlfeld,” was exhibited, as well as numerous later steam and electric locomotive designs. The “King George V.,” No. 6,000, the most powerful locomotive in Great Britain, was also sent over for the pageant. This locomotive, on its trial trip, ran from Paddington to Plymouth, a distance of 2262 m. in 4 hours and 2 minutes, at the rate of 61-7 m. an hour, with a load of 410 tons. It is of the ten-wheel type, with four cylinders, 16; by 28 in.; the inside cylinders are connected to the forward pair of drivers, and the outside cylinders to the second pair of drivers. The boiler pressure is 250 lb., drivers, 78 in. diameter, weight on drivers, 151,200 pounds. With the “King George V.” was sent the “North Star,” one of the first engines on the Great Western Railway of England, designed by Sir Daniel Gooch, of that company, and built by Robert Stephenson and Company. The “North Star” as well as others of the “Star” class of locomotives, of the 2-2-2 type, as designed and built by Sir Daniel Gooch, at the Swindon works of the Great Western about 1846, for fast passenger service, was adapted to a 7 ft. gauge of track; cylinders, 18 by 24 in.; one pair of driving wheels, 96 in.; heating surface, 1,952 sq.ft.; boiler tubes, 300; and was equipped with the Gooch fixed link valve motion. This locomotive had a maximum speed of 78 m. per hour, and when evaporating about 1,500 gal. of water per hour, the fuel consumption averaged about 2-5 Ib. of coal per horse-power hour, which compares most favourably with present performance. The Delaware and Hudson Company high-pressure freight locomotive, No. 1,401, the “John B. Jervis,” was also exhibited. The outstanding feature of this locomotive is the water tube—fire flue type of boiler carrying 400 Ib. boiler pressure; one high-pressure cylinder, 224 in. and one low-pressure cylinder, 384 in. diameter, by 30 in. stroke; the weight on four pairs of drivers, 295,000 Ib.; driving wheels, 57 in. diameter; and the tractive power of

280

LOCOMOTIVE

85,000 lb. in simple gear, 70,800 Ib. in compound gear and 18,000 Ib. additional tractive power in the tender truck booster for starting and accelerating trains. Locomotive Classification—Prior to the locomotive classification system developed by F. M. Whyte, mechanical engineer of the New York Central and Hudson River Railroad Company, the designation was by name only, as Ten-Wheel, Mogul, Consolidation and the like. Whyte’s classification, which has been generally adopted, is by numerals. It consists of three divisions, the first to designate the total number of leading truck wheels: the second, the total number of coupled driving wheels and the last, the total number of trailing wheels. In some cases, the number of leading and trailing truck wheels in the tender is also added. Capacity and Efficiency.—The capacity of a locomotive is usually measured in terms of tractive “power,” “force” or “effort,” or by indicated horse-power, draw-bar pull, draw-bar horse-power or draw-bar horse-power hour. The tractive force of a steam locomotive is the pressure exerted by the action of the steam against the pistons in the cylinders, through the medium of connecting mechanism, to turn the driving wheels and cause the locomotive to advance. It is measured at the tread of the driving wheels, the internal friction or resistance of the engine being neglected. It is closely related to “hauling capacity,” and in practice, both are influenced by such factors as weight on driving wheels; arrangement of the leading and trailing truck wheels; mean effective pressure in cylinders; condition of, and material in, tyres and rail; factor of adhesion; uniformity of crank effort; and boiler capacity. The hauling capacity, which is represented by the draw-bar pull, horse-power or horse-power hour, is the tractive force, less the locomotive friction. The tractive effort and the draw-bar pull or horse-power, when a steam locomotive is starting, accelerating or operating a train at speed, are largely dependent on the capacity of the boiler and superheater to maintain the required amount of steam at the pressure and temperature for which the locomotive is designed. In the design of modern steam locomotives the boiler horse-power capacity should equal or .exceed the cylinder or indicated horsepower capacity. The machine efficiency is another important factor and represents the amount of power absorbed by the internal mechanism and the moving and operating parts of the locomotive itself. The thermal efficiency of the locomotive is usually stated in terms of the heat value of the fuel, as fired, to produce its hauling capacity at the rear engine or tender draw-bar. In the average steam locomotive the thermal efficiency, based on the fuel as fired during road service, will vary from 4 to 9% where high steam pressures and temperatures, multiple

expansion, feed-heating and the like are utilized.

A pound of average United States coal, as used by the railways, will run about 13,500 B.T.U. as fired, and with proper combustion in the fire-box of a steam locomotive, will enable from 50 to 80% of its heat value to flow across the boiler and the superheater heating surfaces, to the water and the steam, most of the remainder of the heat passing out of the stack in the form of cinders, escaping gases with the ash, and by radiation. The steam pressure and temperature produced, in consequence of this heat transference from the furnace gas to the water and the steam, when they reach the cylinders, transform from 8 to 9% of the total heat in the steam into mechanical energy, in the conventional single expansion cylinder locomotives, the remainder passing away through the stack with the exhaust steam. By the use of feed-heating, a certain percentage of this heat in the exhaust steam may be recovered and returned to the boiler in the form of heat in the feed-water. Likewise, the waste heat in the cinders and gases passing through the smoke-box, and out of the stack, may be partially recovered, by utilization in an economizer for further heating of the boiler feed. Locomotive Design.—The problems involved in the design, material and construction of the modern locomotive are many and complex. Of first consideration is the roadway and structures over which the locomotive is to be operated, which involves the

permissible

truck and driving wheel loading, both static and

[DESIGN

dynamic, on the road bed and the bridges: then the Width and height of clearances as established by tunnels, overhead crossings station platforms and other limitations; the gradient and curva. ture to be negotiated; the required speed; character of the local fuel and water supply; length of turn-tables and engine-hous es-:

engine-house and shop facilities; location and general arrangement of fuel and water supply stations; length of runs between division

or intermediate terminals, and other similar factors. After the design has been prepared to conform to the foregoing requirements, then the general wheel arrangement and boiler and cylinder capacities must be determined upon to best meet the gradient curvature and train loading requirements for the different dis. tricts over which the locomotives are to operate. In these calculations, the size and capacity of the boiler and superheater, with special regard for the steam pressure and temperature, grate area fire-box volume and fire-box and boiler evaporation surfaces are important; also the locomotive bed or frame and driving or truck

wheel arrangement;

the kind and size of the cylinders and the

valve gear, after which the auxiliary devices and appliances to make up the assembly, as a whole, must be decided upon.

With respect to the weight and clearance limitations, the European and other foreign designers have been considerably handicapped due to the restrictions which, in the United States and Canada, have been less limited, and for which reason the

American practice has reached a stage, so far as size and capacity

are concerned, far in advance of other countries, and which has

enabled the development of heavier motive power for the handling

of longer and heavier trains. However, instead of resorting to improved combustion of fuel, maximum utilization of radiant heat, high rate of heat transfer, efficient convection, higher steam pressures and temperatures and the more economical use of the heat in the steam, the general trend, particularly during the past 20 years, has been to more extravagant methods of stoking and use of fuel, lower steam pressures in boilers and cylinders and the ejection of a greater percentage of heat from the exhaust nozzle and stack. The special appliances that have been intro-

duced are for fuel handling, firing, combustion, superheating, boiler circulation, feed water heating and feeding, steam distribution and utilization, lubrication, insulation, lighting, heating, safety, comfort and labour saving. Those auxiliary appliances, such as trailer and tender truck auxiliary engines, stack blowers, air brake pumps, mechanical stokers, fuel oil heaters and atomizers, power reverse gears, fire door openers, feed water pumps, injectors, grate shakers, coal pushers, ashpan slide pushers, ashpan blowers, water scoops, drifting valves, electric generators, automatic train control devices, steam heat equipment, cab heaters, lubricators, wheel flange oilers, bell ringers, rail sanders, cylinder cocks, steam whistles, safety valves, blow-off cocks, snow flanges and like accessories all require live steam or heat from the boiler of the locomotive for their operation, which the boiler and firebox must generate, in addition to the steam which is actually used for overcoming heat losses. The steam locomotive, therefore, must not only produce superheated steam for the development of draw-bar pull, but it must also supply saturated and superheated steam to various auxiliaries for its own, and for train operation. In the case of a modern passenger locomotive, even greater demands for power are required in connection with the train lighting, heating and ventilating equipment; hot and cold water and refrigeration systems and other devices. The most modern conventional type will produce at its best, from 6 to 8% thermal efficiency at the tender drawbar in terms of the heat value in the fuel fired. In average road service this percentage will be reduced to, from 4 to 6% and is being obtained in the basic design by the use of, from 200 to 250 lb. boiler pressure, in combination with an average amount of superheat in, from two to four single expansion cylinders, or in duplex multiple expansion types of cylinders. In the handling of heavy freight tonnage, the question of locomotives of great power as opposed to grade reduction involves, as a primary consideration, the operating cost per train mile, the train load and the resulting cost per ton mile for various kinds and capacities of locomotives on different gradients. For secondary consideration

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there are the factors of maintenance of way and structures and of the mechanical facilities required for the handling and upkeep.

(See Rarrways for a discussion of problem.) Speed, curvature and grade are factors that largely control the loading of locomotives, as well as the cost for their operation. In view of

engine and train crew wages and fuel being the governing factors in train operating expenses, it is believed that on the basis of an eight-hour day, per 100 m. run, freight train running speeds of 1s, 20 and 25 m. per hour are more economical, from a transportation standpoint, than speeds of ro, 30 and 35 m. per hour. In general, freight locomotives handling low class tonnage should be loaded to haul trains at an average schedule speed between terminals, including road delays, of from x2 to r5 m. per hour on low grade, and of from xro to 12 m. per hour on high grade lines, which is as fast as economy will allow.

Boiler Pressures.—Until 1895, steam locomotive boiler pressures were generally limited to 150 or 160 lb. gauge pressure. Then there was an advance to 200 Ib. and in 1903-05 the Baltimore and Ohio went to 235 Ib. in its first Mallet articulated compound locomotive, Baltimore and Ohio No. 2,400; and in 1905, to 225 Ib. in its first 35 Pacific type passenger locomotives. During the next 20 years there was practically no increase, the general tendency being to use 200 lb. as a maximum, due largely to the adherence to the conventional type of locomotive boiler with its flat and radial sheet stay-bolts, water-legs and other non-selfsupporting surfaces. During the past five years, on account of the public service central power station boilers being installed with pressures ranging from 350 to 650 Ib., and marine boiler pressures going to 350 and 400 lb., there has been a tendency to raise the locomotive steam pressures and temperatures on account of the ability to increase locomotive capacity within the established clearance and weight limitations and the possible fuel and water savings. With few exceptions, the conventional type of boiler is being continued with 250 lb. gauge pressure, the Delaware and Hudson Company having gone as high as 275 and 300 |b. but in order to secure further gain in capacity and fuel saving, several locomotives have been designed and constructed during

the past five years to make use of from 350 to 400 lb. boiler pressure, and which have been designed with a water tube type of fire-box. Notable among these are the Baldwin Locomotive Works

experimental locomotive No. 60,000, which is a three-cylinder compound, using 350 Ib. boiler pressure; and the Delaware and Hudson Company’s “Horatio Allen” and “John B. Jervis” ConSolidation type freight locomotives of the two-cylinder compound type, making use of 350 and 400 Ib. boiler pressure, respectively. As the result of the satisfactory performance of these two last

FROM

1831 TO THE PRESENT

DAY

named locomotives the Delaware and Hudson Company now has in preparation a design of another freight locomotive which will make use of 500 lb. boiler pressure. The “Horatio Allen” (named after the engineer who ran the first locomotive in the Western Hemisphere), high-powered locomotive No. 1,400 completed in 1924, was an epochal event in steam locomotive development. It has a total loaded weight of engine and tender in working order of 273 tons, was designed by the Delaware and Hudson Company and built at the Schenectady

works of the American Locomotive Company. Instead of having the usual water-leg fire-box with its undesirable flat sheets and staybolts and the sluggish circulation of water around these sheets, the fire-box is built up of self-supporting cylindrical structures in the form of drums and tubes disposed horizontally and vertically, requiring no stays, and are directly exposed to the radiant heat of combustion and split the boiler water into small steams to provide for its rapid circulation, quick absorption of heat and release of the steam bubbles. The “Horatio Allen,” when operating on a o-5% ascending grade in tonnage freight service, with 3,217 actual gross tons in the train, at an average speed of 16-5 m. per hour, with coal of about 13,500 B.T.U., can produce an equivalent evaporation of 11.35 Ib. of water per pound of coal at an average high-pressure cylinder cut-off of 64%; on the basis of indicated horse-power per hour, including auxiliaries, the dry coal consumption was 2-15 lb., and the steam consumption was 17-5 lb.; on the basis of draw-bar pull, the dry coal consumption was 2-14 pounds. During this performance the efficiency of the boiler was 80-6%, the machine efficiency was 93-86%, the thermal efficiency at the tender in terms of the heat value of the coal was 8.72%. An important advantage of the higher steam pressure on the “Horatio Allen” and the “John B. Jervis” locomotives has been found to be in the ability to increase the capacity of a locomotive within the same roadway clearance and weight limitations, and to increase correspondingly the train loading. In Europe, the Schmidt high-pressure experimental ten-wheel passenger locomotive on the German State railways, which makes use of 855 Ib. boiler pressure, is outstanding. From the results, to date, of this locomotive, and its use of multiple pressure, superheating and re-superheating, multiple expansion and feed-water heating and purification, it has been proven conclusively that high

pressures are safe in operation, great fuel savings are effected, that the first are little more than the conventional pressure locomotive, and that the high pressure machine can be easily handled by competent locomotive engineers and engine-house and shop organizations. The German State railways are proceeding with the construction of a second locomotive which will make use of

282

LOCOMOTIVE

1,700 lb. steam pressure. These are, however, exceptional cases, and it is still debatable as to whether the increased weight and first cost necessary to steam pressures beyond soo or 600 lb., In locomotive design, will be justified by the greater economy over what has already been obtained from the 350 and 4oo Jb. pressures in combination with multiple expansion. In 1928, fora locomotive having four pairs of coupled driving wheels, the Delaware and Hudson Company’s Consolidation No. 1,401, “John B. Jervis,” is the most powerful. For starting and acceleration up to 8 m. per hour, it develops a tractive power of 103,000 lb., above which speed it is reduced to about 85,000 lb., up to ro or 12 m. per hour, when it is still further reduced to between 6 5,000 and 70,000 pounds. The largest and most powerful steam locomotives in the United States are represented by the Mallet types. On the Kansas City Southern railway, Mallet articulated compounds of the 2-8-8-o type, carrying 250 Ib. boiler pressure, have a tractive power in simple gear of 147,500 Ib., and in compound gear of 122,500 pounds. When the tender truck booster is cut in, this produces an additional tractive power of about 13,000 Ib. for starting and acceleration, thereby bringing the total up to about 160,000 pounds. The Virginian railway has in its service some of the largest steam locomotives in the United States. These are of the Mallet articulated compound 2-10-r10-2 type, having a maximum tractive power of 176,000 Ib. in simple gear, 147,200 lb. in compound gear and 108,000 lb. at a speed of 15 m. per hour. The modern American steam locomotive is quite deficient in superheating, as the conventional type of superheater brings the last pass of the superheated steam before it reaches the branch pipes to the steam chests, through the coldest part, or front end, of the boiler and the smoke-box, where the prevailing temperatures are usually less than that of the superheated steam. The possibility of preventing this waste and increasing the total temperature of the steam will make it advisable to use a different type of super-

heater in the future. The possibilities of utilizing the waste heat in the exhaust steam from the main engines and from the auxiliaries, such as the air brake pump, turbo-generator, booster engines and other appliances, and from the smoke-box gases, offer another probability for substantial increase in capacity and reduction in fuel. Various types of open and enclosed feed-water heaters and economizers, now being used on passenger and freight locomotives in the European countries and in the United States and Canada, have demonstrated that savings of from 6% to as high as 18% in fuel can be brought about in this manner. The development of a mechanically driven pump, whereby the operating power can be obtained from the main cylinders and which will reduce the steam requirements for pumping from about 80 lb. of live steam per horse-power hour to from 16 to 20 lb., offers possibilities in this direction. The exhaust steam type of injector, as now developed, also enables substantial fuel savings, although these can be depended upon for operation with the exhaust steam only when the locomotive is running at a uniform speed of 6 m. per hour and more; when the boiler pressure does not exceed 250 Ib. and when the temperature of the feed-water does not exceed about 80° F. The burning of coal and lignite in powdered form, in suspension, the same as oil or gas, has come prominently to the front during the past ten years. There are, in 1928, in the United States and Canada, in central power station and industrial use, about 650 stationary boilers, representing about 8,500 nominal boiler horse-power, that are making use of powdered coal. Boiler capacities are being obtained of from 400 to 450% of the nominal ratings, and with combined boiler, furnace, superheater and economizer efficiencies of as high as from 90 to 92%, in terms of the heat value in the coal as fired, at between 125 and 275% of boiler rating. Progress is being made in marine service through the use of powdered coal, as well as on steam locomotives in America and Europe. One great advantage on railway systems using both coal and fuel oil is that when locomotives are transferred from the coal to the oil burning districts, and vice versa, it is not necessary to change the furnace and tender equipment to adapt them to the two fuels, and the method for firing the powdered coal or lignite is practically the same. The locomotive will have as great, if not

[STEAM CYLINDERS

more, an evaporative and superheating capacity with the solid as with the liquid fuel. (See Coar AnD Coar MINING; PULVERIzEp FUEL.) Steam Cylinders.—In Europe, the use of poppet valves as a substitute for piston valves is being brought forward , Particularly

in Austria, France and England.

A few locomotives have also

been equipped in the United States, but the applica tions an experimental nature, and the use of the piston valve inarecom-of

37,663

1805 48,357 1910 LOCOMOTIVES

66,502 1920 68.977 1924 LOCOMOTIVES

CHART SHOWING 1924

GROWTH

OF LOCOMOTIVES

IN SERVICE

FROM

1900 TO

bination with a Walschaerts or some similar outside valve gear,

even in combination with pressures as high as soo Ib., will no doubt be continued until the poppet valve in combination with

an angular motion gear has conclusively demonstrated its advantages, both from an operating and maintenance standpoint as compared with the linear movement. In the use of steam, the general practice in the United States and foreign countries is single expansion cylinders. Recently, by limiting the maximum cut-off in these cylinders to from 50 to 75%, an effort has been made to increase the expansion of the steam, reduce the loss of heat and produce greater economy through the use of a shorter cut-off. Reduction in the loss of heat is accomplished by the compound, triple and quadruple expansion engine by expanding the steam in several stages, which reduces the range of tem-

perature in each cylinder and the condensation, when saturated steam is used, or waste of superheat, when superheated steam is

used, but these multiple expansion engines have greatly increased the steam contacting cylinder and piston areas, and must be operated at relatively long cut-off. Furthermore, the counterflow use of the steam causes a great waste in heat. Therefore, the uniflow cylinder offers special inducements in locomotive practice. It has advantages over compounding in that the same results can be accomplished with shorter cut-off, and by the peculiarities of the flow of the steam in the cylinder. After entering the cylinder the steam does not retrace its steps, but continues to go forward from the point of entrance until it passes out, and in this way the steam in exhausting does not sweep the heat from the inlet port surfaces, nor from the cylinder heads. This method greatly reduces the cut-off, condensation and expulsion of heat with the exhaust, and enables the single cylinder non-condensing engine to excel in economy to a substantial degree the compound or any similar multiple expansion non-condensing engine. |

Future Development.—The trend of the steam locomotive

development is toward a wheel and running gear arrangement

that will provide the maximum ratio of main engine coupled adhesive to total engine weight, and of main engine power to

such adhesive weight;

500 Ib. steam pressure; 850° F total

temperature of the steam; a uniflow boiler, superheater and two

or four outside cylinder arrangement; piston valves and outside valve gear; a 100% furnace volume, evaporation surface and

LOCOMOTIVE

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COMPANY

PACIFIC

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LOCOMOTIVE—FORWARD

VIEW

272. Trailing truck details. 299. Bell lever and bell cord. 309. Delivery pipe. 412. Sellers U.S. standard non-lifting injector line check. 442. Sellers U.S. standard non-lifting injector

417. Steam gauge.

details. 448-449 Ragonnet power reverse gear details. 454. Ragonnet power reverse gear details. 458. Cab ventilator. 461. Cab eaves trough. 463. Throttle stem stuffing box gland. 465. Throttle lever. 471. Westinghouse independent brake valve body. 472. Westinghouse engineer’s valve handle. 473. Westinghouse engineer’s valve top case. 475. Duplex stoker elevator casing. 481. Franklin fire door opener hand lever. 484. Franklin

and hanger.

fire door

opener

hanger

bolt.

485.

497. Cab window, sash, frame and guides.

Franklin

fire door opener

tread

hanger

500. Cab window, sash, frame and guides.

adjusting

gear.

501—502.

486—487.

Franklin

Cab seat and box.

fire

door

opener

503. Sand rod handle.

tread

504.

Steam pipe to injector. 505. Side sheet of fire box. 526. Whistle lever rod. 534. Left injector steam valve handle. 535. Flange lubricator steam valve handle. 536. Car heating vaive handle. 537. Main fountain valve nandle. 53%. Coal pusher valve handle at turret. 539. Ragonnet reverse gear valve handie. 540. Right injector steam valve handle. 541. Main steam valve handle from turret to stoker. 542. Air pump steam valve handle. 543. Head-light turbine steam valve handle. 544. Main lubricator steam valve handle. 545. Cab heater turret steam valve handle. 546. Grate shaker steam valve handle. 547. Main blower valve handle. 548. Reducing valve for steam heat. 549. Car heat steam pipe. 550. Steam coil for flange lubricator. 551. Sight feed flange lubricator.

552. Sight feed stoker

lubricator.

553. Cab

brace.

554—555.

Whistle

rod and cord.

556-557.

Pyle

National

head-light

switch

and

dimmer.

558. Gauge cock. 559. Lubricator light. 560. Water glass lamp. 561. Water glass. 562-563. Water glass shut off valve and drip pipe valve. 564. Main steam pipe valve to grate shaker. 565. Washout plug for crown sheet. 566. Left blower valve. 567. Cab heater valve. 568. Stoker valve. 569. Coal passer valve. 570-571. Coal pusher pipe valve and pusher valve. 572. Grate shaker handles. 573. Grate shaker oil cup. 574. Water gauge funnel. 575. Cab opening stiffening angle. 576. Back cab window opening. 577-578. Cab window hook and gangway chain hook. 579. Bar for cab handhold. 580-582. Cab handhold and grabiron. 983. Cab drop seat. 584. Sprinkling hose valve. 585-586. Seat-step and foot-rest. 587. Seat box hasp. 588. Grate shaker lever. 589. Bottom cab stiffening

angle. 590. Oil pipe to duplex stcker driving rack. 591-595. Duplex mechanical starting valve lever. 599—600. Duplex stoker operating rod bearing and handles.

stoker details. 596. Blow-off cock lever. 597. Blower pipe. 598. Injector 60l. Lubricator pipe to steam cylinder. 602. Lubricator pipe to steam

cylinder of air pump. 603. Steam valve Pyle National head-light turbine. 604. Steam valve for Ragonnet reverse gear. 605. Coal pusher steam pipe. 606. Duplex stoker operating rod. 607. Steam gauge Pyle Nationa! head-light turbine. 608. Steam gauge for flange lubricator. 609. Pyrometer gauge. 610—611. Large and small duplex air gauges. 612-613. Car and cab heater gauges. 614. Steam gauge lamp. 615. Oil can 616. Duplex stoker conveyor oil cup. 617. Oil can shelf. 618. Train line gauge pipe. 619. Brake cylinder gauge pipe. 620. Release valve for brakes. rack. 621. Brake application pipe. 622. Distributing valve release pipe. 623. Main reservoir pipe. 624. Sander valve handle. 624a. Train line pipe cut-out cock handle. 625. Train line pipe cut-out cock. 626. Equalizing reservoir pipe. 627. Duplex stoker elevator casing door. 628. Drain pipe for gauge cock funnel. 629. Grate shaker. 630. Footplate. 631-640. Duplex mechanical stoker details. 641-642. Cab wall and hood. 643. Double-heading cock. 643a. Equalizing reservoir. 644. Cab handhold. 645. Cab handhold crowfoot. 646, Feed water suction pipe valve. 647. Air signal hose. 648. Gauge cock drip pipe. 649. Air brake hose. 650. Back buffer plate. 651.

Unit safety bar casting. 652. End piece of trailing truck. 653. Engine frame. 654—655. Duplex stoker cylinder and steam chest. 656. Left injector. 657. Blow-off pipe. 658. McLaughlin flexible conduit. 659. Suction hose. 660. Steam-heater pipe. 661. Franklin fire door. 662. Duplex stoker peep hole. 663. Duplex stoker elevator casing slide guide. 664. Feed water suction pipe valve bracket. 665. Sander valve. 666. Driver brake cylinder cut-out cock. 667. Du| 8 NIAY etnabas uane

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COMPANY

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4-6-2 TYPE

LOCOMOTIVE—CAB

AND

FIREBOX

DETAILS

door 251. Expansion plate. 252. Ashpan casing. 253. Operating lever for ashpan 24%. Driver brake lever. 249-250. Foundation ring bearing shoe and support. door. bar front hopper ashpan door. 256. Swinging lever front hopper ashpan Lifting 255. hopper. rear of door ashpan for lever Operating 254. of front hopper. 260. hopper ashpan door. 259. Connecting link front ashpan hopper door rigging. 257. Bell crank arm for rear hopper ashpan door. 258. Bell crank arm for front 262. Connecting link rear ashpan hopper door rigging. 263. Rear hopper Lower arm swinging lever ashpan hopper door. 261. Front hopper casting for ashpan. frame Rear 267. equalizer. lever rear hopper ashpan door. 266. Trailing truck and driving ashpan door. 264. Lifting bar rear ashpan hopper door. 265. Swinging and brakebracket. 270-277. Trailing truck details. 278-279. Trailing truck brakeshoe section bolts. 26%. Equalizer fulcrum ball. 269. Equalizer fulcrum socket key, keeper and of engine frame. 283. Footplate. 284. Drawbar pin. 285—287. Keeper section Rear 282. pipe. air and cylinder brake truck Trailing head. 280-281. cap rod. 390. Ragonnet reverse gear reach rod. 396-397. Tate flexible stay bolt drawbar. 288. Unit safety bar. 299. Bell lever and bell cord. 315. Sand box U.S. standard non-lifting valve and fountain. 401. Injector steam pipe. 402-403. Sellers 408. and sleeve. 398. Tate flexible stay bolt. 399-400. Sellers fountain pull. hand injector for non-lifting injector hand pull. 407. Bojler bracket injector details. 404-405. Steam turret and valve. 4O6. Sellers U.S. standard Sellers U.S. injector indicator. 410. Sellers U.S. standard non-lifting injector. 411.thread for feed Sellers U.S. standard non-lifting injector hand pull handle. 409. Sellers Hose nut non-lifting injector line check. 413. Sellers feed water strainer. 414. standard U.S. Sellers 412. overflow. injector non-lifting standard brick arch. 421. National head-light turbine. 417. Steam gauge. 420. Security sectional water suction pipe. 415. Rear Anchor for back head brace. 416. Pyle bar, arm and connection. trunnion bearing. 424. Grade side frame. 425-427. Front gate shaking Arch tube. 422. Copper pipe for injector indicator. 423. Grate 434-435. trunnion. grate and finger Grate grate lever. 431. Dumping grate. 432-433. Sellers U.S. 428-429. Dumping grate crank arm and connecting bar. 430. Dumping Grate shaking rod. 440. Ashpan frame. 441. Foundation ring. 442-447. 437. bar. shaking grate Back 436. boss. trunnion for boiler grate plate and Grate arm 457. Stiffening reverse gear details. 455. Door opening. 456. Back boiler head. standard non-lifting injector details. 448-454. Ragonnet power 463. Throttle stem stuffing box gland. 464. fulcrum. Throttle 462. trough. eaves Cab 461. roof. Cab 460. siphon coil. 470. brace. 458. Cab ventilator. 459. Whistle bell crank. and latch handle. 468. Throttle stem stuffing box. 469. Steam gauge Throttle stem. 465. Throttle lever. 466-467. Throttle lever quadrantindependent brake valve body. 472. Westinghouse engineer’s vaive handle. 473. WestingWestinghouse 471. handle. valve brake independent Westinghouse 477. Franklin fire door latch bracket. stoker elevator casing. 476. Franklin butterfly fire door. house engineer’s valve top case. 474. Brake pipe. 475. Duplex fire door opener hand lever. 482. Duplex Franklin 481. cylinder. and casing gear opener door fire 478. Duplex stoker steam jet nozzle. 479—480. Franklin fire door opener trea handle. 484. Franklin fire door opener hanger bolt. 485. Franklin Duplex stoker steam stoker elevator drive and reverse casing. 483. Duplex stoker operating 488. Duplex stoker conveyor drive and reverse gear. 489. hanger. and tread opener door fire Franklin 486—487. hanger adjusting gear. casting. 493. Duplex stoker rack head and frame. 492. Duplex stoker supporting leg or cradle cylinder engine stoker Duplex 490—491. sash, frame and engine. to rod window, Cab valve 495. Duplex stoker conveyor drive and reverse unit. 496-500. housing. 494. Duplex stoker lubricator hole in rack housing. of fire box. 508—509. Top and bottom trailing truck sheet Side 505. injector. to pipe Steam 504. handle. rod guides. 501—502. Cab seat and box. 503. Sand Duplex stoker elevator shifter and shaft. 530. Inside throat sheet. 526. Whistle lever rod. 528-529. spring hanger keys. 522. Drawbar pin bushing. 525. ribs of distributor tube. 533, Cab handhold or grab-

Franklin fire door opener tread weight. iron.

641-642.

Cab

hood.

531. Duplex stoker distributor tube.

643. Double-heading

cock

532. Duplex stoker deflecting

LOCOMOTIVE

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BY COURTESY

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SINCLAIR

COMPANY

PACIFIC 142. Running board.

OR 4-6-2 TYPE

LOCOMOTIVE—BOILER

AND

DRIVE

WHEEL

DETAILS

160. Baker valve gear reverse yoke pivot pin. 161. Baker valve gear (see Plate IX.). 162. Driver spring stirrup.

171-172. Driver brake

pull rod and hangar. 174, Driving wheel spoke. 175. Driving wheel tyre. 176. Baker valve gear eccentric rod. 177. Front driving axle journal bearing. 178. Front driving axle. 181. Connecting or main rod. 182. Front section of side or parallel rod. 184. Baker valve gear reverse yoke. 185. Reach rod carrying arm. 186. Valve gear counterbalance spring case. 187. Baker gear frame bracket. 188. Frame brace. 189. Driver spring hanger. 190. Driver brake lever. 191. Main driver spring.

192. Driver spring hanger step.

wheel hub. 197. Baker valve gear eccentric rail of main frame. 203. Equalizer bracket.

or side rod. 208. Connecting rod fork.

193. Main driver counterbalance.

194. Driving wheel and axle key. 195. Main driving axle.

209. Connecting

rod cotter for brasses. 210. Connecting rod key for brasses.

211. Connecting rod oil cup.

tric crank clamp. 213. Eccentric rod crank pin, 214-231. Ragonnet power reverse gear details. 232. Rear driving axle spring. band and stirrup.

196. Main driving

crank. 198. Main crank pin. 199. Reach rod. 200. Main driver spring hanger seat. 201. Frame brace. 202. Top 204. Driver equalizer. 205. Lower rail of main frame. 206. Rear section of side of parallel rod. 207. Knuckle pin

235. Franklin automatic driving box.

236. Franklin

automatic

driving

box adjusting

wedge.

237. Rear

212. Eccen-

233-234. Driving axle spring

driving

axle journal bearing. Rear driving axle journal box. 239. Rear side rod flange. 240-242. Franklin automatic adjustable driving box wedge spring bracket, bolt and spring. Rear driving wheel crank pin. 244. Franklin automatic adjustable driving box wedge spring cap. 245. Rear driving axle. 246-247. Driver brake brakeshoe and lever. 249-250. Foundation ring bearing shoe and support. 251. (see Plate VII.) 300. Dry pipe—runs from steam to cylinders Plate IX.) 306. Sand box cap. 308. Sellers injector check. 309. Delivery pipe. 310. Superheater unit support. 311-312. Sand pipe and sand box.

238.

243. beam, (see 313-

314, Sand lever and sand pipe connection. 315. Sand box rod. 316. Westinghouse air pump low pressure air cylinder lubricator. 317. Westinghouse air pump high pressure air cylinder lubricator. 318-350. Westinghouse air pump details. 352. Second course of boiler shell. 353. Dome reinforcing 355. Front anchor for back head brace. 356. Hand rail. 357. Dome casing. 3535-365. Chamber throttle valve. 366. Air pipe from duplex plate. 354. Dome. compressor governor to main reservoir. 367. Steam pipe from duplex compressor governor to compressor. 368. Steam valve body of duplex compressor governor. 369. Steam pipe ‘o air compressor. 370. Chamber throttle valve throttle rod. 371-373. Whistle, whistle rod and whistle lever. 374. Check unit from maximum compressor head

of duplex compressor governor. 375. Check unit for excess pressure head of duplex compressor governor. 376. Spring box for maximum pressure head of duplex Compressor governor. 377. Diaphragm body for duplex compressor governor. 378. Siamese fitting for duplex compressor governor. 379. Pipe from excess pressure head of duplex compressor

governor to automatic brake valve. 380. Safety valve. 382-384. Chambers throttle valve balance valve, piston and packing ring. 385. Superheater forged return bend. 386. Ragonnet reverse gear valve chest gland. 387. Beading on tubes. 388. Arch tube wash-out plug. 389. Outside throat sheet. 391. Back tube sheet. 392. Crown sheet. 393. Stiffening plate for safety valve opening. 394. Outside or roof sheet of fire box. 395. Boiler brace. 418. Combustion chamber. 419. Wash-out plug. 506. Side rod ofl cup. 516. Front driving wheel crank. 517. Front driving wheel counter balance. 518-519, Baker valve gear counter balance

rod and arm.

520.

Main

Westinghouse air pump high pressure air piston. 527. Belpaire cross stay

reservoir.

521. Driver spring hanger key. 523. Westinghouse compound air pump.

524,

Prate VIII

LOCOMOTIVE

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COMPANY

PACIFIC

OR 4-6-2 TYPE

LOCOMOTIVE—CYLINDER

DETAILS

SMOKEBOX

AND

base and bar. 13. Coupler knuckle pin. 14. Pilot brace. 15. Safety chain eye. 1-9. Coupler and uncoupling lever details. 9. Front end step. 10—12. Pilot nosing, of pilot. 19-20. Pilot step bracket trend. 21. Pilot base tie bolt. 22-24. 16. Snow flanger equalizer (Ray type). 17. Pilot and buffer angle. 18. Back vertical axle box cellar. 28. Truck axle. 29. Truck axle journal bearing. 30. Truck Truck 27. wheel. Truck 26. pedestal. Truck 25. type). (Ray details flanger Snow rod casing and rod. 35. Pedestal] tiebar bolt. 36. Truck pedestal bolt. 37. journal box. 31. Truck pedestal rib. 32. Truck frame. 33~—34, Extension piston brake lever. 41. Front truck equalizer. 42. Cylinder cock slide rod. Truck pedestal tiebar cross tie. 38. Truck brakeshoe. 39. Truck brakehead. 40. Truck cylinder head. 48-49. Front cylinder head casing and flange. 43—44. Truck spring hanger and bracket. 45. Cylinder shell. 46. Cylinder bushing. 47. Front 53-54. Piston rod and piston. 55. Steam port. 56. Piston packing ring. 50. Extension piston rod packing. 51-52. Front truck semi-elliptic spring and band. Lubricator details (Schlacks system). 64. Front steam chest casing. 65 57-58. Front plate stiffening angle and front plate. 59. Front buffer beam. 60-63.

Boiler front bolt.

66. Boiler front.

plate stud and number plate. box shell.

passage.

89. Smokestack.

95. Superheater

76. Smoke-box door clamp bolt.

77. Cylinder.

78.

82-85. Head-light bracket, lamp, reflector and casing (Pyle National).

90—91. Steam-pipe

header

70—72. Flagstaff fixture, flagstaff and signal flag. 73-

67. Boiler front hand rail. 68-69. Smoke-box door clamp and door.

75. Spark cleaning hole cap ring, cap and handle.

(type A).

ring and flange.

96. Superheater

92. Superheater

unit ball end.

steam-pipe

Piston

connection.

97. Superheater unit clamp.

103-104.

Netting

stud

nut.

pedestal

79. Truck

86. Front smoke-box ring. 93. Saturated

steam

98. Dry pipe flange.

and

netting.

105.

tiebar.

80-81.

87. Netting frame.

passage.

Number

88. Smoke

94. Superheater steam

99. Superheater header ring. 100.

Diaphragm.

106-113.

Superheater

Dry pipe stiffening ring. 101. Front tube sheet. 102. Smokestack lift pipe. pipe and passage. 118. Horizontal diaphragm pocket. 119. Lubricator diadamper details. 114. Steam pipe. 115. Muffled exhaust nozzle. 116~117. Exhaust valve steam pipe extension (Schlacks system). 121. Intermediate smoke-box check phragm terminal check valve (Schlacks system). 120. Lubricator terminal stem. 129. packing and bull ring. 126. Steam chest. 127~128. Piston valve and valve ring. 122-123. Steam chest casting and bushing. 124-125. Piston valve lubricator (Q. and C. type). 132. Front steam chest head. 133. Superheater Back cylinder head. 130. Piston rod packing (Q. ana C. type). 131. Piston rod 136. Cylinder cock reach rod. 137. Valve stem cross head guide. 138. unit pipe. 134. Lubricator lever link (Schlacks system). 135. Valve stem lubricator. 141. Baker valve gear combination lever. 143-144. Top and bottom cylinder. brake Driving 140, stud. head chest steam Back steam chest head. 139. Back cock. 148. Cylinder cock shaft arm. 149. Truck wheel web. 150. Buckle Cylinder 147. equalizer. truck and Driver 146. shaft. cock Cylinder 145. guides. cross tle union rod. 154. Wrist or cross-head pin. 155-157. Baker valve gear frame, plate. 151. Baker gear valve rod. 152. Cross head. 153. Baker valve gear Engine 163. Guide yoke. 164. Front driving spring hanger. 165. Guide strap. 166. and bell crank. 158. Front driver spring. 159. Baker valve gear radius bar. Guide 180. ring. retaining tire Driver wheel flange. 173. Truck 170. nut. adjusting rod pull Brake 169. tie. Pedestal 168. leg. frame. 167. Front pedestal Boiler lagging and boiler jacket. 292. Hammett bell-ringer crank. 290-291. plate. reinforcing base Smokestack 2&9. buckle. turn rod pull Brake 183. yoke. 296~—297. Bell stand and bell yoke. 298-299. Bell lever and bell cord. 300. Dry 293, Bell. 294-295. Hammett bell-ringer piston rod and bell-ringer cylinder. 304. Boiler tube or flue. 305. Boiler belly brace. 307. Sellers injector stop pipe. 301. Handrail bracket. 302. Superheater tube. 303. Superheater unit band. and piston rod. 507. Pilot. (Ray type). 438-439. Driving brake cylinder head valve. 351. Front course of boiler shell. 381. Snow flanger cross tie brace Superheater damper counter weight arm. 513. Truck wheel rim. 512. Smokebox. 511. bulb. side-light head-light National Pyle 510.

515. Pedestal tie bolts

514. Truck wheel hub.

LOCOMOTIVE

ELECTRIC]

283

s area water tube fire-box—fre flue and tube boiler; a fire- |be at various voltages from a nominal 600 volt direct current up box header—fire flue superheater ; main throttle valve and steam to 22,000 volts alternating current and in prospect even higher. delivery and branch

pipes

to be placed outside of boiler and | The current used in the contact system determines the designation

smoke-box; a turbo-fan stack-draft blower; insulation and jacket- ` of systems of electrification; ie., when the working conductor

ing to have an efficiency of 98%; a mechanically driven feed

distributes direct current it is the direct current system; when single phase alternating current is used in the line, it is the single phase system; and when the line current is three phase alternating current, it is the three phase system. The direct ductile, high manganese-low carbon steel castings, forgings and current system may be so-called high or low voltage, the former plates; and the utilization of engine and tender leading and trail- term including those having more than 800 volts on the working ing uncoupled truck wheel weight, for necessary starting, accelera- conductor. The character and type of the electric traction motors tion and light power use, by means of independently operated influence the characteristics of an electric locomotive, as well four-wheel coupled, reversible and relatively high speed and eco- as their arrangement and drive. In the assembly and grouping of nomical steam auxiliaries. High pressure-temperature non-con- the motors there is a possible variety in mechanical type and densing steam locomotives can be designed and constructed at assembly almost without end. a reasonable cost, to operate safely, reliably and efficiently, at Single phase alternating current is standard for railway electrispeeds as high as 110 m. per hour under roadway, track and fication in Norway, Sweden, Germany, Austria and Switzerland, signal conditions suitable for such train speed, and permissible and the frequency of the supply is 15 to 16% cycles. Three phase improvements will greatly reduce the existing smoke and noise alternating current for railway service predominates in Italy with nuisances. In terms of the heat value of the fuel used, the thermal some 600 m. and about 500 locomotives now in operation with efficiency at the tender draw-bar can be increased from what we a nominal contact line voltage of 3,300 volts. The general obnow ordinarily obtain in road service—4 to 6%—to from 13 jection to the use of more than a single contact line for each track to 15%. In relation to the unit of work produced, z.e., gross ton has acted to limit the use of this system elsewhere. Direct miles or draw-bar horse-power hour, this shows the enormous current at 1,500 volts has been adopted in France, by Government possibilities remaining in the way of increasing steam locomotive stipulation as standard for railroad electrification, and during boiler, engine and machine efficiency. Pressures will be limited recent years a limited programme of electrification has been for the time being in locomotive construction to around 500 embraced by the leading railroads. Single phase alternating curpounds. The wheel loads to be encountered in 1929 by a loco- rent at 25 cycles prevails in the United States with increasing motive boiler pressure higher than 500 lb. may not increase the favour, although there is one notable installation of 3,000 volts eficiency sufficiently to compensate for the added total locomotive direct current. There are also terminal and some other instances weight. Plans for the construction of such a freight locomotive where direct current is used at 600, 1,500 and 2,400 volts. There are now under way, the same to include soo lb. gauge pressure, have been undertaken throughout the world limited electrifica850° F steam temperature, a modified uniflow cylinder and valve tions in Great Britain and her colonies, in Japan, Chile, Brazil, gear arrangement and a mechanically driven feed-water pump Spain, Holland, Java, Czechoslovakia and Mexico. Except for in combination with an open-type exhaust steam and smoke-box America, where fuel supplies are abundant, the reason for electrigas feed-water heater. The use of the self-contained high pressure- fication has been, in general, the desire to secure economy in temperature steam locomotive will no doubt be continued in- operation largely due to the saving in fuel obtained by the use of definitely where heavy trains and traffic must be expeditiously hydro-electric power supplemented in some cases by stationary and economically hauled for long distances under all sorts of steam-driven generating plants. In England and in Australia the profile and weather operating conditions. Where they cannot be electrifications have mainly been carried out with multiple unit made suitable to meet the operating requirements, a self-contained car service instead of locomotives to secure an improvement in oil-direct drive unit, not exceeding 750 h.p. may probably be capacity and service in the metropolitan and suburban districts. substituted, and when neither the high pressure-temperature steam Design.—The primary objective of the design is, of course, nor the internal combustion engine operation is permissible, then to secure a good engine for developing draw-bar pull and a good electrification will probably follow, with preference for the vehicle. This is relatively simple when operation is limited to development of a self-contained unit not dependent upon an low speeds and with little critical curvature. When, however, outside source of power for its operation. (J. E. Mv.) high speeds or high speeds with critical curvature, in addition to the two-way operation, must be provided for, it becomes less ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVES simple, even with the great latitude in design and the possible An electric locomotive may be any type of vehicle capable of combinations which the electric locomotive permits. A large running on a railway and deriving its power from electric motors motor may drive more than one axle, in which case there is appropriately connected in turn to the drive wheels. Electric required a side rod drive direct or through gearing, or a number locomotives exist in an almost endless number of sizes, types of small motors may each drive a single axle through a direct and character suitable for service in mines, industrial plants and connection or through gearing. The motive power units under light railways and for operation on main line railways in all common control, which is, by the way, a proper definition of an kinds of service. They usually receive their power from some electric locomotive for railway service, may have a single wheel contact system parallel to the track but they also include loco- base, or an assembly of short or long wheel bases, coupled tomotives which carry their own power plants, such as oil-electric gether by cab or by hinges or by draw-bars. Each individual unit or gas-electric generating sets or batteries with stored power. may or may not have auxiliary trucks for guiding or for bearing The wide-spread application of electric power for universal use weight. Each unit may be an independent vehicle or it may be a in Industry has prompted much consideration of the substitution vehicle whose guiding or stability is effected by the preceding or ofelectric for steam operation of railways, but the actual aggre- following unit through hinges. The cab structure may be integral gate In accomplishment has been comparatively limited to date. with the locomotive frame or it may be independently borne, and For such application the general requirement will be a locomotive attached to two or more wheel bases. Within certain limits the not less, as to power and service, than the, equivalent and, in electric system adopted and the service for which the locomotive general greater than that, of the steam locomotive replaced. This is intended are the chief factors which will govern the fundaarticle is confined to this sort of locomotive. mental design of electric locomotives. The electric system chosen The essential requirement for main line electric locomotive together with the service requirements will determine the type of operation is the continuous supply of electrical power which motor, its characteristics and its size and speeds. The type of must be obtained from a' conducting system along or over the motor and restriction to driver weights will determine the drive {

pump; an open de-aérating feed-water heater; a smoke-box economizer, a unit system for automatically burning solid or liquid fuel in suspension; the use of high-elastic limit, tough,

railroad way by means of appropriate current collecting or contact devices carried on the locomotive. The electric power may

within limits of narrow choice; and the drive will, in turn, together with the absence or presence of critical curvature essen-

284

LOCOMOTIVE

tially determine the configuration of the rigid running gear. The necessity for auxiliary trucks will be determined mainly by the service requirements. The d.c. motor is the outgrowth of the street railway motor. The speed curve falls rapidly as the tractive effort increases, so that a maximum tractive effort is available at low speeds, whereas at high speeds the tractive effort falls. With the usual series motor the only practical way of controlling speed (except for the restricted range of field control) is by varying the voltage across the motor armatures. This is accomplished by use of external resistance and by changing motor combinations. The limitations of design are influenced not only by speed and load requirements but by the need for stability against flashover. This last is also affected by the conditions of current supply

and is a material factor in determining the size and weight of motor selected. The a.c. series motor characteristic is somewhat steeper than that of the d.c. series motor. Inasmuch as the use of alternating current in a motor is always accompanied by induced currents due to transformer action, this, in a series commutator motor, affects the conditions under the brushes which determine their action, thus restricting within definite limits the torque output per motor pole. The voltage of the a.c. motors is low, their stability high, and they may be run on ungrounded circuits so that under proper conditions their operation is comparable to d.c. motors. Control of speed is easily and efficiently secured. The three phase induction motor, used also with phase converter, is practically a constant speed motor and has characteristics very different from the two described above. Additional speeds are obtainable through varying connections, but in general for freight service for which this type has many advantages, it is seldom necessary to have more than two speeds. Very high starting torques are obtainable with this type of motor, as well as capacity to carry heavy loads. As constant speed is maintained irrespective of the load, the horse-power input will vary almost directly with the tractive effort.

[ELECTRIC

drive elements and to proximity to the roadbed. This type jg likewise limited to high speed service on account of its limited torque capacity.

The geared quill drive with single or twin motors secures com. pletely spring-borne frame mounting of the motors, the elevation of the motors from the roadbed and their better placement as to overall weight distribution of the locomotive. The motors are less exposed and opportunity is afforded for twin motor mounting which

secures

certain advantages,

notably

those of simplified

gearing, less space restrictions, reduction in voltage across commutators and better opportunity for motor groupings. With the use of twin motors the maximum possible output for an indi.

vidually driven axle may be realized. With frame mounting and individual universal rod and pin con.

nection from gears to drivers the same advantages of placement obtain as with the geared quill drive with the substitution of mechanism for the springs. The direct side rod drive was the result of the natural attempt to get away from the limitations of the street railway type motor and to follow the design of the steam locomotive in order to retain certain of its favourable characteristics such as high centre of gravity, favourable wheel spacing, etc. It has been used experimentally on several locomotives

usually with direct connected

oblique main rods. Under certain dynamic conditions, excessive stresses in rods or pins are developed. The direct side rod drive with scotch yoke has the advantage

of permitting vertical movement between motors and drivers and also admits of motor mounting somewhat above the centre line of drivers. This drive is well adapted for the direct connection to large slow speed motors and is in extensive use on a large number of Italian locomotives. The same principle of sliding rod bushing

has been used in various adaptations of side rod drive for single

phase locomotives. The jack shaft side rod drive was the logical development of All three types lend themselves to regeneration. The induction the direct side-rod drive. By its use certain stresses due to the motor is inherently the best as it automatically, without additional static and dynamic characteristics of the general type of drive were apparatus for switching, separate excitation or regulation, be- better taken care of. It is limited to the higher speed locomotives comes a generation whenever the locomotive while descending a on account of the low weight efficiency of the motors at the lower grade exceeds the synchronous speed. No question of stability, speeds. It has found a limited number of applications both with flashing or expert manipulation enters. Both the direct current d.c. and a.c. motors. The geared jack shaft drive is a modification of the direct jack series motor and the a.c. series motor have been successfully used for regeneration although a special arrangement is necessary. The shaft drive through the employment of gears which admits the d.c. series motor, if furnished a local supply of direct current use of higher speed and lighter motors and main rod with minimum from a motor generator set on a single phase locomotive, secures angularity relative to the side rods. The use of flexible gears the utmost in favourable conditions for the operation of a d.c: secures the advantageous cushioning of drive. It is now, with some variation in design, in successful operation in all classes of service. series motor. The common disadvantage of all drive connections between the Drives.—Drives can be definitely classified as individual and collective. The single reduction geared, nose and axle suspended rotating masses of the motors and those of the wheels is due to motor with single or twin gears, has been the logical development changes in angular velocity between the two, each having its own since the early street-car motor. Its advantages are due to its inertia. Rod drives are in particular more susceptible to this, extensive use, its simplicity and relative cost. It is most effective owing to the inclusion of more driven wheels, larger motors and for slow speed freight locomotives and when the individual motor more elements with clearance, together with transfer of load rating or relative tractive effort is not too great. Its disadvantages from one side to the other due to the use of crank motion. The are the restriction to armature length and diameter, the relatively difference in these respects from those obtaining with steam locohigh non-spring-borne weight on the axle (the effect of which is motives is that the electric drive is a mechanically closed system neutralized somewhat by the spring nose suspension and the use while the steam drive is an open system. This is a vital difference and one which must be provided for in order to take care of all of spring gears) and its relative exposure and inaccessibility. The advantage of the direct drive with armature mounted upon conditions and speeds. For the larger locomotives the running gear may comprise a the axle is the directness by which transfer of torque to the wheels is accomplished with the entire elimination of drive mechanism. single wheel base alone or several connected by hinges, or by This advantage is offset by the high copper losses of the field and coupling either with or without buffers. For the slower speed armature. The slow motor speed results in a low weight efficiency locomotives auxiliary trucks are often not needed but where of motor and the proximity of motor to the roadbed imposes operation is required over a considerable amount of critical curvacertain difficulties from exposure. The use of this type is neces- ture, guiding is improved by the use of hinge connection. For sarily confined to relatively high speed passenger service owing the heavier and higher speed locomotives auxiliary trucks are employed; these are of varied types, both two-wheel and fourto the limited torque capacity. The direct quill drive has the advantage that it permits the use wheel. They serve various functions such as carrying weight, of a motor whose armature as well as its field frame is completely easing track stresses, providing stability on tangents at high speeds spring supported. It further permits relative economy in design and guiding on curves. The last two may be supplemented by and use of windings. It has, however, the common disadvantage hinge or special connections. The general practice in America follows the steam practice of of low speed with relatively low weight efficiency of the motor and is further subject to certain inaccessibility of the spring supplying restraint to trucks by the use of heart links or rockers,

LOCOMOTIVE

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BY COURTESY OF (1-4) THE STORAGE BATTERY COMPANY

WESTINGHOUSE

ELECTRIC

ELECTRIC

PASSENGER

AND

MANUFACTURING

AND

COMPANY,

FREIGHT

(5)

000 Ib.; capacıty at one hr. rating 6,090 h.p. at 14.1 m.p.h.; 7.125

Starting tractive effort 231,975

effort, hourly rating, 162,000

GENERAL

ELECTRIC

LOCOMOTIVES

1. Virginian Railway. Three 2-8-2 articulated units, built by Westinghouse Elec. & Mfg. Co.: 11,000 or 22,000 volt A.C. Total wt. 1,275,900 Ib.; wt. on drivers 927,900 Ib.: wt. on idle trucks 348,-

h.p. at 20.3 m.p.h.

THE

Ib.; tractive

Ib. at 14.1 m.p.h., 94,500 Ib. at 23.3

m.p.h.; tractive effort, continuous rating, 135,000 Ib. at 14.2 m.p.h., 78,750 Ib. at 28.4 m.p.h. 2. Chicago, Milwaukee, St. Paul & Pacific Railroad. One 4-6-2 and one

COMPANY,

(6)

IN USE ON

THE

CANADIAN

NATIONAL

AMERICAN

RAILWAYS,

(7)

THE

ELECTRIC

RAILROADS

4. Pennsylvania Railroad.

One 2-6-0 and one 0-6-2 articulated units, built by Westinghouse Elec. & Mfg. Co.; 11,000 volt A.C. Total wt. of locomotive 516,000 !b.; wt. on drivers 439,500 Ib.: wt. on idle trucks 76,500 Ib.; capacity at one hr. rating 4,800 h.p. Starting tractive effort 140,000 Ib.; tractive effort, hourly rating, $8,000 Ib.; tractive effort, continuous rating, 73,000 Ib. 5. Chicago, Milwaukee, St. Paul & Pacific Railroad. Two 4-8-0 articulated

built by Westinghouse Elec. & Mfg. Co.; 11,000 volts Total wt. of locomotive 356,000 Ib., wt. on drivers 240,000 A.C. Ib.,

units, built by General Elec. Co.; 3,000 volt D.C. Total wt. of locomotive 564,000 Ib.; wt. on drivers 448,000 Ib.s wt. on idle trucks 116,000 Ib. Starting tractive effort 112,000 lb.s tractive effort, hourly rating, 71,000 Ib. Canadian National Railways. Two 4-wheel-truck type oil-electric passenger and baggage motor car, built at Point Charles Works, Montreal. Length of car body 73 ft. 9 in. over end sills: total wt. on rails 133,000 Ib. Beardmore six-cylinder oil engine, 300 h.p. at 750 r.p.m. Westinghouse 198 K.W. D.C. gen.; two 600 volt 200 h.p. motors New York Central Railroad. Two 4-wheel-truck type, built by Elec. Storage Battery Co. Combination battery and oil-electricy 218-cell

ing tractive effort 52,500 Ib.: tractive effort, hourly rating, 19,260

storage battery, capacity 294 Kwh. Four motors, total rated 1,580 h.p.; motor gear ratio 4.24; driving wheels 44 in. diam. Tractive

2-6-4 articulated units, built by Westinghouse Elec. & Mfg Co.; 300 tons cap.; 3,000 volts D.C. Total wt. of locomotive 600,000 Ib.; wt. on drivers 378,000 Ib.; wt. on idle trucks 222,000 Ib.; Capacity at one hr. rating 4,680 h.p. Starting effort 94,500 lb.; tractive effort, hourly rating, 66,000 Ib.;tractive tractive effort, con-

tinuous rating, 40,800

Ib.

3. New York, New Haven & Hartford Railroad. Two 2-6-2 articulated units, wt. on idle trucks 116,000 Ib. capacity at one hr. rating 2,508 h.p. Start-

Ib., continuous rating, 13,080 Ib.

6.

effort, max. 60,000

Ib. Total wt. on drivers 257,000

Ib.; 300 h.p,

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MILLS

CANADIAN

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RAILWAY;

IN CANADA,

1. View of lumber mill, showing logs being unloaded from train (left) into pond. This method of handling by floating permits easy movement of logs weighing from one to three tons each. It has the addi-

tional advantage of washing off the sand which clings to the logs after being dragged through the forest, and which would injure the mill machinery

PHOTOGRAPH,

SHOWING

(3)

INTERNATIONAL

LARGE

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SCALE

LUMBER

TRANSPORT

2. Train bringing logs from the forest to the waterfront to be transported to mill : i >

(background),

2. Logs in a Canadian river, estimated at 900,000,000 board fee timber, valued at about $20,000,000, floating to the sawmill

4. Logs at Donnaconna, Canada

t of

481

LUMBERING

resulted and more efficient lumbering methods were needed and | flat, the men cut from the ground; but where the ground is rough

were created. Furthermore, as population and industry expanded |or sloping and irregular, and particularly on the west coast, the

westward, the forests moved farther and farther away from the | undercutting and sawing is done from a platform or spring-board.

centres of consumption, and each new lumber district presented | After felling, branches are trimmed off and the tree is sawed or

somewhat different problems in logging, manufacture and distrihution due to topography and species of wood found--all of which had a marked influence upon the development of modern lumber-

ing methods.

Logging.—The work in the forest preparatory to that of the sawmill, logging, has been one of the most interesting features

me Le t a

e

-

“bucked” into log lengths, usually 16 ft. except in the Northwest, where much longer lengths are handled (24 to 40 ft. are common and in the most modern operations 49 to 65 ft. are the a most favoured units of length). ZAZA Certain other districts also cut V NY Z AF Ti Yy M logs to lengths greater than 16 ft. After bucking, the logs are eS)Ee A= Lee! po dragged or “skidded” to concenpoo tration points by horses, oxen © Hi or power, but as previously exay plained, steam or electric power

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has supplanted, in many instances, the horses and oxen. Where steel cables are employed over valleys and canyons, the method

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overhead skidding—where logs are hoisted up over af COURTESY

OF THE

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SAW

AND

STEEL

COMPANY

SLICING LOGS INTO BOARDS WITH A MACHINE-OPERATED CIRCULAR SAW of the American lumber industry. In the early days and until recent years in many localities, the lumbermen depended almost

BY

COURTESY

OF

THE

DOUGLAS

TIGN AND EXPORT COMPANY

A MILL

GANG-SAW

FIR

EXPLOITA-

IN OPERATION

as

the the

brush and ground for some distance, and ground-line skidding which is the dragging of the log over

the ground by means

of a

In the

cable. In the North-west a “spar” tree frequently is employed in North-eastern and Northern States the fall and winter seasons the skidding operations. This tree is selected for its height and were devoted to the felling of the trees. The logs weré hauled out favourable location with regard to the surrounding trees to be on snow sleds, either to sawmills close by or to concentration felled. A man known as a “high-climber,”’ ascends the tree, aided points on the banks of strearns, where, in the latter case, the logs by climbing spurs affixed to his shoes and & rope around the tree. were rolled into the water as soon as the ice was gone, and He is equipped with a saw and axe and as he ascends he cuts off floated down stream to mills or market centres. In the South interfering branches until he reaches the desired height which the lumbermen had to resort to other means of transporting usually is about 175 to 200 ft., and some 30 to 50 ft. from the the logs from the forests to the mills, due to a lack of swift- tree top. Then he saws off the top, waits until the swaying caused flowing streams and show for sledding. Oxen and high-wheel carts by the top’s rebound has stopped, and descends. Another man, were the principal means of log transportation for years and in known as a “rigger,”’ next ascends, carrying equipment for rigging. some districts in the South-east they still are used. In the moun- Finally the spar is rigged at the top with cable and pulleys and a tainous country, both in the East and West, chutes and flumes loading boom is affixed some 20 ft. above the ground. A cable were used. Later came the usé of wire cables stretched across val- with grab hooks on the end is carried to the log to be skidded wholly upon natural forces in the logging operations.

leys and canyons. The logs were hung from a pulley; tben, by gravity, travelled to the lower end of the cable.

Steam power altered all these methods. Now all larger logging camps have logging railroads of which there are approximately 30,000 m. in the United States, with hundreds of locomotives and cars. Thè State

of Washington alone is said to have more than 350 separate and distinct logging railways. In many instances gasolené engines and tractors have replaced the oxen and horsés. River transportation and oxen and horse locomotion usually are too slow and tedious for the present-day lumberman. And now electric power rapidly is coming into prominence, especially in the North-west. The early logging caraps were vety crudely built. They consisted of as few buildings as possible. The logging men or “lumberjacks” lived in tough shacks or bunk houses. Conditions were unsanitary and even as late as the 2oth century many legging camps were more

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primitive than the first communities in Massachusetts and Vir-

ginia. Recreation consisted of “swapping” stories, fighting and

drinking. Only at the end of the season did the lumberjack

have an opportunity to mingle with civilization in some town a hundred or more miles away. But conditions havé changed. In

1928 theré wére fewer lumber camps and more lumber towns. When a new timber territory is about to be logged, one of the first

considerations of the modern lumberman is that of proper housing for his employees. The average lumberjack can raise a family as

well in the forest as he can in the city because he has, right at

hand, schools, churches, stores, modern sanitary conditions and amusements.

The methods of felling trees and converting them into logs are

generally the sane. First, the standing tree is undercut with an axe on the side of fall. A cross-cut saw, handled by two men—one at

each end—is employed opposite the undercut. Where the ground is

BY

COURTESY

OF

CUTTING

THE

SOUTHERN

PINE

BOARDS

PINE

PERIT

INTO THE

PROPER

LENGTH

FOR SHIPPING

and then, by means of a steam or electric skidder the log is dragged within distance of the loading boom which raises the log off the ground and loads it direct onto a nearby car or stacks it for future loading. When the logs reach the mill centres, they aré stored in log ponds which usually cover a number of acres. Here they are kept until ready for manufacture. The ponds facilitate assorting and cleaning, and also prevent deterioration which would occur if the logs were left dry for any appreciable length of time. Sawmill Practice.—-The first sawmills in the United States, as

LUMBERING

482

noted, were built at Jamestown, Va., and Berwick, Me., and were modelled after the European type of mill, employing water-power and a single sash-saw. The production was small and these early sawmills were of little importance until steam power supplanted

water-power about 1850. About the same time the single sashsaw gave way to the circular saw and the latter was widely used until about 1890, at which time the band-saw became popular

trimmers. From the remanufacturing plant the lumber passes through sorters and to explain this step the following description is gi of a large modern lumber manufacturing plant in the North-wes

Joining immediately on the end of the remanufacturing mil} a» three sorters. The first is a 2 in. yard sorter where nothing is handled except 2 in. common lumber, all lengths and widths, whic, will be segregated into various packages as to grades, widths and lengths. These packages are then delivered by a monorail hoist tg

cars which are drawn by storage battery locomotives to the green

yard.. The second is a 1 in. sorter on which nothing is handled ex. cept 1 in. common lumber to the yard. The third is a drop sorter cn. which automatically drops different lengths of lumber into arate and individual pockets which deliver onto a chain that con-

veys each length to what is known as the Whaley sorter. By the latter each length of lumber is segregated to five different Stacking units. Thus, all lengths, widths and thicknesses are separately put on kiln cars for kiln drying. From the drop sorter the rough

lumber is delivered to automatically controlled dry kilns where superheated steam is the usual drying agent. From the kilns the lumber is passed to cooling sheds; thence to dry sorters where

the lumber is graded and sorted, picked up by overhead cranes BY GOURTESY OF THE PACIFIC LUMBER COMPANY THE SORTING TABLE, WHERE LUMBER ABILITY AND PERFECTION OF GRAIN

and delivered to an endless conveyor which runs through m

IS GRADED

ACCORDING

TO DUR-

in the larger mills. For the next 20 years lumber production increased rapidly. Many new inventions and more efficient methods of operation brought the lumber industry to the front with almost astonishing rapidity. Most modem sawmills employ the same general type of machinery and follow somewhat similar plant layouts. Band-saws of varying types such as single-cutting, doublecutting, vertical and horizontal band-resaws and gang-saws are common in the larger mills. Many labour-saving devices are employed. Various types of conveyors and other machinery permit the log to enter the mill and pass out as manufactured lumber with very little handling or moving by hand. The modern methods of lumber manufacture are so intricate and so efficient as a rule, that the term “sawmill” has given way to that of “lumber manufacturing plant.” The largest lumber manufacturing plant in the world in 1928 at Longview, Wash., consisted of two groups, each a complete unit consisting of more than 30 buildings. The two units combined have a total of 78 ac. under roof, and the total plant site covers 1,737 acres. Storage and cutting ponds cover 125 acres. The power-plant, which supplies electricity for both the lumber manufacturing plants and the logging operations some 30 m. away has a present capacity output of 24,000 kilowatts, and can be increased to 36,000 kilowatts whenever necessary. The power-plant derives its fuel from sawmill waste. The daily output of the two lumber manufacturing units is approximately 2,000,000 bd. ft. of Douglas fir. Mill Process.—The following method of lumber manufacturing

stacker sheds into rough lumber storage sheds and on to the planing-mill. Not all lumber passes from the kilns to the planing-mill, a very

important and necessary part of a lumber manufacturing plant, Some of it is placed in stock. Other packages pass on to the planing-mill where the lumber is surfaced as plain boards and “dimension” or worked into “ceiling,” “flooring,” “siding,” “mould.

ing,” “partition,” “casing,” etc. From the planing-mill the lumber is conveyed to the “dressed lumber” sheds to be stored or to the loading sheds, ready for shipment. Waste resulting from the various steps of manufacture is converted into “short length”

is prevalent, with variations to fit, certain local requirements. The logs enter the head ‘mill from the pond over an inclined chute or “log slip.” They are transported by an endless spiked conveyor

known as a jack ladder or jacked chain. As they ascend the slip they are sprayed with water to remove grit and dirt that might otherwise dull the saws. From the slip the jack ladder carries the log under a large circular saw known as the deck saw and which is used if the log is to be shortened; otherwise the log is “kicked” off onto the log deck by steam-driven steel arms. From the log deck the log rolls onto the log carriage. A steam or air “nigger” (mechanically operated steel arms) helps to place the log in the proper position. The carriage is a long, flat platform which is made to travel back and forth rapidly on a track, keeping the log against a band or “head” saw which squares it and reduces it into flitches or cants. The log is turned from time to time on the carriage by means of the steam or air operated “nigger.” If the log is to be used as a timber, it is squared and edged and then passed immediately to the rear of the mill where the timber dock usually is located. If to be converted into lumber, the flitches or cants enter the remanufacturing plant directly behind the head mill, where they pass to the gang-saws and edgers and then to the

BY COURTESY OF THE PACIFIC LUMBER COMPANY > i ELECTRIC MONORAIL CARRYING A UNIT OF LUMBER TO THE DRYING SHED

lumber wherever possible; some of it goes into the manufacture

of paper and pulp board, and some is ground up for fuel. Woodis

the principal source of fuel for power in lumber operations. The larger slabs and edgings may be converted into lath and small wooden items.

FUTURE OF THE INDUSTRY

¿l

During the last 25 or 30 years, lumber production has increased and new

and efficient machinery

and methods

developed with

almost astonishing rapidity. The migration of the lumiber-pre-

LUMBERING

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a

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a

:

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BY COURTESY

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GENERAL

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VIEW

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KAUL

LUMBER

LUMBER

Washington.

There are two

than 30 buildings.

complete

Electrical

energy

units, each

unit consisting

for both units

is provided

CO.

MANUFACTURING

l. Airplane view of a lumber manufacturing plant on the Columbia

River, of more

by the

Power plant, the building shown in the centre, with the two tall stacks. Behind the power plant is the cutting pond connected by a canal with the storage pond in the right background. 2. Heavy-duty edger, through which lumber is fed after coming from the bandsaws. The purpose of the machine is to equalize the width of the lumber, to remove bark edges, or to cut wide

pieces into narrow. 3. Right-hand eight-foot band rig, with saw just entering the cut. The carriage is traveling towards the observer, the sawyer

being seen on the farther side of the bandsaw, which fs in motion.

operative in the right foreground

is prepared

7

The

to catch the piece being cut

off the log and pull it away as it falls. 4. The gang saw seen from the rear,

PLANT

AND

MACHINERY

lumber shown leaving the saws. The sawyer is in the right background. The operative in the right foreground controls the feed rolls with his right hand on the lever, and in his left hand holds an instrument used to handle the lumber as it leaves the saw. A number of planks are made at the same time. 5. General view of a planing mill, showing lumber being fed from two of the machines to moving chains which carry it past the graders, who are grading the pieces. The lumber then goes past trimmer saws which are operated by the men in the right background; these cut off defective ends and equalize lengths. 6. Two Douglas fir timbers 34” x 34” x 80’ long, produced in a lumber manufacturing plant in the State of Washington. These timbers were shipped to the Panama Canal Zone for use in Government operations

LUMBERJACK—LUMHOLTZ

4.83

ducing centres from the Atlantic to the Pacific coast has been quality of timber, and be able to estimate closely the number of great economic importance in the opening up of new territories of board feet in a log. Most important of all, he must have for agricultural and various other industrial purposes. In all physical strength in order to stand the heavy work, long hours and obability, the future will see lumbering having just as much

effect, if not more, upon the economic development of America as it has had in the past.

The consumption may not increase

with such rapidity, nor are there new virgin forests to be worked,

extreme cold, the thermometer often falling as low as 40 or 50° below zero in the more northern districts.

LUMBINEI, the grove in which, according to Buddhist legend, the Buddha was born. There are two references to the name in the Pali scriptures, the first in the narrative poem prefixed to the

Nalaka-sutta in the Sutta-nipata, where it is related how the gods

N

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COMPANY

AN ELECTRIC CRANE TRANSPORTING

LUMBER TO THE SHIPPING YARD

but neither does any other present major industry promise to

develop as rapidly in the future as in the past, for the industrial zones of the United States are more or less permanently fixed and established. A steady increase in the demand for lumber will

rejoicing in the sky inform the sage Asita that ‘‘the Bodhisatta, the incomparable jewel, has been born for weal and happiness in the world of men, in a village of the Sakyas, in the Lumbini country” (janapade Lumbineyye). The other reference is in the Kathavatthu, one of the latest works in the Canon. The detailed story of the birth as known to Pali Buddhism first occurs in the introduction to the commentary on the Jataka. This account says that Queen Mahamaya, when her time was come, desired to go to her parents’ home at Devadaha. On the way she alighted to sport in the Lumbini grove, her pains came upon her, and there the future Buddha was born. The earliest canonical accounts of the birth are not in the Pali Canon, but in the Sanskrit scriptures of two other schools, the Mahavastu (ii., 18), and the Lalitavistara (ch. 7). Neither of these works can be put earlier than the 3rd or 4th century A.D., but the discovery of an inscription of Asoka makes it probable that the whole legend was established at least as early as the 3rd century B.c. The inscription was found in 1896, a few miles within the border of Nepal and some miles east of the site which had already been identified as Kapilavatthu, the city of Buddha’s family. It contains one doubtful word, but the inscription has always been accepted as genuine, and it is clear that it records that “‘Piyadasi [z.e., Asoka], after he had been consecrated 20 years, came in person and worshipped, because here was born

keep pace with the increase of population and development of Buddha Sakyamuni. He both caused a stone [horse?] to be made, industry. In the past lumber has been “mined.” In the future and caused a pillar to be set up, because here the Lord was born.

timber crops will be harvested. By proper reforestation methods and programmes, America should always be able to grow sufficient lumber to meet her needs. Since the beginning of time, new forests have arisen on the old, and wherever a forest area consists of old-growth, matured-timber growth is approximately balanced by decay. Like all other crops, trees must be harvested to permit proper regrowth. In the future, lumber will come from forests regrown under scientific management—sometimes from seedlings and sometimes from hand plantmg. This means that not only will present-producing forests continue to be productive, but also part, if not all, of the 125,000 sqm. of forest land, non-productive in 1928, will be brought back in time to a state of production. The future will see a more efficient use of lumber. Much good lumber goes to waste because of the ptblic’s expensive habits. Nearly one-third of the lumber used by the building industry is finally consumed in lengths under 8 ft.; 10% more is under 9 ft.; or a total of 43-6% of all lumber consumed in building is in lengths under 9g ft. Yet, it has been customary to buy lumber in lengths of 14, 16, 18 and 20 ft. Trees cannot be changed; but we will change our lumber-buying habits. We will use more and more of the “short lengths” cut at the mills because it will be less expensive and, in many cases,

better suited for general building requirements. The Government, industry and the public are co-operating to bring about these things. Since 1918 the lumber industry, in co-operation with consuming industries and the U.S. Government, has done much to

standardize its product through the creation of the American

lmber standards and is engaged in a programme for developing

the marketing of American standard, trade-marked, grade-marked

lumber. (R. A. Lo.) LUMBERJACK, one engaged in felling and preparing timber for the mill; usually applied to the woodsmen or lumbermen working in lumber camps in the northern United States and Canada. The lumberjack’s work may be any one of the processes

involved, from the chopping of the tree in the forest to the delivery of the logs at the mill. The lumberjack may also have to cut toads through the forest or even build railways where there is

ho way of floating the logs. He must be a good judge of the

He made the village of Lummini free of taxes and paying (only) one-eighth part [of the crop].” This makes the dates 245 B.c., according to the accepted chronology of Asoka’s reign. There is a shrine at the place, now known to the Nepalese officials and hillmen as Rupadei. Fiihrer’s statement that it is locally called Rummindei has never been verified. The shrine contains a bas-relief representing the birth of the Buddha. The legends with their fantastic details are not historical documents, but the archaeological evidence which has accumulated increases the probability that they have originated in a historical event. BIBLIOGRAPHY —Sutta-nipdta (trans. by Fausboll, 1924); Katkavatthu, vol. i. (1897; trans. as Points of Controversy, 1915); Jdataka, vol. i. (1877; trans. as Buddhist Birth Stories, 2nd ed., 1925) ; Lalitavistara (Calcutta, 1877; trans. by P. Foucaux, Paris, 1884). Makdvastu (Paris, 1882-97). Epigraphia Indica, vol. v., p. Iıseg.; A. Barth in Journ. des Savants, Feb. 1897, p. 65 seg.; P. C. Mukherji, A Report on a Tour of Exploration of the Antiquities in the Tarai, Nepali (Calcutta, 1901); Inscriptions of Asoka, ed. by E. Hultzsch eae

LUMHOLTZ, CARL (1851-1922), Norwegian explorer and naturalist, was born in 1851 at Faaberg in Gudbrandsalen. After graduating in theology at the university of Oslo (then Christiania) in 1876, he was sent by the university to Australia, where he spent four years (1880-84) in collecting zoological materials and anthropological data of various kinds. In 1890 he went on behalf of the American Museum of Natural History to Mexico, accompanied by the Swede Hartmann, and there he succeeded in tracing and communicating with the Tarahumare Indians of Sierra Madre —descendants of the Aztecs. A unique collection, containing over 1,700 photos, was the result of this expedition, which, with two later visits to Mexico, was described in his Blandt Mexicos Indianere (Christiania 1902-03), later translated into English and Spanish; New Trails in Mexico (1912) deals more especially with the second of these expeditions. During the World War Lumholtz went to India, and in 1915-17 to Borneo. From Borneo he brought home a large zoological collection and valuable anthropometrical measurements; with new information on the Janguage and customs of the Dyaks; recorded in Through Central Borneo,

Two Years’ Travel in the Land of the Head Hunters (2 vols., New

484

LUMINOUS

PAINT—-LUNACHARSKY

York, 1920). He died in the Saranac Lake Sanatorium, New York, on May 5, 1922. :

in 1838, was present at the forcing of the Khyber Pass jn 18) and went through the first and second Sikh wars, being woung at Sobraoh. Having become assistant to Sir Henry Lawrence

barium and strontium, after exposure to light, possess the property of appearing luminous (“phosphoresce’’) in the dark, and are used in the manufacture of luminous paints. Thé feeble light emitted by these substances gradually diminishes in intensity, but on re-exposing these compounds to light their luminosity is again restored. This singular property has been long known, and calcium sulphide was formerly termed Cahton’s phosphorus, and barium sulphide Bononian (or Bolognian) phosphorus. The in-

Lahore in 1846, he was appoihted in 1847 to taise the Corps

LUMINOUS PAINT. The commercial sulphides of calcium,

Guides. The regiment was located at Mardan on the Peshay

border, atid becéme oné of thé most famous in the Indian arr For the equipment of this corps; Lumsden originated the kh uniform. In 1857 he was sent on a mission to Kandahar and w in Afghanistan throughout the Mutiny. He took part in the Waz Expedition of 1860, was in command of the Hyderabad Continge from 1862, and left India in 1869. He became lieutenant-general

troduction of minute traces of other elements such as bismuth, lead, cadmium, manganese, etc., modify the colour of the phos phorescent glow so that by this means sulphides emitting våřiouŝ phosphorescent colours, such as violet, orange, green, blue, etc.,

1875, and died on Aug. 12, 1896. ia Peter Lumsden and George Elsmie, Lumsden of the Gui,

may be obtained. These various phosphorescent sulphidés are converted into paint form by mixing with suitable mediums, such as solutions of gum arabic or gum dammar varnishes.

grand master of Santiago, and favourite of King John IT Castile, was the natural son of Alvaro de Luna, a Castilian nob Sent to court as a page by his uncle, Pedro de Luna, archhis

Radio-active luminous paints, which are largely used for painting watches, compasses, etc., differ from the formerly known phos phorescent substances in the fact that they do not require any prior exposure to light. The action is in this case produced permanently by the rays emitted by the radio-active substances such as mesothorium and radiothorium, used in their preparation. . (J. G. BE.) LUMMIS, CHARLES FLETCHER (1859-1928), American author, was born at Lynn, Mass., on March 1, 1859, and educated at Harvard. After several years as newspaper editor in Ohio he tramped by a roundabout route to Los Angeles, Calif.,

where he became city editor of the Los Angeles Daily Times. A stroke of paralysis in 1886 forted him to suspend his editorial work and for a number of years he spent much of his time travel= ling over the South-west on horseback. For five years he lived in the Indian pueblo of Isleta, N.M., learning the Indian lane guages and customs. In 1892 he accompanied the historian, Adolph F. Bandelier, on a scientific expedition to Peru and Bolivia. He was the founder and editor of Out West Magazine, 1894~1909, and librarian of the Los Angeles public library, r90s—r0. He was

founder and president of the Landmarks club of California and

was active in securing the preservation of a number of Southwestern missions. He was one of the incorporators of the Archaeological Institute of America and founder of the Southwest museum. He made phonograph records of 550 old Spanish songs of the South-west and 425 Indian songs. His writings did much to make the many interesting phenomena of the South-west more widely known. He died at Los Angeles, Calif., on Nov.

1899).

LUNA, ALVARO

DE (d. 1453), constable of Casti

of Toledo, in 1410, he early acquired an ascendancy over {|

young prince. When Ferdinand, John’s uncle, was elected kj of Aragon, and the regency remained in the hands of the kin mother, Constance, daughter of John of Gaunt, Alvaro becap

a very important person. He was a master of all the accomplis

metits the kihg admired—a fine horseman, a skilful lance and writer of court verse. Until he lost the king’s protection he w

the central figure of the Castilian history of the time. His sto

is in the main one of expulsion from the court by victorio factions, and of his return when his conquerors fell out amo themsélves. Expelled in 1427, hé was recalled to court in r42

in 1431 he sought to employ the turbulent nobles in a war fi the conquest of Granada. Sothe successes were gained, but consistent policy was irnpossible with a rebellious aristocracy a 4 king of indolent character. In 1445 the Infantes de Arago Alvaro’s main enemies, wére beaten at Olmedo, arid the favourit who had been constable of Castile and count of Santesteban sini i433, becamé grand master of Santiago by election of the knight

His fall was due to Isabella of Portugal, the king’s second wif

who urgéd her husband tó freë himself froti slavery to h favourite. In i453 Alvaro was arrested, and, after a mere paroc of justice, executed at Valladolid on Juné 2, 1453. _ See Cronica de don Alvaro dé Luna (1784), mainly panegyrica Cronica del. . . Rey Don Juan el segundo (Valencia; 1779) ; Quintar Vidas de Espanoles célebres (1807, etc.).

LUNA (mod. Luni), ancient city, Etruria, Italy, 44 m. sout east of Satzana.

It was the frontier town of Etruria, on the le

bank of the river Macra, the imperial boundary between Etrar 25, 1928. and Liguria. When the Romans first appeared, however, the Lig Besides many articles, storiés and poems in various magazines he rians were in possession of the territory das far as Pisa. It deriv ublished A Tramp Across the Continent (1892); Some Strange its importance mainly from its harbour, the Gulf of Spezia, ar orners of Our Country (1892); The Spanish Pioneers (1893); The Land of Poco Tiempo (1893); The Man who Married the Moon, not mer¢ly the estuary of the Macra as some have supposed. T and Otker Pueblo Indian Folk=stories (1894); The Awukening of a town WŴWás appàrently not established until 177 B.c., though tl Nation (1898); Mesa, Cation and Pueblo (1925); Spanish Songs of harbour is mentionéd by Ennius, who sailed hence for Sardinia Old California (i925=28). ‘ 205 B.c. under Manlius Torquatus. It was traversed by the cos LUMP-SUCKER or LUMP=FISH (Cyclodterus lumpus), road (Via Aurelia), and was renowned for marble from Carrat a marine fish, of the small family Cyclopteridae. The lump-suckers which bore the name of Luna marble. Pliny speaks of the quarn have the ventral fins united into a circular concave sucker which as only recently discovered in his day. Good wine was also pr enables them to attach themselves firmly to rocks or stones. The duced. There are some remains of a theatre and an amphitheatr body is short and thick, with a thick, scaleless skin, covered The town was destroyed by the Arabs in 1016, arid the episcop with rough tubercles. The first dorsal fin is a mere lump on the see transferred to Sarzana in 1204. back. The lump-sucker inhabits the coasts of both sides of the LUNACHARSKY, ANATOLY VASILIEVICH (187: north Atlantic; it is not rare on the British coasts, but becomes ), Russian politician, author and dramatist, was bom) more common farther north. In the spring the fish approaches the Poltava of well-to-do parents. He joined thé revolutionary mow shores to spawn, clearing out a hollow on a stony bottom in ment when at college in Kiev, and afterwards studied natur which it deposits an immense quantity of pink-coloured ova. science and economics at Zurich. He began his revolutionar The male guards the spawn very assiduously until the young activities in Russia in 1892 and was deported té Vologda in 180 are hatched. The male is only one-half or one-third the size of where he remained for three years, achieving a reputation as the female, and during the breeding season becomes bright blue, brilliant writer and lecturer on Socialism. In 1903 Lunachars with red below. The bones are soft, and contain little inorganic joined the Bolshevik wing of the social democratic party. Hem

matter.

LUMSDEN, SIR HARRY BURNETT (1821-1896), Anglo-Indian soldier, son of Colonel Thomas Lumsden, C.B., was born on Nov. 12, 1821. He joined the soth Bengal Native Infantry

Lenin in the following year, and joined the editorial staff of tt Bolshevik Vpered (Forward). He was chiefly: concerned wi

social democratic propaganda and with lectures and politic meetings for Russian students and political refugees abroas

LUNACY—LUNDY

485

During the revolution of 1005 Lunacharsky was imprisoned, and | and brick works. and the manufacture of furniture and gloves.

when the reaction set in he left Russia for Italy. Together with!

LUNDY, BENJAMIN

(1789-1839), American philanthro-

Corky and Bogdanov, a well-known social democrat, he formed the | pist, prominent in the anti-slavery conflict, was born at Hardwick, so-called “left-wing” of Bolshevism (opposed to Lenin on theo- N.J., on Jan. 4, 1789. From 1808-12 he lived at Wheeling, Va., retical points), and was one of the promoters of the social demo- | (now W.Va.), an important headquarters of the inter-state slave

cratic party schools at Capri and Bologna.

trade. Here he first became deeply impressed with the iniquity

During the World War Lunacharsky maintained a determined | of the institution of slavery. In 1815 he organized an anti-slavery internationalist attitude, and disseminated violent anti-war prop- | association, known as the “Union Humane Society,” with a mem-

aganda in Paris and Switzerland, renewing closer contact with the | bership of more than s00 men. In 1821 he founded at Mount Lenin group after a temporary estrangement. In March 1917 he| Pleasant, O., an anti-slavery paper, the Genius of Universal Emanjoined Lenin and Trotsky in Russia in their revolutionary opposi- | cipation. From Sept. 1829 until March 1830 Lundy was assisted tion to the provisional government, He was arrested after the | in the editorship of the paper by William Lloyd Garrison (q.v.). Bolshevik rising in July; but was subsequently liberated and | Lundy travelled extensively on behalf of the cause, visiting Haiti elected vice-president of the Petrograd municipal board. In the| twice, in 1825 and 1829, the Wilberforce colony of freedmen and initial stages of the November revolution and during the civil | refugee slaves in Canada in 1830-31; and Texas in 1832, and again

war, Lunacharsky was one of the ablest speakers of the party, | in 1833. These visits were made, in part, to find a suitable place and acted as emissary of the military revolutionary council to the |outside of the United States to which emancipated slaves might

various war fronts. As people’s commissar for public instruction | be sent. Between 1820 and 1830, Lundy says he travelled ‘more in the new Soviet government, Lunacharsky ensured the preserva- | than s,ooom. on foot and 20,000m. in other ways, visited 19

tion of works of culture and art during the civil war. He promoted | States of the Union, and held more than 200 public meetings.” mass instruction, while his especial concern for the welfare of |He was bitterly denounced for his anti-slavery agitation, and in the theatre furthered the development of the Russian stage. |Jan. 1827 was assaulted and seriously injured by a slave-trader,

Lunacharsky wrote 14 plays (published in 2 vol.), of which | Austin Woolfolk. In 1836-38 Lundy edited in Philadelphia a new several were produced with conspicuous success in Russia and in |anti-slavery weekly, The National Enquirer. This paper under Berlin, “Vasilisa the Wise,” “Faust and the City” and “The | the editorship of Lundy’s successor, John G. Whittier, became Magi” were translated Into English by Leonard Magnus andj The Pennsylvania Freeman. Lundy died Aug. 22, 1839.

published under the title of Three Plays (1923). He also wrote| books on politics, economics, philosophy, literature and art.

See The Life, Travels and Opinions of Benjamin Lundy (Philadelphia, 1847), compiled (by Thomas Earle) “under the direction

and on behalf of his children,” LUNACY: see INSANITY. LUNATION, the period of return of the moon (luna) to! LUNDY, ROBERT (f. 1689), governor of Londonderry.

the same position relative to the sun; for example, from full | He had seen service in the foreign wars before 1688, when he was moon to full moon. Its duration is 29-5305884 days. at Dublin with the rank of lieutenant-colonel in the regiment of

LUNAVADA, a native state in India, in the Rewa Kantha | Lord Mountjoy. Mountjoy and his regiment were well received in agency, Bombay. Area, 388 sq.m.; pop. (1921) 83,136. The chief, | the north, and the citizens of Derry permitted him to leave within whose title is maharana, is a Rajput of high lineage. Tribute, £950. | their walls a small Protestant garrison under the command of The capital is Lunavada town, said to have been founded in | Lundy, who assumed the title of governor. Lundy declared himself 1434; pop. (1921) 9,956. an adherent of William; and he obtained from him a commission

LUND, TROELS FREDERIK

(1840-1921), Danish his- | confirming his appointment as governor.

But from the moment

torian, was born in Copenhagen on Sept. 5, 1840. He studied at Londonderry was menaced by the troops of King James, Lundy Copenhagen, and was employed in the state archives department paralysed the defence of the city. On April 14, English ships apfrom 1870-75. His first important work, Historiske Skitser (1876), peared in the Foyle with reinforcements for Lundy under Colonel was followed by Danmarks og Norges Historie i Slutningen af det Cunningham. Lundy dissuaded Cunningham from landing his svi. Aarhundreds, 14 vols., 1879-1901, a history of daily life in regiments, representing that a defence of Londonderry was hopeDenmark and Norway at the close of the 16th century. ‘Troels less; and that he himself intended to withdraw secretly from the Lund was the pioneer of the remarkable generation of young his- city. At the same time he sent to the enemy’s headquarters a torians in northern Europe about 188a. He concentrates his atten- promise to surrender the city at the first summons. When the tion on the life, death, employments, pleasures and prejudices of | enemy appeared before the walls Lundy gave orders that there the ordinary men and women of the age with which he deals, using | should be no firing. But the people flew to arms under the directo illustrate his theme a vast body of documents. Lund was ap- | tion of Major Henry Baker and Captain Adam Murray, who pointed historiographer-royal to the king of Denmark and comp- | organized the famous defence in conjunction with the Rev. George troller of the Order of the Dannebrog. He published in 1909 Lye | Walker (g.v.). Lundy made his escape by the connivance of Tankert det xvi. Aarhundreds. In 1911-12 appeared his historical | Walker and Murray. He was apprehended in Scotland and sent to tales, Tider og Tanker. He died on Feb. 12, 1921. the Tower of London. He was excluded from the Act of Indemnity See Knud Fabricius, Troels Lund (1921). in 1690, but his m fate is unknown, : ' 7 etri See Rev. George Walker, A True Account of the Siege of London: ATEN P ae Ge derry (1689); J. Mackenzie, Narrative of the Siege of Londonderry ; : (1690); of Rev. John Graham, History 1829) of the; John Siege Hempton, of Derry The and 24,839. Lund (Londinum Gotherum), the “Lunda at Eyrarsund”4, | Defence Enniskillen, 1638-89A (Dublin, E

f

of Egil’s Saga, was of importance in Egil’s time (c. 920). It ap-

Siege and History of Londonderry

(Londonderry,

1861); Lord Ma-

pears that, if not actually a seaport, it was at least nearer the | caulay, History of England, vol. iii. (Albany edition of complete works, Sound than now. In the middle of the 1zth century it was made a 1898).

bishopric, and in 1103 the seat of an archbishop who received

LUNDY, an island, at the entrance to the Bristol channel, 12

primatial rank over all Scandinavia in 1163, but in 1536 Lund was | m. N.W. of Hartland point on the north coast of Devonshire, Eng-

reduced to a bishopric. Close to the town, at the hill of Slipara- | land. The nearest ports are Clovelly and Bideford. The island is

backe, the Danish kings used to receive the homage of the princes | 3 m, from north to south, a mean breadth of 4 m. but nearly y m. ofSkane. A university was founded here in 1668 by Charles XI., | wide in the south. Area 1,150 acres. The component rock is a hard

with faculties of law, medicine, theology and philosophy.

Its | granite, except at the south, where slate ogcurs. An extreme ele-

library of books and mss. is entitled to receive a copy of every | vation of about 450 ft. is found in the southern half, and the

work printed in Sweden.

The folk-museum near the university | greater part of the coast is cliff-bound and very beautiful.

The

with its reconstructed old houses is important. The Romanesque landing, at the south-east, is sheltered by the small Rat island, cathedral was founded about the middle of the roth century. | where the once common black rat survives. There are prehistoric e crypt under the raised transept and choir is one of the remains on Lundy, and the foundations of an ancient chapel of largest in the world. The chief industries are sugar-refining, iron St. Helen. There are also ruins, and the still inhabited keep of

LUNEBURG—LUNGE

486

Marisco castle occupying a strong precipitous site on the southeast. In 1625 the island was reported to be captured by Turkish pirates, and in 1633 by Spaniards.

Later it became a hiding place

for French privateers. The island has some cultivable land and heath pasture, and had a population in 1921 of 48.

LUNEBURG, a town in the Prussian province of Hanover,

panel which is decorated, and especially to those which occ under semi-circular arches or vaults. By extension, the ee

used of small vaults intersecting a larger vault at right è especially if used for lighting the larger vault, as in the clerestories of St. Paul’s cathedral in London and St. Peter’s in Rome. Oval or circular openings through any vault are also sometimes known

near a small hill named the Kalkberg, on the navigable Ilmenau,

as lunettes.

14 m. above its confluence with the Elbe and 30 m. by rail S.E. of Hamburg. Pop. (1925) 28,923. Liineburg existed in the days of Charlemagne, and gained

eastern France, capital of an arrondissement in the department of

importance after the erection of a convent and a castle on the Kalkberg in the roth century. After the destruction of Bardowiek, then the chief commercial centre of North Germany, in 1189, Lüneburg inherited much of its trade and subsequently became one of the principal towns of the Hanseatic League. Having belonged to the duchy of Saxony it was the capital of the

LUNÉVILLE,

an industrial and garrison town of north.

Meurthe-et-Moselle, 21 m. E.S.E. of Nancy on the railway ig

Strasbourg. Pop. (1926) 20,121. The name of Lunéville (Ltng villa) is perhaps derived from an ancient cult of Diana, the moon

goddess, a sacred fountain and medals with the effigy of this god. dess having been found at Léormont, some 2 m. E. of the town Lunéville belonged to Austrasia, and after various changes, fellin

1344 to the house of Lorraine. A walled town in the middle ages, later it it suffered in the Thirty Years’ War and in the campaigns of Louis belonged to one or other of the branches of the family of XIV. from war, plague and famine. The town flourished ‘again Brunswick. The reformed doctrines were introduced into the under Dukes Leopold and Stanislas, on the death of the latter town in 1530 and it suffered heavily during the Thirty Years’ of whom at Lunéville, Lorraine was united to France (1766), War. It reached the height of its prosperity in the 15th century, The treaty of Lunéville between France and Austria (1801) gave and in the 17th century it was the depot for much of the mer- the left bank of the Rhine to France. The town stands on the chandise exported from Saxony and Bavaria to the mouth of the right bank of the Meurthe between it and the Vezouze, a little Elbe; after a period of decay the rọth century witnessed a revival above their confluence. Its 18th century chateau, the favourite of its prosperity. In 1813 the German war of liberation was residence of Duke Leopold of Lorraine, is now a cavalry barracks, and the gardens form a public promenade. Lunéville is an imbegun by an engagement with the French near Liineburg. The finest of its squares are the market-place and the so-called portant cavalry station with.a large riding school. The 18th. Sand. The churches of St. John, with five aisles; of St. Michael, century church of St. Jacques has two domed towers. The town containing the tombs of the former princes of Lüneburg, and of is the seat of a sub-prefect. The principal industries of Lunéville St. Nicolas, are Gothic edifices of the 14th and 15th centuries. include cotton-spinning and the manufacture of railway material, The town-hall dates from the 13th century. It contains a mag- motor vehicles, porcelain, toys, hosiery, embroidery, straw-hats nificent halli—the Fiirstensaal—decorated with wood-carving and and gloves. Trade is in grain, wine, tobacco, hops, cotton goods, etc. stained-glass windows. The gypsum and lime quarries of the Kalkberg afford the LUNG, in anatomy, the name of each of the pair of organs materials for cement works. Other industries are the making of of respiration in man and other air-breathing animals, the organs in fishes with the corresponding function being the branchice or beer, spirits, chemicals, ironware, carpets and haircloth. LUNEBURGER HEIDE, a district of Germany, in the gills. (See Resprratory System and Heart ann Lune Surcery.) LUNG, one of the four symbolical creatures of Chinese legend. province of Hanover, lying between the Aller and the Elbe and intersected by the railways Harburg-Hanover and Bremen-Stendal. It is a dragon with a scaly snake-like body, long claws, horns, Its main character is that of a broad saddle-back, running for 55 a bristly face, and its back-bone armed with spikes. LUNGCHOW, «a town of 20,000 inhabitants in the province m. from south-east to north-west (mean elevation about 250 ft. and greatest height, Wilseder Berg, 561 ft.). The soil is quartz of Kwangsi, South China (22° 22’ N. and 106° 45’ E.), near the sand and is chiefly covered with heather and brushwood. In the frontier of Tongking. It is important as a military frontier stanorth, and in the deep valleys there are extensive forests of oak, tion and can be reached by large junks from Nanning up the birch and beech, and in the south, of fir and larch. Though the Tso-kiang in the summer flood season. It was opened to foreign climate is raw and good soil rare, the heath 1s not unfertile. Its trade in 1889 in the hope that it might receive trade of western main products are sheep—the celebrated Heidschnucken breed— Kwangsi as it passed through into Tongking by the railway then potatoes, bilberries, cranberries and honey. The district is also projected by the French government. But this railway terminates remarkable for numerous megaliths, popularly called Hun graves. at the frontier, 40 miles short of Lungchow, leaving a rugged mountain country between, and trade instead of moving into Tongking, traverses the 500 miles of river passage to Canton, 50 that the present trade of Lungchow is insignificant, though mprovement. might come with the extension of the Tongking railway system to the town. The total maritime customs revenue in 1924 was Hk. Taels 790,779, showing an increase over previous years. In 1924 the net foreign imports were 105,191, and the exports FROM NAPOLEON'S STUDY FROM RAPHAEL'S vinci eiT AT FONTAINEBLEAU, EMPIRE 175,947; total, 281,138 Hk. Taels. LOGGIA OF THE VAR OM duchy

of Brunswick-Liineburg

a

from

1235

16THCENTURY

to

1369;

EARLY 19TH CENTURY

LUNGE, GEORG

Een

(1839-1923), German chemist, was bom

at Breslau on Sept. 15, 1839.

He studied at Heidelberg (under

R. W. Bunsen [g.v.]) and Breslau, graduating at the latter um versity in 1859. Turning his attention to technical chemistry, be

became chemist at several works both in Germany and England,

FROM THE EXCHANGE (SALA DEL CAMBIO), PERUGIA LATE ISTH CENTURY NAPOLEON'S

STUDY

BY

COURTESY

OF

THE

FROM THE DOORS OF PICCOLOMINI LIBRARY, SIENA LATE 18TH CENTURY “ARCHITECTURAL

SPECIMENS

LUNETTE,

and in 1876 he was appointed professor of technical chemistty at Zurich polytechnic, a post which he resigned in 1907. Lunge’s original contributions cover a very wide field, dealing both with technical processes and analysis. His treatises Coal Tar and AM-

monia (sth ed. 1909; 1st ed. 1867), Destillation des Steinkol-

FORUN”

OF LUNETTES

a crescent-shaped or semi-circular object.

In

architecture, the term is applied to any semi-circular shape or

lentheers and Sulphuric Acid and Alkali (1st. ed. 1878, 4th ed. 1909) are standard works; a completely re-written English edition of the latter work was published between 1923 and 1925. He wi also part author of the well-known Lunge-Berl Chemische Unter

LUNG-FISH—LUQMAN suchungs-Methoden (7th ed: 1921-1924). 23. *UNG-FISH,

He died on Jan. 3,

a name given to the fishes of the order

487

vated in Italy, Sicily and other Mediterranean countries for forage, for ploughing in to enrich the land, and for its round fiat seeds, which

form

an article of food.

Yellow

lupine

(L.

Digneusti (double-breathers), with gills and with the air-bladder luteus) and blue lupine (L. angustifolius) are also cultivated on closely resembling the lung of higher vertebrates, and used for the European continent as farm crops for green manuring. hreathing air. Neoceratodus of Queensland only occasionally LUPU, NICHOLAS (1876), Rumanian politician, was comes to the surface to breathe air. The Lepidosirenidae, including born at Arsura (Rumania) on Nov. 8, 1876. He started his career

as a country doctor and entered politics in 1905. He played an important part during the peasant revolt in 1907 when, as prefect vals; in the dry season, when the swamps dry up, the fishes curl of the Falciu district, he succeeded in pacifying the peasants wp and sleep at the bottom of a burrow, the entrance to which is without having recourse to violent measures. In 1913 he was closed with a plug of mud, with one or more openings for the elected deputy and in 1919 he entered the Vaida-Voevod Coaliadmission of air. It may be noted that fishes of other groups have tion cabinet as minister of the interior, representing, together the air-bladder primitive and lung-like in structure, and use it with Mihalache, the Peasant (Tsaranist) party, of which Dr. for breathing air, particularly the African Polypterus. (See Lupu became one of the principal leaders. During the World FISHES.) War, Dr. Lupu visited Russia, France, England, Italy and the LUPERCALIA, a very ancient Roman festival. Its rites United States and carried on an active propaganda campaign on were under the superintendence of a corporation of priests called behalf of Rumania. During the succeeding period of Liberal Luperci (possibly “wolf-averters,” iupus+-arceo: so Vanitek), Government, Lupu necessarily remained in the background. whose institution is attributed either to Evander or to Romulus LUPUS, PUBLIUS RUTILIUS, Roman rhetorician, flourand Remus. But the festival itself, which was held on Feb. 15 con- ished during the reign of Tiberius. He was the author of a treatise tains no reference to these late fictions. It began with the sacrifice on the figures of speech (2xjuara dé~ews), abridged from a by the Luperci (or the flamen Dialis) of goats and a dog; after similar work by the rhetorician Gorgias of Athens. In its present which two of the Luperci were led to the altar, their foreheads form it is incomplete. The work is valuable chiefly as containing were touched with a bloody knife, and the blood wiped off with a number of examples from the lost works of Greek rhetoricians. wool dipped in milk; then the ritual required that the two young The author has been identified with the Lupus mentioned in the men should laugh. Ovidian catalogue of poets (Ex Ponto, iv. 16), and was perhaps The sacrificial feast followed, after which the Luperci cut the son of Publius Rutilius Lupus, a supporter of Pompey. See editions by D. Ruhnken (1768), F. Jacob (1837), C. Halm in thongs from the skins of the victims and ran in two bands round the walls of the old Palatine city. A blow from the thong cured Rhetores latini minores (1863); see also monographs by G. Dzialas Nee 1869), C. Schmidt (1865), J. Draheim (1874), Thilo Krieg sterility in women. The celebration of the festival went on until 1896). AD. 494, when it was changed by Gelasius into the feast of the Purification. The Luperci were divided into two colleges, called LUPUS, a disease of the skin occurring in two varieties. Ouinctiliant (or Quinctiales) and Fabiani, from the gens Quinc- Lupus vulgaris, tuberculosis of the skin, is caused by B. tubertilia (or Quinctia) and Fabia; at the head of each of these col- culosis and is characterized by the formation in the skin or leges was a magister. In 44 B.C. a third college, Luperci Iulii, was mucous membrane of small nodules consisting of inflammatory instituted in honour of Julius Caesar, the frst magister of which cells liable ta coalescence, retrograde change, ulceration and was Mark Antony. In imperial times the members were usually destruction of the tissues, and, if it heals, to the subsequent formation of permanent white scars. It is most commonly seen in of equestrian standing. So far, no really convincing explanation of the ceremonies has early life, and in women, and occurs chiefly on the face, about been put forward. The ritual is apparently in honour of no god; the nose, cheeks or ears. But it may also affect the body or limbs. Lupercus, whom our authorities sometimes name, seems a mere It frst shows itself as small, slightly prominent, nodules covered invention, Faunus is a guess of the moderns. Two elements may with thin crusts or scabs. The disease may be superficial, in be distinguished: (1) The Luperci trace a magic circle around the which case both the ulceration and the resulting scar are slight old settlement to keep off harm (from wolves); (2) They are (lupus non exedens); or the ulcerative process may be deep and called creppi, he-goats, and “doctored” to fill them with good extensive, destroying a large portion of the palate, nose or cheek, magic. They thus are charged with and can convey fertility. But and leaving much disfigurement (lupus exedens). Formerly much remains obscure. scraping with a sharp spoon, application of caustics or carbonic See W. Warde Fowler, Roman Festivals (1899), p. 390 et seq. acid snow were employed but now treatment by ultra-violet light, LUPIN or LUPINE, in botany, a genus, Lupinus, of about Finsen rays, or X-rays is used with better results. Prolonged 150 species of annual and perennial herbaceous plants of the tribe X-ray treatment, however, has in several instances been followed Genisteae, of the family Leguminosae. Species with digitate leaves some years later by cancer in the irradiated area. The other range along the west side of America from British Columbia to and less serious variety, lupus erythematosus, occurs on the northern Chile, while a few accur in the Mediterranean regions. nose and adjacent portions of the cheeks in the form of red A few others with entire leaves are found in Brazil and eastern patches covered with thin scales, underneath which are seen North America. The leaves are remarkable for “sleeping” in three the widened openings of the sebaceous ducts. With a longitudinal different ways. From being in the form of a horizontal star patch on the nose and spreading symmetrical patches on each by day, the leaflets either fall and form a hollow cone with their cheek the appearance is usually that of a large butterfly. It is bases upwards (L. pilosus), or rise and the cone is inverted slow in disappearing, but does not leave a scar. As medicines, (L. luteus), or else the shorter leaflets fall and the longer rise, cod-liver oil, iron and arsenic are useful in both varieties. Protopterus of Africa and Lepidosiren of South America, inhabit

swamps and marshes, and rise to breathe air at frequent inter-

and so together form a vertical star as in many species; the ad-

Vantage In every case being apparently a protection of the surfaces of the leaflets from radiation and consequent wetting with

dew. The flowers are of the usual “papilionaceous” or pea-like form, blue, white, purple or yellow, in long terminal spikes. The stamens are monadelphous and bear dimorphic anthers. The spe-

Ges of which earliest mention is made is probably L. Termis,

Which was cultivated by the ancient Egyptians.

It is wild in

some parts of the Mediterranean area and is extensively cultivated m Egypt. Its seeds are eaten by the poor after being steeped in

water to remove their bitterness. The lupine of the ancient Greeks

LUQMAN or LOKMAN, the name of two, if not of three,

persons famous in Arabian tradition. The first was of the family of ‘Ad, and is said to have built the great dike of Marib and to have received the gift of life as long as that of seven vultures, each of which lived 80 years. The name of the second Luqman, called “Luqman the Sage,” occurs in the Koran (31, 11). Two accounts

of him are found. According to Mas‘idi (i. 110) he was a Nubian freedman who lived in the time of David. According to some commentators on the Koran he was the son of Ba‘ira, one of the sons of Job’s sister or maternal aunt. Derenbourg in his Fables

de Loqmén le sage (1850) identifies Ba‘ira with Beoi, and believes

ad Romans was probably L. albus, which is still extensively culti- the name Lugmdn to be a translation of Balaam, The grave of

488

LURAY

CAVERN—LURISTAN

Luqman was shown on the east coast of the lake of Tiberias, also in Yemen. The so-called Fables of Luqmdn are known to have existed in the 13th century, but are not mentioned by any Arabian writer. They

were edited by Erpenius (Leyden, 1615) and have been reprinted

many times. For the relation of these to similar literature in other Gah see J. Jacobs’s edition of Caxton’s Fables of Aesop, vol. i.

188g).

LURAY CAVERN, 2 large cave in Page county, Va., U.S.A.,

39° 35’ N. and 78° 17’ W., near the village of Luray, on the Norfolk and Western railway. The valley, here rom. wide, extends from the Blue Ridge to the Massanutton mountain. The ridges lie in vast folds and wrinkles; and elevations in the valley

are often found to be pierced by erosion. Cave Hill, 300ft. above the water-level, had long been an object of local interest on account of its pits and oval hollows or sink-holes, through one of which, on Aug. 13, 1878, Andrew J. Campbell and others entered, thus discovering the cavern now described. The Luray cavern does not date beyond the Tertiary period, though carved from the Silurian limestone. At some period, long subsequent to its original excavation, and after many large stalactites had grown, it was completely filled with glacial mud charged with acid, whereby the dripstone was eroded into singularly grotesque shapes. After the mud had been mostly removed by flowing water, these eroded forms remained amid the new growths. To this contrast may be ascribed some of the most striking scenes in the cave. The many and extraordinary monuments of aqueous energy include massive columns wrenched from their places in the ceiling and prostrate on the floor; the Hollow Column, 4oft. high and 3oft. in diameter, standing erect, but pierced by a tubular passage from top to bottom; the Leaning Column nearly as large, undermined and tilting like the campanile of Pisa; the Organ, a cluster of stalactites in the chamber known as the Cathedral; besides a vast bed of disintegrated carbonates left by the whirling flood in its retreat through the great space called the Elfin Ramble. The stalactitic display is one of the most remarkable in the world. The old material is yellow, brown or red; and its wavy surface often shows layers like the gnarled grain of costly woods. The new stalactites growing from the old, and made of hard

The waters of this cavern appear to be entirely destitute of tip. and the existing fauma comprises

only a few bats, rats, mice

spiders, flies and small centipedes. When the cave wag firs entered, the floor was covered with thousands of tracks of raccoons, wolves and bears-—most of them probably made

ago, as impressions made in the tenacious clay that composes mog of the cavern foor would remain unchanged for centuries. Layer, of excrementitious matter appear, and also many smalj

along with a few large ones, all of existing species. The traces of human occupation are pieces of charcoal, flints, moccasin tracks and a single skeleton embedded in stalagmite in one of the chasms estimated, from the present rate of stalagmitic growth, to have

lain where it was found for not more than five hundred year

The temperature is uniformly 54° F, coinciding with that of Mammoth Cave, Ky. The air is very pure, and the avenues are not uncomfortably damp. The portions open to the public are now lighted by electric lamps.

(H. C. Hy.)

LURGAN, a2 market-town of Co. Armagh, Ireland, 20 m S.W. of Belfast by rail. Pop. (1921) 12,553. Lurgan Castleis a modern Elizabethan structure. Lurgan is famed for its diapers and the linen trade is of the first importance, but there are akg tobacco factories and coach factories. A grant of the town was made to William Brownlow by James I. In 1619 it consisted of 42 houses, all inhabited by English settlers. It was bumed by the insurgents in 1641, and again by the troops of James H After its restoration in 1690 a patent for a market and fair was obtained.

LURIA, ISAAC BEN SOLOMON (1534-1572), Jewish mystic, was born in Jerusalem. From his German descent he was surnamed Ashkenazi (the German). In 1559 Luria was living in Cairo and trading as a spice merchant with his headquarters in Alexandria. He had come to Egypt as a boy after his father’s death, and was brought up by his wealthy maternal uncle Mordecai Francis. At séventeen a copy of the Kabbalistic “Bible”—the Zohar of Moses de Leon (g.v.) came into his hands. In order te

meditate òn the mystic lore he withdrew to a hut by the Nile, returning home for the Sabbath. Elijah, who had been his godfather in his babyhood, now paid him frequent visits, initiating him into sublime truths. By night Luria’s soul ascended to heaven and conversed with celestial teachers who had once been men of renown on earth. In 1566 at earliest Luria removed to Safed, where there was a large circle of Talmudists. He died at Safed m

carbonates that had already once been used, are usually white as snow, though often pmk, blue or amber-coloured. The Empress Column is a stalagmite 35ft. high, rose-coloured, and elaborately draped. The double column, named from Professors Henry and 1572. But these years were momentous for Judaism. He founded Baird, is made of two fluted pillars side by side, the one 25 and a school of mystics who powerfully affected Judaism after the the other 6oft. high, a mass of snowy alabaster. Several stalactites master’s death. The Holy Spirit, we are told, rested on him, in the Giant Hall exceed soft. in length. The smaller pendants drawn to him by the usual means of the mystics—self-flogging, are innumerable; in the canopy above the Imperial Spring it is ablutions and penance. He had wonderful gifts of insight, and spoke to the birds. Miracles abounded. More soberly true is the estimated that 40,000 are visible at once. The “cascades” are wonderful formations like foaming cataracts statement that he went on long walks with enthusiastic disciples, caught in mid-air and transformed into milk-white or amber whom he taught without books. Luria himself wrote no mystical alabaster. The Chalcedony cascade displays a variety of colours. works; what we know of his doctrites and habits comes chiely Brand’s cascade, the finest of all, is 4oft. high and 3o0ft. wide, from his Boswell, Hayim Vital. There was little of originality in Luria’s doctrines; the theory of and is unsullied and wax-like white, each ripple and braided rill the double belief in the proċess of the Divine Essence seeming to have been polished. The Swords of the Titans are emanations, as it were self-concentrating (Zimzum) and on the othėr hand a monstrous blades, eight in number, soft. long, 3 to 8ft. wide, expanding throughout creation; the philosophical “‘scepticism” which hollow, 1 to 2ft. thick, but drawn down to an extremely thin regards God as unknowable but capable of direct intuition by feeling— edge, and filling the cavern with tones like tolling bells when these were all common elements of mystical thought. Luria was an struck heavily by the hand. Their origin and also that of certain inspirer of saintly conduct rather than an innovator in theories. Not beliefs, he said, but believers need rebirth. He or his so-called scarfs and blankets is from carbonates deposited by introduced innumerable ritual customs, some of them beautiful enough. water trickling down a sloping and corrugated surface. Sixteen See S. Schecher, Studies in Judaism, second series, pp. 251,5eq.; of these alabaster scarfs hang side by side in Hovey’s Balcony, Jewish Encyclopedia, viii. 210; E. Worman in Revue des Etusts three white and fine, 13 striated like agate with every shade of Juives, lvii. 281. brown, and all perfectly translucent. Down the edge of each a LURISTAN, in the wider sense, the “Land of the Lus; tiny rill glistens like silver, and this is the ever-plying shuttle that namely that part of western Persia which is bounded by ‘Traq 08 weaves the fairy fabric. the west and extends for about 400 m. north-west—south-east from Streams and true springs are absent, but there are hundreds of Kirmanshah to Fars with a breadth of 100 to 140 m. Itis chiefly

basins, varying from r to soft. in diameter, and from 6in. to rsft. mountainous, being intersected by numerous ranges running northin depth. The water in them is exquisitely pure, except as it is westsouth-east. The central range has many summits which ate impregnated by the carbonate of lime, which often forms concre- almost within the line of perpetual snow, rising to 13,000 ft. tions, called according to their size, pearls, eggs and snowballs. more, and in it are the sources of Persia’s most important rivets A large one is known as the cannon ball. On fracture these as the Zayendeh-rud, Jerrahi, Karun, Diz and Karkheb. Betweet spherical growths are found to be radiated in structure. the higher ranges are many fertile plains and low hilly districts

LUSATIA—-LUSIGNAN

489

well watered but comparatively little cultivated in consequence of |Löbau, and Kamenz, which, as before, are incorporated in Saxony.

(W. L. B.)

intertribal feuds. The Lurs are thought to be aboriginal Persians with a mixture of Arab blood. Their language is a dialect of

BIBLIOGRAPAY.—Scriptores rerum Lusaticarum antiqui et recentiores, Persian. Outwardly they are Mussulmans of the Shiah sect, but | ed. C. G, Hoffman (4 vols., Leipzig and Bautzen, 1719); Scriptores most of them show little veneration for either Prophet or Koran, | rerum Lusaticarum (4 vols.. Görlitz, 1839—70); Codex diplomaticus Lusatiae

superioris, ed. G. Köhler

(vol. 1, 2nd ed., 1856); as also

and the religion of some of them seems to be a mixture of Ali- | continuation thereof, Codex diplomaticus Lusatiae superioris II. ed. Ilahism involving a belief in successive incarnations combined

R. Zecht (vols. 1-4, 1896—1911); Theuner und Lippert, Urkundenbuch with mysterious, ancient, heathen rites. The northern part of | sur Geschichie des Markgrafentums Niederlausitz (1887-1924, 3 vols.) ; Luristan, which was formerly known as Lur-i-Kuchak (little Luri- | W Lippert, Wettiner und Wittelsbacher sowie die Niederlausitz im 14 Jahrhundert (Dresden, 1894); T. Scheltz, Gesammtgeschichte der stan), is inhabited by the Feili Lurs and these are divided into the Ober- und Niederlausitz (vol. i., Halle, 1847; vol. ii., Görlitz, 1882).

Pishkuh (cis-montane) Lurs in the east and Pushtkuh (ultra-

LUSCHAN, FELIX VON (1854-1924), Austrian anthro350,000. Little Luristan was governed by a race of independent pologist and ethnographer, was born on Aug. 11, 1854, in Vienna. pinces of the Khurshidi dynasty, called atabegs, from 1155 to He studied medicine in Vienna, anthropology in Paris, became montane) Lurs in the west adjoining ‘Iraq. They number about

the beginning of the 17th century when the last atabeg, Shah Verdi Khan, was removed by Shah Abbas I. and the government of the province given to Husain Khan, the chief of a riyal tribe, with the title of vali. The descendants of Husain Khan have retained the title but now govern only the Pusht-i-kuh Lurs. The southern part of Luristan was formerly known as Lur-i-Buzurg

(great Luristan) and is composed of the Bakhtiari district of the province and the districts of the Manasani and Kuhgalu which belong to Fars. The Bakhtiaris number about 200,000, the others 40,000. Great Luristan was an independent state under the Fazlevieh atabegs from 1160 until 1424, and its capital was Idaj, now

represented by mounds and ruins at Malamir 60 m. SE. of Shushtar.

“Luristan” in the more

restricted sense, is a province of

Persia, now officially known as Burujird (q¢.v.) which has for the

present replaced Khurramabad as the headquarters of the provincial government.

BrauiocraPHY.—A. H, Layard, “Ancient sites among the Bakhtiyari

demonstrator in physiology at the university at Vienna, and in

1878 organised the Austro-Hungarian section for anthropology and ethnology at the World Exhibition in Paris. As a military doctor in Bosnia, he studied anthropology and archaeology, and in 1880 travelled in Dalmatia, Montenegro and Albania. During the following 10 years he was often in Asia Minor and Egypt, and in 1883 excavated the ruins of Sendschirli in Northern Syria on behalf of the Berlin Oriental Committee. After a brief period as lecturer in anthropology in Vienna, he became directorial assistant at the Ethnological Museum in Berlin, of which he was director from 1904 until his death, on Feb. 7, 1924. His works include: Beiträge zur gebiete (1897) ; Die Ausgrabungen Beiträge sur Ethnographie von Anthropolagie von Kreta; Rassen und Sprachen (1922).

Völkerkunde der deutschen Schutzvon Sendschirli, 2 pts. (1893, 1898) ; Neu-Guinea (1899); Beiträge sur und Völker (3908) ; Völker, Rassen

LUSHAI HILLS, a mountainous district of Assam, south of

Cachar, on the border between Assam and Burma. Area, 7,227 sq.m.; pop. (1921), 98,406. The hills are for the most part cov-

ered with dense forest or bamboo jungle, in which there are clearings for cultivation. They are sparsely inhabited by the Lushais and cognate tribes. The earliest known inhabitants were Kukis, (1891); J. de Morgan, “Rapport de M. J. de Morgan sur sa mission and the Lushais were not heard of until 1840 when they invaded en Perse et dans le Louristan,” J. Asiat. (1892); G. N. Curzon, Persia the district from the north. Their first attack upon British terriand the Persian Question (1892); D. L. R. Lorimer, Reports Proc. tory took place in 1849, and after that date their warlike spirit and Govt. India, Foreign Dept. (June-July, 1904); and “The phonology predatory habits made them one of the most troublesome tribes of the Bakhtiari, etc., dialects,” Roy. As. Soc. Pubn. (1922) : T. Strauss, “Eine reise an der Nordgrenze Luristans,” Petermanns Mitt. (1905) ; on the north-east frontier of India; but military operations in 1890 E. Herzfeld, “Eine reise durch Luristan,” etc., Petermanns Mitt. resulted in the pacification of the northern Lushais, and in 1892 (1907); H. L. Rabino, “Les tribus du Lauristan,” Rev. du Monde of the eastern Lushais. The final submission of the chiefs of the Mountains,” etc., J.R.G.S. (1842); C. A. de Bode, Travels in Luristan

and Arabistan (1845); H. C. Rawlinson, “Notes on a march... through the province of Luristan to Kirmanshah in the year 1836,” J.RGS, (1839); Mrs. Bishop, Journeys in Persia and Kurdistan

Musulman (1916); C. J. Edmonds, “Luristan: Pish-i-Kuh and BalGariveh,” Geogr. J. (1922).

LUSATIA (Lausitz), a name applied to two neighbouring districts in Germany,

between

“Upper” and “Lower” Lusatia.

the Elbe and the Oder, viz., Lusatia in the middle ages com-

prised what is now known as “Lower” Lusatia; it is only in the 15th century that the “district of the six towns” (“Sechsstddtelend”)—-now “Upper” Lusatia—came to be included, that is to say, the towns: Bautzen, Görlitz, Zittau, Löbau, Lauban and Kamenz. The territory, named after a Slav tribe, the Lusitzi, was incorporated into the Holy Roman empire of the German nation

by the margrave Gero in 938, sold in 1303 to the margraves of Brandenburg of the Askanian line, the oldest dynasty in Europe. In 1368 the territory fell to the crown of Bohemia on the ground that it had been granted by the emperor Frederick I. to Ladislav in 1160. Thenceforth it was administered by governors appointed by the kings of Bohemia. During the Hussite wars, at the beginning of the r5th century, the people remained loyal to the Roman

Catholic Church. After many changes, due to the fact that the lemitory was “mortgaged” by its penurious rulers, the people

southern Lushai hills, who were under the control of the Govern-

ment of Bengal, was not secured till 1895. The latter hills were in 1898 transferred to Assam and amalgamated with the northern hills in one district. The limits of the district have more recently heen extended by the inclusion of gaa sq.m. between the south of the Lushai hills and the Chin hills in Burma. The headquarters are at Aijal, 3,500 fi, above sea-level, where a battalion of the Assam Rifles is stationed, The villages are, as a rule, perched on the tops of ridges or

spurs. Each is ruled by a chief or headman, in whose house live the orphans and poor of the village. In another house all the young unmarried- men and strangers sleep. Dogs, said to be similar to those eaten by the Chinese, are used both for sacrifices and for food. Between z9rz and 192r mass conversions to Christianity

took place among the Lushais, due to the efforts of the Welsh Presbyterian Mission at Aijal, and of the London Baptist Mission at Lungleh. The number of Christians consequently rose from 2,000 to 27,000 or over one-quarter of the total population.

LUSIGNAN, the name of a family which sprang from Poitou and long held the kingdom of Cyprus (1192-1475). A Hugh de Lusignan appears in the ill-fated crusade of 1100-1101; another Hugh, the Brown, came as a pilgrim to the Holy Land in 1164, and was taken prisoner by Nureddin. In the last quarter of the

recognized the sovereignty of Matthias Corvinus, king of Hungary, for 23 years (1467—90), but returned to the allegiance to the crown of Bohemia in 1490. By the treaty of Prague (1635) both Upper and Lower Lusatia became part of the dominions of r2th century the two brothers Amalric and Guy, sons of Hugh the the elector of Saxony and (apatt from temporary subdivisions Brown, played a part in the history of the Latin East. About

among dynasts of this princély house) remained in their pos- t18q Amalric was constable of the kingdom of Jerusalem. His session until the congress of Vienna (1815) when the territory, in brother Guy married in 1180 Sibylla, the widowed heiress of the bulk, became incorporated within the kingdom of Prussia. kingdom. Guy acted as regent in 1183, but he had little success,

In the reconstituted Germany after 1918, Lusatia remained a and was deprived of all right of succession. In 1186, however, on save for the communes of Zittau, Bautzen, the death of Baldwin V., he became King of Jerusalem in spite of

part of Prussia,

LUSSIN—-LU THER

490

the opposition of Raymund of Tripoli. Next year he suffered a crushing defeat at the battle of Hittin, and was taken prisoner by Saladin. Released on parole in 1188, he at once broke his parole, and began the siege of Acre Difficulties, however, had arisen with Conrad of Montferrat; and after Sibylla’s death, Conrad won fresh support and was generally recognized as king in 1192.

Though Conrad was almost immediately assassinated, the

crown did not return to Guy, but went to Henry of Champagne, who married the widowed Isabella. Guy bought from the Templars the island of Cyprus, and there he reigned for the last two years of his life (1192-1194). He is judged harshly by contemporary writers, as simplex and insufficiens, but Dodu (in his Histoire des

institutions du royaume de Jérusalem) suggests that Guy was depreciated because the kingdom had been lost in his reign, in

ceremonies as the Ambarvalia, Lupercalia, Cerealia, Paganai etc., there was a lustration of the fleet before it sailed, and gf

the army before it marched. See C. F. Hermann, Griechische Altertimer, ii.; G. F. Schémann,ip

ii.; J. Donaldson, “On the Expiatory and Substitutionary Sacrifices of the Greeks,” in Transactions of „the Royal Society of Edinburgk iii p. 2% xxvii (1876); Marquardt, Römische Staatsverwaliung, (1885); P. Stengel, Dze griechischen Kultusaltertiimer (1898); LE Sandys, Companion to Latin Studies, with bibliography (1925) ang the articles by A. Bouché-Leclercq in Daremberg and Saglio, Dictionnaire des Antiquités, and by W. Warde Fowler in Smith’s Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities (3rd ed., 1891).

LUTE,

an ancient, stringed musical instrument, derived in

form as well as name from the Arabs. The complete family consisted of the pandura, tanbur or mando-

line as treble, the lute as alto or tenor, the barbiton or theorbo as bass, and the

much the same way as Godfrey of Bouillon was exalted because Jerusalem had just been won at his accession. Guy was succeeded in Cyprus by his brother Amalric, who acquired the title of king of Cyprus from the emperor Henry VI., and became king of Jerusalem in 1197 by his marriage to Isabella,

after the death of Henry of Champagne. (See Amatric II.) Amalric was the founder of a dynasty of kings of Cyprus, which lasted till 1475, while after 1269 his descendants regularly enjoyed the title of kings of Jerusalem For the history of the Lusignan kings see Cyprus. The most famous were Hugh IIT. (the Great) (1267-85) to whom, apparently St. Thomas dedicated his De Regimine Principum; Hugh IV. (1324-59), to whom Boccaccio dedicated one of his works, and who set on foot an alliance with the pope, Venice and the Hospitallers, which resulted in the capture of Smyrna (1344); and Peter I. (1359-69). Peter and his chancellor de Meziéres represent the last flicker of the crusading spirit. (See CRUSADES.) Before the extinction of the line in 1475, it had placed a branch on the throne of Armenia. Five short-lived kings of the house ruled in Armenia after 1342, “Latin exiles,” as Stubbs says, “in the midst of several strange populations all alike hostile.” The kingdom of Armenia fell before the sultan of Egypt, who took prisoner its last king Leo V. in 1375, though the kings of Cyprus afterwards continued to bear the title; the kingdom of Cyprus itself continued to exist under the house of Lusignan for roo years longer. The mother of the last king, James IIT. (who died when he was two years old) was a Venetian lady, Catarina Cornaro. She had been made a daughter of the republic at the time of her marriage to the king of Cyprus; and on the death of her child the republic first acted as guardian for its daughter, and then, in 1489, obtained from her the cession of the island.

chitarrone as double bass. The Arab instrument, with convex sound-body, point. ing to the resonance board or membrane having been originally placed upon a gourd,

was strung with silk and played with a plectrum of shell or quill. It was adopted

by the Arabs from Persia.

BY COURTESY VICTORIA AND

OF DIRECTOR OF ALBERT MUSEUM

THE LUTE

Instruments

with vaulted backs are all undoubtedly of Eastern origin; the distinct type, resembling the longitudinal section of a pear, is more specially traced in ancient India

Persia and the countries influenced by their

civilization. As long as the strings were plucked by fingers or plectrum the large pear-shaped instrument may be identified as a forbear of the lute. When the bow, obtained from Persia, was applied to the instrument by the Arabs, a fresh family was formed whick was afterwards known in Europe as rebab and later rebec. The lute family is separated from the guitars, also of Eastern origin,

by the formation of the sound-body which is in all lutes pearshaped and joined directly to the sound-board without the sides or ribs necessary to the structure of the flat-backed guitar and

cither. Observing this distinction, the little Neapolitan mandoline of 2ft. long is included in the lute family no less than the large double-necked Roman chitarrone, which was not infrequently 6ft. long. Mandolines are partly strung with wire, and are played with a plectrum, indispensable for metal or short stiff strings, Perhaps the earliest lyres were so played, but the large lutes and theorbos strung with catgut have been invariably touched by the See J. M. J. L. de Mas-Latrie, Histoire de Vile de Chypre sous les fingers only.

The lute was in general use during the 16th and 17th centuries. In the 18th it declined though J. S. Bach wrote a partita for E. their LUSSIN, an island of the Quarnero group, transferred at the Peri, Caccini and Monteverde used theorbos to accompany post-war settlement in 1918, with the closely adjacent island of newly devised recitative, the invention of which in Florence, from the impulse of the Renaissance, is well known. Handel Cherso, to Italy. See CHERSO. LUSTRATION, a term that includes all the methods of wrote a part for a theorbo in Esther (1720) ; but after that datei purification and expiation among the Greeks and Romans. Among appears no more in orchestral scores, though it remained in pr the Greeks two ideas prevailed; that human nature must purify vate use until nearly the end of the century. LUTECIUM, arare metallic element of the rare-earth group, itself (xd@apots) from guilt before it is fit to enter into comdiscovered by Urbain and independently by Von Welsbach; was munion with God or even to associate with men, and that guilt princes de la maison de Lustgnan (1852-53); W. Stubbs, Lectures on Mediaeval and Modern History (3rd ed., Oxford, 1900).

must be expiated voluntarily (fiacyds)

by certain processes

the latter named the element cassiopeium.

(Symbol Lu, atomic

which God has revealed. The methods of purification consist in number 71, atomic weight 175-0.) Lutecium occurs along with ceremonies performed with water, fire, air or earth, or with a ytterbium, erbium, etc., in the minerals gadolinite, euxenite, xenebranch of a sacred tree, especially of the laurel, and also in time, etc. It is separated from the other members of the group sacrifice and other ceremonial. The torch and sulphur (rd Oetov) by the fractional crystallization of the bromates; lutecium browere also powerful purifying agents. Purification by air was most mate being the most soluble passes into the mother-liquor. Like frequent’ in the Dionysiac mysteries; puppets suspended and ytterbium it forms a white oxide and colourless salts giving 20 swinging in the air (oscilla) formed one way of using the lustrative absorption spectrum. In general its salts are more soluble power of the air. Rubbing with sand and salt was another method. The sacrifice chiefly used for purification by the Greeks was a pig; among the Romans it was always, except in the Lupercalia, a pig, a sheep and a bull (suovetaurilic). On extraordinary occasions lustrations were performed for a whole city. So Athens was purified by Epimenides after the Cylonian massacre, and

Delos in the Peloponnesian War (426 B.c.) to stop the plague and appease the wrath of Apollo. In Rome, besides such annual

those of ytterbium; the magnetic susceptibility is less than thë

of the latter, and in addition it possesses a characteristic Spat (C. J) spectrum. (See Rare Eartus.)

LUTHER, HANS (1879-

_), German statesman, was bort

in Berlin, on March ro, 1879, and studied law in Berlin, Kiel

Geneva. He then entered the local administration service. © first he was stationed in Charlottenburg, and from 1907-13,”

the Magistrat in Magdeburg under the former minister of finance,

LUTHER

491

Lenze. In 1913 he was elected secretary to the German and Prussian “Stadtetag.” On July 5, 1918, he was elected burgomaster of Essen in the Ruhr district. There he gained the reputation of being one of the best local administrative officials in the

seventh year and in which he passed through a graduated course in Latin grammar and syntax, as set forth in the text-books of Donatus and Alexander de Ville Dieu, in select passages from some of the classical authors, and in religious instruction and west of Germany. On Dec. 2, 1922, he entered the Cuno cabinet, singing. According to Mathesius he was a diligent and apt pupil, and became minister of food and agriculture. He retained his and he evidently profited from this early training, in spite of his t in Essen and, when the French marched into the Ruhr in later drastic criticism of the schools and schoolmasters of the Jan. 1923, he returned to Essen immediately. There he was the pre-Reformation period. In his r4th year (1497), he was sent to hero of a famous episode. The general commanding the troops Magdeburg to continue his education, and in accordance with the marching into Essen wished to speak with the burgomaster at practice of the time earned his bread by singing in the streets. the door of the Rathaus (town hall). Dr. Luther sent a message His teachers at Magdeburg were members of the Brotherhood of that he was only to be seen in his office. The order was repeated the Common Life, which devoted itself specially to education and twice, but at last the general was obliged to give way. was distinguished by its practical reforming spirit. On the conAfter Cuno ceased to be chancellor, Luther retained his office clusion of the school year he removed to Eisenach, where he in the Stresemann cabinet. In Stresemann’s second cabinet, he be- attracted the interest of an opulent burgher, Kuntz Cotta, and came minister of finance. As minister of finance, he per- his wife, who received him into their home and relieved him from formed signal services in stabilising the German currency, and in the necessity of singing for his bread in the streets. He was balancing the budget of the Reich. Dr. Luther kept his office in fortunate, too, in finding in the Rector Trebonius and his assistant the Marx ministry which followed, and had a share in the prepa- Wigand efficient teachers of the higher courses in Latin grammar, rations for the Conference of London and the conclusion of the composition, rhetoric, and poetry, in which he easily out-disDawes agreement. In the autumn of 1924 he concluded the tanced his fellow pupils. At the close of this training, which Dawes loan for Germany. He has himself given an account of his extended over three years, he entered the University of Erfurt in work in restoring the finances of Germany (Feste Mark—solide the spring of rsor. At this period the fame of Erfurt exceeded Wirtschaft, 1924). After the elections in Dec. 1924, Marx, in that of all the German universities. The curriculum for the bachespite of many endeavours, was not able to form a new cabinet lor of arts degree, which he took in the autumn of 1502, included and Luther took over the task in the middle of Jan. 1925. A grammar, logic, rhetoric, physics, and philosophy. Two years cabinet was formed under him, which was the first since the further study were required for the master’s degree, the course revolution of 1918 to include members of the German National including, besides higher instruction in the subjects already studied, party. Luther carried through a great taxation reform, completed mathematics, metaphysics, and ethics. At the age of 22 his ability

parents taught their children. Both were strict disciplinarians, and Luther later complained of the harshness of his upbringing,

and proficiency secured him the second place in a list of 17 candidates who passed the master’s examination in the winter of 1505. As the result of these four years of intensive study he had acquired a firm grasp of the current scholastic philosophy, and had developed a marked dialectic skill He was the ornament of a circle of fellow-students, who met to discuss philosophy, and to whose intercourse his musical gifts contributed an additional charm. Among his teachers were Trutvetter and Ulsingen who professed the Nominalist philosophy as expounded by William of Occam, the great English Franciscan of the rath century. Under their influence Luther became an enthusiastic adherent of the Occamist or “modern” school of thought as against the various forms of Realism represented by Thomas Aquinas and Duns Scotus. He speaks of Occam as “my master,” and. refers to his school as “my sect,” and he retained his predilection for the philosophic teaching of the great schoolman even after he came to differ from his distinctive theology. He owed allegiance, too, to the authority of Aristotle, whose logic and philosophy dominated all the schools, including that of Occam. Whilst thus absorbed in the conventional scholastic study, he does not seem to have been influenced at this period to any appreciable extent by the humanist movement, which only later took a firm hold of the university, though he found both pleasure and benefit in reading some of the Latin authors, including Cicero, Virgil, and Livy. The Augustinian Friar.—aAt the desire of his father, rather than from personal inclination, he entered on the study of law in May 1505. Two months later (July 17) he suddenly renounced the world and entered the monastery of the Augustinian Eremites at Erfurt. There is a difference of opinion among his biographers whether his resolution to become a monk was the result of a sudden impulse, or the climax of a gradually maturing predilection for the monastic life, due in part to certain influences, religious and psychic, working on his high-strung temperament. On the whole the evidence tends to show that his decision was unpremeditated. He himself ascribes it to the fear of sudden death during a thunderstorm, which overtook him, on the road near Erfurt, whilst returning from his home at Mansfeld, when he was prostrated by a flash of lightning and vowed to become a monk. It was in pursuance of this vow that, to the distress and bitter

whilst recognizing that his parents meant well by it and cherishing

chagrin of his father and the astonishment and regret of his

@ deep affection and gratitude towards them. The harsh discipline prevailed in the local Latin school, to which he was sent in his

friends, he immured himself in the Erfurt monastery. In any case he regarded his involuntary vow as a call from Heaven, and its

the revaluation legislation, and made a provisional customs tariff which made it possible to commence negotiations for commercial agreements with some prospect of success for German economic life. This economic legislation was accompanied by the Locarno

policy initiated by Stresemann with the essential agreement of Luther, who, as chancellor, was responsible for the conduct of

policy as a whole. At the Conference of Locarno, the German delegation which

initialled the clauses of the treaty was led by Luther as chancellor. After his return from Locarno, the German National party left the Government. In spite of this, the cabinet found a majority for the policy of Locarno, and on Dec. 1, 1925, signed the Rhine Pact and the Arbitration Treaties in London, after which it resigned. After tedious Government crises, Luther again received the mandate to form a cabinet. As the Social Democrats forsook the chancellor, there was nothing left but to form a cabinet out of the moderate bourgeois parties. Dr. Luther was not a party politician, and often proclaimed his independence. While m charge of the affairs of the Reich he distinguished himself by extraordinary energy and sober clarity of political judgment, and the German people indubitably made important progress towards reconstruction under his leadership. On May 13, 1926, he resigned his office as chancellor. (See GERMANY.) (F. KIE.)

LUTHER, MARTIN

(1483-1546), the great German reli-

gious reformer, was born on Nov. 10, 1483, at Eisleben, in the county of Mansfeld, whither his parents, Hans Luther and Margaret Ziegler, who belonged to the free peasant class, had migrated from Mohra in Thuringia. Six months later they removed to the

town of Mansfeld, the centre of the iron ore mining and smelting industry, in which his father found employment as a miner. Within the next decade Hans Luther became the lessee of several smelting furnaces and one of the four elected members of the town council.

For some years he had a hard struggle to maintain his growing

family, and Luther in later years speaks of the poverty of his childhood.

The atmosphere of the home was a pious one, and

there is no ground for the tale that his father was a Hussite and was disaffected to the traditional Church. Luther was reared in the current religious beliefs and popular superstitions, which the

492

LUTHER

fulfilment as an imperative act of obedience to God. It had thus a religious significance which he could not ignore, and he devoted

himself to his new vocation with consuming thoroughness,

The Erfurt Augustinians belonged to the strict section of the

sin, which the meticulous observance of the rule of his order

tended to intensify. To him sin and the sinful tendency (con. cupiscence) were terrible realities in keeping with his exalted conception of God as perfect righteousness and the retributive character of this righteousness (justitia Dei), which impels Bin

order, in contrast to the Conventuals or laxer section, After a year’s novitiate Luther took the vows of obedience, poverty and to judge and condemn the sinner, and which was emphasized jp the chastity, and submitted to the drudgery which was an essential teaching and practice of the mediaeval Church. How to attain tg part of his training. Under his preceptor, Nathin, he then went the ideal divine righteousness and thus enter into a proper relation through a course of theological instruction in preparation for his of acceptance and fellowship with God, and thereby also eng ordination as priest, which took place in 1507. Thereafter he salvation from the Divine retribution for sin, was the problem continued his theological studies for the degrees of biblical bache-

lor and master of the sentences (Sententiarius), or dogmatic

that obsessed him and led to this recurring spiritual conflict (Anfechtungen). In the sacrament of penance the Church sought

theology, as expounded in the Sentences of Lombardus, attending to ensure the penitent sinner against this retribution hy impui the lectures of the theological faculty of the university as well penitential works in satisfaction for sins. Luther, however, could as the theological school of the monastery, In accordance with not be sure of the sufficiency either of his contrition or of hi the prescribed course, he studied the Bible, the Sentences, and the penitential satisfaction in spite of official absolution. The Church works of Occam. and his disciples D’Ailly and Biel, and dipped further sought to ensure the sinner against the Divine judgment into those of St. Bernard, Duns Scotus, and Augustine. He con- by its doctrine of merits, based on the relative freedom of the tinued these studies at Wittenberg, where he spent a year from the will to do the good whereby, with the aid of God’s grace, he could autumn of 1508 to that of 1509 as lecturer on Aristotle’s Ethics, conciliate the Divine favour on the day of judgment. Here again and where he enjoyed the personal intercourse of John Staupitz, Luther, conscious of the weakness of the will to attain the absolute professor of theology and vicar-general of his order. On his good which alone could avail in the sight of a perfectly righteous return to Erfurt he obtained the degree of sententiarius, and began to lecture on the Sentences. The books which he read in his preparation of these lectures were discovered in the library at Zwickau in 1889, and contain on the margins a large number of

notes (given in vol. ix. of the Weimar edition of his works) in his

own handwriting, which throw light on his theological and philo-

sophical thought and standpoint at this stage of his development, Whilst displaying a critical, enquiring mind, they show no material departure from the scholastic method and the scholastic

God, failed to find the assurance of salvation in this teaching In addition he was distressed over the doctrine of predestination,

which had for him not only a speculative, but a religious signif.

cance. How could he be sure that he was among the number of the elect whom God had predestined and chosen, according to the Occamist teaching, by an act of his absolute, arbitrary will. The vicar-general, Staupitz, during his sojourn at Wittenberg in 1508-09, as well as his preceptor and his confessor in the

Erfurt monastery, did their best to help him, and to them he owed at least a relative appeasement of his spiritual distress. He owed something, too, to the sermons of St, Bernard, to which an old from his theology. At most they reveal a growing predilection for monk directed him, and to the writings of Gerson. But his full the teaching of Augustine. deliverance came to him only in the winter of 1512-13, when, as theology in its Occamist form, though some modern theologians like Seeberg find evidence in them of a distinctive divergence

This lectureship he filled till the late autumn of 1511, when, the result of long and intense meditation on Romans i, 16-17 he at the instance of Staupitz, he was transferred to the monastery grasped the truth that the righteousness of God in this passage at Wittenberg, of which he was ere long appointed sub-prior at a is not to be understood of his retributive justice (justitia active), meeting of his order at Cologne in the following year. In Oct. by which he judges the sinner according to his merits, but in the 1512 he took the degree of doctor of theology of the university sense of the righteousness which he mercifully gives or imputes and became the successor of Staupitz as professor of biblical to the sinner (justitia passiva), and which the sinner receives by literature. Towards the end of r5ro he had paid a short visit faith, and is thereby justified in His sight and made capable of to Rome on business connected with his order, and though entering into a filial relation to Him, living the divine life in active his visit was that of the devout pilgrim, he appears to have been obedience to the will of a merciful God. Justification is thus due painfully impressed by the secularized ecclesiasticism and the solely to the mercy or grace of God and the merit of Christ low moral standard of the Holy City. There is, however, no evi- appropriated by faith, not to human works or merits which, being dence for the oft-repeated statement that the discovery of his vitiated by sin, can in no way avail to avert the retributive justice distinctive doctrine of justification by faith came to him as he of God, or bring the soul inte a feasible and assured relation to climbed on his knees the steps of the Scala Sancta at the Lateran Him, church. This conception is already reflected in his lectures on the Psalms Conversion.—It was only during the winter of 1512—13 that (1513-15), and is elaborated in those on the Epistle to the Romans this decisive ilumination dawned on his mind as he meditated in (1515—16) in which the influence of Augustine and also the the Black Monastery at Wittenberg on Romans i. 16-17, and sud- mystic teaching of Tauler and the “German Theology” (Theologia denly attained a new apprehension of this doctrine. Despite the Deutsch) on the one hand, and the reaction from the scholastic most punctilious performance of the minutiae of the rule of his theology are alike apparent, though he still makes use of the order, the most rigorous asceticism, he had hitherto failed to find scholastic method and terminology, As the result of this elaborepeace of conscience, the assurance of acceptance in the sight of tion of his new religious conception on the basis of this funds God, and he had been periodically harassed by doubts on the mental doctrine, he could justly claim to be the exponent of % score of his personal salvation. Hence the long spiritual struggle “new theology,” though he was still unconscious of any material in the quest for a gracious God, which had clouded his early divergence from the received teaching of the Church, whilt years as a monk and which Denifle unwarrantably contests as a boldly attacking the philosophy of Aristotle and the scholastic later fabrication invented by him to justify his apostasy from the theology which was based on it (98 Theses against the scholastic Church. Luther’s testimony as to the reality of this spiritual theology, Sept. 1517, which one of his students defended i» 3 ordeal cannot be thus invalidated, even if we make due allowance public disputation for the degree of biblical bachelor). for the later tendency to exaggerate it under the influence of his The 95 Theses.—In the lectures on Romans he already appears changed religious standpoint. as the practical reformer, and in the year 1527 he emerged in The root of this struggle to find a gracious God lay in his capacity from the academic sphere with his epoch-making chalpersonal temperament, his lofty religious and moral ideal and in lenge to the work of reformation in his 95 Theses against the the religious, the practical, and the theological teaching of the abuse of indulgence, which he posted up on Oct. 31, in the mediaeval Church. In temperament he was high-strung, emotional, of the Castle church at Wittenberg. The practice of indulgent impressionable, and liable to fits of depression which took at times had grown out of the penitential system of the ancient Ch an acute form. He had a sensitive conscience and a keen sense of which punished grave sins by temporary exclusion from the fellow-

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493

ship of the Christian cornmunity. In course of time it became principle of indulgence in a strictly limited sense, vigorously customary to mitigate this discipline by permitting the delinquent ‘denounced the false teaching and the pernicious activity of the to make satisfaction, in part at least, in the form of a money | indulgence preachers, and asserted the right of every penitent contribution. In the later middle age it was extended by the popes Christian to remission apart from this mercenary traffic in pardons. as a means of inciting the faithful to participate in the crusades The proposed disputation did not actually take place. But the

inst the infidel (the Cross Indulgence). Those taking part in | theses were widely circulated, both in the original Latin and in the holy war or contributing for this purpose were thereby guar- a German translation, and before the end of the year were being gnteed the relaxation of penance due for their sins, or even the | eagerly read and discussed throughout the empire, and even plenary remission of sin. The practice brought large sums into |beyond its bounds. The attack provoked a counter attack on the the papal treasury.

With the decline of the crusading spirit, it ; part of Tetzel and the Dominican

Order, of which he was

a

was extended by Pope Boniface VIII. in connection with the member, in the form of a series of anti-theses in defence of the celebrations of the jubilee year 1300. The revenue brought in by | traditional doctrine, which, though ascribed to Tetzel, were drawn this jubilee indulgence was increased by the subsequent expedient up by Wimpina, professor of theology in the University of Frankof reducing the jubilee years from 100 to 50, or even 25 years and furt-on-the-Oder. In a couple of effusions under his own name, thereby establishing more frequent jubilee celebrations. Indul- Tetzel roundly accused Luther of heresy and schism; and a more gences were also issued in connection with other projects such as formidable opponent, John Maier of Eck, otherwise known as the rebuilding of St. Peter’s at Rome, and by the beginning of the Dr. Eck, professor of theology at Ingolstadt, repeated the charge 6th century, the practice had become a regular financial expe- in a communication to the bishop of Eichstadt, entitled “Obedient for increasing the papal revenue. In 1447 the efficacy of lisks,” which, though not printed, was circulated in manuscript. indulgence was extended by Pope Calixtus III. to souls in purga- Both Tetzel and Eck maintained that the 95 Theses were an attack on the papal power as well as on a received institution of tory. The practice was based on the doctrine of the “Treasure of the the Church. Luther replied to Wimpina and Tetzel in a “Sermon Church,” consisting of the infinite merits of Christ and the on Indulgence and Grace”; to Eck in a series of ‘‘Asterisks,” in superfluous merits of the saints, which was elaborated by Thomas

Aquinas and officially sanctioned by Pope Clement VI. in 1343. According to this doctrine, the pope could draw on this inexhaustible source for the benefit of the faithful, whose own merits were insufficient. Theoretically confession and contrition were incumbent on those desiring the benefit of an indulgence. It was further assumed that it could not take away the guilt and eternal punishment of sin, which was only obtainable in the sacrament of

penance through the absolution of the priest. It could only ensure the remission of the temporal punishment of actual sins to which the sinner was still liable in this life and in purgatory, and the attainment of this benefit pre-supposed contrition and confession for these sins on the part of the applicant. In the case of the buying of an indulgence in bekalf of souls in purgatory, however, contrition and confession on the part of the purchaser were not deemed essential. The practice was liable to great abuse, inasmuch as the indulgence preachers, in their striving to raise as much money as possible for the specific object of any given

indulgence, did not always make the conditions and limitations underlying it clear to their hearers. There was besides differerice af opinion among the doctors of the Church on both the doctrine and the practice, especially on the question of the application of indulgence to souls in purgatory, as well as widespread dissatisfaction over its abuse. On both doctrinal and practical grounds Luther felt impelled to attack the system in connection with the Indulgence of 1515-17; which was issued by Pope Leo X. professedly for the rebuilding of St. Peter’s. In reality its object was to enable Albrecht of

which he stoutly rebutted the charge of heresy. At a congregation of his Order at Heidelberg (April 1518) he expounded and defended his distinctive theology, and amplified his theses in 4 work entitled Resolutiones, which shows a distinct advance in their standpoint, and explicitly emphasizes his fundamental doctrine of justification by faith as the criterion of faith and practice. This work he sent to the pope as a vindication of his action and a confutation of the charges of his opponents, coupled with a respectful and submissive, but outspoken letter (May 1518).

Citation to Rome.—By this time the pope, to whom the archbishop had sent the theses, and who was at first disposed to regard the controversy as a mere monks’ quarrel, had decided to take action. As the result of an official examination of Luther’s Theses by Prierias, the mastér of the palace, Leo cited him to appear at Rome within 60 days as a heretic and a rebel against ecclesiastical authority. The citation was forwarded to the learned Dominican, Thomas di Vio, otherwise known as Cardinal Cajetan, the papal legate in Gérmiany. Through the intervention of the elector Frederick of Saxony and for political reasons connected with the prospective election of a successor to the emperor Maximilian I.,

incurred to the banking house of the Fuggers of Augsburg in payment of the papal dispensation, plus thé usual feés, to enable him to acquire the additional office. John Tetzel and other preachers, to whom the archbishop entrusted the business of selling the indulgence, were doing a brisk trade in these pardons when Luther, who discovered in the confessional theit misleading teachmg on the subject and its nefarious moral and spiritual effects,

the pope ultimately consented to forego the citation and to refer the case to the legate, who was empowered to receive Luther's submission. In accordance with this decision he appeared before Cajetan at Augsburg in Oct. 1518. During the interview the legate insisted on unconditional retractation, and Luther stoutly refused to retract unless he was proved from Scripture to be in error, and, appealing from the cardinal to the pope, he secretly left Augsburg. He published an account of the proceedings (Acta Augustana), and in November appealed from the pope to a general council. The issue of a papal decretal on the subject of indulgences left no doubt that Luther’s standpoint was irreconcilable with the official doctrine and practice. The attempt of Miultitz, whom the pope sént as his nuncio to Germany to confer the Golden Rose on the Saxon elector, to bring about an accommodation proved fruitless. At a conference at Altenburg in Jan. 1519 Luther went the length of agreeing to refrain from further discussion

intervened by posting up his 95 Thesés and sending a copy, with a

and to refer the case to the arbitration of a German bishop, on

strongly worded letter of protest, to the archbishop. In these theses he distinguished between true repentance and mere penance for sin, maintained that the pope could only remit penalties im-

condition that his opponents also observed silence. Miltitz also, in his eagerness to play a rôle in the case which was not warranted by his commission, sent a misleading report to the pope, representing that Luther was not only prepared to refrain from further agitation, but to rettact his errors. In reply the pope invited him in a friendly spirit to Rome for this purpose (March 29, 1519). This missive, which never came into Luther’s hands, was based on a complete misunderstanding of his real position. What he had refused to Cajetan he was not prepared, at the instance of a busybody like Miltitz, to concede to the pope himself, though at the instigation of the elector he wrote an Instruction to the People,

Brandenburg, Archbishop of Mainz, who also held the sees of Magdeburg and Halberstadt, to pay the large debt which he had

posed by his own authority of that of canon law, that tah remit the guilt of sin, which is obtained only in ment of penance, not by papal indulgencé, and that in ment, pope and priest have only a declaratory power of

God alone the sacrathe sacraremission,

which is due to the grace of God in Christ as proclaimed in the Gospel—the true “Treasure of the Church.” He further denied

that the remission of canonical penalties through the papal indul-

gence applies to souls in purgatory, and, whilst recognizing the

ete n Sacer er ert PP eh Pp eh rp p Ae pe A N

494

LUTHER

in which, whilst emphasizing the abuses in the institutions of the Church, he still recognized the papal supremacy and the duty of obedience to the Roman Church. i Controversy with Eck.—The death of the emperor Maximilian on Jan. rz, 1519, and the long negotiations relative to the election of his successor, brought a lengthy pause in the further consideration of his case as far as the Roman Curla was concerned. Meanwhile the condition of the truce between him and his opponents was broken by the intervention of Eck, who challenged him to a debate at Leipzig on the subject of the papal power. Luther accepted the challenge and in preparation for the disputation made an intensive study of the constitution of the ancient Church and the later claims of the bishop of Rome to its headship, as expressed in the papal decretals. Thus carefully prepared, he encountered his formidable antagonist in the famous disputation which

took place in July 1519 and forms another

landmark in the development of his reforming teaching. In the course of it he controverted the divine right of the papacy, asserted the supreme authority of Scripture, maintained that John Hus had been unjustly condemned by the council of Constance, and questioned the infallibility of a general council. Eck, who was a practised debater, had skilfully led him into these compromising admissions and claimed the victory. He had at all events shown that he was at variance with the received teaching of the Church, not merely in the comparatively minor subject of indulgences, but on fundamental doctrines. Though both parties had at the outset agreed to refer the contest to the judgment of the universities of Paris and Erfurt, both continued it in a number of controversial writings, to which new adversaries— Alveld, Emser, Dungersheim, Hoogstraten—contributed on the side of Eck, and Melanchthon, Occolampadius, Bucer, Hutten and others on the side of Luther. Luther himself, as well as Eck, added an important quota in the Resolutiones Lutherianae, a sermon on the sacrament of the altar, and a treatise on good works, which only widened the breach between him and his opponents.

Bull of Condemnation.—Ultimately Eck betook himself to Rome to prosecute the suit against Luther which the Curia had determined to resume and bring to a final issue. As the result of the re-examination of his case by a series of commissions appointed by the pope in the spring of 1520, the bull Exsurge Domine, condemning 41 errors in his teaching, was formulated, and after discussion in the consistory, was issued in June. It granted to the heretic an interval of 60 days after its publication in Germany for the purpose of retracting and returning to the Church. Failmg compliance, he and his adherents were to be excommunicated, arrested and punished as notorious and pertinacious heretics. Excommunication was.also denounced against all, of whatever rank, who should refuse to comply with the provisions of the bull, which Eck and Aleander were commissioned, as papal nuncios, to publish throughout the empire. The Bull of Condemnation only fanned the pugnacious spirit of the reformer. At first he professed to see in it a fabrication of Eck, and denounced it in two defiant philippics, Eck’s New Bulls and Lies, and Against the Execrable Bull of Antichrist. Then, recognizing its authenticity, he renewed his appeal to a general council, and finally, on Dec. 10, 1520, publicly consigned it, with a copy of the canon law and other documents, to the flames. During the previous summer and early autumn he had sent forth his

three great reform treatises—the Address to the German Nobility, The Babylonic Captivity of the Church and The Freedom of a Christian Man. In the first he arraigned in passionate language the abuses rampant in the Church, and appealed to tie secular power to undertake the work of reformation on the ground of its divine institution, its: Christian character, and its ethical functions which entitle it to summon a general council to rectify what is amiss in the Church, and even to undertake this clamant duty in case the Church refuses to reform itself. In the second he attacked the mediaeval sacramental system, reduced the numer of the sacraments from seven to three, and asserted the right f the individual Christian to emancipate himself from priestly ondage. In the third he expounded anew in simple, non-con-

troversial terms his fundamental doctrine of justification which

involves alike the freedom of the individual from the work-tight. eousness of mediaeval religion and the obligation of self-discipline

and service for others as the indispensable fruit of justifying faith. The Diet of Worms.—In Jan. 1521, the pope, in Consequence

of Luther’s refusal to retract and submit to the authority of the Church, launched a Bull of Excommunication against him (Decet Romanum), and called on the emperor Charles V., the successor of Maximilian, to execute it forthwith. Instead of complying. the

emperor, in deference to the intervention of the Saxon elector and the will of the majority of the diet, which met at Worms at

the end of January and continued its sittings till May, decided ty summon him to appear for examination before the diet under the imperial safe conduct, whilst promulgating an edict agains: his

writings at the instigation of the papal nuncio Aleander. On

April 16, Luther entered Worms.

On his appearance befote the

assembly on the following day he acknowledged the authorship

of the books on the table, the titles of which were recited by

secretary.

But, in answer to the question whether he was pre-

pared to recant any part of them, he asked for time for consid. eration on the ground of the importance of the issue involved

He was granted an interval of 24 hours. Late on the morrow, the 18th, he was asked by the official of the archbishop of Treves, Dr. John von der Ecken, who acted as interrogator, whether he

was now prepared to defend all the books which he had recog.

nized as his. In reply he proceeded to show why he should no be asked straight away to recant, and requested to be convinced of his errors from Scripture. If thus convinced he would forth with revoke and be the first to throw his books into the fire. In

a long harangue the official rebuked his audacity in arrogating a

knowledge of the Scriptures against all the doctors of the Church, and concluded by demanding a definite and straightforward answer to the question whether he would retract his errors or net. Then came the fateful words uttered in firm and clear tones: “Unless I am convinced by the testimony of Scripture or by an evident reason (ratione evidente)—for I confide neither in the pope nor in a council alone, since it is certain that they have often erred

and

contradicted

themselves—I

am

held fast by

the Scriptures adduced by me, and my conscience is taken captive by God’s Word, and I neither can nor will revoke anything, seeing that it is not safe or right to act against conscience. Ged

help me. Amen.” On retiring from the excited assembly he was greeted by the emperor’s Spanish guards with the cry “To the fire with him!” whilst he and his adherents passed on with uplifted hands after the old German fashion of celebrating a vic-

tory. “I am through,” he cried joyfully on reaching his lodging and receiving the congratulation of his friends. He persisted in his refusal before a committee appointed by the diet to bring

about a feasible accommodation,

and was commanded by the

emperor to leave Worms on April 26. On May 4 he was intercepted by a party of horsemen in the Thuringian forest, in at-

cordance with a previous arrangement of the elector of Saxony

and two of his trusty councillors, and was furtively lodged & the electoral castle of the Wartburg, overlooking Eisenach. On May 26, after the close of the diet on the previous day, the eat peror, having received the assurance of the papal support in his

war against Francis I. of France, formally signed the Edict of

Worms

placing him and his adherents

under the ban of the

empire and instituting a rigorous censorship of the press. It

professed to be issued “with the unanimous consent and Wi of the estates of the empire. In reality it had been submittedon

the previous evening to only a fraction of the members after

the formal closing of the diet, and did not represent the mind

the German people. As the result of these four years of strenuous conflict, the breach between Rome and Luther was complete

irretrievable, and the indomitable, heroic monk had won the sympathy and support of a large proportion of his countrymé

on material and economic as well as religious grounds.

The Wartburg—Luther

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CARTA

FROM

THE

ORIGINAL

IN LINCOLN

CATHEDRAL

Transliteration of the first three-and-a-third lines: Johannes Dei gratia, rex Anglie, dominus Hybernie, dux Normannie et Aquitannie, comes

Andegavie,

archiepiscopis,

episcopis, abbatibus,

comitibus,

baronibus,

justiciariis

forestariis,

vicecomitibus,

prepositis,

ministris,

et omnibus ballivis, et fidelibus suis, salutem. Sciatis nos, intuitu Dei, et pro salute anime nostre, et omnium antecessorum, et heredum nostrorum, ad honorem Dei, et exaltationem sancte ecclesie, et emendationem regni nostri, per consilium venerabilium

patrum nostrorum Stephani Cantuariensis archiepiscopi, totius Anglie primatis et sancte Romane ecclesie cardinalis; Henrici DublinLincolniensis, Walteri ensis archiepiscopi, Willelmi Londoniensis, Petri Wintoniensis, Joscelini Bathoniensis et Glastoniensis, Hugonis et familiaris, Wygornensis, Willelmi Coventrensis, et Benedicti Roffensis, episcoporum; magistri Pandulfi domini pape subdiaconi Penbrok, Willelmi comitis Saresfratris Eymerici, magistri militie templi in Anglia, et nobilium virorum Willelmi Mariscalli comitis berie, Willelmi comitis Warennie, Willelmi comitis Arundellie, Alani de Galweya constabularii Scottie, Warini filii Geroldi, Petri

filii Hereberti, Huberti de Burgo senescalli Pictavie, Hugonis de Nevilla, Mathei filii Hereberti, Thome Basset, Alani Basset, Philippi Deo de Albiniaco, Roberti de Roppelay, Johannis Mariscalli, Johannis filii Hugonis, et aliorum fidelium nostrorum; Imprimis concessise

perpetuum: et hac presenti carta nostra confirmasse pro nobis et heredibus nostris in Translation should read: John, by the grace of God, king of England, lord of Ireland, duke of Normandy and Aquitaine, and Count of Anjou: to the archbishops, bishops, abbots, earls, barons, justices, sheriffs, reeves, ministers, and to all bailiffs, and faithful subjects,

greeting.

Know that we, by divine impulse, and for the salvation of Our soul, and of the souls of Our ancestors and of Our heirs, and for

the honour of God, and the exaltation of Holy Church, and the amendment of Our kingdom, by advice of Our venerable fathers, Stephen, archbishop of Canterbury, primate of all England, and cardinal of the holy Roman- Church: Henry, archbishop of Dublin; the bishops

William of London: Peter of Winchester; Jocelin of Bath and Glastonbury; Hugh of Lincoln; Walter of Worcester; William of Coventry; Benedict of Rochester; and Master Pandulph, sub-deacon and Counsellor: Brother Eymeric, master of the Temple in England, and the noble William Marescall, earl of Pembroke; Willlam earl of Salisbury; Willlam earl de Warenne; William earl of Arundel; Alan of Galloway, constable of Scotlands: Warin

Thomas

Basset; Allan

Fitzgerald, Peter Fitzherbert:

Basset; Phillip d’Aubigny,

Hubert d2 Burgh, seneschal of Poitou; Hugh de Neville; Matthew Fitzherbert;

Robert of Ropsley, John

drine “e

BY S. SMITH

OF MAGNA

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Marshall, John

Fitzhugh,

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Our Iiegemen;

the first place granted to God, and by this Our present charter, confirmed on behalf of Ourselves and Our heirs for ever:

have in

: s

MAGNA

CARTA

631

of Geoffrey fitz Peter was a further grievance, for Peter was, | a truce till Easter. On Jan. 15, he reissued the charter to the Church, and ordered the sheriffs in every county to take oaths of before everything, the king’s man. The first sign of revolt had come more than a year earlier. In allegiance to the king. Both sides appealed to the pope and the Sent, 1212, on his way to a Welsh expedition, John was warned king took the cross. The pope had a double reason for protecting both by his daughter, Joan, wife of Llewylyn of Wales, and by him; he was both a vassal and a crusader. the king of Scots, that his barons were planning to betray him In Easter week the barons met at Stamford to force a charter to the Welsh. He abandoned the expedition and Robert Fitz Walter and Eustace de Vesci, a prominent Northern baron, left the country.

They persuaded the pope that they were suffering

for righteousness’ sake, and came back with other exiles when Jobn and Innocent were reconciled in 1213.

The reconciliation

brought to England the new archbishop, Stephen Langton, who

returned to his native land with the intention of using his position as chief advise of the king to compel him to restore good govern-

ment to the land. John was absolved after swearing on the Gospel that he would love, defend and maintain the Church, restore the

good laws of his predecessors, particularly Edward the Confessor, do away with bad laws, judge all men according to the just judgments of his court, and give to every man his rights.

The king

then prepared to sail to Poitou, leaving the archbishop and justiciar

in control of the administration to give effect to his promises. At St. Albans, early in August, they took the first steps towards the restoration of good government. Later in the month, at St. Paul’s, the first suggestion that a charter should be demanded seems to have been made by the archbishop, who apparently did not know of the existence of Henry I.’s coronation charter. Langton realied at once that a formal charter was the best way of securing reforms in the administration, and John’s observance of them. He took a few of the leading barons aside, read them Henry I.’s charter and suggested that it should be the basis of their programme, He must also have discussed the needs of the country with the justiclar and the other judges. In all probability the actual drafting of some of the clauses of the charter was begun by such men in private talk at this time.

John, in the meantime, had forgotten his promises in his just rage against the northern barons, who should have been awaiting

him on the south coast, ready to embark to France. He found all in confusion there and, obliged to put off his expedition, turned north determined on vengeance. The archbishop pursued him, catching him up at Northampton and pointing out that the occasion demanded that the northern barons should be tried in the king’s court and not punished till they had been found guilty. Though he resented the archbishop’s interference, John gave way.

It was this crisis combined with the new idea of a charter that probably gave occasion for a compilation known as “the unknown charter of liberties.” Not mentioned by any contemporary, the document was unknown until the last century. There is no evi-

dence that it was anything more than a basis for discussion or an attempt to draft the baronial demands, It contains none of those causes characteristic of the later charter, which attempt adminis-

trative reforms and link Magna Carta rather Edward I. than with the charters of Henry The Crisis—By whatever means it was promise must have been made, for the king

with the Statutes of I. and Stephen.

from the king. Contemporary chroniclers emphasize the fact that the backbone of the resistance was a group of northern barons; but.to label the baronial resistance as northern is inaccurate, as the contemporary chroniclers themselves imply. In Lincolnshire, Norfolk, Suffolk and Essex it was particularly strong; the great men of Essex and Hertfordshire, the earl of Essex, the earl of Oxford, Robert fitz Walter, were almost to a man against the king, and with them were joined many barons of the second rank and men of rich knightly families from the other three eastern counties. The midland counties supplied such great names as William d’Albigny and John, the constable of Chester and the west, the Fitz Alans, and Fulk fitz Warin. From the south-west came William Malet and William de Montecute. That fewer supporters for the baronial party should come from the south-west, the northern midlands, and the honour of Lancaster was natural, since these were John’s own lands. That the opposition should be stronger in the south-east is again to be expected. The men of Essex were more nearly in touch with modern thought, and modern thought was much occupied with the duties of the king. But John’s enemies were everywhere. John had, however, certain supporters among the greatest barons in the land. The earl of Chester, almost a sovereign prince himself, could do no other than take the king’s side, though one may suspect that he approved the charter, since he issued a comprehensive charter to his own men at some phase in the struggle, a document known as the Magna Carta of Chester. The earl of Pembroke, a man grown old in the service of the royal house, the earl of Salisbury, half: brother to

the king, the earl of Warrenne, the earl of Arundel, and earl Ferrars were all on the royal side, but Ralf of Coggeshall tells us that even when a baron supported John his knights were generally on the other side. The archbishop had created a situation which he could not control. The barons were eager for war. The king was determined not to give way unless he were forced, and scornfully refused to consider the schedule that the barons at Stamford sent for his seal by the hands of the archbishop and the marshal. On May 5 the barons renounced their allegiance and chose Robert fitz Walter as leader. The title he took, “Marshal of the army of God and Holy Church,” emphasized the righteousness of the cause. Four days later John issued a charter to London, granting the privilege of an annually elected mayor, but it came too late to win support

for him. Robert fitz Walter, lord of Baynard’s Castle, on the outskirts of the city, dominated city politics. The king’s offer, next day, to submit his quarrel with the barons to arbitration was in vain. When the barons entered London, easily quelling any oppo-

sition, the king realized that he must come to terms, and on June

secured, some com- 15 met them at Runnymead, between Staines and Windsor. The departed on Feb. 2, barons came prepared with a document, which survives, as the

1214, on his last expedition to Poitou, and during his absence no active steps were taken against him, although a demand for a Stutage of three marks, issued from abroad, roused bitter resentment, When John returned defeated, all parties felt that the time had come to insist on definite guarantees for the future. John

Articles of the Barons. It was sealed on the first day of the conference and became the basis for discussion. The more elaborate charter contained amendments on both sides.

met the barons at Bury St. Edmunds on Nov. 4, 1214, and received i definite refusal to pay the scutage. After the king had departed they solemnly swore to withdraw their allegiance from him unless

The charter is drawn up in the ordinary form of a contemporary grant of land or privileges. The convenience of modern com-

te would confirm their liberties by charter. They agreed to presnt their demands soon after Christmas, and in the meantime to prepare for war. John tried to win over his ecclesiastical opponets by issuing, on Nov. 21, a charter to the Church, in which

he granted freedom of election. On Jan. 6 the barons put before theking at the Tower general demands that a charter should be

Ssued on the lines of Henry I.’s charter, but incorporating admin-

istrative reforms which some at least of the barons desired. The archbishop and William Marshall, earl of Pembroke, were anxious ot reform without war. Through their mediation John secured

THE CONTENTS

OF THE CHARTER

mentators has necessitated the adoption of a traditional division into clauses, a division often unfortunate in that it suggests a separation where the originators of the charter were clearly follow- > ing out a line of thought. In summarizing the contents it is impossible to follow the order of the clauses and at the same time

give a coherent impression of the contents of the document. The intention of the men who drew up the charter was to state the law as it should be. It is the first detailed statement of feudal law, the first clear agreement between the king and his barons as to the exact demands which the king can make on them and which they can make on their men. Its emphasis on the use of the feudal

632

MAGNA

council inaugurates no new policy, but simply reiterates the recognized, though not always followed, feudal practice. The statements about debt were a serious attempt to deal with one of the most pressing problems of administration and, indeed, of social intercourse, the chronic need of money, felt by all alike, and the consequent impossibility to get anyone to pay his debts. The judicial clauses were drafted with the obvious aim of restoring

judicial eyres and improving the efficiency of the royal courts. The much quoted clause about the writ Precipe was a natural attempt to curb what was, to the barons, unfair competition with the feudal courts, competition which Glanville himself, though a royal justiciar, had hardly approved. It does not express a desire to go back upon the judicial changes of the last 50 years, but merely a feeling that the baron who had been bearing the burden of the day in the matter of judicial labour ought not to be deprived of the cases which would still be settled in his court unless he failed to do justice. A serious attempt was made in the charter to eliminate the abuses of local government, abuses which had existed in the earliest days of Norman rule, and which successive kings had fought against in vain. During his quarrel with the

CARTA to the Jews or to other people his wife and children are to he first provided for, and the debt is to be paid out of the residue

of his estate (9-11). Debts to the king are to be the first charge on the estate of crown tenants, the residue is to be left to the

disposal of his executors in accordance with the will of the dead man. If no debt is owing to the crown the estate may be dis. posed of according to his will reserving to his wife and children their reasonable shares. If a free man dies intestate, his kin and

friends under the direction of the church shall divide his chattels after the dead man’s debts have been paid (26-27). (e) Service and rules for holding the feudal council:—No scutage or aid is

to be taken without the common council of the kingdom, that is, without the matter being brought before the feudal council of

tenants in chief, except for the ransoming of the king’s body, the knighting of his eldest son and the first marriage of his eldest

daughter. In these cases the aid is to be a reasonable one (12),

The archbishops, bishops, abbots, earls and greater barons are to

be summoned to the council individually by letter stating the cause of the summons; all those who hold of the king in chief are

to be summoned generally through the sheriffs or royal bailiffs, Church John made no effort to deal with them, and, indeed, Forty days’ notice is to be given and on the appointed day the he had aggravated them by the appointments he had made to local business is to proceed even if all those summoned are not present offices. John had been interested in the development of his towns, (14). mz. Clauses which principally affect subtenants and freemen and the charter confirmed to towns the privileges they had won. All classes of the community expected something from the char- as well as barons:—AlIl the customs granted to his dependents by

ter, and the drafters did their best to satisfy. the general desire.

The charter therefore ranges widely over the whole field of society and administration. But it also contains clauses which reflect the bitterness of the time, clauses that must have irritated the king almost beyond endurance. Since all mercenaries were to leave the land it was but to insult the king to name a few. The determination of the barons to be rid of old grievances, particularly those connected with the forests, to right old wrongs, even those of another generation, almost destroyed the charter itself. But without the spur that the bitterness of personal hatred gave, the charter would never have been won. If the famous clause promising that no freeman shall be taken or imprisoned or disseised or outlawed

or exiled . . . without the judgment of his peers or by the law of

the land, was the outcome of the memory of John’s attack on the northern barons in 1213, it was a guarantee of security against

arbitrary rule to all men, whether barons or simple free men. The Clauses.—The charter may be summarized as follows, the numbers in brackets being the traditional numbers of the clauses. I. The clause reiterating the grant of free election to the church (t). m. Clauses which chiefly concerned the barons. (a) Jxheritice >—Military tenants are to have their inheritances on payment of the ancient relief, £100 for an earl or baron, 100s. for a knight.

the king all men in the kingdom shall observe towards theirs (60).

The king will not allow anyone to take an aid from his free men

except on the three aforesaid occasions, and the aid then is to be a reasonable one (15). No one is to be forced to do more service

for a knight’s fee or other free tenement than he ought to do (16). No constable shall compel a knight to give money in lieu of castle guard if the knight wishes to do it in person or through a competent deputy. Service on an expedition shall free a knight from a proportionate amount of castle guard (29). “No freeman shall be taken, or imprisoned, or disseised, or outlawed, or exiled, or in any way destroyed, nor will we go upon him, nor will we send upon him, except by the legal judgment of his peers or by the law of the land” (39). “To no one will we sell, deny, or delay right or justice” (40). All persons are to be free to come and go in time of peace, except outlaws and prisoners (42). Iv. Clauses referring to towns, trade and merchants :—The aids of the city of London are to be governed by the same rule as the

baronial aids, and the city is to have its ancient liberties and free customs. All other cities, boroughs, towns and harbours, are to have their liberties and free customs (12-13). There is to be one measure of wine and ale and corn within the realm, namely the London quarter, and one breadth of cloth, and it is to be the same with weights (35). All merchants are to be free to come and g0, to stay in the land and to buy and sell, except in time of war. In time of war merchants of enemy countries in England are to be treated as English merchants are treated in the enemy countries (41). All kydells are to be removed from the Thames and the

(b) Wardskip:—Heirs who have been in wardship are to have their inheritances without relief. The heir in wardship is to be safeguarded from the rapacious guardian, who is to hand over the land well stocked (2-5). The king will not claim prerogative wardship, z.e., if a man holds of the king by other than military Medway and throughout all England except the sea coasts (33) tenure and of some other lord by military tenure, the king will v. Clauses reforming judicial and legal matters:—Common not claim the wardship of his heir by reason of the land that is held pleas are not to follow the court but to be held in some certau of him (37). Barons who have founded abbeys are to have the| place (17). For the taking of inquisitions of Novel disseisin, mort

custody of them when they are vacant (46). (c) Marriage:— d’ancestor, and darrein presentment two justices are to be sent Heirs are to be married without disparagement, the kinsfolk of the | through the realm four times a year and with four knights of each heir being consulted. A widow is to have her marriage portion county chosen by the county are to hold the assizes on the day

and her inheritance at once on her husband’s death, and shall and in the meeting place of the shire court. If all cannot be give nothing for it or for her dower. The latter shall be assigned| taken on the one day, enough knights and freeholders aré to

to her within forty days during which she can stay in her hus-: remain to conduct the business (18, 19). Amercements are to Dé band’s house. No widow shall be forced to remarry provided that in accordance with the measure of the offence. They are not tobe she gives security not to remarry without her lord’s consent so heavy, in the case of grievous crimes, as to deprive any mal (6-8). (d) Debt:—Lands or rents are not to be seized for the of his means of livelihood. They are to be assessed by the honest payment of debt while the debtor has sufficient chattels to pay men of the neighbourhood (20). Earls and barons are to be

the debt. The debtor’s sureties are not to be distrained so long as the debtor himself can pay. If the sureties are called on they are

to hold the debtor’s Jands till their payment has been made up to them. No interest is to be paid on debts to the Jews while the heit of the debtor is under age. The king will only take the prmcipal if the debt comes into his hands. When anyone dies in debt

amerced by their peers according to the measure of their offence (a1).

Clerks shall only be amerced

according to the measure

of their offence and only the lands which they hold by lay tenur shall be answerable for the amercement (22). The lands of thost convicted of felony shall only be held by the king for a year anda day and then shall return to tbe lord of the fee (32). The wi

MAGNA

CARTA

633

called Precipe shall not in future be issued to anyone touching any | supporters. The work of this body was to hold the balance between tenement whereby a free man may lose his court (34). Nothing the king and the 25. But despite this arrangement war broke hall henceforth be given for a writ of enquiry touching life or out. The charter as it was issued can have satisfied no one. Some iimb, but it shall be granted freely and not denied (36). No one

of the Northern barons had even withdrawn

sto be taken or imprisoned upon the appeal of a woman for the

was reached; other barons evidently cared only for those clauses which secured to themselves either general promises or the redress of individual grievances. Stephen Langton, the wiser earls, and the judges saw the clauses by which they hoped to secure a well run administration wrecked by such insistence on personal questions. For the moment the king seemed willing to keep his part of the bargain. The charter was sent into every shire for publication by the sheriff, orders were sent to sheriffs and bailiffs that men should swear allegiance to the 25, and that enquiries should be set on foot as to the evil customs to be abolished. Peter des Roches ceased to be justiciar, and Hubert de Burgh was appointed. Some of the foreign mercenaries were dismissed, and some of the offending sheriffs removed. Enquiries were also set on foot as to claims of individuals against the king. This compliance did not

death of any other than her husband (54).

yt, Clauses intended to check the abuses of local officers:—No

town or individual shall be forced to make bridges or maintain ver banks except such as ought to be so maintained by ancient custom and right (23). No sheriff, constable or bailiff is to hold the pleas of the crown (24). All counties, hundreds, wapentakes and ridings are to be at their old farm without any increment, except the king’s demesne manors (25). No constable or bailiff isto take a man’s corn or other chattels without immediate payment unless the owner allows a respite (29). No sheriff, bailiff or any other person shall take a freeman’s horses or carts for car-

riage duty except with the owner’s consent (30). Neither the

king nor his bailiffs are to take a man’s timber for castle-building

or any other royal work without the consent of the owner of the

wood (31). No justice, constable, sheriff or bailiff is to be ap-

pointed but such as knows the law and is willing to observe it (45). No bailiff upon his own bare word without credible witnesses is

to send a man to the ordeal (38). va. Forest Clauses:—-Men who dwell without the forest are not to come before the justices of the forests on a general summons but only when they are concerned in special cases (44). All

before agreement

last long. The tyranny of the 25 was not to be borne by one so impatient of control as John. He made ready for war, sending to

Aquitaine and Flanders for mercenaries, and to the Pope for spiritual help. While the king made ready for war the baronial leaders re-

mained in London, making no other preparations than negotiations with the French king for help against John. The Northern barons who had withdrawn from the negotiations for the charter forests made by John are to be disafforested and all evil customs fortified their castles. All over the country the king’s lands were of the forests abolished. Justice is ta be done with regard to the attacked and his deer stolen. The administration was disorganized; the business of the Exchequer at a standstill. Stephen Langton and forests made by Henry II. and Richard I. (47, 48). vor. Clauses of temporary interest, to correct temporary the bishops could do nothing. The Pope annulled the charter and abuses:—-All hostages and charters taken from the English barons excommunicated the baronial leaders. The archbishop refused to are to be returned (49). Welsh grievances are to be considered publish the excommunication, little as he approved of the baronial and Welsh hostages are to be returned (56-68). Scottish hostages attitude, and left the country with his office in abeyance. In October a party of barons seized Rochester castle, but John are to be returned and justice is to be shown to Alexander, king of Scotland (59). Certain named mercenaries and their followers laid siege to it and it fell on St, Andrew’s day. No substantial are to be sent away. All mercenaries are to be dismissed (50, 51). help came from France till January 1216, and Louis, son of Philip Justice is to be done in the case of wrongful dispossessions by Augustus, whom the barons wished to make king, only landed in John himself, Henry II. or Richard I. (52). In all cases the king May. Meanwhile John was isolating the baronial stronghold of is to have the crusader’s respite. Illegal fines and amercements London by the fortification of Windsor, Hertford, Berkhampstead are to be remitted. The 25 barons who were to be responsible for and Bedford castles. One company of the royal army occupied the maintenance were to judge any disputed matters, together with itself in reducing East Anglia and Essex. The king in person quelled resistance in the north, and appointed trustworthy men to Stephen Langton, archbishop of Canterbury. mx. The form of security for the maintenance of the provisions keep the northern barons in subjection. Had it not been for of the charter :—-The barons were to choose 25 of their number to French help the rebellion would have been over before the summer be the guardians of the charter. If the king or one of his officers of 1216. The coming of Louis meant the desertion of many of did anything contrary to its terms the offence was to be notified at John’s French mercenaries. Louis’ momentary success drew to once to 4 of the 25 who were to go to the king or the Justiciar his side some of the greater barons who had hitherto supported and ask that the matter might be corrected. If it were not cor- John, the earls of Warenne, Arundel and Salisbury, and the count rected within 40 days the 4 barons were to refer the matter to of Aumale. War was renewed all over the country. Alexander of the rest of the 25, who together with the community of the whole Scotland raided the north. Lincoln castle was besieged by barons land “shall distrain and trouble us in all possible ways by taking acting in the name of Louis. In Yorkshire the rebel barons rose our castles, lands and possessions.” When redress has been forced again, and in Nottinghamshire the castles of Nottingham and upon the king, former relations with him were to be resumed. Newark were taken by them. But the king’s cause was by no Anyone who wished could swear to obey the 25. The king would means lost. In the north the men appointed by John had little enforce the oath on anyone who refused to take it. On the death difficulty in upholding his authority. Even in the south Louis made of one of the 25 the survivors were to appoint his successor. A little headway. Although he took Winchester, he could not take majority of them were to decide questions in dispute. The king the castles of Windsor or Dover. Meanwhile, resentment against promised that he would not directly or indirectly do anything by French domination began to be felt among the barons. John reorganized his forces in the south-west, drew off the besiegers of which the concessions might be revoked or diminished. Wat Again.—In this last clause lies the weakness of the Windsor castle and passed into the eastern counties, where he charter and of the whole baronial position. The legalization of intended to crush resistance as he had done in the north in the lemporary rebellion inevitably affected the tempers of both sides. previous winter. At Kings Lynn he was seized with dysentery. He

At the same time, in the opinion of the archbishop and the moderate party, it was likely to secure not peace and good government

but prolongation of the time of disorder.

fell on some of the worst malcontents.

The baronial choice

The mayor of London

was the only member of the 25 who was of less than baronial tank, no bishops were atnong them, and the only one of them who

had any sympathy with the king’s point of view was the count of Aumåle, a thoroughly untrustworthy person. The moderate men secured the appointment of a second committee of 38 men, chosen

from all parties, and containing some of the wisest of the king’s

crossed the Wash and managed to struggle to Newark, where he

died on Oct. 19, 1216. With his death the need for further opposition to royal authority was gone, for the moderate party took control of affairs in the name of the young Henry. The Reissues of the Charter—The Charter was at once re-

issued with certain significant changes. All clauses of a purely temporary nature were omitted, those dealing with mercenaries and the redress of grievances. With them went the promise that only justices, constables, sheriffs and bailiffs who know the law and are willing to observe it shall be appointed (45), Clauses

GRAECIA—MAGNATE

MAGNA

634

which might affect the royal power to raise money were omitted, those relating to the Jews, the feudal aids, and the farms of the shires. The clause laying down the way in which the barons should be consulted in the feudal council was omitted. These omissions were all matters of policy. It was not the time to haggle over

personal grievances, nor could Henry’s advisers rightly bind the

young king in matters of general policy. The mercenaries were needed to fight Louis. Money was needed from whatever source. The necessity of the moment, too, added a provision that payment for goods for royal castles might be postponed for three weeks. Other changes, slight though they were, showed that those who reissued the charter had sufficient time and interest to consider the advantage of authoritative statements on difficult legal points. The position of the heir in his lord’s wardship and the position of a widow with regard to her dower are more precisely defined. The form of security for the maintenance of the charter was omitted, but a clause was inserted promising full consideration of everything that needed correction. In the reissue of the following year, 1217, the clauses omitted in 1216 were not replaced. The regency council might be using the charter as a political weapon to win men to their side, but they regarded it as above all an administrative measure, a guide to and a check on judges and local officers in the difficult years of reconstruction. The rights of the widow are still more carefully

defined. The rules for the taking of assizes are modified. There were three fresh clauses forbidding a freeman to give or sell so much of his land as may hinder the proper performance of his services to his lord; regulating the conduct of the sheriff with regard to the holding of the shire court; and forbidding the practice of giving land to a religious house and receiving it back as its tenant. The delay of 3 weeks in the payment of goods taken for the use of a royal castle in 1216 is extended in 1217 to 40 days, but in 1217 the carts of ladies, knights and parsons are exempt from cartage duties. The provision in the 1215 issue that service with the army exempts from castle guard is limited by the statement that the exemption only applies to fiefs from which service with the army is due. If the clause which declares that the promises made by the king to his tenants shall be observed by his men to theirs is weakened by the saving clause reserving to “all archbishops, bishops, abbots, priors, templars, hospitalers, earls, barons and all other as well ecclesiastical as secular persons

their liberties and free customs which they had before,” it is, at

any rate, made clear that all villeins, not only the king’s are protected from excessive amercements. The forest clauses were omitted and issued later in a separate charter. It is to this issue that the name Magna Carta became attached in contrast with the charter of the forest. The edition of 1225 contained nothing new, except the statement that the charter is issued of the king’s free and spontaneous will and in return for an aid. That later issues of the charter were no more than confirmations of this edition is not surprising. The administrative system was yearly becoming more complicated, the law more intricate. A carefully drawn statute was needed at the end of the century to deal with a matter for which a short clause would have sufficed in 1217. There still exist four originals of the charter of 1215, two of them in the cathedral churches in which they were originally deposited, Lincoln and Salisbury, the other two in the British Museum. The Lincoln Charter was considered the most perfect and was reproduced in the Statutes of the Realm in 1810. The charter was commented on

by Sir Edward Coke in his Second Institute published by order of

the Long Parliament in 1642, but modern criticism was begun by Blackstone The Great Charter and the Charter of the Forest (1759). Richard Thomson’s Essay on the Magna Carta of King John (1829), was a serious attempt to collect all the information on the circumstances and people connected with the charter. It also contains a useful section on the existing manuscripts, copies and printed editions of the

charter.

Modern

authorities

to be

consulted

are

C. Bémont,

Chartes des libertés anglaises (1892); W. S. McKechnie, Magna Carta (1905); Petit-Dutaillis, Studies supplementary to Stubbs? Constitutional History ii. (1908); R. L. Poole, The Publication of Great

Charters by the English Kings in Eng. Hist. Review (1913) ; Magna

Carta Commemoration Essays (1915); F. M. Powicke, Stephen Langton (1928). (D.

MAGNA GRAECIA, the name given (first, apparently, in the 6th century B.C.) to the group of Greek cities (7) weyaddn ‘EM ás),

along the coast of the “toe” of South Italy (or more strictly those only from Tarentum to Locri, along the east coast), while the people were called Italiotes CIradiGrar). The interior continued in the hands of the Bruttii, the native mountaineers, from whom the district was named in Roman times (Bpervia also in Greek

writers). The Greek colonies, at first trading stations, grew into independent cities. An early trade in copper was carried on be. tween Greece and Temesa (Homer, Odyssey, i., 181), chiefly by Euboeans; and Cyme (Cumae) in Campania was founded in the

8th century B.c., when the Euboean Cyme was still a great city. After this the energy of Chalcis went onward to Sicily, and the states of the Corinthian Gulf carried out the colonization of Italy,

Rhegium having been founded, it is true, by Chalcis, but after Messana (Zancle), and at the request of the inhabitants of the

latter.

Sybaris (721) and Crotona

(703) were Achaean settle-

ments; Locri Epizephyrii (about 710) was settled by Ozolian Locrians, so that, had it not been for the Dorian colony of Tarentum, the southern coast of Italy would have been entirely Achaean, Tarentum,

whatever its origins, early became the only foreign

settlement of the Spartans. Ionian Greeks fleeing from foreign invasion founded Siris about 650 B.c., and, much later, Elea (540). The Italian colonies, planted among friendly peoples, grew much more rapidly than the Sicilian Greek states, which had to contend against Carthage. After the Achaean cities had combined to de-

stroy the Ionic Siris, and had founded Metapontum as a counterpoise to the Dorian Tarentum, there was little strife among the Italiotes. An amphictyonic league, meeting at the temple of Hera on the Lacinian promontory, fostered a feeling of unity. The Pythagorean and Eleatic systems of philosophy had their chief seat

in Magna Graecia. They sent competitors to the Olympic games (among them the famous Milo of Croton); and the physicians of Croton early in the 6th century (especially in the person of Democedes) were reputed the best in Greece. In 510 Croton, having defeated the Sybarites in a great battle, totally destroyed their city. In the war between Athens and Syracuse Magna Graecia took comparatively little part; Locri was strongly antiAthenian, but Rhegium, though the headquarters of the Athenians in 427, remained neutral in 415. Foreign enemies pressed heavily on it. The Lucanians and Bruttians on the north captured one town after another. Dionysius of Syracuse attacked from the south; and after he defeated the Crotoniate league and destroyed Caulonia (389 B.c.), Tarentum (g.v.) remained the only powerful city. Repeated expeditions from Sparta and Epirus tried in vain to prop up the decaying Greek states against the Lucanians and Bruttians; and when in 282 the Romans appeared in the Tarentine Gulf the end was close at hand. The aid which Pyrrhus brought did little good to the Tarentines, and his final departure in 274 left them defenceless. Malaria increased as population diminished. Many of the cities disappeared, and hardly any were of great importance under the Roman empire; some, like Tarentum, matntained their existence into modern times. Archaeological investigations of great importance have been and are ao

MAGNASCO, ALESSANDRO (1667-1749), Ttalian painter. After having been ignored for generations, his art has recently come into favour. It belonged to the period of transition from the Baroque to the Rococo in Italy. Magnasco was born at

Genoa. He was sent to Milan as a boy of ten, and there spent the greater part of his life. He returned to his native city in 1735

and died there in 1749. He studied painting under Abbiati and

was first known as a portraitist; but no portrait by him 1s now extant. In his landscape work he broke away from the conven tions of the Roman school, and he revelled in the representation of stormy seas, hitherto unknown in Italian art. He was most distinguished as a genre painter of Italian interiors. He is represented in the galleries of Dresden, Vienna, Berlin, Frankfurt, Florence, Milan and Warsaw.

See Ratti, Le Vite dei pittori, scultori, ed architetti Genovesi oe

1769); B. Geiger, Alessandro ‘Magnasco, Catalogue of Works (Berm, 1914); Alessandro Magnasco

(Vienna, 1923).

Wer MAGNATE, a noble, a man in high position, by birth, Late sat.

or other qualities.

The term which is derived from

MAGNES—MAGNESIUM nagnas, 2 great man, was specifically applied to the members of ihe Upper House in Hungary, the Förendihaz or House of Mag-

635

|tion developing

reinforcements arrived. Foiled here and seeing a heavy concentraagainst him, Antiochus fled from the battlefield, sates (see Huncary). Its popular application to a wealthy man | and the remnants of his demoralized army followed him to Sardis. is usually satirical. Antiochus, with his subject states making their peace with Rome, MAGNES (c. 460 B.c.), Athenian writer of the Old Comedy, was forced, more through Africanus’s strategy than his brother’s a native of the deme of Icaria in Attica. His death is alluded to | tactics, to sue for a peace which removed him to the eastern side

byAristophanes (Egustes, 518-523, which was brought out in 424

of the Taurus

p.c), who states that in his old age Magnes had lost the popularity which he had formerly enjoyed. The few titles of his plays that remain, such as the Frogs, the Birds, the Gall-flies, indicate that he anticipated Aristophanes in introducing grotesque cos-

exploitation.

range and left Asia Minor

free for Roman

MAGNESITE, a mineral consisting of magnesium carbonate,

MgCOs, and belonging to the calcite group of rhombohedral carbonates. It is rarely found in crystals or crystalline masses, being tumes for the chorus. usually compact or earthy and intermixed with more or less hySee T. Kock, Comicorum atticorum fragmenta, i. (1880); G. H. drous magnesium silicate (meerschaum). The compact material Bode, Geschichte der hellenischen Dichtkumst, iii. pt. 2 (1840). has the appearance of unglazed porcelain, and the earthy that of MAGNESIA, in ancient geography the name of two cities in chalk. In colour it is usually dead white, sometimes yellowish. Asia Minor and of a district in eastern Thessaly, lying between The hardness of the crystallized mineral is 4; specific gravity 3-1. the Vale of Tempe and the Pagasaean Gulf. The name magnesite as originally applied by J. C. Delamétherie (1) MAGNESIA AD MAEANDRUM, a city of Ionia, situated on a in 1797 included several minerals containing magnesium, and at small stream flowing into the Maeander, 15 Roman miles from the present day it is used by French writers for meerschaum. Miletus and rather less from Ephesus. According to tradition it Magnesite is a product of alteration of magnesium silicates, and was founded by colonists from the Thessalian tribe of the Mag- occurs as veins and patches in serpentine, talc-schist or dolomitenetes, with whom were associated, according to Strabo, some rock. It is extensively mined in the island of Euboea in the Grecian Cretan settlers. It was thus not properly an Ionic city, and for Archipelago, near Salem in Madras, and in California. It is printhis reason, apparently, was not included in the Ionian league, cipally used for the manufacture of highly refractory fire-bricks though superior in wealth and prosperity to most of the members for lining steel furnaces and electric furnaces; also for making except Ephesus and Miletus. It was destroyed by the Cimmerii plaster, tiles and artificial stone; for the preparation of magnesium in their irruption into Asia Minor, but was soon after rebuilt, and salts (Epsom salts, etc.); for whitening paper-pulp and wool; and gradually recovered its former prosperity. It was one of the towns as a paint. assigned by Artaxerxes to Themistocles for support in his exile. MAGNESIUM, a metallic chemical element of silvery white Magnesia continued under the kings of Pergamum to be one of appearance, which is familiar in the form of ribbon (symbol the most flourishing cities in this part of Asia; it resisted Mg, atomic number 12, atomic weight 24-32, isotopes 24, 25, 26). Mithridates in 87 B.c., and was rewarded with civic freedom by The sulphate or Epsom salts was isolated in 1695 by N. Grew, Sulla; but it appears to have greatly declined under the Roman while in 1707 M. B. Valentin prepared magnesia alba from the empire, and its name disappears from history, though on coins mother liquors obtained in the manufacture of nitre. Magnesia the time of Gordian it still claimed to be the seventh city of was confounded with lime until 1755, when J. Black showed that sia. the two substances were entirely different; and in 1808 Davy See K. Haumann, Magnesia am Maeander (1904). pointed out that it was the oxide of a metal, which, however, he (2) MAcNESIA AD SIeyLUM, a city of Lydia about 40 m. north- was not able to isolate. Magnesium is found widely distributed in nature, chiefly in the forms of silicate, carbonate and chloride, and east of Smyrna unknown before the battle of 190 B.C. Th 197 B.c. the Romans, freed from all danger from Carthage, occurring in the minerals olivine, hornblende, talc, asbestos, meerhad forced the submission of Philip V. of Macedon (see schaum, augite, dolomite, magnesite, carnallite, kieserite and kainCYNOSCEPHALAE), while Antiochus, after overrunning Asia Minor, ite. The metal was prepared (in a state approximating to purity) had penetrated into Thrace. The Mediterranean world could not by A. A. B. Bussy who fused the anhydrous chloride with potashold two such powerful rivals, and the inevitable clash was sium; H. Sainte Claire Deville’s process, which used to be emhastened by Antiochus’s subsequent invasion of Greece. If by ployed commercially, was essentially the same, except that sodium his dilatory and limited strategy he lost his opportunity, he was substituted for potassium and that carnallite, KCl,MgCl, roused the Romans, reviving from the war weariness that fol- was used instead of magnesium chloride, the product being furlowed the struggle with Hannibal, to a sense of danger, and, not ther purified by redistillation. Electrolytic methods have entirely content with his repulse, they prepared a counter-invasion—all the superseded the older methods; fused carnallite, KCI,MgCl,, is more because Hannibal was now at the side of Antiochus. The electrolysed at 760°C. in an iron pot, which acts as the cathode, expedition was placed under the consul Lucius Scipio, whose elec- the anode being a carbon rod surrounded by a porcelain tube to tion was due to the promise of his famous brother, Publius Scipio carry off the chlorine. Magnesium is malleable and ductile. Sp. gr. 1-75. Its alloys with Africanus, to accompany him as his lieutenant. The latter’s combination of strategy and diplomacy ensured the expedition’s aluminium are known as “magnalium” and are useful for light scure and unchecked passage from Greece and across the Dar- castings. Magnesium preserves its lustre in dry air, but In moist danelles into Asia Minor. But illness prevented him reaping air it becomes tarnished by the formation of a film of oxide. It thetactical fruits, and the decisive battle was fought while he was melts at 632-7°C. and boils at about 1,100°C. Magnesium and its still on his sick bed. Antiochus with an army computed at 62,000 salts are diamagnetic. It burns brilliantly when heated in air or foot and over 12,000 horse had fallen back behind the Hermus oxygen, or even in carbon dioxide, emitting a white light and leavliver and there at Magnesia—the modern Minissa—fortified a ing a residue of magnesia, MgO. The light is rich in the violet strong camp. Though the Romans counted only two legions and and ultra-violet rays, and consequently is employed in phoproportionate allied contingents—some 30,000 in all—an attack tography. At high temperatures it acts as a reducing agent. It was decided upon. “The Romans never despised an enemy so combines directly with nitrogen, when heated in the gas, to form much.” However, Antiochus saved them the trouble and came the nitride Mg,N. (see Arcon). It is rapidly dissolved by dilute : out to offer battle. Even so, they evidently missed the master- acids. Magnesium Oxide, magnesia, MgO, occurs native as the d of Scipio Africanus, and were even in jeopardy for a time. For while they were driving in the enemy’s centre, and their mineral periclase, and is formed when magnesium burns in air; cavalry were attacking his left flank, Antiochus himself with his it may also be prepared by the gentle ignition of the hydroxide ught wing cavalry, crossed the river—left almost unguarded—and or carbonate. It is a non-volatile and highly infusible white pow-

fell upon the Romans’ left flank. The troops there, were dispersed and ‘took refuge in the camp, where only, the resolution of the tribune left in charge rallied them and staved off the danger until

der, which slowly absorbs moisture and carbon dioxide from air, and is readily soluble in dilute acids. On account of its refractory

nature, it is employed in the manufacture of crucibles, furnace

636

MAGNETIC

ANALYSIS—MAGNETISM

linings, etc. It is also used in making hydraulic cements. Magnesium hydroxide Mg(OH). occurs native as the minerals brucite and nemalite. It is employed in the manufacture of cements. When magnesium is heated in fluorine or chlorine or in the vapour of bromine or iodine there is a violent reaction, and the corresponding halide compounds are formed. With the exception of the fluoride, these substances are readily soluble in water and are deliquescent. The fluoride is found native as sellaite, and the bromide and iodide occur in sea water and in many mineral

springs.

The most important of the halide salts is the chloride

which, in the hydrated form, has the formula MgCl,6H20.

The

hydrated salt loses water on heating, and partially decomposes into hydrochloric acid and magnesium oxychlorides. To obtain the anhydrous salt, the double magnesium ammonium chloride, MgCl.,.NH.C1,6H.0, is prepared by adding ammonium chloride to a solution of magnesium chloride. Magnesium oxychloride when heated to redness in a current of air evolves a mixture of hydrochloric acid and chlorine and leaves a residue of magnesia, a reaction which is employed in the Weldon-Pechiney and Mond processes for the manufacture of chlorine. Magnesium Carbonate, MgCO,—The normal salt is found native as the mineral magnesite, and in combination with calcium

carbonate as dolomite, whilst hydromagnesite is a basic carbonate. It is not possible to prepare the normal carbonate by precipitating magnesium salts with sodium carbonate. Other Magnesium Salts.—By adding sodium phosphate to magnesium sulphate and allowing the mixture to stand, hexagonal needles of MgHPO,,7H.O are deposited. The normal phosphate, Mg;P.Os, is found in some guanos, and as the mineral wagnerite. It is a white amorphous powder, readily soluble in acids. Magnesium ammonium phosphate, MgNH.PO,,6H.O, is found as the mineral struvite and in some guanos; it occurs also in urinary calculi and is formed in the putrefaction of urine. Magnesium nitrate, Mg(NO,)26H.O, is a colourless, deliquescent, crystalline

solid obtained by dissolving magnesium or its carbonate in nitric acid, and concentrating the solution. The crystals melt at go° C. Magnesium nitride, Mg,N., is obtained as a greenish-yellow amorphous mass by passing a current of nitrogen or ammonia over heated magnesium. Magnesium sulphate, MgSQ,, occurs (with 1H.0) as kieserite. A hexahydrate is also known. The heptahy-

Magnetic analysis predicates a test procedure which igs nop. destructive and may be applied at any stage in manufacture. Both direct and alternating current are used as the primary means of magnetization. Various types of indicating means are employed, such as instruments of the deflected pointer type, galvanometers or oscillographs reflecting a light ray, the latter permitting of photographic recording. Magnetization by direct

current offers advantages where it is desired to make tests at high inductions, or where the cross-section of the material is large. The alternating current method permits of greater speed in measure. ment. It also allows of obtaining separate indications representing different summations of permeability and watt loss characteristics, from which more than one property of the article under test may be inferred. Thus far its application in practice has been confined

mainly to the examination of relatively small articles.

T. Spooner (Proc. Am. Soc. Testing Materials, pt. ii., 26, 1926) has carried out an extended investigation on high speed steel which consolidates much of the information on the subject of testing under alternating magnetization. Fig, 1 shows a series of oscillograms obtained by means of a cathode ray oscillograph of specimens of high speed steel of one composition which have undergone different heat treatments. The ordinates represent the differen-

tial of the magnetic flux for individual specimens of stated heat treatment and a standard specimen, both being subjected to the same magnetizing force. The abscissae represent time on a harmonic scale which is varied in phase with respect to the cycle of

magnetization, so as to give prominence to that portion af the loop

which has been found to carry special significance, Each vertical column, reading downward, shows for a given quenching temperature the changes in form as the drawing temperature is increased. see Proc, Am. Soc, Test. Mat. (1913-27), R. L. Sanford, “Magnetic

Analysis,” Trans. Am, Inst. Elect. Eng. (1929) ; and bibliography of the Congrés International pour L’essai des Matériaux (Amsterdam, Sept. 1927). QUENCHING TEMPERATURE 2109°F 1154°C 2211°F 1211°C 2314°F 1268°C

2366°F 1296°C 2419°F 1326°C

drate is known as Epsom salts (q.v.).

Organic Compounds.—The most important organic compounds of magnesium are known as Grignard reagents (q.v.). They are of the composition RMgX (where R=an alkyl or aryl group and X=a halogen). Detection.—In the absence of barium, strontium, calcium and aluminium the magnesium salts may be detected by the colourless crystals formed by adding sodium phosphate (in the presence of ammonia and ammonium chloride) to their solutions. The same reaction is made use of in the quantitative determination of magnesium, the white precipitate of magnesium ammonium phosphate being converted by ignition into magnesium pyrophosphate. Medicine.—The salts of magnesium may be regarded as the typical saline purgatives. Their aperient action is dependent upon the minimum of irritation of the bowel, and is exercised by their abstraction from the blood of water, which passes into the bowel to act as a diluent of the salt. Magnesium salts have a powerful depressant action, especially on nervous tissue.

566°C 1050°F 538°C 1000°F

TEMPERATURE DRAWING 1100°F 593°C

MAGNETIC ANALYSIS, broadly, the art of determining the constitutional and structural state of ferro-magnetic materials through study of the co-existing magnetic characteristics. In the United States the use of the term is restricted to denote the process of interpreting the magnetic characteristics of ferrous or other magnetic materials in terms of their physical characteristics that have a bearing on their qualifications for a given service. The practicability of magnetic analysis rests upon the hypothesis that in a ferrous material there is a definite connection between the magnetic and the mechanical properties. Variations in chemical composition, inhomogeneities in structure, the presence of cracks and internal strains, processes of mechanical and thermal treatment, etc., all result in variations in magnetic characteristics which are tore or less open to measurement and interpretation.

621°C 1150°F

FIG, 1.—CLOSED LOOP OSCILLOGRAMS SHOWING MAGNETIC OF DIFFERENT HEAT TREATMENTS ON HIGH-SPEED STEEL BARS

MAGNETISM.

EFFECTS

This article, which deals mainly with the

magnetic properties of materials, is divided into: the following sections: history; fundamental phenomena and concepts; magnetic measurements; diamagnetism; paramagnetism; ferromagnetism,

susceptibilities of the elements; magnetic deflection of atom

rays; magnetism and the structure of matter. An account Is give of the experimental facts, the methods of investigation, and the theoretical interpretation of the results. A number of aspects

637

MAGNETISM

HISTORY]

of magnetism are only referred to incidentally here, as they are

jalt with in other articles.

(See ELECTRICITY, LIGHT, TERRES-

MAGNETISM, ATOM, ELECTRON, QUANTUM FECT.

gE)

THEORY, ZEE-

HISTORY

This survey of the development of magnetism deals mainly ith the period up to the beginning of the nineteenth century.

The welding of electricity and magnetism into a single wider gience, which is considered elsewhere (see ELECTRICITY), and the wter work, which forms the main subject matter of other sections of this article, are only briefly reviewed. Early History.—The science of magnetism may be said to

generalization; but the idea of carrying out experiments to find a definite answer to a definite question had not arisen. Knowledge remained vague and qualitative, and the speculations, being unchecked by experiment, were of little permanent scientific value.

The Compass.—The property of orientation of a magnet, by which it tends to turn approximately north and south, was apparently not known in classical antiquity; the suggestion that a passage in Homer (Odyssey, viii.) : “Tn wondrous ships, self mov’d, instinct with mind; No helm secures their course, no pilot guides; Like man intelligent, they plough the tides.” (Pope’s translation)

—indicates a use of the compass being hardly convincing. In China, according to tradition, some form of compass was used a very early period. Hoang-ti is said to have constructed a at the of magnet seems to have been long known in every part chariot on which was a female figure indicating the four cardinal is B.C.) 630-550 (c. Miletus of Thales world, Among the Greeks, points at a date which can be fixed as 2637 B.C. A “chariot of the aedited with a knowledge of the attractive power, which he south” was given to some envoys to direct them on their way

have grown from the observation that a certain mineral ore, indestone, possesses the property of attracting iron. The native

attributed to a soul, but it was probably familiar considerably eater, It is mentioned by Plato, Aristotle, Theophrastus and

others. In one of Plato’s Dialogues (Jom), Socrates says that the sone “not only attracts iron rings, but also imparts to them a similar power of attracting other rings; and sometimes you may see a number of pieces of iron and rings suspended from one another so as to form quite a long chain,” a phenomenon shown with the Samothracian rings by the workers at the iron mines on the iland of Samothrace. Magnetization by induction had been observed. Legend attributed the discovery of lodestone to a Cretan

shepherd who was so strongly attracted to the earth by his irontacked sandals, and iron-tipped crook, that he dug to ascertain the cause. Imagination was stimulated by the mysterious attractive power of the magnet, and later, many fables sprang up round the remarkable stone—of magnetic domes supporting vast iron

(and even bronze!) statues in mid-air, and of “mountains in the

north of such great powers of attraction that ships are built with wooden pegs, lest the iron nails should be drawn from the timber.” Lucretius, the Roman poet, in De Rerum Natura (c. 60 B.c.), in the course of an account of extraordinary and paradoxical telluric

phenomena, for which he gives non-supernatural explanations, discusses magnets at some length (vi. go6-1087) and states that the mame magnes for lodestone is derived from Magnesia, the district in Asia Minor in which the ore occurred plentifully. The passage

a a whole probably gives of magnetism. Lucretius by W. E. Leonard—from tracts from the De Rerum

a good idea of the Romans’ knowledge in the following passage, as translated whose rendering (1922) our other exNatura are also taken—attributed the

attractive properties of lodestone for iron to an exhalation of fine particles: «|. Stream there must from off the lode-stone seeds Innumerable, a very tide, which smites By blows that air asunder lying betwixt The stone and the iron.”

The seeds swim through the pores of the iron, and the place between the iron and the stone becomes a void, when “the primal

germs of iron, headlong slipping, fall conjoined into the vacuum” dragging the body of the iron with them, for

“Naught there is That of its own primordial elements More thoroughly knit or tighter linked coheres Than nature and cold roughness of stout iron.”

The process is aided by the buffetings of the air molecules beyond the iron and in its own substance. A definitely new fact is recorded

by Lucretius—repulsive phenomena have been observed: “Tve seen Those Samothracian iron rings leap up And iron filings in the brazen bowls Seethe furiously, when underneath was set The magnet stone.”

Lucretius manages to devise an explanation of even this apparently maccountable behaviour, in terms of exhalations from the brass. uctetius’ discussion of magnets is representative of much of the Greek and Roman scientific outlook. There was much speculation,

hequently showing remarkable insight, and a desire for wide

about 1110 B.C., while in the following century, according to later history, there were Chinese cars which held a floating needle. The first really explicit reference to polarity is found in a dictionary of A.D. 121, where it is stated that the south-pointing property may be imparted to iron by blows, or by means of the lodestone. In the third century, it is mentioned that ships were directed to the south by a needle, but a description of a water compass is not found in any Chinese work until a. 1111-17. This is very little earlier than Guyot de Provins (c. 1200), a minstrel at the court of Frederick I. (Barbarossa), refers to the use by sailors of a floating needle which was rubbed on an ugly brown stone. About the same time (1207) Neckam of St. Albans mentions the pivoted needle, which showed mariners their course. The Chinese, then, possibly had some knowledge of the polar properties of natural lodestone, and of iron rubbed on lodestone in very early times, but there was no continuous systematic application of the knowledge. The use of directing needles may have waxed and waned with the course of time, and it was not until about the twelfth century that the compass came into wide-spread use. It is then referred to in Arabic writings, and it seems probable that the knowledge of the directing needle passed from the Chinese to the Arabs, and from the Arabs to the Franks at the time of the first Crusades; but the possibility that the Western invention was independent of the Eastern cannot be definitely ruled out. The early compasses consisted simply of a magnetic needle in a splinter of wood floating in water. The pivoted needle seems to be of Western origin. (See Compass.) Peter Peregrinus.—The earliest systematic investigations on magnets were made-by Peter Peregrinus of Maricourt, who at one time received instruction from Roger Bacon. Bacon had a great admiration for him. “What others strive to see dimly and blindly, like bats in twilight, he gazes at in full light of day, because he is a master of experiment. Through experiment, he gains knowl-

edge of things natural, medical and chemical; indeed of everything

in the heavens or earth.” The discoveries in magnetism are set forth in a letter to a soldier friend sent from camp at Lucera, besieged by Charles of Anjou (Aug. 1269). This letter—£pustola

Petri Peregrini de Maricourt ad Sygerum de Foucaucourt militem de magnete—is the first treatise on magnetism. Peregrinus discusses the requirements in an investigator, and among them he specially stresses assiduity in handiwork for experimental research. He clearly realized the importance of experiment, the recognition of which is so characteristic of modern science. Peregrinus fashjoned a lodestone into the form of a globe, on which he drew lines

indicating the direction in which a magnetic needle tended to set

itself. From the similarity of these to meridians, he was led to the invention, by analogy, of the term magnetic “poles,” these being the regions in which the magnetic power was concentrated. He distinguished the north and south poles by placing the stone in a wooden skiff, which was floated in water, and noting which end pointed to the north. “Tf this pole were then turned away a thousand times, a thousand times would it return to its place by the will of God.” By bringing an already marked magnet near the floating stone, he found that like poles attracted, unlike poles

638

MAGNETISM

repelled each other. He observed that when an iron needle was magnetized, the end which had touched the south pole of the stone turned to the north, and that a strong magnet could reverse the polarity of a weaker one. An important discovery was that the fragments of a broken magnet behaved as magnets, isolated poles not occurring. Peregrinus thought that a magnet turned towards the pole of the sky, deriving its power, in some way, from the whole of the heavens. In the second part of the letter methods for constructing a floating compass and also a better instrument, a pivoted compass, are described. The range of Peregrinus’ magnetic investigations was remark-

[HISTORY

tractive power; that magnetic power was exerted through Screens which cut off the electric action entirely; and that there was no tendency for an electrified body to orientate itself in a definite

direction, like a magnetized piece of iron.

Gilbert discovered that a piece of iron was not attracted if red hot, but it regained its normal properties on cooling. He scouts

the idea that the peculiarity of iron, as distinguished from other

metals, is due to its being cold, as had been alleged, “as if, forsooth cold were cause of attraction, or iron were much colder than lead which neither follows the lodestone nor leans toward it. But this js sorry trifling, no better than old wives’ gossip.” He found that

able, and it is not till some three hundred years later that any

bars of iron could be magnetized by hammering them when they

material advance was made. In 1581 Robert Norman published the New Attractive, which gives a clear statement of the fundamental laws of attraction and repulsion between poles, and contains an account of Norman’s discovery and measurement of magnetic dip (1571). The downward tendency of the north pole of a pivoted needle had been noticed previously by Hartmann of Nuremberg in 1544, but was not placed on record till much later. William Gilbert—In 1600 William Gilbert of Colchester (1540-1603) published his book De Magnete, Magnetisque Corporibus, et de magno magnete tellure; Physiologia nova,

were held to point north and south, particularly if the hammering

plurimis et argumentis et experimentis demonstrata (on the magnet, magnetic bodies also, and on the great magnet the earth; a new physiology, demonstrated by many arguments and experiments). Gilbert, who has been called the “father of modern. elec-

tricity” and the “Galileo of magnetism,” and to whom Peregrinus may be regarded as a worthy forerunner, laid the foundations of the modern sciences of electricity and magnetism. After a career at Cambridge, Gilbert travelled on the continent, and on his return practised as a doctor in London. He was later appointed court physician to Queen Elizabeth, and his house near St. Paul’s became a meeting place for scientists. Gilbert dedicates his epochmaking book “to you alone, true philosophers, ingenious minds, who not only in books, but in things themselves look for knowledge,” and he does not conceal his scorn of those whose opinions are based on hearsay, tradition and speculation. Again and again he stresses the importance of experiment: “In the discovery of secrets and in the investigation of the hidden causes of things, clear proofs are afforded by trustworthy experiments rather than by probable guesses and opinions of ordinary professors and philosophers.” It was by experiment that he was able to refute the unfounded speculations and idle superstitions that had grown up round the magnet, and to make positive advances in laying the foundations of the science of magnetism. Gilbert was, however, truly appreciative of the work of sincere investigators. The first part of De Magnete is occupied by a comprehensive résumé of previous writings. To separate the true from the false, many painstaking experiments were carried out, and in the course of these such investigations as those of Peregrinus were refined and extended. Though Gilbert’s claim to honour rests largely on the scientific method which he practised, his actual discoveries were of the utmost importance. In his investigations he made use of a globular piece of lodestone, a ‘‘terrella,” as Peregrinus had done; for experiments on electric action he devised a ‘“‘versorium,” an early form of electroscope, consisting of a light pivoted needle of any metal. He clearly discriminated between magnetic and electric actions. He made a systematic study of amber, which attracted light bodies, but only when rubbed, and he showed that this property was common to a large number of substances, such as glass, sulphur and diamond, which he called “electrics.” Whereas all bodies could be attracted by electrics, lodestone (which Gilbert proved to be an iron ore) attracted only magnetizable substances, and required no frictional stimulus. It had been stated that iron

rubbed by diamonds became magnetized, and turned to the north. “We made the experiment ourselves,” says Gilbert, “with seventyfive diamonds in presence of many witnesses, employing a number of iron bars and pieces of wire, manipulating them with the greatest care while they floated on water, supported by corks: but never was it granted to me to see the effect mentioned by

Porta.” Gilbert found that the lodestone exhibited no electric at-

was carried out as the iron cooled from red heat. In other books of De Magnete, Gilbert treats fully of the directive force, or “verticity” of the lodestone; of magnetic declination

(the divergence of a magnet needle from the true north and south direction) and its variation; and forms of the compass. Gilbert’s itself was a great magnet—should theory which explained the then

of magnetic dip. He describes main discovery—that the earth perhaps be called a magnificent known facts of terrestrial mag.

netism with beautiful and coherent simplicity. With a terrella of lodestone and a magnetized needle, the results of the theory could

be illustrated in a striking and satisfying manner.

The conception

of the earth as a magnet swept away the older views as to why

a magnet pointed to the north. “The common herd of philosophers, in search of the causes of magnetic movements, called in causes remote and far away. Martinus Cortenius dreamt of an attractive magnetic point beyond the heavens. . . . Petrus Peregrinus holds that direction has its rise at the celestial poles. . . . So ever has

been the wont of mankind; homely things are vile; things from abroad and things afar are dear to them and the object of longing.” To account for magnetic actions, Gilbert favoured an effluvium theory, since matter cannot act where it is not. Such a theory was not devoid of use for descriptive purposes, and the small extent to which Gilbert indulges in fruitless speculation in attempts at explanation is noteworthy. It is rather remarkable that Francis Bacon did scant justice to the work of one who practised the method which he preached. “Gilbert has attempted to raise a general system upon the magnet,” he says, “endeavouring to build a ship out of materials not sufficient to make the rowing pins of a boat.” Indeed, quite generally, Gilbert’s work suffered neglect. Possibly this was partly due to his cosmological conclusions, in which magnetism played an overimportant role—the Copernican theory was little assisted by the intended support. De Magnete, in any case, could hardly have been popular among Gilbert’s contemporary scientists, the

strictures were too severe, but in the main, the neglect was due to the fact that Gilbert’s outlook was considerably in advance of his time. Actually his book is an epitome of what was known about magnetism not only in his time, but for practically 200 years afterwards. Typical of the solemn errors which persisted long after

Gilbert’s time is a statement in van Helmont’s De Magnetica

(1621): “The lodestone onely by the affriction of Garlick, amits its verticity, and neglects the pole, conserving to itself, in the meantime, its peculiar forme, materiell constitution, and all other dependent proprieties. The reason, because Garlick is the lodestone’s proper Opium, and by it that spirituell sensation in the magnet is consopited and layd asleep.”

Michell, Coulomb and Poisson.—Although there was much

experimental activity in the century following Gilbert, there was little progress in the particular sciences of electricity and magnetism. In 1698, Edmund Halley went on an Atlantic voyage (the expedition was equipped by the Government) on which he

made valuable observations on the variation of declination. In magnetism proper no material advance was made until experiments were undertaken with a view to finding quantitative relations.

The credit for the discovery of the law of force between magnetic

poles is probably due to John Michell (1724-93) who, shortly after taking his degree at Cambridge, published A Treatise of Ari

ficial Magnets (1750) in which he states the principles of magnet’ theory. Michell was the first inventor of the torsion balance which

MAGNETISM

HISTORY]

639

he utilized in his experiments on magnetic forces. He found that in a magnet “each pole attracts or repels exactly equally, at

ing the inverse square law.

equal distances, in every direction,” which was quite at variance with prevailing ideas, and was incompatible with the theory of

netism was being worked out, those discoveries were made which showed the relation between electricity and magnetism, linking

vortices. From his own observations and those of previous investigators, whose theoretical treatment of their results had not been sound, Michell made the important deduction on which the

the two together into a single wider science (see ELectricity). In 1819, Hans Christian Oersted (1775-1851) found that a magnetic needle placed parallel to a current-bearing wire tended to set itself at right angles to the current. Oersted had long been looking for some action of electricity on the magnetic needle, but the effect

mathematical theory of magnetism is based: “The Attraction and

Repulsion of Magnets decreases, as the squares of the distances from the respective poles increase.”

This law was later main-

tained by the German astronomer J. Tobias Mayer, and the Alatian mathematician J. Heinrich Lambert.

John Robison (1739-

1805) also showed that the inverse square law held closely, using

magnets in the form of thin rods with spherical end pieces—the localization of polarity simplifying the calculations.

The direct

experimental determination of the forces between magnetic poles isa matter of greater difficulty than that of the forces between

electric charges, for the “magnetic charge” is not generally confned to a small region, and even considering the resultant poles, between two magnets there are always four forces in action. The inverse square law cannot be said to have been established experimentally with satisfactory precision until C. A. Coulomb (1736-1806) carried out his classical investigations (1785). He used long thin steel rods symmetrically magnetized. In one series of experiments he suspended one rod in his torsion balance and arranged a second vertically, so the forces between the remote poles were negligible. Allowance was made for the magnetic field of the earth. The force at different distances from a magnetic pole was also calculated fram the time of vibration of a small needle. The development of theories of electricity and of magnetism naturally proceeded along somewhat similar lines. The conception of efluvia, which emanated from bodies when electrified or magnetized, but eventually returned to them, fell out of favour with the discovery of electric conduction. The one and two fluid

theories came into being, and though both found advocates, there seemed to be no conclusive experimental test available, to decide between them. F. V. T. Aepinus applied a one fluid theory with considerable success to magnetic phenomena in his Testamen Theoriae Electricitatis et Magnetismi (1759). He supposed that atthe poles the normal concentration of the magnetic fluid was increased or diminished. Particles of the fluid repelled each other, and attracted particles of iron. It was necessary to suppose

that particles of iron (in an abnormal fluid-free state) also exerted mutual repulsion. Coulomb preferred a theory of two magnetic fluids, boreal and austral (corresponding to vitreous and resinous, or positive and negative electricity); to account for the fact that isolated poles do not occur he supposed that the two magnetic duids, equal in amount, were permanently imprisoned within the

molecules of magnetic bodies, and that magnetization consisted

in the separation to an extent depending on the applied field of

the boreal and austral fluids to opposite ends of each molecule. The mathematical development of the theory of magnetism, as

far as the phenomena then known were concerned, was carried to a mature stage by Siméon Denis Poisson (1781-1840) in a series of memoirs of which the first was published in 1821, following on previous work on electrostatic theory. Poisson adopted Coulomb’s views as the basis of his treatment, but as his results are, to a large extent, independent of the asstimption of the existence of

two magnetic fluids, resting mainly on the experimentally de-

termined inverse square law and on the hypothesis that magnetizaton is a molecular phenomenon, they remain a correct mathematical formulation of many of the quantitative aspects of mag-

netic phenomena.

He

obtained

expressions for the magnetic

forces due to bodies magnetized in any manner, in terms of surface and volume integrals involving the intensity of magnetization. He considered the forces inside magnetized bodies, and propounded a quantitative theory of induced magnetism. Poisson’s theory, largely freed from arbitrary assumptions by Kelvin, was extended by him and also by Green, Neumann, ‘Kirchoff, Max-

well and others. Gauss also did valuable work on magnetic theory,

and is responsible for an indirect but precise method of confirm-

Electromagnetism. While the mathematical theory of mag-

discovered was quite different from what had been anticipated..

The effect taking place Oersted called the ‘conflict of electricity,” which was supposed to perform circles round the conductor and to act only on magnetic particles of matter.

The discovery was

rapidly followed up. André Marie Ampère (1775~1836) investigated theoretically and experimentally the mutual action of current-bearing circuits (1820). Arago, in the same year, succeeded in magnetizing a piece of iron by the electric current. The whole subject of the mutual action of currents and magnets was shortly afterwards dealt with comprehensively by Ampére in one of the most celebrated memoirs in the history of physics (1825). In

this he shows that a current circuit is equivalent in its magnetic effects to a magnetic “shell,” magnetized at right angles to the surface, whose boundary coincides with the circuit. The outstanding work of Michael Faraday (1791-1867) can only be glanced at. In 1831, in no more than ten full days of research between Aug. and Nov., he unravelled all the essential features of electromagnetic induction. “The quantity of electricity thrown into a current,” he states, “is directly as the number of (magnetic) curves intersected.” While Ampére accepted the idea of action at a distance as a satisfactory basis for mathematical treatment, Faraday constantly attempted to interpret electric and magnetic action in terms of stresses and strains in a medium. He visualized magnetic lines of force in closed curves proceeding through a magnet and pervading space, lines tending to shorten themselves, and repelling each other when side by side. Faraday’s views were given mathematical expression by his great follower James Clerk Maxwell (1831-79). It is unnecessary to deal here with the experimental confirmation by Hertz of Maxwell’s views as to electromagnetic radiation; but the synthesis involved in the interpretation of light as an electromagnetic phenomenon is one whose significance cannot be overemphasized.

Dia-, Para- and Ferro-magnetism.—In 1778 S. J. Brugmans

observed that bismuth and antimony were repelled from the poles of a magnet, but the importance of this was not clearly realized. The result was unknown to Faraday when, in 1845, he discovered that magnetic properties were not restricted to the iron group of elements, but that all substances were influenced by a maghetic. field, though to a much smaller extent than iron. (Iron, nickel and cobalt, with some other substances, may be placed in the special class of ferromagnetics.) Faraday distinguished between

diamagnetics, which were repelled by a magnetic pole and, in general, tended to set themselves at right angles to the lines of mag-

netic forces; and paramagnetics which, like iron, were attracted

and tended to set themselves along the lines of force. He rather favoured a conduction theory of magnetism, according to which the magnetic lines tended to crowd into a substance whose conducting power was higher than that of its surroundings. Paramagnetics offered an easy passage to the lines, while the conducting power of diamagnetics was low. . | The alternative view that the molecules were polarized was developed by Wilhelm Weber (1804-90). Ampére had made the brilliant suggestion that “molecular currents” might give rise to molecular magnets. Weber showed that if the existence of molecular circuits, without ohmic resistance, was assumed, the induction of currents in them, when placed in a magnetic field, would account for the characteristic properties of diamagnetics. In paramagnetics, however, it was necessary to suppose that there were permanent molecular currents, making the molecules permanent magnets. The old two fluid theory suggested no explanation of the two types of magrietic behaviour, and also it could not account for the tendency of the magnetization of substances lke iron to approach a saturation value with increasing field. To

640

MAGNETISM

explain the fact that the elementary magnets of iron did not set themselves all parallel to each other when the magnetizing field was small, Weber assumed that any displacement of the mole-

cule was resisted by a restoring couple tending to restore the molecule to its original position. This, however, was incompatible with the fact that iron may retain a certain amount of magnetization when the field is removed, and with the general phenomenon of the lag of the magnetization behind the field, that is with residual magnetism and hysteresis. Maxwell suggested that there were several possible equilibrium positions. The much less artificial

theory that the effects observed are due to the mutual magnetic action of the molecular magnets has been developed with considerable success by J. A. Ewing (1890), but there are still many baffling problems in connection with the magnetization of ferromagnetics. The introduction of accurate methods of measurement for ferromagnetic substances was due to H. A. Rowland (1873), and important work in this direction was done by Ewing, the variation

of susceptibility (the ratio of the magnetization to the magnetizing force) and hysteresis being investigated in a comprehensive manner. In an investigation of great importance P. Curie measured the susceptibilities of a large number of substances over a wide range

of temperatures (1895). He found that while diamagnetism was usually independent of temperature, paramagnetic susceptibility over wide ranges—as was tested most carefully for oxygen— was approximately inversely proportional to the absolute temperature, a result embodied in Curie’s law. The Electron Theory and the Quantum Theory.—tThe discovery of the electron, as a discrete unit of negative electricity, and the measurement of its charge and mass, gave reality to the electron theory which-had been extensively worked out notably by H. A. Lorentz; and it was on a firm experimental basis that P. Langevin, in 1905, developed a theory of magnetism which accounted in a satisfactory manner for the general character of Curie’s results. The molecular currents of Weber could be regarded as electrons circulating in molecules. Each circulating electron would have a magnetic moment associated with it, and a substance would be diamagnetic or paramagnetic according as to whether the magnetic moments of the electrons in the molecules compensated each other or not. By applying a statistical treatment to investigate how the thermal rotational motions would affect the orientation of the molecules in a field, Langevin showed that the susceptibility of a paramagnetic gas should vary inversely as the temperature. From the expressions Langevin derived it became possible to deduce the magnetic moments of the paramagnetic molecules. Shortly afterwards (1907) P. Weiss extended Langevin’s theory by taking into account the mutual action of the molecules by the introduction of a molecular field, proportional to the magnetization acquired. In this way many of the properties of paramagnetics generally and of ferromagnetics were correlated, but the exact nature of the molecular field is very obscure. Chiefly from investigations on ferromagnetics, Weiss was led to the conclusion that atomic moments were all integral multiples of a fundamental unit, the Weiss magneton, a view which has been of considerable value, though it requires profound modification. The electronic orbit theory of atomic magnetism was open to the grave objection that, according to the classical theory, the circulating electrons should radiate, and gradually lose energy. This was part of a much wider problem. The classical theory was entirely unable to account for the upbuilding of stable atoms, or to show how they could give rise to the spectra observed.

The application of the quantum theory (g.v.) (introduced by Planck in 1899) to the problem of atomic structure by Niels Bohr in 1913, while it by no means solved all the difficulties, at once introduced order into chaos. A quantum theory outlook has since dominated atomic physics, and developments seem to have occurred with unprecedented rapidity. For atomic magnetism, a fundamental feature of Bohr’s theory is the fact that the angular momentum of an electron in an atom can only assume certain discrete values, and a natural unit is suggested for the associated ‘Magnetic.moment, a unit roughly five times as large as the Weiss magneton. The most direct experiment to test the view suggested

[PHENOMENA

is that of deviating a stream of atoms in a non-homogeneoys magnetic field. From the deviations observed the magnetic mo.

ments may be calculated. Such experiments have been carried oy by W. Gerlach and O. Stern (1921 and later). The general results

confirm the predictions in a most remarkable manner. The mo.

ments found agree with those which may be calculated from the

analysis of the normal atomic spectra and the “splitting” of tha

spectral lines in the Zeeman atoms are in a magnetic field study of spectra, in fact, on a can be made with considerable bilities.

effect, that is when the emitting (see ZEEMAN EFFEcT). From q quantum theory basis, predictions success as to magnetic suscepti.

The association of angular momentum

with magnetic moment

suggests that magnetization should be accompanied by rotational

impulse, an idea first developed by O. W. Richardson (1908), The effect has been sought and found, but with the ratio of the

magnetic to the mechanical effect twice that predicted. Of this anomaly, as well as of others connected with the analysis of spectra in relation to atomic structure, the simple quantum theory

offered no explanation. Many of these difficulties can be correlated by attributing to the electron itself an angular and a magnetic moment as suggested by S. Goudsmit and G. E. Uhlenbeck (1925). The progress of the last twenty or thirty years has enabled

magnetic phenomena to be traced back to the atom and even to the electron.

The scheme is, indeed, far from complete.

Many

gaps are apparent when the attempt is made to account, for mass magnetic phenomena, and there are many fundamental problems still less has able

unsolved. The rapidity of the recent advance is none the astonishing; but this survey of the history shows that it only been possible because the later investigators have been to build on the foundations laid by those who preceded them.

FUNDAMENTAL PHENOMENA AND CONCEPTS Before 1820 artificial magnets were made by stroking iron or steel with lodestone, a number of more or less efficacious methods being devised. The discovery of the fact that an electric current gave rise to a magnetic field led to the method of magnetizing iron that is now usually adopted. If a piece of iron is placed in the interior of an elongated coil or spiral of wire (a solenoid) carrying a current, the iron becomes magnetized. If the current ceases to flow, or the iron is removed from the coil, the magnetization decreases, but a certain amount is retained depending on the “retentivity” of the specimen. By using suitable steels artificial “permanent” magnets may be made, and for scientific purposes these have replaced the natural magnet, lodestone or magnetite, which is an ore of iron, approximately of the composition F e304.

Magnetic Poles.—If a bar magnet, produced by the solenoid

method, is dipped into a mass of iron filings, the filings cling to it most thickly round the ends, where the attraction is greatest.

These regions are the poles of the magnet. If the magnet be suspended horizontally in a stirrup by a thread of unspun silk, it will come to rest in a definite direction so that the line Joining

the poles of the magnet (the magnetic axis) lies in the magnetic meridian. The direction of the magnetic axis with reference to the body of a bar magnet may be determined by suspending 1t with first one and then the other face uppermost. The pole which points towards the north is known as the north-seeking, or moré commonly the north pole, the other the south pole (conventionally the north pole is called the positive, the south the negative pole).

By experiments with two magnets, one suspended, it 1s

readily shown that like poles repel each other and unlike attract. As mentioned in the last section, Coulomb, by the use of the

torsion balance, established (to within about 3%) that the force

between two poles varied inversely as the square of the distanct between them, and as the product of the “strengths” of the poles. The strengths may be most directly varied by building uP

a composite magnet.

The law found, which may be confirm

by more accurate methods, may be expressed by the equation mM ım

pr

3

64.1

MAGNETISM

PHENOMENA]

where mı m are the strengths of the poles, 7 the distance between

oscillate. The frequency of the oscillations will vary approximately

defining the strength of a magnetic pole. The constant u is arbi-

of cardboard is placed over the magnet, sprinkled evenly with iron filings, and then gently tapped. The filings arrange themselves in a series of curves, such as those shown in fig. 1. The slightly elongated filings become magnetized most easily along their length, and when the card is tapped, they tend to orientate in the direction of the field for the same reason as does the

them, and u a constant for a particular medium. The force is as the square root of the magnetic force at the region. The genone of repulsion when thepoles are similar, and of attraction when eral character of the field may be shown by the neat method which they are opposite. This equation leads to a convenient way of suggested to Faraday the conception of lines of force. A piece warily given the value unity for a vacuum (the value for air will differ very slightly). With the centimetre-gram-second (c.g.s.)

system of units for force and distance, the unit pole may then be defined as one which repels an equal pole at a distance of one

centimetre with a force of one dyne. The units arrived at for electric and magnetic quantities by making u equal to unity in the above equation constitute the electromagnetic system of units. Magnetic Field and Magnetic Moment.—When a small

pivoted compass needle is placed near a magnet, it alines itself in 4 definite direction, this alinement being due to the forces acting A region in which such magnetic effects occur

on the needle.

compass needle. When a bar magnet such as has so far been considered is placed in a uniform field, each element of the magnet is subject to a force which will be feeble in the middle of the magnet and strong in the region of the poles. Although the resultant force on the magnet as a whole will be zero, there will be oppositely directed

resultant forces on the two halves of the magnet. The poles may be more precisely defined as the two points through which the which may be regarded as uniform (homogeneous) over wide resultant forces act. A bar magnet has not necessarily equal and regions. A magnet with its equal and Opposite poles therefore opposite poles at each end; it may be magnetized so as to have experiences no resultant force as a whole in the earth’s field (as equal poles at the ends, and an opposite pole in the centre— shown by the old experiment of the floating needle) but a couple indeed, any number of so-called “consequent poles” may be prois exerted on it whose magnitude is a maximum when the needle duced. On the other hand, a ring-shaped specimen may be is at right angles to the magnetic meridian. The strength of a magnetized in such a way as to have no free poles at all. Induced Magnetism.—The behaviour of a piece of soft iron magnetic field, at a point, or the magnetic intensity or force, is measured by the force which a unit pole will experience at that. in a magnetic field indicates that the iron itself becomes a magnet. point, the direction being taken as that in which a north pole is It is said to be magnetized by induction. The attraction of iron urged. The unit is known as the gauss. If H is the strength of by the poles of a magnet is due to the non-uniformity of the field, the earth’s field, 6 the angle between the magnetic axis of the for, owing to the induced poles being equal and opposite, there needle and the direction of H (the magnetic meridian), the couple, can be no resultant force if the field is uniform. The iron moves towards regions of stronger magnetic force. G, is given by The force inside a magnetized body can only be given a G=HM siné. definite meaning if it is imagined that a cavity is scooped out of M is the magnetic moment of the needle, and is equal to the the body in which the magnetic force could be measured. It may product of pole strength into the distance between the poles; be shown that the force will in general vary with the shape and M=ml, The conception of magnetic moment is more useful than size of the cavity, but that values independent of the precise dithat of magnetic pole. Magnetic poles do not occur separately (as mensions may be obtained by specifying the shape in a suitable do positive and negative charges of electricity), and the simplest way. All the dimensions of the cavity are to be imagined large magnetic piece of matter of physical significance which can be compared with the size of the molecules (say 10% cm.) and small imagined is a small particle possessing a definite magnetic moment, compared with the distance over which the intensity of magnetiThe conception of magnetic poles, charges of magnetism of one zation might vary appreciably (say 107% cm.). The most useful sign, is a violent abstraction, but it is frequently useful for it conceptions are arrived at by supposing a cylinder is removed, enables much of the mathematical theory of electrostatics and the axis of the cylinder being gravitation to be at once adapted to magnetism. in the direction of the magnetization at the point considered. Any magnet may be regarded as built up of a large number of “magnetic particles” with definite moments and with magnetic The force which would be axes in definite directions. If a number of equal particles are exerted on unit pole within a joined end to end, a “line magnet” long thin cylinder (fig. 2, a) SRE EIA

constitutes a magnetic field of force, The ordinary orientation of the compass needle is due to the magnetic field of the earth

4 will be produced, all the poles

FANY ia BANAN at

SO NÄ

p

df He

up of a large number of line

RNS

j magnets, not necessarily of equal length, placed side by side. The magnetic moment of any small volume will be equal to the sum of the moments of the elementary

egRERIN: i ANS fsfe A

>

(

Ss

Gf UN

+

YS

SI.) A RRAN oeuhEARSSSiS AN EANN a

FIG. 1—DIRECTION

dea

may be regarded as being made

y Wy

Le ikW fsA i

izing each other. A bar magnet

44

— >

a z

ROUND

A

OF

BAR

E AE RU IRON FILINGS

is known as the magnetic force, H; tbat within a cylinder whose length is very small compared

except those at the ends neutral-

Ñ x f MIANN

LINES OF

MAGNET,

particles contained in it. The intensity of magnetization at any

point may

be defined

as the

ratio of the magnetic moment of

a small volume round the point

divided by that volume, the direction of magnetization being that of the magnetic axis of the small volume.

In terms of pole, the

intensity is the pole strength per unit area. Intensity of magnetiIn a zation, denoted by J, has thus magnitude and direction. uniformly magnetized body J is everywhere the same. The field round a magnet may be “explored” very easily with

FIG. 2.—-TYPES OF CAVITIES PLACED

with the linear dimensions of the

ends as the magnetic induction, B (fig. 2, b). In the second case the force is increased by that due to the poles on the end surfaces, whose effect in the first case is negligible, and it may be shown, if Z is the intensity of magnetization, that INSIDE

A MAGNETIZED

BODY

(a) Long narrow cylinder, (b) short wide cylinder, (c) a sphere

B=H+47rl.

It may further be mentioned here that in a spherical cavity, the force H’ is given by

H'=H+$riI.

These results were first given by Poisson, who developed a general

mathematical expression giving the forces due to a magnetic body

in terms of an equivalent volume and surface distribution of san magnetism. It should be noticed that the field H inside a magnetized body

is not in general the same as the field outside it, even when the is placed in a uniform field, for the free poles on the outer body the tangent to the lines giving the direction of the.-magnetic force, ezert a “demagnetizing” effect, whose magniThe lines of force can therefore be readily mapped out. The surface of the body shape and dimensions of the specimen. the on depends tude | to needle strength of the field may be estimated by allowing the

the aid of a small compass needle. The needle will set itself along

MAGNETISM

642

[MEASUREMENTS

several thousand are quite usual.) With ferromagnetics the mag. netization, J, tends to a saturation value, which decreases With field inside the specimen) is known as the susceptibility, and is increasing temperature; in general magnetization is not uniquely usually denoted by x; and the ratio of the induction to the field determined by the field, but depends on the previous history of the specimen. If the feld is gradually increased and diminished is termed the permeability, u Susceptibility:

Dia-,

Para-

and

Ferro-magnetics.—The

ratio of the intensity of magnetization to the magnetic field (the

in a cyclic manner, the magnetization varies cyclically also, but

K=

Ry]

and

p=

ty Ry]

From the relation between B and J, B=IT+4TK,

The susceptibility is a measure of the magnetic moment per unit volume in unit field. It is sometimes more convenient to deal with the specific susceptibility, x, a measure of the moment per unit mass, and defined by

the value in an increasing field is different from that in a decreasing one. There is a lagging of the magnetization behind the field, or hysteresis. The behaviour of dia-, para- and ferromagnetics is represented in fig. 3, in which the specific intensity of magnetization (the | magnetic moment per unit mass) QUARTZ FIBRE is plotted against the field strength (a) for a soft iron, (b) MIRROR

for a paramagnetic salt CoSQ,

ALUMINIUM

y= A where p is the density.

(c) for a diamagnetic, antimony. In the iron curve it will he

ROD Woop

seen that the magnetization ap.

RING-SHAPED MAGNET

There are two main classes of magnetic substances, dia- and paramagnetics (in some cases, under different conditions, a single substance may exhibit both dia- and paramagnetic properties). For diamagnetics, the susceptibility is negative. The magnetiza-

tion induced is in the opposite direction to that of the field. The permeability, x, correspondingly, is less than one, so that the induction B is less than in the surrounding medium. For diamagnetics, KLO,

pmr,

It may be shown, from energy considerations, that paramagnetics tend to move from weaker to stronger parts of the field, so that they are attracted by a magnetic pole, and if elongated and isotropic (having the same properties in all directions) they tend to set themselves along the direction of the lines of force (axially); diamagnetics tend to move to weaker regions of the field, and to

set themselves at right angles to the lines of force (equatorially) —though, in a perfectly uniform field, diamagnetics would set themselves axially, like paramagnetics. The behaviour of crystals may be more complicated owing to lack of isotropy. The numerical value of the specific susceptibility of diamagnetics is usually not greater than ro (for bismuth, one of the strongest diamagnetics, x=--1-4X10°). For paramagnetics, at ordinary temperatures, the range of values is very wide, and no limits can be fixed, though for many x lies between o and -30

a

FIELD Ha) -ið 0

10

20

30

| lerr pt TFN aa poker” eee || NA (0) FERROMAGNET are j

Q =

w

MAGNETIZATION OF

3.—VARIATION

OF

SPECIFIC

4.—GUMLICH

APPLIED

PHYSICS”

MAGNETOMETER

specified

by Imes or

Bmaz); that when the field is reduced

to zero, at B, a certain

magnetization remains (the rem-

anence, or retentivity, being specifed by Irem or Brem); and that to reduce the magnetization to zero (at C) a certain coercive field is required (the “coercivity,” He, being specified by the value of the field in gauss to reduce the magnetization to zero). It should be noted that, on account of the different scales, the slope of (b) should be reduced by ro”, and that of (c) by 107, to be compared

INTENSITY

OF

MAGNETIC MEASUREMENTS One of the simplest pieces of apparatus used for magnetic measurements is the magnetometer (g.v.), which consists of a small magnetic needle (single or composite) pivoted, or suspended usually in such a way that the torsional control of the suspension is small. There are many forms of the instrument suitable for different purposes. In the simple pivoted type of instrument, the needle usually has attached to it at right angles a long pointer whose ends move over a circular scale marked in degrees. In the suspended magnet type (a typical example is represented in fig. 4), a mirror is attached to the needle, and the deflection measured by means of a lamp and scale. Essentially magnetometers measure a magnetic field by comparison with a standard field, e.g., that of the earth, or a field artificially produced. Let H be the standard field (say the earth’s horizontal field) and F the field FIG. 5.—THE RESULTANT which it is desired to measure, arranged to FIELD DUE TO TWO FIELDS AT RIGHT ANGLES be at right angles to H. Normally the

it will be deflected through an angle 0 (see fig. 5), where

PARAMAGNETIC

tan 0

F

H

By observing 0, F may be determined if H is known.

Magnetic Moment.—One of the most accurate methods for determining the moment, M, of a bar magnet is that of C. F.

0 FIELD H(U and c)

FIG.

FIG.

“OF

needle lies in the direction of H, and, when the field F is applied.

FA

= w =

=

oO a. N

-20

(usually

FROM “DICTIONARY (MACMILLAN)

with the (a) curve. B>H.

eae cele

proaches a saturation value at A

MAGNETIZATION

(I/p) with Field H (gauss), (a) soft iron (ferromagnetic), sulphate (paramagnetic), (c) antimony (diamagnetic)

(b)

cobalt

1eoX10°. Both for dia- and paramagnetics (not including under paramagnetics the ferromagnetics) the susceptibility is independent of the strength of such applied fields as are attainable, except at very low temperatures. Among paramagnetics, it is convenient to distinguish ferromagnetics (typified by iron), though the differentiation cannot be made precise until the temperature behaviour

is considered in detail. Typical ferromagnetics have a suscepti-

bility which varies with the field, and may attain a very high value. (For electrolytic iron Mmae=14,400 has been obtained, cotresponding to x=136; this is exceptional, but values of umas of

Gauss, which also gives the value of H, the earth’s horizontal feld. The magnet is first suspended horizontally in the earth’s feld, and caused to vibrate in small arcs. If the torsional con-

trol of the suspension is small, the time of oscillation is given by T

2T

MH

,

where K is the moment of inertia of the magnet. A correction may be applied for the torsional control, which is equivalent to an increase in H. The product MH can thus be determined accurately, provided the field is uniform and not sufficiently strong to cause an alteration in the moment of the magnet.

The ratio M/H is then found by a magnetometric method.

MAGNETISM

MEASUREMENTS]

The magnet is placed so that the field it produces at the magnetometer needle is at right angles to the magnetic meridian.

Let m be the pole strength and 2/ the distance between the poles of the magnet (for a cylindrical magnet whose length is from

10 to 30 times its diameter, this is approximately % of the

length). Let d be the distance from the centre of the magnet to the magnetometer needle, ð the deflection of the needle:—

(1) In the end-on position (the A position of Gauss, see fig. 6)

043

the effect. Production of Magnetic Fields.—The most convenient arrangement for the production of magnetic fields of moderate intensity is a coil of wire carrying a current. Fields of calculable intensity may be produced, which are uniform over considerable regions and which may be varied over wide ranges. Solenoids, consisting of long coils of one or more layers of wire wound on a tube as uniformly as possible, are much used. In a straight solenoid of # turns, of length 2/, and radius a, the field along the axis at a point x from the centre due to current 7 (E.M.U.) is given by _p

_ »

MaaR MAGNETOMETER

FIG. 6.—-DETERMINATION OF MAGNETIC AB is the rod, NS the magnetic meridian,

|

the magnet is placed so that its axis is in a line which is perpendicular to the magnetic meridian and which passes through the centre of suspension of the needle.

__

H

.

_4rNi

~

Io

Toward the ends the field diminishes, and at the ends is reduced to one-half the maximum value.

Then, for the field due to the magnet,

_4mdl

sie

form; if z is the current in ampères, N the number of turns per cm., approximately,

length from centre to end of rod, and d the distance of centre from the needle

_

ns!

In the middle portion of the coil, the field is very nearly uni-

NEEDLE

MOMENT: END-ON POSITION M the magnetometer needle,

issuers

etary F oar

If the solenoid is in the form

of a ring, of mean radius r, the field inside the coil is given by

2Md

= (=P)? = (d2?—P)?

' B If/is small compared with d, F= os and M/H= d san’i

(2) In the broadside-on position (B position of Gauss) the magnet is placed at right angles to the magnetic meridian so that the direction of the undeflected suspended needle bisects it at right angles (fig. 7), and F=

2ml

(PFPE

Approximately, “ and pproximately, P= F= 73 From the values of M/H

M/H=d'

d tané. tand

and MH, M and H may be found

separately. It will be noticed that the ratio of the magnetic field due

to the magnet in the two positions for the same value of d is equal to 2. It may be shown that if the force between two poles varies as the inverse m*” power of the distance between them, the ratio would be equal to n. An accurate and fairly direct confirmation of the inverse square law may be obtained by magnetometric experiments with magnets in the various positions. (3) The A and B positions are generally used for the determination of the moments of permanent magnets. In a third arrangement which is sometimes convenient, especially for studying the magnetizaFIG. 7.—BROADSIDE-ON tion of specimens in the form of long POSITION rods, the specimen is placed vertically with one of its poles at the level of the needle, the line joining the pole o ae ~ being at right angles to the magnetic meridian see

ig. 8),

The pole strength m is then determinable from the equation

en

m T

t—

In this case the field is undisturbed by the influence of ends, but it varies inversely as the distance from the axis of the ring. For fields greater than a few hundred gauss some form of electromagnet (g.v.) is usually employed, consisting essentially of a core of iron surrounded by a coil of wire. The core may be straight, but it is usually of such a form that the two poles are near each other. In a common form the magnet has two vertical parallel cores attached at their lower ends by a massive yoke. Pole pieces rest on the upper ends, and the width of the interpole space may be adjusted. A half-ring type due to du Bois is also much used. It is desirable that the coils should be placed so as to produce the maximum effect in magnetizing the iron of MAGNETOMETER NEEDLE the pole pieces, and also to add to the field in the gap by the direct action of the current in them. Let WV be the total number of windings, L the effective length of the “magnetic circuit” FIG. 8.—THE ‘‘ONE-POLE’’ AR(the region through which the RANGEMENT magnetic induction “flows”), S

the cross section of the material of the magnet; / and s the length and cross section of the interspace between the poles.

= (Ep).

For H to be large, S must be large (massive cores and yokes must be used), and Z and s small (the interpole distance must be short, and the cross section of the pole piece at the gap

small). Conical pole pieces were introduced by Ewing, who showed that the maximum field was obtained for a. semi-angle of the cones of 54° 44’. For a magnet of constant cross section with plane parallel poles of radius r at a distance of 2a apart the interpole field is given by

H=4rI] x

H tan 9,

(di/de)8

While M=ml, where | is the distance between the poles. In this

one-pole” arrangement, the position of the poles need not be

known accurately, for the magnetometer deflection is not much altered by small upward or downward displacements.

In the A

al

having a limiting value of 47I, I being the intensity of magnetization. For conical pole pieces of semi-angle 54° 44’, the field may be shown to be hs ih: Sis H = rI (0-2893+0-8863 log y;

and B positions, the magnet is at right angles to the earth’s

- In the one-pole position, it is influenced by the earth’s

Vertical field, which, however, may be eliminated by placing so that, with T= 20, for example, the field is nearly one and a half

round the magnet

a solenoid

carrying a current

to neutralize

a

2

3

we

toy

tt

644

MAGNETISM

times greater than that with ordinary pole pieces. It will be noticed that the field due to the magnetic material is limited by the saturation intensity of magnetization. For this reason pole pieces of ferro-cobalt (FesCo) are sometimes used, for which the saturation intensity is 10% higher than for iron.

[MEASUREMENTS

The total quantity of electricity Q which passes through the cir. cuit, when NV changes from N; to 2, is given by

Q = fiat =f a= -5 JaN= $M-N).

With a large electromagnet, weighing 1,300 kg., and a winding If a “search-coil” consisting of n turns of wire of 3,360 turns capable of carrying a current of 60 ampéres, a series with a ballistic galvanometer, the resistancejs ofconnected in the whole field of 46,000 gauss was produced in a 2X3-6 mm. gap. With circuit being R, then the quantity of electricity in coulombs, g

iron core electromagnets fields of the order of 50,000 gauss over a region of a few cu.mm. may be taken as a practical maximum. With uncored coils the field produced is proportional to the current, and is limited by the very powerful sources of electrical energy required and the necessity for avoiding overheating of the coils. Using powers of 340 kilowatts, Deslandres and Perot obtained fields of 49,000 gauss, with a current of 5,000 ampères in a water cooled spiral of silver ribbon. P. Kapitza (Proc. Roy. Soc. A, 1924) obtained very intense fields by the coil method, the overheating being eliminated by producing the fields only for a very short time (of the order of ,t, sec.). In the original method, large storage batteries were used which were discharged through special coils consisting of windings of copper band, the current being broken after a short time interval. With a coil I mm. in internal diameter, fields of 500,000 gauss could be produced for $ sec. A specially designed electro-generator has been constructed which will be a more convenient source of power, and the great difficulties in designing coils to withstand the forces brought into play have been overcome, so that the possibility is opened up of investigations with fields some 10 times greater than those that have previously been used. (See ELECTROMAGNET. )

which passes through the galvanometer when the coil is removed

from a region where the flux linked with each turn is N to a region where the field is zero, is given by q=

x r078.,

If S is the mean effective area of each turn, then N=BS.

free space B=H.

For

If the search coil is reversed in the field, the

flux change is double that when it is removed. Standard search coils, consisting for example of roo turns of fine silk covered wire (No. 40 S.W.G.) on accurately tumed marble cylinders some 3 cm. in diameter and 2-5 cm. long, may be constructed so that the number of area-turns can be determined

to 1 part in 2,000.

If @ is the galvanometer throw corresponding

to the passage of a quantity of electricity g, then g=K6@, The constant K may be determined from the time of swing, and the deflection for a known steady current, but in practice it is

usually more

convenient

to calibrate the galvanometer directly

for ballistic use by sending a known quantity of electricity through it and observing the throw obtained. This may be done by turning over a standard coil in a known field; by interrupting or reversing the current in the primary coil of an inductometer, when Measurement of Magnetic Fields.—The magnetometer a calculable quantity of electricity passes through the secondary method of measuring a field by comparison with a standard field in series with the galvanometer; with the Hibbert magnetic has already been mentioned. It is obviously of very limited standard, by allowing a coil to cut through the flux due to a perapplicability. The oscillation method can be used when there is manent magnet; and by other methods. sufficient space for a needle, and the field is sufficiently uniform In order that a galvanometer may be used ballistically, it is and not too large (up to about 10 gauss). If the time of oscil- necessary that the time taken for the quantity of electricity to lation in a standard field Ho is To, and 7; the time in the unknown flow through it should be short compared with the time of swing field Hy, then (see ELECTRICAL INSTRUMENTS). In a special form of galvanomTo eter, the “fluxmeter” due to Grassot, the moving coil, which Aly Ho. Li turns in a strong uniform field, is suspended from a spring supThe force exerted on a current-bearing conductor may be port by a silk fibre so that the utilized in a number of ways for measuring a field; for some torsional control is practically special purposes it is a very convenient and accurate method, negligible, and the swings are limThe force on an element ds of a conductor carrying a current i ited mainly by electromagnetic l is given by damping influences. A construcF= Hidssin 6, tional diagram is shown in fig. 9, Where 6 is the angle between H and ds, and is at right angles to H - The pointer remains almost staand ds (see Exectriciry). A horizontal field between the poles FROM WORSNOP AND FLINT, “ADVANCED PRAC- tionary at the limit of its deflection, and the readings are indeof a magnet, for example, may be determined by measuring TICAL PHYSICS" (METHUEN & CO.) the horizontal force on a vertical wire passing through it by a FIG. 9.—THE GRASSOT FLUXMETER pendent of the time occupied by “pendulum” balance arrangement.

The torque exerted on a nar-

row coil with its plane parallel to the field may also be utilized; by adjusting the current strength and the tension of the suspension, a wide range of field strengths can be measured by comparison with comparable standard fields. Such a device is suitable for determining the intensity in air gaps of magnets. The most elastic method of measuring fields is based on the fundamental law of electromagnetic induction, that, when the magnetic induction through a circuit changes, an electromotive force, which is proportional to the rate of change of the magnetic nduction, is induced in the circuit. Let S be an area bounded by he circuit, dS a small element of that area, and B the normal

nduction through it. Let N= f BdS. The quantity N is some-

imes known as thẹ magnetic flux through the circuit. Let E be

the electromotive force induced when N changes (either due to a

‘hange in the field, or a movement of the circuit). Then

R= 7

D.

ě d

-t R be the resistance of the circuit, 7 the momentary current.

the flux change measured. The pointer instrument is portable and

convenient, but not so accurate or sensitive as a ballistic galvanometer.

:

Search coils for the measurement of H may be constructed in many forms to meet the special requirements, the number of turns necessary depending on the strength of the field and the sensitivity of the galvanometer. An ordinary circular coil is suitable for many purposes.

For measuring the field in which round rods

are placed, annular circular coils and saddle shaped coils which fit on the rods may be used, and for flat bars flat coils wound on strips of glass are employed. The change in the specific resistance of a bismuth wire when placed in a magnetic field may be applied to the measurement of

field strength. A useful form of instrument which is supplied commercially, consists of a thin flat spiral of wire. In a typical

case the increase of resistance at ordinary temperatures was 17%

at 5,000 gauss, 42% at 10,000 gauss. The wire must be calibrated, and for accurate measurements the temperature must be known, owing to the relatively large temperature change in the resistance; also, owing to hysteresis effects, the method is unsuitable for varying fields.

The

method

is, however, a most

valuable one for

MAGNETISM

yEASUREMENTS]

measuring strong fields which are uniform over only small regions. Methods for measuring susceptibilities may. of course, be applied versely for the measurement of fields, using a substance whose

gusceptibility is known.

The Quincke capillary rise method for

liquids, mentioned later, may often be conveniently used in this

the major and minor axes are equal to 2a and 2c, and the magnetization is along the major axis, the ellipsoid behaves externally as though the poles were situated at a distance $a from the centre. For cylindrical and rectangular bars, no general statement may be made as to the distribution of magnetism, but from experimental investigations, according to Kohlrausch, for rods with a

way. MEASUREMENT

64.5

OF MAGNETIZATION

AND

INDUCTION

length to diameter ratio of 10 to 30 the distance between the

The high magnetic permeability of ferromagnetics permits the we of a number of methods, not generally applicable, for deter-

Eaeae ptt pee pe Zee ee Cae eae

mining their magnetic characteristics. Much experimental work has been carried out owing to the importance of a knowledge of

the magnetic properties of different types of iron and steel for

technical purposes. It will only be possible here to indicate the essential features of some of the main methods of magnetic test-

ing. In general the variation of the induction B, or the intensity of magnetization 7 with the magnetizing force H is required. Magnetometric Method.—Intensity of magnetization is most

directly measured by observing the action which a magnetized body exerts on a small magnetometer needle placed near it, the magnetic moment being determined in the manner already described. For magnetization tests, the “one-pole” arrangement is usually most suitable; the apparatus may be set up as represented in plan in fig. 10 (refer also to fig. 8).

The specimen should be in the form of an ellipsoid, or a rod or vire whose length is some 300 times its diameter. It is placed vertically (A, fig. 10). The mirror magnetometer M is placed as in fig. 8 with its needle opposite the upper end of the wire. Land S are a lamp and scale by means of which the deflections are measured. The specimen at A is surrounded by a solenoid which is somewhat longer than the rod. This solenoid is supplied by current from the battery Bi, via the potentiometer arrangement DF, a reversing key K, a switch H, a galvanometer G, and a subsidiary coil C. Outside the inner solenoid is a second oil supplied with current by Bz, whose object is to produce a feld to neutralize the vertical field of the earth. C is a compensating coil whose position can be adjusted so as to neutralize any direct effect of the magnetizing coil on the magnetometer. By

changing the position of E the current can be varied. The magnetometer readings are taken corresponding to different values of he current, from which the field Ho inside the magnetizing coil can y calculated. Let @ be the deflection, corresponding to a field Ho; and let Hy be the controlling horizontal field of the earth. Let J be the intensity of magnetization of the specimen, v the

volume, ? the distance between the poles, S the cross section. Then,

Irom the equation given above, 2 dı

Hpg tan 6.

The Magnetization corresponding to a given field depends on the previous history of the specimen. In carrying out tests, the rod ROD UNDER TEST

GALVANOMETER

(ARRANGED VERTICALLY) MAGNETOMETER

SCALE

7 — FE

7

ESISTANC

s

SLIDING CONTACT

2a n

BATTERY

CONMUTATOR

FIG. 11.—CURVE SHOWING THE VARIATION IN INITIALLY UNMAGNETIZED SPECIMEN, AS FIELD FIG. 12.—CURVE SHOWING EFFECT OF REDUCING INCREASING IT IN OPPOSITE DIRECTION FIG. 13.—COMPLETE HYSTERESIS CURVE

INDUCTION, B, IN AN H INCREASES FROM O FIELD TO O AND THEN

equivalent poles is approximately five-sixths the length of the rod. The resultant magnetic force inside a magnetized body placed in a magnetic field is made up of the force due to'the external field, Ho, and that arising from the magnetization of the body. If A is the resultant force, H=Hy»>—NI. The value of N, the demagnetizing factor, can be exactly calculated only when the magnetization is uniform. For an ellipsoid of revolution, with its axis of revolution parallel to the lines of force, and of eccentricity e,

N = 417 (5 -1) (=tog= —r) i Let 2a be the length of the ellipsoid, 2¢ the equatorial diameter.

The ratio 2¢/2¢ is known as the “dimensional ratio,” and may

be denoted by m. The value of N in terms of m may be obtained EN” |/ I 3 AT by substituting |/ 1— a fore. If mislarge, N or (log 2m—1).

For a sphere N=$7. a For cylindrical rods in a uniform field the demagnetizing force is not uniform, but a mean value may be obtained experimentally. For a cylinder, the dimensional ratio m is taken as l/2r. The following table shows the values of W for ellipsoids, and the approximate values for cylinders. m

Cylinder

o I

12-566 ae

5 I0 20 30

sg -216 0775 70393

Demagnetizing Factors Ellipsoid ` m Cylinder 12-566 4188

OLS *2549 0848 0432

50 100

200 300 500 1000

“0162 "0045

Ellipsoid -O18I 0054

-OOII 0005

0016 00075

-OOOI “00005

"00030 00008

Owing to the uncertainties in connection with rods, the mag-

netometer method is less accurate than the ballistic, except when COMPENSATING COIL ellipsoids can be employed. The end correction for the demagFig. 10.~-ARRANGEMENT OF APPARATUS FOR MEASURING VARIATION IN netization may be conveniently applied by drawing on the J, Ho INTENSITY OF MAGNETIZATION OF A ROD WITH THE FIELD diagram a line through the origin inclined at an.angle equal to V may be demagnetized by gradually reducing the current from to the Z axis. This inclined line then forms an axis from which the its maximum value to zero (by moving E from F to D), at the corrected H may be measured. Ballistic Method.—The change in magnetic induction in a same time continually reversing it by means of the key ,K. Starting from the condition of zero magnetization, the magnetiza- specimen corresponding to a change in the magnetizing force may be measured by a ballistic method as already described. A brief tion changes with changing field in the way indicated in fig. 3. _ The “end-on” and “broadside-on” positions may also be used account of the way in which the simple B-H curve (fig. 11) and the m measuring the magnetization, but in these it is necessary to hysteresis curve (fig. 13) may be determined for a ring-shaped ow more accurately the distance between the poles of the specimen by the arrangement represented in fig. 14, will show the Specimen. It may be shown that uniform magnetization is only general method of carrying out ballistic tests. The sample is made in the form of a ring, A, most conveniently possible if the form of the body is ellipsoidal. In this case, if TUBE WOUND WITH WAGNETIZING CoILs

MAGNETISM

646

[MEASUREMENTS

of the curve is found. By switching K from right to left withs open, points along cd can be found. The ascending curve deg is ap sions of the ring are measured. On it is wound, uniformly spaced, inverted copy of acd. The work done on a cubic centimetre of iron through a hysthe search coil for B, consisting of a few turns of well insulated fine wire. The magnetizing coil is uniformly wound on top of this. teresis cycle is equal to (In the diagram only parts of the windings are indicated, the B coil being at the upper side of A). The magnetizing current derived from the battery B, is regulated by the resistance R, and measured being proportional to the area of the hysteresis loop. This work BALLISTIC TANDAR i STANDARDIZING = appears in the form of heat. For GALVANOMETER SOLENOID Tn technical applications a knowl- |iarere =f Colts of rectangular cross section. The ratio of the radial thickness to

the external diameter should not be greater than 4g. The dimen-

SECONDARY:

SHORT CIRCUITING KEY

OO \

PERMANENT RESISTANCE

PART OF COIL FOR MEASURING INDUCTION RING UNDER TEST

THREE~WAY SWITCH PART OF MAGNETIZING COIL

ROCKING KEY SWITCH

BALLISTIC GALVANOMETER

ADJUSTABLE RESISTANCES

BATTERY

transformers,

pa

EE ES

edge of this heat loss may be very

necessary—in

for | -beeeA

example, the hysteresis loss should | ~

=

;

RR, be small. A number of arrangements have, therefore, been de- | =t emy

vised for measuring the hysteresis | p4 loss more expeditiously than is

possible by the ballistic method.

os

i mr mr

Mmenmme

LEEN

e 5

UNDERtex

=

Colts

Fie. 16.—EwING DOUBLE-BAR Two.

In Ewing’s hysteresis tester, the LENGTH TEST FOR STANDARDIZING sample, arranged as a bundle of BARS strips, is rotated about a horizontal axis between the poles of an upright C-shaped magnet, the magnet being supported so that it

FIG. 14.—ARRANGEMENT OF APPARATUS FOR CARRYING OUT BALLISTIC TESTS TO DETERMINE B-—-H CURVE (FIG. 11) OR HYSTERESIS LOOP

can turn about an axis in line with that about which the specimen

by the galvanometer or ammeter G;. K is a rocking key, which joins ac and bd when thrown over to the right and ae and bf when to the left. If the switch S is closed, K acts simply as a current reverser. If S is open, throwing the key from right to left reverses the current and also diminishes it by an amount depending on the adjustable resistance Re. The B coil is connected in series with a ballistic galvanometer Ge, and with a secondary coil of a few turns wound over a standardizing solenoid E. By means of the three-way switch C, the primary current may be passed through the primary of E, to calibrate the galvanometer, or through the magnetizing winding on the ring. Knowing the dimensions of the ring, the field due to any current may be calculated from the number of turns on the magnetizing coil, and the change in induction corresponding to any throw of the galvanometer from the number of turns on the B coil. To determine the simple B, H curve (fig. rr) the specimen is first demagnetized, by repeated reversals of the current which is gradually reduced to zero. The switch S is closed. The current is set at a suitable value, and the reversing switch K operated some twenty times, with F closed. F is then opened and a reading of the throw taken corresponding to a reversal of the current. This process is repeated to test whether the throw is constant (if not, the demagnetization process must be repeated). Half the throw for

hysteresis loss. Extensive use is made of wattmeter methods by which the total heat loss due both to hysteresis and eddy currents

rotates.

The deflection of the magnet

gives a measure of the

may be determined.

Using ring-shaped specimens, so that the uncertain correction for end effects is eliminated, the ballistic method is capable of great accuracy up to about H= 200 gauss, and is usually employed where reliable results are desired as to the magnetic properties of materials where the permeability is a maximum, and where the remanence and hysteresis losses require to be accurately known. Bat and Yoke Tests.—The ballistic method can be applied to long straight rods, or wires, corrections being applied as in the magnetometer method. Cylindrical bars are, however, more easily prepared than rings or wires. By embedding the ends of sucha test bar in a massive yoke, so that the whole forms a “magnetic circuit,” a condition of approximate endlessness may be secured. The original “bar and yoke” apparatus of Hopkinson is shown in fig. I5. , The bar, which slides through holes bored in the yoke, is in two parts abutting against each other near the middle of the yoke. Magnetizing coils surround each portion of the test bar, The MAGNETIC NEEDLE

CONTROL MAGNET SEARCH COIL

x L

O A

NEEDLE

MAGNETIZING Coi L

a]

BAR UNDER TEST ne

SSFANDARDIZED BAR

MAGNETIZING ColL

te areca

BAR UNDER TEST FIG. 17.—-EWING PERMEABILITY BRIDGE, SHOWING IN SERIES SURROUNDING THE STANDARD BAR BAR AND YOKE METHOD

FOR MAGNETIC

TESTING

reversal gives the value of B on oab (fig. 11) corresponding to the field due to the current. Other points on oad are similarly determined, When

MAGNETIZING Coll.

HORNS

in

FIG. 15.—HOPKINSON'S

ELEVATION

PLAN MAGNETIZING COILS

search coil is arranged with a spring so that when one of the test

rods is suddenly drawn back, the coil jumps out of the field. The induction corresponding to any field can thus be measured. Strong fields can be used, and the actual induction at any moment

measured; but accurate results are not possible owing to the large

the hysteresis curve is to be obtained the current is. leakage which may occur at the joint.

adjusted by R to give the limiting values of the magnetizing force which it is intended to apply. After several reversals, the point a (fig. 13) is determined as before. With the key K to the left, S is suddenly opened, Re having been adjusted to a suitable value; the current is thus reduced, and from the galvanometer throw, the reduction of the induction and hence a point on the ac branch

In Ewing’s double bar two-length test, two ‘similar test bars

are placed side by side, each pair of ends being connected by 3 short massive block of soft iron in which the bars are clamp There are two pairs of magnetizing coils, the shorter pair S half the length of the longer, and containing half the number © turns. Induction coils are wound on the middle parts of both bars,

MAGNETISM

ME ASUREMENTS]

and connected in series. Two sets of observations are taken, with the longer magnetizing coils and a length L between the yokes, and with the shorter and a length L/2. Let N be the number of turns

inthe longer coil; let 7; and J, be the values of the current for he same value of B in the two tests, and Hı and H: the corre-

sponding “apparent” values of the field. It may be shown that ihe true value of H corresponding to this value of B is given by an NI, _ 4m(N/2)Is 4anNl _ _

~

rob

; „L ro(L/2)

roL |=22

Ha

647

ability is S. P. Thomson’s permeameter, represented in fig. 18. It

consists of a slotted rectangular block of iron containing a mag-

netizing coil. The sample to be tested has the form of a rod one end of which is faced true. The force required to detach the rod is registered by a spring balance. If P is the pull in grams weight and S the sectional area of the specimen, then ani?= (B—H¥/8r= Pg/S.

There is some uncertainty due to the presence of the joint. This is avoided in the magnetic balance of Dubois (fig. 19), in which the force exerted between two pieces of iron separated by a narrow air gap of definite width is measured. The test piece A, surrounded by a magnetizing coil, is clamped between two soft iron blocks BB. The yoke YY of soft iron constitutes the beam of the balance. The distance through which the weight W must be moved from its zero position to tilt the yoke over to the stop S gives a measure of the induction through the specimen. The instrument must be calibrated by means of a standardized bar. Permeameters of many different types, each having its special application, have been devised, but it is unnecessary to describe these in detail. Mention may, however, be made of a method, due to Drysdale, for testing magnetic LEADS TO COILS qualities in bulk. A special drill is used, which cuts a hole with a {RON PLUG tapering upper part and leaves a MATERIAL UNDER TEST small projecting pin of the metal MAGNETIZING AND along the axis (fig. 20). SEARCH COILS The pin is of standard diame-

This method is somewhat tedious, but is very accurate, and may be used in standardizing bars with which others may be compared. This may be SPRING BALANCE done by means of the Ewing permeability bridge, represented in section in fig. 17. The standard bar, and that being tested SPECIMEN (the two being of the same dimensions) are placed side by side within magnetizing coils which are joined in series. The number of MAGNETIZING COIL turns on one of the coils may be varied until the induction through the two rods is the same. The B, H curve of the standard rod being known, and also corresponding values of H for the same induction through the standard rod and that under Fig. 18.—S. P. THOM- test (from the ratio of the number of SON’S PERMEAMETER turns in the magnetizing coil), the B, H curve of the specimen may be constructed. The equality of B in the two rods is determined by means of a small compass needle ter, usually about ;4, in. Into the PIN OF STANDARD DIAMETER placed between two long curved horns which project upwards hole is inserted a special closely from the middle of the yokes (fig. 17). This indicates when there FROM “DICTIONARY OF APPLIED PHYSICS” fitting plug which carries the (MACMILLAN) is no induction from one yoke to the other through the horns, magnetizing and search coils, FIG. 20.—DRYSDALE PLUG PER- which surround the pin. Ballistic which can only occur when the induction through the two bars TO TEST MATERIAL IN is the same. In practice comparison tests may be made quickly MEAMETER tests are carried out in the usual BULK way. The method is quick, but and easily by this method. The general principle of making the induction constant round a magnetic circuit (which can also be for reliable results the drill and plug must be made to gauge very . tested by search coils) has been employed extensively in the accurately. Strong Fields——In Ewing’s isthmus method for measuring magnetic testing of bars with most satisfactory results. Traction Methods.—The force required to draw apart two magnetization in strong fields (fig. 21), the specimen is similar to a magnetized surfaces has been made use of in the measurement of bobbin which is placed, between the conical pole pieces of an induction, a method first employed by S. Bidwell. Various forces electromagnet (q.v.), so that the sloping conical faces of the bobmay come into play according to the conditions. If, for example, bin form a continuation of the pole pieces. The central neck is wound with a known number of turns of wire a transverse cut Is made in a bar and the two ends are placed in forming the B search coil, and outside this, separated by a known air space, is a second coil with a known number of turns. The SLIDING WEIGHT bobbin with the coils can be turned end for end through a semiYOKE FORMING BEAM circle. The change in flux through the two coils can be measured ` OF BALANCE ballistically in the usual way. The difference in the change of flux through the two coils gives a measure of H. Specimens are some_f i KNIFE EDGES times made in the form of turned rods which fit into holes in the axes of the conical pole pieces. TRUNCATED POLE STOP When the specimen is rotated, CAP hysteresis loops cannot be taken. TEST RoD These may be determined by ~PGLE PIECE SOFT IRON BLOCKS keeping the specimen stationary and changing the magnetizing FIG. 19.—DUBOIS MAGNETIC BALANCE POLE PIECE current. It is difficult to make contact, each portion being surrounded by an independent magmeasurements in fields greater SPECIMEN IN THE FORM OF A BOBBIN netizing coil wound tightly upon it, the force exerted per square than 5,000 gauss by this method, centimetre is given by owing to sparkling and to the FIG. 21.—EWING ISTHMUS METHOD FOR DETERMINING MAGNETIZATION time-lag in the magnetization of

e

FH? F = 2rP4HI+ — > 8T

IN STRONG FIELDS the iron cores and yokes of powerful electromagnets. Instead of turning the specimen, Weiss has the successive terms arising from the mutual attraction of the measured the induction by withdrawing the test rod through a s two magnetized surfaces, the attraction on the surface due to hole in the pole, the search coil being fixed. ne coil, and the mutual attraction of the two coils.

ase, since B=H+4rI,

In this

2

F= =, and B could be measured from T

T Wee which was just sufficient to pull apart the two portions t

the þar. ‘A very simple instrument for the rapid measurement of perme-

MEASUREMENTS ON FEEBLY MAGNETIC SUBSTANCES The methods which have been described, by which the susceptibility of ferromagnetics may be determined, are not applicable to dia- and paramagnetics whose susceptibility is usually very‘ small. The methods employed are generally based on the measurement of

the forces exerted on a body in a non-homogeneous field, use being

MAGNETISM

648

[MEASUREMENs

OH, ð Hy made sometimes of the fact that the apparent susceptibility of a kae » which is equal to By. A final curve for Hy ‘OF » Proporsubstance depends on the medium by which it is surrounded. If a into brought is ds length and m a small magnet of pole strength tional to the force, is shown. The specimen was placed where the magnetic field, so that ds lies along Ho, and the magnetic potential force was a maximum. (the work done in bringing a unit positive pole to the point) at The specimens were placed in suitable containers and were the negative pole is V, and at the positive pole V2, the potential supported on a frame of such form that they could be surrounded energy JV of the magnet, measured by the work done in bringing by an electric heating oven. The main objection to the method it into position, is given by for accurate determinations, is that it is difficult to ensure that 7 the specimens are placed exactly at the region for which the force —7s ds MH.. 25 = M M — W = m(V2—-V}) =m ad ay = — MH, has been calculated, and that the field and its gradient are found for the same points. For relative measurements where high sensi.

Let J be the intensity of magnetization, v the volume of the magnet, then W =—vIHo. This expression applies to a permanently magnetized body. If the body is inductively magnetized by the field, x being the susceptibility, then I=xH. (Owing to de-

tivity is desired the method is very suitable. In another form of the non-homogeneous field method, used by Foéx and Théodoridés, a translational, instead of a torsional balance is used. The specimen is supported between the poles of the magnet, so that the force is horizontal, by a pendular system, SPECIMEN which also carries a current-bear. ing oil; the force acting on the

magnetizing effects, the field H acting inside the substance will differ from the external field Ho.

example, I=

K I+} $TK

For an isotropic sphere, for

For dia- and paramagnetics the de-

Ho.

magnetization effect is so small that it can be neglected, and in the above expression rx will be negligible compared with 1). The potential energy of an inductively magnetized body in a field Ho, measured by the work done in bringing it from a region in which the field is zero, is then given by Ho

W= -f KHdH = — 4xvH 0. 0 The mechanical force acting on the body in the x direction is

the other end in a region where the field is small and equal to 7’. The force along the axis of the specimen is then given by

K tes Fe= oJKOH, a dy 7 A(H?—H”),

The resultant force will be in the direction in which the feld varies most rapidly—for paramagnetics (x positive) from weaker to stronger parts of the field, for diamagnetics from stronger to weaker. An elongated paramagnetic body tends to set itself axially between the poles of a magnet owing to the tendency of the constituent elements to move towards the stronger parts of the field. In a medium of susceptibility x’ the force on a body of susceptibility « is ze oK

2

Usually H”? may be made negligible compared to H®. The force may be determined by direct weighing with a special sensitive balance; or by a torsion method, the specimen being supported horizontally. As the field may be uniform over a fairly large region, it may be accurately determined, either by the ballistic method,

or from the force on a current-beaxing wire, substituted for the specimen. The Gouy method is probably the most satisfactory

for absolute measurements, though less sensitive than the FaradayCurie method for comparative determinations.

0H?

Ox

In a dynamical method due to Rowland, an elongated specimen is suspended between the poles of a magnet and its time of swing determined. The period is inversely proportional to the square root of the susceptibility, being independent of the form of the

The body behaves as if its susceptibility were x—x’, A paramagnetic body suspended in a stronger paramagnetic solution or

gas would behave as a diamagnetic.

Solids.—The Faraday method

for

measuring

susceptibilities

Y SHL = 4s

NS VS

makes use of the force in anon- | LANS

homogeneous field. As applied by Curie, in his classical investi-

[bs ae

gations, the field was produced

GA

by two electromagnets inclined to each other (see fig. 22).

For axs,

the force

k

F; = R

de

specimen. For absolute measurements a careful “topographical survey” of the field is necessary, and elaborate corrections must be applied. Liquids.—Using the Faraday or Gouy method, the suscepti-

Hy

Hy a

bilities of liquids may be found by using them as the surrounding medium for solid specimens whose apparent susceptibility 1s

ena

SPECIMEN

A

a A a

measured in the usual way, or by placing the liquids in suitable

calibrated containers. Most convenient for liquids is the Quincke

~

capillary ascension method which is based on the same principle as the method of Gouy. It has been extensively used and is capable of high accuracy. A U-tube is employed, one limb being of

ELECTROMAGNET

along the X

OH?

FIG. 22.—DIAGRAM

dH, =mXH,

ae

ARRANGEMENT

?

In the Gouy method (see fig. 23) a uniform cylinder or prism FIG, 23.—GOUY METHOD FOR DE- of cross sectional area, A, is susTERMINING SUSCEPTIBILITY pended with one end in a homogeneous field between the poles of a magnet where the field is H, and

ow i F, See = ge FM Oy

Fz

specimen is compensated by the attraction between this coil anda stationary pair of coils.

SUSCEPTIBILITY

wide and the other of narrow bore; the narrow tube passes be-

OF THE CURIE

FOR DETERMINING

‘

tween the poles of a magnet, the meniscus being in a region where the field H is uniform (see fig. 24), while at the wide tube sur face the field is negligible. When the field is applied the meniscus will rise or fall by an amount ô. Let p be the change of pressure, «K, p the susceptibility and density of the liquid, xo, po of the gas; then

m being the mass of the specimen, and x the mass susceptibility. The specimen was suspended at O from a torsion arm, the displacements being measured from movements of a long torsion rod pointer. The suspension was calibrated from the times of swing of inertia bars in the usual way. The magnetic field H p= Opg = 3(K— Ko) B’, was measured ballistically, curves for H, (similar to that shown) OH, p Æ ~ Fp p being plotted for different currents. The measurement of Ox If the displacement is observed, the bore must be uniform. Preby displacing the search coil along OX would have involved meas- cautions must be taken against sticking, but the presence of uring a small change in a large quantity. Instead, the coil with suspended dust particles does not affect the result. For water its plane perpendicular to OX was moved parallel to OY, giving (for which x= — -72X 107%) 6=1-46 mm. for H = 20,000. Except

MAGNETISM

DIAMAGN ETISM]

for very small displacements it is desirable to keep the level of the

meniscus constant, the pressure change being estimated by changing the amount of liquid in the wide tube, or with a flexible connection, by changing its height. The Quincke method may be applied inversely to the measurement of magnetic fields. An apparatus has been devised by du Bois for this purpose, the sensitivity being increased by having the narrow tube inclined. Gases—The accurate measurement of the volume suscepti-

bility of a gas, which is usually very small, is a difficult experimental problem. Most gases are diamagnetic, and it is necessary to purify them with great care. Traces of paramagnetic oxygen, for example, would completely invalidate the results. The nonhomogeneous field method may

be employed, the force exerted on bulbs filed with the gas being FIG. 24.—Q UINCKE’S U-TUBE measured; or the gas may be METHOD FOR DETERMINING THE SUSCEPTIBILITIES OF LIQUIDS AND used as the surrounding medium GASES with a suitable test body. In the Gouy method, as applied by T. Soné, a cylinder is divided into two compartments by a horizontal partition. The lower half

isfilled with a liquid or gas of known susceptibility, or is evacuated, the upper half with the gas under investigation. The cylinder is suspended from the arm of a special balance, the partition being midway between the poles of a magnet. The force depends on the relative susceptibility of the substances in the two compartments. The Quincke method, elaborately modified, has been used by E. Bauer and A. Piccard for the determination of the susceptibility of oxygen. In another arrangement the susceptibility was determined from the difference in the pressure of the gas at two points one of which is in a field H, the other in zero field, this difference being equal to 4k H?. A neat modification of the Quincke method has been devised by A. P. Wills and G. Hector. AnO tube is employed, the liquid being a solution of nickel chloride. Water being diamagnetic, and the salt paramagnetic, solutions of any desired susceptibility at a particular temperature may be made up; the variation with temperature is known from other experi-

ments. The volume susceptibility of the gas is proportional to the pressure; if the gas and the solution have the same suscepti-

bility there will be no movement of the meniscus when the field is switched on. Magnetic balance, indicated by absence of moveTO MANOMETER GAS INLET

Liquip MENISCUS POLES OF

i

a ICROSCOPE

CONSTRICTION

BY COURTESY OF THE “PHYSICAL REVIEW” FIG. 25.—MAGNETIC BALANCE

OF WILLS

AND

the the gas ap-

The field is applied at the meniscus, but the meniscus itself was not observed ; instead, the microscope was focussed on gum mastic

particles in the solution at the constricted portion of the tube. This “indicator” was very sensitive to any movement of the meniscus on application of the field. For comparative measurements at low pressures a method sug-

gested by W. Wien has been used by A. Glaser. A small paraMagnetic test rod is suspended by a delicate fibre in a nonhomogeneous field.

medium x,; it will be deflected, but may be restored to its zero position by turning the torsion head through an angle a,; and a= C(Ko—K,). Let ao be the angle corresponding to a vacuum, a, that to a gas of known susceptibility m, a2 to the gas under investigation of susceptibility x»

Then Kx:=K

aot.

This

we

method is sensitive, but at very low pressures, unless special precautions are taken, spurious effects may occur owing to the presence of absorbed layers on the test rod. Up to about 1920 measurements of most gases were unreliable, but since then investigations have been undertaken with an appreciation of the precautions necessary; the experimental difficulties have been surmounted and for a number of gases satisfactory data are available. DIAMAGNETISM

Most substances, other than ferromagnetics, are very feebly magnetic under ordinary conditions, and in investigating their behaviour strong fields are necessary. The general methods for determining low susceptibilities have already been described, and

the distinguishing characteristics of dia- and paramagnetics mentioned.

The greater number

of substances belong to the dia-

magnetic class. Diamagnetics are repelled from a magnetic pole, a force acting on them in the direction in which the square of the feld decreases most rapidly. In the inhomogeneous field between the poles of a magnet (if these are of the usual'form, giving the strongest field along the axis) a solid isotropic diamagnetic, in the form of a rod, tends to set itself at right angles to the lines of force, while a paramagnetic body tends to set along the lines of force. (The names dia- and paramagnetic were given by Faraday on account of this distinctive orientation of the two classes of substances in a field.) The behaviour of diamagnetics may be formally accounted for by attributing to them a negative susceptibility, which means that the magnetization induced is in the opposite direction to that of the inducing field. Shortly after the discovery of the “universality” of magnetism by Faraday, Weber developed a theory of dia- and paramagnetism based on the assumption of “molecular currents,” which had been suggested long before by Ampére. In paramagnetics, it was supposed, the molecules behaved as magnets owing to permanent circulating currents, while diamagnetism was attributed to the molecular currents induced by the magnetic field. When an ordinary conducting circuit is moved in a magnetic field, or the magnetic field through it is changed, there will be an electromotive force proportional to the rate of change of the magnetic flux acting round the cir-

cuit, and a current will flow in such a direction as to produce a field tending to oppose the change. When the change is completed, owing to the resistance of the circuit, the current will gradually die down, the energy being converted into heat. In the imagined resistanceless molecular circuit, however, the current would be maintained, and the molecule would acquire a polarity in the opposite direction to that of the applied field. The idea of molecular currents was very speculative, but toward the end of the nineteenth century the electron was discovered and, in 1905,

Langevin showed that on the basis of an electronic theory of the

HECTOR

ment of the meniscus, could be brought about by varying pressure of the gas at a particular temperature, or varying temperature at a particular pressure, the susceptibility of the being then equal to that of the solution. A diagram of the paratus is shown in fig. 25.

649

In general, when the field is switched on,

e test rod will be subject to a couple depending on the difference

of the susceptibility of the test rod x and that of the surrounding

constitution of matter, precision could be given to Weber’s theory. Meanwhile an extensive research had been carried out by Curie, who had measured the susceptibilities of a large number of substances over a wide range of temperature, so that satisfactory magnetic data were available. Before discussing the results, it will be convenient to consider briefly the theory of diamagnetism due in essentials to P. Langevin (Ann. de Chim. et Phys., 1905). Theory.—A large number of experimental facts may be ex-

plained if it is supposed that an atom consists of a heavy concentrated positively charged nucleus with negative electrons circu-

lating round it in orbits (see Atom).

According to the classical

electron theory, the electrons should lose energy continuously by radiation, but the stability of the atoms shows that they do not do so. The classical theory is inadequate to deal with the problem of atomic structure, and must be supplemented by some form of

quantum theory.

None the less, the classical theory, which is

based on macroscopic experiments, may to a certain extent be

MAGNETISM

650

applied tentatively to the motion of electrons in atoms, and provisional conclusions as to their magnetic effects may be drawn. On the basis of the ordinary theory, it may be shown that an electron moving in an orbit of area S in a periodic time 7 produces at a distance the same mean magnetic field as a small magnet of moment u, where pee

A change ot magnetic flux through the orbit produces an electromotive force Æ round it, which will accelerate the electrons, so that 2

c

therefore

24, dt

di = Ze di m

The total change Ayu in the magnetic moment when the field acquires its final value H is given by

an=f Euf 26

ae 47°C?

m

er?

Hn

The original expression for the magnetic moment may be written ewy? H

=

where r:? is the mean square radius of the projected orbit op a

plane at right angles to the lines of force. The atomic suscep.

tibility, x42, is the ratio of the total resultant change of magnetic moment, obtained by summing the above expression over all the electrons, to the applied field: e?

XAL

KS

sont

4mc? > N ne:

For anatom which is spherically symmetrical >> a

e being the charge on the electron, and c the velocity of light; the moment u being at right angles to the plane of the circuit. The electron moving in its orbit may be regarded as a “molecular current” in a circuit without resistance. The variable field which the classical theory predicts may be left out of consideration for the present purpose and, indeed, since electrons in atoms do not radiate continuously, it may be supposed that a steady magnetic field is associated with any stationary state of the atom. The magnetic moment of an atom (or molecule) as a whole will be equal to the resultant of the moments of the electrons, but whether there is a resultant moment or not the application of an external magnetic field will modify the motion of the electrons in such a way as to produce a diamagnetic effect. For simplicity the effect of a field applied perpendicularly to a circular orbit of radius r may be considered. Let uw be the magnetic moment, v the velocity of the electron, then

orrE=— 7

[DIAMAGNETISy

2C

where w is the angular velocity. Thus the change is similar to that produced by a change in the angular velocity o, where eH

0 = = —' 2™mC

The effect of a magnetic field has here been calculated in a special simple case. It may be shown quite generally that for a system consisting of electrons rotating about a massive nucleus, the motion being controlled by the mutual forces, the effect of a magnetic field is to cause a precession of the electrons about an axis along the lines of force passing through the nucleus, the angular velocity, to a first approximation, being eH 2mC

This was first shown by J. Larmor (Phil. Mag., 1897), and the

theorem is of fundamental importance in connection both with diamagnetism and the Zeeman effect (g.v.). Under the influence of a magnetic field there is no change in the shape and size or orien-

tation of an electronic orbit but simply a precession.

2)" 7, where

7? is the mean square distance of the electron from the nucleus, while 7; refers to the projected orbit. For the atomic susceptibility of such an atom, or for the mean atomic susceptibility of atoms orientated at random with respect to the field, e

XAt It is usually more

=

—

convenient

——

6mc* x

5

y2.

to deal with the gram-atomic

susceptibility x4, equal to the product of the mass susceptibility

x and the atomic weight A. Let Z be the number of atoms ina gram atom (Avogadro’s number), then Xa=XÁ =x4 =

ee Z= — 6mc? ‘N

— 285X100 5 7. N

(For gram molecular susceptibility, the symbol Xy may be used.) The diamagnetic effect will occur whether the atoms (or molecules) have a resultant magnetic moment or not, but it may be masked, if there is a resultant moment, by the paramagnetic effect, which, as will be discussed later, is usually much stronger. If there is no resultant moment the substance will be diamagnetic. The theory which has been outlined applies strictly to systems (atoms or ions) consisting of electrons rotating about a single centre of force, or to aggregates of such systems, such as a monatomic gas. For such a gas, the diamagnetic susceptibility, since it depends only on the structure of the atoms, and not on their state of motion, should be independent of the temperature. The precise manner in which the Larmor theorem is to be applied to molecular systems in which the electrons are under the influence of more than one centre of force is by no means clear; but a rough proportionality between the area of the electronic orbits, or the region over which they are diffused, and so of the “size” of the molecule and the susceptibility may be expected. An independence of temperature of diamagnetic susceptibility would, however, only be anticipated for diamagnetic substances which are constituted of quasi-independent simple or complex systems (ions, atoms, or molecules) which do not change with the temperature.

Some Experimental Results.—The first extensive series of susceptibility measurements were made by P. Curie (Ann. de Chim. et Phys., 1895), who found that for almost all the diamagnetics investigated there was practically no change in mass susceptibility with temperature, and that frequently it was independent of the physical state. Thus KNO; and yellow phosphorus showed no change in passing through the melting point, and the suscepti-

bilities of different forms of sulphur were the same. As an example of exceptional behaviour, for bismuth the numerical value of the susceptibility decreased linearly with the temperature (from x = —1-23X10® at 20° C tox =—-87X 10 at 273° C), changed abruptly at the melting point to a much smaller value (—-035X 10), and then remained constant. , The influence of chemical combination on magnetic properties

was studied by P. Pascal (Ann. de Chim. et Phys. 1908-13), Who

made valuable measurements, particularly on organic liquids, by

the U-tube method.

He concluded that the molecular suscep-

tibility x,, could be expressed as the sum of the atomic susceptibilities y4, with a correcting factor \ depending on the nature

of the chemical linkages between the atoms:

An expression may be readily obtained for the diamagnetic susceptibility of an atom containing WN electrons. For each Xu = Zoxat. electron the change in the corresponding magnetic moment is of the halogens were measured directly; then susceptibilities The given by from the change produced, e.g., by the substitution of a Cl atom , g? r for an H atom in an organic compound, the susceptibility constant Au = — 5 Ar; §

4

4710"

for the H atom could be found; the constant for the C atom coul

pIAMAGNETISM]

hen be deduced from measurements on different members of the aliphatic C,H», series.

In this way constants for the different

atoms and radicles, and correcting constitutive

deduced, some

651

MAGNETISM constants,

were

of which are given in the following tables:—

cated in connection with Pascal’s work. It is found that the greater

number of ions are diamagnetic, exceptions occurring for the ions of the “transition” elements in the periodic table (such as

the elements from titanium to iron) which will be discussed in the

next section. Accurate quantitative data for the susceptibilites of diamagnetic ions are somewhat scarce. In the following table are

Atomic and Molecular Susceptibility Constants (Pascal)

given some values which have been arrived at by G. Joos (Zeits.

fiir Phys., 1923) for the susceptibilities of inert-gas like ions, that is ions having the same number of electrons, and the same electronic configuration, as atoms of the inert gases. In the first row the number of electrons in the ions is given. —xX4xX 107% for Ions (Joos)

n= 36

Constitutive Correcting Constants

Group

lax

3:0)|(Ne

1:3 | Nat

Ethylene Diethylene Acetylene

particular atom to the total diamagnetism in some cases agree fairly closely with those calculated from the directly measured susceptibilities of the elements. (Thus, for carbon values ranging from X¥,= — 5-94X 1078 to 6-14 X10 have been found.) It would not be expected, however, that the contribution of the atom to the diamagnetism when in combination with other atoms

(when it may gain or lose electrons, or share them) would in general be the same as the diamagnetic susceptibility characteristic of the atom in a free state, or even when combined with

other atoms of a similar kind. An oxygen atom in combination with different atoms has a diamagnetic effect; but molecular oxygen is strongly paramagnetic. The actual magnitude of the diamagnetic constants is of the order indicated by the theory. The equation given leads to values for the mean radii of the electron orbits in H, C and N of about 10% cm., which is in agreement with other evidence; but the data do not enable conclusions to be drawn as to the free atoms. A large number of elements are diamagnetic, but their consideration will be deferred until the elements generally are discussed. They present a number of peculiar features, and it is not possible to draw conclusions directly from the data as to the magnetic character of the constituent atoms themselves. Salts and Solutions.—The susceptibility of salts may be deduced from measurements on aqueous for the susceptibility of the water.

Let x be the measured susceptibility of the solution, Cs the concentration of the salt, Xs its susceptibility, and Xw the susceptibility of water. Then, generally, X= C.xet (x m Ca) Xw-

This relation between the susceptibility and the concentration does not hold invariably, for in some cases the state of the salt varies with the concentration owmg to interaction with the solvent.

For water, according to concordant measurements

of P. Sève,

solutions by correcting

è

x 5 E

z š

AFTER (JULIUS

JOOS,

24:5 | Bat?

,

The observed and calculated values usually agreed to within one or two per cent. The constants giving the contribution of a

IN

“ZEITSCHRIFT

FUR

PHYSIK”

SPRINGER)

FIG. 26.—IONIC CEPTIBILITIES

DIAMAGNETIC SUS-

A. Piccard, B. Cabrera and others, Xw=—-72X10%

N= 54 83 | I

F-

57°5

45-2

These values are shown in the graph. Considering the series F` to I-, there is a steady increase in the ionic susceptibility with increasing number of electrons. From the Langevin theory, for an ion containing z electrons, the mean square radius of the electronic orbits is given by

Fa -[38

(xaX 1o.)|Xros,

For the halide ions this leads to a value for the mean radius of about -6108 cm. Regularities are revealed in the study of ionic susceptibilities which are not found when the elements themselves are considered. In the group of ions Cl to Ca**, all have the same

number of electrons, but the positive nuclear charge increases from 17 to 20; this results in a decrease in the size of the electronic configuration, as would be anticipated in the basis of the quantum theory of atomic structure, which is reflected in the decrease in the diamagnetic susceptibility. From the susceptibilities of neighbouring ions, probable values for the atomic susceptibilities of the inert gas atoms may be deduced. These differ considerably from the values obtained in early experiments. A. P. Wills and G. Hector measured directly the susceptibilities of He, Ne and A by the magnetic balance method (Phys. Rev. 1924) taking great precautions to ensure purity of the materials. They found the following values, These agree well with the values deduced indirectly, and afford for — x, X10, for the inert gases: He, 1-7; Ne, 6-1; A, 16-5 confirmation of the general correctness of the theoretical treatment, in which the susceptibility is connected with the area of the orbits swept out by the electrons. The idea of electrons moving in definite orbits in atoms may have to be abandoned, but L. Pauling (Proc. Roy. Soc., A., 1927) has shown that a satisfactory treatment of ionic diamagnetic susceptibility may be given along somewhat similar lines, on the basis of a view of the extension in space of an atom which is suggested by Schrédinger’s wave mechanics. Gases.—The susceptibilities of a number of gases have been measured by T. Soné (Phil. Mag. 1920) by a Gouy method, by Wills and Hector, and by V. I. Vaidyanathan (Phys. Rev. 1927). The values found for a few of the commoner gases are here shown, together with some results deduced by Pascal from experiments on liquids. Molecular Susceptibilities of Gases

at 20° C

(this is probably correct to within 4%). The susceptibility of agnetic salts found from measurements on solutions frequently agrees fairly closely with that found for the solids directly, ut there are many exceptions to this rule. A salt such as NaCl exists in solution in the form of Na* and

Cr ions. The ionic character of solid salts is well established so, in many cases, from X-ray crystal analysis. By carrying out measurements on series of salts with the same anion or kation, ioulc susceptibility constants may be arrived at in the way indi-

(S=S0né. W and H=Wills and Hector. V=Vaidyanathan. P= Pascal) The rough estimates of the sizes of the molecules which may be made from the susceptibilities are in fair agreement :with those deduced from the kinetic theory of gases. The greatest. contribu-

[PARAMAGNETIsy

MAGNETISM

652

tion to the diamagnetism will come from the electrons moving in the largest orbits, that is the ‘outer electrons” which are most loosely bound to the nuclei. In this connection it is interesting to note that the molecular susceptibility of Nez is only slightly greater than that of neon. This supports the view rendered probable by consideration of the band spectrum and the chemical

of gas in the earth’s gravitational field, the density increases downwards, the number of molecules being greater where their

potential energy is smaller, so in a magnetic field, the axes of

the molecules crowd together towards the direction of the mag. netic field. The higher the temperature, the more nearly uniform is the distribution. According to Boltzmann’s theorem, if certain

properties, that the outer electrons of the two nitrogen atoms are

conditions are fulfilled, the number of molecules with their mag.

shared, the whole molecule behaving as a “pseudo-atom.” Analysis of the diamagnetic susceptibilities of molecules in relation to those of the constituent atoms frequently throws a valuable side-light on the character of chemical combination. If the molecular susceptibility of a gas is constant, and independent of orientation in the field, and so of collisions between the molecules, it would be expected that the volume susceptibility

netic axes pointing in a direction 9, per unit solid angle, will be

would vary linearly with the pressure. Some very delicate experiments by A. Glaser (Ann. der Phys. 1924) seemed to indicate that at low pressures this relation did not hold, and that the molecular susceptibility of the gases investigated (He, Nz, CO2, CO) increased eventually by a factor of three at low pressures and in

In order that this equilibrium may be set up, it is necessary to suppose that there is equipartition of energy among the degrees of

proportional to e` WIRT = guHcos6/kT

In this expression, e is the base of the Naperian logarithms, and is the gas constant per molecule. (The kinetic energy of a molecule at a temperature T is given by mv’ =$ kT.)

freedom of the gas molecules, in particular that a molecule possesses mean rotational enerhigh fields. This “anomaly” gave rise to considerable discussion, gies about ages perpendicular but a repetition of the experiments by G. W. Hammar (Nat. Acad. to w equal to 4 RT. A change Sci. Proc. 1926) and an investigation by another method by E. in orientation of a molecule Lehrer (Anz. der Phys. 1926) showed that the apparent anomaly implies a change in its energy, was due to secondary experimental effect inherent in Glaser’s and also a change in the direcmethod, and that the volume susceptibility of gases was accution of the angular momentum rately proportional to the pressure. associated with the magnetic moment of the electron roPARAMAGNETISM tating in an orbit; this change The distinctive characteristics of paramagnetics have already cannot be brought about by been mentioned. In this section some of the quantitative experi- FIG 27.—-THE LANGEVIN FUNCTION, the agency of the magnetic field mental data will be considered and their theoretical significance SHOWING THAT L(A)==COTHA~1/A alone, which can only produce discussed. A considerable number of susceptibility measurements the precessional effect; but the change in orientation can occur were made on paramagnetics before Curie’s investigation was if there are collisions between the molecules (or radiational procarried out (1895); but the results were not very accurate, and cesses) when the energy and momentum conditions can be satisin particular no reliable data as to variation with temperature had fied. The contribution of a molecule with its axis in a direction @ been obtained. Curie measured the susceptibility of oxygen, one to the intensity of magnetization in the field direction is scosé, of the few paramagnetic gases, over a range of temperatures from and, since the directional distribution of the molecules isknown, 20° to 450° C, and found that the specific susceptibility was in- the total intensity of magnetization due to a field may be calcuversely proportional to the absolute temperature. The relation lated. Let Wn be the total resultant magnetic moment, ina field x= S was also found to hold approximately for paramagnetic H, of n molecules of moment u; then solutions. A number of attempts were made to formulate a precise theory of paramagnetism on the basis of the electron theory, but Langevin’s treatment of the problem was the first to give a satisfactory interpretation of the leading experimental observations. Kinetic Theory of Paramagnetism.—Langevin considered the case of a paramagnetic gas, in which the molecules had a resultant magnetic moment, due to lack of balance of the moments corresponding to the individual electron orbits. The diamagnetic effect due to precession will occur for such molecules, but if the molecules have a resultant permanent moment, there will be a tendency for them to aline themselves in the direction of the magnetic field. The alinement will not be complete owing to the collisions between the molecules, but the intensity of magnetization in the direction of the field due to the change in orientation of the molecules may be, and, as experiment shows, generally is far greater than that in the opposite direction due to the diamagnetic effect, and the gas will then be paramagnetic. The paramagnetic effect may be considered independently of the diamagnetic. Let u be the magnetic moment of the molecules, supposed all alike. The magnetic potential energy of a molecule in a field H is given by

W=-—wyH cos, where @ is the angle between the magnetic axis and the field. In the absence of a magnetic field the molecules will be orientated at random, and the gas as a whole will have no resultant magnetic moment; but when a field is applied, the molecules acquire different energies according to the direction of their axes, and a uniform distribution of the directions of the axes is no

longer compatible with thermal equilibrium. Just as, in a column

Mn = cotha — = = L(a), npu a

where

a=pH/kT.

The Langevin function, L(a), is shown in fig. 27. The magnetic moment which would be acquired if all the molecules were aligned parallel to the field is equal to my; considering unit volume, if J is the intensity acquired, and J, the saturation intensity, then

I _ Mn Io

akl’

The Langevin equation shows how the magnetization approaches a saturation value as H is increased; in general, however, with

fields which are practically available, „H will be very small compared with kT; the quantity a will then be small, and, to a sufficient approximation, La we

Io

3

3hT

The magnetization then varies linearly with the field, at a rate indicated by the slope of the tangent at the origin to the Langevin curve (see fig. 27). a

Let x be the volume susceptibility, x the specific susceptibility,

Xu the gram molecular susceptibility, the gas having molecular weight M; let o be the moment per gram molecule, c'o the satura-

tion moment; let n be the number of molecules per cu.cm. ofa

gas, N the number per gram molecule (Avogadro's Then

K=I/H=np?/3kT, == ees

x=k/p,

number).

MAGNETISM

PARAMAGNETISM]

;

To

,

,

The expression Xy= 3 aT is the most convenient one for con-

sideration.

: C : It may be written xy= F , Cu being the Curie

653

below which they have ferromagnetic properties, and above, paramagnetic. Among paramagnetics there are many which obey the Weiss law over wide ranges of temperature, @ being usually relatively small, sometimes positive and sometimes negative. The inverse of the susceptibility varies linearly with the temperature,

constant per gram molecule. It indicates that, unless H can be made very large, or T very small, the susceptibility of a gas will

—_—

he independent of the field; and that it will be inversely proportonal to the absolute temperature in accordance with Curie’s law. Moreover, from the susceptibility, the saturation gram molecular magnetic moment, oo, may be calculated, and, from this the molecular moment, by dividing o) by Avogadro’s

number, p= ao/ NV. The Langevin theory, then, leads to a satisfactory explanation of Curie’s law; and for substances which obey it, such as gases and weak paramagnetic solutions, it enables estimates to be made

of the magnetic moments of the molecules or ions responsible for the paramagnetism. The results of this application will be discussed in connection with those from a more extended form of the theory due to Weiss, which leads formally to the experimentally observed variation with temperature of the susceptibility of a wider range of substances. The Molecular Field Theory.—The effective field H, acting ona molecule may be regarded as a resultant of the external field H and that due to the other molecules. In the case of an ideal paramagnetic gas, the field due to the molecules may be neglected, but in general the “molecular field” will play a part in determining the orientation. Weiss supposed that the effect of the molecules was equivalent to that of a magnetic field, H;, proportional to the intensity of magnetization, so that, with N as a proportionality factor,

H,=H+H;=H-+NI.

If the inner field arose simply from the mutual magnetic action of

the molecules, the constant M would depend on the arrangement of the molecules; for special cases (é.g., random arrangement of

the molecules, or regular cubical arrangement) it may be shown that V would be equal to r (about 4.2), and this may be taken as indicating the order of magnitude to be expected generally. The value which may be calculated for M from the experimental results, however, is in some cases thousands of times greater than this, and in other cases it is negative. The consequences of supposing that there is a field proportional to the magnetization will therefore be considered without any specific assumption as to its

origin. It is necessary to substitute H, for H in Langevin’s treatment.

Considering a gram molecule, the Langevin result

(for om small), namely a

Fo"

=

Cu

o= RTAS

T

H,

becomes

_ Cu (H#+NI) =_ Cy = 7 (H+ Np m

pand M being the density and 1oolecular weight respectively. The susceptibility is given by

=e u~ g

Le

N

H

This may he written

j

T— (3) Cu

— OM T=0

Xu =

The relation between 0, N, and oo, is expressed by the equation Np Np sè jal inet = M Cu M 3R

Positive Curie temperature (e.g., that for iron is about 1040° A)

®

Cu

Cy, and hence the molecular magnetic moment may be calculated,

while the intercept on the temperature axis gives the value of 9, from which the molecular field constant may be found. The graphs sometimes show fairly abrupt changes of slope, indicating a change in the magnetic character of the molecules, so that it is

not legitimate to conclude from the fact that 0 is positive over a certain range that a “real” Curie temperature exists below which the substance becomes ferromagnetic. In fact, investigations at very low temperatures have so far brought to light no instances of paramagnetic substances becoming ferromagnetic.

The Magneton.—If a paramagnetic substance obeys a Curie .

I

‘

:

:

or Weiss law, — varying linearly with the temperature, on the basis of the theory it is possible to deduce a value for the molecular magnetic moment from the value of the Curie constant. G

In either case, since Cy= pine gram molecular moment is given .

.

To”

b

.

=

3

by

Oo=

v¥3RC M”

In torr Weiss, from measurements then available, concluded that there was a fundamental unit magneton of which all atomic or molecular moments were multiples, the unit magnetic moment per gram molecule, Me, being equal to 1,123-5. (This gives for the unit magnetic moment per molecule, the magneton, the value 1,123°5 = 1:85 X 10 unit pole X cm.) Subsequent results 6°06 X 1078

have shown that magnetic moments, calculated in the way indicated, cannot generally be expressed as integral multiples of the Weiss unit. None the less, the unit is a convenient one in terms of which to express calculated moments, which are usually given as » magnetons; 00

I

V3RCy= 14°07 Vy. 1,123°5 1,123°5 The magnetic characteristic of normal paramagnetics can, then, be summarized by giving the values of p and@, which may be deduced from the measurements. The results obtained for a number of normal paramagnetics will be considered, and their significance will then be further discussed in the light of the quantum theory. Many “abnormal” paramagnetics do not obey a Weiss or Curie p=

law; these will be discussed in a later section, Gases.—The paramagnetic gases, oxygen and-nitric oxide, are

of particular interest, as for them the conditions under which Langevin’s theory is applicable would be expected to prevail. Oxygen was investigated over a range of temperatures from 20° to 450° C by Curie, and the susceptibility was found to vary inversely as the absolute temperature. Measurements of Onnes and Perrier show that the Curie law holds closely down to —113° C. Assuming the Curie law, the molecular moment may be deduced from measurements at a single temperature, of which the most accurate are those of P. Weiss, E. Bauer and A. Piccard (1920), based on the measurement of the difference of pressure of two points of the gas, one in a field H, the other in zero field. Their results for Oz and NO at 20° C, and the deductions, are given in the following table: — Magnetic Constants of Oz and NO

Mass susc. | Vol, suse

versely as the excess of the temperature above a certain critical

temperature 0,which is named the Curie temperature. As will be

Á

so, from the slope of a graph, in which = is plotted against T,

The Weiss equation indicates that a paramagnetic substance in Which there is a molecular field will have a susceptibility varying

discussed in the next section, ferromagnetic substances have a

o

Xm

Q:. NO

Gm. mol. |} Weiss _

20° C xX Io’

fo Ç iKX ae I0

xT

107-8 48°7

-1434 -0607

-03158 “01427

moment | magnetons To 15,920 10,330

14°2 9°20

O54

The value for the Curie constant per gram (C=xT) which may be deduced from Curie’s measurements, as compared with -0316 in the table, is -o307, from those of Onnes and Oosterhuis, -0303.

As both these sets of experiments were carried out with high gas pressures, when a Weiss instead of a Curie law may be anticipated, they are not inconsistent with an invariable value of the Curie constant.

The susceptibility of oxygen in the liquid and solid state has been measured by Perrier and Onnes. The results, together with those of Onnes and Oosterhuis for the gas are shown in the diagram. For the liquid Curie’s law was no longer obeyed. As the density of the pure liquid varies with temperature, experiments were made on mixtures of liquid oxygen and (feebly diamagnetic) liquid nitrogen. Between 60° and 80° absolute, the results agreed

"0315 with the formula x= SA

[PARAMAGNETISM

MAGNETISM

The Curie constant agrees with

that found by Bauer and Piccard with the gas. The molecular field correction @ was found to be negative (indicating a negative molecular field) and to vary approximately linearly with the concentration of the oxygen, from —2-2° for -o81 to —29-5° for -746. (If p is the fractional concentration, = —4op). Solidification (at about 57° A) results in a sudden decrease in the susceptibility, and a large increase in 0 is indicated. Below 33° apparently a new allotropic modification is formed, which has the anomalous characteristic that the susceptibility decreases with decrease of temperature down to 13°. Outside oxygen and nitric oxide nearly all gases are diamagnetic. Taylor and Lewis have found that chlorine dioxide dissolved in carbon tetrachloride is paramagnetic, the molecular susceptibility being 1-3X10%, indicating a Weiss magneton value of about 8-7; and there is some evidence that nitrogen dioxide, NOs, is paramagnetic. Solutions.—The paramagnetic solutions which have been most investigated are those of salts of the first transition group of elements (from scandium of atomic number 21, to nickel, 28). Dilute solutions, for the range of temperature over which they can be investigated, generally follow Curie’s law very closely. The paramagnetism can be attributed to the metallic ion. From the susceptibility of the solution, knowing the susceptibility of water, that of the dissolved substance may be calculated in the way already indicated. From this the ionic susceptibility of the metallic ion may be determined, by correcting for the effect of the diamagnetic ions present; from the ionic susceptibility, assuming Curie’s law to hold, the ionic moment may be calculated, and expressed in Weiss magnetons. If the paramagnetic ions are all of one kind, and do not change their character with change in concentration, the magneton value, p, would be expected to be indeABSOLUTE TEMPERATURE pendent of concentration; e.g., for NiCl Bruins found that the p “HANDBUCH DER RADIOLOGIE” (AKA. value (16-05=t-03) remained con- FROM DEMISCHE VERLAGSGESELLSCHAFT) stant to within -4% with concen- FIG. 28.—GRAPH SHOWING THE trations ranging from -6 to 22%. VARIATION OF THE SUSCEPTIBILITY Variation with the concentration, OF OXYGEN WITH TEMPERATURE however, is not infrequent. Thus, for CoCl, values for p varying between 24 and 25 are found. This may be due to a change in the character of the magnetic “carriers” with concentration owing to the formation of complex ions, a suggestion supported by the fact that in some cases the p value is markedly influenced by the addition of acids to the solution. It may also be due to the Curie law being no longer obeyed at higher concentrations. In spite of these variations, there is a remarkable agreement as to the order of magnitude of the ionic moment deduced from measurements ‘on different salts; and there is a regular variation of the moment

—first increasing and then decreasing—with the number of elec. trons in the ion, as shown by the numbers in the following table of the probable rough values of ionic moments, based on the work of Weiss, Cabrera and others. (The positive charge on the ion is indicated by the index; underneath is given the number of electrons, 7, in the ion; the moment is expressed as p Weiss mag-

netons.) Ionic Moments Deduced from Measurements on Solutions

With concentrated solutions Foéx has shown that the expression

Xu =

a must be used, but the way in which 0 depends on

the concentration is not clear; it is affected largely by the nature

MnCl, (p=27,@=+21°)

D

TEMPERATURE ©

FIG. 29.—GRAPH SHOWING THE VARIATION WITH SUSCEPTIBILITY OF SOME PARAMAGNETIC SALTS

TEMPERATURE

OF THE

and number of the diamagnetic ions present as well as of the paramagnetic.

Solid Salts—Honda

and Ishiwara, Théodoridés and others,

have measured the susceptibilities of a large number of paramagnetic salts over wide ranges of temperature; for the great majority the law x(T—0)=C holds very closely over consider-

able regions, as illustrated by the oe T ) graphs shown in fig. 29.

In some cases there are abrupt discontinuities in the —, T curves, .

.

.,

©

.

I

attributable to changes in 0 or C. Chemical changes may, occur. For some exceptional salts the paramagnetism remains practically constant. In the following table are given some illustrative results for a few of the normal paramagnetic salts investigated by Théodoridés. The positive charge on the ion is given by the index, and the number of electrons follows. Resulis of Susceptibility Measurements on Solid Salts sa: Active ion

Curie

and number | Substance

of electrons

Mn? 23

MnCl

MnSO;

Fe? 23

Fes(SOx)s

Co 25

CoCl:

Ni? 26

CoSO,

NiCl

oe C

e

ue nel

o—575

0

p

o—270 280-550

4007

4267 4°272

| + 3r | 285

o—250

4245

—79'5 | 290

z5r

| +472 | 25°

— 1903| — 1225|

290 2g!

270-550, | 4233 | —743 | 289 0-325

0-265

.

3°L79

— 29°92

2go-550 | grtso | 1937| O- 13u 150-500

ae

7H

1°30 +776 | 160 1-448 | +378 | 169

The magneton values found for the ion from measurements 02

different salts agree fairly well among themselves, and also magneton those found from solutions. A striking fact is that the

MAGNETISM

pPARAMAGNETISM]

655

values. for different ions with the same number of electrons (as yin? and Fe?) are in close agreement. The magneton number, in fact, as pointed out by Kossel, depends on the number and con- fairly closely over considerable ranges of temperature; but at ae š i I ation of the electrons. It may be supposed that there is a low temperatures deviations from a linear relation between — X definite value associated with each ion, and that the different values obtained are due partly to experimental uncertainties and

partly to real disturbing influences not considered in the theory. Approximate magneton values may, however, be assigned to the ions. These are shown in the following table, and plotted against the electron number in fig. 30.

and T are frequently found; x may increase more or less rapidly

than the Weiss law indicates, as shown by the curvature of the I x T graph. Although for a number of salts (suchas the chlorides for which data have been given) 6 is positive at ordinary tem-

Ionic Moments (Expressed as p Weiss Magnetons) Numberieof electrons in 10n

E

K'Ca? Ti®

a. fj. = lu

Cr8Mn!

=z o

=

Q = uw

= o £

=

The susceptibilities of a number of the rare earth sulphates and oxides have been measured by Cabrera and St. Meyer. It was assumed that the sulphates obeyed Curie’s law as does gadolinum sulphate. Aqueous solutions of rare earth salts have likewise been examined by H. Decker. The results of the diferent investigators are in fair agreement; the approximate magneton values calculated for the ions (the tri-valent ions from La’ 54 to Lu? 68) are plotted in fig,31. S According to Langevin’s theory = the intensity of magnetization E depends on H/T; the effect of =< decreasing T is similar to that of mcreasing H, so that, with the fields which are attainable by the FIG. 30.—IONIC MOMENTS OF ELEusual means, it is possible to ob- MENTS OF FIRST TRANSITION tain very high values of the GROUP, EXPRESSED AS p WEISS INDEX INDICATING “efective field” if the tempera- MAGNETONS, ture can be sufficiently reduced; POSITIVE CHARGE ON THE ION the theory as to an approach to saturation, revealed by a deviation from a straight line relation between the intensity and B

H/T, can then be tested. Octahydrated gadolinium sulphate Gd(SO.)3-8H2O (with the active ion Gd? 61) has been examined from this point of view by Onnes and his collaborators at Leiden.

Itis one of the few substances which obey Curie’s law down to the lowest temperatures, 1-3°A. The susceptibility is given by

TTA TT aan NUMBER OF ELECTRONS YN ION

FIG. 31.—IONIC MOMENTS OF RARE HAVE A POSITIVE CHARGE OF 3)

Below temperatures

of 4-25°A

between

At 1-3°, with H=22,000

gauss, values of @ approaching 8 were obtained.

Plotting the

magnetization against a, the points were found to lie very closely

toa Langevin curve (fig. 27). The intensity of magnetization tached corresponded to 84% of the saturation value calculated

u the usual way from the initial susceptibility. A striking conation is afforded

of the general validity of the Langevin

theory. The theory, however, is essentially for a gas, in which ‘Molecular magnetic “carriers” can change their orientation. tis remarkable that the results are in complete agreement with what would be expected if the magnetic ions of solid gadolinium sulphate were free to rotate like the molecules in a gas.

The susceptibility of most salts followsa Weiss law,

THE

IONS

magnetic axes of a monoclinic crystal CoSOQ,(NH3;)2S0.6H:O

are shown in fig. 32. The curvatures illustrate one type of “cryomagnetic” anomaly. The straight parts of the curves are approximately parallel, indicating an approximately constant value of Cm; and hence magneton value (the values obtained for Co? Were 24-9, 24-5, 24-8) and a value for 0 (and so of the molecular field) which varies with the axis. Somewhat similar results were found by Foéx for siderose (an impure ferrous carbonate), the magneton value being the same along different axes, but the molecular field varying. Among other substances belonging to the group of “normal paramagnetics” are a number of complex coordination compounds. These will be referred to later. The Quantum Theory.—Ac-

cording to the quantum theory

TEMP: ° ABS:

FIG.

the proportionality

magnetization and field broke down.

(ALL

(Phil. Trans. 1923-26) on the susceptibilities down to 14°A of

AFTER JACKSON, IN THE YRANSACTIONS OF THE ROYAL

oo

ELEMENTS

a series of sulphates of iron, nickel and cobalt, in powder form and as single crystals. The results for the susceptibility along the three

X=-0203/T, indicating a value for p of 39-2 magnetons (see

oe HE77Ln5:2 XI0 totT

EARTH

peratures, a real Curie point has not been found for any of those investigated at low temperatures. A special investigation has been carried out by L. C. Jackson

above ionic moment curve). This corresponds to an ionic moment k=72 X10, giving

a

=

xampl pics

32.—THE

(g.v.), as applied to the problem of the structure of the atom with planetary electrons circulating about a nucleus, the angu-

“PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY”

VARIATION

WITH

THE TEMPERATURE OF THE SUSCEPTIBILITIES ALONG THE THREE MAGNETIC AXES OF A CRYSTAL OF COBALT AMMONIUM SULPHATE

lar momentum of an. orbital elec: tron can only assume certain discrete values. ; According to Bohr’s the angular ‘momentum p ‘was + te e% D e a 7

original form of the theory, restricted to such values that

amp=khy

ATO OE

ODIA

k being an integer, the azimuthal quantum number, and & Planck’s constant (6:55X107 ergXsec.). . Let w be the angular velocity of thẹ-electron, then p= mcr’. Let S be the area of the orbit, 7 the periodic time.

magnetic moment is given by H

eS =o CT

A

—

21

p =

k

ANTMG

ł

ath

-r

eh

e

ewr 2¢

Then the

A

°

oro,

i =4

+ edition of A. von Wrede’s Reise in Hadramaut (Brunswick, 1870).

MALUS,

ETIENNE

LOUIS

(1775-1812), French phy-

sicist, was born at Paris on June 23, 1775. He went to the military engineering school at Mezières and then served in the French army in Germany and Egypt. On his return he held official posts successively at Antwerp, Strasbourg and Paris, and devoted himself to optical research. A paper published in 1809 (“Sur une propriété de la lumière réfléchie par les corps diaphanes”) contained the discovery of the polarization of light by reflection,

which is specially associated with his name. In 1810 he won a prize from the Institute with his memoir, “Théorie de la double

A chance reading of the Essay, in which the phrase “struggle for refraction de la ]umiére dans les substances cristallines.” MALVACEAE, in botany a large and economically important xistence” struck an answering chord, stimulated Charles Darwin of flowering plants. It contains 45 genera with about goo family 0 find the key to biological change in the process of natural

species, and occurs in all regions except the coldest, the number of species increasing as we approach the tropics. The most conspicuously useful plant is cotton (Gossypium). It is represented in at of Ricardo, he not merely stimulated the latter but himself Britain by three genera: Malva, mallow; Althaea, marsh-mallow; nade independent contributions to the theory of value. He is and Lavatera, tree-mallow. In the United States there are about enerally credited with being the first writer to formulate the 20 genera, the best known ones, after Gossypium, being Althaea

lection brought about by this struggle for existence. Malthus was also a writer of considerable importance for the evelopment of economic theory. The close friend and correspond-

740

MALVASIA—-MALVERN

(marsh-mallow and hollyhock), Malva (mallow), Sida Abutilon (Indian mallow or velvet-leaf), and Hibiscus (rose mallow, and also okra or gumbo). The plants are herbs, as in the British mallows, or, in the warmer parts of the earth, shrubs or trees. The

leaves are alternate and often palmately lobed or divided; the stipules generally fall early. The leaves and young shoots often bear stellate hairs and the tissues contain mucilage-sacs. The

backwards and finally the ripe stigmas spread in the centre. pol. lination is effected by insects which visit the flower for the honey which is secreted in pits one between the base of each petal and

is protected from rain by hairs on the lower margin of the petals

In small pale-flowered forms, like Malva rotundifolia, which at.

tract few insects, self-pollination is found, the style-arms twisting later to bring the stigmatic surfaces into contact with the anthers Except in Malvaviscus which has a berry, the fruits are dry, In Malva (see Mattow) and allied genera they form one-seeded schizocarps separating from the persistent central column and

from each other. In Hibiscus and Gossypium (the cotton-plant),

the fruit is a capsule splitting loculicidally. Distribution of the seeds is sometimes aided by hooked outgrowths on the wall of the

schizocarp, or by a hairy covering on the seed, an extreme case of which is the cotton-plant where the seed is buried in a mass of

long tangled hairs—the cotton.

The embryo is generally large

with much-folded cotyledons and little endosperm. The largest genus, Hibiscus, contains 160 species, which are

widely distributed chiefly in the tropics; H. Rosa sinensis is a wellknown greenhouse plant. Abutilon (q.v.) contains 120 species, mainly tropical; Lavatera, with 20 species, is chiefly Mediterranean; Althaea has about 15 species in temperate and warm regions, A. rosea being the hollyhock (g.v.); Malva has about 30

species in the north-temperate zone. exclusively American.

MALVASIA

Several genera are largely or

(Gr. Monemvasia, “city of the single ap-

proach”; Ital. Napoli di Malvasia; Turk. Mengeshe or Beneshe) on the east coast of the Morea, contiguous to the site of the ancient Epidaurus Limera (g.v.), of which it took the place; one of the principal fortresses and commercial centres of the Levant during the middle ages, still represented by considerable

-+

eo?

`

EE

»

r” - A

“kn

HIBISCUS (HIBISCUS ESCULENTUS), SHOWING ING PLANT (ANNUAL) AND AN UNRIPE FRUIT

UPPER

PART OF FLOWER-

regular, hermaphrodite, often showy flowers are borne in the leafaxils, solitary or in fasicles, or form more or less complicated cymose arrangements. An epicalyx formed by a whorl of three or more bracteoles is generally present just beneath the calyx; sometimes, as in Abutelon, it is absent. The parts of the flowers are typically in fives; the five sepals, which have a valvate aestivation, are succeeded by five often large showy petals which are twisted in the bud; they are free to the base, where they are attached to the staminal tube and fall with it when the flower withers. The very numerous stamens are united into a tube at the base, and bear kidney-shaped one-celled anthers which open by a slit across the top. The large spherical pollen-grains are covered with spines. The carpels are one to numerous; when five in number, as in Abutilon, they are opposite the petals, or, as in Hibiscus, opposite the sepals. In the British genera and many others they are numerous, forming a whorl around the top of the axis in the centre of the flower, the united styles rising from the centre and bearing a corresponding number of stigmatic branches. In Malope the numerous carpels are arranged one above the other in vertical rows. One or more anatropous ovules are attached to the inner angle of each carpel; they are generally ascending but

sometimes pendulous or horizontal; the position may vary, as in Abutilon, in one and the same carpel. The flowers are protandrous; when the flower opens the unripe stigmas are hidden in the staminal tube and the anthers occupy the centre of the flower; as the anthers dehisce the filaments bend

ruins and a town of about sso inhabitants. So extensive was its trade in wine that the name became familiar throughout Europe as that of a special kind—lItal. Malvasia; Span. Malvagia; Fr. Malvoisie; Eng. Malvesie or Malmsey. The wine was not of local growth, but came from the Cyclades, and Malavisi province of Crete. The Byzantine emperors valued Malvasia as a fortress in the Morea, and rewarded its inhabitants for their fidelity by unusual privileges. The emperor Maurice made the city (previously dependent in ecclesiastical matters on Corinth) an archbishop’s see, and Alexius Comnenus, and more especially Andronicus II. (Palaeologus) gave the Monembasiotes freedom from all sorts of exactions throughout the empire. It was captured after three years’ siege by Guillaume de Villehardouin in 1248, but retained its liberties and privileges, and was restored to the Byzantine emperors in 1262. It placed itself under Venice from 1463 to 1540, when it was ceded to the Turks. In 1689 it was the only town of the Morea which held out against Morosini, and his successor

Cornaro only succeeded in reducing it by famine. In 1715 it capitulated to the Turks, and on the failure of the insurrection of 1770 the leading families were scattered abroad. As the first fortress which fell into the hands of the Greeks in 1821, it became in the following year the seat of the first national assembly. See Curtius, Peloponnesos, ii. 293 and 328; Castellan, Lettres sur la Morée (1808), for a plan; Valiero, Hist. della guerra di Candi (Venice, 1679), for details as to the fortress; W. Miller in Journal of Hellenic Studies (1907).

MALVERN,

inland watering place, urban district, Bewdley

parliamentary division, Worcestershire, England,

128 m. N.W.

from Londen by the G.W. railway, served also by the L.M. rail-

way. Pop. (1931) 15,632. It is situated on the eastern slopes of the Malvern hills, wHich rise from the valley of the Severn to 4 height of 1,395 ft. in the Worcestershire Beacon. The district bears the name of Malvern Chase, originally a Crown-land and forest, though it was granted to the earl of Gloucester by Edward I. An ancient trench, now the county boundary, mit of the hills determined the ancient boundary. disafforested by Charles I. Malvern was in early siastical settlement, but to-day it depends upon colleges. Mineral waters are manufactured. The name Malvern is collectively applied to

along the sumThe tract was times an eccleits schools and

a line of small

MALVY—MAMERTINI

LF?

towns and villages, extending along the foot of the hills. The prin- It comprises the states of Dewas (senior and junior branch), cipal is Great Malvern, lying beneath the Worcestershire Bea- Jaora, Ratlam, Sitamau and Sailana, together with parts of Indore con. Here was the Benedictine priory which arose in 1083 out of and Tonk, and about 35 petty estates and holdings. The heada hermitage endowed by Edward the Confessor. The priory quarters of the political agent are at Nimach.

church of SS. Mary and Michael is a cruciform Perpendicular

Malwa Js also the name of a large tract in the Punjab, south of the river Sutlej, which is one of the two chief homes of the early glass. At Malvern Wells, 24 m. S., are the medicinal Sikhs, the other being known as Manjha. It includes the British springs, extensive fishponds and hatcheries and a golf links, districts of Ferozpore and Ludhiana, together with the native Little Malvern, with remains of a Benedictine priory, lies at States of Patiala, Jind, Nabha and Maler Kotla. building, with an ornate central tower, Norman nave, and much

the foot of the Herefordshire Beacon, which is crowned by an

ancient and well preserved entrenched camp. Malvern Link, a suburb of Great Malvern, is a rapidly growing engineering centre, West and North Malvern, on the hills, are residential.

MALVY, LOUIS JEAN (1875~ +), French SocialistRadical politician, was born at Figeac on Dec. 1, 1875. In 1906 he entered the Chamber as a Socialist-Radical and was an under-

_ MAM.

This Indian tribe, speaking a Maya dialect, occupies

In part the departments of Huehuetenango, Quezaltenango, Toto-

nicapan and San Marcos in Guatemala, and also some of the

adjacent portion of Mexico. Long ago they extended farther south and east into the ancient kingdoms of the Cakchiquel and Quiché (g.v.), but they were defeated by the Quiché king, Kicab, In alliance with the Cakchiquel, and forced to withdraw to their

secretary in the Monis and Caillaux cabinets (1911), minister of

present limits.

commerce and postal services under Doumergue (Dec. 1913) and minister of the interior in the Viviani ministry (June r914). He retained this post under Briand and Ribot. On July 22, 1917, Clemenceau charged him with lax administration in dealing with

their neighbours of Maya stock as uncouth and provincial. The Cakchiquel “Annals” speak of them as barbarians who did not speak distinctly. Their very name means “the stutterers.” From this and other evidence it is thought that they may represent an early wave of Maya migration into Guatemala, forced to retreat to their present mountainous habitat by later comers. In 1525, after a fierce resistance, the Mam were conquered by the

defeatists and agitators, and he resigned on Aug. 31. His resigna-

tion brought about the fall of the Ribot cabinet. In October Léon Daudet brought against him a general accusation of treason. A commission, appointed at Malvy’s own suggestion, decided on behalf of the Chamber that the Senate, sitting as a high court, should pronounce judgment on all the stated charges. On Aug. 6, 1918, the high court acquitted Malvy of the charge of treason, but found him guilty of forfazture, z.e., culpable negligence, in the performance of his duties as minister of the interior from 1914-17, and sentenced him to banishment for five years, which he passed

in Spain. In 1924 he was re-elected to the Chamber, he represented France at the Morocco negotiations which arranged for joint action against Abdel Krim, and in October of the same year became president of the finance commission of the Chamber. Malvy again became minister of the interior in the Briand cabinet of March 1926, but his appointment roused old and bitter controversies and after a stormy sitting in which he was Violently attacked he fainted in the Chamber. The deputies then voted in support of the Government, ashamed of their violence. But Malvy resigned on the ground that his presence in the cabinet deprived it support. In June 1928 he was elected chairman of the finance committee of the Chamber. See Albert, Le procés Malvy (1920) ; and E. Gomez Carillo, Mystére de la vie et de la mort de Mata Hari (1923).

MALWA, an historic province of India, which has given its name to one of the political agencies into which Central India is divided. Strictly, the name is confined to the hilly table-land, bounded S. by the Vindhyan range, which drains north into the ver Chambal; but it has been extended to include the Nerbudda valley farther south. Its derivation is from the ancient tribe of Malavas who founded the Vikrama Samvat, an era dating from }7 B.C., Which is popularly associated with a mythical king Vikranaditya. The position of the Malwa or Moholo mentioned by

dsuan Tsang (7th century) is plausibly assigned to Gujarat. The ist records of a local dynasty are those of the Paramaras, a amous Rajput clan, who ruled for about four centuries (800200), with their capital at Ujjain and afterwards at Dhar. The Mohammedans invaded Malwa in 1235; and in 1401 Dilawar

Before the conquest the Mam

Spaniards under Gonzalo de Alvarado.

were regarded by

The campaign ended by

the seige of the famous fortress of Zacaleu, which the Spaniards finally starved into submission. Traces of its circular walls encompassing a steep hill can be seen to-day. Among other important ruins in this region Chalchitan should be mentioned. At present the Mam number somewhat more than 100,000 individuals, of whom less than 10,000 live in Mexico. Like the other Indians of the Guatemalan highlands they follow agriculture, and dress in coloured costumes of local manufacture. See Adrian Recinos, Monografia mango (Guatemala, 1913).

MAMARONECK

del Deparimento

de Huehuete-

(ma-mar’é-nék), a village of Westchester

county, New York, U.S.A., 20 m. N.E. of New York City, on Long Island sound, the Boston Post road, and the New York, New Haven and Hartford railroad. Population in 1930 (Federal census) was 11,766. The site of Mamaroneck (an Indian word meaning “where the fresh water meets the salt”) was part of a tract

bought from the Indians in 1661 by John Richbell, an Englishman, and settled in 1676 by relatives of his. Heathcote hill, now dotted with residences, was the scene of a skirmish in the Revolution (Oct. 21, 1776). J. Fenimore Cooper lived in Mamaroneck for several years. The village was incorporated in 1895. MAMELI, GOFFREDO (1827-1849), Italian poet and patriot, born at Genoa of a noble Sardinian family, studied law

and philosophy at the University of Genoa. He was wholeheartedly devoted to Mazzini; among other patriotic poems he wrote a hymn to the Bandiera brothers, and in the autumn of 1847 a song called “Fratelli d’Italia,” which as Carducci wrote, “resounded through every district and on every battlefield of the peninsula in 1848 and 1849.” Mameli served in the National Guard at Genoa, and then joined the volunteers in the Lombard campaign of 1848, but after the collapse of the movement in Lombardy he went to Rome, whence he sent the famous despatch to Mazzini: “Roma! Repubblica! Venite!’’ Although wounded in the engagement of April 30 for the defence of Rome, he at

han Ghori founded an independent kingdom, which lasted till

once resumed his place in the ranks, but on June 3 he was again

531. In 1562 Malwa

was annexed to the Mogul empire by

wounded, and died in the Pellegrini hospital on July 6, 1849. Mameli was called “the Tyrtaeus of the Italian revolution.”

list provinces to be conquered by the Mahrattas, when it became ‘cockpit for fighting between the rival Mahratta powers, and

See G. Carducci, Opere, vol. 10 (1898); G. Trevelyan, Garibaldi’s Defence of the Roman Republic (1907); C. Docci, Goffredo Mameli

th an area of 2,704 sq.m. and a population (1921) of 383,156.

seized the Greek colony of Messana at the north-east corner of

kbar. On the break-up of that empire, Malwa was one of the

he headquarters of the Pindaris or irregular plunderers. The (1909). indaris were extirpated by the campaign of Lord Hastings inMAMELUEKE, the name given to a series of Egyptian sul817, and the country was reduced to order by Sir John Malcolm. tans, originating (1250) in the usurpation of supreme power by Malwa is traditionally the land of plenty, in which sufferers from the bodyguard of Turkish slaves first formed in Egypt under the amine could take refuge. But in 1899-1900 it was visited by successors of Saladin. See Eevet: History. tought, followed by plague. A product used to be opium. MAMERTINI, or “children of Mars,” the name taken by a The Malwa agency, since Gwalior was removed from it, is left band of Campanian (or Samnite) freebooters who about 289 B.c.

MAMERTINUS—MAMMALIA

748

Sicily, after having been hired by Agathocles to defend it (Polyb. 1. 7. 2). The members of the expedition are said to have been

the male children born in a particular spring of which the produce had been vowed to Apollo (see Samnites), and to have settled first in Sicily near Tauromenium. An inscription survives (R. S. Conway, Italic Dialects, 1), which shows that they took with them the Oscan language as it was spoken in Capua or Nola at that date, and the constitution usual in Italic towns of a free community (fouta) governed by two annual magistrates (meddices). On the Roman conquest of Sicily the town secured an independence under treaty (Cicero, In Verr. 3. 6. 13). The inhabitants were still called Mamertines in the time of Strabo (vi. 2. 3). See also Mommsen,

C.I.L. x.

MAMERTINUS, the Latin panegyrists.

CLAUDIUS

(4th century a.D.), one of

He was praefect of Italy (365) under

Valens and Valentinian, but in 368 was deprived of his office for embezzlement. He was the author of an extant speech of thanks to Julian for raising him to the consulship, delivered on Jan. 1, 362, at Constantinople. Two panegyrical addresses (also ‘extant) to Maximian (emperor A.D. 286-305) are attributed to an older magister Mamertinus, but it is probable that the corrupt ms. superscription contains the word memortae, and that they are by an unknown magister memoriae (an official who announced imperial rescripts and decisions). The first of these was delivered on the birthday of Rome (April 21, 289), probably at Maximian’s palace at Augusta Trevirorum (Tréves), the second in 290 or 291, on the birthday of the emperor.

By some they are attributed

to Eumenius (g.v.) also a magister memoriae. The three speeches will be found in E. Bahrens, Panegyrici latini (1874); see also Teuffel-Schwabe, Hist. of Roman Literature (Eng. trans.), § 417, 7.

MAMMALIA, a term invented by Linnaeus (1758) to include that class of animals in which the young are brought forth alive and nourished with milk from the mother’s breasts (mammae). Typical examples are the dog, cow, rabbit, monkey, man. Whales are also mammals, although externally fish-like in appearance. Hair (g.v.) is a typical mammalian structure. Mammals, like birds, are “warm-blooded” or homoeothermal animals, that is, they differ from “cold-blooded” or poecilothermal forms, such as fishes, amphibians and reptiles, in their superior ability to regulate their own body temperature, so that in spite of wide variations in the temperature of the surrounding medium the body temperature of a typical mammal is maintained in health at a high level and within the relatively narrow limits that are best adapted to the needs of the animal. Some of the most characteristic features of mammals are the expression of the relatively high pace maintained by the vital processes. Here may be mentioned the flexible skin, together with the sweat glands and sebaceous glands, the diaphragm, the complex lungs and heart. The origin of the mammals lies among the extinct mammal-like reptiles of the Triassic age. The subject may be divided into the following headings, I. Nutrition; II. Locomotion; III. Control Systems; IV. Reproduction; V. Rise of the Mammalian Orders; VI. Continental Dispersal of Orders. NUTRITION

Jaws and Teeth—The

main divisions of the digestive tract

(see ALIMENTARY CANAL) are already established in the vertebrates below mammals; indeed the organs and the processes of digestion (see NUTRITION AND DıcestIon) in the most primitive

lower vertebrates. The back of this in the embryo mamma] ends in a well-developed joint corresponding to the joint between the quadrate and articular elements of the -lower vertebrates. As

development proceeds the dentary grows upward and establishes

a new joint with the squamosal bone of the skull, while the old reptilian joint dwindles in size, pulls away from the dentary bone and gives rise to the joint between the malleus and incus of the middle ear, which are thus vestiges of the articular and quadrate of lower vertebrates.

In the higher mammal-like reptiles of the Triassic of Russia and South Africa the adult dentition was already differentiated into four kinds of teeth: incisors, canines, premolars and molars: the premolars and molars were cuspidate and in some genera had acquired accessory basal spurs and additional cusps; moreover the teeth were set in sockets and in some the cheek teeth show an incipient division of the single roots, while the dentition as a whole

was reduced to two sets corresponding to the deciduous and per.

manent dentitions of mammals.

Specialization of Teeth.—The food of mammals, like that

of lower vertebrates, may be either chiefly proteids, or chiefly

carbohydrates, or a mixture of the two. The pure proteid eaters are typically fierce rapacious forms, in which the digestive tract, the prehensile and masticatory apparatus and the locomotor machinery are all designed for aggression. On the other hand, the carbohydrate feeders are peaceful herbivorous creatures, who spend most of their time in consuming and storing away great quantities of relatively innutritious food. The anatomical and physiological differences between these two extreme types, é.g., the cat and the cow, are largely correlated

with this fundamental contrast in food habits. The cat as a pro-

teid eater receives its food in a highly concentrated and elaborate form. Consequently its digestive tract is relatively short and

simple, the stomach is not subdivided and the gastric juice shows a high percentage of hydrochloric acid. On the other hand, the cow, representing the extreme carbohydrate-feeding type, normally has in its stomach from 14 to 18% of its own total weight in bulky herbaceous food, which contains a great amount of cellulose. The cow’s digestive juices are unable to dissolve this indigestible food, but the cow produces an enormous quantity of saliva, which softens the food. By regurgitating and chewing the cud it mashes up the food in preparation for the fermentation caused by the anaerobic bacteria and infusoria in its stomach. In this way the mass gradually becomes fit for’digestion by the long digestive tract. The differences in diet between the cat and the cow are reflected in the differences in their dental mechanism and associated parts

of the skull, as set forth in the following table. Cal

Jaws:

Short, powerful, wide, for strong vertical

Incisor teeth:

Present in both jaws

Lower incisors:

Sharp, for piercing, holding and tearing flesh Prominent, for killing and dragging the prey

Cow

Long, slender, narrow, for oblique side swing

movements

Canines:

Crowns of premo-

mammals have been inherited directly from their premammalian lars and molars: ancestors. In typical mammals the most striking morphological advances beyond the reptilian grade are the jaws and teeth. Articular condyle Mammals are distinguished from lower vertebrates by the fact of lower jaw: that the mandible, consisting on each side of a single element (corresponding with the dentary bone of lower vertebrates), |' articulates directly with the squamosal without the intervention of the quadrate and articular which form the functional mandibu- Ascending branch of lower jaw: lar joint in the lower vertebrates. Early embryos of man, and many other mammals, show the dentary of each side forming on the outer side of the stout cartilaginous lower jaw, which corre- Body of jaw: sponds with the Meckel’s cartilage or core of the lower jaw of

Compressed, blade-like, for shearing flesh and cutting bones Placed far down, on level

with teeth; to produce a scissors effect, the back teeth engaging first Very large, for attachment of powerful temporal muscle Massive, for attachment of powerful masseter muscle

Absent in upper jaw, replaced by pad Blunt, opposed to pad, for cropping grass Upper canines absent; lower canines incisorlike, for cropping grass

Crescentic,

long-

crowned for chewing the cud Placed far above the level of teeth; to bring all the cheek teeth on

one side into play at once Slender, for small temporal muscle Slender, for attachment of slender muscle

masseter

MAMMALIA Cat

Method of cutting up food:

Cow

Into large chunks, with a few powerful bites

Into many very small bits, with many strokes of the jaw

Relatively few mammals attain either of these extreme specialvations, the majority subsisting on a more or less mixed diet. Incisors’and Canine Teeth.—The front teeth of mammals are adapted, according to the nature of the food, into insectivorous, camivorous, gnawing, omnivorous, frugivorous, browsing, grazing,

piscivorous and various derived and mixed types. In the more primitive insectivorous forms the incisors (2 on each side in primitive placentals and Z in primitive marsupials) ae small nipping teeth, suitable for catching insects, the lower centrals slightly procumbent, the crowns simple with blunt points or slightly sharp edges. In the cat the incisors are fairly primitive in form but are nearly vertical, so giving a more powerful bite.

LFI

Incisors: upper, 2 2 lower, 2

i : upper, : I Canines: lower, I

lars: Premolars

upper, 2

lower, i 2

Molars: PP®®, 3 ower, 3

, The following dental formulae illustrate the progressive reduc-

lion as we pass from the more primitive forms to the highly

specialized dentition of the cat:

Typical pantotherian mammal of Juras-

sic age

.

.

.

.

.

.

. (UE Ch Pt MZ) XK2=66

Typical polyprotodont marsupial (Opossum). . . , . . .

Modern insectivore (Gymnura) Moderndog. . . . . Modern cat .

(I4 Ch P® . (Ii C4 PZ . (Tf Ch PZ . ($ Ct P2

Mt) Mi) M2) Mi)

X2=50 X2=44 X2=40 X2=32

On the other hand, a secondary increase in number of molars occurs in several groups. Thus in anthropoids and man a fourth molar is sometimes developed. The high number of simple teeth in the toothed cetaceans is the result of degenerative specialization. Molats.—Primitive insectivorous molars are small and bear V-shaped cusps with sharp little blades; in shearing types the adapted for cutting and plucking vegetation from the ground. In molars are reduced in number but are large, with one or two Palacomastodon the next higher stage, the upper incisor tusks are long blades; in omnivorous types either the cusps become rounded, much enlarged; through the development of a proboscis, they no often connected with other cusps by low ridges as in anthropoid longer oppose the lower incisors but function as levers and apes and man, or they become conic and multiplied in number as weapons. In certain later mastodons and elephants the lower in the wart-hog; or the whole crown becomes a swollen mass with incisors are gradually eliminated and the upper incisors attain low cusps as in the bear; in herbivorous types the molar crowns great size, reaching in the extinct Elephas ganesa to ro ft. 84 acquire crests and hillocks, arranged in patterns characteristic of the different species. inches. In 1883 E. D. Cope observed that the teeth and skeletons of A reduction or loss of the incisors has frequently occurred in the carnivores and primitive ungulates of the Lower Eocene animals with a protrusile tongue, as in the sloths, anteaters, were far less dissimilar than those of their modern descendants, etc. In the horse family, which are grazers, both the upper and and especially that, while the patterns of their upper molars were lower incisors have become long-crowned, with cup-like insinkings already diversified, there were three main cusps or elevations, two from the incisal surface of the crown. This arrangement strength- on the outer and one on the inner side of the upper molars, eviens the tooth for cutting off siliceous grass stems, while the long dently homologous in both carnivores and herbivores. This was the “tritubercular” upper molar type of the Eocene mammals. crown insures a long period of use. A fourth main cusp on the hinder inner side of the upper molars In the cow, representing the browsing and grazing ruminant attiodactyls, the upper incisors and canines have been replaced by could be seen in earlier stages of evolution in the carnivores and ahorny pad, the lower incisors and lower canines have spatulate in more advanced stages in the primitive herbivorous mammals. In the lower jaws Cope observed that in both carnivores and crowns arranged in a semicircle, adapted, with the homy pad herbivores each lower molar tended to conform to a type in above, for plucking herbage. The canine teeth of carnivores are peculiarly fitted for killing which the tooth crown was divided into two moieties arranged in living prey. This type of tooth culminates in the great canines tandem: the first or anterior moiety (the frigonid) elevated and of the extinct sabre-tooth tigers. On the other hand, in herbivorous supporting a triangle of cusps, of which the chief lay on the outer forms the canine teeth are either reduced or adapted to some side of the crown, the other two on the inner; the second or other function, as in the lower canines of ruminants above men- posterior moiety (the talonid) depressed below the trigonid, consisting chiefly of a central concavity flanked on the inner and outer tioned, or the upper canines or fighting tusks of the boar. Deciduous or Milk Teeth.—In mammals the true molars, sides by single cusps. This central type of lower molar Cope although erupting late, appear to belong to the same series as the called tuberculo-sectorial. Among recent mammals the tuberculodeciduous incisors, canines and premolars, but have long lost sectorial pattern may still be seen in the lower molar teeth of their permanent successors. Since as soon as the young animal is civets, opossums, hedgehogs and other flesh-eating and insectivweaned it usually feeds upon the same food as its parents, it will orous mammals. H. F. Osborn (1888) gave names to the principal cusps of the be obvious that it usually needs a functional set of teeth of the same general kind as those of its parents but smaller. Thus the upper and lower molars, as follows:

In rodents the incisors become long-crowned, curved, flattened cylinders with chisel-like edges growing continuously from persistent pulps. In the lower Oligocene forerunners of the Proboscidea (g.v.) or elephants (Moeritherium), one pair of upper incisors and one pair of lowers are moderately enlarged and

milk teeth are usually not notably different from the permanent set. The presence of the milk teeth makes it possible for the permanent teeth to grow to any desirable size before eruption, teeth once erupted no longer grow except at the roots. Usually the hindmost milk teeth are more molariform than the permanent

teeth that replace them, apparently because the young animal

needs such teeth where the bite is the strongest. ‘Dental Formulae.—With few exceptions the right and left

sides of the jaws have the same numbers of incisors, canines, premolars and molars respectively.

Consequently the “dental for-

mula” as ordinarily written represents only one side of the whole dentition and the total number of teeth is equal to twice the sum of the numbers in the “formula.” The adult dental formula of

man, for example: 2

z

(£c- p- mM), is simply an abbreviated form of:

Upper Molar

Lower Molar Trigonid

Trigon Antero-internal:

(pr) Antero-external:

Protocone

Protoconid

Paracone

(prd) Antero-internal:

Postero-external:

Metacone

Postero-internal:

Metaconid

Talon Postero-internal: (hy)

Hypocone

(pa)

(me)

Antero-external:

(pad)

i

Paraconid

(med) Talonid Postero-external: Hypoconid (hyd) , eae Entoconid en

Both Cope and Osborn sought to trace the origin of the tritubercular molars of Eocene mammals back to the “single reptilian cone” of the earliest reptiles. For details of molar evolution see H. F. Osborn, The Origin of the Mammalian Molar Teeth to and from the Tritubercular Type (1907) and W. K. Gregory, The Origin and Evolution of the Human Dentition (1922).

MAMMALIA

750 LOCOMOTION Origin of the Mammalian Locomotor

Apparatus.—The

locomotor machinery of mammals, like that of other vertebrates, involves four closely interconnected systems: (1) the motor elements proper;

(2) the passive or supporting elements;

(3) the

combustion; (4) the activating, controlling and directive system. The motor elements include the striped or red muscle cells and the parts built up from them, muscle fibres, muscles and muscle

systems (see MUSCULAR SysTEM).

The supporting elements in-

clude: (a) the sheaths and connective tissue surrounding the active

elements; (b) the tendons that attach the muscles to the bones; (c) the ligaments that tie the parts of the skeleton together and (d) the articulated bony skeleton, including the backbone, skull, ribs, sternum, pectoral and pelvic girdles and limb bones. The locomotor apparatus of mammals, like that of lower vertebrates, is typically adapted for quadrupedal progression by running on relatively open ground, though many forms have learned to progress in special ways: leaping, climbing, volplaning and even flying, swimming, digging, tunneling. But no matter how elaborate the locomotor mechanism may be, it has all been evolved from the simple crawling mechanism of the earliest amphibians, and this in turn from the undulatory movements of certain air-

inner surface for the origin of the iliacus muscle, so that the Drimi-

tive mammalian ilium has become a narrow trihedral rod, with

well defined iliacus, gluteal and sacral planes. Meanwhile the femur has undergone corresponding Changes jin

the passage from crawling to running habits.

In the primitive

crawling types the short stout femur projected widely from the body, its head, or surface for articulation with the pelvis, was 3

broad oval set directly on top of the shaft; there was a large deep

pit for the insertion of the obturator muscles on the under-side

of the femur below the head, and a high ridge for the adductor

muscles, also on the under-side of the shaft.

In primitive mam.

mals, the femur is long, slender, with a cylindrical shaft, the head is globular, set off at a sharp angle and separated from the shaft

by a well-defined neck; there is a large flange (greater trochanter) on the outer upper part of the shaft, the proximal pit (or digital

fossa) is small, the primary adductor ridge is lost and there iş a process, the lesser trochanter, not found in reptiles. In primitive reptiles the bend between the lower end of the shank and the foot was not sharp; the two main bones of the

tarsus, the astragalus and calcaneum, were flat, more or less circy-

lar elements located in the same general plane; the calcaneum did not project backward to form a heel-bone. In the running foot

breathing, lobe-finned fishes of Devonian age. of the typical mammal, on the other hand, there is a sharp bend _ When the earliest amphibians crawled up out of the water the between the shin-bone and the instep, the astragalus and calcafore and hind paddles were bent downwards to assist the wriggling neum are highly differentiated, the former resting upon the latter, movement of the body. At first, the limbs sprawled widely. In the one forming a pulley for the tibia, the other a heel or lever such forms the humerus, or first segment of the skeleton of the for the powerful muscles of the shank. forelimb, had a very short shaft and widely-expanded ends. There Adaptive Radiation of the Limbs.—Among existing mamwas a sharp bend at the elbow and the radius, or front forearm mals the monotremes are adapted for burrowing and swimming bone, articulated on the under side of the humerus rather than on but these are the habits of refugees from direct, above-ground its further end. Similarly in the hind-limb, the femur was short competition with higher types. Among marsupials the primitive and was held widely out from the body. forms were arboreal, much like the existing opossums, and these But in the extinct mammal-like reptiles of the Permian and gave rise to the numerous ground-living forms adapted for runTriassic of South Africa and Russia the skeleton of the pectoral ning, leaping and digging. W. D. Matthew has argued that the and pelvic girdles and limbs progressively approaches the mam- little-known primitive placental mammals of the early Cretaceous malian type. Their limbs were adapted for running rather than were also arboreal, inasmuch as many of their descendants in the crawling; the body .was lifted well above the ground and the Lower Eocene had five-toed spreading hands and feet, partly trackway became narrower so that the feet gave a more direct divergent thumbs and great toes, and a primitive skeleton not support to the weight. In the later mammal-like reptiles the feet unlike that of an opossum. However, the evidence for arboreal were small and short, and from the reduction in the number of derivation is less decisive than in the marsupials. phalanges or toe-joints, to the mammalian number (three in each Scampering Types.—Small mammals in general have what may toe, except the first, which has two) we may infer that the fore- be called the scampering habit —the ability to scurry away quickly feet were at least partly “digitigrade,” i.e., raised off the ground in time of danger, without any pronounced specializations of the at the wrist. So too the humerus of the cynodonts, or higher skeleton for running; and it seems safe to assign this habit to the mammal-like reptiles, approached the lower mammalian types, pre-Eocene insectivorous ancestors of the placentals. From such a and from the form and position of its joint surfaces we may infer scampering type, with small semi-plantigrade hind feet and semithat the angle at the elbow was opening out toward the mam- digitigrade forefeet, adaptive radiation for different habits has i malian condition. brought about profound modifications of all parts of the skeleton. The Fore-Limb.—The typical mammalian shoulder-girdle exCursorial Types——In quadrupedal running or cursorial forms hibits a distinct advance beyond that of the cynodont reptiles in length and rapidity of stride, combined with strength and endurthe following features: (1) complete loss of all parts of the outer ance, are the great desiderata. The lower segments of the limbs shoulder-girdle except the clavicles; (2) the scapula has an ante- become long, rod-like, angulated compound levers for striking the rior shelf or extension supporting the supraspinatus muscle; (3) hard ground and catapulting the body forward; the principal musthe dorsal part of the supracoracoid muscle mass has extended cles are bunched at the upper parts of the limbs and transmit upward on to the scapula to give rise to the supraspinatus and their pulls through long cord-like tendons that pass over smooth the infraspinatus muscles; (4) the coracoid has become greatly pulley-like surfaces and are inserted into the lower segments of reduced and has lost its contact with the sternum; (5) the an- the leg. In extreme forms the foot is longer than the humerus, terior coracoid plate has disappeared or become vestigial; (6) the which gives great speed but requires great muscular strength. interclavicle has disappeared. All these changes have been associThe long narrow feet in running forms have parallel rather than ated with the raising of the body and the drawing-in of the fore- spreading digits; rising on its toes, the animal finally runs on its limbs so that the feet could be planted beneath the body. The enlarged hoofs alone. The thumb and great toe are reduced in egg-laying monotremes now the lowest of existing mammals, size and raised off the ground; later they disappear, as do the are still largely reptilian in the anatomy of the shoulder-girdle. fifth or outer digits of the fore- and hind-feet. In the perissodacThe remaining elêments of the primitive mammalian fore-limb, tyls or odd-toed ungulates the middle or third digit in both feet the humerus, radius and ulna, carpus, metacarpus and digits, were becomes predominant, in the horses finally forming the sole funcderived with only minor changes from those of the cynodonts. The Hind Limb.—The primitive mammalian ilium has appar- tional axis of the foot, the second and fourth digits being reduced to slender splints. In the artiodactyls, on the other hand, after ently been derived from that of the cynodonts through the prothe loss of the first digit the others become paired, the inner and nounced narrowing of the region above the root of the tail, outer digits, II. and V., being smaller, while III. and IV. are accompanying the reduction of the tail muscles. The result of this larger; in the final stages II. and V. become reduced and almost and other changes has been to narrow and lengthen the gluteal disappear, while III. and IV. become very long and fuse into the area on the back of the ilium and to extend the area on the front eannon-bone.

MAMMALIA As the fore-and-aft movements of the limbs become emphazed, the elbows and knees are turned outward as little as posdle; twisting movements diminish. Consequently the shoulder-

‘rdle tends to lose the clavicle and the acromial process of the

apula disappears. In connection with the predominant fore-andft movements there are hinge-like joints between the humerus md the forearm, at the wrist and between the metacarpals and

digits. oe scapula is variously shaped: V-shaped in the swift-running ntiodactyls, with vertically extended fossa for the infraspinatus muscle; it is usually at least as long as the humerus, which is relatively short with a projecting greater tuberosity for the attachnent of the powerful shoulder muscles. The olecranon process of the una becomes a broad thickened lever for the insertion of the massive and powerful triceps; the strong tendon of the biceps

psses through a broad channel in the humerus. These and many other detailed adaptations for swift running tave been worked out independently in many families and even in different orders of mammals, notably among the numerous

phins-living ungulates, as in the horses of the northern world, the extinct pseudo-horses or smaller litopterns of Patagonia, the antepes and deer. The less advanced stages are seen among the car-

nivorous hunters such as wolves and certain of the extinct creodonts, as well as in the marsupial wolf (Thylacinus) of Australia. Even some of the plains-living rodents, such as the chinchilla, show cursorial adaptations in the limbs. The ilium in cursorial

types is a strongly braced T-shaped bone supporting the thick deep luteal muscles which are inserted nearly at right angle to the

lng axis of the femur. Graviportal or Siriding Types-—Given an abundant food sup-

ply, many lines of evolving animals exploit the opportunity of becoming larger, living longer and leaving a larger progeny. These conditions have tended to transform slender speedy animals into

meat lumbering brutes. In these heavy-bodied forms the lateral

o transverse growth components increase relatively faster than the inear ones; slender bodies and narrow limbs and feet become broad and robust. This is clearly seen in such races as the extinct titanotheres, the rhinoceroses and other lines of ungulates, in which the earlier forms have slender narrow feet, the later ones broad short feet. In such cases the extent to which the earlier cursorial adaptaons are disguised by the overlying graviportal changes depends wer aia upon how early the graviportal tendencies gain the ascendancy. When the graviportal tendency supervenes immedately upon the short-footed scampering stage, so that the cursorlal stage is passed by, we have the extreme graviportal modifitations illustrated in the Eocene Amblypoda and toa less extent inthe elephants. The excessively short-toed feet, instead of cataputing the body, roll forward on a great elastic cushion and the straightened legs, with long humeri and femora, swing forward like massive beams. The ilium widens transversely into a huge fan. Saltatorial or Leaping Types are usually developed from the scampering or cursorial types. In the jerboas and kangaroo rats, which have evolved from scampering rodents, the animals leap on their powerful hind-limbs, holding the body erect and using the

fore-limbs chiefly in manipulating the food. The tail is used as a

lalancing organ in leaping. The kangaroos have doubtless been

(rived from arboreal phalangers, in which the fourth digit of the hind-foot was already enlarged, the first digit divergent and pretensile, the second and third small and closely appressed or syn-

dactylous. The early hopping stage is illustrated by the tiny musk

garoo (Hypsiprymnodon), in which the great toe is still present hough reduced.

In later stages the great toe disappears and the

buth digit becomes enormously enlarged, forming the lower joint

ta catapult, the power for which is supplied by the massive tucles of the buttocks, thigh and shank. The tail acts as the dleg of a tripod. Bipedal leaping is convenient for hurdling tbstacles in sudden alarms, but for heavy animals it is uneconomlal for long distances.

fossorial or Digging Types have been developed usually from “anpering short-footed types with short powerful arms. In the noe; an extreme and unique fossorial type, the fore-limbs have

751

been moved forward under the neck to enable the enormous, wide hands to reach in front of the nose. The humeri have acquired a secondary contact with the clavicles, which have become solid blocks that form the pivots of the forearm and rest on a keelshaped forward extension of the sternum. The scapulae are

elongate, to give long shoulder muscles and a long reach of the

humeri; the enormous triceps is inserted into a great hooked olecranon process of the ulna, the lower surface of which supports the powerful flexors of the carpus. The hind limb is small and not much modified. The Cape golden moles (Chrysochloridae) differ widely from the true moles. Their forefeet are very narrow and adapted for digging in hard soil, with one or two sickle-like claws. The armadillos and many rodents dig with their large claws and powerful fore-limbs. Natatorial or Swimming Types have been developed in many orders, although the extreme form of aquatic adaptation is limited to the Cetacea and Sirenia (g.v.). The end-results of prolonged aquatic adaptation naturally depend partly on what type of terrestrial forms the given aquatic types took rise from. Thus among the marsupials the aquatic opossum or yapok is simply an Opossum with webbed feet. Among the Mustelidae the ordinary otter, the African Aonyx and the sea-otter.(Latax) represent progressive adaptation to aquatic life, in which the feet become webbed and enlarged. The sea-lions carry this line of adaptation much further, greatly enlarging the hands and feet into flippers, but retaining the power to support the body on all four limbs. Finally, the earless seals (Phocidae) have lost the power of bringing the hind limbs forward under the body and all four feet are specialized paddles. The body, enclosed in a thick layer of fat, has become streamlined and in the cetaceans becomes fish-like. These specializations were already under way in the oldest known whales, the Eocone Archaeoceti. Nevertheless, evidence from comparative anatomy and embryology proves that the Cetacea have been derived from terrestrial, quadrupeda! placentals, perhaps allied with the stem of the insectivores and carnivores. The manatees and dugongs (Sirenia) approach the Cetacea in aquatic specialization, but the resemblance is due to convergence as the anatomical differences indicate that the Sirenia have been derived from herbivorous ancestors, possibly related to the ancestral elephants. Scansorial or Climbing Types—Many small mammals with well-developed claws and spreading hands and feet supplied with interdigital pads can climb tree-trunks. In the marsupials the opossums afford an example of a ptimitive stage of arboreal specialization. The phalangers illustrate a more advanced type of highly specialized hind feet; the great toe is strongly divergent and flattened, the second and third toes slender, closely appressed and enclosed in a common skin, the fourth and fifth enlarged and forming the outer fork of a clamp, the great toe forming the inner. The tree-shrews (Tupaidae), which are probably very primitive Primates, give the initial stages of arboreal adaptation in that order. The pen-tailed tree-shrew (Ptilocercus) of Borneo has small spreading hands and feet and a generalized skeleton. The lemurs and their Eocene forerunners Adapidae and Notharctidae, have grasping hind-feet with a wide flat nail on the large great toe; the digits are elongate, slender with small nails, except the second digit, which bears a small claw. Lemurs are essentially arboreal quadrupeds, running along the tops of the branches, and the same is true of the typical monkeys. The New World monkeys, which have a prehensile tail, can also hang and swing from the branches. The monkeys, especially those of the Old World division, sit upright, or partly so, resting on the ischial callosities. The hands are used in manipulating the food. Brachiating or Acrobatic Forms——The gibbons do not run on all fours but hold the body erect, raising the long arms above the head. They make long leaps through the air, catching the branches. In their skeleton as well as in their internal anatomy they are closer to man than to the lower primates. Of the larger anthropoids the orang-utan (g.v.) is extremely specialized for arboreal life, using the suspension grasp of the hands and feet. The arms are excessively long, with enfeebled

754

MAMMALIA

thumbs, the legs very short. Progression on the ground is awkward, the long arms being used as crutches. The chimpanzee (g.v.) is a moderately heavy-bodied brachiating form, less specialized than the orang. In running on the ground a secondarily quadrupedal gait is employed, the weight of the heavy forepart of the body resting on the bent knuckles. Nevertheless tame chimpanzees, when carrying large objects in their arms, walk erect. Old male gorillas are gigantic, extremely massive animals which run on the ground on all fours upon bent knuckles. Nevertheless the locomotor skeleton as a whole is surprisingly close to that of man, except in certain parts such as the ilium and the great toe, in which the brachiating features are conspicuous. Biped Type.—This is exemplified by man and the adaptations are treated elsewhere (see MAN, EVOLUTION OF). Volplaning Types-—Certain active climbing types with long limbs, leaping boldly from the trees skim downward easily by holding extended their patagium, a fold of skin stretching from the neck outward and from the arms to the legs and sometimes from the legs to the tail. Such an adaptation has been acquired independently among marsupials in the flying phalangers, among rodents in the flying squirrels and in the anomalures, and also in the colugos (‘flying lemurs”), an isolated type remotely related perhaps to the tree-shrews and lemurs. No marked skeletal spe-

cializations except the lengthening of the limbs distitiguish the volplaning types from their arboreal relatives. Flying Types—The Chiroptera (g.v.) or bats are the only mammals to achieve true flight. Their wings are enormously elongated hands and arms covered with thin skin. The hind legs are weak and mostly used for suspension. It is supposed that bats have been derived from skimming forms in which the web of skin extended between the long fingers. The Backbone.—In the line of ascent to the mammals there was a tendency toward simplification of the complex eight-piece vertebrae (see AMPHIBIA), with progressivé reduction of certain elements, until in the dorsal vertebrae of the mammal-like reptiles four of the original eight pieces were nearly or quite eliminated, and we have left a vertebra composed of two main parts: (a) the neurocentrum, an inverted Y-shaped piece, arising from the fusion of the opposite “basidorsals,” which cover the spinal nerve cord and afford origin for the spinal muscles; (b) the centrum proper, a short cylinder somewhat constricted in the middle, consisting of the opposite pleurocentra, or interdorsals, of earlier vertebrates and serving for the insertion of the ribs and for the support of the body as a whole. In the oldest Amphibia there was a gradual regional differentia-

tion of the backbone as we pass from the neck to the tail; in the mammal-like reptiles, especially in the cynodonts, regional differentiation is pronounced though not sudden. The ribs of the cervical or neck region are short, but still have shafts, while at least in the higher mammals these shafts are lost. The cynodonts were progressing in the direction of the mammals in the fact that their lumbar ribs were suturally connected with the sides of the yertebrae as in some very young marsupials. In many more advanced mammals the lumbar ribs are completely replaced by transverse processes which grow out from the sides of the vertebrae. Similarly in the sacral region the cynodonts and less specialized mammals had free sacral ribs, whereas in more specialized mammals the rib elements of the sacrum are replaced by transverse processes. In the older mammal-like reptiles the condyle was median and ball-like as in typical reptiles, but in the cynodonts the lateral parts grew outward while the median part retreated so that a . double condyle almost of mammalian type was attained. The mammalian atlas-axis complex is a contrivance of great functional and morphologic intricacy, the purpose of which is to

provide a wide range of movement combined with automatic

checks, to prevent sudden stresses from dislocating the joint and squeezing the spinal cord. One of the most essential morphological features of the atlas-axis complex of cynodonts and mammals is that the paired occipital protuberances are received into the upper or neural arches of the atlas or first vertebra and that the

centrum or body of the atlas becomes a buffer which in the adult is closely united to the centrum of the second vertebra or ari.

of which in adults it forms the odontoid process. Meanwhile the

neural spine of the second vertebra becomes

enlarged vertical]

to give origin to some of the powerful muscles that raise the head

In the dorsal vertebrae the stout neural spines act as levers for the powerful spinal muscles in extending the back, while the trans-

verse processes and centra serve as bases for the movable ribs enclosing the heart, lungs and diaphragm. The contour of the vertebral column in the standing pose in the side view differs widely in accordance with the habits. In scampering types with short legs the column is usually strongly arched in the mid-dorsal region. This culminates in the short. footed carnivorous types such as weasels.

In long-limhed running

types, especially those with a long neck or a heavy head, the

backbone may bear long stout spines on the neck and forepart of the back, to which are attached the heavy ligaments of the

neck and the deeper muscles of the occiput.

A profound difference between a typical reptile and a typical mammal is that in the former the great muscles on the lower side

of the tail act powerfully in pulling the hind limbs backward ip running. In mammals, on the contrary, the tail muscles are greatly diminished and of slight importance in locomotion. Skull.—The mammalian skull is here treated under the section locomotion because the vertebrate skull in the first place arose as a fulcrum or thrust-block to withstand the forward thrust of the locomotor muscles acting through the vertebral column in the rear and the resistance of the water in front. Hence even in the oldest known chordates, the ostracoderms, the skull consists of two parts: (1) a wedge-like sloping roof and sides, forming a bony

dermocranium

and (2) a cartilaginous or partly ossified inner

skull or endocranium, comprising (a) the capsules surrounding the olfactory, optic and balancing organs and (b) the central

brain-trough or trabecular region. Modifications of the jaws and teeth in the mammals, in adaptation to different food habits, have a profound effect upon the form of the skull as a whole, since the jaws usually form the greater part of the bony face, while the jaw muscles cause the upgrowth of ridges on the top and sides of the braincase and condition in many ways the form of the base of the skull. On the whole the mammalian braincase has advanced beyond that of primitive reptiles in the following features:

(x) The elimination of several dermal bones of the circumorbital and occipito-temporal series, the tabulars, supratemporals, postorbital, postfrontal, prefrontals; (2) The widening-out of the brain-trough through the widening

of the brain; the change of the reptilian epipterygoid into the mammalian alisphenoid; (3) The elaboration of the turbinate bones, scroll-like outgrowths from the median cartilaginous septum of the nasal chamber; (4) The consolidation of the bony elements surrounding the inner ear into a single dense bone, the periotic, and the fusion of this with the squamosal; (5) The shifting of the inner ear from the side to the base of the skull, CONTROL

SYSTEMS

The mammalian nervous system, which reaches unprecedented complexity in man, can scarcely be understood apart from other regulating devices or control systems, which greatly condition its activities. In all vertebrates the ductless or endocrine glands

(g.v.) play an important part in the production and maintenance

of the specific and individual patterns of growth and behaviour,

since they pour into the blood-stream certain hormones which give the chemical impetus to particular changes in the direction of growth. (See ENDOCRINOLOGY, COMPARATIVE.) On the whole there is a marked contrast, however, between chemically and nervously determined functions. Chemical regulation (as from the ductless glands) tends to be rigid and deter-

minate. Nervous regulation, on the other hand, has tended toward flexibility, modifiability,

choice

of several courses

of action.

Mammals, especially man, have achieved extraordinary adapta-

MAMMALIA lity to wide ranges of environmental

changes largely through

te greater flexibility and range of response of ‘their nervous tem.

The nervous system of mammals (more fully treated in the utile BRAIN), like that of other vertebrates, comprises the fol-

wing elements: (1) paired organs of smell, sight, balance, hearsg; (2) numerous organs of touch and taste and “somesthetic”

¿nse (organs which convey sensations of bodily posture and movement ) ; (3) “motor nerves,” which release the activities of dands and muscles; (4) innumerable connecting tracts, relay

dations and control systems of amazing intricacy. In general the mammalian brain differs from that of lower vertebrates in the fact that the upper part and sides of the end-

brain have grown outward into sack-like expansions, which form

he neopallium or cerebral cortex of mammals. In the lower nammals this new part of the brain is but moderately developed and the localization of functional areas is at best incipient but in the higher mammals, including man, the neopallium becomes enormously complex, dominating the entire organism and tendng to differentiate the cortical “centres” described in the article

Bran. Meanwhile the thalamus and the “brain stem” have likewise become extremely complex, developing a bewildering maze of connections with other parts of the brain. The result of these epansions and complications is that the old primary control

753 THE

RISE OF THE

MAMMALIAN

ORDERS

During the Triassic, Jurassic and Cretaceous, the fossil record of the mammals is meagte; later it is relatively abundant; but even then there are blank intervals and imperfectly preserved records. As many existing orders of mammals began to diverge

during the Age of Reptiles, when the record is most imperfect,

it 1s difficult to reconstruct the earlier history of the mammalian orders from present data.

Probably by Upper Triassic times some of the smaller mammallike reptiles, a group already almost mammals, had crossed the line by acquiring a hairy covering and a new contact between the dentary bones of the lower jaw and the squamosal bone of the skull. With the coming of Lower Jurassic times the mammalian

stock had split into three distinct groups: (1) the Allotheria or Multituberculata (g.v.), rodent-like mammals with gnawing front teeth and many-cusped grinding teeth; (2) the Triconodonta, small carnivorous forms with triconodont molar teeth, each crown consisting typically of three cusps in a fore-and-aft line and (3) the Pantotheria, or Trituberculata, very small insectivorous mammals typically with sharp-cusped lower molars of the most primitive tuberculo-sectorial type. The Allotheria were probably not closely related to any other order of mammals but were a peculiar,

now wholly extinct group extending in time from the Upper

Triassic to the summit of the basal Eocene. The Triconodonts ystems pass under the dominance of the newer and higher cen- also appear to be an isolated and extinct group, but certain of tes. (See C. J. Herrick, Brains of Rats and Men, and F. Tilney the Pantotherians, such as Amphitherium, appear sufficiently generalized to be the potential ancestors of all later mammals exmd H, A. Riley, The Brain from Ape to Man.) cept the recent monotremes which at present show distant relaREPRODUCTION tionships with the marsupials, but are still without known fossil In a typical placental mammal the minute fertilized egg is ancestors, the features they share with the Allotheria being offset developed internally and the embryo is nourished by an out- by many others that indicate wide differences. The marsupials nowth of its own “allantoic bladder” which becomes appressed may well be the descendants of some of the Pantotheria but to the wall of the maternal uterus, finally uniting with the latter, actual connecting links are wanting. The same is true of the atleast along certain zones. Thus the embryo is enabled to draw Placentals, which are first known in abundance in the basal nourishing blood directly from the mother (see VERTEBRATE Eocene of North America. Recently, however, the field parties EuprvoLocy). At birth the placenta is pulled away from the of the American Museum of Natural History in Mongolia have uterine wall but excessive uterine hemorrhage is normally stopped discovered several incomplete skulls of small mammals which atomatically by appropriate chemical substances in the maternal appear to represent some of the Cretaceous forerunners of the centetoid insectivores and perhaps also of the most primitive blood. After birth the development of higher mammals is prolonged carnivores or creodonts. From comparison of the osteology and anatomy of the recent over the period corresponding in man to infancy, childhood and adolescence; the delayed maturity affording opportunity for monotremes, marsupials and placentals, however, we may infer lng-continued growth and differentiation of the brain, with a with high probability that the ancestral mammal was an egglaying vertebrate that retained a primitive reptilian type of correspondingly extended period of learning. In wide contrast with this are the conditions found in the shoulder-girdle with two complete coracoid plates on either side lowest existing mammals, the egg-laying mammals of Australia and with the beginnings of the neopallium in the brain. From (£e MONOTREMATA). While these lay eggs, like reptiles, the such primitive types the marsupials (see MARSUPIALIA) evolved embryo nevertheless derives some of its nourishment from the by developing, among other characters: (1) a three-way, vaginal passage; (2) the true or allantoic placenta was early replaced by uterine wall as well as from the yolk stored in the egg. In typical placental mammals the right and left uteri are fused a false or yolk-sack placenta; (3) the corpus callosum or great in the mid-line, making a single uterus. In the lowest mammals, cross-band between the opposite halves of the neopallium was the monotremes, the right and left uteri are entirely separate as not developed; (4) all the milk teeth were suppressed except in reptiles. Various intergrading conditions between these ex- the hindermost premolars and (5) the dental formula of the

adult dentition was reduced from a higher number to If C+ P32 M.

temes occur in the marsupials, edentates and rodents. The milk-glands of female mammals

are highly characteristic

of the whole class. They are arranged in pairs on the ventral surface of the body, varying in number from one pair in man and other primates to eleven pairs in the insectivore Centetes.

They

ite usually surmounted by nipples, raised folds of skin with a central tunnel for the passage of the milk. In the placental mammals the milk is actively sucked or pumped by the young but in the monotremes the nipples are represented only by depressed glandular areas with raised borders and the milk is said lo be licked by the young from the base of the hairs in the mammary field. This condition may well give the clue to the origin of the milking habit, which must have originated after the

sbaceous glands of the skin had developed an albuminous secreton, which may have served originally either to attach the eggs

lo the under-surface of the brooding mother, or to anoint the

tgs with a heat-retaining coating. At any rate, the habit of milkng in its initial stages seems to require some voluntary action

ly the young, such as licking.

On the other hand, the primitive placentals apparently never developed either the three-way vagina, or the yolk-sack placenta, but their true placenta early became highly developed, as did the corpus callosum; the entire set of milk teeth was retained and the dental formula was early reduced tol? C+ P4 M#. The marsupial group may have been dominant in the Lower Cretaceous, when fossil records are practically blank. By the Lower Eocene the marsupials were already a defeated group which took to the trees and persisted in North America only in the form of the opossums, among the most primitive of all living animals; in South America, however, they gave rise to several extinct families (Borhyaenidae, Caenolestidae, Didelphidae) and in Aus-

tralia they became the dominant mammalian

forms and gave

rise to a great series of families, including the dasyures, bandicoots, phalangers, kangaroos and others. The placental group is first known from primitive insectivorous representatives from Mongolia, as already noted; apparently it originated somewhere in the north and by basal Eocene times its å

a

754

MAMMALIA

diversified descendants are found in western North America and western Europe but as yet nowhere else. These were small-

brained forms, many belonging to families that became extinct

before the close of the Eocene. Here belong most of the archaic carnivores or creodonts, amblypods, tillodonts and others. Be-

sides the “archaic” placental families that became wholly extinct were others apparently related to later groups. Here belong (1) the Plesiadapidae (apparently related to the tree-shrews and thus representing an early phase in evolution of the primates); (2) early forerunners of the tarsioid primates; (3) the insectivore Palaeoryctes, representing a primitive phase of the modern centetoid insectivores; (4) the progressive creodont Didymictis (in or near to the ancestry of the modern carnivores); (5) the palaeano-

CONTINENTAL

DISPERSAL

OF MAMMALIAN

ORDERS

From the studies of palaeontologists and mammalogists emerge the following among other general results bearing on geographic

dispersal of the mammalian orders:

(x) At various times during the Age of Mammals pathways were opened by which a given group of mammals, acquiring its special characters in regional isolation, could pass from central Asia westward to Europe or eastward to North America, or from either Europe or America to Asia. Among the orders and families

of placental mammals that may have originated in the northern realm (including Europe, Asia, North America) may be mentioned

the perissodactyls and artiodactyls, the insectivores, the fissipede carnivores, the rodents, the edentates, the lemuroids, catarrhine

donts, including primitive relatives of the armadillo group of primates, anthropoids and probably man. The families of rhinoceroses, lophiodonts, titanotheres and camels afford examples of the

edentates. The bats (Chiroptera, g.v.), too, appear to be an old group, possibly dating back to the Basal Eocene or even earlier. Conspicuously absent from the Basal Eocene are the

more or less free intercontinental commerce at certain periods, (2) South America was early in contact with North America: then the contact was broken and for millions of years the country

modernized or caeneutherian placental orders, including especially the perissodactyls, the artiodactyls, the rodents, the Probos- was left to develop its own fauna of litopterns, toxodonts, groundsloths and other strange beasts. In late Tertiary times the way . cidea. The condylarths or primitive ungulates of the Basal and Lower was again opened and mastodons, camels, tapirs, deer and other Eocene are not regarded by modern authorities as ancestral either animals streamed in from the north, while South America sent to the perissodactyls or artiodactyls; it is however probable that platyrrhine monkeys, ground-sloths and other animals northsome of the condylarths gave rise to the peculiar South Ameri- ward. (3) Africa, especially in the north, was frequently in contact can orders of litopterns, toxodonts, etc. By the Lower and Middle Eocene we find in Europe and western North America, side by with the northern land mass but in late Eocene and early Oligoside with the later families of meseutherian placentals, the earliest cene times the Fayum district in Egypt may have been an outlier known representatives of the more progressive modern families: of some central African region which seems to have produced the Eohippus, representing the horses (Equidae); Hyrachyus and Proboscidea, arsinoitheres, hyracoids and sirenians. The most other genera, forerunners of the lophiodonts and rhinoceroses; primitive known cetaceans (Pappocetus, Protocetus, ProzeugloTrigonolestes, a primitive representative of the artiodactyls; don) are also found there. Madagascar, possibly part of a broad Metachiromys, a specialized armadillo-like edentate; Vzveravus, archipelago formerly connected with India, was the centre of close to the ancestors of the later carnivores; Paramys, a fore- peculiar families of carnivores (viverrids) lemuroids, insectivores runner of the sciuroid rodents; Pelycodus and Notharctus, early (centetoids). Broadly, Africa’s mammalian fauna to-day reprelemuroids, and the numerous anaptomorphids, relatives of the sents Europe and Asia of Miocene and Pliocene times. (4) Australia, receiving its original marsupials at some early primate Tarsius. Even the Cetacea were represented by the peculiar zeuglodont group. During the Lower Eocene, western date, was then cut off from Asia and developed one of the most Europe and North America had several fossil genera in common interesting mammalian faunas of all time, in which the marsupial (including the earliest stages of the horse family) which may stock was fashioned into herbivorous, carnivorous and rodent-like mammals, strangely similar in habitus to their analogues of the perhaps have spread from central Asia. In many cases the molar teeth of the Eocene placental mam- placental world and yet always preserving their marsupial heritage mals, while variously specialized, still retained distinct traces of in brain and reproductive system and in the deeper characters of derivation from an earlier tritubercular type characteristic of the the skull and skeleton. At times during this long period placental basal Eocene; the hands and feet were either five-toed or bore invaders from the north managed to get in; first a peculiar family clear traces of derivation by reduction from the five-toed type; of rats and much later the dingo or native dog, together with that the humerus had an entepicondylar foramen and the femur a most devastating of all placentals, man. Australia, on the other third trochanter. So that it seems reasonable to infer that all the hand, succeeded in sending some marsupials into New Guinea and varied placental orders of Eocene times were descendants of some as far northwest as Celebes. Some hold also that from Australia group that lived perhaps in the Lower Cretaceous; but as to the by way of Antarctica came the extinct carnivorous marsupials and more precise interrelationships of the mammalian orders, extended caenolestoids of South America. (See MARSUPIALIA.) BrstiocraPHy.—Mammals in general: W. H. Flower and R. research on the anatomy and osteology of the recent forms and on Introduction to the Study of Mammals, Living and Extinct the osteology and dentition of the fossil forms has so far rather Lydekker, (1891) ; Max Weber, Die Säugetiere (Jena, 1904). Physiology: Ernest revealed the complexity of the problem than solved it. From H. Starling, Principles of Human Physiology (x920); Sir Arthur present evidence the tree-shrews, lemuroids and primates, with Keith, “Man’s Posture: Its Evolution and Disorders,” Brit. Med. Galeopithecus and the bats, appear to form one great superordinal Jour. (March and April, 1923). Dentition: H. F. Osborn, Evolution Molar'Teeth (1907); W. K. Gregory, Origin and assemblage, probably derived from arboreal Cretaceous insec- of the MammalianHuman Dentition (Baltimore, 1922) and “PalaeonEvolution of the tivores. On the other hand, the old order of ungulates, formerly tology of the Human Dentition,” Amer. Jour. Phys. Anthrop. (Oct.supposed to be a natural group, seems to consist of a hetero- Dec., 1926). Locomotor Apparatus: D. M. S. Watson, “Evolution of geneous assemblage of orders (condylarths, taligrades, ambly- the Tetrapod Shoulder-girdle and Fore-limb,” Jour. Amat. (1917); (1920) ; W. K. Gregory pods, perissodactyls, hyracoids, proboscideans, sirenians, artio- Sir Arthur Keith, Engines of the Human BodyMyology and Osteology, and C. L. Camp, “Studies in Comparative dactyls, notoungulates, arsinoitheres, etc.), related chiefly by No. II,” Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist. vol. xxxvili. (1918); A. S. descent from various as yet unknown protoungulates. Romer, “Locomotor Apparatus of Certain Primitive and MammalThe aardvarks, formerly classed with the edentates, may prove like Reptiles,” Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., vol. xlvi. (1922). Skul: Quart. to be highly specialized descendants of the condylarths, while the W. K. Gregory, “Palaeomorphology of the Human Head,” 2 (1927). Brain: Frederick Tilney, The Brain No. ii., vol. Biol., Rev, edentates themselves are probably the descendants of the 'palaefrom Ape to Man (1928); C. J. Herrick, Brains of Rats and Men anodonts, which in turn may be remotely related to the insec- (1926). Mammalian Orders: W. K. Gregory, “The Orders of tivore-creodont stock. The earliest known cetaceans, the zeuglo- Mammals,” Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., vol. xxvii. (1910). Mesos0i donts, were not directly ancestral to the true cetaceans; never- Mammals: G. G. Simpson, “Catalogue of Mesozoic Mammalia in the Museum,” Mem. Brit. Mus. Nat. theless they tie in that order with the insectivore-creodont divi- Geological Department of the British (1928). Palaeontological History of Mammals: H. F. Osborn; Hist. sion of the placentals. On the other hand, the Sirenia, although The Age of Mammals (1910); W. K. Gregory, “The Orders 0 resembling the cetaceans in general body-form, are herbivores and Mammals,” Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., vol. xxvii. (1910). (W. K. G) their real affinities are with the ungulates.

MAMMARY

GLAND

755 MAMMARY GLAND, the organ by mea ns of which the pit remains throughout life, oung are suckled, and the possession of Which and the milk is conducted along the , in some region hairs to the young, of the but

in other Mammals nipples are formed in one of two ways. One is that already described in Man, which is common to the Marsu Anatomy.—In the human female the gland extends vertically margin or vallum of pials and Primates, while in the other the from the second to the sixth rib, and transversely the mammary pit grows up, and so forms a from the of the sternum to the mid axillary line; it is embedded in edge nipple with a very deep pit, into the bottom of which the lacthe fat tifer ous ducts open. The latter superficial to the pectoralis major is regarded as the primary arrangement. In the monotremes the mammae muscle, and a process which exare looked upon, not as modifed sebaceous glands, as in other tends toward the armpit is someMammals, but as altered sweat glands. In these primitive Mammals times called the axillary tail. A the glands are equally devel oped in both sexes, and it is thought little below the centre of the the male often assists in suckling the youn that among the bats glandular swelling is the nipple, g (see G. Dobson, Brit. Muse um Cat. of the Chiroptera, London, 1878) surrounding which is a pigmented . These facts, together with the occasional occurrence circular patch called the areola; of functional activity of the organ in the human male, make it probable that this is studded with slight nodamong ancesules, which are the openings of FROM A. F. DIXON, IN “CUNNINGHAM'’'S TEXT. tral Mammals both sexes helped in the process of lactation. For furthe BOOK r OF detail ANATOMY” s see Comparative Anatomy of Vertebrates, COXFORD MEDICAL PUB. areolar glands secreting an oily LICATIONS) by R. Wiedersheim, trunk, entitles the animal bearing it to a place in the order of Mammalia. In the male the organ is presen t but undeveloped.

fuid to protect the skin during suckling. During the second or

third month of pregnancy the areola becomes more or less

MAMMARY GLAND, DISSECTED TO SHOW STRUCTURE AND CONVER. GENCE OF LACTEAL DUCTS ON NIPPLE

deeply pigmented, but this to a large extent passes off after lactation ceases. In structure the gland consists of some 1 5 to 20 lobules, each of which has a lactiferous duct Opening at the sum-

mit of the nipple, and branches in the substance of the gland to

adapted by W. N. Parker (1907), and Bronn’s Classen und Ordnungen des Thierreichs.

Y GLAND, DISEASES the breast (mastitis) is apt to occur in a OF. Inflammation of woman who is suckling, and is due to the

presence of Septic micro-organisms, which, as a rule, have found their way into the milk-ducts, the lymphatics or the veins, through a crack, or other wound, in a been made sore by the infant’s vigorous attemp nipple which has ts to obtain food. Especially is this septic inflammation apt to occur if the nipple is depressed, or so badly formed that the infant has difficulty in feeding from it. The inflamed breast is enlarge d, tender and painful, and the skin over it is hot, and perhaps reddened. The woman feels ill and feverish, and she may shiver or have a definite rigor if the infammation is passing on to the format ion of an abscess. The abscess may be superficial to, or beneath, the breast, but it is usually within the breast itself. The infant should at once be weaned, the milk-tension being relieved by the breast-pump. Fomentations should be applied under waterproof jaconette, and the breast should be evenly supported by a bandag e. Belladonna and glycerine should be smeared over the breast, with the view of checking the secretion of milk, as well as of easing pain. On the first indication that pus is collecting, an incisio n must be made to prevent extension of the disease. As the discharge begins to cease, firm strapping of the breast will prove useful.

form secondary lobules, the walls of which are lined by cubical epithelium in which the milk is secreted. These secondary lobules project into the surrounding fat, so that it is difficult to dissect out the gland cleanly. Before opening at the nipple each lactiferous duct has a fusiform dilatation called the ampuila. After the child-bearing period of life the breasts atrophy and tend to become pendulous, while in some African races they are pendulous throughout life. Variations in the mammary glands are common; often the left breast is larger than the right, and in those rare cases in which one breast is suppressed it is usually the right, though this does not necessarily include absence of the nipple. Supernumerary nipples and glands are not uncommon, and are usually situated in the mammary line which extends from the anterior axillary fold to the spine of the pubis; hence, when an extra nipple appears above the normal one, it is external to it, Chronic Eczema of the breast may occur, but when but, when below, it is nearer the middle line. Extra nipples present are around the nipple of a woman late in life, with perhaps, localized commoner in males than in females. ulceration, it is known as Paget’s Disease and has Imbryology.—The mammary glands are modified and hyper- nifican a sinister sigce, for it indicates that the superficial layers trophied sebaceous glands, and transitional Stages are seen in of the true the skin are in all probability infiltr ated with cancer. Hence, when areolar glands, which sometimes secrete milk. At an early stage eczema about the nipple refuses to clear up in a few days under of foetal life a raised patch of ectoderm is seen, which later on the influence of soothing treatment, becomes a, saucer-like depression; from the bottom of this it is well to insist on the 15 or removal of the entire breast. The nipple is retracted in most of 20 solid processes of cells, each presumably representing a sebace- these cases, which, however, are not often met with. ous gland, grow into the mesoderm which forms the connective Chronic Mastitis is not very uncommon in tissue stroma of the mamma. Later on these processes branch. women who are The last stage is that the centre of the mammary pit or saucer- past middle age. The part of the breast involved is enlarged, hard, like depression once more grows up to form the nipple, and at and more or less tender and painful. It is sometimes impossible clinically to distinguish this disease from cancer. True, bith the processes become tubular, thus forming lactiferou the s tumour is not so definite or so hard as a cancer, nor is it attached ducts, The glands grow little until the age of puberty, but their full development is not reached until the birth of the first child. to the skin, nor to the muscles of the chest wall, and if there are any secondarily enlarged in the arm-pit they are not so Comparative Anatomy.—In the lower Mammals the mam. hard glands as they may be in cancer. But all these are questions of mary line, already mentioned, appears in the embryo as a ridge, degree , and the indications given for a diagnosis of cancer indica and in those which have many young at a birth patches of this te also that the disease is so advanced as to have reduced the chance develop in the thoracic and abdominal regions to form the mam- of successful operation to a minimum. Moreo ver, it is highly inhae, while the intervening parts of the ridge disappear. The advisa ble to leave it to time to clear up the diagnosis, for a number of mammae is not constant in animals of the same species. chronic mastitis, innocent at first, may becom e cancerous, while When only a few young are'produced at a time the mammae are cancer and chronic mastitis often co-exist in the same breast. lew, and it seems to depend on the convenience of suckling in Hence the only safe course is removal of the breast, and some Which part of the mammary line the glands are developed. In authorities recommend that this course should be adopted in every the pouched Mammals (Monotremes and Marsupials) inguinal case of chronic mastitis. mammae are found, and so they are in most Ungulates as well Fibro-adenoma.—A simple glandular tumour is apt to asin the Cetacea. In the elephants, Sirenia, Chiroptera be

and most found in the breasts of youngish women, who may possibl y give of the Primates, on the other hand, they are confined to the pec- an account of some blow or other injury; there may, however, be toral region, and this is also the case in some Rodents, e.g., the

Nuping hare (Pedetes cafer). In the monotremes the mammary

no history of injury. The tumour is smooth, rounded or oval, and lies loose in the midst ef the breast; as a rule it is not tender.

756

MAMMEE

APPLE—MAMMOTH

t is not associated with enlarged glands in the arm-pit. The umour had best be removed, though innocent, for such growths 1ay become cancerous later. Cysts of the Breast.—A galactocele is a tumour due to the scking up of milk in a greatly dilated duct. Other forms of cysic disease are usually special modifications of chronic mastitis. uch cysts are best treated by free incision, and by passing a gauze ressing into their depths. If the tissue is occupied by many ysts, the whole breast had better be removed. Cancer is the commonest disease of the breast and occurs hiefly among women between 40 and 60 years of age, but men re not entirely immune and women older or younger than the ges mentioned may suffer. The early symptoms have been given lsewhere (see CANCER) and the later symptoms are those of caner in general, viz., local spread, destruction of normal tissue, uleration, early extension to the nearest group of lymphatic glands in this case, axillary) and from these to neighbouring groups of lands (in this case, supraclavicular) and formation of secondary rowths in skin, liver, bones, muscle, indeed in any tissue of the ody. With the exception of melanotic sarcoma the secondary rowths in cancer of the breast are more widely spread than in ancer affecting any other primary site. Probably this is in part ue to the fact that the natural duration, ż.e., duration apart from Il treatment, of breast cancer is relatively long, viz., about three nd a quarter years. The pain and distress are usually great, paricularly in the later stages when probably ulceration will have ocurred and pressure of the cancerous mass in the armpit on the eins and lymphatics may have led to great swelling of the arm. Jeath may be brought about in various ways, the immediate cause ften being some intercurrent disorder which the patient, eneebled by absorption of toxic material from the ulcerated surace, anaemia and pain, cannot resist; or by extension of the rowth to the pleura and lung, with coincident pleurisy and neumonia. Cancer of the breast is usually spheroidal cell carcinoma but the olumnar cell type also occurs notably in so-called “duct carinoma” which is a less malignant variety. Sarcoma is also met

vith. Carcinoma is either hard and fibrolic (scirrhus) or highly ellular (encephaloid) but many intermediate forms occur even a different parts of the same breast. A scirrhous growth is relaively smaller and runs, locally, a less rapid and extensive course han encephaloid, but as regards extension from the primary focus nd the occurrence of secondary growths there is little difference etween them. Sarcoma of the breast locally forms a large growth nd the secondary growths have a somewhat different distribution. peaking generally, scirrhus is associated with an atrophied and hrivelled breast and retraction of the nipple. It is often said that cancer runs a more rapid course in the roung; statistical evidence does not support this view, though nany cases in the very aged progress but slowly. On the other and during pregnancy a cancer of the breast participates in the

apid growth of the organ. But there is no evidence that suckling

‘onduces to cancer; on the contrary, abeyance of the natural unction seems to be related to the occurrence of chronic mastitis ind consequently to local cancer after a longer or shorter interval. The treatment of cancer of the breast depends to an overvhelming extent upon the earliness with which the disease comes inder full and proper treatment. If cancer of the breast is dealt vith by the modern complete operation while the growth has not ‘xtended beyond the limits of the organ some 90% of the patients ire alive and well ten years later and their expectation of life is ot materially different from that of women of the same age who lave not suffered from cancer. But if the cancer has extended xeyond the limits of the gland, a matter of a few weeks from the ime when it first becomes recognizable, the case is very different. Tor in spite of the same operative treatment 90% of the patients will be dead by the end of ten years. No better evidence could be riven for the paramount value of early and adequate operation, nut the surgeon is dependent upon the patient and there is evilence that about half the number of patients dying with cancer of he breast do not seek medical treatment at all till the last days of

six months or more has elapsed between their first noticing that something was wrong and consulting a surgeon.

There may be

many explanations of this delay but the fact remains that with

each hour they have been throwing away a good chance of healthy life. In cancer of the breast early and complete operation easily holds the first place for success so far as our present knowledge goes. Radium and X-ray treatment, though highly valuable in some other sites, are far inferior to surgery as curative agents in cancer of the breast with the present technique. Possibly it will

remain so even with improved technique because of the special

peculiarities appertaining to cancer of this organ. Upon this point

no confident opinion can be given. When the disease is beyong operative treatment, radiation methods may nevertheless afford relief. For bibliography, see CANCER; CANCER RESEARCH. (W. S. L.-B.) MAMMEE APPLE, Mamey or St. Dominco Apricot, the fruit of Mammea americana, a large tree of the garcinia family

(Guttiferae), with opposite leathery gland-dotted leaves, white, sweet-scented, short-stalked, solitary or clustered axillary flowers

and yellow or russet fruit 3 to 6 in. in diameter. The bitter rind

encloses a sweet aromatic flesh, which is eaten raw or with sugar, and is also used for preserves. There are one to four large rough

seeds, which are bitter and resinous, and used as anthelmintics. An aromatic liqueur distilled from the flowers is known as eau de Créole in the West Indies, and the acrid resinous gum is used extensively for destroying the chigoes which attack the naked feet of the negroes.

MAMMON, an Aramaic word māmõn “wealth” (pmo Ecclus,

xxxi. 8; Targ. Onq. Ex. xxi. 30) found in Mt. vi. 24; Lk. xvi. 11. It is probably derived from Ma’amén, something entrusted to safe keeping. In any case there was apparently a threefold play

on this meaning in Lk. xvi. 11: “If therefore ye have not been faithful in the unrighteous mammon, who will commit to your trust the true riches,” the words italicised representing forms of the Semitic root ’amen. There is no evidence that the word was the name of an angel or a god, as in Milton (Par. Lost i. 678; cf. Spenser F.Q. IT. vii. 8). (A. L. W.) MAMMOTH. The name mammoth is supposed to be derived from an old Russian word given by ivory-hunters to an extinct elephant, Elepkas primigenius. The animal is an elephant (g.v.) about the same size as the existing Indian form, characterized by possessing a short, high and pointed skull, which supports a pair of tusks unique in their spiral curvature, the roots diverging from one another, the middle part of the tusks turning upwards and outwards, and the tips being directed towards one another. This fully developed tusk only occurs in old individuals, the young

tusks being similar to those of an Indian elephant. Mammoth tusks, although they may be extremely long, possibly reaching a maximum length of ro ft. 6 in. from the socket, are usually rather slender, and must from their shape have been incapable of being used as pickaxes, as are those of an Indian elephant. The tusks of the frozen mammoths of Siberia are so well preserved that they can still be used industrially and the animals were so

abundant that fossil ivory has been exported from Siberia to China and to Europe from mediaeval times.

The molar teeth of the mammoth are very variable in character but the number of plates is always large from 14-16 in the second molars and from 18-27 in the third molars. The teeth are very deep and wide so that in the dentition the mammoth reached perhaps the highest point in the evolution of the elephants.

The mammoth is found only in Pleistocene times and is in Europe always associated with a fauna whose character indicates

a cold or arctic climate. When, as in England, warm interglacial periods intervened, the mammoth and his associates migrated to

the north, following the retreating ice-field, and his place was taken by the straight tusked Elephas antiquus. The mammoth was hunted by late Palaeolithic man who has left drawings and statuettes representing the animal in French caves. From these drawings it is apparent that the creature was covered with hair so long that it almost reached the ground, and ife and of the remainder who seek advice an average period of that the body was produced into a great hump at the back of the

“en

imn

Sok Aii aD

MAMMOTH

CAVE

757

neck: the ear was small. The accuracy of these drawings has been

bule within the entrance rapidly contracts 300 ft. within to a Passage called the Narrows where a gateway has been built. A short distance beyond the Narrows the passage opens upon the Rotunda, the first notable chamber of the main cave. It was in they became bogged in marshy plains, sinking down into ice cold the Rotunda where during the War of 1812 and at other times mud, which subsequently became frozen and has so remained ever nitre was prepared for powder, from the guano, chiefly the excresince. From these specimens we have learnt that the whole body ment of myriad bats. By crude processes calcium nitrate worth was covered with an undercoat of yellowish brown woolly hair $20,000 was obtained in 1914, when the industry reached its peak. through which projected long black thicker hairs which formed The main cave is from 40 to 300 ft. wide and from 35 to 125 ft. patches on the cheeks, flanks, abdomen, etc. The tail is short and high. It extends through the Rotunda, thence by Star Chamber, ike that of a modern elephant, provided with a terminal tuft of Chief City and minor chambers connected by long passages or long, stiff bristles. The small ears were covered with fur. narrow defiles to its rather abrupt termination 4 m. from the enThe food has been found in the stomach and mouth of frozen trance. Though the entire cave extends under an area but ro m. in individuals and in the most recently reported case might have diameter, the main cave and the accessible tributary passages with heen gathered in north-eastern Siberia to-day. It consisted mainly their domes and chambers on its five different levels aggregate a of grasses and sedges, but also wild thyme, the Alpine poppy and length of at least 150 miles. The extent charted includes 225 upright crowfoot. Thus the mammoth alone of elephants became avenues, 47 domes, 23 pits, eight cataracts, three rivers, two adapted to life in cold climates. It is not known when the mam- lakes and one sea. Streams and pools contribute te the majesty moth became extinct, but it survived in France into Magdalenian of the cave. They are navigable from May to October when times, that is to the extreme end of the glacial period. It may Green river, with which they are connected, subsides. The Dead have lived on in Siberia to a much more recent period. sea is a pool walled by cliffs 60 ft. high and in length roo ft., Closely related to the mammoth are several species of elephant along which a pathway runs to a stairway leading downward to found in Europe, India and North America. These animals were the River Styx, a body of water 4o ft. long, crossed by a natural apparently inhabitants of warmer countries. They are first known bridge. Lake Lethe, in a broad basin with mural cliffs 90 ft. high, in India in such forms as Elephas hysudricus, and wandered from becomes shallow and turbid at times. Many blind fish have been thence not only throughout southern Europe and Asia, but even taken from it. A narrow path along Lake Lethe leads to a poninto America. In America these southern mammoths attained a toon at the neck of the lake, and beyond it, a beach of fine yellow gigantic size, Elephas imperator being perhaps the largest of all sand to Echo river, a stream or pool 4 m. long, 20 to 200 ft. wide elephants, attaining a height of some 14 feet. (D. M. S. W.) and 10 to 40 ft. deep, with a symmetrical arched roof, varying MAMMOTH CAVE, a cave in Edmonson county, central in height from 19 to 35 feet. It is famous for the resonance of the

confirmed by the evidence afforded by frozen mammoths discovered in the tundra of north-eastern Siberia. These animals owe their preservation to the fact that, owing to their great weight,

Kentucky, U.S.A., 37° 14’ N. lat. and 86° 12’ W. longitude. It tones given out by its vibrant stone which reverberate for from

isa distinct part of an extensive system of caves in the soluble St, Louis limestone, overlain by the Chester (Mauch Chunk) sand-

stone both of the Mississippian or Lower Carboniferous series. The area of the cave-bearing formation is over 8,000 sq.m. in southern Indiana, through central Kentucky and into northern Tennessee. The cave is said to have been discovered in 1809, when a hunter named Hutchins is reported as having pursued a bear into its entrance; but it must have been known earlier, for its entrance was designated in the county records of 1797, Readily

to to 30 sec. along its vaulted gallery. Other streams and pools, some of them even miles in length, occupy some chambers and. galleries. They are fed by surface waters, which in the rainy season percolate and cascade into the cave in great volume, and collect in River Hall. For about seven months of the year these streams are unnavigable. When Green river is in freshet the waters in the cave become connected, sometimes rising 60 ft. above low-water mark, For many years trips through the cave were designated as “The Long Route” and “The Short Route,” the latter being the cisfluvial route and requiring about four hours for its passage,

accessible to the majority of the Eastern States it is visited by many tourists. The St. Louis limestone throughout the cave-bearing area is and the former, the transfluvial route, occupying from nine to massive and homogeneous, lying almost horizontal and showing 12 hours. These long-established routes were changed in 1924 to few traces of tectonic or structural deformation. Owing to its four routes which are summarized best as follows. Route No. 1.—Echo River; Mammoth Dome with six majestic relative purity and consequent solubility, it has been carved, chiefly since the Miocene period, by underground waters perco- columns, royally fluted, 80 ft. high and 25 ft, in diameter; Gorin’s lating and flowing along its joint and fracture planes, into a Dome, 217 ft. high, the walls of which are draped with three imgreat series of caves. Where its cap of Chester sandstone has mense calcic curtains of exquisite tint and texture; River Hall, given way it has been perforated by hundreds of “sink-holes,” by which the gardens of crystal roses are approached; Grand more or less funnel-shaped depressions distinctive of the landscape Crossing; and the Natural bridge. Route No. 2.—Rotunda, with its ruins of the nitre works; Banof the region, and interrupted by scarp-rimmed valleys with little or nọ relation to surface erosion. The depth to which the cavern quet Hall, equipped with tables, seats, lights and table service;

has been cut has been determined by the level of Green river, to

which the Mammoth cave system is tributary by subterranean passages opening along its banks. As Green river graved itself deeper into its bed, the dissolving and eroding waters passing

through the limestone were enabled to proceed with their carving

deeper and deeper.

The thickness of the St. Louis limestone

Olive’s Bower; Gothic Avenue, where the mummies of a race reputed to antedate the Indians were found; the Pillars of Hercules, gigantic columns; the Bridal Altar, a majestic shrine where many weddings have taken place; the Arm-chair; Elbow Crevice;

Annetta’s Dome; the Giant’s Coffin 4o ft. long, 20 ft. wide, and 8 ft. deep, resembling

a sarcophagus;

Martha

Washington’s

approaches and in places exceeds a thickness of 300 ft, The sec- statue, a lighted silhouette in fancied resemblance of the first

lions of the cave ordinarily traversed have been surveyed by civil Lady of the Land; and the resplendent Star Chamber, a colossal engineers and geologists; but owing to insurmountable difficulties, hall of sable walls and ceiling thick set with immaculate patens

The temperature ofmost of of magnesium sulphate efflorescence gleaming by lantern light. Route No. 3.—Violet City, the new section discovered and e entrance a noticeable draught sweeps, outward for most of the explored in 1908, comprising the resonant Chimes, the glorious yeat when the exterior air is the warmer, inward occasionally in Marble Temple, Albert’s Stairway, the Grand Portal, Elizabeth’s wnter when the exterior air is the colder. The upper galleries are Dome and Valhalla; Proctor’s Arcade, a symmetrical chamber, Many avenues are still unexplored,

the cavern and its passages is fairly uniform at 54° F. Just within

dy; the lower damp owing to streams and pools, and the air is Dure and wholesome.

near the Star Chamber and one of the sensations of the cave when lighted by blue flares; Indian Relics; Wright’s Rotunda, 400

The entrance is 118 ft. below the summit of a limestone bluff ft. in its shortest diameter; Chief City, two ac. of troglodytic

and 194 ft. above the level of Green river, but a half mile dis-

lant. The arch at the entrance has a span of 70 feet. The vesti-

grandeur where Indian chiefs gathered in council and by blazing

flambeaux and faggot fires smoked the calumet and decided for

758

MAMORE—MAN

peace or war; cataracts, of impressive beauty; Waldach’s Dome; the Epsom Salts deposits, their drifts of snow-white crystals; Haines Dome; the Grand Portal and the Marble Temple.

Route No. 4.—Echo river, its waters reflecting the beauties of every passage through which it flows and its ripples waking the tinkling cymbals of tiny stalactites and reverberant walls to eerie music; the Valley of Flowers; the Snowball Room; Cleveland Avenue, a treasure gallery of alabaster brilliants, the oulopholites of the mineralogist, which are declared to mimic in their fantastic fibrous and pellucid calcite crystals the forms of every flower; Florist’s Garden, another fantasy of floral forms in stone; Donna’s Garden; Diamond Grotto where Aladdin may have garnered

his gems; the Rocky Mountains; Dismal Hollow; the famous Maelstrom, rich in tale and legend; Ganter Avenue; and the Corkscrew, a tortuous exit which reduces the journey from “Great Relief” to the mouth of the cave by nearly a mile. Evidence of Indian occupancy of Mammoth cave has not been wholly lacking, but it has not yielded any such wealth of archaeologic material as have others in Europe, Asia and even America. Two mummies preserved by the nitrous earth were uncovered in 1813 in Short cave, not far from Mammoth cave. One was of an infant one year old and the other of an adult woman of a race antedating the Indians. See Proceedings of the Boston Society of

His death ended the period of Arabian culture and Prosperity See further under CALIPHATE.

MAN, EVOLUTION OF. The late Sir E. B. Tylor, writing on the evolutionary theory of man’s origin, made the following statement: “In one form or another such a theory of human descent has, in our time, become part of an accepted framework of zoology, if not as a demonstrable truth, at any rate as a working hypothesis which has no effective rival.” When Sir Edward Tylor

made this statement in 1910 he was in his 78th year; his memory could carry him back to a time when it was believed that man had

come into the world as a special creation some 4,000 years before the birth of Christ and owed no kinship to other living things. He

was 27 years of age when Darwin’s Origin of Species was published in 1859; in 1865, two years after Huxley had issued his re. nowned treatise on Man’s Place in Nature, he himself published a, work which threw a new light on human history, Researches into the Early History of Mankind and the Development of Civilization. When Darwin’s Descent of Man came out in 1871, Tylor’s Primitive Culture; Researches into the Development of Mythology, Philosophy, Religion, Art and Custom, kept it company. By the end of the roth century he had seen chair after chair in the universities of the world filled by men who were convinced that evolution was true; at his death in 1917, at the age of 85, he had seen another generation of enquirers grow up who, after applying Darwin’s teaching to all departments of man’s world—to his body, mind and culture—remained convinced that, as a working hypothesis, the doctrine of evolution had no rival.

Natural History (1875). In the early years following the discovery of Mammoth cave and while its guano deposits were mined for nitre, many valuable data may have been obliterated. The biota of the cave is distinctly subterranean in character. The most interesting occupants are the blind, wingless grassSUMMARY OF THE EVIDENCE hoppers with extended antennae; the blind colourless crayfish and Embryology.—No matter what aspect of man the student of blindfish, the latter (Amblyopsis spelaeus) being from 1 to 6 in. long. All the known forms of plant life are either fungi or allied to-day may select for study, the conviction that evolution (g.v.) to them, many but microscopic. A bed of mushrooms (Agaricus is true is forced on him. If he investigates the development of the sp.) has been reported. While the true subterranean fauna is child in the womb he comes across a complicated series of appearchiefly of Pleistocene origin, certain forms may possibly be Ter- ances which can be explained only if Darwin’s teaching is accepted. tiary relics or developed from them. BrsriocraPHy—See complete list of 90 titles referring to Mammoth and other Kentucky caves given on pp. 97-104 of Mammoth Cave and the Cave Region of Kentucky by Helen F. Randolph. Other works are: H. Gratz, “Green River or Mammoth Cave” in Medical Repository vol. xvii. (1814); A. S. Pachard, “The Mammoth Cave and Its Inhabitants” in Annual Report of the Peabody Academy of Science (1872) ; J. W. Turner, Wonders of the Great Mammoth Cave of Kentucky (1912); and N. C. Nelson, “Contributions to the Archaeology of Mammoth Cave and Vicinity, Kentucky” in Anthropological Papers of the American Museum of Natural History vol. xxil., PtyI eye

MAMORE, a large river of Bolivia which unites with the Beni

to form the Madeira, one of the largest tributaries of the Amazon. Tt rises on the northern slope of the Sierra de Tunari east of the city of Cochabamba. Its larger tributaries are the Chaparé, Securé, Apere and Yacuma from the west, and the Ichila, Guapay or Grande, Ivari and Guaporé from the east. The Mamoré is interrupted by rapids a few miles above its junction with the Beni, but a railway 186 m. long has been built from below the rapids of the Madeira. Between the rapids and Chimoré at the foot of the Sierra, the river is navigable, as are most of its tributaries.

MAMUN

(c. 786-833), originally ABDALLAH, surnamed AL-

Mamtn (“in whom men trust”), the seventh of the Abbasid caliphs of Baghdad, was the second son of Harun al-Rashid and successor-designate to his brother Amin. A five years’ struggle between the two ended in the death of Amin and the proclamation of Mamun as caliph (Sept. 813). A serious rebellion, due to his countenancing the heretical sect of Ali, soon after threatened his throne. In the period of tranquillity which followed Mamun, who had already founded a college at Khorasan, did much to foster literature and science. The first Arabic translation of Euclid was

dedicated to him in 813. He founded observatories at Baghdad and Kassium, determined the inclination of the ecliptic, caused a degree of the meridian to be measured on the plain of Shinar, and constructed wonderfully accurate astronomical tables. In 827 he was converted to the heterodox faith of the Mo‘tazilites. The later years of his reign were distracted by warfare and revolts, and in 833, when marching against the Greeks, he died

A

near Tarsus, leaving his crown to a younger brother, Motasim.

Comparative Anatomy.—lIf he studies the structure of man’s

body he finds it framed on the mammalian plan, and if he compares it with that of anthropoid apes he finds the points of resemblance to be so numerous and so close that he cannot think that such a degree of resemblance could be a result of mere chance. If he enquires into the periods through which a newly born child passes to reach manhood or womanhood, he finds the animals which are most human in this respect are the great anthropoids— the gorilla, chimpanzee and orang. If he takes into consideration

the diseases to which man is liable, he finds that human diseases

are more readily communicated to the great anthropoids than to any other living animals. Particularly is he impressed by the fact that the blood of man and of the anthropoid apes, when tested against each other, react almost in the same way. To account for the presence of so many vestigial structures in man’s anatomy, he feels impelled to suppose that man has come of an ancestry in which these vestiges were fully grown and useful. A child may be born with its body malformed; it may suffer from hare-lip, cleftpalate or many other kinds of deformity, including the presence of a tail: medical men cannot account for such malformations if they look on man as a special creation; they can give a rational explanation of their occurrence if they accept evolution.

Palaeontology.—In recently formed strata of the earth fos-

sil forms of man are found; those from the older strata are more ape-like than those from the newer. In still older strata are found fossil fragments of great anthropoids; in still more ancient, the

remains of small anthropoids; deeper still in the earth’s records no trace of anthropoid has yet been discovered. In these older

strata occur fossil remains of small monkey-like primates. The

geological records, so far as they are yet known, support Darwin's theory of man’s origin; they are altogether against the belief that man appeared suddenly—by a special act of creation.

Human

Races.—More

especially is the student of human

races driven to Darwinism for an explanation of his many prob-

lems; even if he believed that man had appeared originally by an

act of special creation he must formulate a theory of evolution 14 otder to account for the divergent races now living. Although 12

MAN thought and deed man rises far above any member of the brute creation, yet students of his brain find that it is modelled, part for part, on exactly the same pattern as that of the anthropoid ape. Those who enquire into man’s mental qualities, his emotions, his habits, his tendencies and his modes of thought, find many indiations that he has ascended from a lower order.

759

pedigree is still worthy of study (fig. 2). Haeckel perceived that the small form of anthropoid ape, the gibbon, was more primitive and earlier in point of evolution than the three living great anthro-

poid apes (orang, chimpanzee and gorilla) and supposed that in the evolution of the great anthropoids from the ancestral catarhine type there was interposed a small anthropoid stage to which he

But there are still numbers of unconvinced people who, gave the name Lipocerca (Aureiv, to lack, xépxos, tail). This small anthropoid stock (Lipoimpressed by the great and real differences which separate the HUMAN GORILLA cerca) gave origin, he supposed, mentality of the lowest grades of mankind from that of the highRACES CHIMPANZEE-ORANG SIBBONS est grade of ape, cannot believe that man has arisen from a lower form by any natural or evolutionary process. The State of Tenn-

asee has passed a law forbidding, in State-supported schools, “he teaching that man has descended from a lower order of ani-

DRYOPITHECUS

to gibbons and to the ancestral stock of the great anthropoids— for which Haeckel proposed the

name Lipotyla (Nuzely, to lack,

rún, cus hion)—anthropoids | which, unlike the gibbons, were destitute of ischial callosities or cushions on which gibnatural win’s native land, the theory of man’s origin from an ape-like anibons and Old World monkeys apmade CATARHINE PLATYRHINE was This acceptance. universal finding mal is far from TYPE TYPE seat themselves. This cushionless parent in 1927 when the writer, being then president of the Britanthropoid stock (Lipotyla) he ih Association for the Advancement of Science, made Darwin’s COMMON SIMIAN regarded as ancestral to the variTYPE theory of man’s origin the subject of his address. Although the ous races of mankind. From the opinions expressed were those held by the vast majority of anLipotyla, which gave origin to thropologists, they were met with a strenuous opposition on the man, there also branched off, at FIG. 2.—HAECKEL’S CONCEPTION part of a large section of the public. OF MAN'S DESCENT AS ILLUSTRATED an early stage, the ancestry of MAN’S GENEALOGY BY A PHYLOGENETIC TREE, PUB- the orang and, at a later, the common ancestry of the chimpanzee Darwin’s Views.—Although there is a complete agreement LISHED IN 1866 the gorilla and chimpanzee regarded Haeckel Thus gorilla. order and that of member a is man among professional students that of mammals to which Linnaeus gave the name “Primates” and as more nearly related to man than other living anthropoids. It of that his lineage, when traced backwards, will be found to branch is also remarkable that he placed the extinct Miocene form up led which line the on Dryopithecus, as of from the primate tree, there is a sharp difference of opinion anthropoid ape, known races as to the exact point in the tree, and the approximate date in geo- to the gorilla and chimpanzee on the one hand and to human man opinion Haeckel’s in that seen be will it Thus other. the on other logical time, at which the human branch separates from those main branches which represent the lineage of anthropoid apes and was the descendant of an anthropoid ape. Later, he introduced considerable modifications into this famof monkeys. It is clear from statements made in the Descent of (English Man, that Darwin regarded the gorilla and chimpanzee as more ily tree. In the third edition of his Evolution of Man an anfrom ascent man’s into interpolated he 1879) translation, evidence the on and, primates nearly akin to man than other living by available in 1871, thought it probable that man and the African thropoid to a human state an intermediate stage represented but gait in and form in manlike were who men—beings ape-like which anthropoid common a of anthropoids were co-descendants beings he had its habitat in Africa (fig. 1). He regarded the catarhine type lacked man’s power of speech. To such hypothetical t. Pithecanthrop the name gave Old the of monkeys the by exemplified type of monkey—the Modern Views.—In 1892 Prof. E. Dubois discovered in the World—as representatives of a still older ancestral form. Darwin traced the common anthropoid island of Java the fossil remains of a being which answered very (A) (B) (C) stock, which gave birth not only well to this hypothetical stage, and named this fossil form of MAN GORILLA CHIMPANZEE to the ancestral lines of man, the evolving man Pithecanthropus erectus. Haeckel presumed that gorilla and chimpanzee, but also his pithecanthropi had lived in the Pliocene period; Prof. Dubois to those of the orang and gibbon, is of opinion that his transitional form of man lived in Java by Dr. back to a common catarhine type. towards the end of the Pliocene period. Discoveries made This catarhine type, he presumed, GIBBON CHIMPANZEE MAN GORILLA RECENT (E) CATARHINE was the offspring of a still older NEANDERTHAL PLEISTOMONKEYS kie. 1A MAN ENE common simian or monkey-like 4 PITHECANTHROPUS i (G) type, one which existed in the PLIOCENE PLATYRHINE TYPE Eocene period of the earth’s hisn- PALEOPITHECUS ` SIVAPITHECUS tory and gave origin not only to --DRYOPITHECUS omen ORANG SLY TYPES Old the of (H) the catarhine monkeys COMMON SIMIAN GREAT ANTHROPOIDS TYPE World but also to the platyrhine monkeys of the New World. PROPLIOPITHECUS Thus man’s history, as Darwin FIG. 1.—A DIAGRAM TO ILLUSTRATE TARSIOIDS after until begin not did it, DARWIN'S CONCEPTION OF MAN'S saw the ancestral type of anthropoid (AFTER W. LINEAGE FIG. 3.—A PHYLOGENETIC TREE OF THE HIGHER PRIMATES FIG. 1A.— ANOTHER POSSIBLE RELA- had been evolved; the appearance K. GREGORY, 1916) TIONSHIP, ALSO MENTIONED BY of an anthropoid type from a Geological Survey of India and by members DARWIN common catarhine ancestor and G. E. Pilgrim of the part of the roth century have proved this from a common simian stock, represent prehuman stages of that survey in the latter period and the earlier part of the Miocene the during India, that inthe evolution of the higher primates. It is noteworthy that Daranthropoids of many and diverse great of Pliocene, was the home win’s mind remained open as to the exact point at which the human belonging to the type of Dryopithecus them of several kinds, stock branched off from the general primate tree (fig. Ta). early period, regarded as a possible ancestor Haeckel’s Views.—On no occasion did Darwin throw his con- which Haeckel, at an fossil Indian or Siwalik anthropoids show these of Others man. to to ception of man’s lineage into a diagrammatic form. The first the chimpanzee and to the gorilla, while to orang, construct an evolutionary tree of man’s descent was Ernst affinities to the is regarded by Dr. Pilgrim as an Haeckel; this appeared in his Generelle Morphologie published in still another—Sivapithecus— family. Notwithstanding these human the of tative early represen mals.” In June 1925 Scopes, a school teacher, was prosecuted mder this law, found guilty and fined $100. Since then certain other States have enacted similar laws. Even in England, Dar-

1866, five years before Darwin’s Descent of Man was issued. This

LIPOCERCAL TYPE

700

MAN

revelations from India and taking all their bearings into consideration the majority of modern authorities (Dubois, W. K. Gregory, Elliot Smith, Keith), in constructing diagrams to illustrate the affinities and lines of descent for the higher primates, depict the human stem (fig. 3) as springing from the vicinity of the stem which gave rise to the gorilla and chimpanzee. The conception, first formulated by Haeckel, that a Miocene anthropoid of the type of Dryopithecus (fig. 3) may stand as a common ancestor to man and to the African anthropoids is still regarded as possible. Doubts Raised by the Occurrence of Parallel Evolution.

—There is a line of evidence, accumulating at the present moment, which tends to undermine the confidence of those who have drawn up phylogenetic trees of man’s descent. All who have enquired into the evolution of horses and elephants, by the study of fossil forms found in widely separated regions of the world, have become impressed by the fact that horses and elephants in America have passed through evolutionary changes of the same kind and in the same order as have done their representatives in the Old World. This tendency for the descendants of a common ancestry to undergo parallel or even converging evolution, has been very fully expounded in the published works of Dr. Henry Fair-

field Osborn (Origin and Evolution of Life, 1918). That parallel evolution has been potent in the order of mammals to which man

main trunk all the other members of the primate order are made to come off as side branches. Man is given the central position of his order; he forms the apex of the primate tree. Prof. Elliot Smith (Evolution of Man, 1925) also gives the human family the central position as a direct continuation of the main primate stem, In reality man is the most aberrant member of his order; in brain and in the modifications of his lower limbs he has departed farther from the ancestral primate state, so far as we know that state by the study of fossil remains, than any member of the order: he has retained less of the structural organization of the original

primate than all the others. Apparently in the evolution of the higher primates there has been the same tendency as is to be noted

in modern political parties—a tendency for an extreme wing to move ever further from the central group of conservatism.

The

human family represents the extreme wing in the order of primates; Tarsius, greatly modifed as it is, retains the essentials of the central or conservative group. MAN’S ZOOLOGICAL

POSITION

Zoologists classify animals into families, sub-families, genera and species, according to their degrees of structural likeness; they presume, although fully aware that parallel evolution can and does take place, that two animals, such as the gorilla and chimpanzee,

which are so similar in the structural details of their bodies, owe that similarity to their descent from a common ancestry. Darwin urged rightly that in settling the zoological relationship of one group of animals to another, more weight must be attached to the points wherein they agree than to those in which they differ. Huxley’s Views.—In the masterly analysis of man’s structural relationships given by Huxley in Man’s Place in Nature (1863), more stress was laid on the anatomical differences which separate man from the gorilla than on the points wherein they agree. Huxley held that differences which separated man from the gorilla South American spider monkey (Ateles), that of the Old World were like in kind and similar in degree to those which separated monkeys of the semnopithek type, and that of the small anthro- the gorilla from any form of catarhine or platyrhine monkey a poid or gibbon, have many common characters which could not critic might choose for comparison. He held that if evolution have been present in the brain of their Eocene ancestor, could produce the structural gap which separates a monkey from We may legitimately infer, however, that a bias or tendency to the gorilla it could also bring about the abyss which divides the produce similar or almost identical modifications was latent in the gorilla from man. Huxley’s conclusions are still valid; indeed, common ancestor. If parallel evolution has been at work in one the modern anatomist is convinced that the structural hiatus which section of the order of primates it may have been at work in lies between a baboon or any other form of monkey and the gorilla another, and we must therefore keep in mind the possibility that is much wider than that which lies between the gorilla or chimman and the gorilla may have acquired their many and striking panzee and man. When tested by modern methods, the blood of points of structural similarity independently. Cope (1882) and the chimpanzee shows 3 much closer affinity in its reactions to Hubrecht (1897) supposed that human lineage had parted from that of man than to that of any Old World monkey; the blood of that of the anthropoids near the base of the primate phylum; if monkeys of the New World, when submitted to the same tests, this were so man would have an independent pedigree of immense reveals a still more distant affinity (Prof. G. H. Nuttall, Blood length. In more recent times Prof. F. Wood Jones (The Problem Immunity and Blood Relationship, 1904). Huxley included in one of Man’s Ancestry, 1918) has put forward the theory that man, family the great anthropoids (gorilla, chimpanzee and orang), the because of the number of primitive and generalized features of small anthropoids (siamang, gibbon), and the various genera of his structure, is to be traced back to an independent origin from a monkeys of the Old World; if we are to be guided by anatomical tarsioid ancestor. In 1927 Dr. Henry Fairfield Osborn also cham- considerations we must give to each of these groups the rank of a pioned the early separation of man’s ancestry from the primate family. The same rank—that of a primate family—must be given phylum. Such a view entails the need of supposing that the mul- to the section which embraces all the various races and types of titude of structural similarities shared by man and the great mankind, living and extinct. The various genera of New World anthropoids must have been acquired by each independently. monkeys make up a fifth family of primates. Klaatsch (Die Stellung der Menschen im Naturganzen, 1911) The Primate Families.—Thus in that part of the living animal (Evolution and Progress of Mankind, 1923) made a larger de- kingdom to which man belongs, there are five families—the human mand on the powers of evolution to reach the same end by diverse family, that of the great anthropoids, that of the small anthroroutes. This voluminous author traced the origin of mankind to poids, the family of catarhine or Old World monkeys and the an anthropoid ancestry, but supposed that the ancient inhabitants family of platyrhine or New World monkeys. These families are of Europe—Neanderthal man, known only from his fossil remains, separated by structural gaps of about equal magnitude. From the and the living Negro peoples of Africa had arisen from the same platyrhine monkeys upwards, these families form an ascending stock as the gorilla and chimpanzee, while Mongolian peoples and series in the sense that each succeeding family marks a further men of the modern European type had sprung from the same departure from the ancestral tarsioid type, the point of highest lineage as the orang. Klaatsch believed in the polygenetic origin differentiation being reached in the human family. of human races. EVIDENCE OF MAN’S DESCENT Man an Aberrant Primate.—In charting the family tree of Anatomical—The members of these five families of prithe Higher Primates modern authorities differ as to the position which should be assigned to man. Prof. Eugéne Dubois represents mates have a common structural substratum—an inheritance from the human stem as the main and direct continuation of the trunk the ancestral stock from which they have all descended. Each of the primate tree (Nature, vol. liii., p. 245, 1896); from this family in the course of evolution has come by anatomical features is assigned there can be no doubt. The monkeys of the New World parted company from those of the Old early in the Eocene period; it is probable that at the time of their separation they had only reached the stage represented by the Tarsioids, a family of monkey-like primates, which has now only one living representative—the Tarsier (Tarsius spectrum) of Borneo and other islands of the Malay Archipelago. Although parted thus early, New and Old World monkeys have acquired corresponding structural modifications—modifications of a kind which we cannot suppose to have been present in their common ancestor. The brain of the

MAN

701

which are peculiar to itself. A full analysis of the structural de- ments, have been studied by an ever-growing army of enquirers

tails of man’s body shows that about 30% of them are peculiar io himself. The corresponding characters of the gorilla number 16%; the gibbon has about the same proportion of features peculiar to its own family (Keith, Rivista di Antropologia, vol. xx., p. 1, 1916). As examples of man’s peculiar characters we may cite his nude skin, his projecting nose with well marked wings, the size

of his brain, the strength of his thigh, the form of his leg, the

shape of his foot. Common Characters.—Further analysis reveals in man’s body

, series of characters which he shares with only two other living animals-——namely, the gorilla and chimpanzee.

These amount to

nearly 9% of the total points selected for comparison, but if we include in this group features which man shares with the gorilla alone or with the chimpanzee alone, then man has in his body about 26% of characters which he shares with gorilla and chimpanzee Or with gorilla alone or chimpanzee alone. Such charac-

ters, we presume, are derived from a common ancestor which gave birth to man and to the great anthropoids of Africa. As examples of characters common to the three we may cite the air chambers which branch off from the nasal cavity. These have the same arrangement and are of the same number in man,

gorilla and chimpanzee.

small bones of the wrist.

Another example is to be found in the Of the higher primates, only in these

three has the os centrale disappeared as a separate unit from the

carpus; yet in a foetal stage this bone is present in all three; and ag a separate element in adults of all the other higher primates. Descending still lower in the strata of human anatomy we encounter a group of characters which man shares with the three

great anthropoids. We may speak of man and these three as the giant primates, for compared with the earlier types they are

giants, or we may apply to this group Haeckel’s convenient name —Lipotyla. Man shares with the other giant primates 10% of similarities of structural detail; to this we may add 5% which he shares with the orang and with the orang only, characters which the chimpanzee and gorilla have apparently lost or perhaps never possessed. Going still lower in our analysis, we find over 8% of characters which are common to the gibbon as well as to the great anthropoids. With the gibbon, man shares 8% of structural features which are not to be seen in the bodies of the great anthropoids. In this case, again, we have to suppose that man and the gibbon came by those characters long after they separated from a common ancestor, or that the great anthropoids have lost them in the course of evolution while man and the gibbon have retained them. Lower in the scale of our analysis we come upon features in man’s body which he has apparently retained from a catarhine ancestry; at least, to find their counterparts we have to go to the bodies of Old World monkeys. In man’s body there are 5% of such catarhine features; in the gorilla’s body such features are three times as numerous.

It is remarkable that platyrhine char-

acters, features to be seen in the bodies of the New World monkeys, should be as numerous as catarhine in man’s body. There is a small residue of anatomical details in human anatomy attributable to a still more distant past, a heritage from a tarsioid or lemuroid ancestry. From the details revealed by ana-

tomical analysis it is plain that evolution has not proceeded in

an orderly or simple manner in shaping the bodies of the higher primates: characters are curiously scattered. Yet to explain the distribution of characters in the various families we must suppose

and by methods which possess an ever-increasing precision.

Em-

bryologists find it necessary to assume that the law of evolution

holds for man; unless they make this assumption they can offer no rational explanation of the complex changes which engage their attention. In its broad lines development pursues the same course in the human body as in that of all vertebrate animals. What Francis Balfour in 1885 saw taking place with diagrammatic clearness in the embryo of the dog-fish has given clues to the more complex and obscure processes now known to occur in the embryo of man. The developing human egg, when it becomes established in the mother’s womb, undergoes a series of elaborate and peculiar changes. The investigations carried out by the late Dr. Emil Selenka (Menschenaffen. Studien über Entwickelung und Schädelbau, 1898—1906) revealed the fact that only in the wombs of four other living mammals, the gorilla, chimpanzee, orang and gibbon, do the same changes take place. The process by which the placenta is formed, thus establishing a means of supplying the unborn child with nourishment, is exactly the same in man as in anthropoid apes. It is true that in Tarsius we see outlined the

basal plan of placentation met with in the higher primates, but it is also true that in the placentation of the monkeys of the Old . World and also in that of the New World we see a stage which leads on from the lower or tarsioid condition to the higher or anthropoid form. In the embryos of man and of the anthropoids an external jointed tail is produced in the fifth week of development: by the end of the eighth week it has shrivelled and becomes submerged, leaving a dimple at the point of the caudal region where it sinks below the surface. These are a few examples of some of the remarkable similarities which link the embryologi-

cal history of man with that of the anthropoid apes. Recapitulation, Interpolation, Adaptation.—When in the later decades of the 19th century anatomists applied themselves to unravelling the development of man’s body, they expected it to recapitulate, in full detail, the various stages of his evolution. In this they have been disappointed, because in the growth of the embryo and of the foetus we see three different processes at work. We see recapitulation taking place; we also see new characters being interpolated from the time the embryo makes its first appearance until all the parts of a formed child are laid down; further we see at every stage the body of the embryo and of the foetus being adapted to a life within the womb. When gill-clefts appear in the neck of the human embryo towards the end of the first month of development we see a recapitulatory and very distant phase exemplified. When we look at the developing human foot, with the expectation of finding an anthropoid phase, we search in vain. The great toe is never a free and separate member in the human foot as in the adults of all other primates. There is a stage in the development of the feet of primates when all the digits diverge equally from the tarsal base; man and ape pass through this stage and man clings to it as it were, whereas all the other primates pass on to a final prehensile stage. Yet in the sole of the newly born child we see the same flexion lines as in that of the gorilla; we find the same muscles in the great toe of the human foot as in that of the gorilla; we find the joint at the base of man’s great toe, especially in the foetus, moulded in the same form as the gorilla. We cannot explain these appearances unless we believe that the human foot has been evolved from one like that of the gorilla, more especially as the foot of the

that man’s ancestry is linked closely to that of the African anthropoids—the gorilla and chimpanzee. In some instances we

gorilla shows a curious blend of human and monkey-like features. The human great toe does not recapitulate ancestral history;

del’s discoveries in heredity assist us; further, we see that the

pattern set in just when the simian ones are due; the human its changes do not succeed but replace those that give the ape

obtain help in explaining the distribution of characters by calling in the aid of collateral or parallel evolution; in other cases Men-

developmental changes which mould the great toe into the human

have been intercalated in the evolubody of man and of ape is a great mosaic work of structural ele- prehensile foot. New changes multitude of details the human embryo no

ments and that progressive changes may occur in one set of units while retrograde changes affect another set.

Embryological Evidence.—In recent years the formation of

the human embryo in the womb, the complicated changes which

transform the embryo into a foetus and the elaborate processes which produce the organs of the ripe child from embryonic rudi-

tionary sequence. In a by its longer recapitulates the series of changes gone through human body; human the of part every of true is ancestors. It becharacters begin to peer through its higher primate qualities

fore development is a month old. those Of the changes which affect the developing human body

762

MAN

which represent adaptations to life within the womb are the most important. The child draws its living from its mother’s body; it is sheltered and kept warm; it has not to seek its living nor defend itself; such qualities need not be attained until the time of birth; until then nature is free to work out what experiments she will. It is a remarkable fact that many of man’s distinguishing features are to be met with during foetal stages in the development of anthropoid apes. A stage which is transient in the foetal ape becomes permanent in man. We may take as an example the comparative hairlessness of man’s body. A foetal chimpanzee, in the eighth month of development, resembles a human foetus of the same age; both have hair growing freely on their scalps, but the rest of their bodies, although provided with lanugo, appear to be nude. By birth the chimpanzee’s body is covered with hair, but the human child retains the foetal state. Yet all known primates save man have their bodies thickly covered with hair; hairlessness is not an ancestral condition, but one made possible by the retention of the young in the shelter of the womb. The skin provides us with another example of foetal inheritance. In the fair or white stock of mankind the skin has become relatively

free from pigment. In their earlier stages of foetal development apes are unpigmented; they darken as the time of birth approaches. White men have come by their colouring through the inheritance of a foetal condition, one which is certainly not ancestral. Many examples might be cited of man coming by distinctive characters by retaining foetal states, but the following may be taken as representative. In all foetal primates the brain is relatively large and the jaws absolutely small; this is certainly not an ancestral state, for in all the older forms of primate the brain is small and the jaws large. Man is distinguished by the large size of his brain and the relatively small size of his teeth and jaws. How he compares with adults of great anthropoid apes may be seen from the following data. We may take the capacity of the cranial cavity to represent the size of brain and the area of the palate to represent the size of the jaws. In a well-grown adult European male we expect a cranial capacity of 1,500 c.c. anda palatal area of 25 sq. cm., there being 60 c.c. of brain space for every square centimetre of palate. The average male gorilla has a cranial capacity of 470 c.c., a palatal area of 72 sq. cm., that is, 5-8 c.c. of brain space for every square centimetre of palate. The corresponding figures for the average male orang are: 412 C.C., 62 sq. cm., giving a cranio-palatal ratio 6-6:1; in the average male chimpanzee the figures are: 390 c.c., 46 sq. cm., giving a ratio of 85:1. There is a wide gap between the European cranio-palatal ratio 60:1 and that of the chimpanzee, 8-5:1. We may fill the gap somewhat by citing a Tasmanian skull with a capacity of 1,350 C.c., a palatal area of 36-7 sq. cm. and a ratio of 36-7:1. We find a still nearer approach to the anthropoid condition in the fossil skull of Rhodesian man in which the cranial capacity is 1,300 C.C., the palatal area 41 sq. cm., the cranio-palatal ratio 31-7:1. Even this ratio is far above that of the chimpanzee, 8.5 :1; but if we take a suckling chimpanzee, in which the cranial capacity is 260 c.c. and the area of palate 13-6 sq. cm., we obtain a ratio 19:1, an approach to the human proportion. If we take a still earlier stage, such as may be observed in a chimpanzee foetus during the eighth month of development, we find a ratio which is human in its magnitude. Man has come by his small palate by retaining a foetal anthropoid condition, and this is true of all the parts of man’s skull which are concerned in mastication. This tendency to foetal inheritance is not confined to the human branch of primates; in certain genera of New World monkeys, particularly in Chrysothrix and Cebus, we see in their small jaws and large heads the same law at work. The belief that many of man’s foetal characters do not reflect ancestral stages, but foreshadow the trend of future evolution, was held by several anatomists in Germany towards the end of the roth century, particularly by Ranke. The law of foetal inheritance, so far as it relates to man, has been greatly extended during recent years in a series of papers by Prof. L. Bolk of Amsterdam (Proc. of the Roy. Acad. of Sc. of Amsterdam, 19215)..Embryological evidence, if it has failed to reveal the pithe-

coid states through which man has passed in his ascent, does provide conclusive evidence of his simian ancestry. In the de. velopment of his brain, for example, we see that the first fissures to appear are those which monkeys; the next are those great anthropoids, and later formed; but never at any

occur in the brains of the higher which are found in the brains of the still the secondary human sulci are stage does the human brain corre.

spond to that of monkey or of anthropoid. If embryology has failed to reveal the details of man’s history, it has shown that

the processes of evolution are at work on the foetal body; if the study of the foetus does not help us to decipher man’s past, it does seem to provide a basis on which we may forecast the future of the human body. The brain of the gorilla, in the totality of its characters, is the most like that of man; these two are structural allies, yet evolution has moulded their bodies in opposite

directions. During growth the gorilla replaces all its foetal characters by those of brutality and strength; in man the tendency has been to retain the delicate physique of the young and

to shed those of a more brutal nature.

Why the one fate over-

took the gorilla and another fell to man remains an enigma.

BIOLOGICAL EVIDENCE OF MAN’S EVOLUTION Blood Tests.—Not only are the bodies of man and anthropoid apes fashioned on similar lines, but, as was demonstrated at the beginning of the present century, their living tissues give like reactions. In 1900 Dr. Hans Friedenthal injected a small amount of human blood into the veins of a chimpanzee; its vital qualities were so similar to those of the chimpanzee that no disturbance followed the operation. When an equal amount of the

blood of a macaque monkey was injected into the veins of the chimpanzee there was a slight reaction; the corpuscles of the macaque’s blood were destroyed and ejected by the kidneys. When the blood of an ox was used a violent reaction was produced, the foreign blood being destroyed and thrown out. Prof. G. H. F. Nuttall, of Cambridge university, thereafter elaborated a more precise method of estimating blood-affinities, by which very small quantities of blood can be tested against specially prepared antisera. In 1904 appeared his classical work Blood Immunity and Blood Relationship, containing the results of tests carried out on three species of anthropoid apes, 28 species of Old World monkeys, and nine species from the New World. The blood of all these species was tested against a human antiserum. The blood of the anthropoids gave a full reaction—100%; that of the Old World monkeys gave a lesser reaction or precipitation, one equivalent to 92% of the full; that of the New World monkeys 78%. At the time Prof. Nuttall was making these investigations in England, Dr. Ublenhuth was carrying out independent enquiries in Germany, and reached corresponding conclusions as to degrees of affinity. The tests devised by Nuttall and by Uhlenhuth utilize the fluid or serum

of the blood.

Recently Drs. Landsteiner and Miller (Jour. Experim. Med., vol. zlii., p. 842, 1925) have utilized the corpuscular elements of the blood and find that they give more delicate reactions than those given by the serum. They devised tests which serve to distinguish the blood of the chimpanzee from that of man, but which fail to discriminate the blood of the white man from that of the negro.

Disease Reactions.—The reactions of living tissue are also

tested by disease. Man is peculiarly susceptible to syphilis; the animals most akin to him in this respect are the great anthropoid apes. Monkeys are difficult to inoculate with syphilis, and when they suffer, take the disease in its mildest form. Anthropoid apes are almost as susceptible to typhoid fever as man is. When chim-

panzees are kept in confinement they are liable to that modem disease of man—appendicitis. Anthropoids react to stimulants, sedatives and poisons in the same manner as human beings. The

brains of the great anthropoid apes are smaller and are less convoluted than is the case in man, yet when the living cortex is stimulated by electrical methods, be it in man or anthropoid ape, the

same reactions follow when corresponding convolutions are excited. Surgeons have found that observations made by experi-

mental

physiologists

on the brains

of anthropoid

apes afford

reliable guidance when they have to operate on the brain of man.

MAN has the evidence supplied by vital tests bears out the conclusions

763

By this discovery Prof. Dubois caught the human brain in the forced On anatomists by similarity of structure—namely, that act of evolving. Certain cortical or convolutionary areas in man’s eat anthropoid apes, in an evolutionary sense, are near akin | brain are known to be concerned with sight, hearing and touch, 9 to man. and the reception of messages from other sense organs; a “motor” area is concerned in the initiation and control of voluntary moveEVIDENCE OF VESTIGIAL STRUCTURES ments. Between these primary areas of the cortex lie association Nearly all the structures which have become greatly reduced areas which have to do with the memory and the interpretation srare mere vestiges in the body of man have undergone a similar of what is seen, heard or felt. The cortex of part of the frontal fate in the bodies of the anthropoid apes. In them as in man lobe—the prefrontal cortex—is concerned in the acquisition of the tail has disappeared, all save its basal part, which has sunk skilled movements. These secondary or association areas of corpeneath the surface to form the coccyx. Itis true that the vermi- tex, which lie between and separate the primary areas, are the fom appendix of man is smaller than that of any of the anthro- basis of man’s educability—his capacity to learn from experience. noid apes, and that in half of the Europeans who reach the age In the brain of Pithecanthropus the association areas are much of 7o its lumen has become closed, yet it is more than doubtful less developed than in the brains of the lowest of living human fthis structure should be reckoned vestigial in the body of either races. Yet all the essentially human parts are represented. It is man or anthropoid. The palmaris longus, the plantaris, and the even possible that the owner of this brain was capable of speech. pyramidalis, muscles which are reduced or fibrous in man, are in A further study of the brain-cast has convinced Prof. Dubois the same state in anthropoid apes. Such evidence points to a com- that Pithecanthropus must be placed in the human family (Proc. mon origin for anthropoids and man, but it throws no light on Roy. Acad. Sc. Amsterdam, vol. xxvii., nos. 5,6, 1924). The brain man’s more immediate relationship to any member of the anthro- of this “fossil” man is now estimated to have had a volume of at pid group. least goo c.c.; the largest-brained gorillas rarely rise above 600 There are two muscular vestiges, however, which point to man’s c.c.; the lowest-brained of human beings occasionally falls below kinship to the African anthropoids. There is a muscle in the neck 1,000 cubic centimetres. Pithecanthropus in size of brain lies on of monkeys which helps to lift the shoulder; it is called the the verge of humanity. His teeth, if large, are essentially human levator claviculae. It has almost disappeared from man’s body; in form of crown and root; the socket for the canine, in the itis met with only once in a hundred dissections. This muscle fragment of lower jaw, shows that this tooth was not massive shows definite signs of reduction in the gorilla and chimpanzee, and pointed as in anthropoid apes. The thigh bone is human but not in the orang or gibbon. All monkeys have a strong altogether, and gives proof that Pithecanthropus walked as muscle called the Jatissimo-condyloideus. When a monkey is men do. dimbing, and has seized a branch with its hand, it uses this muscle Pithecanthropus was assigned by Prof. Dubois, on reliable evito pull the trunk upwards. It is a particularly strong muscle in dence, to a date late in the Pliocene period; others on weighing the gibbon, well developed in the orang, somewhat reduced in the the evidence suppose that he lived early’in the Pleistocene period. chimpanzee, partly fibrous in the gorilla, wholly fibrous in man, If we accept the duration of the Pleistocene as 250,000 years, and although in 5% of human bodies some muscle fibres may be regard Pithecanthropus as representing the evolutionary stage detected. Lately Dr. A. H. Schultz, of the Carnegie Institution reached by mankind at the beginning of this period, then we have of Washington, has found a remarkable example of the persistence to conclude that man’s body had become adapted to its peculiar of a vestige in man’s body (Amer. Jour. Physic. Anthrop., vol. posture and gait before the end of the Pliocene period, and that vil, p. 149, 1924). Lemurs, which branched off from the primate the higher development of the brain took place in the ensuing stem at a very distant geological period, have a tuft of touch vi- Pleistocene period. Eoanthropus.—The discovery which ranks next in importance brissae at the wrist. Monkeys were supposed to have lost these vibrissae; Dr. Schultz found them in foetal stages of monkeys to that of Pithecanthropus was made by Mr. Charles Dawson at both of the Old World and of the New. On examining the wrists Piltdown, Sussex, between the years 1911 and 1915. He found of human foetuses in the second month of development he found the greater part of the left half of a deeply mineralized human is plaque at the spot where the touch vibrissae are situated skull, also part of the right half; the right half of the lower jaw, in lemurs. damaged at certain parts but carrying the first and second molar teeth and the socket of the third molar or wisdom tooth. The THE EVIDENCE OF FOSSIL REMAINS lower jaw, in the region beneath the chin, had a bar of bone known Pithecanthropus Erectus.—The discovery which throws most as the “simian shelf,” which until then had been regarded as a light on the evolutionary progress of man was made in Java dur- mark of the ape. Later a pointed upper canine tooth was added; mg 1891-92 by Prof. Eugéne Dubois, then a surgeon in the col- its characters were simian rather than human. The stratum of onal military service, and later professor of geology in the Uni- gravel proved to have been laid down early in the Pleistocene versity of Amsterdam. In a stratum which contained the fossil period, and it is certain that the. fossil fragments of this human bones of many extinct species of animals he obtained five frag- skull were as old as the date of deposition. From the fossil fragments of a strange kind of being, one of which he regarded as a ments thus found, Sir Arthur Smith Woodward reconstructed an transitional form between man and ape—a real missing link. He extinct genus of mankind, Eoantkropus, the dawn man (Quar. named it Pithecanthropus erectus, and assigned it to a separate Jour. Geol. Soc., 1913-15). Subsequently (1915) there was found family of primates—one lying on the borderline between anthro- a remarkable bone implement hewn from the thigh bone of an poids and man. (Pithecanthropus erectus, eine menschenaehnliche extinct kind of elephant; its state of mineralization and its colourUebergangsform aus Java, 1894.) The five fossil fragments found ing show that it had been embedded originally in the deepest strawere: a skull cap which outwardly had the form which might be tum and was certainly as old as the human fossil remains; in a expected in a giant form of gibbon, a left thigh bone and three neighbouring field two other fragments of a human skull of the teeth. The most distant of the fragments were 20 paces apart. same kind came to light, and another molar tooth. later he added a sixth fragment—part of a lower jaw found in Some experts still doubt whether a lower jaw which resembles another part of the island but in a stratum of the same geological that of a chimpanzee in several respects should be assigned to a age. The skull cap is flat, low and has great eyebrow ridges; its skull which is purely human in its characters. At first there were characters are more simian than human, yet when Prof. Dubois differences of opinion as to the size and characters of the brain succeeded in obtaining a cast from the interior of the skull cap, of Eoanthropus. Amongst British authorities there is now agreethat cast bore on it the convolutionary pattern of the brain of ment that the skull and jaw are parts of the same individual, and Fithecanthropus, and that pattern proved to be altogether human. that the brain, as revealed by casts taken from the interior of the Pithecanthropus, the fossil man of Java, had a brain which was skull, is human in its size and in all its characters. If we divide Smaller, simpler and infinitely more primitive than that of the living races into three classes according to the size of brain, the large-brained having a cranial capacity above 1,450 c.c., the Owest living men.

MAN

764,

small-brained a capacity under 1,350 c.c., then Eoanthropus certainly reached the upper limits of the small-brained class if not actually a member

of the medium-brained group.

The brain of

Eoanthropus has risen many stages above that of Pithecanthropus; the bone implement affords evidence of manual skill and of inventive ability on the part of its owner. The eyebrow ridges of Pithecanthropus are shaped as in the gibbon, chimpanzee and gorilla; in Piltdown man they are fashioned nearer to the form seen in the skull of the orang. Professor Frassetto of Bologna has drawn attention to several points in which the Piltdown mandible resembles that of the Orang (Man., July 1927). The discovery at Piltdown shows that at the beginning of the Pleistocene period a race of mankind had come by a brain that had reached a human estate, and that this race still retained certain definite simian characteristics in its jaws, teeth and face.

Neanderthal Man.—In 1857 while workmen were clearing out

The stratum in which it was found belongs to the deeper an older Pleistocene series; this fossil jaw thus represents a raç which lived long before the men who practised the Mousteria

culture. Yet so like is the mandible of Heidelberg man to that C Neanderthal man, in the majority of its characters, that we ma safely regard him as an ancestral representative of the Neande

thal species. In Heidelberg man the canine tooth did not proje above its neighbours as in Eoanthropus. At the close of 1927 was announced that many further fragments of Heidelberg ma had been discovered at Mauer; his leg bones are even more a thropoid in their characterization than those of Neanderthal ma In a still older stratum of the same formation were found tt fossil remains of a species of man—a forerunner of the Neande

thal type—of a large anthropoid ape and of two smaller ape akin to the gibbon, showing that at the end of the Pliocene peric Europe was inhabited by a low species of humanity and by var

the Neanderthal cave near Düsseldorf, Germany, they found the vault of a fossilized skull and limb bones of a man who proved

ous species of anthropoid apes.

to be, in the light of further discoveries, a representative of an extinct species of man—Homo neanderthalensis. A fossil skull which was dug up at Gibraltar in 1848 is of the Neanderthal type. In 1926 Miss Dorothy Garrod, while excavating the floor of a recently discovered cave at Gibraltar, unearthed the greater part of the skull of a Neanderthal child, aged about five years. The stratum in which it was embedded contained flint implements worked in the upper or later Mousterian style. This skull is as capacious as that of a modern child of the same age and as the supraorbital ridges are still undeveloped, the forehead is not so unlike that of modern children. The skull of a Neanderthal child, older than the Gibraltar example, was found at La Quina, France, in r921 by Dr. Henri Martin. Fossil remains of the same species

an ancestral phase of modern man. Every bone of his boc shows distinctive markings, many of these being of a simian n: ture. His eyebrow ridges were like those of the gorilla and chin

have been found in Belgium (at Naulette, 1866, and at Spy,

1886), but the caves of France have proved the richest source of Neanderthal remains, particularly those in the valley of the Dordogne. The evidence found at La Chapelle (1908), at La Ferrassie (1909), at Le Moustier (1908) and at La Quina (r911) made it quite clear that this extinct type of man, marked as he was by many simian traits of body, buried his dead with signs of respect. He worked flint implements with great skill, in the style or culture known as Mousterian. He was a hunter and lived in caves and rock shelters. His molar teeth were often shaped in a peculiar manner; his teeth have been found in cave deposits in Jersey (1911) and in Malta (1917). His remains have been found in Moravia (1906) and at Krapina in Croatia (1899-1906). His culture has been found in Italy and in England, but no trace of his body. Only once have fossil remains of Neanderthal man been found outside the limits of Europe, in a cave situated on the western shores of the Sea of Galilee (1925). Neanderthal man appears to have been the sole occupant of Europe during the middle of the Pleistocene period—throughout the time in which the Mousterian culture prevailed in that continent. The date of this culture may be put down tentatively as extending from 40000 B.C. to 20000 B.C.; perhaps its duration was much longer. Remains of Neanderthal man rather more primitive in type, and found in strata older than the Mousterian strata of France, have been discovered at Taubach (1895) and at Ehringsdorf (1914), both of these sites being near Weimar, Germany. In 1925 a human skull was discovered in the limestone deposit of Ehringsdorf. This discovery is of especial importance for the geological evidence gives to it a greater antiquity than that of the Neanderthal skulls of France. The fauna embedded in the same stratum as the skull*is that of the warm period which preceded the Mousterian glaciation. Yet the new Ehringsdorf skull

(Weidenreich, Verhand. Gesellsch. f. Phys. Anthrop., 1927, p. 34) has all the characteristics of the Neanderthal species, but is very capacious, particularly when its feminine features are taken into account, Weidenreich estimates the cranial capacity of this woman to have been 1,450 c.c, Her skull had been fractured by a blow given by a wedge-shaped weapon at, or soon after, death. The Heidelberg mandible was found at a depth of 78 ft. in a

sandpit at Mauer, ten miles to the east of Heidelberg, in 1907,

At one time it was believed that Neanderthal man represent,

panzee; the roof of his skull was low like theirs, and yet in si; of brain he equalled, if he did not surpass, modern European

He had, however, certain specializations of structure which mo ern or Neanthropic man does not possess. Besides, the archae logical evidence is now complete that he was replaced in Euro

by the arrival of men of the modern kind—represented by peop of the Cromagnon type. For these reasons cannot be regarded as an ancestor of modern man and men of the modern type, however, common that they must be looked upon as common ancestor.

Neanderthal me man. Neanderth have so much . descendants of

Rhodesian Man.—The fossil remains of Rhodesian man whic were discovered in the Broken Hill mine, Northern Rhodesia, the summer of 1921, also bear evidence to the truth of man evolution. His fossil remains lay deep in a filled-up cave; he w: probably alive in Africa when men of the Neanderthal type dom nated Europe. His limb bones show that he was tall, quite 5 f ro in. in height, and stoutly made, after the manner of moder man. His skull, which is complete save the lower jaw, possess many primitive traits. His brain space was small (1,300 c. ¢.); point of development the brain falls below that of Eoanthropu The eyebrow ridges are extremely massive, and the face has fe: tures which recall those of the gorilla. Yet his teeth, althoug large, are human in every respect and were ravaged by carie Rhodesian man might well stand as an ancestral type to moder man. Cromagnon and Other Races.—The Cromagnon type of ma and other forms which appear in Europe after the disappearanc of Neanderthal man are fully developed men of the modern type they differ from us only in robusticity of build and strength < jaw. The fossilized, capacious skull discovered at Boskop, Tran vaal, in 1913, represents an extinct form of man of the Bushma type. The Talgai skull, derived from a Pleistocene deposit an

described by Dr. S. A. Smith (Phil. Trans., ser. B, vol. ccviii., | 351, 1918), is of the same form as that of living Australian al

origines, but possesses additional primitive features. In 1926 D W. Colin Mackenzie announced the discovery of a fossil sku showing the same primitive features as the Talgai specimen. ]

was found in a swamp at Cohuna, in the basin of the Murra

river, northern Victoria.

Prof. E. Dubois discovered a Pleist¢

cene form of man at Wadjak, Java, one with a very large crani capacity (Proc. Roy. Acad. Sc. Amsterdam, vol. xxiii, pt. | 1920). Such discoveries, although they bear out the truth of evc lution, do not throw light on man’s evolutionary pedigree, ANTIQUITY

OF MAN

Until the year 1860 the majority of scientific men, relying © scriptural authority, believed that man’s existence on earth cov ered a span of less than 6,000 years. Throughout the first $1!

decades of the 19th century certain lines of enquiries kept bringin

to their notice facts which could not be reconciled with orthodo

MAIN liefs. The first line of enquiry which brought unexpected facts

io light was the systematic excavation

of ancient graves and

rial places. During the third and fourth decades, Danish anti-

arians discovered that ancient graves could be arranged in the

795

would have to be devised to cover the human period. A fourth line of enquiry, opened up by Charles Darwin, placed the problem of man’s antiquity in a new setting. His Origin of Species, which was published at the end of 1859, clearly indicated to his readers of 1860, that man had arisen, as had all forms of life, by a gradual process of evolution from older types and thus

yder of their antiquity; those which contained only weapons y implements of stone were of one period—the oldest; those, in shich stone was replaced by bronze were of another and later prepared their minds for the discovery, in geological strata, of riod, and those in which iron had replaced bronze were of a intermediate forms which would link man to a lower and older

hird and more recent time.

By 1860 archaeologists had proved

that the sequence of events, first discovered in Denmark, held true

fot graves in all parts of Europe and that prehistoric time could

te divided into three periods or ages—the age of stone, the age of bronze and the age of iron. In this way archaeologists came to

ealize that authentic human history could be-compiled by a care. ful study of ancient burial places.

A second line of enquiry served to carry human history into ,»more remote past. This was the excavation of the materials ghich had accumulated in the floors of caves during prehistoric limes. During the opening decades of the 19th century cave eploration was carried out with ardour in many parts of Europe; ihe fossil bones of many kinds of extinct animals were found, but »s these were regarded as the wrack of the creation which preeded man’s first appearance, it was deemed useless to search for traces of man’s existence in the strata of such caves. In 1825 a Roman Catholic priest, the Rev. J. MacEnery, while excavating Kents Cavern, Torquay, found, deep in the undisturbed floor, a stone weapon in a seam containing fossil bones of extinct animals. He rightly drew the inference that man had been the contemporary of these animals. MacEnery’s discovery was rejected by the leading experts of the time. The same fate was meted out to Prof.

Schmerling of Liège in 1833 when he announced the discovery of a human skull in the stalagmitic floor of a cave, “surrounded mall sides by the fossilized teeth of rhinoceros, horse, hyena and bear.” Then in 1858 came a discovery which arrested the attention of the most sceptical. Dr. Hugh Falconer and William Pengelly, two most reliable investigators, excavated a cave at Brixham, near Torquay, under the aegis of two learned societies—the Royal and Geological Societies of London. Deep in the undisturbed cave earth, mingled with the bones of extinct animals, they found stone implements which must have been fashioned by human hands. Then in 1860 southern France yielded incontrovertible evidence of man’s great antiquity; the excavation of a cave near the village of Aurignac, Haute Garonne, by Edouard Lartet proved condusively that man was the contemporary of extinct mammals, for in the floor of this cave were found the ashes of man’s hearths,

form of primate. Evidence of Antiquity Afforded by Ancient Cemeteries. —Since 1860 all four lines of enquiry have been vigorously pursued and each has yielded evidence which compels us to place human beginnings at an ever-receding point of geological time. Excavation of ancient cemeteries and of former sites of human habitation, in Egypt, Mesopotamia and India have demonstrated that parts of these lands were densely populated before the middle of the fourth millennium s.c. and that their peoples inhabited cities, cultivated many kinds of crops, kept domesticated animals, prepared and used copper for many purposes and enjoyed the benefits of organized government. It is clear that to find the rise of man from a state of barbarism we must go far beyond the year 4004 B.C., the date which was assigned by Archbishop Usher to mark man’s first appearance on earth. Evidence of Antiquity Afforded by Caves.—Excavations carried out in the caves of France during the last four decades of the roth century permitted archaeologists to establish a chronological system for the period which covers man’s habitation of caves. The prehistoric periods thus established, with the names given to them and estimates of their duration are dealt with elsewhere. (ARCHAEOLOGY, g.v.) The evidence yielded by caves consists of fossil remains of man, fossil remains of animals, weapons and ornaments of stone and bone and ancient graves. In no cave in Europe, with perhaps the exception of Kent’s

Cavern (q.v.) in the south of England, is the kuman record carried beyond, if even up to, the middle of the Pleistocene (q.v.). European caves of Pleistocene date have yielded fossil remains of two species of mankind; in the upper deposits the remains are those of present-day or Neanthropic man; the deeper and older strata contain the skulls and bones of an extinct species, Homo neanderthalensis or primigenius. (Evolution of Man, q.v.) In size of brain both Neanthropic and Neanderthal man had reached

the higher human scale long before the end of the cave period. The stone implements found in the deepest and oldest strata show that man was already a skilled workman when he took to cave life. The Evidence of Antiquity Yielded by Valley Deposits. the whole of the Pleistocene period, deposits of gravel, —During amidst which were mingled bones of extinct animals. These bones Hitcharred, cut and artificially broken—the debris of long past sand and loam were being accumulated in the floor and on the sides of the river valleys of Europe. Such deposits or “terraces” casts. A third line of enquiry carried.man’s history into a still more thus offer us a means of tracing the changes which have overtaken remote period—one which in its: older parts, preceded the age man and beast during a whole geological epoch—one which witof caves. Beyond a doubt the man who opened up this new source nessed several extreme changes in climate. Man’s history in of human history was Boucher de Perthes, an exciseman, stationed Europe has been traced throughout the Pleistocene period by the at Abbeville, on the estuary of the Somme. In 1832 he began ta- discovery of his fossil remains and of his stone weapons. The collect curiously fashioned stones which were found in gravel pits deeper or older valley deposits have yielded fossil remains of two situated on the sides of the valley. These gravels and sands con- types of men—the type found at Piltdown in Sussex, and that tained the bones of extinct animals; Boucher de Perthes was found at Mauer, near Heidelberg. Each represents a special genus convinced that the stones he collected were human weapons and of humanity and both differ from the genus to which all living implements and that therefore man had been living in northern races are assigned. Primitive though those early Pleistocene the France when extinct animals were alive and when gravel deposits Europeans undoubtedly were we cannot withhold from them the at existence in certainly was Man human. were being laid down on the sides of the valley—clear evidence right to be called that man’s antiquity was infinitely greater than was then thought. beginning of the Pleistocene period. Unfortunately we have no period in terms of Although he began to publish his discoveries in 1847 it was not sure means of estimating the duration of this years to until 1858 that their authenticity and importance was recog- years; estimates given by geologists vary from 250,000 lower the accepting towards is tendency the but years, ized. In that year Dr. Hugh Falconer visited Abbeville, examined 1,500,000 the evidence and was convinced that Boucher de Perthes had figure. "Shaped stones, showing evidence of human workmanship, have opened a new chapter in the prehistory of man. In 1859 Sir John Belgium Evans, after visiting the gravel pits of the Somme valley, returned been found in Pleistocene deposits of all dates in France, Thames the of terrace metre) (30 ft. roo the In England. and pits of the lower valley

to England and discovered that the gravel of the Thames contained the same kind of stone implements as

Boucher de Perthes had found in those of the lower valley of the Somme. Thus in 1860 a certain group of geologists was convinced that man’s antiquity was so great that a new system of chronology

valley Messrs. R. A. Smith and H. Dewey (Archaeologia, 1912, vol. ixiv., p. 177) found deposits of three ages. The middle deposit contained implements of the Chelles type—pieces which show very skilful workmanship—and certainly do not represent man’s earliest

MAN

766

attempts at fabricating weapons. In the deeper and older deposit of this terrace, one laid down in early Pleistocene times, they also found implements—but of a much cruder kind, to which the. elastic name pre-Chellean is given. In the corresponding terrace (30 metre) of the Somme valley M. V. Commont had previously found the same sequence of deposits and a corresponding succession of implements (Les gisements paléolithiques d Abbeville, Lille, 1910). M. Rutot has traced a succession of implements throughout the Pleistocene deposits of Belgium. The most definite evidence of man’s great antiquity in Europe comes from East Anglia. Its easternmost part is covered by deposits laid down at all phases of the Pleistocene; these accumulations cover others which were deposited in the latter half of the previous geological period—the Pliocene. The Cromerian formations mark the transition from the earlier to the later of these two periods. Even so long ago as 1863 Sir Charles Lyell expressed the opinion that “signs of man’s existence” would be met with in the Cromer forest bed. In 1879 Lewis Abbott discovered flints in this bed showing unmistakable evidence of human workmanship (Natural Science, 1897, vol. x., p. 89). In more recent years—from 1909 onwards— J. Reid Moir has carried out a systematic search for traces of man in the deposits of East Anglia. He has published accounts of flint implements found under the Cromer forest bed (The Great Flint Implements of Cromer, 1923); within the Red-Crag, a deposit of late Pliocene date (Upper Pliocene), and under the Red-Crag he has gathered many examples of early stone industries, thus carrying the evidence of man’s existence—at least that of a tool-

fabricating animal—far into the Pliocene period. (Pre-Palaeolithic Man, 1919; Early Man in East Anglia, 1927.) In older Pliocene deposits it becomes increasingly difficult to distinguish between stones shaped by natural forces and those fashioned by man’s apprentice hand. Perhaps the earliest traces of man’s handiwork are represented by the “eoliths” which Benjamin Harrison first

discerned in the plateau gravels of Kent in 1885 and which were accepted by Sir Joseph Prestwich as showing definite signs of human workmanship. Reid Moir regards the plateau “eoliths” as being at least mid-Pliocene date. Many authorities are inclined to accept shaped stones found in deposits of the geological period which precedes the Pliocene—the Miocene, as evidence of the existence of beings with brains sufficiently advanced to conceive the use of stone tools, and with hands sufficiently skilled to fashion them. By such evidence human antiquity is carried into a past which must be measured by a million, perhaps millions, of years. All the evidence of this kind, which bears on the antiquity of man, . has been fully discussed by Prof. W. J. Sollas (Ancient Hunters, 3rd ed., 1924; see also Apes and Men, by Harold Peake and H. J. Fleure, 1927; A Text-book of European Archaeology, vol. i, Palaeolithic Period, by R. A. S. Macalister, 1921). Galley

Hill Man

and

the Antiquity

of Man

of the

Modern Type.—In 1888 there was found in the middle or Chellean deposit of the roo ft. terrace of the Thames valley a human skeleton amidst circumstances which led highly skilled geologists to infer that it had been naturally entombed when the terrace was being laid down. The site of discovery was near the Schoolhouse of Galley Hill and hence the skeleton became known by that name. If the skeleton was as old as the deposit in which it lay then men of the modern.type had a great antiquity, for in no important respect did Galley Hill man differ from modern man. Discoveries of a similar import were made in terrace deposits at Clichy, Paris, in 1868. The evidence which has accumulated since these skeletons were unearthed make it increasingly difficult to accept the geological age attributed to them. The most reliable evidence now at our disposal leads us to believe that Neanthropic or modern man made his first appearance in Europe late in the Pleistocene period. Until we trace him to the part of the earth from whence he came and discover the transitional stages of his evolution in situ, we cannot frame any precise estimate of the antiquity of our own type. Such discoveries of fossil man as have been made lead us to infer that early Pleistocene times, so far as concerns our direct ancestry, was a period of rapid evolutionary change; it was then that our brain underwent its latest unfolding and the grosser marks of the ape were shed from our frames. When

we consider the very diverse forms into which Neanthropic man is now divided—Australoid, Negroid, Mongoloid and Caucasoiq_ it is clear we must postulate a considerable period for the differ. entiation of a common ancestral stock into modern races—one which must cover the whole of the Pleistocene period at least. The

faculty of speech must be of ancient origin—or how otherwise can we explain the extraordinary diversity and number of languages— extinct and living? The conquests which man has won over nature

also bespeak a long past for him. Difficulties Which Surround the Problem of Man's Antiquity.—Are we justified in giving the name of man to the

beings which shaped the crude stone tools found in deposits of the Pliocene period? At what evolutionary point are we to say that the Rubicon which separates ape from man has been passed? Until we have fixed such a point we cannot discuss the antiquity of man with any measure of precision. Let us take a concrete instance. Are we to regard Pithecanthropus as man or as ape? The answer is that he was human because of the following reasons, In point of size and conformation, his brain attained almost the lowest limit of modern or Neanthropic man; his posture and mode of progression were human; his hands and arms were freed from

locomotion; his teeth fall within range of human variation. Pithe-

canthropus represents one of the dawn forms of humanity, and with his discovery it became possible to affirm that man’s antiquity could be carried back with certainty to the close of the Pliocene period. It is not unlikely that higher forms than Pithecanthropus

were evolved before the end of the Pliocene period; the stage reached by Piltdown man early in the Pleistocene period supports such an inference. A consideration of all the evidence leads us to expect that the fossil remains of emerging primitive man have to be sought for in strata of the Pliocene period, and those of emerging Neanthropic man in deposits of the Pleistocene.

Indirect Evidence of Man’s Antiquity.—The evidence so far considered has had a direct and positive bearing on man’s antiquity; by the discovery of fossil remains and stone implements man has been traced through the Pleistocene into the Pliocene period of the earth’s history. We have now to consider a line of evidence which has an indirect but very important bearing on the date of man’s origin. Students of modern culture are well aware that a certain stage of knowledge has to be reached before a particular invention becomes possible. The invention of the aeroplane early in the 20th century was conditioned by the evolution of the internal combustion engine in the latter part of the roth century; that, in turn, only became possible when a host of discoveries had

been made during the length of the 19th century. The same line of evidence applies to living types. Man’s body and brain became possible only after the order of primates had undergone many and profound evolutionary changes. The full anthropoid stage had to be attained before a human form became possible. We have direct evidence of the existence of great anthropoid apes in Europe and in Asia during the long Pliocene period; in the same continents we have traced them, by their fossil remains, far into the long geological period which preceded the Pliocene—the Miocene. The great anthropoidal type seems to have come into existence first during Miocene times, for we have found no trace of them as yet in the deposits of the still older period—the Oligocene. The meagre fossil remains of primates, so far discovered in strata of the Oligocene period indicate the existence of very generalized,

small apes, one of which may well represent the ancestor of the gibbon—the smallest and most monkey-like of living anthropoids. It is useless to go beyond the Oligocene in search of a separate ancestry for mankind; not even the small anthropoid had come into existence in pre-Oligocene times. Thus a survey of our

knowledge of the evolution of the higher primates—imperfect as that knowledge still is—leads us to the conclusion that the dif-

ferentiation of the stem which culminated in modern man, cannot have commenced until the Miocene period was reached. The oldest trace of a small anthropoid so far discovered comes

from strata of the Fayum, Egypt, laid down in the earlier phase

of the Oligocene period. The half of a lower jaw with its teeth is all that has been found of this small anthropoid which was described by Von Schlosser in 1911. He named it Propliopith-

MAN, ISLE OF ecus, and regarded it as an ancestral form of gibbon (W. K. Gregory, The Evolution of the Human Dentition, 1922). Of Miocene and Pliocene great anthropoids at least 11 distinct species, representing several genera, are known by the discovery of fossil remains—all of them, unfortunately, being of a fragmentary nature. The type of anthropoid prevalent in Miocene

mes is best represented by the genus Dryopithecus—anthropoids

representing the chimpanzee in point of size and posture and

showing in their teeth and jaws characters which indicate that the ancestries of the gorilla, chimpanzee and man may have descended

or ascended from a Dryopithecque form. So great and intimate are the resemblances between the teeth of primitive man and those of Dryopithecus that Dr. W. K. Gregory is convinced that it was this anthropoidal type which gave evolutionary birth to the hunan phylum. Great anthropoids of many kinds abounded in the Miocene jungles of northern India as we know from discoveries

made by Dr. Guy Pilgrim (Records of the Geological Survey of

India, 1915, Vol. xlv., p. 1; Memoirs of the Geological Survey of India, 1927, vol. xiv., p. 1). One of these, Sivapithecus, known

by fragments of jaws and teeth found in Siwalik deposits, is

regarded as a possible ancestor of man by Dr. Pilgrim, but a definite decision cannot be made until more material is available for study. So far no fossil trace of an anthropoidal type has been discovered in America; man had reached his Neanthropic stage of evolution before he entered the New World. In 1922 a much eroded tooth was found in beds of Pliocene date at Snake Creek quarry, Nebraska, which was attributed to an anthropoid ape— Hesperopithecus, was the name proposed for it—but later discoveries have shown that a mistake had been made and that the tooth belonged to a being of another order. Early in 1925 Prof. Raymond Dart announced the discovery of the fossil skull of a young anthropoid ape, found in a limestone quarry at Taungs, on the eastern border of the Bechuanaland Protectorate and near the Transvaal frontier (Nature, 1925, vol. cv. p. 195). The geological evidence goes to prove that this anthropoid. which Prof. Dart named Australopithecus, cannot be dlder than the beginning of the Pleistocene—a date at which primitive types of humanity were already in existence. In size of brain, in shape of head, conformation of jaw and tooth, this very interesting and extinct form of anthropoid shows close relationships to the two surviving African anthropoids—the gorilla and chimpanzee—and, as Prof. Dart has rightly maintained, possessed certain features which may be called human.

767

has thrown a flood of light on the machinery of evolution (Prof. Chas. R. Stockard, Publications of Cornell University Medical College, 1924, vol. 10; Keith, Supplement to Nature, Aug. 18, 1923). It has been proved that substances or hormones are carried by the circulation throughout the living body from a series of glands which include those of reproduction, the adrenal, the thyroid, the pituitary and pineal, and that the substances thus liberated in the body do control its vital reactions and its structural form. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—C. Darwin, The Descent of Man, 2nd ed. (1881) ; T. H. Huxley, Man’s Place in Nature (1863) ; Collected Essays, vol. vii. (r900) ; Sir E. B. Tylor, Anthropology (1881) ; Ernst Haeckel, Evolution of Man, translation of 3rd German ed. (1879); Sir E. Ray Lankester, The Kingdom of Man (1907) ; Prof. Gustav Schwalbe, “Studien zur Vorgeschichte des Menschen,” Zeitschrift fiir Morphologie (1906) ; Prof. G. Elliot Smith, Evolution of Man (1924) ; Prof. F. Wood Jones, Arboreal Man (1916); W.L. H. Duckworth, Morphology and Anthropology, 2nd ed. (1915); A. H. Keane, Man Past and Present, 2nd ed., revised by A. Hingston Quiggin and A. C. Haddon (1920) ; Prof. Marcelin Boule, Fossil Men, translation of znd French ed. (1923) ; Henry

Fairfield Osborn, Men of the Old Stone Age (1915); W. K. Gregory, The Origin and Evolution of Human Deniiiion (1922) ; Alés Hrdlička, The Most Ancient Remains of Man, 2nd ed. (1916); Sir A. Smith Woodward, A Guide to the Fossil Remains of Man (1922); W. J. Sollas, Ancient Hunters and their Modern Representatives, 3rd ed. (r924); Sir Arthur Keith, The Antiquity of Man, 2nd ed. (1925); Human Embryology and Morphology, ath ed. (1921); Concerning Man’s Origin (1927) ; Hugo Obermaier, Fossil Man in Spain (1924) ; Carveth Read, The Origin of Man and of His Superstitions (1920) ; Prof. Hermann Klaatsch, The Evolution and Progress of Mankind (1923); Prof. W. Koehler, The Mentality of Apes (1925); Harold Peake and Herbert J. Fleure, The Corridors of Time, vols. i., ii., wi. (1927); Alfred Machin, The Ascent of Man (1925); Adolf Remane, “Beiträge zur Morphologie des Anthropoid engebisses,” Archiv. fiir Naturgeschichte (1927), Heft xi.; R. A. 5. Macalister, A Text-book of European Archaeology (1921). (A. K.)

MAN, ISLE OF (anc. Mona), a possession of the crown of England, in the Irish sea, 33 m. long by 12 broad in the broadest part. The area is 220 sq.m. Oval in general form its outline is very irregular, being indented with numerous bays and creeks. Its chief physical characteristic is the close juxtaposition of mountain, glen and sea, which has produced a great variety and beauty of scenery. The greater part of its surface is hilly. The hills (culminating point Snaefell 2,034 ft.), have a trend in the direction of the longer axis, but throw out radiating spurs, which frequently reach the coast line. The outline of the hills is smooth and rounded, the rocks, the Manx Slate series, being a group of slates, flags, grits and conglomerates which have suffered much from folding, crushing and overthrusting. No satisfactory fossils have yet been found in these rocks, Summary.—Thus, taking all lines of evidence into consideration, anatomical, biological, embryological and geological, we are but they are regarded provisionally as of Upper Cambrian age. led to the conclusion that man has been evolved from a lower The series is penetrated by masses of granite at Dhoon, Foxdale, form, and that human races, as we know them to-day, are the etc. Streams have frequently rent steep-walled gulleys in the products of evolutionary processes. There remain great blanks in hill-sides, and the westerly winds have caused them to be treethe line of evidence which links the origin of modern man to an less, except in some of the lower slopes. Rising almost directly extinct form of anthropoid ape. Between the highest kind of from the sea, they present a much more imposing appearance than anthropoid and the lowest type of man, represented at present by many hills of greater altitude. On the south-west, they descend Pithecanthropus, there still exists a great gap; the transitional precipitously into the sea, and unite with the cliffs to produce most forms which fill this gap still remain to be discovered. Yet the striking coast scenery. The whole coast from Peel round by the evidence as it stands, imperfect as it is, points to man’s departure Calf-of-Man, to near Ramsey, is distinguished by rugged granfrom an anthropoid status early in the Miocene period, certainly deur. The Calf-of-Man is a precipitous island reaching an alti1,000,000 years ago, perhaps more; that in the Miocene and Plio- tude of 360 feet. From Ramsey round by the Point of Ayre to cene periods his body and limbs became adapted to a plantigrade near Peel, extend low sandy cliffs, bordered by flat sandy shores. The low-lying northern plain extends northward from the road posture; that his brain underwent expansion in the Pliocene, and particularly in the earlier part of the Pleistocene period, and that between Ramsey and Ballough and is composed of Carboniferous and Triassic rocks as the brain reached a full human status the coarser outward ap- (limestones, sandstones and conglomerates) relieved only by a is plain This drift. glacial by covered bearances of the ape were shed. Of thevitalprocesses which brought entirely of 270 feet. elevation an attaining highest the hills, of range low that manifest is it but ignorant, yet as are we about these changes in the rocks s Carboniferou of sq.m.) (8 tract small a is There in his evolutionary progress man has tended to acquire and preserve in adult years states which appear at first as transient neighbourhood of Castletown, which are of great economic imconditions in foetal or infantile stages. (Prof. L. Bolk, Proc. Acad. portance forming the only source of lime and also the best building stone in the island. The drainage of the island radiates from of Science, Amsterdam, 1927, vol. xxx., No. 2.) sycaIt is becoming clear that the machinery of evolution is that around Snaefell. Narrow, winding glens studded with fir, fern, and heather gorse, of patches with ash, which regulates development and growth, and in these matters more, and mountain knowledge is growing. Experimental embryologists have proved afford a striking contrast to the bare mountain tops. Traces of in the centhat one group of developing cells can and does regulate the growth an older system of drainage are noticeable, especially Peel. There are no. lakes. and Douglas between depression tral hormones of theory The group. neighbouring

and behaviour of a

768

MAN, ISLE OF

The chief bays are, on the east coast, Ramsey, with an excellent anchorage, Laxey, Douglas, Derbyhaven, Castletown and Port St. Mary; and on the west coast Port Erin and Peel. Climate.—The island is liable to heavy gales from the southwest but its winters are mild, and, influenced by the less changeable temperature of the sea, its summers cool. The mean annual temperature is 49° F, the temperature of the coldest month (January) being 41-5°, and the warmest (August) 58-5°, Fuchsias, hydrangeas, myrtles and escallonias grow luxuriantly in the open air. There are remarkable divergences in the amounts of rain in the different parts of the island, varying from 61 in. at Snaefell to 25 in. at the Calf-of-Man. Fauna.—Like Ireland, the Isle of Man is exempt from snakes and toads. Frogs have been introduced and both the sand lizard and the common lizard are found. Badgers, moles, squirrels, and voles are absent and foxes are extinct. The red deer became extinct by the beginning of the 18th century. Hares are less plentiful than formerly and rabbits are not numerous. Snipe are fairly common, and there are a few partridges and grouse. Woodcock, wild geese, wild ducks, plover, widgeon, teal, heron, bittern, kingfisher and the Manx shearwater (Pufinus puffinus) visit the island, but do not breed there. The puffin (Fratercula artica) is still numerous on the Calf islet in the summer time. The peregrine falcon and the chough have become very scarce. The legal protection of sea-birds (local act of 1867) has led to an enormous increase in the number of gulls. A domestic cat, remarkable for a stunted or absent tail, is peculiar to the island. Flora.—Like the fauna, the flora is chiefly remarkable for its meagreness. It contains at most 450 species as compared with 690 in Jersey. Alpine forms are absent. But what it lacks in variety it makes up in beauty and quantity. For the profusion of spring flowers, the Isle of Man is famous. The People.—The centre of the island retains remnants of an early population, mainly short, dark and long headed, while the coastal areas are said to show a broad-headed element, tall and well-built with dark features. A survey is, however, greatly needed. The majority of the population, however, show marked Nordic characters—tall, fair, with light eyes, undoubtedly due to the large Scandinavian settlements reinforced by later immigrants both Norman and English. The total population of the island in 193i was 49,338, but visitors considerably augment this total. History and Early Settlement.—The earliest evidences of man on the island are probably to be found in the numerous flint chipping floors along the coasts and elsewhere. Such floors are found near Ronaldsway, Ballakaighan, German and Port St. Mary. There are evidences of pile dwellings near the foot of Snaefell and Ballakaighan, the latter site has a dug-out boat. Almost all the polished stone axes on the island are of foreign make, a fact that suggests that they were brought as articles of trade and were in use long after the period from which they date typologically. Prehistoric burial sites range from Neolithic to Scandinavian. The position of the island in the western seas suggests that it was a station of no little importance in megalithic times and there are many old stone monuments still surviving, though many of the sites seem to have been occupied both before and after this time. Mull Hill circle with its cists in the south of the island is well known. Other stone monuments are found on Bradda mountain, Spanish Head, the Braid, Marown, the Ballachrink Cairn, Maughold and the famous King Orry’s grave in Laxey. The latter seems to have maintained a tradition of sanctity down until the dark ages and possibly in the local cults through the middle ages. There are cup and ring markings at Bradan Camp, Oatland Circle and Grainvick bay. The actual Bronze Age discoveries are few, although the variety of objects recorded indicates a representative culture. Traces of the Iron Age both in weapons and fortifications merge imperceptibly into those of the dark ages and the Scandinavian period. The history of the Isle of Man during the Celtic period is mainly associated with the spread of Celtic Christianity. During this period the island had a close association with Ireland as the early Christian Keedlls or oratories show. Man is rich in sculptured crosses, and there is a round tower on Peel islet. If the

supposed conquest of the Menavian islands—Man and Anglesey by Edwin of Northumbria, in 616, did take place, the results were hardly permanent. It is, however, possible that in 684, when

Ecfrid laid Ireland waste from Dublin to Drogheda, he temporarily occupied Man. During the period of Scandinavian domination there are two

main epochs—one before the conquest of Man by Godred Crovan in 1079, and the other after it. The earlier epoch is characterized

by warfare and unsettled rule, the later is comparatively peaceful.

Between about 800 and 815 the Vikings came to Man chiefly for

plunder; between about 850 and 990, when they settled in it, the island fell under the rule of the Scandinavian kings of Dublin: and between 990 and 1079, it was subject to the powerful earls of Orkney. The conquerer Godred Crovan was evidently a remarkable man, and it seems probable that he is the person com-

memorated in Manx legend under the name of King Gorse or Orry. The islands which were under his rule were called the Sudr-eyjar (Sudreys or the south isles, in contra-distinction to the nordr-eyjar, or the north isles, ż.e., the Orkneys and Shet-

lands, and they consisted of the Hebrides, and of all the smaller western islands of Scotland, with Man. At a later date his successors took the title of Rex Mannice et Insularum.

Olaf (1113-

1152), Godred’s son, was a powerful monarch. His son, Godred, who for a short period ruled over Dublin also, as a result of a quarrel with Somerled, the ruler of Argyll, in 1156, lost the smaller islands off the coast of Argyll.

An independent sovereignty was

thus interposed between the two divisions of his kingdom. Early in the 13th century, when Reginald of Man did homage to King John, we hear for the first time of English intervention in the affairs of Man, but it was into the hands of Scotland that the islands were ultimately to fall. During the whole of the

Scandinavian period the isles were nominally under the suzerainty of the kings of Norway. The first to assert this authority was Harold Haarfager about 885, then came Magnus Barfod about 1100, both of whom conquered the isles. From the middle of the 12th century till 1217 the suzerainty had been of a very shadowy character. But after that date it became a reality and Norway consequently came into collision with the growing power of Scotland. Finally, in 1261, Alexander III. of Scotland sent envoys to Norway to negotiate for the cession of the isles, but their efforts led to no result. He therefore initiated hostilities which terminated in the complete defeat of the Norwegian fleet at Largs in 1263. Magnus, king of Man and the Isles, was compelled to surrender all the islands over which he had ruled, except Man, for which he did homage. Two years later Magnus died and in 1266 the king of Norway ceded the islands, including Man, to Scotland. But Scotland’s rule over Man was not firmly established till 1275, when the Manx were defeated at Ronaldsway, near Castletown. In 1290 we find Edward I. of England in possession of Man, and till 1346, when the battle of Neville’s Cross decided the long struggle between England and Scotland in England's favour, there followed a confused period when Man was sometimes under English and sometimes under Scottish rule. About 1333 it had been granted by King Edward ITI. to William de Montacute, Ist earl of Salisbury, as his absolute possession. In 1392 his son sold the island “with the crowne” to Sir William Le Scroope. In 1399 Henry IV. caused Le Scroope, to be beheaded. The island then came into the possession of the crown and was granted to Henry de Percy, earl of Northumberland, but, he having been attainted, Henry IV., in 1406, made a grant of it to Sir John Stanley, his heirs and assigns. ; With the accession of the Stanleys to the throne there begins a better epoch in Manx history. Though the island’s new rulers

rarely visited its shores they placed it under responsible gov-

ernors, who seem to have treated it with justice. Of the thirteen members of the family who ruled in Man, the second Sir John

Stanley (1414-1432), James, the 7th earl (1627-1651), and the roth earl of the same name (1702-1736) had the most important

influence on it. The first curbed the power

of the spiritual

barons, introduced trial by jury and ordered the laws to be written. The second, known as the Great Stanley, and his wife, Char-

MAN, ISLE OF otte de la Tremoille, are probably the most striking figures in

Manx history. In 1643 Charles I. ordered him to go to Man, where the people threatened to revolt.

But his arrival, with

English soldiers, soon put a stop to anything of this kind. He sonciliated the people by his affability, brought in Englishmen to

each various handicrafts and tried to help the farmers by imroving the breed of Manx horses, and, at the same time, he restricted the exactions of the Church. But the Manx people never had less liberty than under his rule.

They were heavily

taxed; troops were quartered upon them; and they had to accept short leases for holding their land. In 1649 Stanley received a gummons from General Ireton to surrender the island, which he

naughtily declined.

In Aug. 1651 he went to England with 300

Manxmen among his troops, to join King Charles II, and took part in the decisive defeat of the Royalists at Worcester. He

was captured, confined in Chester castle, tried by court martial and executed at Wigan.

Soon after his death the Manx Militia, under the command of William Christian, rose against the Countess and captured all the insular forts except Rushen and Peel. They were then joined

by a parliamentary force under Colonel Duckenfield, to whom the Countess surrendered. Fairfax had been appointed “Lord of Man and the Isles” in September. The restoration of Stanley

government (1660) caused as little friction and alteration as its

temporary cessation had. William Christian was tried and executed while of the other persons implicated in the rebellion three

only were excepted from the general amnesty, but by Order in Council they were pardoned, and the judges responsible for the sentence on Christian were punished. Stanley disputed the permanency of the tenants’ holdings, which they had not at first regarded as being affected by the acceptance of leases. Almost open rebellion and the neglect of agriculture followed. In lieu of it the people turned to the fisheries and to contraband trade. The agrarian question was not settled till 1704, when James, Charles's brother and successor, largely through the influence

of Bishop Wilson, entered into a compact with his tenants, which secured the tenants in the possession of their estates in perpetuity on condition principally of a fixed rent. This act has been called the Magna Carta of the Manx people. As time went on, and the value of the estates increased, the rent payable to the lord became so small in proportion as to be almost nominal. James died in 1736 and was succeeded by James Murray, 2nd duke of Atholl. In 1764 he was succeeded by Charlotte, Baroness Strange, and her husband, John Murray, who, in right of his wife, became Lord of Man. About 1720 the contraband trade greatly

increased.

In 1726 it was, for a time, somewhat checked by

parliament, but during the last ten years of the Atholl régime (1756-1765) it assumed such proportions that it became necessary to suppress it. The “Revesting Act,” was passed in 1765, under which the sovereign and manorial rights and the customs revenues and certain other perquisites were purchased. Up to the time of the Revestment the Tynwald court passed laws concerning the government of the island in all respects and had control over its finances, subject to the approval of the lord.

After the Revestment, Imperial Parliament legislated with respect to customs, harbours and merchant shipping, and, in meas-

ures Of a general character, it occasionally inserted clauses by

769

more favourably, and it obtained a less stringent customs tariff and an occasional dole towards erecting its much neglected public works. Since 1866, when they obtained at least a nominal “Home Rule,” the Manx people have flourished greatly. Arms.—There has been much controversy about the origin of the arms of the island—the “three-legs” found on a beautiful pillar cross near Maughhold churchyard belonging to the latter part of the r4th century. It was probably originally a sun symbol and was brought from Sicily by the Vikings. The motto quocumque jeceris stabit is of comparatively recent origin. Church.—The Christianity of Early Irish associations seems to have suffered beneath the Scandinavian power, though a Christianity with both Irish and Scandinavian affinities reasserts itself

in the 1rth century, The two most important events in the history of the mediaeval Manx Church were the formation of the

diocese of Sodor (g.v.) and the foundation of the abbey of Rushen, a branch of the Cistercian abbey of Furness, in 1134. From this time till the Reformation there was an almost continuous struggle between the laity and the spiritual barons and monks, who had obtained great power and much property in the island. In 1458 the diocese was placed under York. The dissolution of the religious houses in Man was brought about by the arbitrary action of Henry VIII., and the Reformation was a very slow process. Successful missions by John Wesley and others resulted in the establishment of Nonconformity. In 1878 a Sodor and Man theological school was established for the training of candidates for holy orders. In 1880 four rural deaneries were established, and commissioners were constituted as trustees of endowments for Church purposes. In 1895 a cathedral chapter, with four canons, was constituted under the name of the “Dean and Chapter of Man,” the bishop being the dean of the cathedral church. Several acts give Nonconformists (probably a majority) equal rights with Churchmen. There are a few Roman Catholics and Presbyterians. The position. of the bishop in the House of Lords is not clear, and it appears that no bishop of Sodor and Man has sat in that house within about the last 200 years; some claim that, if he is among the 26 senior bishops, apart from those who have seats ex oficio, he may sit but not vote. The Manx Church is a separate national Church governed by its own laws, which, however, must be approved by the insular Legislature. Education.—In 1872, when the insular Legislature passed the Public Elementary Education Act, the Manx State undertook

direct responsibility for education. Since the date of this act education has made extraordinary strides. It became free in 1892, and a higher-grade school was established in Douglas in 1894. The public elementary schools, are managed by the Isle of Man Education authority. They are examined by English inspectors and compelled to attain the same standard of efficiency as the English and Welsh schools. In 1907 an act establishing a system

of secondary education was passed by the Legislature. Besides King William’s college, Castletown, a minor public school, opened in 1833, there are high schools in Douglas, and a grammar school at Ramsey. The Manx language (see CELT: Language) still lingers, but there is now no one who does not speak English, Government.—This is vested in a lieutenant-governor, ap-

pointed by the Crown; in a council (the upper House); in the House of Keys (the lower House); and in the Tynwald court.

which penalties in contravention of the acts of which they formed part might be enforced in the island. It also assumed the control of the customs duties. Such were the changes which modified the Constitution of the Isle of Man. Its ancient laws and tenures were not interfered with. The hereditary lords were far from being model rulers, but most of them had taken some per-

The two Houses sit separately as legislative bodies, but they sit in the Tynwald court as distinct bodies with co-ordinate powers to transact executive business and tọ sign bills. The Tynwald court controls the revenue, and is subject to the supervision of the Treasury, and it appoints boards to manage the harbour, high-

their sway, but were more considerate than before. Since smuggling

Acts of the it be specially named in them. The lieutenant-governor (the representative of the sovereign) presides in the Council, in the

ways, education, local government, agriculture and lunatic and Government, after intimating its sonal share in its government, and had interested themselves in poor asylums. The Imperial rates ofthe customs duties, but the the well-being of its inhabitants. But now officials who regarded intention to Tynwald, fixes abolish or vary” the cus“impose, resolution by can Tynwald their was it the island as a pestilent nest of smugglers, from which parliament. The approval of approval the to subject toms duties, duty to extract as much revenue as possible, were in charge. and of the lieutenantKingdom United the of sovereign the of imgovernor, as Between 1793 and 1826, the 4th Duke of Atholl, enactment. legislative every to essential is proved matters. After his departure the English officials resumed governor imperial parliament do not affect the island except was had by that time almost disappeared, and the Manx revenue

producing a large surplus, the Isle of Man came to be regarded

179

MANA

Tynwald court. He is the supreme executive authority, and he has certain powers of veto. It has been the practice for him to act as

chancellor of the exchequer. The Council consists of the lieutenant-governor, lord-bishop of the diocese, clerk of the rolls, the two deemsters, attorney general, two members appointed by the lieutenant-governor and four members appointed by the House of Keys. The House of Keys (for origin of the name see Key) is one of the most ancient legislative assemblies in the world. It consists of twenty-four members, elected by male and female voters, there being manhood and womanhood suffrage for all above 21 years of age. Each of four sheadings elects three members and the other two sheadings, two members each; the towns of Castletown, Peel and Ramsey one each, and Douglas five. The House sits for five years unless previously dissolved by the lleutenant-governor. Law.—The High Court of Justice, of which the lieutenantgovernor is president, contains three divisions: viz. the Chancery division, the Common Law division, and an Appeal court. The jurisdiction of the Chancery and Common Law division is in the main similar to that of the corresponding divisions in the English courts. Appellate jurisdiction is exercised by the Appeal court consisting of the High Court judge and an appeal judge, the latter being an eminent barrister approved by the crown, and acts only when required. The Common Law courts (southern division) are held at Douglas and Castletown alternately and for the northern division at Ramsey, once in three months. Actions are heard by a deemster and a special or common jury. The Chancery court sits once a fortnight at Douglas. Deemsters’ courts for minor cases are held weekly, alternately at Douglas and Castletown and alternately at Ramsey and Peel. Criminal cases are heard by the magistrates or a high-bailiff and are sent on by them for trial by a deemster and a jury of six, which discharge the functions of the Grand Jury in England. The Court of General Gaol Delivery is the supreme criminal court and is presided over by the

clerk of the rolls and the deemsters. The High Bailiffs (comparable to a stipendiary magistrate) hold weekly courts in the four towns and magistrates (J.P.s) also hold regular courts. There is a coroner in each of the six sheadings. The Manx Bar is distinct from that of England. Its members, called “Advocates,” combine the functions of barrister and solicitor. The laws relating to real property still retain much of their ancient peculiarity, but other branches of law have been made practically identical with English law. As regards real property the general tenure is a customary freehold devolving from each possesser to his next heir-at-law. Chief Political Divisions and Towns.—The island is divided into six sheadings (from the Scandinavian “Ship-District’’) called Glenfaba, Middle, Rushen, Garff, Ayre and Michael, each of which has its officer, the coroner, whose functions are similar to those of a sheriff; and there are seventeen parishes. The chief towns are, Douglas, Ramsey, Peel, Castletown, Onchan, Port Erin, Port St. Mary, Laxey and Braddon. Communications.—There is communication by steamers during the summer season with Liverpool, Fleetwood, Heysham,

Glasgow, Greenock and Blackpool and with Liverpool, Greenock, Dublin and Belfast throughout the year.

A daily mail was es-

tablished in 1879. The internal communications are very good. The Isle of Man Railway Company has lines from Douglas to Castletown, Douglas to St. John’s, where the line branches to Peel, Ramsey and Foxdale. In addition, the Manx Electric Rail-

way Company has a service from Douglas to Laxey and Ramsey, and from Laxey to the summit of Snaefell, whilst the Southern Electric railway connects Douglas to Port Soderick. The island is also well served by road motor transport companies which run

regular services between most of the towns and villages. Agriculture.—The position of the Manx farmers is in general more favourable than that of the English or Scottish farmers.

The best land is in the north and south. The farms.are principally held on lease and small holdings have almost entirely disappeared. The cultivated area is about 80,000 acres or 57% of the whole.

The commons and uncultivated lands on the mountains are also utilized for pasturage. Oats occupy about 97% of the area under 4

corn

crops.

Turnips,

an excellent

crop,

are largely exported

potatoes are grown on the dry sandy soil of the north. The pasturage is good. Some of the low-lying land is much in need of systematic drainage. The livestock now approximates very closely in quality to the stock in the north of England. Dairying is the most profitable department of agricultural industry. Apples, pears

and wall fruit do not succeed very well, but the soil is favourable for strawberries, raspberries, gooseberries, currants and vegetables. Both agricultural and market-garden produce are quite insufficient to supply the demand in the summer. Fishing.—The most numerous fish are herrings, cod, mackerel, ling, haddock, plaice, sole, fluke, turbot and brett. The industry is, however, in a decaying condition, especially the herring fishery, which fails periodically. The amount of fish caught, except herrings, is not sufficient to supply the demand in the summer. About 250 vessels, aggregating 4,260 tons, with crews num-

bering 4,250 are employed in this industry. A fish hatchery and marine biology station has been established at Port Erin. Industries.—In

proportion

to

its

area

the

metalliferous

wealth of the Isle of Man has been considerable, but little or no mining is done to-day.

Two

of its mines, Laxey and Foxdale,

have produced lead and zinc for many years.

Copper pyrites and

haematite iron, and small amounts of the ores of nickel and antimony have been found. The mines are rented from the Crown as lord of the manor. Other economic products are clay, granite,

limestone, sandstone, slate and salt. The principal manufactured articles are woollen cloths and blankets, hemp ropes and cotton,

and herring nets. A few fishing vessels are built, and brewing is a prosperous industry. The most important occupation of the people is that of the provision for summer visitors, half a million of whom

come

to the island annually.

The chief exports are

turnips, ropes, cotton nets and salt. The imports consist chiefly of timber and various foodstuffs. BrsLiocraPHy.—For History and Law see The Manx Society's publications. See also Bibliotheca Monensis (Manx Society), with a list of MSS. and books up to 1876, and A. W. Moore’s History of

the Isle of Man has a list of MSS. and books up to 1900. Other more recent books include:—-P. M. C. Kermode, Manx Crosses (1907); E. A. Jones, The old Church plate of the Isle of Man (1907); A. Herbert, Isle of Man (1926); J. J. Kneen, Place names of the Isle of Man (1927); G. W. Lamplugh, Geology of the Isle of Man (Geol. Surv. 1913); A. W. Moore, Surnames and place names of the Isle of Man (1906); P. G. Ralfe, Birds of the Isle of Man (1905); P. M.C.

Kermode & W. A. Herdman, Manks Antiquities (1914) ; Hall Caine’s novels have no doubt tended to popularize the island as well as a novel entitled The Captain of the Parish, by John Quine.

MANA is a word meaning “occult power” and occurs in many languages of Oceania. It is of uncertain origin, though probably introduced by immigrants from the West. While having also a wider and vaguer application, it stands for the “divine right” of the aristocratic class to wield authority and to enforce religious prohibitions; the sanction behind the taboo being the mana of the governing class, while conversely that taboo serves to keep the tribal mana intact, that is, ensures the good luck for all that waits on sound government. As a term of general anthropology mana may be treated as the positive, while taboo is the negative aspect, of the occult. In other words the occult as such is taboo, or “not to be lightly approached,” because it is mana, or charged with wonder-working power. Noa Contrasted.—In the Pacific region the word noa is used to signify the opposite kind of object or situation which is “common,” that is, ordinary. The man who wields mana with impunity must abstain from all that is sordid. There are two worlds, a low-level and a high-level condition of spiritual activity, and a man cannot dwell in both at once. Thus by the very virtue of his profession the medicine man or the divine king must hold himself apart from those who by status or by choice are noa, laymen. The latter may live in brutish contentment; but to the end they lack enlightenment, participating in the highest

mysteries at best from without. society is in some

Every member of a primitive

degree versed in experience of the occult,

though for the most part some better qualified person is present to help him through it. The Crises of Life.—The initiation of youths, puberty, mar-

MANAAR— MANAKIN jage, 2 battle, a hunt may all lead toprivations whereby one may yquire mand, “2 strong heart, uplift.’ Tradition has devised very eficient means of coping with crises, whether of organic rigin oF due to circumstance, by laying down. a prescribed discime which as it were enables the sick soul to go into retreat, so as by concentration on its inner resources to obtain an access of

gength and comfort. (See Passace Rires.) “Mana and Ritual—Old-world religion is inarticulate, and stands for the power set in motion by ritual (qg.v.), almost regardless of the intention behind the ritual; which among sav-

wes is always apprehended rather than comprehended. Thus shen the ritual is of a public nature and guaranteed by custom md tradition, the mana therefrom resulting is felt by all to be a

771

terous vocables corresponding to the parts of the door that he wished to construct rite “according to form.” When nomina are thus numina and no more, the stage of mana has not been left bebind; and indeed the word “numinous” has been suggested to cover the sacred in its more impersonal forms. It only remains to add that the mana-taboo formula, together with animatism, pre-animism, dynamism, numinism, or any other terms—the now discarded word fetishism is one of them—that have been used

by theorists in the same connection, may or may not apply

closely to the beliefs and institutions of some particular people, and may or may not be represented by appropriate words in a given language.

Their value consists entirely in such help as

nod mana. Such and such is known to be the ceremony proper

they may afford in describing generally a phase of the religious life in which the need of coming to terms with the mysteries

t the occasion, and everyone is sure that the society will be the better for it. If, on the other hand, a private individual in wert and sinister fashion trafficks with the occult everyone is equally sure that a bad mana liable to afflict all and sundry will teunloosed. Sometimes, too, it is rather difficult to know which

that beset life at once from within and without is satisfied mainly by ritual action, running ahead of articulate and reasoned doctrine, but none the less powerfully moving. BrsriocraPpHy.—Folklore, June 1900 and June 1904, first used as a general category by R. R. Marett; see also The Threshold of Reli-

yay a professional wonder-worker will use his power; for if he

an heal he can also hurt, and it might occur to him to hurt if me did not make it worth his while to play the healer. Or,

gain, a man in authority will certainly use his mana to blast the public enemy, or even to suppress the unruly within his own

society, and so far he will be acting legitimately. Ambivalence.—Jana, then, is, as Freud would say, an “mbivalent” notion; it cuts both ways, implying alike divine md diabolic effects as possible manifestations of the awful power lwking in the occult. It is thus equally the root-idea of religion md of black magic, since both equally use rites that, duly perfumed by the expert, bring mana into play; and the procedure wil electrify or electrocute according to the will of the operator. Ina dim way the primitive mind perceives, if it hardly conceives, that intention or will has to be incorporated in the notion of nana before its moral value can be expressed. Thus not only from the Pacific but from many other parts of the world, Australia, for example, and North America, evidence is forthcoming ofa tendency to split the notion into two, and distinguish a good mda bad kind of mana; as, for instance, orenda and otgon in the Huron dialect. For the Huron everything had its modicum of orenda, the deer, for instance, that might be clever enough to escape the hunter and thus outmatch his luck by greater luck fits own; but in this world of relative powers there were some hat transcended man’s so completely that in regard to them he must “lay down his orenda,” which simply meant that he must “way.” Moreover, in such a warfare of competing agencies many might be expected to display otgon, the bad kind of enda. If the primitive mind were clearer about the direction

m which to turn for help in what is a pandaemonic rather than apantheistic universe, the moralization of religion would corre-

gondingly be brought about. As it is, the notion of the divine

power would seem to be historically prior to that of the divine

gion (1914); R. H. Codrington, The Melanesians, being his source for the Oceanic use of the word; H. Hubert and M. Mauss, “Esquisse dune théorie générale de la Magie” in L’Année Sociologique, VII. (1904), W. Wundt, Völkenpsychologie, VI., II., Pt. II.; A. Lovejoy, “The Fundamental Concept of the Primitive Philosophy,” in Monist, XVI. No. 3; “Orenda and a definition of Religion” in American Anthropologist, N.S. IV.; K. T. Preuss, “Der Ursprung der Religion und Kunst” in Globus (1904); C. Fox, The Threshold of the Pacific (1924). (R. R. M.)

MANAAR,

GULF OF, a portion of the Indian ocean lying

between the coast of Madras and Ceylon. Its northern limit is the line of rocks and islands called Adam’s Bridge. Its extreme width from Cape Comorin to Point de Galle ıs about 200 miles.

MANACOR, a town of Spain in the island of Majorca, 40 m.

by rail E. of Palma. Pop. (1920), 13,033. In the neighbourhood of Manacor are the caves of Drach, containing several underground lakes, Els Hams, and Artá, one of the largest and finest groups of stalactite caverns in western Europe.

GEMENT: see SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT. ` MANAGUA, capital of the Central American republic of

Nicaragua, and of the Province or Department of Managua, the second city in size in the republic and one of its important commercial centres. Pop. (1928) about 60,000. The city lies on the southern shore of Lake Managua (38 m. long by 10 to 16 wide),

the lesser of characteristics from the port size in recent

the two great lakes which are the chief physical of the country. It is on the Pacific railway, 87 m. of Corinto, 36 m. from Granada. It has grown in years, but its importance dates from 1855, when,

as a result of the continuous rivalry between the older cities of

León (g.v.) and Granada (g.v.), Managua was chosen as the capital of the country and the seat of an archbishop who would thus outrank the bishops of Leén and Granada. The houses are mostly one storey, roofed with red tiles and enjoying inner gardens

or patios. The cathedral and the National palace are old buildings of red sandstone, but the presidential palace (the “White House”) is a recent handsome addition. At the Campo de Marte, at the southern edge of the city, are the barracks occupied almost continuously by U.S. marines since 1912, except for some months

goodness, whether displayed as justice or as love. Pervasiveness.—In particular, the very fluidity of mana makes it hard for religion to identify it with the good will of 4personal god. It is all-pervasive, manifesting itself here, there in 1925-26 when they were withdrawn, to be followed by a coup ad everywhere in the most momentary experiences of the occult. etat and revolution, resulting in the return of the marines. Or, even when as in the case of the living medicine-man or king it (See Nicaracua.) Above the town is a fortified hill known as an be referred to a definite owner, it is apt to discharge itself “La Loma,” whose possession is the key to the city. Near by in tough anything that has been in contact with him; so that, the hills is a famous crater lake and park. MANAKIN, applied to the small birds which form the family wth so many transmitters in the shape of his bones or other longings, secondary storage-cells of divine energy are distributed in all directions. Mana thus implies a religious experience that is primarily of the perceptual order, a frame of mind in

Which the sacred is simply “sensed.” A conceptual attitude is uot likely to come into being until the manifestation is indiMdualized by being invested with a proper name. A god, or

ven the merest demon who can be propitiated by name, has a nce of acquiring a personality and a moral character.

The “Numinous.’—It may be, however, that little more than the binding force of the bare name is involved in the ritual Invocation, as when the Roman ejaculated a number of prepos-

Pipridae, a passerine family allied to the Tyranmdae. They are peculiar to the neotropical region, living in deep forests, associating in small bands, and keeping continually in motion, but feeding almost wholly on the large soft berries of the different kinds of Melastoma. The manakins are nearly all birds of gay appearance, generally exhibiting rich tints, of blue, crimson, scarlet, orange or yellow, in combination with chestnut, deep black, black and white, or olive green; among their most obvious characteristics are their short bill and feeble feet, with the outer and middle toes united

for a good part of their length. P. Jeucalla, one of the best known,

7/4

MANAOAG—MANASSES

has a wide distribution from the Isthmus of Panama to Guiana and the valley of the Amazon; but it is one of the most plainly coloured of the family, being black with a white head. They are often kept in captivity. i

MANAOAG, a municipality (with administration centre and

34 barrios or districts) in the north central part of the province of

Pangasinan, Luzon, Philippine islands, on the Angalacan river, 21 m. N.E. of Lingayen. Pop. (1918) 22,279. Rice, tobacco, corn, sugar and various fruits and vegetables are cultivated. Of the seven schools, three were public. A statue of the Virgin Mary here is visited annually (especially during May) by thousands from Pangasinan and adjoining provinces. The inhabitants are mainly Pangasinans and Ilocanos.

MANAOS, a city and port of Brazil, and capital of the State of Amazonas, on the left bank of the Rio Negro, 12m. above its junction with the Solimdes, or Amazon, and go8m. (according to Wappaus) above the mouth of the latter, in lat. 3° 8’ 4” S., long. 60° W. Pop. (1908), about 40,000; (1920 census) 75,704, including a large percentage of Indians, negroes and mixed-bloods. Mandos stands on a slight eminence overlooking the river, 1o6ft. above sea-level, traversed by several “igarapés” (canoe paths) or side channels, and beautified by the luxuriant vegetation of the Amazon valley. The average annual temperature between Iọ9Irr and 1919 was 80-9°, the number of rainy days 153, and the total rainfall 78-4 inches. Up to the beginning of the 2zoth century the only noteworthy public edifices were the church of N.S. da Conceição, the St. Sebastião asylum and, possibly, a Misericordia hospital; but a Government building, a custom-house, a municipal hall, courts of justice, a market-place and a handsome

theatre were

subsequently erected, and a modern water-supply system, electric light and electric tramways were provided. The “igarapés” are spanned by a number of bridges. Higher education is offered by a lyceum or high school, besides which there is a noteworthy school (bearing the name of Benjamin Constant) for poor orphan girls. Manáos has a famous botanical garden, an interesting museum, a public library and a meteorological observatory. The port of Manáos, which is the commercial centre of the whole upper Amazon region, was nothing but a river anchorage before 1902. In that year a foreign corporation began improvements, which include a stone river-wall or quay, storehouses for merchandise, and floating wharves or landing stages connected with the quay by floating bridges or roadways. The floating wharves

and bridges are made necessary by the rise and fall of the river, the difference between the maximum and minimum levels being about 33ft. The principal exports are nuts, cacao, rubber, dried fish, hides and piassava fibre. The markets of Manáos receive their supplies of beef from the national stock ranges on the Rio Branco, and it is from this region that hides and horns come for export. The port has direct steamship connections with New York and Liverpool by two companies. The imports to Mandos, in metric tons, have been as follows: in 1921, 5,861; 1925, 19,191. The exports from Manaos, in metric tons, have been: in 1921, 23,748: 1925, 27,758. The first European settlement on the site of Manáos was made in 1660, when a small fort was built there by Francisco da Motta Falcão, and was named São José de Rio Negro. The mission and village which followed were called Villa de Barra, or Barra do Rio Negro (the name “Barra” being derived from the “bar” in the current of the river, occasioned by the setback at its encounter with the Amazon). It succeeded Barcellos as the capital of the

old capitania of Rio Negro in 1809, and became the capital of Amazonas when that province was created in 1850, its name being vhen changed to Manaos after the principal tribe of Indians living on the Rio Negro at the time of its discovery. In 1892 Mand4os became the see of the new bishopric of Amazonas.

MANASSAS, adistrict of Prince William county, Va., and

a town of the district, about 30 m. W.S.W. of Washington, D.C. Pop. (1930) of the district, 3,478; of the town, 1,215. The village of Manassas, known also as Manassas Junction, is served by the

Southern railway. North of the junction is Bull Run, a small stream which empties inte the Occoquan, an arm of the Potomac.

In this neighbourhood two important battles of the American

Civil War, the first and second battles of Bull Run (@.v.), were

fought on July 21, 1861 and on August 29, 1862 respectively: } Southern historians Manassas.

these

battles

are

called

the battles N

MANASSEH, king of Judah, succeeded his father Hezekiah and reigned about 692-638 B.c. That he maintained his position

so long is a tribute to his statesmanship, and probably his king-

dom prospered materially. We hear, however, very little about him

because his recognition of alien cults was a grave offence inthe

eyes of those who edited the historical writings. He is, indeed held responsible for the ultimate ruin of the kingdom. He was very much under the influence of Assyria, and documents from his reign unearthed at Gezer disclose the presence of Assyrians in his realm, the use of their language and method of dating. No doubt his introduction of the worship of the host of heaven and other

Assyrian cults ‘was dictated by political rather than religious motives.

He may well have been involved in the conspiracies of

Shamash-shum-ukin, the rebellious brother of Ashurbanipal. If so, the account of his deportation to Babylon, and subsequent return, 2 Chronicles xxxiii. 11-13, may be historical, though the Chronicler’s religious interpretation of it is a fiction. Manasseh appears in inscriptions of Esarhaddon and Ashurbanipal as an

Assyrian vassal. MANASSEH,

(W. L. W.) a tribe of Israel, was descended, according to

the traditions, from Manasseh, the elder of the two sons born to

Joseph by his Egyptian wife Asenath, the younger being Ephraim.

Numbers xxxii. states that half the tribe received an allotment of

territory in the conquered land of Gilead, east of Jordan. In Joshua iv. 12 we read that this part of Manasseh joined with Reuben and Gad in support of the tribes who were fighting for a foothold on the west of the river. But other traditions tell of a Manasseh tribe settled west of the Jordan. In Joshua xvi-xvii. we find Manasseh, regarded as forming with Ephraim a single tribe, settled in the hill country south of the fertile Esdraelon plain, and cut off from it by a strong chain of fortified Canaanite towns. Its western border is the Mediterranean; but the territory occupied by it cannot be defined with precision. Machr, the “son” of Manasseh, seems to represent sometimes that part of Manasseh dwelling in central Palestine, sometimes an element of that part of the tribe dwelling east of the Jordan, and sometimes the whole tribe. Machir appears in the ancient poem Judges v. as taking part in the struggle against Sisera, and seems to have Zebulon on the one side, Ephraim and Benjamin on the other, as neighbours. From 1 Chronicles vii. 14 it may be deduced that the tribe contained some Aramean elements. The various traditions are so confused that certainty in detail seems unattainable. To Manasseh belonged the deliverers Gideon and

MANASSES,

CONSTANTINE,

ng

(W. L. W.

Byzantine

chronicler,

flourished in the 12th century during the reign of Manuel I.

(Comnenus)

(1143-1180).

He was the author of a Chronicle

written in “political” verse, from the creation of the world to the end of the reign of Nicephorus Botaniates (1081), written by direction of Irene, the emperor’s sister-in-law. The poetical romance of the Loves of Aristander and Callithea, also ın “political” verse, is only known from the fragments preserved in the ‘Podwria (rose-garden) of Macarius Chrysocephalus (14th century). Manasses also wrote a short biography of Oppian, and some descriptive pieces on artistic and other subjects. Eprrions.—Chronicle in Bonn, Corpus scriptorum hist. Byz., 1st ed. Bekker (1837) and in J. P. Migne, Patrologia graeca, cxxvii.; Aristander and Callithea in R. Hercher’s Scriptores erotici graeci, ii. (1859); “Life of Oppian” in A, Westermann, Vitarum scriptores graect_minores (1845). A long didactic poem in “political” verse

(edited by E. Miller

in Annuaire de Vassoc. pour Vencouragement des études grecques er

France, ix. 1875) is attributed to Manasses

or one of his imitators.

MANASSES, PRAYER OF, an apocryphal book of the Old

Testament. It purports to be the prayer of the Judaean king referred to in 2 Chron. xxiii. 12, 13, 18, 19. Ewald held that the Greek was an actual translation of the lost Hebrew; but B more wisely takes it as a free rendering of a lost Haggadic narra-

tive founded on the older document trom which the chronicler

MANATI—MANCE yew bis information. This view he supports by showing that jere was once a considerable literature in circulation regarding yanasseh’s later history.

On the other hand most scholars take

he Prayer to have been written in Greek, e.g., Fritzsche, Schiirer

pd Ryssel (Kautzsch, Apok. u. Pseud. i. 165-168).

This fine penitential prayer seems to have been modelled after he penitential psalms. It exhibits considerable unity of thought,

md the style is, in the main, dignified and simple.

As regards the date, Fritzsche, Ball and Ryssel agree in assign-

pgthis psalm to the Maccabean period. Its eschatology and docrine of “divine forgiveness” may point to an earlier date: on he other hand, there are some indications of a doctrinal character

ghich point to post-Maccabean times. The best short account

of the book is given by Ball (Speakers

Apocrypha, ii. 361-371); see also Ryle in Charles’ Apocrypha and Peudepigrapha.

(R. H. Cz.; W. O. E. O.)

MANATI, an important town of Porto Rico. It is situated

773

approaching towards and receding from one another simultane-

ously. The animal is thus enabled to introduce food placed before it without the assistance of the lower lip, the action recalling that of the mandibles of caterpillars. The Amazonian manati (M. inunguis) is smaller, not exceeding Sft. in length, with less well-developed lip-pads and without nails to the flippers. It ascends most of the tributaries of the Amazon until stopped by rapids. The West African M. senegalensis extends about zo deg. south and 16 north of the equator, and ranges into the continent as far as Lake Tchad. From 8 to 10 ft. appears to be the normal length; the weight of one specimen was 590 lb. The colour is bluish-black, AFTER MURIE, IN THE ZOOLOGICAL SOCIETY”

“TRANSACTIONS

OF

THE

AMERICAN MANATI OR MANATEE

inthe northern part of the island, about 3m. from the Atlantic

Front view of head showing Jeft, with the lobes of the upper lip divaricated;

(1928) 6,809. The population of was 20,100, Manatí is located in a Manatí river from which it derives rounding territory is very fertile,

right, with the lips contracted

xean and about equidistant east and west; pop. (1920) 6,148;

the municipal district in 1920 beautiful valley drained by the its name. The soil of the surand sugar-cane is extensively

with a tinge of olive-green above and yellow below. The manati is said to be the origin of many legends of mermaids, while the Amazonian spe-

| cies is the object of superstitious reverence by the Indians.

MANBHUM, a district of British India, in the Chota Nagpur Area, 4,147 sq.m.; pop. (1921),

division of Behar and Orissa.

cultivated. Coffee is also raised in the uplands, and pine-apples,

1,548,777.

gapefruit, oranges, bananas and other tropical fruits are also produced. The town is prosperous, has good schools, water-works,

descent from the table-land of Chota Nagpur to the delta of lower Bengal. In the northern and eastern portions the country is

dectric lights, a municipal market and a hospital, and has a number of small industries. (H. M. T.) MANATI or MANATEE, the name of the American repre-

Manbhum

district forms the first step of a gradual

open, and consists of a series of rolling downs dotted here and

there with isolated conical hills. In the western and southern tracts the country is more broken and the scenery much more picturesque. The principal hills are Dalma (3,407 ft.), the crowning peak of a range of the same name; Gangabari or Gajburu

sentative of a small group of herbivorous aquatic mammals, contituting the order Sirenia (g.v.). Manatis are somewhat whaleike in shape, with a similar horizontally expanded tail-fin; but (2,220 ft.), the highest peak of the Baghmundi range; and here the resemblance to the Cetacea ceases. The American Pachet (1,600 ft.), on which stands the old fort of the rajahs of nanati, Manates latirostris, inhabits the rivers of Florida, Mexico, Pachet. The hills are covered with dense jungle. The chief river Central America, and the West Indies, and measures from 9 to is the Kasai, which flows through the district from north-west sft, in length. The body is somewhat fish-like, but depressed to south-east into Midnapore. A large proportion of the populaand ending posteriorly in a broad, shovel-like horizontal tail, tion is of aboriginal descent, the chief tribes being the Santals, with rounded edges. The head is of moderate size, oblong, with the Bhumij and Bauris; the latter two have adopted Hindu ablunt muzzle, and divided from the body by a slight constric- customs and are fast becoming Hindus in religion. Containing the Jharia coal-field and part of the Raniganj coaltion, The fore limbs are flattened oval paddles, placed rather low, with no external signs of division into fingers, save three field, which lies mainly in Bengal, Manbhum is the chief colliery diminutive flat nails near their extremities. No traces of hind district in Behar and Orissa. The growth of the industry is comimbs are discernible either externally or internally. The mouth paratively recent, for the output in 1894 was only 127,000 tons.

ispeculiar, the swollen upper lip being cleft in the middle line In that year the railway was opened from Barakar to Dhanbad, into two lobes, each of which is separately movable. The nostrils and in the present century coal mining has developed rapidly, ate two valve-like slits at the tip of the muzzle. The eyes are especially since the Bengal-Nagpur railway was extended to the mnute and nearly circular with wrinkled margins; external ears Jharia coal-field in 1904. In 1921 there were 371 mines in this we wanting. The skin is dark greyish and finely wrinkled. There field, with an output of ten million tons—over half the output of a scanty covering of delicate hairs, and both lips are supplied India. The Raniganj coal-field (excluding the Bengal portion) had in the same year 110 coal-fields and produced a little under with short, stiff bristles. Manatis have a number—as many as 20 lwo-ridged teeth, of which, howter, comparatively

few are in

ieat once. They lack the large

tusks of the male dugong (q.v.). h life the palate has a horny

plate, with a similar one in the

lower jaw.

Manatis inhabit bays, lagoons, estuaries, and large rivers, but not the open sea. As a rule they

=

FROM OF

a

VOGT

ANIMALS”

THE

Se

AND

SPECHT,

ae

“NATURAL

HISTORY

(MANATUS

AUS-

(BLACKIE)

MANATEE

prefer shallow water, in which, TRALIS), OF THE AMAZON When not feeding, they lie near the bottom. In deeper water they often float, with the body much arched, the rounded back cose to the surface, and the head, limbs, and tail hanging downwatds. They feed below water on aquatic plants. They are slow

of movement and perfectly harmless, but are persecuted for the sake of their oil, skin, and flesh. From the shoulder-joint e flippers can be moved in all directions, and the elbow and wist permit of free extension and flexion.

In feeding, manatis

push the food towards their mouths by means of the hands. The lateral pads of the upper lip. have the power of transversely

one million tons. The public health of the coal-fields, and indeed of the whole Dhanbad sub-division and of a small area to the south, with a total area of goo sq.m., and a population of half-amillion, is in charge of the Mines Board of Health, which has done admirable work. Besides the administrative headquarters, Purulia (pop. 22,161) which is at the junction of the narrow gauge line to Ranchi, the only town is Dhanbad (11,973), the headquarters of a subdivision and a railway settlement.

MANCE, SIR HENRY

CHRISTOPHER

(1840-1926),

English scientist, was born in London. In 1863 he went to the East in the service of the Persian Gulf Telegraph department of the Indian Government. He became superintendent in 1866 and engineer and electrician to the section in 1879. Mance invented the heliograph, an instrument which reflects the rays of the sun at a mirror on to a distant station; by this means signalling can be carried out. The Indian Government would not adopt the heliograph, but it was used successfully by Lord Roberts during the second Afghan War. Mance also devised a method, known by his name, of detecting and localizing faults in cables, and a method of measuring the internal resistance of a battery. He recruited volunteers from the telegraph service and acted for a number of

Tir

774

MANCHA—MANCHESTER

years as a captain in the Sind Volunteers. He was awarded the C.LE. in 1883 and was knighted when he retired in 1885. After his retirement he maintained his interest in electricity. He was a

member of scientific societies and acted on the board of directors

MANCHESTER, EARLS AND DUKES OF, The Man. chester title, in the English peerage, belongs to a branch of the

family of Montagu (q.v.). The first earl was Sir Henry Moy-

tacu (c. 1563-1642), grandson of Sir Edward Montagu, chief

of a number of electrical companies. He died at Oxford on April

justice of the king’s bench 1539-45. He was born at Boughton, Northamptonshire, was educated at Christ’s college, Cambridge and, having been called to the bar, was elected recorder of Lon-

erness”), in its widest sense denotes the bare and monotonous elevated plateau of central Spain that stretches between the mountains of Toledo and the western spurs of the hills of Cuenca, being bounded on the south by the Sierra Morena and on the north by the Alcarria region. It thus comprises portions of the modern provinces of Toledo, Albacete and Cuenca, and the greater part of Ciudad Real. Down to the 16th century the eastern portion was known as La Mancha de Montearagon or de Aragon, and the western simply as La Mancha; afterwards the north-eastern and south-western sections respectively were distinguished by the epithets Alfa and Baja (upper and lower). La Mancha remains almost exactly as Cervantes described it. Many villages, such as El Toboso and Argamasilla de Alba, both near Alcazar de San Juan, are connected by tradition with episodes in Don Quixote.

don in 1603, and in 1616 was made chief justice of the king's bench, in which office he passed sentence on Sir Walter Raleigh in 1618. In 1620 he was appointed lord high treasurer, being

chiefly of the Cotentin and the Avranchin districts of Normandy, and bounded west, north and north-east by the English Channel

peerage as Baron Montagu of Kimbolton, but was known generally by his courtesy title of Viscount Mandeville. At the beginning of the Long Parliament he was one of the recognized

, 21, 1926. MANCHA, LA (Arabic, Al Mansha, “the dry land” or “wild-

raised to the peerage as Baron Montagu of Kimbolton, Huntingdonshire, and Viscount Mandeville. He became president of the council in 1621, and Charles I. created him earl of Manchester! in 1626. In 1628 he became lord privy seal, and in 1635 a commis-

sioner of the treasury. He was a judge of the Star Chamber, and one of the most trusted councillors of Charles I. In conjunction

with Coventry, the lord keeper, he pronounced in favour of the

legality of ship-money in 1634. He died on Nov. 7, 1642. Epwarp Montacu, 2nd earl of Manchester (1602—71), eldest

son of the rst earl by bis first wife, was educated at Sidney Sussex college, Cambridge. He was member of parliament for Hunt-

MANCHE, a department of north-western France, made up ingdonshire 1623—26, and in the latter year was raised to the

(Fr. La Manche), from which it derives its name, east by the department of Calvados, south-east by Orne, south by Mayenne and Ille-et-Vilaine. Pop. (1926) 431,367. Area, 2,475 sq. miles. The department south of Coutances and St. Lô is composed of folded Palaeozoic rocks of the Armorican system, with east and west zones of granite, rising in the south-east to 1,200 feet. There are younger and softer deposits on the east. The west coast is an ancient structural line from north to south and is marked by cliffs up tọ 420 ft. alternating with bays, at the south end the great bay of Mont Saint Michel, with its famed abbey surmounting a rock 400 ft. high. Reefs off the coast make navigation perilous,

leaders of the popular party in the upper House, his name being joined with those of the five members of the House of Commons

impeached by the king in 1642. At the outbreak of the Civil War, having succeeded his father in the earldom in November 1642, Manchester commanded a regiment in the army of the earl of Essex, and in August 1643 he was appointed major-general of the parliamentary forces in the eastern counties, with Cromwell ag his second in command. Having become a member of the

“committee of both kingdoms” in 1644, he was in supreme command at Marston Moor (July 1, 1644); but subsequently he disthe chief forming Les Iles Chausey. The north coast also seems agreed with Cromwell, and in November 1644 he strongly exto be a structural line and is marked by the great roadstead of pressed his disapproval of continuing the war (see CROMWELL, Cherbourg. The greater part of the department may be de- OLIVER). Cromwell brought the shortcomings of Manchester bescribed as a dissected plateau with deeply-cut valleys. The chief fore parliament in 1644; and early in the following year Manstreams are the Vire running northwards past St. Lô and the chester resigned his command. He took a leading part in the frequent negotiations for an arrangement with Charles and was Sienne running north-westward just south of Coutances. The climate of Manche is mild and humid; myrtles flourish in custodian with Lenthall of the great seal 1646-48. He opposed the trial of the king, and retired from public life during the Comthe open air. The characteristic industry of the department is horse and monwealth; but after the Restoration, which he actively assisted, cattle rearing, carried on especially in eastern Cotentin; sheep are he was honoured by Charles II. In 1667 he was made a general. raised in the west. Wheat, buckwheat, barley and oats are culti- He died on May 5, 1671. Manchester was made a K.G. in 1661, vated. Manche is a foremost department for the production of and became F.R.S. in 1667. See Lord Clarendon, History of the Rebellion and Civil Wars in Engcider-apples and pears; plums and figs are also largely grown. land (7 vols., 1839) and Life of Clarendon (1827); S. R. Gardiner, Butter, poultry and eggs are important sources of profit. Flour- History of the Great Civil War, 1642-1649 (4 vols., 1886-91); The ishing market-gardens are in the west. The department contains uarrel between Manchester and Cromwell, Camden Soc, N.S. 12 1875); P. Warwick, Memoirs of the Reign of Charles I. (1701). valuable granite quarries in the Cherbourg arrondissement and CHARLES MONTAGU, ist duke of Manchester (c. 1656-1722), the Chausey islands; building and other stone is quarried. There are metal industries, and the weaving of osiers is a local son of Robert, 3rd earl of Manchester, was educated at Trinity feature. Oyster-beds are on the coast (St. Vaast, etc.); and the college, Cambridge, and succeeded to his father’s earldom in 1683. maritime population, besides fishing in home and distant waters, He fought under William at the Boyne, became a privy councillor collects seaweed for manure. Coutances is the seat of a bishopric in 1698, and held various important diplomatic posts between that of the province of Rouen. The north of the department forms part date and 1714, when he received an appointment in the household of the region of the ITI. (Rouen), and the south of the X. (Ren- of George I., by whom in 1719 he was created duke of Manchester. nes) army corps and of the circumscriptions of the académie (edu- He died on Jan. 20, 1722. Grorce Montacu, 4th duke of Manchester (1737-88), Was cational division) and appeal-court of Caen. Cherbourg (g.v.), with its important port, arsenal and shipbuilding yards, is the the son of Robert, the 3rd duke. He was a supporter of Lor chief centre of population. St. Lé (q.v.) is the capital; there are Rockingham, and an active opponent in the House of Lords of four arrondissements (St. Lô, Avranches, Cherbourg and Cou- Lord North’s American policy. In the Rockingham ministry of tances), comprising 48 cantons and 647 communes. Valognes, 1782 Manchester became lord chamberlain. He died in SeptemMortain, Coutances, Granville and Mont Saint Michel are ber 1788. also important. At Lessay and St. Sauveur-le-Vicomte there Witttam Montacu, sth duke of Manchester (1768-1843); are the remains of ancient Benedictine abbeys, and Torigni-sur- second son of the preceding, was educated at Harrow, and having Vire and Tourlaville (close to Cherbourg) have interesting châ- become a colonel in the army in 1794, was appointed governor teaux of the 16th century. Valognes, which in the 17th and 18th of Jamaica in 1808. Here he remained, except for a visit to centuries was a provincial centre of culture, has a church reThe title was derived, not from Manchester in Lancashire, but from aia for its dome, the only one of Gothic architecture in Manchester (or Godmanchester) in Huntingdonshire, where the Monrance. tagu family estates were.

Me

775

MANCHESTER gagland (1811-13)

till 1827, doing much

to prepare the way

of the slaves. From 1827 to 1830 he was post-

ir emancipation aster-general in the cabinet of the duke of Wellington.

MANCHESTER, city, county of a city, municipal county

ington, rector of Ashton, who built stand time or weather well, and were rapidly decaying. This led Holden. By 1868 the tower was

nd parliamentary borough, Lancashire, England, 189 m. N.W. for the most London, and 31 m. E. of Liverpool. It stands north on a level plain, the rising ground being chiefly on the Tib, the and Irk the k, Medloc the Irwell, the are rivers de. The

Further restorations

which is about

and additions

were

carried out by J. S.

there are some Crowther, and by Basil Champneys. In the stalls one by Father curious miserere carvings. There are two organs, Sir G. Scott. by d designe case oak an in one modern a Smith, and

which separates ihe last being entirely overarched. The Irwell, of bridges series a by crossed is (g.v.), Salford Manchester from md discharges itself into the Mersey,

the choir. The building did not by 1845 some portions of it to its restoration by James P. almost completely renovated.

Io m.,

drift istant. Most of the district is covered with superficial (Trias) ne sandsto red is f sand, gravel and clay, beneath which

ferous gith Permian marls, sandstone and limestone, and carboni

when in The parish church was made collegiate in 1422, and warden and the created, was ter Manches of c bishopri the 1847 fellows became dean and canons and the parish church became the cathedral. The first bishop was James Prince Lee (d. 1869), (resigned followed by James Fraser (d. 1885), James Moorhouse William 1903), Edwin Arbuthnott Knox (resigned 1921), Dr.

The city, as its

F. Guy Temple (became archbishop of York, 1929), and Dr. been have and able consider are The church endowments

), ExThere are four large railway stations:—Victoria (L.M.S.

funds salary of the dean and the four canons, and has provided

tales and clays of the contiguous coal-fields.

housands of brick-built houses show, has been for the most part dug out of its own clay-fields.

Warman. the Manthe subject of a special Act of parliament, known as ined the determ has which , (1845) chester Rectory Division Act

change (L.M.S. and G.W.)—these stations, being contiguous, are

inprocess of amalgamation,—London Road (L.M.S. and L.N.E.), subCentral (L.M.S., L.N.E. and Cheshire lines), and many s, dary stations for local traffic. Tramways, as well as railway

nm from Manchester to all the large neighbouring towns. A As a matfirect trunk-road to Liverpool has been projected. some porand hire Lancas ast south-e of whole the fact, of er urban great one form they that linked ions of Cheshire are so wea, Manchester is also the centre of a network of canals, chief amongst them being the Manchester ship canal (g.v.). The making the openf this waterway was an event only less important than townThe 1830. in railway ool Liverp and ster ig of the Manche comship of Manchester, which forms the nucleus of the city, is its added, been having s hamlet g outlyin and small, y wrativel probster, Manche plan. of ity ze has increased without regular ably more than other cities, has suffered by this method of growth too md even to-day, after frequent widening, the streets are far narrow. The congestion of traffic is very serious at times and an extensive regional planning scheme has recently been elaborated. The housing problem has been felt in its acutest form in Manchester and nowhere has it been attacked with such determination, for between 1919 and 1928, 12,000 municipal houses were built, apart from those under private contract. The centre of the city isoccupied by business premises; the factories and workshops are

mainly on the outskirts.

The opening of the Manchester ship

canal has caused the establishment of a large engineering and industrial centre around the docks, and another similar centre has d. sprung up on the eastern side of the town upon a small coalfiel

The most important of the public buildings are in the centre

and the south. district, and

The latter is also the most favoured residential

its extremity

is semi-rural

in character.

Large

masses of the population live beyond the city boundary and come

to their daily work by train or tram. Manchester attracts citizens ftom every part of the globe; there are considerable numbers of German, Armenian and Jewish residents. The houses are for the most part brick, the public buildings of stone which is speedily

blackened by the smoky atmosphere. Many of the warehouses are of considerable architectural merit, and in recent years the

ue of terra-cotta has become more common. The air is laden with black dust, and the rivers in spite of all efforts, are in the central part of the city mere dirty ditches. The city owes its importance to the cotton industry favoured by the damp ata heavy mosphere, by soft water from the millstone grit with

for the incumbents of new churches. which Of the Roman Catholic churches that of the Holy Name, The ion. decorat costly its for able remark is , belongs to the Jesuits have places Greek Church and most of the Nonconformist bodies a meetingof worship. There are Jewish synagogues as well as . house of the Society of Friends occuPublic Buildings.—The royal infirmary (founded 1 752) ity. univers the near city the of side south pies a new building on the The central site It was opened in 1909 by King Edward VII. became availin Piccadilly, where the old infirmary stood, thus 1925 approved of able for other purposes, and the corporation in The present plans for the erection of a new art gallery on the site. 1882 passed in but tion, institu royal art gallery was founded as the s some contain ion collect The . council city the of control under the The artists. other and on Leight Millais, fine paintings by Etty, of Dr. sculpture includes casts of the Elgin marbles and a statue buildpublic John Dalton by Chantrey. The most striking of the gs in the ings is the town hall, one of the largest municipal buildin of the s busines ing increas the to te adequa longer no country, but Alfred by designs from 1877 in city council. It was completed cture a form of archite of style the as d selecte who ouse, Waterh tower contains Gothic. The principal tower is 286 ft. high. The g an almost formin , orough Loughb of Taylor by bells of peal a roo ft. long is hall great The bells. 21 of scale perfect chromatic by Cavailléand so ft. wide, and contains a magnificent organ built with paintings Coll of Paris. The 12 panels of this room are filled city. the of history the ating by Ford Madox Brown illustr and a central ngs buildi pal munici new of on erecti the for Plans in 1927. The reference library were passed by the corporation and extend along hall town t presen the adjoin will ngs buildi Peter’s square. The library Mount street to Peter’s street and St. ge is a fine specimen will face the Midland hotel. The royal exchan and extended and 1869 in d erecte was and ecture of Italian archit is one of the hall g meetin great the reconstructed in 1914-21; its best on marat seen is ge exchan The d. Englan in largest rooms assize courts were built in ket days (Tuesday and Friday). The is a mixture of Early 1864 from designs by Waterhouse. The style decorative art has of amount large a and ive, English and Decorat Bank of England branch The been expended on the building.

tun off and consequent large water power, also to the proximity

of coal and to the chemical industries helped by the salt of Cheshire to the south.

Churches.—Manchester is the seat of an Anglican bishopric, and the chief ecclesiastical building is the cathedral, which, however, was built simply as a parish church, and, although a fine

specimen of the Perpendicular period, is not what might be expected as the cathedral of an important and wealthy diocese. In e course of restoration a piece of Saxon sculpture the “Angel to the stone,” came to light. The bulk of the building belongs HuntJohn was n warde later part of the rsth century. The first

There are sepais a Doric building designed by C. R. Cockerell. Chorlton, Hulme,

k, rate town halls for the townships of Ardwic sed by the corporapurcha Hall, Trade Free The am. and Cheeth do-Venetian style Lombar the in re tion in 1921, is a fine structu people. It is used 5,000 about odate accomm will hall great and its built by Edward was and etc., s, concert for public meetings, was founded by Barry, by Walters. The Athenaeum, designed and diffusion ement advanc “the for others and Richard Cobden ed exactly follow not , perhaps has of knowledge.” The institution very useful, having been has it but , plated contem on the lines The mechanics’ institudeveloped more along the lines of a club. school of technology, which tion has developed into the municipal Portico'is a good speciThe ity. univers now forms a part of the news-rooms. It dates and s men of the older proprietary librarie

776

MANCHESTER

from 1806. The Memorial Hall (built 1662) is used for meetings, scientific, educational, musical and religious. The Whitworth Institute contains a collection of works of art and stands in the centre of a woodland park, near the new infirmary, which park has been transferred to the corporation. John Rylands library (1899) is ore of the finest specimens of modern Gothic architecture, but its magnificence is dwarfed by its enclosed position. The post office (1887), the police courts (1871) and the numerous fine buildings which house commercial firms should also be named. Many fine structures suffer from being hemmed in by streets which prevent the proportions from being seen to advantage. The town possesses many monuments and memorials, one of the most interesting being a bronze statue by Matthew Noble of Oliver Cromwell on a rough granite pedestal, which stands near the cathedral. Education.—There are many educational facilities. The oldest institution is the grammar school, founded in 1519 by Hugh Oldham, bishop of Exeter. The founder, a native of the town, forbade the appointment of any member of the religious orders as headmaster. The school is richly endowed and has now 250 free scholars, while other pupils are received on payment of fees. The oldest educational foundation is that of Humphrey Chetham, whose blue-coat school, founded in 1653, is housed in the building formerly occupied by the college of clergy. This also contains the

public library founded by Chetham, and is the most interesting relic of antiquity in the city. The educational charity of William Hulme (1631-91) is administered under a scheme drawn up in 1881. Its income is nearly £10,000 a year, and it supports a grammar school. The Nicholls hospital was founded in 188z for the education of orphan boys. The Manchester Education Committee has replaced the school boards for education supervision. The elementary education scheme embraces the education in provided and non-provided schools; district central schools; secondary schools; junior technical, commercial, domestic and art schools; part-time day continuation schools, special schools and evening schools. In addition there is a large and well-equipped school of technology, school of art, teachers’ day-training college, special schools for feeble minded children, and a royal college of music. Schools for the deaf and dumb are situated at Old Trafford, in a building contiguous to the blind asylum, to which Thomas Henshaw left a bequest of £20,000. There is also an adult deaf and dumb institution. The Victoria University of Manchester has developed from the college founded by John Owens, who in 1846 bequeathed nearly £100,000 to trustees for an institution in which should be taught “such branches of learning and science as were then or might be hereafter usually taught in English universities.” It was opened in 1851 in a house which had formerly been the residence of Cobden. In 1872 a new college building was erected on the south side of the town from designs by Waterhouse. In 1880 a university charter was granted, excluding the faculties of theology and medicine, and providing for the incorporation of University college, Liverpool, and the College of Science, Leeds. The federal institution thus created lasted until 1903, when separate universities were formed in the different cities. Manchester university consists of one college—Owens college—in its greatly enlarged form. The buildings include the Whitworth hall (the gift of the legatees of Sir Joseph Whitworth), the Manchester museum and the Christie library, which is a building for the university library given by R, C. Christie who also bequeathed his own collection. Dr. Lee, the first bishop of Manchester, left his library to Owens college, and the legatees of Sir Joseph Whitworth bought and

presented E. A. Freeman’s books. The library has received other

important special collections. The university has received many large gifts but is still urgently in need of help for extensions. Its students now number 2,466 and its teaching staff 268. The Manchester museum, with important collections, is housed in an

extension of the university buildings provided through a bequest of Jesse Haworth. Lord Morley, the late chancellor (d, 1923)

of the university, bequeathed a large part of his library to Ashburne hall of residence for women students.

There are in Manchester a number of denominational colleges,

Wesleyan, Unitarian, Baptist, etc., and many of the students pre.

paring for the ministry receive their arts training at the universit

the theological degrees of which are open to students irrespective of creed.

Libraries, Societies, Parks.—Manchester is well provided with libraries.

The Chetham library contains some rare manu-

scripts. There is a large collection of matter relating to the history and archaeology of Lancashire and Cheshire. The collections of Broadsides formed by J. O. Halliwell Phillipps, and the library of John Byrom, should also be named. ‘The Manchester free libraries were founded by Sir John Potter in 1852. There is now a reference library containing about 300,000 volumes.

The Henry Wat.

son music library and the Thomas Greenwood library for libra. rians were presented to the reference library, and the foreign library was purchased. Affiliated to the reference library are 23 libraries, each of which includes a lending department and reading

rooms. The municipal libraries contain in the aggregate over 550,000 volumes. There are also libraries in connection with the

Athenaeum, the school of technology, the Portico, the Literary and Philosophical Society, the blind (in Braille type), the Law Library Society and others. The most remarkable of the Manchester libraries is the John Rylands. This includes the famous Althorp collection, of Earl Spencer, and many valuable manu-

scripts. It was built and richly endowed by Mrs. Rylands. Manchester possesses numerous literary and scientific associa-

tions. The number of these societies is large and has greatly increased of recent years, There are also a large number of textile and other trade associations. Several daily papers are published, and various weekly and other periodicals. The journalism of Manchester takes high rank, the Manchester Guardian being its most

important daily paper. The Manchester Academy of Fine Arts holds an annual exhibition in the city art gallery. Manchester

is a favourite place for the holding of exhibitions, etc., both of a local and of a national character. It has a transmitting station of the British Broadcasting Corporation. There are 74 parks and recreation grounds covering 1,900 acres. The largest of these are Heaton park, Alexandra park, Boggart Hole Clough, Queen’s park, Wythenshawe park (250 ac., presented by E. D. Simon in 1926), Philips park, Platt fields and others. In the parks are playing fields, tennis courts, bowling greens, golf courses as well as lakes, bird sanctuaries, arrangements for music, etc. In addition the city owns 32 swimming baths with private baths, etc., as well as several public wash houses. A large acreage is laid out as playing fields by the National

Playing Fields Association and by private enterprise. The Belle Vue zoological gardens is a favourite place for working people, In 1801 the population was 75,275, and in 1931, 760,333. The population has overflowed into the surrounding districts, and if all that belongs to the urban area of which it is the centre were included, greater Manchester would probably rival London in the number of its inhabitants. Manufacture

and

Commerce.—Manchester

is the most

important centre for the cotton industry in the world (see Corton and Corron Inpustry). Most of the spinning and the weaving mills, the dyeing, bleaching and finishing workshops are situated in the neighbouring towns and villages, and the city itself is now principally the business and warehousing centre for the industry, Almost as important as the cotton industry is that of engineering

for which Manchester claims to be one of the largest centres

in the world.

The manufacture

of heavy and light machinery,

weaving and spinning plant, locomotives,

stationary engines,

motors and commercial vehicles, aeroplanes, electrical machinery

of all kinds, etc., is carried on, Again of paramount im portance to Manchester is the chemical and dye industry, 50 necessary to the textile trade. The manufacture of cotton goods

and ready-made clothing, hats and caps, and knitted goods employs an enormous number of people. The rubber industry and the manufacture of paper, paper goods, cardboard boxes, book-

binding, etc., must also be mentioned.

Manchester is one of

the chief ports for the import of oil, timber, fruit and gram; an

the milling industry is extending rapidly. The port of Manchester (of which the largest docks are in Salford) ranks as the third ™@

aee ee

ete hab Seta

MANCHESTER teat Britain from the point of view of the value of the mernandise handled. The area of the docks is 120 ac. with 5§ m. of payage. Ships drawing 28 ft. of water can reach Manchester, and teamers of 12,500 tons deadweight capacity regularly navigate he canal. The location of Manchester on the south Lancashire wal-fields has had a marked influence upon its prosperity; but or this the rapid expansion of its industries would have been im-

possible. Manchester occupies a leading position in the English

tanking world. The Manchester bankers’ clearing house returns dow an almost unbroken yearly increase, and to-day the business

ransacted far exceeds that of any provincial centre. Likewise the ity has an important stock exchange and holds a position next o that of London in the insurance world. There are also within

the city branch offices of the Government Stationery Department nd of the public trustee. The commercial institutions of Manchester ate too numerous for detailed description; its chamber of commerce has for nearly a century exercised much influence

m the trade of the district and of the nation. Manchester is the headquarters of the Co-operative Wholesale Society, and indeed of the co-operative movement generally. The most important event in the modern history of the district

isthe creation of the Manchester ship canal (g.v.) by which Manchester and Salford have direct communication with the sea at kastham, near Liverpool. The canal was opened for traffic in jn. 1894. The corporation of Manchester has controlling power in the Ship Canal Co. whose new offices in King street are the highest in the city. Municipality.—Manchester received a municipal charter in 1838, the title of city in 1853, and became a county borough in

1889. The mayor received the title of lord mayor in 1893. The vater supply is controlled by the corporation. In addition to wells smk into the New Red Sandstone, there are reservoirs at Longen-

dle (completed 1884), and extensive works at Lake Thirlmere at the foot of Helvellyn, 96 m. from Manchester. From Thirlmere the water is brought in four pipe-lines, and Manchester suplies in bulk many local authorities in the district en route as well asa large area in north Cheshire. In consequence the supply was found to be inadequate, so powers were obtained and work commenced upon a scheme to obtain a further supply from Haweswater, north-west of Shap Fell. The work will be completed in 1934 and will involve 84 m. of aqueducts. The corporation has ako established works for the supply of hydraulic and electric power and lighting. The gas lighting of Manchester is also a municipal undertaking. The city has a stipendary magistrate who, in conjunction with hy magistrates, tries cases of summary jurisdiction in the police courts. There are also quarter sessions presided over by a recorder, Separate sessions are held for the Salford Hundred. Certain sittings of the court of chancery and of the divorce court are held in Manchester. In addition to the county court there is an ancient civil court known as the Salford Hundred court of tcord. Assizes have been held since 1866. With the exception of the parliament of 1654, Manchester had hd representation until the Reform Bill of 1832, when it sent two representatives. In 1868 this was increased to three, but each

voter had only two votes. In 1885 the city was divided into six divisions and in 1918 into ten divisions, each returning one member. History.—Very little is known with certainty of the early his-

lory of Manchester.

(See Mancunrtum.)

Almost the only point

of certainty in its history before the Conquest is that it suffered greatly from the Danes, and that in 923 Edward sent his Mercian troops to repair

and

garrison

chester, Salford, Rochdale

it.

In Domesday

and Radcliffe

named in south-east Lancashire.

Book,

Man-

are the only places

The church of St. Mary and the

church of St. Michael in Manchester are both named in Domesay, and some difficulty has arisen as to their identification.

In

1301 Manchester received a charter from its baron, Thomas Gresley, The Gresleys were succeeded by the De la Warrs, the last otwhom became rector of the town and made considerable additons to the lands of the church. The manorial rights passed to it Reginal West, a descendant of Joan Gresley, who was sum-

777

moned to parliament as Baron De la Warr. The West family, in 1§79, sold the manorial rights to John Lacy, who, in 1596, resold them to Sir Nicholas Mosley, whose descendants enjoyed the emoluments derived from them until 1845, when they were purchased by the municipality of Manchester. The lord of the manor had the right to tax all articles brought for sale into the market,

but although thus taxed, the inhabitants had, in the court leet, nearly all the powers now possessed by municipal corporations. This court had control over the watching and warding of the town, the regulation of the water supply, and the cleaning of the streets. The town appears to have steadily increased in prosperity, and it early became an important seat of the textile manufactures. Fulling mills were at work in the district in the 13th century, and woollen manufactures were carried on in Ancoats at that period. The college of Manchester was dissolved in 1547, but was refounded in Mary’s reign. Under her successor the town became the headquarters of the commission for establishing the Reformed religion. In 1641 Manchester people purchased linen yarn from the Irish, weaving it, and returning it for sale in a finished state. They also bought cotton wool from Smyrna to work into fustians and dimities. An Act passed in the reign of Edward VI. regulates the length of cottons called Manchester, Lancashire and Cheshire cottons. These were probably all woollen textures. It is thought that some of the Flemish weavers introduced into England by Queen Phillippa of Hainault were settled at Manchester. The Flemish weavers were in all probability reinforced by religious refugees from the Low Countries. Cotton, in the modern sense, is first mentioned about 1620. In the civil wars, the town was besieged by the Royalists, but was successfully defended. The year 1694 witnessed the trial and acquittal of those concerned in the “Lancashire Plot.” In the rising of 1715 the clergy ranged themselves to a large extent on the side of the Pretender; and in the rebellion of 1745, when the town was occupied by Prince Charles Edward Stuart, a regiment known afterwards as the Manchester Regiment, was formed and placed under the command of Colonel Francis Townley. In the retreat the Manchester contingent was left to garrison Carlisle, and surrendered to the duke of Cumberland. The officers were taken to London, where they were tried for high treason and beheaded on Kennington common. The variations of political action in Manchester had been very marked. In the 16th century, although it produced both Roman Catholic and Protestant martyrs, it was in favour of the Reformed faith, and in the succeeding century it became a stronghold of Puritanism. Yet the successors of the Roundheads who defeated the army of Charles I. were Jacobite in their sympathies, and by the latter half of the 18th century had become imbued with the aggressive form of patriotic sentiment known as anti-Jacobinism. A change, however, was imminent. The distress caused by war and taxation led to bitter discontent, while the scandal of the pocket boroughs was very serious for Manchester, which was entirely without representation. The popular discontent was met by a policy of repression, culminating in the affair of Peterloo, which may be regarded as the starting-point of the modern reform agitation. This was in 1819, when an immense crowd assembled at St. Peter’s Fields (now covered by the Free Trade Hall and warehouses) to petition parliament for a redress of their grievances. The Riot Act was read, but in such a manner as to be quite unheard by the mass of people; and drunken cavalry were then turned loose upon the unresisting mass of spectators. Several people were

killed and many

more

injured,

and the incident

aroused the deepest indignation throughout the whole country. The Manchester politicians took an important part in the Reform agitations; when the Act of 1832 was passed, the town sent as its representatives the Right Hon. C. P. Thomson, vice-president of the Board of Trade, and Mark Phillips. Only two other men had represented the town in parliament before: these were Charles Worsley, the man commanded by Cromwell to “remove that bauble,” and R. Radcliffe, both of whom sat in the 1654 parliament. The agitation for the repeal of the corn laws had its headquarters at Manchester, and the success which attended it, not less than the active interest taken by the inhabitants in public

MANCHESTER—MANCHESTER

778

questions, has made the city the home of other projects of reform. The

Lancashire

cotton

famine,

caused

by the Civil War

in

America, produced much distress in the Manchester district, and led to a national movement to help the starving operatives. The more recent annals of Manchester are a record of industrial and

commercial developments and of increase in educational opportunities of all kinds. BIBLIOCRAPHY.—W. E. A. Axon, Cobden as a Citizen (1906); T. Swindells, Manchester Streets and Manchester Men (3 vols., 1906-07) ; C. Roeder, Roman Manchester (1900); Sir B. Leach, History of The Manchester Ship Canal (1907) ; J. Tait, Medieval Manchester (1904); Report upon the Regional Scheme (Town Planning) (1924). The Manchester municipal code, first published in 1894, has been added to frequently. The corporation publishes an Official Manual annually. (W. E. A. A.; J. L P.)

MANCHESTER,

a town of Hartford county, Connecticut,

U.S.A., 9 m. E. of Hartford; served by the New York, New Haven and Hartford railroad. The population was 21,973 1n 1930. It covers an area of 27-1 sq.m., and includes several villages. The Hockanum river provides water-power, and there are many factories. In South Manchester, an unusually attractive industrial village, are the silk mills established in 1836 by Ralph, Ward, Rush and Frank Cheney, and still operated by their descendants. They were the first silk factories in the United States, and are the only ones which carry through all the processes of transforming raw silk into finished fabrics. The first settlement within the present limits of Manchester was made in 1672, and the land was bought from the Indians in 1676. ‘In 1823 the town was separated from East Hartford and incorporated.

MANCHESTER

(popularly Manchester-by-the-Sea), a town

of Essex county, Massachusetts, U.S.A., on Massachusetts bay, between Beverly and Gloucester, 25 m. N.E. of Boston. It is served by the Boston and Maine railroad. The population was 2,636, in 1930, Federal census. It is one of the most beautiful resorts on the Atlantic coast, with heavily wooded areas and sandy beaches alternating with rocky headlands, and is a favourite summer residence of many foreign diplomats. Manchester was settled about 1630. It was set off from Salem and incorporated in 1645.

SHIP CANAL

early years the settlement was known chiefly for its fisheries Towards the end of the 18th century Judge Samuel Blodget saw

the industrial possibilities in the falls and dreamed of duplicat-

ing here the great English textile centre. He planned and carrieq through the construction (1794-1807) of the first canal around the falls, which, together with the Middlesex canal in Massachy. setts, gave a navigable waterway all the way to Boston; and he saw the establishment of the first cotton mills in 1805. In 18:9

the name of Manchester was adopted to honour his memory, and

the first mills bearing the 1840 the population of the porated as a city, and by Manchester was the home

name of Amoskeag were opened, Ip town was 3,235; in 1846 it was incor. 1860 it had a population of 20,107, of Gen. John Stark, and the house ip

which he lived from 1758 to 1765 still stands.

MANCHESTER

SHIP

CANAL,

an important artificial

waterway affording passage for ocean-going vessels between the

inland city of Manchester, England, and the Mersey estuary opening into the Irish sea. This great undertaking plays so important a part in the commercial life of Lancashire that there is sometimes difficulty in remembering how new it is. Its making began

on Nov. 11, 1887, and on May 21, 1894, Queen Victoria attended its formal opening. Manchester lies on a plain whose many streams provided the power which made possible a prosperous cotton industry. The city became the reservoir into which the product of the hills sur-

rounding the plain naturally flowed, and its task of disseminating that product was easy enough, as it could be carried on by pack horses and mules so long as commerce was content with the leisurely ways that preceded the Industrial Revolution. Even before that great upheaval Manchester was looking towards the

sea. Barge traffic had long been in existence on the river Mersey between Liverpool and Warrington; and a Mersey and Irwell Navigation Proprietors act of parliament dated 1720 to carry this make the Mersey and its tributary the Warrington into the heart of Manchester.

body of men called the was empowered by an process further, and to Irwell navigable from A second contact with

the sea was given to Manchester by the third duke of Bridgewater, who, working with his famous self-taught engineer James and one of the county seats of Hillsboro county; on the Merri- Brindley, had made a canal to carry coal from his estate at mack river at the mouth of the Piscataquog, 55 m. N.N.W. of Worsley into Manchester. Brindley, overcoming difficulties which Boston. It is on Federal highway 3, bas a municipal airport of were new to modern engineering, made the Bridgewater canal 80 ac., and is served by the Boston and Maine railroad, inter- from Manchester to Runcorn, at the head of the Mersey estuary. Thus in the 18th century Manchester had two ways open to the urban trolleys and motor-bus lines. Pop. (1920), 78,384 (35% foreign-born white, of whom nearly half were French-Canadians) ; sea: a canal and a navigable river. Barges were used on both, and 1930, Federal census, 76,834. The-city occupies 33-96 sq.m., on a they could not carry much more than 50 tons at a time. The plain go ft. above the river. Within its limits is Lake Massabesic beginning of the roth century saw a third way open: the Man(2,530 ac.), a beautiful resort and the source of the city’s water- chester-Liverpool railway. But none of these things was of much supply. The public parks, covering 226 ac., provide facilities for use to Manchester. Richard Arkwright’s spinning jenny and both summer and winter sports. Just above the city great ledges Samuel Crompton’s spinning mule had revolutionised the manuacross the path of the Merrimack cause a fall of 55 ft., from facture of cotton goods. The leisurely days were gone for ever. which power is developed for the large manufacturing plants Manchester, if she was to survive, must become a port. The position was grave when the second half of the roth cenlining both banks of the river. The mills of the Amoskeag Manufacturing Company (incorporated 1831) are the largest textile tury had set in. A plague of empty houses came upon Manchester. plant in the world, operating 662,000 cotton spindles and 24,000 Everywhere the fatal sign might be seen: another family gone, follooms, using annually 55,000,000 lb. of cotton, and making lowing the factories to the coast. In 1881 there were 18,632 237,000,000 yd. of cotton and worsted fabrics in a year. Near by empty houses in the town. In the Ancoats district alone, ten are the pleasing blocks of red-brick houses, built for the operatives months before the canal opened, establishments employing 12,650 by the company in the early days. Other important manufactures workers had been closed, and there were whole streets uninare shoes (valued at $22,000,000 annually), cigars (especially a habited. Fifty houses, with a rental of £14,000 per annum, were widely known “two-for-a-quarter” grade) and brushes. fhe 160 to let in the centre of the city. Nor could anyone wonder at this plants in the city make over roo different products, and had a state of things. Trade could not prosper with Liverpool as its total output in 1925 valued at $77,546,162. The public-school main outlet, for the railway charges to Liverpool, added to the system provides special opportunities for the industrial workers. Liverpool dock’dues, were ruinous. A ton of goods could be carManchester is the seat of a Roman Catholic cathedral, four con- ried in 1881 from Manchester to Calcutta for 19s 3d, and 12s 6d vents, St. Anselm’s college (Roman Catholic; 1893), the State of this had been charged before the goods left Liverpool. Liverindustrial school and several charitable institutions under religious pool dock dues were so heavy that Oldham spinners could buy auspices. The assessed valuation in 1928 was $113,440,314. A cotton in Bremen or Havre, pay shipping freights to Hull and zoning and planning board was created in 1927. railway charges from Hull to Oldham, and still save a farthing a Amoskeag falls (or Namoskeag, “a place of much fish”) was pound on the price they would have paid for the same cotton at a favourite resort of the Penacook Indians, and tradition says that Liverpool. On June 27, 1882 a group of men met at dinner In the John Eliot preached to them here in the summer of 1851. The house of Daniel Adamson at Didsbury, and after dinner they and first white settlers (Scotch-Irish) came in 1722~23. Through its others talked about how the situation might be met. They fell

MANCHESTER, the largest city of New Hampshire, U.S.A.,

GoM tee Bw ante

MANCHESTER SHIP CANAL Liverpool

MANCHESTER

SHIP

To Leigh

CANAL Y s

BIR

7ER o, PA

of

Patricroft. eee PortSunlight

Bromborough © Easthamo

RY COURTESY

OF

THE

\\

MANCHESTER

SHIP

CANAL

COMPANY

MAP

OF THE MANCHESTER

SHIP CANAL,

back on the proposal of not a barge canal but a ship canal; in a word, the transforming of an inland town into a port. That dinnerparty was the turning-point in Manchester’s fortunes.

35%

MILES

LONG

attended with every sort of disaster and delay. The engineer was Edward Leader Williams, who was knighted on the completion of the work, and the contractor was T. A. Walker, who had carried

Jan. 1890 the work of months had been destroyed in a single night; and in November of the same year even worse befell. Storms were added to floods; six miles of the excavated bed were in parts 4oft. below water. Steam navvies, locomotives, workmen’s tools and plant and material of all sorts were submerged. In places the tops of cranes could be seen a few inches above water. Bridges and temporary erections were overthrown and the slopes of the canal were washed away in long stretches. Towards the end of the month the weather repeated its blow. In Jan. 1891 ice and snow followed the floods. The Bridgewater canal—the only profit-making asset the directors possessed—was frozen and out of action; and it was realised that the work could not proceed unless more capital was raised. Once more the democratic urge behind the movement was apparent. There were ward meetings all over Manchester and district and the cry “‘Finish'the canal” was everywhere. It was finished. The corporation of Manchester, which had already in one year applied the proceeds of a 2d. rate to the parliamentary fight, came in with £5,000,000; and from that moment the success of the canal was in no doubt. That is why the corporation of Manchester is represented on the ship canal directors’ board. It has eleven directors, and the shareholders have ten. The Canal Described.—The canal is 354 miles long. From Eastham to Runcorn it is near or through the Mersey estuary for 133m. Thence to Latchford, near Warrington, it is for 84m. inland. Both these sections have the same water level, which is raised by high tides. At Latchford the tidal action is stopped by locks, and from here to Manchester, 144m., the canal is fed by the Mersey and Irwell. At Eastham there are three entrance locks which maintain the water level in the canal nearly to mean highwater level (14ft. 2in. above the Liverpool datum). When the tide rises above that height the lock gates are opened and the tide flows up to Latchford, giving on high spring tides about 7ft. more of water. On the ebb this water is returned through sluices. The canal throughout has a minimum depth of 28ft. In 1927 the stretch from Eastham locks as far as the river Gowy was deepened to 30ft., and the approach channel to Eastham was also deepened. The minimum width at bottom is r2oft., so that large vessels may pass each other at any point. At various places under the canal it was necessary to lay cast iron siphon pipes to carry off land drainage which was at a lower level than the canal. The largest of these, 4ooft. long and r2ft. in diameter, allow the tidal

through the Severn tunnel contract. Walker died on Nov. 25, 1889, and there followed an unfortunate period of controversy

and fresh water of the Gowy to pass under the canal at Stanlow point, between Eastham and Ellesmere port. The whole length of

The Parliamentary Fight.—On Aug. 6, 1885 the Manchester Canal bill received the royal assent. The intervening three years had witnessed a stiffer fight, it is commonly admitted, than had ever before been put up for a private bill. It was the fight mainly

of the middle classes of the community for something they passionately believed in. Against them was every sort of interest:

the Liverpool docks board and corporation and chamber of commerce, many Liverpool trading companies, landowners, railway companies, the ridicule, indifference or hostility of the press of-the country with few exceptions. In Manchester itself only one newspaper—the Czty News—spoke up consistently for the ship canal; and while Adamson and his friends were holding meetings of workmen and small tradespeople, the rich men, for the most part, stood aside. £100,000 was asked for, and £62,000 came in sums of less than £10. There were three bills. The one of 1883 was thrown out by the Lords; the one of 1884 by the Commons; the me of 1885 was passed. The sum spent by the promoters and opponents of these three bills was estimated at £350,000. The passing of the bill caused widespread popular rejoicing. Adamson, returning from London, was met by workmen who presented him with an address, took the horses from his carriage, and dragged him home.

Daniel Adamson died in Jan. 1890 while the canal was being made. Though he was wrong in assuming that so large a sum as £8,000,000 could come from the pounds and shillings of Lancashire workers, he was right in his conviction that the feeling be-

hind the scheme, and the hope of the scheme were democratic. The Co-operative Wholesale Society took £20,000 worth of shares,

and a list published on Dec. 1, 1887 showed that of the 39,000 shareholders 36,300 were middle-class or working people. But the

bulk of the capital came from the other 2,700. Making the Canal—On July 4, 1887 the Bridgewater Navigation Company were paid by one cheque £1,710,000 for their property. On Nov. 4 Lord Egerton cut the first sod at Eastham and the work at once began. Like the fight for the parliamentary

bill, like the fight for the capital, the making of the canal was

between his executors and the canal directors, complicated by labour troubles and disputes, which cheered the enemies of the

canal and made it clear that the work would not be finished within

the contracted time. Late in 1890 the directors determined to

settle with Walker’s executors and to take the completion of the

Contract into their own hands. No sooner had they done this than

foods of exceptional violence fell upon the work. Already in

the canal passes through the new red sandstone formation with overlying beds of gravel, clay, sand and silt, which in many places made it necessary to build retaining walls of stone and brick. After the almost straight stretch from Runcorn to Latchford, the canal goes through the valleys of the Mersey and Irwell. Both these rivers wind a great deal, and therefore the line of the canal, kept as straight as possible, had to cross and recross the

780

MANCHU

LANGUAGE

river channels. When these cuttings were finished, the end dams

storage areas cover 2863 acres. The great industrial area of Traf.

were removed, the Mersey and Irwell flowed into the new channel and became the upper portion of the ship canal. This has proved

ford Park adjoins the dock estate and is directly linked up with it forming, as it were, one huge workshop. The Effect on Manchestet.—The effect of the canal on Manchester justified the faith of Adamson and the pioneers. Not only were the empty houses quickly filled but between 1894 and III

a blessing to districts which had come to regard periodical floods of great severity as something that could not be cured. There is a rise of 6oft. 6in. from the tidal part of the canal to the Manchester docks level, and the water is carried up about r5ft. at each set of locks: at Latchford, Irlam, Barton and Mode Wheel, which is at the entrance to the docks. The locks are in duplicate, and are filled or emptied in five minutes. For the greater part of the 33m. stretch between Bartoh and Mode Wheel the canal is widened at bottom from its normal r2oft. to 170ft. so that wharves may be used without impeding traffic. In solving a problem in an original

manner, Williams his canal made in

James Brindley left another problem which Sir Leader solved in a manner no less striking. Brindley had taken across the Irwell in the first navigable aqueduct to be this country; and when the Irwell became part of the

ship canal Williams had to face the question of taking ships past what looked like an immovable obstacle. His solution was the Barton swing aqueduct—-like Brindley’s aqueduct, the first thing of its kind in the country. The swing aqueduct moves on a pivot. When it is closed, traffic on the Bridgewater canal goes on as usual; when it is open, pointing up and down the ship canal, vessels may pass on either side of it. The water at these times is retained in the swung portion by iron doors, and similar doors seal the ends of the Bridgewater canal. So that as the Gowy flows under the ship canal, the Bridgewater canal flows over it; and five lines of railway were taken across it, too. The viaducts give a clear headway of 75ft. at ordinary water level. Nine main roads cross the canal on swing bridges, which vary in width from 20 to 36

feet. The total amount of excavation was 54 million cu.yd., nearly one-fourth of this being sandstone rock. About 17,000 men were employed, and the plant used cost nearly £1,000,000. In the port of Manchester there are eight docks with a water space of 120 acres, and provision has been made for a ninth which will be larger than any of these. The largest in 1928 was 2,700ft. long and 25o0ft. wide. The Manchester Dry Docks Company had three graving docks, and there were two pontoon dry docks with a lifting capacity of 2,000 tons. Great attention was paid at the beginning, and is still paid, to arranging docks, cranes, railways, transit sheds, grain elevators, warehouses, etc., in such relation to one another that goods can be quickly handled. Ships are unloaded straight into sheds or trains or lorries with one handling, and every quay is directly linked up by rail with the railway systems of Britain. The company’s own railways cover 161m. of single track, and another 31m. are leased or worked. There are 60 locomotives and 2,438 railway wagons; and the cranes number 248: 53 hydraulic, 53 steam and 142 electric, with a radius of from 16 to 4oft. They are capable of lifting from one to seven tons up to a height of from 13 to 8oft.

above rail level. There are also six electric grab cranes of 5 tons capacity each, a 30 ton steam crane, a pontoon sheers capable of dealing with weights up to 250 tons with a lift of 2zft., a coaling crane which can manipulate 12-ton waggons for cargo or bunkers, and a floating crane that can handle 60 tons. Each of the two grain elevators can store 40,000 tons (1,500,000 bushels). The warehouses, transit sheds and cold storage houses are of varying size, growing with the growth of the port. The two latest and greatest at No. 9 dock are of five floors each, 4soft. long and rroft. wide. They cost something like £500,000. The Trafford wharf is 2,500ft. long, and near it is the lairage where cattle from Ireland and from across the Atlantic are disembarked. There is accommodation for 1,850 cattle and 1,500 sheep, and when reserve land is used these numbers will be doubled. The chief subsidiary ports along the canal are the Stanlow oil dock, near the entrance on the Mersey, where petroleum spirit and other oils of low flash point are dealt with; Runcorn where there are six docks and a water space of 15 acres; the Partington coaling basin, with 20 acres of quays and 6$acres of water; and Ellesmere Port, which has a grain warehouse of 20,000 tons capacity and a most modern coaling plant. The total area of the dock estate is 4064 acres. The quays are a little more than 54m. in length, and the quay and

32,623 new ones were built. In that same period the rateable value

of towns within 20m. of Manchester increased from £2,200,000 to

£7,100,000. Old industries prospered to the port. Their variety is seen in principal exports: manufactured cotton machinery, locomotives, implements,

and new industries came this list of Manchester's and woollen goods, yarns, tools, hardware, earthen-

ware, paper-making materials, chemicals, coal, salt and pitch, Once this new duct was opened, Manchester became in a more real sense than ever before the railhead and clearing house to the enormous industrial population that lies about her. Within a 7sm. radius of the city there are 14,106,432 people, compared with

13,131,319 within a similar radius of London. This is the most densely-packed population in the world, and it could not fail to

ensure the prosperity of a port lying at its heart. The cotton industry alone, pursued in 32 towns, employing 60,000,000 spindles

and 300,000 looms, inevitably enriched, and was in turn enriched by, the enterprising city which had removed acrippling disability. As the hub of so vast an industrial activity, Manchester, after London, is the greatest commercial centre in the British empire. In its first year of work (1894) the canal earned £97,901 and carried 925,659 tons. With some slight fluctuations, the rise was steady after that, and in the year before the war (1913) it reached 5,780,161 tons and £654,937. After 1921, the lowest point touched since 1901, the rise began again and in 1927 6,359,420 tons were carried and the revenue was £1,576,237. The first dividend to ordinary shareholders was paid for the year 1915. At the end of 1927, the issued capital was £19,488,000, the expenditure on capital account to that date being £16,675,000.

Ship Canal House, the new headquarters of the Ship Canal Company, was opened in 1927. It is the most distinguished of the city’s modern buildings, and stands out, like the realisation of

Adamson’s dream, dominating an inland town which has succeeded in making itself, in the face of great natural difficulties, the fourth port of Great Britain.

BrpriocRaApHY.—The History of the Manchester Ship Canal (Manchester, 2 vols.) was written by Sir Bosdin Leech, who was closely associated with the movement from the beginning. “The Economic Value of the Ship Canal to Manchester and District,” a paper read by James S. McConechy to the Manchester Statistical Society on oa I3, 1912, was published by John Heywood, in Manchester, and ondon.

MANCHU

LANGUAGE.

group of languages. present

Manchuria

Manchu belongs to the Tungus

The Tungus people probably inhabited the

already in the 3rd century

B.c.

The real

founder of Manchu power was Nurhatsi who proclaimed himself emperor in 1616 and established his capital at Mukden in 1625. Under his reign the Manchus adopted for their own use the Mongolian alphabet which they had copied from the Uigurs. In course

of time changes were made in order to adapt this writing to the

Manchu language and in its final form it became far more elaborate and serviceable than its Mongolian prototype. Books had been printed in Manchu by 1647. The two emperors K’ang-hsi and Ch’ien-lung did most to establish and stereotype this somewhat artificial language by causing translations to be made of Chinese and Mongolian works and by the publication of numerous polyglot dictionaries. All officials had to pass an examination in Manchu; but in spite of these efforts this language continued to change more and more both in pronunciation and in grammar under the influence of Chinese, and at the death of one of the emperors in 176r the examinations in Manchu were abolished, although imperial decrees and most official documents continued to be issued in this language in addition to Chinese. With the abdication of the young Emperor P’u-I and the proclamation of the Republic in 1912, Manchu may be said to have disappeared from China proper. It is, however, still spoken in parts of northern Manchuria and elsewhere. Regarded as a dead language, Manchu has received a considerable amount of atten8

MANCHURIA MANGHU

pti oa

LANGUAGE.

yerdi

BRAD,

gaqg , D $a

ef

y

GA

ASTD

3

iZyiia ya

jos

J.

ay

+

l

a

ga

b(sof't)

THE MANCHU

tion from European scholars because the literal translations made into that language from the Chinese classics have simplified the interpretation of the latter. The vocalic harmony is not so strictly observed in Manchu as in Mongolian and in the case of grammatical suffixes (postpositions) there are no alternative hard or soft forms. The postpositions are as follows: Accusative, be; Genitive Instrumental, 7 or 27; Dative Locative, de; Ablative, chi. The Manchu verb, like the Chinese, does not distinguish either person Or number, the tenses are imperfectly expressed and genxal notions are conveyed by adverbial and participial forms. Manchu has no relative pronoun and expresses a relative prepoWion by means of participles.

ALPHABET

MANCHURIA, the name of the territory to the north-east

of China Proper which, at the time when European powers were beginning to establish trading relations with China, was the land of the Manchus and the home-country of the Manchu dynasty (1644—1911), then on the imperial throne. Although long essentially marginal to China Proper and during much of its history in the occupation of hostile peoples, its fortunes have been definitely linked with China since the Manchu conquest, and as an integral part of the Chinese Republic, it is now officially known as the “Three Eastern Provinces” (Fengtien or Shengking, Kirin and Heilungkiang). Originally a frontier territory, it has no well-defined limits

Manchu like the other Tatar languages adds affixes to the verbal’ and the international boundary follows in large measure the heme to form derived verbs expressing some extended meaning; river courses of the Argun, Amur, Ussuri, Tumen and Yalu, which hus the syllable bu added to ara, “to write” gives arabu, “to offer definite features but do not indicate zones of separation ause to write,” and the syllable ja added to wa, “to kill” gives in the geographical sense. The lines of the Argun, Amur and aja, “to kill oneself,” and so forth. A peculiarity of Manchu is Ussuri were adopted as the boundary between the Chinese and

he indication of masculine and feminine, or strong and weak, by

he change of the vowel a into the vowel e. Thus ama “father,” ndeme “mother.” Even foreign words undergo this change, and

e find the Turkish arsalan “lion” modified into erselen “Jioness,” nd the Sanskrit garudai “the male phoenix” becomes gerudez for le female of that species. Further ganggan “strong” becomes

hee “weak,” and wasime “to descend” becomes wesime “to imb,

Brsriocraray.—P, G. von Moellendorff, A Manchu Grammar anghai, 1892) ; Charles de Harlez, Manuel de la langue mandchoue

'884); Ivan IVich Zakharov, Polniy man’chzhursko-Russky slovar 1875); Joseph Amyot, Dictionnaire Tartare-Mantchou françois ..,

êdigé et publié . |. par L. Langlès (3 tom. Paris, 1789-90); Hans

mon von der Gabelentz, Mandschu-deutsches Wörterbuch (Leipzig,

64); Berthold Laufer, Skizze der manjurischen Literatur

(Keleti

mle... Revue Orientale pour les études ouralo-altaiques. Tome (E. D. R.) “PP. I~53. Budapest, 1908).

Russian Empires by a series of treaties, of which the first was signed at Nerchinsk in 1689 after the great eastward expansion of Russia across Siberia. By the Treaty of Nerchinsk the Russian boundary advanced to the Argun, by the Treaty of Aigun

(1858) to the Amur and by the Treaty of Peking (1860) to the Ussuri. The northern boundary of Manchuria runs therefore along the very axis of the Amur basin, leaving northern Manchuria especially open to Russian penetration. The Tumen and the Yalu have been recognized as the boundary with Korea from the time of the Ming dynasty (1368-1644) onwards. The internal boundary with Mongolia in the west is more indefinite and has considerably changed in recent times. With the expansion of Chinese agricultural colonization, Manchuria has extended at the expense of pastoral Mongolia. The present boundary is well to the west of the scarped edge of the Great Khingan in the north and follows the crest in the centre but in the south is still to the

782

MANCHURIA

east of it, leaving the upper basin of the Liao-ho, although draining to Manchuria, within Jehol, the easternmost part of Inner Mongolia. Japanese claims to special privileges in South Manchuria always specifically include Eastern Inner Mongolia, by which is meant that part lying east of the Great Khingan.

The Country.—The core of Manchuria so marked out is a

vast gently undulating plain lying between the scarped edge of the Great Khingan in the west and a more tangled mountain country in the east which culminates in the Chang-pai shan overlooking the Korean border. The drainage from the highlands converges on to the plain—the Nonni from the Khingan, the Liao from Jehol and the Sungari from the Chang-pai shan. It

has been built up and levelled by their detritus. The plain narrows quickly both to the north and the south. In the north it is separated from the lowlands along the Amur by the Little Khingan which stretches across from the Great Khingan almost to the East Manchurian Highlands, and even in the gap between them the Sungari penetrates through to the Amur only by a series of gorges. In the south the uplands of Jehol also approach close to the Eastern Highlands but there still remains a lowland corridor (drained by the lower Liao-ho) through to the Gulf of Liaotung, an inner arm of the Yellow Sea. Only by a narrow lowland strip guarded by Shan-hai-kwan (“the gateway between the mountains and the sea”) does this lowland corridor of South Manchuria communicate with the great Plain of North China. But the East Manchurian Highlands thrust far southward in the terminal peninsula of Liaotung which approaches close to that of Shantung in China Proper. Together these two peninsulas lie athwart the seaward approaches not only to the Manchurian plain but also to Peking, for six centuries prior to the summer - of 1928 the capital of China. The Manchurian plain, although thus ringed round by hill-masses, is not isolated by them for they are old denuded uplands of no great complexity and of only moderate relief. The climate of this basin-land of Manchuria is continental in its temperature régime and monsoonal in the seasonal distribution of its rainfall, thus reflecting its proximity to Central Asia and its position on the northern margins of China. Hot summers succeed intensely cold winters and light southerly breezes the northerly blasts of winter. Midsummer temperatures are uniformly high averaging 70-75° F as compared with 80° F in China Proper and in the depth of winter the variation is only in the degree of cold. The temperature of Dairen at the tip of the Liaotung peninsula falls to 24° F and of Harbin in the central plain to below zero. The rivers are all frozen over, in the north until the end of April and even in the south until the beginning of April. Only the ports, Port Arthur and Dairen, at the tip of the Liaotung peninsula are free from ice all the year round. This enhances immeasurably their strategic significance. Practically the whole of the rather scanty rains fall in the summer months, the time when they are of most agricultural value. The rainfall is heaviest in the East Manchurian Highlands, decreases westwards towards the foot of the Great Khingan and is least in what is now north-western Fengtien but was long part of Mongolia and is still known as the Eastern Gobi. The average rainfall of the central plain, agriculturally the most valuable part of the country, is between 20 and 25 inches. The effect of the Manchurian plain, encased by hill-masses, is heightened by its open steppe vegetation in contrast to the forests of the East Manchurian Highlands, of the Amurian lowlands and the Little Khingan, and of the scarp face of the northern Great Khingan. But the woods clothing the Manchurian face of the northern Great Khingan disappear on its Mongolian slope and do not interrupt the continuity of the belt of steppe which stretches across Eurasia to its eastern terminus in the Manchurian plain. The extreme south-west of the central plain— the Eastern Gobi—is in part covered with sand-dunes and between the Liao and Nonni forms a region of inland drainage.

The lowland corridor reaching down to the Gulf of Liaotung is richer grassland. The forests of the East Manchurian Highlands and Amuria, like those of the northern Appalachians and the St. Lawrence Valley in North America, contain both coniferous and

deciduous species.

Oak, elm and poplar clothe the lower slopes

and fir, pine and larch reach up to the hill-tops. These forest resources have especial value in view of the treeless character of North China and of the shortage of large timber in Japan. In the Amurian lowlands only scattered copses interspersed with meadow remain and the forests of the Eastern Highlands, even those remote from Chinese agricultural colonization, are being cut into for commercial lumber. The Peopling of Manchuria.—The historic development of Manchuria has been conditioned by its physical character as a

steppe backed by immense forests to the north and east, completely open on the west to the vast grasslands of Central Asia but

communicating with the agricultural civilization of China to the south by only a narrow lowland strip. It has been held until quite recent times by a non-Chinese people, the Tungus, whose racial affinities are closer with the Mongols than with the Chinese. According to the Russian anthropologist, S. M. Shirokogoroff, the Tungus originally dwelt in north-eastern China and retreated into

Manchuria in the second millennium B.C. before the Chinese advancing from the loess-lands of north-western China. The tide ot

Chinese colonization then swung south into the Yang-tze Valley

and, while the northern branches of the Tungus spread into the

northern forest, the southern remained in possession of Manchuria. The Tungus of the forest retained their old hunting nomadic life but those of the central and southern plains in time acquired the arts of cultivation, probably from their Chinese neighbours, and, according to Chinese annals, were already dependent by the first millennium A.D. on the “five kinds of cereal.” Although excellent horsemen as befitted dwellers on the steppe, the Tungus of the plain, as evidenced by the Manchus, were ignorant of the art of milking and were essentially not pastoral nomads. True pastoral nomads of Mongol affinities did however occupy the drier western part of the Manchurian steppe adjacent to Mongolia. Until the final victory of the Manchus in the early 17th century first one group and then another gained the upper hand and for a time dominated Manchuria. Now, Manchuria is the north-eastern antechamber of China and the Power holding it is in a unique position for the invasion of the Celestial Empire. On three occasions has this position been utilized by steppe-land dynasties—by the Khitan Tatars in the roth, by the Kin Tatars in the 12th and by the Manchus in the early 17th centuries. The Manchu dynasty when on the Imperial throne (1644-1911) continued to regard Manchuria as the recruiting ground for the garrisons with which it held China. The immigration of Chinese was long forbidden but after 1776 this prohibition was relaxed in the case of Fengtien, the southern province, and in the third quarter of the nineteenth century the Manchus had to recognize colonization in Kirin. The dense agricultural population of North China was beginning to spill over in considerable numbers into vacant lands whose settlements, always sparse, had been further depleted by recruitment for the Manchu garrisons in China.. By the end of the nineteenth century the population of Manchuria is estimated to have reached 14, 000,000 of which 80 per cent were Chinese. In comparison with what was to follow this movement, however, was no more than an infiltration and consisted mainly of males who intermixed with the Manchus

and in time absorbed them.

At the present day

pure Manchu groups remain only in northern Manchuria chiefly in the Aigun district, and these are the descendants of soldiercolonists planted by the early Manchu emperors in the Amur

valley. The rapid economic development of South Manchuria

under Japanese auspices since 1905 and the security which tt

offered in contrast to the turmoil of China, rent by civil war and ravaged in the north by frequent famines, have now set i

motion a mass migration of ever accelerating magnitude. Coming mainly from Chihli and Shantung, the most densely peopled

provinces of North China, this has for some years invọlved

3—400,000 annually, but of these half or three-quarters used to

return to China after the Manchurian harvest.

This seasonal

migration of labourers has now become a permanent migration of families which amounted in 1927 to one million persons and in the summer of 1928 to 40,000 a week. These Chinese peasant-

MANCHURIA rmers penetrate inland along the railways and are settling in central as well as in southern Manchuria, along the Chinese astern as well as along the South Manchurian Railway. They «onstitute quite 90% of the total population which was estimated in July 1927 at 24,500,000. Population is of course densest in

the plains of South Manchuria and in the eastern part of the

central lowland, traversed by the railway leading towards Harbin. There are also fully 100,000 Japanese in the South Manchurian

ports and along the South Manchurian Railway zone and a numper of Russians in the trading marts bordering the Chinese Eastem Railway, but in both cases this foreign population is mercantile and administrative rather than agricultural. Modern Political Evolution.—This enormous increase in the Chinese population is destined to play a very important part in the political future of Manchuria and is likely to attach it more closely to China than it has ever been hitherto. But for

the last few decades Manchuria has been a frontier territory only partly under the control of the Chinese Government and subject to the penetration of foreign powers, Russia and Japan. Their interests in Manchuria developed in the closing decades of the nineteenth century when China, politically at her weakest, seemed on the eve of disruption, and when the Great Powers were carving out “spheres of influence” which often, as in Africa, were but the prelude to the declaration of protectorates and ultimate annexation. Such seemed likely to be the fate of Manchuria, which both on account of its intrinsic resources and as the antechamber

of China, threatening the Imperial Capital, Peking, was greatly coveted. For Czarist Russia, Manchuria was to be the eastern outpost of her empire and the eastern terminus of the TransSiberian railway which was to bind that empire together. But Japan with an overflowing population and with only limited resources had a more vital interest than Russia in Manchuria, which, as a relatively undeveloped but potentially productive country, promised not only an exportable surplus both of foodstuffs and industrial raw materials but a field for Japanese coloniuation. It is now clear that Manchuria has failed to attract the surplus population of Japan, but as this has been in part absorbed by industrial development within the country itself, Japan has a proportionately greater interest in Manchuria as a source of supplies and as a market.

The conflict between Russia and Japan for the control of Manchuria first raged over the possession of the Liaotung peninsula,

which is not only the southern gateway into Manchuria

but

commands the seaward approach to Peking. Its possession by a foreign power seemed to China a veritable pistol pointed at her

head. The first move was taken by Japan. As the prize of her victory in the Sino-Japanese war of 1894-5, she demanded the cession of the Liaotung peninsula from the mouth of the Yalu to the mouth of the Liao. But Russia, backed by France and Germany, forced her to abandon this claim. Then by means of intrigue and a show of force, Russia (1898) acquired the lease for 25 years of the territory of Kwantung at the very tip of the peninsula, containing the naval station of Port Arthur and what has since become the great commercial entrepôt of Dairen. Japan

returned to the attack and by the Treaty of Portsmouth (1905), which registered her victory over Russia in the war of 1904-5, obtained the transfer of the Kwantung lease. Meanwhile Russia had been pushing forward her scheme ef railway construction. She had already built the Chinese Eastern Railway (C.E.R.) across northern Manchuria to connect with the line to Vladivostok

and when the Russo-Japanese war broke out was engaged in the

construction of a branch from it through southern Manchuria to Port Arthur. By the Treaty of Portsmouth Japan became heir not only to the lease of Kwantung but also to the rights of railway construction in Fengtien, to be vested in the South' Manchuria Railway Company (S.M.R). Russian interests were thus

783

which falls due in 1932. But investment in the S.M.R. is limited to Chinese and Japanese subjects and in the C.E.R. to Chinese and Russian and in effect the paramount interests are the Japanese and the Russian respectively. In fact the officials of the S.M.R. are appointed by the Japanese Government from among the share-holders. In possession of the arterial railway through South Manchuria and of its seaward terminus in the entrepét of Dairen, Japan holds the chief key to the economic penetration of South Manchuria. It has become in effect if not in name the Japanese “sphere of influence” in which Japan has time and time again claimed a privileged position. The famous Twenty-One Demands presented to China in rgrs5 affirmed “the predominant position of Japan in South Manchuria and Eastern (Inner) Mongolia,” and on the formation of the banking Consortium in 1920, which was an agreement to pool loans to the Chinese Government equally between the four great Powers (Britain, France, the United States and Japan), Japan secured the exclusion of nearly all South Manchurian railways from its scope. At the Washington Conference of 1921-22 Japan was a party to the Nine Power Treaty which repudiated the policy of “spheres of influence” and re-affirmed the principle of the Open Door. But on the strong representation of Baron Shidehara the original resolution committing the Powers concerned to submit existing concessions, so far as they were judged inconsistent with these declarations, to a Board of Reference was dropped altogether, and the revision of the 1915 Treaties was not pressed. At the conclusion of the Conference Japan voluntarily made certain concessions with regard to her railway monopoly but in essentials her status in South Manchuria was left unchanged by the Washington agreements. During the Chinese Civil War, which broke out almost immediately afterwards, Japan continued to exercise a controlling influence in South Manchuria and the presence of Japanese troops in the railway zone was the chief factor in the maintenance of peace in that country. Japan has repeatedly declared that her only military concern in Manchuria is the preservation of order necessary to safeguard her economic interests and the security of her own shores. Should the new National Government of China, now established at Nanking, succeed in stabilizing the country, the need for what has been for several years virtually a Japanese protectorate in South Manchuria would disappear. Japan’s present attitude is necessarily one of anxious watchfulness, but she has expressly disclaimed any desire for annexation. The rise and gradual consolidation of Chinese nationalism have put an end to talk of the partition of China between foreign Powers, and Manchuria has (Dec. 1930) supplied a war lord, Chang-hsueh-liang, to Northern China. Under these circumstances it is to be hoped that the political aspect of the Manchurian situation may become less acute for the economic interests of Japan. Russia and China in Manchuria are not in themselves necessarily incompatible. Russia is mainly interested in the Chinese Eastern Railway route to Vladivostok and Japan in the ceragricultural development of the Manchurian plains. There is the tainly likely to be strong competition between the C.E.R. and for seaboard the to production surplus of SMR. for the transport and the export, the one bent on attracting traffic to Vladivostok if Chiother to Dairen. But this need not involve political issues of nese authority can be maintained and recognized. The question Sino-Russian in difficulty chief the Railway, Eastern the Chinese the Chinese are relations, seems less dangerous than formerly, for

of the becoming increasingly associated with the administration capital Chinese with redemption to subject also is railway, which relations at any time after 1932. On the other hand Sino-Japanese is always trouble since critical, very remain in South Manchuria her entrenched liable to arise either from the use by Japan of from å

or position to block Chinese schemes of development by which Treaties the of ae the by China of pushed back into northern Manchuria, into the provinces of challenge Ids her present privileges. ne ee | Kitin and Heilung-kiang traversed by the Chinese Eastern Railand baneful ver —Howe t opmen Devel mic Feono O aera conhave may tion penetra way. Neither of these companies are nominally government foreign the political effects of cerns and the properties of each are held on leases, the S.M.R. on dangeroitushas certainly stimulated the economic development of been, has China years. 80 of one on C.E.R. the one of 99 years and influx of foreign capital—Japanese VESE also the option of purchasing the latter after 36 years, an option the country. The

794.

MANCHURIA

alone in Manchuria are said to amount to £230,000,c00—and of lease. China in reply maintains that the agreements referred only a Chinese peasant population have combined to expand the area to foreign projects other than Japanese. Russian interests haye of the plain under cultivation, to exploit the mineral and forest also plans of railway construction which they are, at present resources of the hills and to increase enormously the contribution financially unable to carry out. It is generally admitted, however of Manchuria to foreign trade. The framework on which this that these lines, numerous though they be, will be no more than _ economic development has proceeded, and is still proceeding, is sufficient to carry the intense traffic that is likely to develop in the the railway system. It offers an avenue of penetration into the future, Already the freight handled by the S.MLR. alone is ip. interior both for foreign capital and for Chinese immigration and creasing at the rate of over one million tons a year. a way of communication with the coast for the export of surplus

production. Moreover, the leases of both the S.M.R. and the C.E.R. include a wide zone on either side of the railway line, in which the companies can themselves engage in productive enterprises, work collieries and direct agricultural development. The story of the opening up of the Manchuria steppe is not unlike that of the Canadian prairie with which it is physically comparable, for in both the railway has preceded settlement and further railway construction will bring in its train an expansion of the area under cultivation. The economic development of Manchuria can therefore be best understood after an outline of the railway system,

In parenthesis it must be noted that the waterways within

Manchuria function only as the adjunct of the railway system, The main objective of the river traffic is Harbin, the point of transhipment from the river to the railway of the trade of the

whole Sungari valley.

Many of the steamers plying on the

Sungari were until recently the property of the C.E.R. The course of the Amur is not the great artery of river traffic that might be expected, for its mouth lies far to the north away from all ocean trade routes, and its middle course from the point of view of through traffic is paralleled by both the Trans-Siberian and the Chinese Eastern Railways.

Apart from the lines penetrating across or skirting the edges of

The arterial railway lines are, firstly, the main line of the C.E.R. the great timber reserves of the East Manchurian Highlands, from Manchouli to Suifenho, which forms the chord to the arc of this intense railway activity is primarily intended to promote the the Trans-Siberian, keeping on the outside of the northern river agricultural development of the plains. The lowland corridor of boundary of Manchuria, and, secondly, at right angles to the South Manchuria has hitherto been the main seat of cultivation above, the main line of the $.M.R. from Dairen to Changchun but it is being rapidly overtaken by the central plain which is not where it connects with a branch of the C.E.R. from Harbin. Har- only much greater in area but has also, apart from its south-westbin is thus the great railway junction and, as Manchuria is a “new” ern section (Eastern Gobi), considerably more fertile soils. Po. country, the metropolis of northern Manchuria. The correspond- tentially the richest districts of all lie in an arc passing from ing railway junction and metropolis in South Manchuria is Muk- Changchun and Kirin through Harbin towards Tsitsihar, and it is den, where the main line of the S.M.R. is joined from the south- this area that is now the main scene of Chinese colonization. It east by its own branch from Antung, which is connected with the lies significantly enough, in the zone of the C.E.R. rather than Korean railways, and from the south-west by the Chinese-owned of the S.M.R. and is therefore the objective of the branch railPeking-Mukden railway, one of the arterial lines of the Chinese ways which are being constructed by Japanese interests, seeking to railway system. It is therefore by way of Manchuria that China divert trafic from Vladivostok to Dairen, as has been indicated communicates by rail with Europe. This outline system as well above. Although the three provinces divide the central plain beas that of North China was completed before the Revolution of tween them, yet the following figures for Fengtien and for Kirin torr. But while in China proper, distracted by Civil War, there and Heilungkiang give some indication of the relative agricultural has been very little construction since that date, the “new” and value of South and North respectively. Fengtien has a total area comparatively peaceful country of Manchuria, with its constant of 57-8 millions acres of which 19-1 million are cultivable and stream of immigrants, has been the scene of active railway devel- 12-7 million actually cultivated. Kirin and Heilungkiang (ée., opment.

This activity has had as its objective the construction of northsouth lines parallel to the S.M.R. and leading towards independent junctions on the east-west main line of the C.E.R. Japanese capital has built an exceedingly important railway leaving the S.M.R. main line at Supingkai, half-way between Mukden and Changchun, and passing by way of Taonanfu to join the main line of the C.E.R. at Angangchi, near Tsitsihar. This line parallels not so much the S.M.R. as the branch of the C.E.R. from Changchun to Harbin and gives the $.M.R, direct access, without the intermediary of Harbin, to a rapidly developing part of the central plain. The Japanese have also plans to build a corresponding line on the eastern side of their main route by way of the existing Changchun-Kirin railway, across the East Manchurian Highlands, not only to the Korean coast at Seishin but also to the C.E.R. at Hailan, not far from the east Manchurian border. Both of these railways have led Japan beyond the confines of Fengtien. Farther south the Chinese themselves have been engaged in railway construction on both sides of the S.M.R. main line. On the west a branch leads off from the Peking-Mukden line and heads towards the Japanese Supingkai-Taonanfu-Angangchi branch, but it may in the future effect a junction with the C.E.R. independently of the Japanese line. On the east the Peking-Mukden railway has

been extended beyond its Mukden terminus to Hailung, half-way to Kirin, to which it will ultimately be continued.

Both of these

railways parallel the $.M.R. main line and both communicate with Hulutao on the Peking-Mukden system, an ice-free port on the

North Manchuria) together have an area of 187-2 million acres of which 38:2 are cultivable and 18-2 cultivated. Manchuria is climatically similar to North China and has much the same agricultural character. The cold winters limit cultivation to the summer half-year during which only one crop can be grown, apart perhaps from a catch-crop after the main harvest. The staple crops are those adapted to a relatively low rainfall: millet, kaoliang, maize, wheat, barley and legumes, especially beans. Cereals and beans form the essential elements in the rotation system. These features are characteristic of all Manchuria and in-

deed of North China, but as between the north and south there is a difference as regards the relative importance of particular crops. In South Manchuria the warm temperate ceréals (millet, kaoliang and maize) predominate, but northwards they gradually give place to wheat, barley and oats (not grown at all in the south)

which are the staple crops of Heilungkiang. Moreover much of the millet grown in North Manchuria is harvested green, because of the short growing season.

Certain sub-tropical crops, rice and

cotton, characteristic of the Vang-tze Valley, are cultivated

where the conditions are favourable in North China and even as

far north as South Manchuria, which has over one million acres

under rice and about 400,000 under cotton. Some rice is grown in Kirin, but both crops are absent from Heilungkiang.

Although, on the whole, similar both in the type of its crops and in the antecedents of its population, Manchuria has a far greater surplus production available for export than North China.

The one is a new and relatively under-peopled country, the other

Gulf of Liaotung whose harbour works the Chinese have lately saturated with population. But as the Chinesé peasants, who coDresumed. Japan sees in this Chinese railway construction a threat stitute the bulk of its farming population, are by tradition and to Dairen and alleges that China has on two occasions, in roog practice subsistence farmers, there is little of the purely com- | and in 1915, promised not to construct any lines parallel to and in mercial farming that characterizes the Canadian prairies. The competition with the S.M.R. until the expiry of the company’s surplus production that enters commerce is mainly of soya beans

MANCHURIA

785

and wheat, both of which receive some industrial treatment, in the has coal reserves about equal to those of Japan (4,000 million region of their production before they are exported out of the country. A small sugar beet industry is developing on exactly the same lines. It is in the industrial treatment of field crops on a

large scale that Manchurian North China.

agriculture differs from that of

tons) and iron reserves that are quite ten times as great. The bulk of both coal and iron lies in South Manchuria, whose attraction to Japan on this account alone requires no further emphasis. The coalfields of Manchuria fall into two main divisions, those

accurring in isolated synclines within the East Manchurian Highlands and those lying in a more or less continuous strip along their

To the Chinese the soya hean is a crop, like bamboo, which can be made to serve innumerable purposes (see under AGRICULTURE:

western foothills where the Highlands sink down into the plain.

China) and, as it has a great number of varieties adapted to

The fields within the Highlands yield the better bituminous coals

most districts of Manchuria it constitutes the largest single crop.

Highland zone are worked for more than local consumption. These

varying rainfall conditions, its cultivation is widespread and in but only those which are accessible from the railways crossing the

ft is estimated that of a total bean production in Manchuria of include the Penchihu field along the Mukden-Antung line, the

six million tons about half is available for export, two million tons of which originates from the zone of the C.E.R. and over one

million tons from that of the S.M.R. There is intense competition between the two railways for the transport of this exportable sur-

Mulin field along the C.E.R. and the Suchan field (actually outside Manchuria) clase to Vladivostok. The belt of coalfields along the western foothills of the Highlands, lying near to the arterial

railway from Mukden to Harbin, is more accessible but produces plus to the coast, and between Dairen and Vladivostok for its brawn coals of much poorer quality, and they are worked only on a small scale. The coalfield of Fushun close to Mukden is of quite a different nature from any of the above. Although Tertiary in age, its seams are of enormous thickness and its coals of good quality. Its intrinsic character combined with its strategic position

shipment abroad. Of the total exported about half is of raw beans and half in the semi-manufactured form of bean-oil and bean-cake. These are products of the oil mills spread along the railway zone but focussed especially in the South Manchurian ports, above all Dairen, and in Harbin, the railway centre of North Manchuria. At present oil mills are much more numerous

near to the railway focus of Mukden and the Japanese interest in its development have given it the greatest production (now ex-

in South than in North Manchuria but the latter is already the

ceeding five million tons) of all the Chinese coalfields.

It domi-

centre of surplus bean production and the number of oil mills is nates the coal trade of South Manchuria, supplies one-fifth of the steadily increasing. The bulk of the export of beans and bean-cake coal consumption of North Manchuria and even then has about

goes to Japan for use as food and fertilizer and the bulk of the hean-oil to Europe for industrial consumption. After beans the

half of its total production available for export to the ports of

most important commercial crop in Manchuria is wheat, whose cultivation is centred especially in North Manchuria. Much of this wheat production is handled by flour mills along the railway wne which are most numerous in Harbin and Changchun. Of nearly 200 flour mills in the whole of China in 1928, North Manchuria accounted for 62 (Harbin 30) and South Manchuria for 2. Flour-milling was originally introduced by Russian interests to feed the Russian population in Manchuria and along the TransSiberian, but the dominant interest is now Chinese and the industry already supplies the greater part of the Manchurian market, once an American preserve. Only during the World War did an export trade in flour of any magnitude develop from the cquntry.

Manchuria is more limited than in the south. It is supplied partly from Fushun, partly from Mulin and Suchan along the eastern

North

China and Japan.

The consumption

of coal in North

C.E.R. and partly from the Chalainor field along the western C.E.R. on the Mongolian slope of the Great Khingan.

The Liaotung peninsula contains the iron-field with the greatest

reserve of iron ore workable by modern methods in the whole of

China. According to the Chinese Geological Survey, its reserve

amounts to 740 million tons out of a total of 952 million tons

for the whole country. These have not, however, a very high content of iron, and in recent years Japanese interests seem to

have relied more on the richer ores of the Yangtze Valley and to have left for the future the more intensive working of the

The consumption of wheat-flour in China is steadily increasing and

Liaotung fields, over which they haye a more secure control. Two

itwould seem that wheat cultivation in Manchuria is assured of

blast-furnace plants have heen set up on the Liaotung ore-fields,

acontinually expanding market,

at Anshan along the Mukden-Dairen line and at Penchihu along

The most important of all the Manchurian forests, the distribu-

the Mukden-Antung, and in recent, years their output has been

maintained in contrast to the fall in production in the iron indus~ Manchurian Highlands whose lumber supplies the needs not only try of the Vangtze Valley. A big proportion of their pig-iron tion of which has been indicated above, are those of the East

of the Manchurian plain but also of North China and toa less

degree Qf Japan. These are being tapped in three districts—along

output as of the production of ore along the Yangtze is exported

direct ta Japan. Indeed the whole Chinese iron industry is at present functioning mainly as a subsidiary to the iron and steel

the Yalu valley which opens out inta Korea Bay, along the headstreams of the Sungari which focus on Kirin, and along the C.E.R.

industry of Japan.

md Sungari to Antung and Kirin respectively, whence they are

Brpiiograpay.—aA. Hosie, Manchuria (1904); H. W. Kinney, Modern Manchuria (1928) ; Japanese Imperial Government Railways’ Official Guide to Eastern Asta, Vol. I. (1918) ; North Manchuria and the Chinese Eastern Railway (1924); S. Hsii, China and Her Political

in its trayerse of the Highlands. Logs are rafted down the Yalu

transported by the S.M.R. into the plains of Manchuria or shipped

by steamer across to Tientsin and the Shantung ports. In the Entity (1926); P. H. Clyde, International Rivalries in Manchuria, CER. zone timber lines run back from the railway and logs are 1689-71922 (x928); Chinese Economic Journal and Chinese Economic transported down to Vladivostok, whence they are shipped mainly Bulletin of the Chinese Government Bureau of Industrial and Com-

to Japan. The timber resources of the East Manchurian High-

mercial Information.

(P. M. R.

lnds are therefore being rapidly exploited, but there are few lorts as yet at re-afforestation, apart from those in the S.M.R. ame, On the hare hills of the Liaotung peninsula considerable

History.—Manchuria figures early in Chinese history. Part of

their lumber as for the needs of the tussah silk industry, dependent

States were established by the native peoples, notably that of the Khitans, who in the roth century founded the Liao dynasty and ruled not only part of Manchuria but portions of Mongolia and Chihli, The Khitans were overthrown by the Niichens, whe

southern Manchuria was occupied by one of the feudal States of the Chou dynasty and from time to time thereafter parts of the numbers of oak seedlings have been planted not so much for land were conquered by the stronger Chinese dynasties, Various

om the leaves of the oak tree. (Sea ANTUNG.)

The economic wealth of Manchuria is not, confined to agricul-

tue in the plains or to Jumbering among the hills, but includes

kp the mining of coal and iron, for which South Manchuria is at founded the Kin dynasty and in the latter part of the Sung mesent one of the chief centres in the whole of China. This in- dynasty dominated North China. The Niichens in turn were lensity of production is the result partly of the accessibility of overthrown by the Mongols. In the 16th century the Manchus the coal and iron-fields and partly of the interests of Japan in rase to prominence under the leadership of Nurhachu, and in the South Manchuria. Considering the scale of her industrial develop- ryth century conquered China. Russian encroachments began

nent, the coal resources of Japan are of no great magnitude and in the 17th century, but were halted by K’ang Hsi. In the roth iron resources are quite insufficient for her needs. Manchuria century the Russians were more successful, obtaining (1858)

786

MANCHUS—MANCINI

recognition to their claim to all territory north of the Amur, and in 1860 the cession of the territory east of the Ussuri. In 1895 Japan was given the Liaotung peninsula, but Russia, France

and Germany insisted upon its retrocession. In 1895 Russia was given a 25-year lease on Port Arthur, Dalny and the southern tip of the Liaotung peninsula, and a railway was promptly built south from Harbin to Mukden and the new leasehold. In 1900 Russia sent troops into Manchuria to suppress the Boxers. She delayed withdrawal and by various steps sought to strengthen her hold. Japan, Great Britain and the United States attempted to check her by diplomacy. When this failed, Japan, alarmed as much by the threat to Korea as to Manchuria, declared war (1904),

defeated Russia, and by the Treaty of Portsmouth was awarded the Russian possessions in southern Manchuria, including the leaseholds and the railways south of Chang-chun. The Japanese, eager for economic expansion, developed their new holdings rapidly, and were soon more firmly entrenched than the Russians had been. In r9r5 Japan, taking advantage of Europe’s preoccupation with the World War, made demands on China which resulted in the extension of the leases to 99 years and in other concessions. The Russian collapse in 1917 and 1918 for a time seemed to make possible the extension of Japanese power

parallel editions of Chinese texts. Many of the Chinese classical books, written in the Ku Wén, a very complicated, highly elliptical style, were in later days not understood in parts. Various commentators had attempted expansion of the text in order to bring some meaning out of the passages in question but textyal criticism had not yet become a real study. The Emperor K’ang Hsi, however, gathered together from all parts of the empire the best scholars and grammarians and set them to work on an “Imperial Edition” of the classics. This edition was to appear with the text in parallel columns, Chinese ang

Manchu, and since an acceptable Manchu translation of a passage not understood was impossible, the best commentators were em-

ployed to elucidate the texts before they went to the Board of Translators. From a careful study of the Manchu versions, light was for the first time thrown on many obscure passages in the classical library. Another activity of the Manchu dynasty, of great importance to the literary student of Further Asia, was the publication, again

bilingual, of Manchu

works

which were

now

translated into

Chinese. This brought a new force into Chinese effort and the literary changes, small though they were, passed into art in

its various forms, being especially marked in the pottery of the Ming dynasty. Paintings also suffered a slight change; again the ment restored Russian influence, and a Sino-Soviet agreement of stream of active life was informing the latent powers of the 1924 confirmed Russian participation in the Chinese Eastern Chinese and another golden age was begun. The well-known capacity of the Chinese for absorption of railway. Brsrrocraray.—A. Hosie, Manchuria (1904); A. Kinnosuke, Man- an alien people is clearly shown in the case of the Manchu. churia, a Survey (1925); L. H. Clyde, International Rivalries in Originally essentially different from the Celestial, he has, through Manchuria, 1689-1922 (1926); S. H. Hsii, China and her Political the centuries been impressed with the Chinese seal until to-day Entity (1926). (K. S. L.) there is no means of distinguishing between the members of the two peoples; they are in effect one and the same. The Manchus MANCHUS, The term Manchu, which is recent in origin, began well, full of vigour and animated by a passion for rehas a dynastic connotation, and refers to those people, linguisti- organization, they occupied themselves with multifarious activities cally and culturally, connected with the eastern Tungus, who in the calculated to bring again the Chinese Empire into its former r7th century conquered China and placed their chief on the eminence. But the inevitable result of a too highly concentrated Dragon Throne. Somatologically they appear to belong to two period of achievement was the incidence of a time of indulgence strains; one is closely akin to the northern Chinese, the other to and licence and the Manchus were finally overthrown by their an element extremely common among the Buriats. While the first subjects. are only moderately roundheaded, the latter are extremely brachyBIBLIOGRAPHY.—-R. Torii, Journ. Coll. Sci. Tokyo Imp. Univ. vol. cephalic and probably represent an old mixture of Alpine and Xxxvi. (1914); S. M. Shirokogoroff, China Branch of Royal Asiatic Yellow man. While some of the Manchus are hardly to be dis- Society, extra vol. iii. (1923); L. H. D. Buxton, The Peoples of Asia tinguished from the northern Chinese, others have a distinctly (1925, bibl.). western type of countenance. It has been suggested by ShirokogoMANCINI, PASQUALE STANISLAO (1817—1888), Italvoff that originally the distribution of the people culturally akin ian jurist and statesman, was born at Castel Baronia, in the provto the Tungus stretched into the plain of China. If this is the ince of Avellino, on March 17, 1817. In 1848 he helped to percase, the gradual absorption of the Manchus by immigrant suade Ferdinand II. of Naples to participate in the war against Chinese is a continuation of a process which has been going on Austria. Upon the triumph of the reactionary party he undertook the defence of the Liberal political prisoners. Threatened with for a long period. Since the advent of the Manchu dynasty the Manchus, organ- imprisonment in his turn, he fled to Piedmont, where he obtained ized on a military basis as “bannermen,” have been widely scat- a university professorship and became preceptor of the crown tered over China, where as a kind of hereditary militia they were prince Humbert. After the fall of the Bourbons, he went to supported as a charge on the imperial treasury. For the most part, Naples as administrator of justice, in which capacity he suppressed however, they have become absorbed physically and culturally the religious orders, revoked the Concordat, proclaimed the right among the Chinese, and have acquired Chinese culture in the of the state to Church property, and unified civil and commercial jurisprudence. In 1862 he became minister of public instruction place of their old fishing and hunting habits. An interesting problem is raised by the long association of the in the Rattazzi cabinet, and induced the Chamber to abolish caplManchus and the Chinese, first as enemies but with definite sep- tal punishment. For the next 14 years, he devoted himself chiefly arate organizations, and later as a mixed people with the Man- to questions of international law and arbitration, but in 1876, chus in a nominal ascendancy, occupying the Dragon Throne. upon the advent of the Left to power, became minister of justice to the north, but the revival of Russia under the Soviet Govern-

The Manchus achieved supremacy in north China at a time when Chinese activity was at a low ebb, all the glories of the T'ang and Lung periods had become submerged and scholars felt the oppression of the long Mongol régime still upon them. Moreover, the

Chinese were wasted and weakened by the struggle of warfare. The Manchu dynasty provided just this necessary stimulation. Flushed with victory and with long-desired power over her southern neighbour, Manchuria determined to mark the whole empire with her personality. The arts were encouraged and special schools for research were established. The Manchus were fully alive to the necessity for continuing Chinese customs and a form of government which, by long usage, had become not merely palatable but sacrosanct to the Chinese. Perhaps the greatest work of the Manchus was the issue of

i the Depretis cabinet.

Mancini’s Liberalism found expression in the extension of press

freedom, the repeal of imprisonment for debt and the abolition of ecclesiastical tithes. During the Conclave of 1878 he succeeded, by negotiations with Cardinal Pecci (afterwards Leo XIII.), 1m

inducing the Sacred college to remain in Rome, and, after the election of the new pope, arranged for his temporary absence from the

Vatican for the purpose of settling private business. Resigning office in March 1878, he resumed the practice of law, and secured

the annulment of Garibaldi’s marriage. The fall of Cairoli led to Mancini’s appointment (1881) to the ministry of foreign affairs. An indiscreet announcement of the limitations of the Triple Alliance contributed to his fall in June 1885, when he was suceeded by Count di Robilant. He died in Rome on Dec. 26, 1835.

MANCUNIUM—MANDAEANS MANCUNIUM, the name often (though probably incor-

wctly) given as the Romano-British name of Manchester. Here,

dose to the Medlock, in the district stil] called Castlefield near Knott Mill, stood in Roman days a fort of 5 acres garrisoned by a short of Roman auxiliary soldiers. The site is now obscured by houses, railways

and the Rochdale

canal, but vestiges of

Roman ramparts can still be seen, and other remains were found

i1907 and previous years. Traces of Romano-British inhabitafon have been noted elsewhere in Manchester,

especially near

the cathedral. But there was no town here; we can trace nothing more than a fort guarding the roads running north through Lanashire and east into Yorkshire, and the dwellings of women-folk md traders which would naturally spring up outside such a fort.

The ancient name

is unknown.

Our Roman

authorities give

hoth Mancunium and Mamucium, but it is not clear that either form is correct. See numerous articles by J. J. Phelps, C. Roeder and F. A. Bruton throughout the Transactions of the Lancashire and Cheshire Anti-

quorian Society.

MANDAEANS, also known as Subba (Sabians), Nasoraeans, or St. John’s Christians, are an ancient sect akin to the Gnostic Christians of the 2nd and ard centuries, which still exists in lower

Mesopotamia, In such places as Basra and Kut and Siik-eshShuyikh. They number now not more than about 2,000, and are sid to be diminishing. Subba (sing. subbi) is the modern Arabic mme, referring to their frequent baptisms (in Mandaean mas-

787

For the world in itself, both visible heavens and this earth, together with the bodies of all men, there is no redemption, and the final end of everything on the earth, except for the souls of the righteous, is to be swallowed by Leviathan and so annihilated (GR 393). Our world had been a kind of mistake from the beginning. There was a light-world, and a world of darkness in which the evil woman-demon lived, whom the Mandaeans call Ruha. That world seems to consist of the dark (or black) waters and things thereto allied, and in GR v. 134~172 we read the fantastic tale of how Hibil the Bright (Hibil-Ziwa, lit. “Abel-Splendouro”: Hibil is the Mandaean form, Hébél the Syriac form of Abel), son not of Adam but of Manda d’Hayye, traversed all these dark lower regions, despoiling the principalities and powers and enchaining them. But somehow—the account itself is not clear

(GR 15o0ff.)—Ruha, as the result of this visit, bore a monstrous son called Ur (possibly a corruption of #\7), and from Ur and his mother Ruha came broods of Seven and of Twelve, which are the planets and the zodiacal constellations. Meanwhile a lower being of the light-world called Abathur had looked below into the dark waters and seen his image, which thereupon took independent shape and was called Ptahil. This Ptahil had in him therefore some of the substance or quality of the dark waters: he was told to form a solid world out of the dark waters, but failed to do so till he was helped by Hibil, who put some of his brightness into the mixture. Ruha also took some part, for she saw that this new world was partly formed out of her waters. This is our world, formed out of the dark substance, yet with a little of the light mingled with it. Hibil set the sons of Ruha as sun and moon and planets in the sky. When man,was made these constructed the body of Adam, while Hibil brought out a soul from the treasury of life and put it into Adam’s body (GR 172). No satisfactory derivation for the names Abatur and Ptahil has

buta); Nasoraeans, like the Arabic Nasdra, is ultimately connected with Nafwpatoe (comp. Acts 24, 5 and %3), and is used by Mandaeans in the sense of “true believers”; St. Jobn’s Christians i the inappropriate name given to the Mandaeans by Christian missionaries from the 17th century onwards, who mistook their frequent immersions and the reverence paid by them to John the Baptist for signs that they were derived from the Baptist’s disciples. This is not so, and their interest in the Baptist is yet been found. (See Pallis: Mandaean Studies, pp. 111-114.) sounded in their hostility to the Church as it was under the Sas- Abathur has become the judge and “weigher” of Mandaean souls anian empire, z.¢., the Nestorians.

Mandaeans means yrworcxot

(muro, from nso, Syriac mad‘d): the Gnosis of which they profess themselves adherents is a personification, the aeon and

mediator “knowledge of life’ (Manda d’hayye). The present condition and practices of the Mandaeans may be gathered from Siouffi’s book, published in 1880. A later account, including a detailed description of a Mandaean baptism, is to be found in the Quest for Oct. 1924 and Jan. 1925. (See BIBLIOcraPHY.) The sacred books of the Mandaeans are: (1) the Ginza (“Treasure”), known

also as Sidra rabba (“the Great Book’’);

(2) the John-Book, a later collection; (3) Qolasta, a sort of hymnbook, cf. the Syriac kulldsd (“praise”) and some minor works, partly astrological. The editions of the Ginza (1925) and the John-Book (1905~—15), both by Mark Lidzbarski, have now made the chief Mandaean writings generally accessible to scholars. Mandaean mss. are written in a peculiar Aramaic. As in the Babylonian (cuneiform) documents the characteristic Semitic gutturals have disappeared; on the other hand the vowels are represented, a by x, e by x, while’ is used both for z and y, ? for w and

wand o. Initial u (or o) is represented by vy, initial z by w. No

ms. older than the 16th century seems to have survived, but the texts show few variations of importance. The Ginza is the oldest document. It begins at both ends, like many ms. note-books. The longer part is called the Right-hand

Ginza (GR), the shorter (about a quarter of the whole) is the

Left-hand Ginza (GL). It is usually cited by the pages of Peter-

man’s facsimile, given in the margin of Lidzbarski’s edition. The ast chapter of GR presents a kind of world-history, and as the dominion of the Arabs is placed at only 71 years it is evident that must have been compiled very shortly before A.D. 700. GR contains general cosmological, hortatory and doctrinal

(see esp. JB 70-72), but this does not seem to have been his original function. Manda corresponds exactly to the Syriac mad‘a, which Bardaisan used for the Divine element in man (Mitchell ii. 158), distinct from knowledge, and corresponding to something between “reason” and “revelation.” The actual phrase mad‘a d’hayyé occurs in the Syriac Bible in Luke i. 77 (=yvaovv owrnpias). The Mandaean hostility to Eshu mshika (Syr. Ishd* mshihda, Jesus Christ) is hostility to the fully developed post-Nicene Church. In several places “Christ” is actually called “the Byzantine” (Rumaya), and we read that the disciples of this Christ become “Christians,” and turn into monks and nuns who have no children and who keep fasts and never wear white clothes like the Mandaeans (GR 55). The Holy Spirit of Catholic theology is identified by the Mandaeans with the evil Ruha. The peculiar Mandaean terminology sometimes makes the ordinary use of familiar terms impossible and other words have to be substituted. Thus Ruka to the Mandaeans means exclusively the evil spirit, so that they never use it, as all other Aramaic dialects do, for “wind,” but use zika (lit. “storm”) instead. Similarly Alaha means to them “false god,” so for “true God” they speak of “the Great Mana” or other titles. Now we have seen that ‘Jesus Christ” was to the Mandaeans only the Pseudo-messiah worshipped by the official Christians: the Mandaean name for the true Jesus was Anush (or Enush). In GR 29 and 53 we read that Anush-Utra comes into the world in the days of Piliatus (or Paltus, że., Pilate) the king of the world; he heals the sick, makes the blind to see, cleanses the lepers, etc. (cf. Luke vii. 22). (Utra [Syr. uthra, lit. “wealth,” “treasure”] is the Mandaean term for a good spirit, so that Anush-Utra might almost be rendered

dearly the essence of the Mandaean religion; this is the cépa-

“St, Enosh.”) With the power of the high King of Light he raises the dead. Those who believe in him among the Jews he teaches that there is truth and error, life and death, light and darkness and burning fire. At his word 360 (or 365) prophets go out of

with almost all the religions which flourished in the early days

paradise (Mshune-Kushta, “the abode of Truth”) and, will not.be

pieces. GL consists chiefly of hymns and doctrinal pieces about the fate of the soul after death. This part (GL) shows most

sua (“the body, a tomb”) philosophy, which Mandaism shares

ofChristianity, except Judaism and Catholic Christianity itself.

Jerusalem

and preach:

then Anush

ascends

seen again by mankind till the end comes.

to the Mandaean

Kushta, t. “truth,”

MANDALAY

788

is much used by Mandaeans for “true religion” generally; “to give Kushta” means to shake hands (always the right hand), a ceremony which takes the place of the laying on of hands in Catholic ritual. (Note that this word is spelt by Mandaeans with k

not k.) Before he ascended, however, he will have unmasked the Deceiver, the Byzantine Christ, who will confess that he is only

Hermes-Mercury (Nbo), one of the deceiving Seven Planets; he will be seized by the Jews and crucified (GR 58).

What more or less orthodox Christians thought of the Mandaeans we learn from the Scholion of Theodore bar Konai (PKé-

wani=Saturninus) who compiled a sort of catalogue of heretics in AD.

792.

He

treats them

as a comparatively

recent

sect,

founded by one Ado, a beggar (z.e., a wandering fakir) from Adiabene, and says that their doctrine is borrowed from the Marcionites, from the Manichees and from the Kantaeans (or Knathaeans). Of these last, who are only known from Theodore himself,

the one significant fact handed down is that they professed to

derive their teaching from Abel, as in part the Mandaeans do. In polemic against Catholic Christianity some Mandaean writers must have studied the Bible. In all cases it is the Syriac Bible (the Peshitta) of which they show knowledge. Their general

grasp of Bible history and geography is extremely slight and they do not clearly distinguish the Jews from the Church Christians. (See esp. Pallis: Mandaean Studies, p, 141.) The evidence which has from time to time been brought forward to show independent Mandaean knowledge of Jewish traditions or literature breaks down on closer investigation. Especially is this the case with regard to Mandaean tales about John the Baptist. Mandaeans use for Baptism a different word from that used by Catholic Christians, so that their conception of baptism may be mare or less independent of Catholic Christianity, but the fact that they call all running water in which baptism may be performed “Jordan” must ultimately be based on the biblical stories about John. John plays very little part in the Ginza. Manda d’Hayye goes

down to the place where he baptizes, but the Jordan draws back before him, and he takes John (Yukana) away to heavenly regions. In the Jokn-Book, on the other hand, a long section is devoted to John, in which he is also called Yahia, the Arabic form of the name John, The tale, at least in its present form, is therefore later than the Arab conquests. In this, and also in GR 57, we read of John’s aged parents, the priest Zacharia and his wife Enishbai (ż.e., the Syriac name Elishba‘ corrupted): it is difficult _ to believe that this is not derived from Luke i. Presently Eshu meshiha goes down and asks baptism from John, who is at first unwilling but finally complies on hearing a voice from heaven. It was, of course, a trump card for the Mandaean controversialist to be able to point out that the Jesus of the Catholics had had to be baptized by John, while the Mandaean Anush-Utra had not needed baptism. (Note that in GR v. 189-196 we have what Lidzbarski calls “the baptism of Manda d’Hayye by John.” But in this tale Manda d’Hayye is mot baptized: Manda d’Hayye asks baptism from John, but at His approach Jordan is driven back, and when Manda d’Hayye at length “gives truth”; z.e., holds John by the right hand, John’s soul is drawn out of his body and goes to Paradise.) But from the point of view of the modern investigator of Christian origins, the Mandaean accounts of the Baptist are both too fantastic and too near in some details to the Christian tale preserved in Luke to be regarded as in any sense independent. tradition. Baptism is called by Mandaeans masbuta, the corresponding form of which in Syriac would be masbo'ithé. The common Syriac term for baptism is ma’modtthd, only used by Mandaeans

in speaking of Catholic baptism, which they regard with contempt as being administered in “cut off,” ze, not running water. It should be noted that the Christian Palestinian dialect uses the term masbo‘itha. The Jewish term is ¿żbbūlā. But the main difference between the Mandaean and the Christian rite is that the Mandaean masbuta is continually being repeated; it is a purification, not an initiation. Everything defiles, but running water makes all things clean: that is the Mandaean idea. The Mandaeans have a clergy: the assistant or deacon (shkan-

da), the priest (tarmida, lit. “disciple”) and the bishop (ganzihy,

lit. “treasurer”). The priestly garment is called rasta. A sort of eucharist is given, consisting of a dough-cake (pehta,? Syr. pittha

“bit of bread”) and a draught of water (Mambuha, lit. “fou.

tain”): there is some reason to think that the original rite consisted of the mambuha alone. Their temples (mashkana) are small, being merely receptacles for objects used in the services which are conducted in the courtyard outside. The congregations assemble on Sundays.

History.—No Arab accounts of “Sabians” or “Mughtasila” are detailed or accurate enough to be useful. Portuguese missionaries came to lower Babylonia as a result of the Portuguese oc.

cupation of Basra at the end of the 16th century, and found the Mandaeans

there, a flourishing

community

estimated at over

14,000 souls. They were regarded as Christians of John the Baptist, and as such amenable to the Inquisition. The first account of them in Europe was in a letter from the Jesuit Pietro della Valle, dated June 1622, in which year the Portuguese lost their ascendancy in the Persian gulf. From about 1622-1651 the Jesuits were replaced by Carmelites under Ignatius a Jesu, who published in 1658 at Rome an account of the Mandaeans. A few years later some Mandaean mss. were bought for Robert Huntington, then in

Aleppo, who left them to the Bodleian Library at Oxford. In 1854 the German orientalist, H. Petermann, spent three months at Suk esh-Shuyukh and learnt the language from the local priest Yahya; in 1875 the grandson of this Yahya, having become a Christian, expounded the Mandaean religion to N. Siouffi, then French Consul at Baghdad, who published a full account of the modern Mandaeans at Paris in 1880. Incantation Documents.—Quite distinct from the religious literature of the Mandaeans are two series of magical formulae described respectively by H. Pognon and M. Lidzbarski. (See BIBLIOGRAPHY.) The former are written on earthenware saucers found at Khouabir, on the Euphrates between Baghdad and Kerbela. They are all formulae designed to protect so-and-so from hostile incantations. Lidzbarski’s documents consist of leaden tablets of similar content: in these the names of deities, etc., are

of a more definitely Mandaean caste. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—Ginza

(1) Text:

Thesaurus vulgo “Liber Adami”

appellatus ... (edit. H. Petermann, 2 vols. Leipzig, 1867); (2) German Translation: Ginza... trans. and explained by Mark Lidzbarski (Quellen der Religionsgeschichte, No. 13) (Gé6ttingen, 1925); John-Book: Text and trans. (Das Joannesbuch) by Mark Lidzbarski (Giessen, text., 1905) ; trans. and commentary (1915); Qolasta: Text

in facsimile by J. Euting Mandaische

Liturgien

(Stuttgart,

by M.

1867);

Lidzbarski

text and trans. in

(Abhandlungen

d. kgl

Gesellsch. d. Wissenschaften zu Géttingen, phil. hist. Kl. NF. xvii. 1,

Berlin, 1920). For the Magical Inscriptions:

H. Pognon, Inscriptions Mandates des Coupes de Khouabir (Paris, 1898) ; M. Lidzbarski in Florilegium

...@... Melchior de Vogiié, pp. 349-351 (Paris, 1909). Noteworthy studies: T. Néldeke, Manddische Grammatik, Halle (1875,

still indispensable) ; W. Brandt, art. “Mandaeans” in Hastings’ Encycl. of Religion and Ethics (1915); E. Peterson, “Bemerkungen zur Mandaischen Literatur” in ZNTW xxv., pp. 236-248 (1926); S. A.

Pallis, Mandaean Studies (London and Copenhagen, 1926). Modern descriptions: N. Siouffi, Etudes sur la religion des Soubbas au Sabéens, leur dogmes, leur moeurs (Paris, 1880); Mrs. E. S. Drower in the

Quest (London) for Oct. 1924 and Jan. 1925.

(F. C. B.)

MANDALAY, formerly capital of independent Burma, now

headquarters of the Mandalay division and district, as well as

the chief town in Upper Burma, stands on the Irrawaddy, m

21° 59° N. and 96° 8’ E. Built in 1856-7 by King Mind6n, it1s

now a municipality. The area inside the old city walls is since called Fort Dufferin, though no longer used as a fort. In the centre stands the palace, a group of wooden buildings, many of them highly carved and gilt, resting on a brick platform goo ft. by 500 ft., and 6 ft. high, now open to the public. There are many pagodas and monastic buildings. Pop. in 1921 was 148,917. The population is mixed, but Burmese Buddhists number over 77% of the whole. Mandalay is thus far more Burmese than Rangoon and is a great Buddhist religious centre and the abode of very large numbers of monks (kpoongyis). Besides Burmese there are

Zerbadis (the offspring of a Mohammedan with a Burman wife), Mohammedans, Hindus, Jews, Chinese, Shans and Maniputs (called Kathe), Kachins and Palaungs. Trains run from Manda-

MANDAMUS—MANDATE yy to Rangoon, from Sagaing on the opposite bank of the Irramddy to Myit-kyina,

and up the Mandalay-Lashio

railway.

Steamers ais ply in all directions. There are 20 bazaars. The ManpaLay District has an area of 2,117 sq.m. and a

pop. (1921) of 356,621.

About 600 sq.m. along the Irrawaddy

ge flat land, nearly all cultivated. In the north and east there

wre 1,500 sq.m. of hills and table-lands, forming geographically , portion of the Shan table-land. This part of the district is well wooded and watered. The Maymyo subdivision has plateaux

Great

789

Plains Station of the Department

of Agriculture,

the

largest dry-farming experiment station in the country. The region has vast deposits of lignite coal. Several Indian reservations are near the city, and representatives of various tribes (Sioux, Gros

Ventres, Arikara and Mandan)

frequent the streets.

Crying

Hill, now crowned by the county court-house, was the site of a Village of the Mandan Indians, and was visited by La Vérendrye about 1738. Lewis and Clark spent the winter of 1804-05 a few miles north of the city. From Ft. Abraham Lincoln, 5 m. south,

af 3,000 to 3,600 feet. The highest peaks are between 4,000 and

Gen. Custer started on his last campaign in 1876. Mandan was

chief rivers. The last two come from the Shan States, and are

founded in 1872. The railroad was laid through it in 1878-70. Since 1907 it has had a commission form of government.

sooo feet. The Irrawaddy, the Myit-ngé and the Madaya are the

navigable for between 20 and 30m. The Sagyin hills near Madaya we noted for their alabaster.

On the plains the climate is dry

and healthy, the rainfall averaging about 30 inches. Considerable sreas are irrigated. The hilly eastern tracts have a heavier rainfall —about 60 in— and are forested. The extremes of temperature om the plains are considerable, the thermometer in December going down to 55° and in July up to 110°. The Division in 1921 included the districts of Mandalay, Bhamo, Myitkyina, Katha and Putao, with an area of 28,788

qin. and a pop. of 849,361.

But the four last-named districts

yere removed to the Sagaing División and the Mandalay Division

m 1926-7 comprised the districts of Mandalay, Kyanksé, Meiktia, Myingyan and Yamèthin.

MANDAMUS, WRIT OF: see PRACTICE AND PROCEDURE; WRIT.

MANDAN. This Siouan tribe formed, with the Hidatsa and Arikara (g.v.), the so-called village Indians among the bisonhunting nomads of the plains in central United States. Their speech allies them rather with the Winnebago

than

with

the

Hidatsa, who in tutn are close to the Crow. They lived in domeshaped, earth-covered lodges clustered in stockaded villages; planted maize, beans, pumpkins ind sunflowers; huntéd buffalo seasonally; made pottery; had mn origin myth of emergence fom the lower world by a ine; treasured a sacred paladium in an ark; and performed ceremonies which, while ‘ontaining Plains elements, were ather distinctive. The culture

MANDARIN,

the common name for all public officials in

China, the Chinese name for whom is kuan. The word comes through the Portuguese from Malay mantri, a counsellor or minis-

ter of state. With the passing of the old order in China the term, as applied to officials, is going out of use. By the “mandarin language” was originally meant the Chinese spoken in official and legal circles. This was the language of the capital and that of the capital was one form of the vernacular of the northern and central parts of China. Hence Mandarin is the name given to the language of common speech of these regions. It has variations, but as used by the educated it provides a commonly understood speech for more than half the nation. Latterly it is being taught in the schools in the non-Mandarin speaking sections, and so is becoming the national tongue. Mandarin duck (anas galericulata) and Mandarin orange (citrus nobilis) possibly derive their names, by analogy, from the sense of superiority implied in the title “mandarin.”

MANDASOR

or Manpsavr, a town of Central India, in the

state of Gwalior, 31 m. S. of Neemuch. Pop. (1921), 16,217. It gave its name to the treaty with Holkar, which concluded the Mahratta-Pindari War in 1818. It was a centre of the Malwa opium trade. ` Mandasor and its neighbourhood are full of archaeological interest. An inscription discovered near the town indicated the erection of a temple of the sun in 437, and at Sondani are two great monolith pillars recording a victory of Yasodharma, king of Malwa, in 528. The fort dates from the 14th and rsth centuries.

MANDATE, a contract in Roman law constituted by one

person (the mandatarius) promising to do something gratuitously at the request of another (the mandator), who undertakes to in-

demnify him against loss. (S¢e Roman Law.) The essentials and

hus had eastern or southastern affiliations; their drift BY COURTESY OF THE MUSEUM OF THE AMERn the historic period was up- ICAN INDIAN, HEYE FOUNDATION vatd along the Missouri river. MANDAN CHIEF OF SIOUAN STOCK (umbering 1,250 in 1804, they vre reduced to a fraction a few decades later by disease, specially smallpox. The recent population has been variously

iven, owing to virtual loss of tribal identity among the Hidatsa. theories deriving them from the mound builders of Ohio are

the terminology of the contract are preserved in most modern systems; but in English law mandate, under that name, can hardly be said to exist as a separate form of contract. To some extent the law of mandatum corresponds to the law of principal and agent (qg.v.). “Mandate” is retained to signify the contract more

generally known as gratuitous bailment. It is restricted to personal property, and it implies the delivery of something to the bailee, both of which conditions are unknown in the mandatum of the civil law (see BAILMENT). The Mandate System.—This is a term applied to the condi-

tions set up by the Treaty of Versailles for the administration of the former overseas possessions of Germany and Turkey. Man-

nwarranted, and from the Welsh, fantastic. They were known as datory Powers are those Powers which were selected by the Sutattooed people” in the sign language. Se G. Catlin, North American Indians (1841); O-kee-pa (1867); preme Council of the Allies to administer these territories under -O. Dorsey, Bur. Am. Ethn. Rep. xi. (18094), xv. (1897); G. F. Will mandate. The system is a novel experiment in the relations bend H. J. Spinden, in Pap. Peabody Mus., vol. iii. (1906).

(A. L. K.)

MANDAN, a city of North Dakota, U.S.A., on the west ak of the Missouri river and the north bank of the Heart,

667 ft. above sea-level, opposite Bismarck; the county seat of

forton county.

It is on Federal highway ro and the main line

f the Northern Pacific railway. The population was 5,068 in 925 (State census) and was 4,037 in 1930 by the Federal census. tis an important grain and live stock market, and division fadquarters for the railroad, which has large repair shops here.

ere is a large flour-mill, a creamery, a turkey-packing plant

idother manufacturing industries, and several wholesale houses

ith a trade territory 40c m. wide. Mandan is the seat of the late training school, a Federal dairy unit, and the U.S. Northern

tween a sovereign State and a country under its control, involving

new departures in international law. It was created by Art. 22 of the Covenant of the League of Nations, which formed part of the Treaty of Versailles, and has thus gained the recognition of all States that are members of the League. In its origin it was in the nature of a compromise. After the World War the victorious Alliés naturally wished to retain the German and Turkish coloniés, in the conquest of which they had in most cases made great sacrifices. It was believed that these colonies had been subjected to misrule; pledges had been made to the native inhabitants, some of whom had taken part with the victors in the fighting, that they should not be handed over to the vengeance of their former masters; and finally, a misgiving existed

r99

MANDATE

lest, in case of rendition, Germany might use them as recruiting grounds for black armies, and their ports as bases for submarines in a future war.

On the other hand the Allies had declared (more

particularly in the pre-Armistice statement of Nov. 5, 1918) that annexation of territory was not their aim in the war. International control of some kind was the only alternative. Joint administration was condemned as impracticable and opposed to the interests of the people. Even as a condominium between two Powers only, it had given rise to friction in Egypt, Samoa and the New Hebrides. The only other course lay in the appointment of an individual Power in whom could be vested responsibility for the administration of each separate territory as an agent, or mandatory, of the League. For this course there were analogies in the delegation of quasi-sovereign powers to British and Dutch chartered companies and in the control of the Ionian Isles on behalf of the Powers by Great Britain in 1859. Individuals also had been appointed as mandatories of the Powers, as when King Leopold undertook control of the “International Free State of the Congo,” and when Prince George of Greece was made governor of Crete in 1808. The main defect of these delegations of sovereignty was that they provided no machinery to ensure the due execution of the trust, and it is the distinctive feature of the mandate system that it attempts to remedy this defect. The League of Nations afforded just such a supervisory authority as was needed, and its supervision is exercised through the medium of a standing committee, known as the “Permanent Mandates Commission.” ‘The League had nothing to do with the assignment of the mandates or with their terms, or with the extent and boundaries of the territories. These were determined by the Supreme Council. The United States, not being a member of the League, was no party to this arrangement, and she insisted that as an Associated Power her consent was necessary. The mandates therefore were submitted to her, and approved on condition that “free and equal treatment in law and in fact was secured to the commerce of all nations.” Where the mandate did not ensure this she negotiated separate treaties with the mandatory concerned. Terms of the Mandates.—The mandates were framed to give expression in detail to the principles embodied in Art. 22 of the Covenant (q.v.), and since that article prescribes that their character must vary with the varying conditions of each territory, they were divided into three classes to correspond with the three paragraphs of that article. Class A includes the former Turkish vilayets of ‘Iraq, Palestine and Syria, whose independence “can be provisionally recognized, subject to the rendering of administrative advice and assistance until they are able to stand alone.” The two former were assigned to Great Britain, the latter to France. Class B comprises the ex-German central African colonies— Togoland, Cameroons, Tanganyika and Ruanda—in which the mandatory is responsible for the administration and undertakes to promote the moral and material welfare of the people. Tanganyika, and a small part of the Cameroons and Togo fell to Great Britain, the major portions of the two latter being assigned to France, while Belgium became responsible for Ruanda. Class C territories include those which “can best be administered under the laws of the mandatory as integral portions of its territories, subject to the safeguards in the interests of the indigenous population” which are laid down for Class B. They are south-west Africa, Samoa, New Guinea, the islands north of the equator in the west Pacific and the tiny island of Nauru. For these respectively the Union of South Africa, New Zealand, Australia, Japan and the British empire accepted mandates. In the case of Nauru, Great Britain, Australia and New Zealand had by agreement in July 1919 (before the issue of the mandate), jointly acquired control of the phosphate deposits, which constitute the sole value of the island, and they jointly undertook the execution of the mandate. Since, however, the British empire has no single code of laws, the administration was assigned by the two others to Australia for five years. ‘>The “safeguards in the interests of the indigenous population” to ;which reference is made are: (1) freedom of conscience and

religion, subject only to the maintenance of public order and morals; (2) prohibition of abuses such as the arms and liquor traffic and the slave-trade; and (3) prevention of fortifications naval and military bases, and the military training of natives ex.

cept for police and the defence of the territory.

The mandates after acceptance by each mandatory were sub. mitted to the Council of the League, which was charged with the duty of seeing that their terms were in accord with the Covenant. The A class could not be issued until the Treaty of Lausanne came into force (Aug. 1924). Meanwhile an Arab Government had been set up in ‘Iraq, and a treaty had been concluded by Great Britain with it. On Sept. 27, 1925, the council formally accepted the undertaking of the mandatory to see that the terms of this

treaty (which embodied the obligations of the Covenant) were adhered to, and this undertaking was substituted for the mandate. Pending the issue of the mandate, the territories were administered in accordance with the terms of the Covenant or under provisional mandates. These terms are explicit. The mandate is a “sacred trust of civilization” to be assumed by nations who (inter

alia) “by reason of their resources can best undertake this responsibility and are willing to accept it.” The altruistic nature of this pledge was confirmed in a reply to a German protest. “The Mandatory Powers,” said the Allies, “in so far as they may be appointed trustees by the League of Nations, will derive no benefit from such trusteeship.” A mandated territory differs from a protectorate in that the protecting Power in the latter obtains rights over the population

and against other Powers, whereas a mandatory in its capacity as guardian assumes obligations both toward the population and the League.

League Supervision.—The system, it has been said, differs from such partial precedents as have been cited, in that it attempts to set up machinery by which the proper execution of the mandate may be assured. This consists in the unqualified right of supervision vested in the League which imposes upon each mandatory the obligation to submit an annual report on its administration. These reports are examined by a permanent mandates commission in the presence of an accredited representative of the mandatory concerned. The commission originally consisted of nine members of the following nationalities: Belgian, British, Dutch, French, Italian, Japanese, Portuguese, Spanish and Swedish. To these a Swiss and a German have since been added. The majority are nationals of non-mandatory States. They are selected “for personal merit and competence” as private individuals, and not as representatives of their respective nations. They are nominated by their Governments, but approved and appointed by the Council of the League, and may not hold any office under their Government. A representative of the International Labour office attends the sessions, and takes part in any discussions relative to labour. This international composition negatives any suspicion of bias, and gives to the commission the aspect of an impartial tribunal of practical men, whose object it 1s to promote co-operation while fearlessly exposing any breach of the Covenant. Its functions are purely advisory to the council. In addition to the annual review of the reports of the mandatories, the commission receives any petitions and memorials from inhabitants

of the territories and others

interested, and these,

unless trivial or irrelevant, are forwarded to the mandatory con-

cerned for his comments before examination by the commission. The proceedings are conducted in French and English, and are generally held in private to facilitate freedom of discussion. Full

minutes are printed, which, together with the memoranda on

special subjects and all other pertinent papers, can be obtained from the League publication department, or from its agents m London and other European capitals. A permanent secretariat, under a director, collects and circulates all documents of interest concerning mandates and conducts the routine business. The

commission meets at least twice in the year at Geneva, and its

procedure is governed by rules approved by the council. The weak point in the system lies in the impossibility of in-

dependent verification of statements contained in the reports— a difficulty inherent in the circumstances. For information nut

MANDAUE watained in the report, therefore, the commission must rely on ose public bodies or individuals who interest themselves in the

gifare of native races, and on such memorials and petitions

xsmay be presented to it. In order to obtain more accurate in-

imation, the actual administrators the mandatory’s representatives.

now

generally appear as

The sole means at the disposal

f the League for compelling the proper execution of the mandate sthe force of public opinion. The French mandates in west Africa—unlike the British manfates for portions of the same territories (Cameroons and Togo) _contain a clause to the effect that “troops thus raised” (z.¢., for urposes of local defence and police) “may in the event of general war be utilized to repel an attack, or for defence of the territory wtside that subject to the mandate.” It is difficult to reconcile this clause with the words of the Covenant. At the instance of the Mandates Commission the British Government was willing to go

791

former—which has been much debated by American publicists— is rather academic and juridical than of practical interest. It suffices for practical purposes that the mandatory has the absolute right to make and enforce laws, to raise troops, to set up tribunals, to appoint officials and to raise and spend revenues. Sovereignty was not ceded by the Treaty of Versailles to the League, but to the victorious Allies—indeed the highest court in South Africa has recorded the opinion that the territories were not ceded at all,

but placed by Germany at the disposal of the Allies, to be administered under mandate—a status new to international law. The mandatory’s powers are exercised “in its capacity as such.” It has, for instance, been satisfactorily established by the Man-

dates Commission that such terms as “Crown (or State) lands” and domaines d’état, where they appear in local ordinances, refer only to lands which are the property of the mandatory as such, in other words, to the mandated territory, and that any action on even further than the Covenant prescribes, and to agree to pledge the part of the mandatory which had for its object (or would telf not to enlist the natives of a mandated territory, even ultimately involve) annexation—as for instance the acquisition of though they offered themselves for enlistment outside its fron- large monopolistic rights, or of essential public services—would ters—thus limiting its sovereign rights in adjacent territories not be contrary to the spirit of the Covenant and the mandate. mder mandate. The French Government has declared its willingStatus of Natives.—The status of the indigenous inhabitants ness to accept the same restriction. of a B or C mandate territory has on the other hand been the Liquor Traffic——The Covenant enjoins the “prohibition of subject of special definition. Obviously, since the country is not abuses such as the slave-trade, the arms traffic and the liquor annexed, they do not become the subjects of the mandatory. The traffic.” Some have urged that these words mean the enforce- formula was therefore adopted by the council that “they should ment of total prohibition alike for natives and non-natives. The be designated by some form of descriptive title which will identify mandates, however, only prescribe a “strict control over the sale them as such,” viz., as “persons administered or protected under of spirituous liquors,” and the St. Germain Convention (Sept. mandate.” This confers no juridical status, and no privilege of 1919), concluded soon after the Versailles Treaty by the same citizenship, but Art. 327 of the treaty stipulates that they should signatories, forbids the import of “trade spirits” only. The com- be entitled to the diplomatic protection of the mandatory when mission, therefore, asked the council for an authoritative decision outside the mandated territory, and individuals may if they so ato the precise meaning of the terms used in the mandates and desire become naturalized subjects of the mandatory. the Covenant, and at its requést submitted the following definiThe application to mandated territories of special conventions, tons which were referred to the mandatories. entered into by a mandatory Power, has also been the subject of Spirttuous Liquors shall be taken to mean (a) all distilled bever- investigation and recommendation by the Mandates Commission, ges, (b) all fermented beverages to which distilled products have in order to ensure that “persons protected under mandate” shall ben added so as to contain over 20 degrees of pure alcohol by not be in a less favourable position in regard to their persons and weight. Trade Spirits shall be taken to mean cheap spirits utilized property and their economic interests than the inhabitants of a as articles of trade or barter with the natives. Jntoxicating bever- protectorate or colony. wes means any beverage containing more than three degrees of The revocation of a mandate for maladmuinistration, though pure alcohol by weight. theoretically possible, is in practice unthinkable. The terms of In the matter of equal commercial opportunity for all nations, the Covenant therefore contemplate self-government as the the Covenant itself failed to fulfil the expectations raised by the natural fruition of the mandate—in the case of the A class at no pre-Armistice declarations of the Allies. No obligation in this distant date. The new State would then take its place as a member egard is imposed in the C mandates, while in the B class it is of the League. restricted to States which are members of the League. The mandate system accords, for the first time ın history, inBoundaries.—Another cause of practical difficulty is presented ternational sanction to the principle of trusteeship, and of public ty the fact that in most cases the boundaries of the territories responsibility to a supervising authority for the obligations laid assigned under mandate were not defined, and it was apparently down in the trust deed in regard to mandated territories. The left to the individual mandatories to adjust them without reference annual report forms an effective means of inviting a popular verdict on the fulfilment of the trust, and this supervision constito the League. In the case of ‘Iraq this led to an acute dispute with Turkey in tutes a fundamental distinction from annexation, whatever the gard to the northern boundary. It was eventually settled by degree of assimilation to other possessions of the mandatory. The ‘special commission appointed by the League, at the instance of League exercises supervision but not control, for the ultimate Great Britain. The southern frontiers were the subject of an authority to which the stewardship of the mandatory is submitted greement with the sultan of Nejd, and an Anglo-French agree- is the public opinion of the civilized world. The standards of the ment determined the frontiers with Syria. The French in northern Covenant must obviously in the future be regarded as principles ‘ytia had similar difficulties with Turkey, to whom they ceded of general application. The mandate system is an international Cilesia. In the Cameroons a joint commission was set up to de- acknowledgment of the responsibility which the advantages of a ‘mine the precise boundaries, while as regards Ruanda, the superior intellectual culture and 20 centuries of Christian ethics

mandatory (Belgium) complained that the agreed boundary invlved the loss to King Musinga of a considerable part of his mitory. The British at once agreed that this area should be

“stored to him, and the consequent changes in the mandates were

proved by the council. In south-west Africa a “neutral zone” nd long existed between the German and Portuguese colonies,

aich has now been replaced by a precise demarcation, embodied Na treaty between the Union of South Africa and the Portuguese 7overnment. Wider issues are raised by such questions as the nature and

Tient of sovereignty exercised by a mandatory and the interational status of the inhabitants of a mandated territory. The

no less than the physical superiority conferred by the monopoly of firearms impose upon those Powers which have accepted con-

trol of backward races. (See LEAGUE oF NATIONS.)

i

BIBLIOGRAPHY.. The mandates section of the League secretariat has issued a List of Books and Pamphlets relating to the Mandates

System and to Territories under Mandate. A bibliography has also been prepared by the Royal Colonial Institute. See especially Freda White, Mandates, etc. (1926); D. P. W. Van Rees, Les Mandats Internationaux (1927); L. M. Palacios, Los Mandatos g (Lv. dela Sociedad de Naciones (1927).

MANDAUE, a municipality (with administration centre and

41 barrios or districts) of the province and island of Cebu, Philippine Islands, on the east coast about four miles N.E.'of Cebu, the

MANDAYA-—MANDEVILLE

794

provincial capital. Pop. (1918) 21,086. The climate is very hot. The principal industries are the cultivation of corn and sugar and the manufacture of salt from sea water. In 1918, it had 38 manu-

facturing establishments with output valued at 116,500 pesos; 4 sugar mills; and 370 household industry establishments with output valued at 72,100 pesos. Of the 12 schools, seven were public. The language spoken is Cebu-Bisayan.

MANDAYA,

a tribe of Mindanao island in the Philippines,

which lives in tree dwellings, several families in one house; cultivates scanty plots of rice and other crops; practises slavery and ceremonial cannibalism, eating part of the liver of a slain enemy, but not genuine head-hunting (g.v.). As offensive weapons, spears, daos, daggers and poisoned arrows are used; as defensive, light woaden shields, cloth protective armour, and bamboo caltrops. The turtle-dove is regarded as sacred and spirits are worshipped by mediums (ballyan), generally female, and are associated with wooden figures representing ancestors. Groups are governed by warrior leaders (bagani) whose rank is acquired by the killing of many enemies, as insignia for which a red costume is worn. Half a red costume (trousers only) is awarded for exploits not worthy of the whole. They do not tattoo, but file and blacken the teeth. They have been erroneously reported ta be white in complexion. See Cole, Wild Tribes af Davao District (1913).

MANDELIC

ACID, discovered by F. L. Winckler (1832)

in an emulsion of bitter almonds.

(See GLucosipes, NATURAL.)

It

is most conveniently obtained in colourless rhombic prisms, melt-

ing at 118° C, with sp.gr. 1-364, and soluble in water, alcohol or ether, from commercial benzaldehyde (g.v.) by adding concentrated aqueous sodium hydrogen sulphite to a mixture of benzaldehyde and aqueous sodium cyanide, when oily mandelonitrile, CeHs-CH(OH)-CN, separates and is hydrolysed to mandelic acid

van Mander, The Hague, 1916).

MANDEVILLE, BERNARD DE (1670-1733), English philosopher and satirist, was born at Dordrecht, where his father practised as @ physician, On leaving the Erasmus school at Rotter-

dam he gave proof of his ability by an Oratio scholastica de

medicina (1685), and at Leyden university in 1689 he main. tained a thesis De brutorum operationibus, in which he adyecated the Cartesian theory of automatism among animals. In

1691 he took his medical degree, pronouncing an “inaugural dis-

putation,” De chylosi vitiata. Afterwards he came to England “ig learn the language,” and succeeded so remarkably that many re-

fused to believe he was a foreigner. He died in January (roth or 21st) 1733-4 at Hackney.

The work by which he is known is the Fable of the Bees ar Pri.

yate Vices made Public Benefits, published first in 1705 under the title of The Grumbling Hive, ar Knaves Turn’d Honest (two hundred doggerel couplets) and often reprinted, with additions, The book was primarily written as a political satire on the state of

England in 1705, when the Tories were accusing Marlborough and the ministry of advocating the French War for personal reasons.

The edition of 1723 was presented as a nuisance by the Grand Jury of Middlesex, was denounced in the London Journal by “Theophilus Philo-Britannus,” and attacked by many writers,

notably by Archibald Campbell (1691-1756) in his Aretelogig (published as his own by Alexander Innes in 1728; afterwards by Campbell, under his own name, in 1733, as Enquiry inte the Orig. inal of Moral Virtue). Berkeley attacked it in the second dialogue of the Aleiphron (1732) and John Brown criticized him in his

Essay upon Shaftesbury’s Characteristics (1751). Mandeville’s main thesis is that the actions of men cannot be divided into lower and higher. The higher life of man is merely a (phenylglycollic acid, phenyl-a-hydroxyacetic acid), CsH;-CH- fiction introduced by philosophers and rulers to simplify govern(QH)-CO.H, at the ordinary temperature with concentrated hydro- ment and the relations of society. It is the vices (¢.e., the selfchloric acid. The acid may be extracted with benzene or ether (see regarding actions of men) which alone, by means of inventions H. Gilman and others, Organic Syntheses, vol. VI., 1926). Mandelic and the circulation of capital in connection with luxurious living, acid contains an asymmetric carbon atom and is accordingly re- stimulate society into action and progress. Mandeville’s ironical solvable into two optically active isomerides (see STEREOCHEM- paradoxes are interesting mainly as a criticism of the “amiable” istry). This resolution has been accomplished, (1) through the idealism of Shaftesbury, and in comparison with the serious egoagency of the alkaloid cinchonine, which furnishes a less soluble istic systems of Hobbes and Helvetius. He may he said to have salt with dextro-mandelic acid, and (2) by means of living or- cleared the ground for the coming utilitarianism. ganisms. The yeast Sacckoramyces ellihsoideus removes the dmodification and leaves the Jaewa-mandelic acid, whereas the mould, Penicillium Glaucum, destroys the J-form in a solution of ammonium mandelate, leaving the demxtro-mandelic acid. The two optically active forms, which melt at 132-8° C, are less

fusible and more sparingly soluble in water than the inactive or racemoid variety, which has been termed paramandelic acid. A mixture of equal weights of the two active forms produces the Inactive acid, which is also obtained on heating either active form at, 169° C. MANDER, CAREL VAN (1548-1606), Dutch painter, poet and biographer, was born of a noble family at Meulebeke. He studied under Lucas de Heere at Ghent, and in 1568-69 under Pieter Vlerick at Courtrai and Tournai. The next five years he devoted to writing religious plays, for which he painted the scenery. Then for three years (1574-1577), he studied in Rome under various masters and drew in the catacombs. On his return journey he passed through Vienna, where, together with the sculptor Hans Mont, he made the triumphal arch for the entry of the emperor Rudolph, After many vicissitudes he settled at Haarlem, where, with Goltzius and Cornelisz, he founded a successful academy of painting. His fame is principally based upon a biographi-

cal work on the paintings of various epochs—a book that has

become for the northern countries what Vasari’s Lives of the Painters became for Italy. It was completed in 1603 and published

In 1604, in which year Van Mander went to Amsterdam, where he died on Sept, 2, 1606, He translated Virgil’s Bucolics and Georgics, His Het Schilderhouck (Haarlem, 1604) was translated into French

by H. Hymans (Paris, 1884), and into German by H. Floerke (Munich,

4906). The poem in 14 chapters dealing with the technique of painting,

which forms the introduction, was used as a source of information by Charles Eastlake in Materials for a History of Oil Painting (1847, pub. separately with German trs. hy R. Haecker, Das Lehrgedicht des Karel

Works.—Typhon: a Burlesque Poem (1704); Aesop Dress, or a Collection of Fables writ in Familiar Verse (3704); The Planter's

Charity (1704); The Virgin Unmasked (1709, 1724, 1731, 1742), 4 werk in which the coarser side of his nature is prominent; Treatise of ihe Hypochondriack and Hysterick Passions (1711, 1718, 1430)

admired by Johnson

(Mandeville

here

protests

against merely

speculative therapeutics, and advances fanciful theories of his own about animal spirits in connection with “stomachic ferment”: he shows a knowledge of Locke’s methods, and an admiration for Sydenham);

Free Thoughts on Religion (1720); A Conference about

Wharing (1725); An Enquiry inta the Causes of the Frequent Execu-

tians at Tyburn (1725); The Origin of Henour and the Usefulness of

Christianity in War (1732); A Letter to Dion occasioned by his hook called Alciphron (1732). Other works attributed, probably wrongly, to him are A Modest Defence of Public Stews (1724); The World Unmasked (1736) and Zoologia medicinalis hibernica (1744).

See Hill’s Boswell, iii. 291-293; L. Stephen’s English Thought in the

Eighteenth Century; A. Bain’s Moral Science

(593-598); Windel-

band’s History of Ethics (Eng. trans, Tufts); J. M. Robertson, Pioneer Humanists (1907); P. Sakmann, Bernard de Mandeville und die Bienenfabel-Controverse (Freiburg i/Br., 1897), and compare

articles ` Ersgrcs, SHAFTESBURY, HOBBES.

MANDEVILLE,

GEOFFREY

DE

(d. 1144), earl of

Essex, succeeded his father, William, as constable of the Tower of London in or shortly before 1130. Though a great Essex land-

owner, he played no conspicuous part in history till 1140, when Stephen created him earl of Essex in reward for’ his services

against the empress Matilda.

After the defeat and capture of

Stephen at Lincoln (1141) the earl deserted to Matilda, but before

the end of the year, learning that Stephen’s release was imminent, returned ta his original allegiance. In 1142 he was again intriguing with the empress; but before he could openly join her cause he

was detected and deprived of his castles by the king. In 1143~

1144 Geoffrey maiftained himself ag a rebel and a bandit in the

fen-country, using the Isle of Ely and Ramsey Abbey as his headquarters.

He was besieged by Stephen in the fens, and met his

MANDEVILLE death in Sept. 1144 in consequence of a wound received in a skirmish. His career is interesting for two reasons. The charters yhich he extorted from Stephen and Matilda illustrate the peculiar form taken by the ambitions of English feudatories.

The most

important concessions are grants of offices and jurisdictions ghich had the effect of making Mandeville a viceroy with full powers in Essex, Middlesex and London, and Hertfordshire. His career aS an outlaw exemplifies the worst excesses of the anarchy

which prevailed in some parts of England during the civil wars of 1140-47, and it is probable that Mandeville inspired the rhetorical

description, in the Peterborough Chronicle of this period, when “men said openly that Christ and his saints were asleep.” See J. H. Round, Geofrey de Mandeville, a Study of the Anarchy (1892). (H. W. C. D.)

MANDEVILLE,

JEHAN

DE

(“Sir John Mandeville”),

the name claimed by the compiler of a singular book of travels,

written in French, and published between 1357 and 1371. By aid of translations into many other languages it acquired extraordinary popularity, while a few interpolated words in a particular edition of an English version gained for Mandeville in modern times the certainly spurious credit of being “the father of English prose.”

In his preface the compiler calls himself a knight, and states that he was born and bred in England, of the town of St. Albans; had crossed the sea on Michaelmas Day 1322; had travelled by way of Turkey (Asia Minor), Armenia the little (Cilicia) and the great, Tartary, Persia, Syria, Arabia, Egypt upper and lower, Libya, great part of Ethiopia, Chaldaea, Amazonia, India the less, the greater and the middle, and many countries about India; had often been to Jerusalem, and had written in Romance as more generally understood than Latin. In the body of the work we hear that he had been at Paris and Constantinople; had served the sultan of Egypt a long time in his wars against the Bedawin, had been vainly offered by him a princely marriage and a great estate on condition of renouncing Christianity, and had left Egypt under sultan Melech Madabron, i.e., Muzaffar or Mudhaffar! (who reigned in 1346-1347); had been at Mount Sinai, and had visited the Holy Land with letters under the great seal of the sultan, whith gave him extraordinary facilities; had

been in Russia, Livonia, Cracow, Lithuania, “en roialme daresten” (? of Daresten or Silistria), and many other parts near Tartary, but not in Tartary itself; had drunk of the well of

youth at Polombe (Quilon on the Malabar coast), and still seemed to feel the better; had taken astronomical observations on the way to Lamory (Sumatra), as well as in Brabant, Germany, Bohemia and still farther north; had been at an isle called Pathen in the Indian Ocean; had been at Cansay (Hangchow-fu) in China, and had served the emperor of China fifteen months against the king of Manzi; had been among rocks of adamant in the Indian Ocean; had been through a haunted valley, which he

places near “Milstorak” (7.e., Malasgird in Armenia); had been driven home against his will in 1357 by arthritic gout; and had written his book as a consolation for his “wretched rest.” This personal history of Mandeville is mere invention.

There

I$ no reasonable doubt that the travels were in large part com-

piled by a Liége physician, known as Johains 4 la Barbe or Jehan

793

pher and astrologer, and had a remarkable knowledge of physic. In the now destroyed church of the Guillelmins was a tombstone of Mandeville, with a Latin inscription stating that he was otherwise named “‘ad Barbam,” was a professor of medicine, and died at Liége on Nov. 17, 1372; this inscription is quoted as far back as 1462.

Whether after the appearance of the Travels either de Bourgogne or “Mangevilayn” visited England is very doubtful. St. Albans Abbey had a sapphire ring, and Canterbury a crystal orb, said to have been given by Mandeville; but these might have been sent from Liége, and it will appear later that the Liége physician possessed and wrote about precious stones. St. Albans also had a legend that a ruined marble tomb of Mandeville (rep-

resented cross-legged ahd in armour, with sword and shield) once stood in the abbey. It is a little curious that the name preceding Mangevilayn in the list of persons pardoned is “Johan le Barber.” But Dr. G. F. Warner has ingeniously suggested that de Bourgogne may be a certain Johan de Bourgogne, who was pardoned on Aug. 20, 1321. Did this suggest to de Bourgogne the alias “à le Barbe,” or was that only a Liége nickname? Note also that the arms on Mande-

ville’s tomb were borné by the Tyrrells of Hertfordshire (the county in which St. Albans lies); for of course the crescent on the lion’s breast is only the “difference” indicating a second son. The Sources.—Leaving aside the stories which have grown up around the Liége physician, there remains the question whether the book contains any facts and knowledge acquired by actual

travels and residence in the East. Possibly it may, but only in a small portion of the section which treats of the Holy Land and the ways of getting thither, of Egypt, and in general of the Levant. Even this section seems to be based on the travels of

William of Boldensele (1336). The prologue, indeed, points almost exclusively to the Holy Land as the subject of the work. The mention of more distant regions comes in only towards the end of this prologue, and (in a manner) as an afterthought. By far the greater part of these more distant travels, extending in fact from Trebizond to Hormuz, India, the Malay Archipelago,

and China, and back again to western Asia, has been appropriated from the narrative of Friar Odoric (written in 1330).

These passages, as served up by Mandeville, are almost always,

indeed, swollen with interpolated particulars, usually of an extravagant kind, whilst in some cases the writer has failed to understand the passages which he adopts from Odoric and professes to give as his own experiences. Thus where Odoric has given a most curious and veracidus account of the Chinese custom of employing tame cormorants to catch fish, the cormorants are

converted by Mandeville into “little beasts called loyres (layre,

B), which are taught to go into the water” (the word loyre being apparently used here for “otter,” Juira, for which the Provengal

is Juria or loiria). Much, again, of Mandeville’s matter, par-

ticularly in Asiatic geography and history, is taken from the Historiae Orientis of Hetoum, an Armenian of princely family, who became a monk of the Ptaemonstrant order, and in 1307 dictated this work on the East, in the French tongue at Poitiers.

A good deal about the manners and customs of the Tatars is

demonstrably derived from the famous work of the Franciscan

Ioannes de Plano Carpini (q.v.), but Dr. Warner considers that much was taken at second hand and that Mandeville’s immediate source was the Speculum historiale of Vincent de Beauvais. is Barbe la à Jehan Carpini, Vincent de Beauvais, and others. The account of Prester John (g.v.) is taken from the famous himself a man of mystery. A modernized extract quoted by the Liége herald, Louis Abry Epistle, which was so widely diffused in the 13th century, and that renown which made it incumbent on every traveller (1643-1720), at third or fourth hand from the lost fourth book created of the Myreur des Hystors of Johans des Preis, styled d’Oultre- in Asia to find some new tale to tell of him. Many fabulous mouse, states that “Jean de Bourgogne, dit à la Barbe,” revealed stories, again, of monsters, such as Pliny has collected, are. inhimself on his deathbed to d’Oultremouse, whom he made his troduced here and there, derived no doubt from him, Solinus, the executor, and described himself in his will as “messire Jean de bestiaries, or the Speculum naturale. And interspersed, especially Mandeville, chevalier, comte de Montfort en Angleterre et seig- in the chapters about the Levant, are the stories and legends néur de Pisle de Campdi et du chateau Pérouse.” Having had the that were retailed to every pilgrim, such as the legend of Seth the misfortune to kill an unnamed count in his own country, he en- and the grains of paradise from which grew the wood of the of that Lamech, by Cain old of shooting the of that gåged himself to travel through the three parts of the world, ar- cross, rived at Liége in 1343, was a great naturalist, profound philoso- castle of the sparrow-hawk (which appears in the tale of Melusina), those of the origin of the balsam plants at Matariya, The ón in Madabron apparently represents the Arabic form, of the dragon of Cos, of the river Sabbation, etc. thaneh no a mattor af fart ite use in such a case is very odd. à la Barbe, otherwise Jehan de Bourgogne, who drew his informa-

tion not from his own travels, but from the works of Odoric,

MANDHATA—MANDOLINE

794 While

recording

Mandeville’s

borrowings

it is only fair to

recognize his imaginative powers; a notorious passage, filched, with additions, from Boldensele, seems likely to have inspired the Valley of the Shadow of Death in Pilgrim’s Progress. Nor does it follow that the whole work is borrowed or fictitious. In such works as those of Jan van Hees and Arnold von Harff we have examples of pilgrims to the Holy Land whose narratives begin apparently in sober truth, and gradually pass into flourishes of fiction and extravagance.

So in Mandeville

also we

find particulars not yet

traced to other writers, and which may therefore be provisionally assigned either to the writer’s own experience or to knowledge acquired by colloquial intercourse in the East. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—The oldest known ms. of the original—once Barrois’s, afterwards the earl of Ashburnham’s, now Nouv. Acq. Franc. 4515 in the Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris—is dated 1371, but is nevertheless very inaccurate in proper names. The first English translation direct from the French was made (at least as early as the beginning of the 15th century) from a ms. of which many pages were lost. For Mandeville’s sources see A. Bovenschen, Die Quellen fiir die Reisebeschreibung des Johann von Mandeville, Inaugural-Dissertation . Leipzig (Berlin, 1888), revised and enlarged as “Untersuchungen ber Johann von Mandeville und die Quellen seiner Reisebeschreibung,” in the Zettschrift der Gesellschaft fiir Erdkunde zu Berlin, Bd. 23, Heft 3 u. 4 (No. 135, 136), and G. F. Warner, in the edition prepared for the Roxburghe Club. All English printed texts before 1725, and Ashton’s 1887 edition, fol-

low these defective copies.

The Egerton text (Brit. Mus. ms. Egerton 1982) edited by Dr. G. F.

Warner, has been printed by the Roxburghe Club, while the Cotton text (Brit. Mus. ms. Cotton Titus C xvi.), first printed in 1725 and 1727, is in modern reprints the current English version. That none of the forms of the English version can be from the same hand which wrote the original is made patent by their glaring errors of translation, but the Cotton text asserts in the preface that it was made by Mandeville himself. Matzner (Altenglische Sprachproben, I., ii., 154-155) seems to have been the first to show that the current English text cannot possibly have been made by Mandeville himself. Other works bearing the name of Mandeville or de Bourgogne are a short French life of St. Alban of Germany, the author of which calls himself Johan Mandivill[e], knight, formerly of the town of St. Alban, contained in ms. Add. C. 280 of the Bodleian; a Lapidaire printed in L. Pannier, Les Lapidaires francais; and there are medical and alchemical receipts in the Ashmolean mss. in the Bodleian by John de Villa Magna. Finally, de Bourgogne wrote under his own name a treatise on the plague, see David Murray, The Black Book of Paisley, etc. (1885), and John de Burdeus, etc. (1891) extant in Latin, French and English texts, and in Latin and English abridgments. Herein he describes himself as Johannes de Burgundia, otherwise called cum Barba, citizen of Liége and professor of the art of medicine; says that he had practised forty years and had been in Liége in the plague of 1365; and adds that he had previously written a treatise on the cause of the plague, according to the indications of astrology (beginning Deus deorum), and another on distinguishing pestilential diseases

(beginning Cum

nimium propter instans tempus epidimiale).

“Bur-

gundia” is sometimes corrupted into ‘“‘Burdegalia,” and in English translations of the abridgment almost always appears as “Burdews” -(Bordeaux) or the like. Ms. Rawlinson D. 251 (15th century) in the Bodleian also contains a large number of English medical receipts, headed “Practica phisicalia Magistri Jobannis de Burgundia.” See further Dr. G. F. Warner’s article in the Dictionary of National

by a fine iron bridge, 2,991 ft. above sea-level. 6,870.

Pop. (1921)

It is a mart for transfrontier trade with Tibet and Yar-

kand. MANDINGA, a vigorous, well-proportioned, longheaded, bigjowled, flat-nosed people with projecting cheekbones and regular features, inhabiting the western Sudan, originally from an area known as Mane, Mande, Mani, Mandi or Manding, in the Upper Niger. The Fulani call them Malinke. From 1235 to 168o they formed an empire but are no longer even a political unity, The folowing groups are distinguishable: (a) the Malinke (upper valleys of the Niger, Bafing and Gambia, and the district on the

fringe of the dense forest); (b) the Bambara or Banmana tween the Niger and the Bani rivers, the Bamako district, Sahel); and (c) the Jula (colonies east of the Bani). Their guage belongs to the Niger-Senegalese family, with dialects

(beand lanMa-

linke, Bambara and Jula. Marriage by exchange is common, the women having no voice in the matter; both dowry and dower are customary. Descent is matrilineal among the Malinke. The ex-

tended family group (Gwa or Gba), ordinarily comprising four generations, is the social unit with family property in common, administered by the patriarch assisted by elders; there is also individ-

ual ownership of personal possessions. Inheritance passes to the brother of the deceased and then to the eldest son; women never

inherit but are themselves part of the heritable property. number

A

of such family groups form the village (dugu); several

villages and their townlands constitute the territorial group (kafo), and a number of such groups constitute the county (jamana) ruled by the Mansa or Massa with councillors and a chancellor of the exchequer. Clans, whose members have the same name and common taboos, still exist, but are unorganized. The village and the territorial group are the units of Mandinga organization; the politico-religious hierarchies depend on the secret societies (Ntomo, Nama, Komo), which group the people into age classes. Cultivators and cattle-raisers for the most part, some of the Mandinga (the Jula) are traders. In mediaeval times certain noble families became adherents of Islam but the people in general are still animists, and have agrarian festivals and seasonal rites. See Monteil, Les Khassonké (1915), Les Bambara de Ségou et de Kaarta (1924); Moussa Travelé, Proverbes et Contes Bambara accompagnés dune traduction française et d'un abrégé de droit coutumier (1923). '

MANDLA, a town and district of British India in the Jub-

bulpore division of the Central Provinces on the river Nerbudda, notable for the manufacture of bell-metal vessels. A large part of the town was submerged by the flood of 1926. Pop. (1921), 8,784.

The district of Mandla (area 5,067 sq.m.) is in the Satpura hills. It is a wild highland region broken up by the valleys of

numerous

rivers and streams.

The Nerbudda flows through the

centre of the district receiving several tributaries which take their rise in the Maikal hills, a range thickly clothed with “sal” Biography for a comprehensive account, and for bibliographical referforests, and forming part of the great watershed between eastern ences; Ulysse Chevalier’s Répertoire des sources historiques du moyen age for references generally; and the Zeztschr. f. celt. Philologie Il., i. and western India. Except for one small fertile area producing 126, for an edition and translation, by Dr. Whitley Stokes, of Fingin wheat, it is a district of jungle, rice and millets, with a large O’Mahony’s Irish version of the Travels. (E. W. B. N.; H. Y.) aboriginal population. The forest area is very large, including MANDHATA, a famous place of Hindu pilgrimage in the some “sal” forests and some fine grazing areas on the plateau Nimar district of the Central Provinces of India, partly on the lands. The forests abound with big game and tigers are numersouth bank of the River Nerbudda and partly on an island in the ous. A few main roads have opened up the district to some river. One of the temples is famous for containing one of the extent and the Bengal-Nagpur railway (Satpura section) touches twelve great Lingas of Siva. Its annual fair was formerly the the district at Mandla town. The great famine caused a large scene of the self-immolation of devotees who threw themselves decrease in the population and the influenza of 1918 was severe, from the high cliffs into the river. The last sacrifice, which was but the population has nevertheless expanded to 386,446 (60% witnessed by a British officer, occurred in 1824. aboriginal tribes, principally Gonds). The backwardness of the

MANDI, an important Indian hill State, within the Punjab,

district has excluded it from political reforms. There is some èx-

country is intersected by two great parallel ranges, with average

port of food grains and oil seeds, and a larger export of timber and forest produce. It is a favourite shooting district, but very malarious. ;

under British influence since the first Sikh War (1846).

The

height 5,000 to 7,000 ft. above sea-level. The valleys are fertile, and produce all ordinary grains, besides more valuable crops of rice, maize,

sugar-cane,

and

tobacco.

Area,

1,200

sq.m.;

pop.

(1921), 185,048; estimated revenue, £93,000. An important product of the state is salt, mined in two places. “- The town of Mandi is on the Beas, a mountain torrent, crossed

MANDOLINE, the treble member of the lute (g.v.) family,

and therefore a stringed instrument of great antiquity. There are two varieties and both Italian: (1) the Neapolitan, 2ft. long, the best known, which has for strings, four courses of pairs of ul

sons, tuned like the violin in fifths; (2) the Milanese, which

MANDRAKE—MANET is slightly larger and has five or six courses of pairs of unisons. The strings, of wire-spun gut, steel and brass, are twanged by means of a plectrum or pick. The Neapolitan mandoline was

sored for by Mozart as an accompaniment to the celebrated

grenade in Don Giovanni.

Beethoven wrote for it a “Sonatina

ril mandolino” and an Adagio for mandoline and harpsichord. Grétry and Paisiello also iniroduced it into their operas

4g an accompaniment nades.

MANDRAKE

to sere-

(Mandragora

oficinarum), a plant of the po-

a thick

of ovate flowers,

with

forked

14,796 (town); 15,485 (commune). It is close to the site of the ancient Manduria, the defences of which consisted of a double lne of wall built of blocks of stone, with a broad ditch in front. Some tombs with gold ornaments were found in 1886. It was an important stronghold of the Messapii against Tarentum, and Archidamus III., king of Sparta, fell beneath its walls in 338 B.c., while leading the army of the latter (see ARcHmaAMUS). It revolted to Hannibal, but was stormed by the Romans in 209 B.c. Pliny mentions a spring here which never changed its level, and may still be seen. The town was destroyed by the Saracens in the roth century; the inhabitants settled themselves on the site of the present town, at first called Casalnuovo, which resumed the old name in 1789.

MANES, the inhabitants of the underworld, especially the

tato family, Solanaceae, and a native of the Mediterranean region. It has a short stem bearing a tuft

fleshy and often

795

root.

The flowers are solitary, with a

purple bell-shaped corolla; the fruit is a fleshy orange-coloured

berry. The mandrake has been lng known for its poisonous properties and supposed virtues. It acts as an emetic, purgative and narcotic, and was much es-

teemed in old times; but, except in Africa and the East, where it is used as a narcotic and antispasmodic, it has fallen into dis- BY COURTESY OF THE METROPOLITAN MUSEUM repute. In ancient times, accord- OF ART ing to Isidorus and Serapion, it THE MANDOLINE, THE DESCENDANT was used as a narcotic to diminish AND ONLY SURVIVOR OF THE LUTE sensibility under surgical operations. Shakespeare more than once alludes to this plant, as in Antony and Cleopatra: “Give me to drink mandragora.” The notion that the plant shrieked when

touched is alluded to in Romeo and Juliet: “And shrieks like mandrakes torn out of the earth, that living mortals, hearing them, run mad.” The mandrake, often growing like the lower limbs of a man, was supposed to have other virtues, and was much used for love philtres, while the fruit was supposed, and in the East is still supposed, to facilitate pregnancy. The North Amerian may apple (g.v.) is known also as mandrake.

MANDRILL, the most hideous and most brilliantly coloured

ghosts of the dead. (Lat. “good people,” an obvious euphemism.) In pure Roman cult we hear nothing of the worship of individual dead persons, and fear of ghosts does not seem to have been prevalent. But the collectivity of the inhabitants of the underworld was regarded as divine (di manes). Properly, the ancestral ghosts of a family are called di parentes or parentum, the di manes being the same as the di inferi; but this distinction tends to disappear about the beginning of our era, hence the common formula on tombstones, dis manibus followed by a name in the genitive or dative, ż.e., “to the glorified spirit of so-and-so” or “to so-andso, a glorified spirit.” The formula is clumsy at best. Of public cult of the manes we hear little. They are mentioned in a few prayers (see ANCESTOR-WoRSHIP); such things as burial-grounds are sacred to them; certain persons guilty of very serious offences were devoted (sacri) to them (see ConseCRATION). It was supposed, at least in later times, that they came forth when the mundus, or ritual pit dug at the foundation of a city and opened three times a year (Aug. 24, Oct. 5, Nov.

8) was uncovered. Their dwelling-place was the bowels of the earth, to which any deep chasm might lead (see Livy, vii., 6, 4). In private cult, they, or properly the di parentes, were propitiated with offerings of food, wine, garlands, etc., left on potsherds in the middle of the road, during the dzes parentales, Feb. 13-21. On Feb. 22 followed a family reunion, the Caristia. At the Lemuria (May 9, 11, 13) each householder rose in the night, dropped beans from his mouth, saying “with these beans ° I ransom me and mine,” and then bade the manes paterni, i.e., the di parentum, be gone (Ovid, Fasti, ii., 531, et seq.; V. 419 et seq.). Hence, perhaps, is derived the name lemures for ghosts. The larvae were malignant phantoms, supposed to possess and

of the baboons (Papio). The mandril (P. maimon) inhabits madden people (Plautus, Capt., 598, Menaech., 890); they had West Africa and is characterized by the shortness of its tail, no part in cult. See G. Wissowa, Religion u. Kultus (2nd ed.) p. 232, et seq., and in heavy body, prominent brow-ridges, small, deeply-sunk eyes Realencyklopädie, s.v. Lemuria; W. Warde Fowler, placed close together, and by the vivid colouring of the bare skin Pauly-Wissowa, Roman Essays, p. 24 et seq. on the face and shading into blue to the condition tense blue, while scarlet. The fur

buttocks. In the latter region it is crimson, at the sides and varying in intensity according of the animals. The cheek-prominences are inthe central line and termination of the nose are is light olive above and silvery-grey beneath,

with a small pointed yellow beard. The female is smaller and much less brightly coloured. Young males have black faces. Mandrills feed on fruit, roots, reptiles, insects, scorpions, etc., and inhabit rocky country in large troops. The old males are very

ÉDOUARD (1832-1883), French painter, reMANET, garded as the most important master of Impressionism (g.v.), was born in Paris on Jan. 23, 1832. He studied at Collège Rollin, where his passion for drawing led him to neglect all his other lessons. In 1848 he was placed on board the ship Guadeloupe, voyaging to Rio de Janeiro. On his return he first studied in Couture’s studio (1851), where his independence often infuriated his master.

For six years he was an intermittent visitor to the

ferocious, but, when young, the animals can be easily tamed.

studio, constantly taking leave to travel, and going first to Cassel, Dresden, Vienna and Munich, and afterwards to Florence, Rome

Central India, the ancient capital of the Mohammedan kingdom,

and Venice, where he made some stay. Some important drawings date from this period, and one picture, “A Nymph Surprised.” Then, after imitating Couture, more or less, in “The Absinthedrinker” (1866), and Courbet in “The Old Musician,” he devoted himself almost exclusively to the study of the Spanish masters in the Louvre. A group was already gathering round him— Whistler, Legros and Fantin-Latour haunted his studio in the Rue Guyot. His “Spaniard playing the Guitar,” in the Salon of 1861, excited much criticism. Delacroix alone defended Manet, but, this notwithstanding, his “Fifer of the Guard” and “Breakfast on the Grass” were refused by the jury. Then the “Exhibition of the Rejected” was opened, and round Manet a group was formed, including Bracquemond, Legros,

U or Manpocarn, a ruined city in the Dhar state of

of Malwa. The city is situated at an elevation of 2,079 ft. and

extends for 8 m. along the crest of the Vindhyan mountains.

It

reached its greatest splendour in the rsth century under Hoshang Shah (1405-1434). The circuit of the battlemented wall is

nearly 23 m., enclosing a large number of palaces, mosques and other buildings. The oldest mosque dates from 1405; the finest is the Jama Masjid or great mosque, a notable example of Pathan architecture, founded by Hoshang Shah. The marble-domed tomb

of this ruler is also magnificent. MANDURIA, city, Apulia, Italy, province of Lecce, 27 m. west by road from the town of that name (22 m. east of Taranto), 270 ft. above sea-level, and 8 m. north of the coast. Pop. (1921),

MANETHO—MANGALORE

796

Jongkind, Whistler, Harpignies and Fantin-Latour, the writers Zola, Duranty and Duret, and Astruc the sculptor. In 1863, when an amateur, M. Martinet, lent an exhibition-room to Manet, the painter exhibited fourteen pictures; and then, in 1864, contributed again to the Salon “The Angels at the Tomb” and “A

Bullfight.”

Of this picture he afterwards kept nothing but the

toreador in the foreground, and it is now known as “The Dead Man.” In 1865 he sent to the Salon “Christ reviled by the Soldiers” and the famous “Olympia,” which was hailed with mockery and laughter. It represents 4 nude woman reclining on a couch,

behind which is seen the head of a negress who carries a bunch of flowers. A black cat at her feet emphasizes the whiteness of the sheet on which the woman lies. This work (now in the Louvre) was présented to the Luxembourg by a subscription started by Claude Monet (1890). It was hung in 1897 among the Caillebotte collection, which included the “Balcony,” and a study of a female head called “Angelina.” This production, of a highly independent individuality, secured Manet’s exclusion from the Salon of 1866, so that he determinéd to exhibit his pictures in a place apart during the Great Exhibition of 1867. In 4 large

gallery in the Avenue de ]’Alma, half of which was occupied by

Courbet, he hung no fewer than fifty paintings. Only one important picture was absent, ‘The Exetution of thé Emperor Maximilian”; its exhibition was prohibited by the authorities. From that time, in spite of the fierce hostility of some adversaries, Manet’s energy and that of his supporters began to gain the day. His “Young Girl’ (Salon of 1868) was justly appreciated, as well as the portrait of Lola; but the “Balcony” and the “Breakfast” (1869) were as severely handled as the “Olympia” had been. In 1870 he exhibited ‘The Music Lesson” and a portrait of Mile E.

Gonzales. Not long before the Franco-Prussian War, Manet, finding him-

self in the country with a friend, for the first time discovered the true value of open air to the effects of painting in his picture “The Garden,” which gave rise to the “open air” or plein air school.

MANFRED

(c. 1232-1266), king of Sicily, was a natural son

of the emperor Frederick II. by Bianca Lancia, or Lanzia. Frederick appears to have regarded Manfred as legitimate, and by

his will named him as prince of Tarentum and representative in

Italy of his half-brother, the German king, Conrad IV. Manfred acted loyally and with vigour in the execution of his trust, and

when Conrad appeared in southern Italy in 1252 his authority

was quickly and generally acknowledged. (1254) Manfred, after refusing to surrender cent IV., accepted the regency on behalf of On a rumour (1258) that Conradin was

When Conrad died Sicily to Pope Innothe infant Conradin. dead, Manfred was crowned king of Sicily at Palermo on Aug. 10 in that year. The report was false; but the new king declined to abdicate, and

pointed out the necessity for a strong native ruler. The pope

declared Manfred’s coronation void and pronounced sentence of excommunication. In conjunction with the Ghibellines Manfred's

forces defeated the Guelphs at Monte Aperto on Sept. 4, 1260. He

was eventually defeated and killed near Benevento, Feb. 26, 1266, Contemporaries praise his noble and magnanimous character. He was renowned for his physical beauty and great intéllectual

attainments. Manfred forms the subject of dramas by E. B. S. Raupach, O.

Marbach, F. W. Rorzee and Byron. 7,

Three letters written by Manfred

are found in Biblio’ teca historica regni Siciliae. (Palermo, 1432),

REDCNIA, town and archiepiscopal see (with Vieste), Apulia, Italy, province of Foggia, 224 m. NE. of Foggia by rail, situated on the coast, 13 ft. above sea-level, to the south of Monte Gargano, and giving its name to the gulf to the east of it. Pop. (1921) 14,568. It was founded by Manfred (1263): the Turks destroyed it in 1620, but the castle of the Angevins and parts of the town walls are preserved. In the church of S. Domenico, the chapel of the Maddalena contains zr4th century paint-

ings. Two imiles south-west is the fine cathedral of S. Maria Maggiore di Siponto, built in 1117 in the Romanesque style, with a dome and crypt. This marks the site of the ancient Sipontum, the harbour of Arpi, which became a Roman colony in 104 8.¢., and was hot deserted in favour of Manfredonia until the 13th century,

After fighting as a gunner, he returned to his family in the Pyrenees, where he painted “The Battle of the Kearsarge and the Alabama.” His “Bon Bock” (1873) created a furore. But in having become unhealthy owing to the stagnant lagoons. See A. Beltramelli, 71 Gargand (Bergamo, Arti Grafiche, 1907); 1875, as in 1869, there was a fresh outburst of abuse, this time of the “Railroad,” “Polichinelle,” and “Argenteuil,” and the jury excluded the artist, who for the second time arranged an exhibition in his studio. In 1877 his “Hamlet” was admitted to the

Salon, but “Nana” was rejected. The following works were exhibited at the Salon of 188r; “In the Conservatory,” “In a Boat,” and the portraits of Rochefort and Proust; and the Cross of the Legion of Honour was conferred on the painter on the 31st of December in that year. Manet died in Paris on Apr. 20, 1883.

Fle left, besides his pictures, a number of pastels and engravings. He illustrated Les

Chats

by Champfleury,

and Edgar

Allan

Poe’s The Raven. (H. Fr.) See Zola, Manet (Paris, 1867); E. Bazire, Manet (Paris, 1884); G. Geffroy, La Vie artistique (1803). Th. Duret, Manet et son Oeuvre (1902). E. Moreau-Nélaton, Manet, graveur et lithographe (1906).

MANETHO

(Maréðwr in an inscription of Carthage: MaveOas

in a papyrus),

Egyptian priest and annalist, was a native of

Sebennytus in the Delta. indications connect His most important which he translated by some fragments Apion, and by tables

The evidence of Plutarch and other

him with the reigns of Ptolemy I. and II. work was an Egyptian history in Greek, for the native records. It is now only known of narrative in Josephus’s tréatise Against of dynasties and kings with lengths of reigns,

divided into three books, in the works of Christian chronographers. The earliest and best of the latter is Julius Africanus, besides whom Eusebius and some falsifying apologists offer the same materials; the chief text is that preserved in the Chronographia of Georgius Syncellus. Notwithstanding all their defects, the fragments of Manetho have been of gredt service to scholars ever since Champollion’s first deciphérments. See C. Müller, Fragmenta

historicorum

graecorum,

ii. st1-616:

A. Wiedemann, Aegvptische Geschichte (Gotha, 1884). Dp. 121 et sqq.:

. Krall in Festgaben fiir Biidinger (Innsbruck,

1898); Grenfell and

unt, El Hibeh Papyri, i. 223; also the section on chronology in

Eover, and generally

books on Egyptian history and chronology.

A. Haseloff, Bauten

1914); 385 sqq.

der Hohenstaufen

in Unteritaliens i. (Leipzig,

MANGACEY, a name applied to the West African monkeys of the genus Cercocebus, characterized by their bare, flesh-coloured upper eye-lids, and the uniformly colouréd hairs of the fur. (See PRIMATES.)

MANGALDAN,

4 municipality (with administration centre

and 29 barrios of districts) in the north part of the province of Pangasinan, Luzon, Philippine Islands, about two miles froni the Gulf òf Lingayen, and located on the Manila-Dagupat railway. Pop. (1918) 16,761. Ricé culture ig the chief industry. In 1978, it had 12 manufacturing establishments with output valued at 36,400 pesos; and 186 household industry establishments with output valued at 56,500 pesos. Of the ro schools, eight were public. The native language is Pangasinan, but many Llocanos live here.

MANGALIA, a town and watering-place in the department of

Coristanta, Rumania, situated on the Black sea, and at the mouth of a small streatn, the Mangalia, 18 m. S. of Constanta. Pop. (1928) 2,800. The inhabitants, among whom are many Turks,

Tatars and Bulgarians, ate mostly fisherfolk. Mangalia is to be identified with the Thracian Kallatis or Acervetis, a colony of

Miletus which continued to be a flourishing place to the close of

the Roman period. In the 14th century it had 30,000 inhabitants, and a large trade with Genoa. Mangalia has a small har-

bour, with a depth alongside of 3 to 12 ft. It has béen proposed as a site for a Rumanian naval base.

MANGALORE, a seaport of British India, administrative headquarters of the South Kanara district of Madras, and terminus of the west ¢oast line of the Madras railway. Pop. (1921).

53,877. The harbour is formed by the backwuter of two stall rivers, and large vessels lie 3 m. offshore. The chief exports are coffee, pepper, sandalwood, fish and fish manure, etc. Mangalore

trades directly with Céylon and the Persian gulf, and is a port of

MANGAN-—-MANGANESE all of the British India Company.

There is a small shipbuilding

ndustry, and fishing, coffee-curing and manure-making are carried

mn, The town has a large Roman Catholic population, with a European bishop, several churches and a convent, and is an in-

dustrial and educational centre.

It is the headquarters of the

Basel Lutheran mission, which has successfully introduced the mdustries Of printing, carpentry and the manufacture of tiles. There are two colleges and a training school. Mangalore was

gallantly defended by Colonel John Campbell in 1784, with a

garrison of 1,850 men, of whom 412 were English, against Tippoo Syltan’s whole army.

797

waters.

The metal was isolated by J. G. Gahn in 1744, and in 1807 J.F. John obtained an impure metal by reducing the carbonate at a high temperature with charcoal mixed with a small quantity of oil. R. Bunsen prepared the metal by electrolysing manganese chloride in a porous cell surrounded by a carbon crucible containing hydrochloric acid. Various reduction methods have been employed for the isolation of the metal. C. Brunner reduced the fluoride by metallic sodium, and E. Glatzel the chloride by mag-

nesium; H. Moissan reduced the oxide with carbon in the electric furnace. Mostly, manganese is now prepared by the reduction of the oxide by aluminium as in H. Goldschmidt’s “thermite” process.

MANGAN, JAMES CLARENCE (1803-1849), Irish poet, was born in Dublin on May 1, 1803. His baptismal name It is also prepared in large quantities as ferro-manganese by rewas James, the “Clarence” being his own addition. His father, a duction of the mixed ores of iron and manganese in the blast grocer, who boasted of the terror with which he inspired his chil- furnace, (See IRON AND STEEL.) dren, had ruined himself by imprudent speculation and extravas gant hospitality. The burden of supporting the family fell on

Manganese has a specific gravity of 7-42, and the variety obtained by distilling pure manganese amalgam fn vacuo is pyroJames, who entered a scrivener’s office, at the age of fifteen, and phoric, and burns when heated in a current of sulphur dioxide. The drudged as a copying clerk for ten years. He was employed for pure metal readily evolves hydrogen when acted upon by sulphuric some time in the library of Trinity college, and in 1833 he found and hydrochloric acids, and is readily attacked by dilute nitric acid. aplace in the Irish ordnance survey. He suffered a disappointment It precipitates many metals from solutions of their salts. It melts in love, and continued ill health drove him to the use of opium. at 1230° C. He was habitually the victim of hallucinations which at times COMPOUNDS Oxides.—-Manganous oxide, MnO, is obtained by heating a mixthreatened his reason. For Charles Maturin, the eccentric author of Melmoth, he cherished a deep admiration, the results of which ture of anhydrous manganese chloride and sodium carbonate with are evident in his prose stories. He belonged to the Comet Club, a a small quantity of ammonium chloride; or by reducing the higher group of youthful enthusiasts who carried on war in their paper, oxides with hydrogen or carbon monoxide. It is a dark coloured the Comet, against the levying of tithes on behalf of the Protest- powder of specific gravity 5-09. Manganous hydroxide, Mn(OH)., ant clergy. Contributions to the Dublin Penny Journal followed; is obtained as a white precipitate on adding a solution of a and to the Dublin University Magazine he sent translations from caustic alkali to a manganous salt. It rapidly oxidizes on exposure the German poets. The mystical tendency of German poetry had to air and turns brown, going ultimately to the sesquioxide. Tria special appeal for him. He also wrote versions of old Irish manganese tetroxide, Mn;Q,, is produced more cr less pure when poems, though his knowledge of the language, at any rate at the the other oxides are heated. It may be obtained crystalline by beginning of his career, was but slight. Some of his best-known heating manganese sulphate and potassium sulphate to a bright Irish poems, however, O’Hussey’s Ode to the Maguire, for in- red heat. It is a reddish brown powder, which when heated with stance, follow the originals very closely, Besides these were “‘trans- hydrochloric acid yields chlorine. Manganese sesquioxide, Mn2Qs, lations” from Arabic, Turkish and Persian. How much of these is found native as the mineral braunite. The hydrated form, found languages he knew is uncertain, but he had read widely in Oriental native as the mineral manganite, is produced by the spontaneous subjects, and some of the poems ‘are exquisite though the original oxidation of manganous hydroxide. In the hydrated condition it is authors whom he cites are frequently mythical. He took a mis- a dark brown powder which readily loses water at above 100° C; it chievous pleasure in mystifying his readers, and in practising dissolves in hot nitric acid, giving manganous nitrate and mangae extraordinary metres. For the Nation he wrote from the beginning nese dioxide: 2MnO(OH)-+-2HNO;=

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are of metal (bronze). The charts in use by the mediaeval navigators of the Indian Ocean—Arabs, Persians or Dravidas—were equal in value if not

EASTERN

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KART

MEDITERRANEAN,

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e4

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PETRUS

VESCONTE

(1311)

actual difference of 41-2°, and a difference of 61° assumed by Ptolemy. There exists, however, a serious error of orientation, due, according to Prof. H. Wagner, to the inexperience of the cartographers who first combined the charts of the separate basins of the Mediterranean so as to produce a chart of the whole. This accounts for Gibraltar and Alexandria being shown as lying due east and west of each other, although there is a difference of 5° of latitude between them, a fact known long before Ptolemy. The oldest of these maps which have been preserved, the so-called “Pisan chart,” which belongs probably to the middle of the 13th century, and a set of eight charts, known by the name of its former owner, the Cavaliere Tamar Luxoro, of somewhat later date, are both the work of Genoese artists. Petrus Vesconte, who worked in 131r and 1327, is the draughtsman of the maps illustrating Marino Sanuto’s Liber secretorum fidelium crucis, which was to have roused Christendom to engage in another crusade (fig. 8).

The expansions of Portolano maps into maps of the world resemble the wheel maps of an earlier period. This is the character of the map of Petrus Vesconte of 1320, of that of Giovanni Leardo (1448) and of a Catalan map of 1450. Very different in character is the Catalan map of 1375, for its author, discarding Ptolemy, shows India as a peninsula. On the Portolano Maps.—During the long period of stagnation in other hand, an anonymous Genoese would-be reformer of maps cartography, which we have already dealt with, there survived (1457), still adheres to the erroneous Ptolemaic delineation of among the seamen of the Mediterranean charts of remarkable southern Asia, and the very same error is perpetuated by Henaccuracy, illustrating the Portolani or sailing directories in use ricus Marvellus Germanus on a rough map showing the Portuguese among them. They antedate 1270, and in the eastern part of the discoveries up to 1489. None of these maps is graduated, but if Mediterranean embody materials available even in the days before we give the Mediterranean a length of 3,000 Portolano miles, Ptolemy, while the correct delineation of the west seems to be of equivalent in 36° N. to 41°, then the longitudinal extent of the a later date, and many have been due to Catalan seamen. These old world as measured on the Genoese map of 1457 would be 136° charts are based upon estimated bearings and distances between instead of 177° or more as given by Ptolemy. The Revival of Ptolemy.—Ptolemy’s great work became the principal ports or capes, the intervening coast-line being filled in from more detailed surveys. The bearings were dependent upon known in western Europe after Jacobus Angelus de Scarparia had the seaman’s observation of the heavens, for these charts were translated it into Latin in 1410. This version was first printed in in use long before the compass had been introduced on board 1475 at Vicenza, but its contents had become known through ms. ship (as early as 1205, according to Guiot de Provins). It is copies before this, and their study influenced the construction of therefore misleading to describe them as Compass or Loxodromic maps in two respects. They led firstly to the addition of degree lines to maps, and secondly to the compilation of new maps of charts, and they are now known as Portolano charts. None of these charts is graduated, and the horizontal and those countries which had been inadequately represented by vertical lines which cross many of them represent neither parallels Ptolemy. Thus Claudius Clavus Swartha (Niger), who was at nor meridians. Their most characteristic feature, and one by Rome in 1424, compiled a map of the world, extending westward which they can most readily be recognized, is presented by groups as far as Greenland. The learned Cardinal Nicolaus Krebs, of or systems of rhumb-lines, each group of these lines radiating from Cusa (Cues) on the Moselle, who died 1464, drew a map of Ger-

MAP

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FIG. 9.—BEHAIM’S

many which was first published in r491; D. Nicolaus Germanus, a monk of Reichenbach, in 1466 prepared a set of Ptolemy’s maps on a new projection with converging meridians; and Paolo del Pozzo Toscanelli in 1474 compiled a new chart on a rectangular projection, which was to guide the explorer across the western ocean to Cathay and India.

The geographical ideas which prevailed at the time Columbus started in search of Cathay may be most readily gathered from two contemporary globes, the one known as the Laon globe be-

cause it was picked up in 1860 at a curiosity shop in that town, the other produced at Nuremberg in 1492 by Martin Behaim. The information which it furnishes, in spite of a legend intended to lead us to believe that it presents us with the results of Portuguese explorations up to the year 1493, is of more ancient date. The Nuremberg globe (fig. 9), a work of a more ambitious order, was undertaken at the suggestion of George Holzschuher, a travelled member of the town council. The work was entrusted to Martin Behaim, who had resided for six years in Portugal and the Azores, and was believed to be a thoroughly qualified cosmographer. The globe is of pasteboard covered with whiting and parchment, and has a diameter of 507mm. (20 inches). The author followed Ptolemy not only in Asia, but also in the Mediterranean. He did not avail himself of the materials available in his day. Not even the coasts of western Africa are laid down correctly, although the author claimed to have taken part in one of the Portuguese expeditions. The ocean:separating Europe from Asia is assumed as being only 126° wide, in accordance with Toscanelli’s ideas of 1474. Very inadequate use has been made of the travels of Marco Polo, Nicolo de’ Conti, and of others in the east. The maritime discoveries and surveys of that age of great discoveries were laid down upon so-called “plane-charts,” that is, charts having merely equidistant parallels indicated upon them, together with the equator, the tropics and polar circles, or, in a

more advanced stage, meridians. For his longitude the mariner was dependent upon dead reckoning. Errors of 30° in longitude were by no means rare. It was only after the publication of Kep-

ler’s Rudolphine Table (1626) that more exact results could be obtained. A further difficulty arose in connection with the variation of the compass, which induced Pedro Reinel to introduce two scales of latitude on his map of the northern Atlantic (1504). The chart of the world by Juan de la Cosa, the companion of Columbus, is the earliest extant which depicts the discoveries in the New World (1500), and there is the map which Alberto Cantino caused to be drawn at Lisbon for Hercules d’Este of Ferrara

GLOBE

(1502), illustrating in addition the recent discoveries of the Portuguese in the East. Other cosmographers of distinction were

Pedro Reinel (1504-42), Nuno Garcia de Toreno (1520), to whom we are indebted for 21 charts, illustrating Magellan’s voy-

age, Diogo Ribero (maps of the world 1527, 1529), Alonzo de santa Cruz, of Seville, whose Jsolario general includes charts of all parts of the world (1541), John Rotz or Rut (1542), Sebastian Cabot (1544), as also Nicolas Desliens, Pierre Desceliers, G. Breton and V. Vallard, all of Arques, near Dieppe, whose charts were compiled between’ r54z and 1554. The Strasbourg Ptolemy of 1513 has a supplement of as many as 20 modern maps by Martin Waldseemiiller or Ilacomilus, several among which are copied from Portuguese originals. Waldseemiiller was one of the most distinguished cartographers of his day. He published in 1507 a map of the world, in 12 sheets, together with a small globe of a diameter of 110mm., the segments for which were printed from wood-blocks. On these documents the new world is called America, after Amerigo Vespucci. Equally interesting with these Ptolemaic supplements are collections like that of Anton Lafreri, which contains reprints of 142

maps of all parts of the world originally published between 1556 and 1572 (Geografica tavole moderne, Rome, n.d.), or that of J. F. Camocio, published at Venice in 1576, which contains 88 reprints. The number of cartographers throughout Europe was considerable. Germany is represented by G. Glockendon, the author of an interesting road-map of central Europe (1501), Sebastian Münster (1489—1552), Elias Camerarius, whose map of the mark of Brandenburg won the praise of Mercator; Wolfgang Latz von Lazius, to whom we are indebted for maps of Austria and Hungary (1561), and Philip Apianus, who made a survey of Bavaria (1553-63), which was published 1568 on the reduced scale of 1:144,000, and is fairly described as the topographical masterpiece of the 16th century. For maps of Switzerland we are indebted to Konrad Tiirst (1495-97), Johann Stumpf (1548) and Aegidius Tschudi (1538). A map of the Netherlands from actual survey was produced by Jacob of Deventer (1536-39).

Leonardo da Vinci, the famous artist, while in the service of Cesare Borgia as military engineer, made surveys of several districts in central Italy. New maps of Spain and Portugal appeared in 1560, the former being due to Pedro de Medina, the latter to Fernando Alvarez Secco and Hernando Alvaro. Among the French map-makers of this period may be mentioned Oronce Finée (Finaeus), who in 1525 published a map of France, and

Jean Jolivet (c. 1560). Gregorio Lilly (1546) and Humphrey

MAP

843

ARDIA

ORIENTALIS

FIG. 10.—LENOX

GLOBES

(1510)

Lhuyd of Denbigh (d. 1510) furnished maps of the British Isles, 94) the earliest works are a map of Palestine (1537), a map of the Olaus Magnus (1539) of Scandinavia, Anton Wied (1542), Sigis- world on a double heart-shaped projection (1525), and a topomund von Herberstein (1549) and Jenkinson (1562) of Muscovy. graphical map of Flanders based upon his own surveys (1540), The cylindrical and modified conical projections of Marinus a pair of globes (1541, diam. 120mm.), and a large map of and Ptolemy were still widely used, the stereographical projection Europe which has been praised deservedly for its accuracy (1554). of Hipparchus was for the first time employed for terrestrial maps He is best known by his marine chart (1569) (fig. 11) and his in the 16th century, but new projections were introduced in addi- atlas. The projection of the former may have been suggested by tion to these. A trapeziform projection with equidistant parallels, W. Pirkheimer’s note in his edition of Ptolemy (1525). Mercator by D. Nicolaus Germanus (1466), led to Flamsteed’s projection. constructed it graphically, the mathematical principles underJoh. Stabius (1502) and his pupil J. Werner (1514) devised three lying it being first explained by E. Wright (1594). The “Atlas” heart-shaped projections, one of which was equal-area. Petrus was only published after Mercator’s death, in 1595. It only conApianus (1524) gave his map an elliptical shape. H. Glareanus tained nine maps, but after the plates had been sold to Jodocus (1510) first employed an equidistant zenithal polar projection. (Jesse) Hondius the number of maps was rapidly increased, No reasonable fault can be found with the marine surveyors although Mercator’s name was retained. Mercator’s maps are of this period, but the scientific cartographers allowed themselves carefully engraved on copper. Latin letters are used throughtoo frequently to be influenced by Ptolemaic traditions. Any out; the miniatures of older maps are superseded by symbols, cartographer of the period in regions the successful delineation of and in the better-known countries the maps are fairly correct, which depended upon an intelligent interpretation of itineraries, but they fail lamentably in regions of imperfect information. and of information collected by recent travellers, is generally Even before Mercator’s death, Antwerp and Amsterdam had become great centres of cartographic activity, and they mainfound to fail utterly. Columbus, trusting to Toscanelli’s misleading chart, looked tained their pre-eminence until the beginning of the r8th century. upon the countries discovered by him as belonging to eastern Lucas Janszon Waghenaer (Aurigarius) of Enkhuizen published Asia, a view still shared about 1507 by his brother Bartolomeo. the first edition of his Spiegel der Zeevaart (Mariners’ Mirror) Waldseemiiller (1507) was the first to separate America and Asia at Leiden in 1585. It was the first collection of marine maps, lived by an ocean of considerable width, but J. Ruysch (1508) through many editions, was issued in several languages and became known as Charettier and Waggoner. Jodocus Hondius was returns to the old idea, and even joins Greenland (Gruenlant) mentioned as purchaser of Mercator’s plates. In 1608 Hondius to eastern Asia. Globes, both celestial and terrestrial, were popular after the published a map of the world in 12 sheets, on Mercator’s projecdiscovery of America. They were included among the scientific tion. Only one copy is known and this is in the possession of the apparatus of ships and of educational establishments. Columbus Royal Geographical Society. E. Heawood has written a memoir and Magellan had such globes, those of the latter produced by on this map (1927). The business founded by him about 1602 P. Reinel (1519), and Conrad Celtes tells us that he illustrated was continued by his sons, his son-in-law, Jan Janszon (Jansonius) his lectures at the University of Vienna with the help of globes and others. Another map firm was established at Amsterdam (r501). Since 1507, in which year Waldseemüller published a in 1612 by Willem Janszon Blaeu (1571-1638), a friend of small globe of a diameter of 110mm., covered with printed seg- Tycho Brahe, from 1633 ‘“‘mapmaker” of the States-General, and ments or gores, this cheap and expeditious method has come into a man of scientific culture. He was succeeded by his son Jan graphically.

(d. 1673) and grandson Cornelius, and before the end of the

A. Diirer (1525) and Hen. Loriti Glareanus (1527) were the first

century turned out a Zee-Spiegel of 108 charts (1623). In France, in the meantime, an arc of the meridian had been measured (1669-70) by Jean Picard, numerous longitudes had been observed between 1672 and 1680 by the same, and by Phil. de Lahire (d. 1719), and these were utilized in a Carte de France “as corrected from the observations of the members of the Academy of Sciences” (1666-1699), in a map of the world (1694)

general use.

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constructed

his gores

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RACE

BIBLIOGRAPHY.—A. Hauvette, Hérodote, a critical analysis Various accounts (1894); G. B. Grundy, The Great Persian Way of(r901), a

complete discussion of every phase of the battle; R.

W.

acan

Herodotus, text of Herodotus with commentary, indices, maps, ete (1908); W. W. How and J. Wells, A Commentary on Herodotus

for reference

(1912);

J. Wells, Studies in Herodotus, valuable for

sidelights on Herodotus as a historian, on Miltiades, and for a sum-

mary of recent criticism of the Persian wars (1923). See also J.A R. Munro, “The Campaign of Marathon” (The Journal of Hellen. Studies [1899], a suggestive discussion) ; also Cambridge Ancien; His. tory, vol. iv. ch. viii. (1926).

MARATHON RACE, a race run over a distance of 26m, 385yds., which still commemorates the epic feat of Pheidippidesin 490 B.C. News had reached the Athenians that Darius the Mede

was crossing the Aegean sea to conquer the Greek States, Phei-

Aik

u

dippides, an Olympic champion runner, was despatched to enlist

Persian amp

the aid of the Spartans. For two days and two nights he tray. elled, swimming the rivers and climbing the mountains in his

path. Then he returned with the news that the Spartan army

would start at the full moon. a Bea

: A. |

Agrielit

aA a 3

Meanwhile the Persians had landed

and the Athenians, accompanied by Pheidippides, bearing his long

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BATTLE OF MARATHON

J

p y$

Bartholomew,

inburg

of war and of the Persians, was selected as one of the Athenian

spear and heavy shield, set out to meet the invaders in battle at Marathon. That encounter resulted in a victory for the Greeks

and, forthwith, Pheidippides set out to bear the news to the cap-

ital. Unencumbered by his weapons he ran the 22 miles from Marathon to Athens, only to fall dead on the outskirts of the

city as he gasped (in Greek), “Rejoice, we conquer!” When the Olympic games were reinstated at Athens in 1896 a marathon race was included in the programme and, most appro-

priately, won by Loues, a Greek peasant, who covered the course in 2 hours ssmins. 2osecs. The scenes which signallized the success of Loues were remarkable. When he entered the stadium at the end of the race, the Greek spectators rose as one man to celebrate their countryman’s victory, women tore off their jewellery to fling it at his feet, a hotel proprietor gave him an order for 365 free meals, and even a street urchin pressed forward with the promise to black his boots for nothing for the rest of his life. Another memorable marathon race was that of 1908, run from Windsor Castle to the Olympic stadium at Shepherd’s Bush, London. In that year the 2,000-year-old tragedy of Pheidippides was vance by the southern road would commit their column to a defile very nearly repeated. Dorando Pietri, 23 years of age and a between the mountains and the sea and enable the Greeks to fall restaurant waiter by calling, was entered as the chief representaupon their rear while the main body would be unable to come tive of Italy. The race was run in exceptionally hot weather and up. To re-embark would expose part of their army to almost the British representatives set up a pace at the start which was certain disaster. In spite of the Spartan delay on account of a largely responsible for the terrible condition of the leading runreligious festival, time fought for the Athenians. ners at the finish. Many of the 75 competitors who had started While the Spartans were on the Isthmus of Corinth the Perfrom Windsor collapsed by the way. Dorando, who ran pluckily sians embarked their cavalry and part of their infantry to make throughout, was forced to abate his pace to a crawl when apa dash on Athens by sea. A rear guard, probably about 20,000 proaching the Stadium and collapsed, for the first time, at the strong, was drawn up on the southern part of the plain parallel entrance to the track; first aid was rendered and he rose to with the beach. Callimachus, probably on the advice of Miltiades, totter on around the arena. Fifty yards further and he went decided to attack—the date was probably Sept. 21. A mile from down again, and was again helped up. He fell for the third time the Persian line the Greeks were marshalled, the centre thinned and was afterwards almost carried past the winning post. Not unso as to extend the line to equal that of the Persians and to naturally , protests were lodged by J. J. Hayes, U.S.A., and C. Strengthen the Athenian right under Callimachus and the PlataeHefferon, South Africa, who bad finished second and third respecans on the left. Down the sloping plain moved the bronze-clad tively, and Dorando Pietri, who could never have reached the tape Greeks. When the ranks came within range of the Persian missiles without assistance, was disqualified. Her Majesty, the late Queen they broke into a charge. The weak Athenian centre recoiled; Alexandra, however, presented the plucky little Italian with a but the shock of the heavy Greek wings crushed in and rolled up gold cup. the Persian flanks. The victorious Persian centre was then dealt This event is now regarded as the blue-ribbon of the Olympic with. The hostile rear guard was destroyed losing 6,400 killed. games and is honoured as a championship in all countries. Of The Greeks lost 192. The Athenians then marched back to Athens the Olympic victors the United States and Finland have produced and arrived in time to forestall a landing by the Persian main two, and Greece, France and South Africa one each. It is imposbody. sible to assess truly either the world’s or Olympic records, on The failure of the Persians was due to neglect of security account of the varying conditions in different countries. The measures and lack of aggressive action which resulted in failure fastest Olympic time recorded is that of Hannes Kolehmainen, to make use of superior numbers, and finally to a division of Finland, who won at Antwerp, 1920, in 2hrs. 32mins. 34secs., and forces. The Greeks were prompt in action and sought ‘to unite the fastest time ever returned is that of J. C. Miles, of Nova Scotia, their strength for the decisive battle, and bring it to bear against who in 1929 won the annual race into Boston, Mass., in 2 hrs. a part of the Persian army. Tactically, the successful double en33mins. 8¢secs. A better basis for reckoning records is provided

generals under the Polemarch, Callimachus, and seems to have dominated the war council and dictated the plan of campaign. The Athenians marched on Marathon to delay the Persian advance in the passes leading to Athens and to enable the Plataeans and Spartans to join. On the march the Plataeans came up. The passes were found unoccupied and the Greeks took up a position in the Avlona valley covering the direct roads to Athens and flanking the southern road. The result was to pin down the Persians. Against the Greek position in a narrow valley with both flanks secured by hills they could not use their cavalry. To ad-

velopment of the hostile flanks foreshadowed the design of Cannae.

[f at Marathon the situation is unlikely to have been created in-

tentionally, the opportunity at least was ably exploited. RAECO-PERSIAN WARS.)

(See

by the annual marathon race from Windsor Castle to Stamford

bridge, London, for the Sporting Life trophy. This race, at the full official distance of 26 miles 385 yards, was instituted in 1909

and adopted as the A.A.A. championship in 1925, in which year

-

>

VARIETIES 1. Forest green

2. Campan

France

(serpentine),

mélange vert

3. Royal Jersey green N. d.

Italy

(sawn across the bed),

(serpentine),

OF

ORNAMENTAL

4. Campan

Phillipsburg,

mélange

rouge

MARBLES (sawn with

the bed),

France

5. Morocco

Algeria

6. Roman breche, France

7. Monte skyrose, South America

red

flamme

(sawn with the bed),

8. Famosa violet “W,” Germany 9. Benou jaune, France

MARAT'LA—MARBLE he record, 2hrs. 35mins. 58gsecs., was established by S. Ferris, f{ the Royal Air Force, who retained his title in 1926 and 1927. Marathon racing is far more strenuous than any form of track

r cross-country running, since it is all road-work.

The runner

cho aspires to marathon fame must go through a period of at east three months’ rigorous training to make himself sound in yind and limb, so that he may gradually, and by constant pracice, bring his muscles and sinews to the highest pitch of endur-

nce. In this form of racing it is the pace and not the distance hat kills. Style counts for little over this trying course. Tall, avy runners are not well suited to the event. Small, light men, yith powerful legs and plenty of lung and heart room, are the

nost likely to develop into long-distance champions, and to this Jass belong Dorando Pietri, J. J. Hayes and the Finnish Olympic hampions, Hannes Kolehmainen and A. O. Stenross. It is unvise for young and immature athletes to attempt the marathon jistance; it has, indeed, been proved that men of over 30 years ff age are generally best able to withstand the unduly heavy train of such a race. See S. A. Mussabini, The Complete Athletic Trainer

Nelson, Practical Athletics (1924).

MARATTA

(Maratt)

(1923) ; Alec

(E. A. M. W.)

CARLO

(1625-1713),

Italian

yainter of the Roman school, He was born at Camerano between „oreto and Ancona on May 13, 1625, and went early to Rome where he worked under Andrea Sacchi. He formed his style by tudying the paintings of the Caracci and of Raphael. After the jeaths of his master and of Pietro da Cortona he was for nearly alf a century the most eminent painter in Rome. Six successive Jopes honoured him with their patronage. Innocent IIL. made him curator of the apartments in the Vatican and in the years 1702-03

559

the 17th century seriously affected Marazion. The church of St. Hilary, destroyed by fire in 1853, had a very fine spire, which has been reproduced in the restored building. The inscribed stones in the churchyard date from the 4th century, one being in honour of Constantine the Great. Another has Cornish lettering, which can no longer be deciphered; and there are British and Roman crosses. Market gardening and fishing are the main industries.

MARBLE, a term applied to any limestone or dolomite which is sufficiently close in texture to admit of being polished (from Lat. marmor, Gr. wapuapos shining stone). Many other ornamental stones—such as serpentine, alabaster and even granite— are sometimes loosely designated marble, but by accurate writers the term is invariably restricted to those crystalline and compact varieties of carbonate of lime (occasionally with carbonate of magnesia) which, when polished, are decorative. The crystalline structure is typically shown in statuary marble. A fractured surface of this stone displays a multitude of sparkling facets, which are the rhombohedral cleavage-planes of the component grains. The beautiful lustre of polished statuary marble is due to the light penetrating for a short distance into the rock and then suffering reflection at the surfaces of the deeper-lying crystals. The durability of marble in a dry atmosphere or when protected from rain renders it a valuable building stone; on the other hand, when exposed to the weather or the acid atmosphere of large cities, its surface readily crumbles.

Statuary and Economic Marbles.—Among statuary marbles

the first place may be assigned to the famous Pentelic marble, the material in which Pheidias, Praxiteles and other Greek sculptors executed their principal works; it came from the quarries of Mount Pentelicus in Attica, and its characteristics are well seen in the Elgin marbles from the Parthenon at Athens now at the British Museum. Parian marble, another stone much used by Greek sculptors and architects, was quarried in the isle of Paros, chiefly at Mount Marpessa. It is called by ancient writers

xe restored by order of Clement XI. the frescoes of Raphael in he Vatican and the Farnesina. For this service he was given he knighthood of the order of Christ. Louis XIV. nominated him ı court painter. He died in Rome on Dec. 15, 1713. Maratta was in ardent admirer of Raphael, whose style, modified by the eclecic influence of the Caracci, he followed in opposition to the then lychnites (Gr. Xbxvos, a lamp) in allusion to the fact that the sxrevailing Baroque style of Pietro da Cortona. His chief works, quarries were worked by the light of lamps. The Venus de’ which are very numerous, are easel pictures in oil. His concep- Medici is a notable example of work in this material. Carrara ions are graceful and lacking in vigour. There are several etchings marble is better known than any of the Greek marbles, inasvy this painter. His life has been described by his intimate friend much as it constitutes the stone invariably employed by the best a. P. Bellori in La Vita dz Carlo Maratta (1731). sculptors of the present day; it occurs abundantly in the Apuan MARAZION, a small seaport of Cornwall, England, on the Alps, an offshoot of the Apennines, and is largely worked in shore of Mount’s bay, 2 m. E. of Penzance. Pop. (1921) 1,114. the neighbourhood of Carrara, Massa and Serravezza. Stone A causeway of boulders and pebbles, thrown up by the sea and from this district was employed in Rome for architectural puryassable at low tide, unites Marazion with the insular St. Michael’s poses in the time of Augustus, but the finer varieties, adapted Mount (q¢.v.). The charter attributed to Robert, count of Mor- to the needs of the sculptor, were not discovered until some lain, granting lands and liberties to St. Michael’s Mount, opposite time later. It is in Carrara marble that the finest works of Marazion, included a market on Thursdays. This appears to have Michelangelo and of Canova are executed; the purest varieties been held from the first on the mainland. From it is probably are snow-white and are of fine saccharoidal texture. Silica is derived the Marghasbigan (Porvum Forum) of the earlier and disseminated through some of the marble, becoming a source of -he Marghasyewe or Marketjew (Forum Tovis) of the later annoyance to the workman; while occasionally it separates as charters. Richard, king of the Romans, provided that the three beautifully pellucid crystals of quartz known as “Carrara fairs, on the two feasts of St. Michael and at Mid-Lent, and the diamonds.” Other Varieties of Marble—Certain calcareous metamorphic three markets which had hitherto been held by the priors of St. Michael’s Mount on land not their own at Marghasbigan, should rocks frequently form stones which are sufficiently beautiful to be in future be held on their own land at Marchadyou. To remedy used for ornamental purposes, and are generally classed as marbles. the loss incurred by this measure Ralph Bloyou in 1331 procured Such serpentinous limestones are included by petrologists under for himself and his heirs a market on Mondays and a fair on the the term ophicalcite. The famous verde antico is a rock of this vigil, feast and morrow of St. Andrew at Marghasyon. In 1595 character. Queen Elizabeth granted to Marazion a charter of incorporation. Many marbles which are prized for the variegated patterns This ratified the grant of St. Andrew’s fair, provided for another they display owe these patterns to their formation in concentric on the Feast of St. Barnabas and established a market on Satur- zones—such marbles being in fact stalagmitic deposits of carbondays. In 1835 the old corporation ceased to function and its ate of lime, sometimes consisting of aragonite. One of the most property was vested in charity commissioners. Of the fairs only beautiful stalagmitic rocks is the so-called onyx marble of Althe Michaelmas fair has survived and all the markets have gone. “geria. This was largely used in the buildings of Carthage and Remains of an ancient bronze furnace, discovered near the town, Rome, but the quarries which yielded it were rediscovered near tend to prove that tin-smelting was practised here at an early Oued-Abdallah only in 1849. The stone is a beautifully transluperiod. Marazion was once a flourishing town, and owed its pros- cent material, delicately clouded with yellow and brown, and is perity to the throng of pilgrims who came to visit St. Michael’s greatly prized by French workmen. Large deposits of a very Mount. During the first half of the 16th century it was twice fine onyx-like marble, similar to the Algerian stone, have been plundered; first by the French, and later by the Cornish rebels. worked at Técali, about 35 m. from the city of Mexico. Among The rise and progress of the neighbouring borough of Penzance in other stalagmitic marbles, mention may be made of the well-

860

MARBLE

known Gibraltar stone, which is often worked into models of cannon and other ornamental objects. This stalagmite is much deeper in colour and less translucent than the onyx marbles of Algeria and Mexico. A richly tinted stalagmitic stone worked in California is known as Californian marble. It is worth noting that the “alabaster” of the ancients was stalagmitic carbonate of lime, and that this stone is therefore called by mineralogists “Oriental alabaster” in order to distinguish it from our modern “alabaster,” which is a sulphate, and not a carbonate, of lime. Gypsum capable of taking a polish is found at Fauld in Staffordshire and in Italy and Spain. The brown and yellow colours which stalagmitic marbles usually present are due to the presence of oxide of iron. This colouring matter gives special characters to certain stones, such as the giallo antico, or antique yellow marble of the Italian antiquaries. Siena marble is a reddish mottled stone obtained from the neighbourhood of Siena in Tuscany; and a somewhat similar stone is found in King’s county, Ireland. True red marble is by no means common, but it does occur, of bright and uniform colour, though in very small quantity, in the Carboniferous limestone of Derbyshire and north-east Staffordshire. The red marble called rosso antico is often confounded with the porfido rosso antico, which is really a mica-hornblende-porphyrite owing its red colour to the mineral withamite.

Fire marble is a brown shelly limestone containing ammonites and other fossil shells, which present a brilliant display of iridescent colours, like those of precious opal. It occurs in rocks of Liassic age at the lead-mines of Bleiberg in Carinthia, and is worked into small ornamental objects. Occurrence in Great Britain.—Although crystalline marbles fit for statuary work are not found to any extent in Great Britain, the limestones of the Palaeozoic formations yield a great variety of marbles well suited for architectural purposes. The Devonian rocks of south Devon are rich in handsome marbles, presenting

great diversity of tint and pattern. Plymouth, Torquay, Ipplepen, Babbacombe and Chudleigh may be named as the principal localities. Many of these limestones owe their beauty to the fossil corals which they contain, and are hence known as “madrepore marbles.” Of far greater importance, however, are the marbles from the Carboniferous or Mountain Limestone, whence British marbles are mainly derived. Marbles of this age are worked in Derbyshire and Yorkshire, in the neighbourhood of Bristol, in North Wales, in the Isle of Man, and in various parts of Ireland; one of the most beautiful is the “encrinital marble,”

a material which owes its peculiarities to the presence of numerous encrinites, or stone-lilies, fossils which, when cut in various directions, give a characteristic pattern to the stone. The joints of the stenis and arms are known from their shape as “wheel-stones,” and the rock itself has been called “entrochal marble.”? The most beautiful varieties are those in which the calcareous fossils appear as white markings on a-ground of grey limestone. In Belgium a black marble with small sections of crinoid stems is known as petit granit, while in Derbyshire a similar rock, crowded

with fragments of minute encrinites, is termed “bird’s-eye marble.” Perhaps

the most

generally useful

marbles

yielded

by the

Carboniferous system are the black varieties, which are largely employed for chimney-pieces, vases, etc. The colour of most

drals of Salisbury, Winchester,

Worcester and Lincoln.

Su

marble is very similar, occurring in thin beds in the Weald ,

and consisting largely of the shells of Paludina, principally sussextensis and P. fluviorum. The altar stones and the episc

chair in the cathedral at Canterbury are made of this m rial.

Marble in the United States.—America possesses some v,

able deposits which, in the eastern States, have been extensii

worked.

The crystalline limestones of western New England :

nish an abundance of white and grey marble, while a beaut

material fit for statuary has been quarried near Rutland, Vt.

grey bird’s-eye marble is obtained from central New Vork the greyish clouded limestones of Thomaston, Me., have b extensively quarried.

Of the variegated and coloured marh

perhaps the most beautiful are those from the northern pari Vermont, in the neighbourhood of lake Champlain. A fine b

ciated marble is found on the Maryland side of the Potomac, be

Point of Rocks.

Among the principal localities for black ma!

may be mentioned Shoreham, Vt., and Glen Falls, N.Y.

Int

the total production of marble in the United States was valuec $65,009,614; the ten leading States were, in the order of va Vermont, $11,884,562; New York, $7,496,497; Pennsylva $5,890,462; Massachusetts, $4,672,142; Illinois, $3,023,149: Ge

gia, $2,995,717; Wisconsin, $2,976,248; Minnesota, $2,665,9 Ohio, $2,267,828; Texas, $1,760,356. In Canada the crystalline limestones of the pre-Cambrian se) yield beautiful marbles. Marble in Other Countries.—The quarries of France, I gium, Italy and Spain, not to mention less important localit yield a great diversity of marbles, and almost every stone bear distinctive name, often of trivial meaning; but in this article is impossible to enumerate the local names used by marble-wo ers in different countries. In India we find important quart at Makrana in Rajputana—a locality which is said to h yielded the marble for the famous Taj Mahal at Agra. In the v ley.of the Nerbudda, near Jabalpur, there is a large developm« of marble. The white marble which is used for the delicati pierced screens called jalee work is obtained from near Raia in Ulwar. (F. W. R; X.) Petrography.—Marbles are uniformly crystalline, and her have no bedding or schistosity which would tend to make thi fissile, but are entirely massive and free from grain. The mic structure of pure marble is comparatively simple. Thin sectic are seen to be built up of somewhat rounded grains of calci fitting closely together in a mosaic; very rarely do any grai show traces of crystalline form. They are colourless and trar parent, and are usually traversed by a lattice-work of shart defined cleavage cracks, which correspond to the rhombohed: faces. In polarized light the colours are pinkish or greenish whi or in very thin sections iridescent because the mineral has a ve strong double refraction. They may also be crossed by bars stripes, each of which indicates a twin plate, for the crystals a usually polysynthetic. This twinning may be produced by pressu acting either during the crystallization of the rock or at a lat period.

The purest marbles generally contain some accessory minera

and in many they form a considerable proportion of the ma: The commonest are quartz in small rounded grains, scales | black limestone is due to the presence of bituminous matter. colourless or pale yellow mica (muscovite and phlogopite), dai Such limestone commonly emits a fetid odour when struck; and shining flakes of graphite and small crystals of pyrites or irc the colour, being of organic origin, is discharged on calcination. oxides. Even fine Carrara marble leaves a residue of this so British limestones of Mesozoic and Tertiary age are not gen- when dissolved in acid. Many marbles contain other minera erally compact enough to be used as marbles, but some of the which are usually silicates of lime or magnesia. The list of the: shelly beds are employed to a limited extent for decorative pur- accessori es is a very large one. Diopside is very frequent and ma poses. The most important Mesozoic marbles are the shelly lime-` be white or pale green; hornblende occurs as white blade stones of the Purbeck formation, which were a favourite material tremolite or pale green actinolite; feldspars may be present als with mediaeval architects for slender clustered columns and sepul- such as orthoclase, or more frequently some plagioclase such £ chral monuments. It consists of a mass of the shells of a freshalbite, labradorite and anorthite, scapolite (or wernerite); variol water snail, Paludina carinifera, embedded in a blue, grey or kinds of garnet; vesuvianite, spinel, forsterite, periclase, brucit greenish limestone, and is found in the Upper Purbeck beds of talc, zoisite and epidote, chondrodite, biotite, datolite, spher Swanage. Excellent examples of its use may be seen in West- and apatite may be mentioned as typical accessory mil minster Abbey and in the Temple Church, as well as in the catheerals. The presence of metallife rous

minerals

such as galen:

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VARIETIES 1. Breche rose, Italy 2. Campan Griotte, France 3. Lumachelle, France

OF

ORNAMENTAL

4. Loredo chiaro, Italy 5. Sienna Travertine, Germany 6. Escalette, France

mei otan grimy

MARBLES 7. Piastraccia veined, Italy &. French grand antique, France 9. Napoleon grey, Central United States

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MARBLEHEAD—MARBURG rey or red silver ores, zinc blende, antimonite, chalcopyrite,

MARBLEHEAD,

861 a town of Essex county, Massachusetts,

U.S.A., on Massachusetts bay, 16 m. N.E. of Boston. It is served by the Boston and Maine railroad. The population was 8,668 in 1930 Federal census. It is a quaint old town, occupying a rocky limecrystalline quantities. The rubies of Burma are found in are tones and are constantly accompanied by precious spinel (or promontory about 4 sq.m. in area. Among the older buildings Historical Marblehead the houses which (1768), Mansion Lee the e oremolybdenite, cassiterite, usually indicates impregnation by workable in occur substances these if pearing solutions, especially

palasruby)).

Church (Protestant Episcopal; 1714), the These minerals represent impurities in the original limestone | Society, St. Michael’s the Old Brig, and the Gerry house, where (1727), Hall Town old . crystalline became marble which crystallized at the time that the The harbour, formed by a rocky peninborn. was Gerry Elbridge The silicates derive their silica mainly from sand or infiltrated Neck, is now a yachting centre. Along Marblehead as known sula clay; of admixture an represents siliceous deposits; the alumma are the modern hotels, cottages and coast rocky picturesque the the iron came from limonite or hematite in the original state The principal industries of the colony. summer the of club-houses original the because largely bulk silicates the of the rock. Where shoes, yacht and launch children’s of manufacture the are town driven be may limestone was highly impure, all the carbonic acid was settled about 1629, and was Marblehead fishing. and building ization. recrystall of process the during silica by out and replaced in 1649. In the early 17th The rock is then a calc-silicate rock, hard, tough, flinty and no set off from Salem and incorporated the Channel islands. In from colonists many received it longer readily soluble in acids. They are sometimes fine-grained century commercial, fishing and important an was it period colonial the white Where ). hornfelses hornstones (known as calc-silicate one of the largest comwas period one at and port, minerals predominate (wollastonite, tremolite, feldspar) these shipbuilding of the Boston Port passage the After s. Massachusett in munities are they often but marbles, to rocks may have a close resemblance of Boston, but place in entry of port the made was it (1774) Bill s, green, from the abundance of green pyroxenes and amphibole and warehouses at wharves their put patriotically merchants its quantity) in present are te vesuviani and or brown (when garnet and refused to profit by ot yellow (with epidote, chondrodite or sphene). Decomposi- the disposition of the Boston merchants many vessels set out from Revolution the During opportunity. the of formation the to owing colour in changes tion induces further “Lee,” which in Nov., £1775 captured the green or yellow serpentine, pale green talc, red hematite, and this port, including the stores valued at £20,541. The sea fight military brown limonite. Most of the coloured or variegated crystalline “Nancy,” with and the “Shannon” (June 1, 1813} e” “Chesapeak the between calcof bands Often marbles have originated in this manner. coast. Marblehead claims to be the adjacent the off place slicate rock alternate with bands of marble, and they may be took Navy, as the schooner “Efannah,” American the of birthplace silicates of patches and folded or bent; in other cases, nodules first American warship regularly the was here, fitted and manned occur in a matrix of pure marble. Earth movements may shatter General Washington) by authorby 1775, 2, (Sept. d commissione of veins with filled s afterward the rocks, producing fissures ity derived from the United Colonies. calcite; in this way the beautiful brecciated or veined marbles MARBOT, JEAN BAPTISTE ANTOINE MARCEare produced. Sometimes the broken fragments are rolled and Baron pe (1782-1854), French soldier, son of General Jean LIN, pseudoand rounded by the flow of the marble under pressure de Marbot (1754-1800), who died in the defence of Antoine cases other In result. ates” conglomer ‘crush or tes conglomera Masséna, was born at La Riviére (Corréze) on under Genoa the of bedding the banding of the marble indicates the original He joined the republican army as a volunteer in 1782. calcareous sediments. Crystalline limestones which contain much Aug. 18, to Marshal Augereau, commanding aide-de-camp was He 1799. hornahd garnet quartz, them in mica may be called cipollins; Prussia and Russia in 1806-7. against war the in corps, VII. the blende often also occur. The opsicalcites are marbles containing War under Lannes and Peninsular the in served he this After tion decomposi the by formed been has , which much serpentine the German campaign and 1812 of War Russian the in Masséna, one of forsterite or diopside. The much-discussed Eozoon, at from the wounds he recovery slow a After year. following the of in found and fossil known earliest the be to time supposed general of promoted was he Hanau, and Leipzig at received had inorganic be Archaean limestones in Canada, is now known to brigade by Napoleon during the Hundred Days, and took part in, and to belong to the ophicalcites. was exiled at Many marbles, probably all, are metamorphosed limestones. and was wounded at, the battle of Waterloo. He His The passage of limestones rich in fossils into true marbles as they the second restoration and only returned to France in 1819. military important him secured Orleans of duke the with intimacy phenomenon a is granite of intrusions approach great crystalline at the siege seen in many parts of the world; occasionally the recrystallization positions. Under the July monarchy he was present neral m lieutenant-ge promoted was He 1832. in Antwerp of structures organic the obliterated completely not has of the rock expediAlgerian various in served he 1840 to 1835 From (e.g., at Carrara and at Bergen in Norway). The agencies which 1836. of have induced the metamorphism are heat and pressure, the heat tions, and in 1845 he was made a member of the Chamber retired he Philippe, Louis of fall the at later, years Three Peers. arising from the granite and the pressure from overlying masses of rock, for these changes took place before the granite cooled and into private life. He died at Paris on Nov. 16, 1854. Marbot’s while it was still deeply buried beneath the surface. As rocks fame rests on the fascinating Memoirs of his Life and Campaigns which have undergone changes of this kind are commonest in the (1891; Eng. trans., 1902). His elder brother, ANTOINE ADOLPHE MARCELIN DE MARBOT oldest and deepest layers of the earth’s crust, most marbles are Palaeozoic or pre-Cambrian. They occur very often with mica (1781—1844), served in Napoleon’s campaigns of 1808 to 1812, army after schists, phyllites, etc., which were beds of clay alternating with and again in the Hundred Days. He returned to the 830. the original limestone. In regions where the sedimentary rocks have been converted into schists, gneisses and granulites, the MARBURG, a university town in the Prussian province of ssau, situated on the right bank of the Lahn, 6o m. by Hesse-Na limestones are represented by calc schists, cipollins and marbles. Often no granite or other intrusive rock is present which may rail N. of Frankfort-on-Main, on the main line to Cassel. Pop. be regarded as the cause of the metamorphism. The marbles are (1925) 23,160. Marburg is first historically mentioned in a docuoften banded or schistose, and under the microscope show crush- ment of the beginning of the 13th century, and received its municiing and deformation of the component crystals, such as would pal charter from the landgrave Louis of Thuringia m 1227. By have been produced by the earth pressures which accompany 1247 Marburg had already become the second town of Hesse, and tock-folding. These crush structures have been obtained ex- in the 1th and 16th centuries it alternated with Cassel as the Perimentally in marbles subjected to great pressures in steel seat of the landgraves. In 1529 the famous conference between on took cylinders. In the recrystallization of these limestones the direct Luther and Zwingli on the subject of Transubstantiati the which on hill The Schloss. the l of Rittersaa the in there heating action of igneous intrusions may have played no part, but place the rise of temperature and increase of pressure due to the fold- town lies is crowned by the Schloss, a Gothic building, the most. Rittersaal, dating from 1277— Ing of great rock masses have probably been the pas causes. noteworthy parts of which are the 1312, and the little chapel. This Schloss is now the repository of J. S. F.)

862

MARBURG—MARCANTONIO

the archives of Hesse. The Elizabethenkirche, in the purest Early Gothic style, was erected by the grand master of the Teutonic Order in 1235-83, to contain the tomb of St. Elizabeth of Hungary, who was the wife of the landgrave Louis. She built a hospital here, and died in 1231, worn out with works of charity. In 1235 She was canonized at the instance of the ‘Teutonic Knights who were zealous in promoting her cult. Her rich silver-gilt sarcophagus may still be seen, but the Protestant zeal of Landgrave Philip the Generous caused him to remove the body to some unknown spot in the church. The Lutheran church is another Gothic edifice, mainly 15th century. The town hall, built in r512, and several houses in the Renaissance style, also deserve mention. The university of Marburg, founded in 1527, was the first university established without papal privileges, and acquired a great reputation throughout Protestant Europe. Marburg is the seat of a district court. Marburg pottery is renowned; and soap, iron wares and surgical instruments are also manufactured there.

MARBURG, COLLOQUY OF, the name given to a con-

ference of divines held in 1529 in the interests of the unity of

Protestant Germany. The circumstances in which it was held, the influence of the men who conducted its deliberations, and the

result of its proceedings, combine to render it of no small importance for the history of the Reformation in Germany. The measures taken by the Catholic party to resist the progress of the Reformation, especially by resolutions at Speyer (1526 and

1529), would be met only by the united force of all the princes and states subscribing to the Evangelical teaching; and this unity

was wanting. The feud which raged round the doctrine of the Lord’s Supper had already broken out before the first diet of Spires, and had aroused great and immediate excitement. At a very early period, however, efforts were made to allay the dissension. Strassburg pronounced for conciliation: but the most powerful and zealous champion of peace was to be found in the landgrave Philip of Hesse, who recognized the absolute necessity —from a political standpoint—of the union of all German Protestants. It was obvious that a permanent coalition could not. be expected unless some definite understanding on the debated point could be attained; and the landgrave succeeded in bringing about a conference or “colloquy” at Marburg, in October 1 520. The proceedings opened on the rst of October with conferences between Luther and Oecolampadius, and Melanchthon and Zwingli: then on the two following days the discussion proper— confined almost entirely to Luther and Zwingli—was held before the landgrave and his guest Duke Ulrich of Wiirttemberg, in the presence of more than fifty persons. As regards the main point of contention, z.¢e., the doctrine of the Lord’s Supper, no agreement was found practicable; and the private conversations on the 4th of October, which formed the sequel of the debate, carried matters no farther. Since the landgrave, however, was reluctant to see the colloquy brought to an absolutely fruitless close, he requested Luther to draw up a list of the most important points of doctrine on which it might yet be possible to arrive at some degree of unanimity. This was done on the 4th of October; and a few alterations were introduced to meet the wishes of the Swiss deputies. The Articles of Marburg, which thus came into being, contain the doctrine of the Trinity, of the personality of Christ, of faith and justification, of the Scriptures, of baptism, of good works, of confession, of government, of tradition and of infant baptism. The fifteenth article, treating of the Lord’s Supper, defines the ground common to both parties even in this debatable region, recognizing the necessity of participation in both kinds, and rejecting the sacrifice of the Mass. It then proceeds to fix the point of difference in the fact that no agreement had been reached on the question “whether the true body and blood of Christ are corporeally present in the bread and wine.”

See T. Kolde, s.v. “Marburger Religionsgesprich,” in Realencyklopadie f. protestant. Theologie, 3rd ed. xii. 248 seq.

MARC, FRANZ

(1880-1916), German painter, was born at

Munich on July 4, 1880, the son of the painter, Wilhelm Marc. He studied at Munich under Hackl and W. von Dietz. The decisive impulse came only when he got into touch with the group of painters including Kandinsky, Jawlenski and Macke who

founded the “Blue Knight” (Blauer Reiter) in 1911. One of his

most famous pictures entitled “Tierschicksale” (Destinies of Beasts) is characteristic of his whole work, which is singularly

compact, not merely in choice of motive, but also in pictorial

composition.

A leaning towards metaphysics, towards abstraction

from the world of reality, gives many of his pictures

atic character.

problem-

Marc was killed near Verdun on March 4; 1916,

MARCA, PIERRE DE (1594-1662), French prelate and

historian, born at Gan, near Pau, on Jan. 24, 1594, attracted the notice of Richelieu by his support of the Catholic cause ip the south during the wars of religion. Richelieu brought him to Paris as counsellor of State in 1640. He defended the “Gallican lib-

erties” in the famous treatise, De concordia sacerdotii et imperii, seu de libertatibus ecclestae gallicanae (1641). He was governor of Catalonia

during the French

occupation

and, after holding

various ecclesiastical preferments, was nominated archbishop of Paris in succession to De Retz in February

1662.

He died on

June 29 of the same year. Marca made a minute study of the archives of Béarn and of the history of Catalonia. His Histoire de Béarn (1640) is valuable for the number of charters and other documents which it contains,

Marca hispanica (1688), left unfinished at his death, was completed by his friend Baluze. See the article “Marca” in Bayle’s Dictionnaire historique et critique,

MARCANTONIO

[Marcantonio

Rarmonpr]

(c. 1480-

c. 1530), the chief Italian master of the art of engraving of the Renaissance, and the first who practised it in order to reproduce, not designs of his own invention, as earlier craftsmen had commonly done, but those of other artists almost exclusively. He was born probably about 1480 at Bologna. As early as 1 504. he is mentioned as an artist of repute in G. P. Achillini’s -Viridario, His earliest dated plate, illustrating the story of Pyramus and

Thisbe, is ascribed to the year 1505. Marcantonio received his training in the workshop of the famous goldsmith and painter, Francesco Raibolini, called Francia. “Having more aptitude in design,” says Vasari, “than his master, and managing the graver with facility and grace, he made waist-buckles and many other things in niello, such being then greatly in fashion, and made them most beautifully, as being in truth most excellent in that craft.” The real fame, however, of Marcantonio was destined to be founded on his attainments in that particular development of the goldsmith’s art which consists of engraving designs on metal plates for reproduction by the printing press. About eighty engravings can be referred to the first five or six years of his career (1505-1511). Their subjects are very various, including many of pagan mythology, and some of obscure allegory, along with those of Christian devotion. The types of figures and drapery, and the general character of the compositions, bespeak for the most part the inspiration, and sometimes the direct authorship, of Francia. But the influence of German example is very perceptible also, particularly in the landscape backgrounds, and in the endeavour to express form by means of light and shadow with greater freedom than had been hitherto the -practice of the Italian schools. It may have been for the sake of commercial profit or for the sake. of improving his style that he by-and-by produced aseries of direct counterfeits on copper from Albrecht Diirer’s woodcuts. These facsimiles are sixty-nine in number, including seventeen of Direr’s “Life of the Virgin,” thirty-seven of his “Little Passion,” on wood, and a number of single pieces. The “Life of the Virgin” was copied in 1506 and signed with Diirer’s signature. Dürer who visited Italy in that year complained to the Venetian Senate of this action of Marcantonio, who then added his own signature to the copies which he subsequently made and completed in 1510

of Diirer’s “Little Passion.”

The Bolognese engraver profited

greatly by the study of the energetic line work and the method

of modeling by cross-hatching of the Nuremberg master. He was soon to come under a totally different influence, and to turn the experience he had gained to account in interpreting the work of a master of a quite other stamp. Up till the year 1510 Marcantonio had lived entirely at Bologna, with the exception, it would appear, of a visit or visits to Venice. A few of his carly engrav-

MARCASITE—MARCEAU ings are from drawings of the school of Giorgione. Very soon afterwards he was attracted, for good and all, into the circle which surrounded Raphael at Rome.

he bad first made

Where or when

Raphael’s acquaintance is uncertain.

His

passage to Rome by way of Florence has been supposed to be

marked by an engraving, dated 1510, and known as “The Climb-

ers,” Les Grimpeurs (Bartsch, 487), in which he has reproduced

a portion of the design of Michelangelo’s cartoon of the soldiers

suprised bathing, and has added behind the figures a landscape imitated from the then young Dutch engraver Lucas of Leiden.

Contemporary or somewhat earlier than this is a large engraving

done by him from a design by Baldassare Peruzzi, a Sienese artist drawn about the same time into the Raphael circle. The piece in which he is recorded to have first tried his hand after Raphael

himself is the Lucretia (Bartsch, 192). From that time until he disappears in the catastrophe of 1527, Marcantonio was almost exclusively engaged in reproducing by means of engraving the designs of Raphael or of his immediate pupils. Raphael, the story goes, was so delighted with the print of the Lucretia that he personally trained and helped Marcantonio afterwards. A printing establishment was set up under the charge of Raphael’s colour-grinder, Il Baviera, and the profits, in the early stage of the business, were shared between the engraver and the

printer. The sale soon became very great; pupils gathered round about Marcantonio, of whom the two most distinguished were Marco Dente, known as Marco da Ravenna, and Agostino de’ Musi, known as Agostino Veneziano; and he and they, during the last ten years of Raphael’s life, and for several years following

his death, gave forth a great profusion of engravings after the master’s work-—not copying, in most instances, his finished paintings, but working up, with the addition of simple backgrounds and accessories, his first sketches and trials, which often give the

composition in a different form from the finished work, and are all the more interesting on that account.

Marcantonio’s best engravings were done during the first few years after he had attached himself to Raphael. In them he enters into the genius of his master, and loses little of the chastened science and rhythmical purity of Raphael’s contours, or of the inspired and winning sentiment or his faces; while in the parts where he is left to himself—the rounding and shading, the background and landscape—he manages his burin with all the skill and freedom which he had gained by the imitation of northern models, but puts away the northern emphasis and redundance of detail. His work, however, does not long remain at the height marked by pieces like the Lucretia, the Dido, the Judgment of Paris, the Poetry, the Philosophy, or the first Massacre of the Innocents. Marcantonio’s engravings after the works of Raphael’s later years are cold, ostentatious, and soulless by comparison. Still more so, as is natural, were those which he and his pupils produced after the designs of the followers of Raphael and Michelangelo, of a Giulio Romano, a Polidoro, or a

Bandinelli.

|

Marcantonio’s association with Giulio Romano was the cause of his first great disaster in life. He engraved a series of obscene designs by that painter in illustration of the Sonnetts lussuriosi

of Pietro Aretino, which caused his temporary banishment from Rome. Marcantonio’s ruin was completed by the calamities attendant on the sack of Rome in 1527. He had to pay a heavy ransom in order to escape from the hands of the Spaniards, and fled from Rome, in the words of Vasari, “all but a beggar.” It is said that he took refuge in his native city, Bologna; but he never again emerges from obscurity, and all we know with certainty is that In 1534 he was dead. See H. Delaborde, Marcantonio Raimondi (1887); H. Hirth,

803

erkies and Leberkies, and it has been variously known as white

pyrites, hepatic pyrites, lamellar pyrites, radiated pyrites (German Straklkies) and prismatic pyrites. The crystals are isomorphous with mispickel (g.v.), but only rarely are they distinctly developed and simple.

Often they are

twinned on a prism plane producing pentagonal stellate groups of five crystals. This frequent twinning gives rise to characteristic forms, with many re-entrant angles, to which the names “spear pyrites” and “cockscomb pyrites” are applied. The commonest state of aggregation is that of radially arranged fibres, the external surface of the mass being globular, nodular or stalactitic in form. Apart from crystalline form, the external characters of marcasite are very similar to those of pyrite, and when distinct crystals are not available the two species cannot always be easily distinguished. The colour is usually pale bronze-yellow, often rather lighter than that of pyrite; on freshly fractured surfaces of pure marcasite the colour is tin-white, but this rapidly tarnishes on exposure to air. The lustre is metallic and brilliant, the streak greyish or brownish-black. The hardness (6-64) is the same as

that of pyrite, and the specific gravity (4-8-4-9) as a rule rather less. It readily oxidizes on exposure to moist air, with the production of sulphuric acid and a white fibrous efflorescence of ferrous sulphate, and in course of time specimens in collections often become completely disintegrated. In nature it is frequently altered to limonite. Marcasite is thus the less stable of the two modifications of iron disulphide. Many experiments have been made with a view to determining the difference in chemical constitution of marcasite and pyrite, but with no very definite results. Marcasite has been prepared artificially from acid solutions, whilst pyrite is formed only from slightly acid or neutral solutions. Marcasite occurs under the same conditions as pyrite, but is much less common. While pyrite is found abundantly in the older crystalline rocks and slates, marcasite is more abundant in clays, and has often been formed as a concretion around organic remains. It is abundant, for example, in the plastic clay of the brown coal formation at Littmitz, near Carlsbad, where it has been extensively mined for the manufacture of sulphur and ferrous sulphate. In the chalk of the south-east of England nodules of marcasite with a fibrous radiated structure are abundant (these bodies being often mistaken for “thunderbolts” or meteorites), and in the chalk marl between Dover and Folkestone fine twinned groups of “spear pyrites” are common. The mineral is also met with in metalliferous veins; for example the “cockscomb pyrites” of the lead mines of Derbyshire and Cumberland. MARCEAU, FRANCOIS SEVERIN DESGRAVIERS (1769-1796), French general, was born at Chartres on March 1, 1769. He studied law, but joined the army in 1785. He joined in the attack on the Bastille (July 14, 1789), and then took his discharge from the regular army. Later he joined the National Guard, and in March 1792 became lieutenant-colonel of a battalion of the Eure-et-Loire, taking part in the defence of Verdun in 1792. He was re-employed as captain in the regular service, but in 1793 was imprisoned for some time with other officers as a “suspect.” On his release he fought at Saumur against the Vendéen royalists, and rescued Bourbotte (June 10, 1793) from the insurgents. Marceau became general of division (Nov. ro), and with Kléber, who became his personal friend, won important victories near Le Mans (Dec. 12—13) and Savenay

(Dec. 21), but after their retirement from the war they were only saved from arrest and execution by the intervention of Bourbotte. After spending the winter of 1793-94 in Paris, Marceau took command in the army under Jourdan in which Kléber also served, and distinguished himself in the campaigns of 1794

and 1795. In the campaign of 1796 Marceau’s men covered (1905); Jourdan’s retreat over the Rhine. He fought the desperate ac-

Marcanton und sein Styl (Munich, 1898) ; Wickhoff, Jahrbuch (Vienna,

XX, 181, 1899);

P. Kristeller, Kupferstich u. Holzschnitt

A.M. Hind, Great Engravers (1912); and History of Engraving and Etching (1923).

tions on the Lahn (Sept. 16 and 18), and at Altenkirchen on Sept. 19 received a mortal wound, of which he died on the arst.

MARCASITE, a mineral with the same chemical composi- His body was burned, and his ashes, which at the time were tion as pyrite, being iron disulphide FeS., but crystallizing in the placed under a pyramid designed by Kléber, were transferred in orthorhombic instead of in the cubic system. The name is of 1889 to the Pantheon at Paris.

Arabic origin and was long applied to crystallized pyrites in general. It was known to G. Agricola in 1546 as Wasserkies or Weiss-

See Maze, Le Général Marceau (1888) ; Parfait, Le Général Marceau (1892); and T. C. Johnson, Marceau (London, 1896).

MARCEL—MARCH

864. MARCEL, ÉTIENNE

(d. 1358), provost of the merchants

of Paris under King Jobn II., is mentioned as provost of the Grande-Confrérie of Notre Dame in 1350, and in 1354 he succeeded Jean de Pacy as provost of the Parisian merchants. His political career began in 1356, when John was made prisoner after the battle of Poitiers. In conjunction with Robert le Coq, bishop of Laon, he played a leading part in the states-general called to-

gether by the dauphin Charles on Oct. 17. A committee of eighty members, constituted on their initiative, pressed their demands with such insistence that the dauphin prorogued the states-general; but financial straits obliged him to summon them once more on Feb. 3, 1357, and the promulgation of an edict of reform was the consequence. John the Good forbade its being put into effect, whereupon a conflict began between Marcel and the dauphin, Marcel endeavouring to set up Charles the Bad, king of Navarre, in opposition to him. The states-general assembled again on Jan. 13, 1358, and on Feb. 22, the populace of Paris, led by Marcel, invaded the palace and murdered the marshals of Champagne and Normandy before the prince’s eyes. Thenceforward Marcel was in open hostility to the throne. After vainly hoping that the insurrection of the Jacquerie might turn to his advantage, he next supported the king of Navarre, whose armed bands infested the neighbourhood of Paris. On the night of July 3: Marcel was about to open the gates of the capital to them, but Jean Maillart prevented the execution of this design, and killed him before the Porte Saint-Antoine. See F. T. Perrens, Etienne Marcel et le gouvernement de la bour-

geoisie au xive siècle (1860) ; P. Frémaux, La Famille d’Etienne Marcel,

in the Mémoires of the Société de Phistoire de Paris et de Pile de

France (1903), vol. xxx.; and Hon. R. D. Denman, Etienne Marcel (1898).

MARCELLINUS, ST., according to the Liberian catalogue, became bishop of Rome on June 30, 296; his predecessor was Caius or Gaius. He is not mentioned in the Martyrologium hieromymianum, or in the Depositio episcoporum, or in the Depositio martyrum. The Liber pontificalis, basing itself on the Acts of St. Marcellinus, the text of which is lost, relates that during Diocletian’s persecution Marcellinus was called upon to sacrifice, and offered incense to idols, but that, repenting shortly afterwards, he confessed the faith of Christ and suffered martyrdom with several companions. According to the Liber pontificalis, Marcellinus was buried, on April 26, 304, in the cemetery of Priscilla, on the Via Salaria, 25 days after his martyrdom; the Liberian catalogue gives as the date Oct. 25. After a considerable interregnum he was succeeded by Marcellus, with whom he has sometimes been confounded. See L. Duchesne, Liber pontificalis, I. Ixxiii—lxxiv. 162-163, and IT.

563. MARCELLO, BENEDETTO

(1686-1739), Italian musical

composer, was a pupil of Lotti and Gasparini, but was intended by his father for the law. In 1711 he was a member of the Council of Forty, and in 1730 went to Pola as Provveditore. He retired after eight years to Brescia in the capacity of camerlengo, and died there on July 24, 1739. Marcello is best remembered by his Estro poetico-armonico (Venice, 1724-1727), a musical setting for voices and strings of the first fifty Psalms, as paraphrased in Italian by G. Giustiniani. Charles Avison and John Garth brought out an edition with English words (London, 1757}. His other works are chiefly cantatas. A catalogue of his works is given in Monatshefte schichte, vol. xxiii. (1891).

für Musikge-

MARCELLUS, the name of two popes. MarcELLUS I. succeeded Marcellinus, after a considerable interval, most probably in May 308, under Maxentius. He was banished from Rome in 309 on account of the tumult caused by the severity of the penances, he had imposed on Christians who had lapsed under the recent persecution. He died the same year, being succeeded by Eusebius. He is commemorated on Jan. 16. MarceELLUS II. (Marcello Cervini), the successor of Julius IIL, was born on May 6, 1501, and was elected pope on April 9, 1555. As president of the Council of Trent he had incurred the anger of the emperor by his jealous defence of papal prerogative. He died on April 30, 1555. He was followed by Paul IV.

Contemporary lives are to be found in Panvinio, continuator o¢ Platina, De vitis pontif. rom.; and Ciaconius, Vitae et res gestae sym. morum pontif. vom. (Rome, 1601-02). P. Polidoro, De gestis, vita et

moribus Marcelli II. (Rome,

1744), makes use of an unpublished

biography of the pope by his brother, Alessandro Cervini. See also Brili, Intorno alla vita e alle azioni di Marcello II. (Montepulciano

1846); Ranke, Popes (Eng. trans., Austin), i. 284 seg.; A. von Rey.

mont, Gesch. der Stadt Rom), iii. 2, 512, seq.

. MARCELLUS,

a Roman plebeian family belonging to the

Claudian gens. Its most distinguished members were the following :— 1. Marcus, CLAUDIUS MARCELLUS (c. 268—208 B.c.), one of the Roman generals during the Second Punic War and conqueror of Syracuse. He frst served against Hamilcar in Sicily. In his first consulship (222) he was engaged, with Cn. Cornelius Scipio as colleague, in war against the Insubrian Gauls, and won the spolia

opima for the third and last time in Roman history by slaying their chief Viridomarus or Virdumarus

(Polybius ii. 34; Proper-

tius v. 10, 39). In 216, after Cannae, he took command of the remnant of the army at Canusium, and although he was unable to prevent Capua going over to Hannibal, he saved Nola and southern Campania, In 214 he was in Sicily as consul at the time of the

revolt of Syracuse; he stormed Leontini and besieged Syracuse, but the skill of Archimedes repelled his attacks.

He took it after

a two years’ siege, and set the example of carrying away the art treasures of a captured city. Consul again in 210, he took Salapia in Apulia, which had revolted to Hannibal, and put to death the

Numidian garrison. Proconsul in 209, he attacked Hannibal near Venusia, into which he retired after a desperate battle. In his last consulship (208), he and his colleague, while reconnoitring near Venusia, were unexpectedly attacked, and Marcellus was killed. His successes have been exaggerated by Livy, but the name often

given to him, the “sword of Rome,” was well deserved. Livy xxiii. 14-17, 41-46; XXIV. 27-32, 35-39; XXV. 5-7, 23-31; xxvi. 26, 29-32; XXVİİ. 1—5, 21—28; Polybius viii. 5-9, x. 32; Appian, Hannib. 50; Florus ii. 6.

2. M. Crauprus MARcELLUS, an inveterate opponent of Julius Caesar. During his consulship (51 3.c.) he proposed to remove Caesar from his army in March 49, but was outmanoeuvred by Curio. In January 49 he tried to put off declaring war against Caesar till an army could be got ready, but his advice was not taken. He followed Pompey when he left for Italy, and after Pharsalus retired to Mytilene, where he practised rhetoric and studied philosophy. In 46 the senate successfully appealed to Caesar to pardon him, this being the occasion of the speech Pra Marcello attributed to Cicero. Marcellus left for Italy, but was

murdered in May by one of his own attendants, P. Magius Chilo, in the Peiraeus.

Marcellus was a thorough aristocrat.

He was

an eloquent speaker (Cicero, Brutus, 71), and a man of firm character, although not free from avarice. See Cicero, Ad fam. iv. 4, 7, 10, and Ad Att. v. 11 (ed. Tyrrell and Purser); Caesar, B. C. i. 2; Suetonius, Caesar, 29; G. Boissier, Cicero and his Friends (Eng. trans., 1897).

3. M. CLAUDIUS MARCELLUS (c. 43-23 B.c.), son of C. Marcellus and Octavia, sister of Augustus. In 25 he was adopted by the emperor and married to his daughter Julia. This seemed to mark him out as the heir to the throne. In 23 Marcellus, then curule aedile, died at Baiae. Great hopes had been built on the youth. and he was celebrated by many writers, especially by Virgil

in a famous passage (Aeneid, vi. 860). He was buried in the Campus Martius, and Augustus himself pronounced the funeral oration. The Theatrum Marcelli (remains of which can still be seen) was afterwards dedicated in his honour. See Horace, Odes, i. 12; Propertius tii. 18; Dio Cassius liii. 28, 30; Tacitus, Axnals, ii. 42; Suetonius, Augustus, 63; Vell. Pat. ii. 93.

MARCH, AUZIAS (1379-1459), Catalan poet, was born at Valencia. An undisguised follower of Petrarch, he carries the imitation to such a point that he addresses his Cants d'amor to a lady whom he professes to have seen first in church on Good

Friday; so far as the difference of language allows, he reproduces the rhythmical cadences of his model, and in the Cants de mort touches a note of brooding sentiment peculiar to himself. The success of his metrical innovation no doubt encouraged Boscan (g.v.) to introduce the Italian metres into Castilian.

MARCH

865

MARCH, EARLS OF, title derived from the “marches” or

in 1381. The earl had two sons and two daughters, the elder of whom, Elizabeth, married Henry Percy (Hotspur), son of the earl of Northumberland. His eldest son Roger succeeded him as 4th sessed of lands in those border districts. The earls of March on earl of March and Ulster. the Welsh borders were descended from Roger de Mortemer (so ROGER DE MORTIMER, 4th earl of March and Ulster (1374called from his castle of Mortemer in Normandy), who was 98), succeeded to the titles and estates of his family when a child connected by marriage with the dukes of Normandy. His son of seven, and a month afterwards he was appointed lord-lieutenant Ralph (d. c. 1104) figures in Domesday as the holder of vast of Ireland. March’s daughter Anne married Richard earl of estates in Shropshire, Herefordshire and other parts of England, Cambridge, son of Edmund duke of York, fifth son of Edward especially in the west; and his grandson Hugh de Mortimer, III.; their son Richard, duke of York, was father of King Edward founder of the priory of Wigmore, Herefordshire, was one of IV., who thus derived his title to the crown and acquired the the most powerful of the barons reduced to submission by Henry estates of the house of Mortimer. Il. The Mortimers, however, continued to exercise almost unEDMUND DE Mortimer (1391-1425), sth earl of March and disputed sway, as lords of Wigmore, over the western counties Ulster, son of the 4th earl, succeeded to his father’s claim to the and the Welsh marches. crown as well as to his title and estates. When Richard II. was deI. Welsh Marches.—ROGER DE MORTIMER (c. 1286-1330), 8th posed and the crown seized by Henry of Lancaster in 1399, the baron of Wigmore and rst earl of March, being an infant at the young earl of March and his brother Roger were kept in custody death of his father, Edmund, was placed by Edward I. under the by Henry IV., who, however, treated them honourably, until

boundaries (1) between England and Wales, and (2) England and Scotland, and held severally by great feudal families pos-

guardianship of Piers Gaveston, and was knighted by Edward in 1306. Through his marriage with Joan de Joinville, or Genevill, Roger acquired increased possessions on the Welsh marches, including the important castle of Ludlow, and extensive estates in Ireland, whither he went in 1308 to enforce his authority. This brought him into conflict with the De Lacys, who turned for support to Edward Bruce, brother of Robert Bruce, king of Scotland. Mortimer was appointed lord-lieutenant of Ireland by Edward IT. in 1316, and at the head of a large army drove Bruce to Carrickfergus, and the De Lacys into Connaught. About 1318 he began to interest himself in the growing opposition to Edward II. and his favourites, the Despensers; and he supported Humphrey de Bohun, earl of Hereford, in refusing to obey the king’s summons to appear before him in 1321. Forced to surrender to the king at Shrewsbury in 1322, Mortimer was consigned to the Tower of London, whence he escaped to France in Aug. 1324. At the French court Queen Isabella found Roger Mortimer; she became his mistress and refused to return to England so long as the Despensers retained power as the king’s favourites. Isabella’s relations with Mortimer compelled them to withdraw to Flanders,

where they obtained assistance for an invasion of England. Land-

ing in England in 1326, they were joined by Henry, earl of Lancaster; London rose in support of the queen; and Edward took flight to the west, where he was captured in November, and com-

March 1405, when they were carried off by the opponents of the Lancastrian dynasty, of whom their uncle Sir Edmund Mortimer and his brother-in-law Henry Percy (Hotspur) were leaders in league with Owen Glendower. The boys were recaptured, and in 1409 were committed to the care of the prince of

Wales. On the accession of the latter as Henry V., in 1413, the earl of March was restored to his estates, his brother Roger having died some years previously; and he continued to enjoy the favour of the king in spite of a conspiracy in 1415 to place him on the throne. March accompanied Henry V. throughout his wars in France, and on the king’s death in 1422 became a member of the council of regency. He died in Ireland in 1425, and as he left no issue the earldom of March in the house of Mortimer became extinct, the estates passing to the last earl’s nephew Richard, who in 1435 was officially styled duke of York, earl of March and Ulster, and baron of Wigmore. Richard’s son Edward having ascended the throne in 1461 as Edward IV., the earldom of March became merged in the crown. See T. Rymer, Foedera, etc. (1704-32); T. F. Tout, The Political History of England, vol. iii., ed. by W. Hunt and R. L. Poole (1905) ; W. Dugdale, Monasticon anglicanum (3 vols., 1655-73) ; W. Stubbs, Constitutional History of England (1844-78), vol. ii.

II. Scottish Marches.—The Scottish earls of March were descended from Crinan, whose son Maldred married Algitha, pelled to abdicate in favour of his son. The country was now daughter of Ughtred, earl of Northumberland, by Elgiva, daughter rued by Mortimer and Isabella, who procured the murder of of the Saxon king Aethelred. Maldred’s son Cospatrick, or GosEdward II. in the following September. In 1328 Mortimer was patrick, was made earl of Northumberland by William the Concreated earl of March. The jealousy of Lancaster having been queror; but being soon afterwards deprived of this position he excited by March’s arrogance, Lancaster prevailed upon the young fled to Scotland, where Malcolm Canmore, king of Scotland, Edward III., to throw off the yoke of his mother’s paramour. granted him Dunbar and adjoining lands. Two generations of March was arrested and conveyed to the Tower. Accused of Cospatricks followed in lineal succession, bearing the title of assuming royal power and of various other high misdemeanours, earl, but without territorial designation. Cospatrick II. witnessed he was condemned without trial and hanged on Nov. 29, 1330, the charter of Alexander I. founding the abbey of Scone in 1115. his vast estates being forfeited to the Crown. His eldest son, The 3rd earl, also named Cospatrick, a liberal benefactor of MelEdmund, was father of Roger Mortimer (c. 1328-60), who was rose abbey, died in 1166, leaving two sons, the younger of whom knighted by Edward III. in 1346, and restored to his grand- was the ancestor of the earls of Home. The elder son, Waltheof, father’s title as 2nd earl of March. was the first of the family to be styled “comes de Dunbar,” EDMUND DE Mortimer (1351-1381), 3rd earl of March, was about 1174. He was one of the hostages for the performance of son of Roger, 2nd earl of March, by his wife Philippa, daughter the Treaty of Falaise for the liberation of William the Lion in of William: Montacute, rst earl of Salisbury. Being an infant 1175. Waltheof’s son Patrick Dunbar (the name Dunbar, derived at the death of his father, Edmund, as a ward of the Crown, was from the family estates, now becoming an hereditary surname), placed by Edward III. under the care of William of Wykeham styled 5th earl of Dunbar, although his father had been the first and Richard Fitzalan, earl of Arundel. The young earl married to adopt the territorial designation, was keeper of Berwick castle, In 1368 Philippa, only daughter: of Lionel, duke of Clarence, and and married Ada, natural daughter of William the Lion. His of Elizabeth, daughter and heiress of William de Burgh, 6th grandson Patrick, 7th earl, headed the party that liberated King lord of Connaught and 3rd earl of Ulster. The earl of March, Alexander III. in 1255 from the Comyns, and in the same year therefore, not only became the representative of one of the chief was nominated guardian of the king and queen by the Treaty of Anglo-Norman lordships in Ireland in right of his wife Philippa, Roxburgh. He signed the Treaty of Perth (July 6, 1266) by which but the latter, on the death of her father shortly after her mar- Magnus VI. of Norway ceded the Isle of Man and the Hebrides nage, stood next in succession to the crown after the Black Prince to Scotland. His wife was Christian, daughter of Robert Bruce. and his sickly son, afterwards King Richard II. This marriage Patrick Dunsar, 8th earl of Dunbar and rst earl of March, had, therefore, far-reaching consequences in the history of Eng- claimed the crown of Scotland in 1291 as descendant of Ada, and, giving rise to the claim of the house of York to the crown daughter of William the Lion. He was one of the “seven earls of England, contested in the Wars of the Roses. He died at Cork of Scotland,” a distinct body separate from the other estates of

866

MARCH

the realm, who claimed the right to elect a king in cases of disputed succession. He was the first of the earls of Dunbar to appear in the records as “comes de Marchia,” or earl of March. He was favourable to the English interest in Scottish affairs, and

Standard Dictionary (1890-95) and in 1879-82 was director of the American readers for the Philological Society’s New English

Dictionary. Among American linguistic scholars March ranks with Whitney, Child and Gildersleeve. His article “On Recent Discussions of Grimm’s Law” in the Transactions and Proceedings of the

he did homage to Edward I. In 1298 he was appointed the English king’s lieutenant in Scotland. American Philological Association for 1873 in large part anticiPATRICK DUNBAR (1285-1369), gth earl of Dunbar and 2nd pated Verner’s law. With his son, Francis Andrew March, jr., also earl of March, son of the preceding, gave refuge to Edward IT. a professor at Lafayette, he edited 4 Thesaurus Dictionary of the after Bannockburn, and contrived his escape by sea to England. English Language (1903). Later, he made peace with Robert Bruce, and by him was appointed governor of Berwick castle, which he held against Edward ITI. until the defeat of the Scots at Halidon Hill (July 109, 1333). His countess, known in Scottish history and romance as “Black Agnes,” daughter of Thomas Randolph, earl of Moray (Murray), and grandniece of Robert Bruce, is famous for her

defence of Dunbar castle against the English under the earl of salisbury in 1338. This lady succeeded to the estates and titles of her brother, John Randolph, 3rd earl of Moray. The earldom of Moray passed after her death to her second son, John Dunbar, who married Marjory, daughter of King Robert IT. GEORGE DUNBAR (d. 1420), roth earl of Dunbar and 3rd earl of March, great-nephew of the 8th earl and warden of the marches, accompanied Douglas in his foray into England in 1388, and commanded the Scots after Otterburn. He afterwards quarrelled with the Douglases, and when his lands were seized, fled to England, where he was welcomed by Henry IV. He fought on the English side at Homildon Hill; and, having revealed to Henry the defection of the Percies, who were in league with Douglas and Owen Glendower, he fought against those allies at Shrewsbury (July 23, 1403). Becoming reconciled with Douglas, he returned to Scotland in 1409, and was restored to his earldom by the regent Albany. GEORGE DUNBAR, 11th earl of Dunbar and 4th earl of March, was one of the negotiators for the release of James I. of Scotland in 1423 from his captivity in England, and was knighted at that king’s coronation. In 1434, however, on the ground that the regent had had no power to reverse his father’s forfeiture for treason, March was imprisoned and his castle of Dunbar seized

by the ‘king; and the parliament at Perth declared his lands and

titles forfeited to the Crown. The earldom of March in the house of Dunbar having thus been forfeited to the Crown, James IT. in 1455 conferred the title, together with that of warden of the marches, on his second son Alexander, duke of Albany; but this prince entered into treasonable correspondence with Edward IV. of England, and in

See Addresses in Honor

of Professor Francis A. March, LLD.

L.H.D. (1895), and J. W. Bright’s tribute in Modern Language

Association, Publications (vol. xxix., 1914).

MARCH,

PEYTON

CONWAY

(1864-

), American

soldier, was born at Easton, Pa., on Dec. 27, 1864. He graduated

from Lafayette college in 1884 and four years later from the US. Military academy. He graduated from the artillery school in 1898, and on the outbreak of the Spanish-American War went to the Philippines, remaining there three years and rising to the grade of lieutenant-colonel of volunteers. After honourable discharge from the volunteers in 1901 he was appointed captain of artillery in the regular army. From 1903-07 he was a member of the general staff and in 1904, during the Russo-Japanese War, was with the Japanese army in Manchuria as observer. He was promoted major in 1907, lieutenant-colonel in 1912 and cclonel in

1916. Soon after America’s entrance into the World War in 1917

he was made a brigadier-general, U.S.A., and later major-general of the national army and in Sept. 1917, major-general of the regu-

lar army. In 1917 he was with the A.E.F. in France in charge of the American artillery forces. In March 1918 he was appointed acting chief of staff, and the following May chief of staff with the rank of general. On June 30, 1920, his rank reverted to that of

major-general, and at his own request he was retired from active service Nov. 1, 1921. As chief of staff of the army, he reorganized the war department, consolidated the regular army, National Guard and national army divisions into a single army—the U.S. army—and initiated and carried into execution a programme which landed in France, by the time of the Armistice, 2,000,000 men.

MARCH, a town in Isle of Ely, England, 30 m. N. by W.

of Cambridge. ‘Pop. of urban district (1931) 11,276. It lies in the flat fen country, on the old course of the river Nene. It is an Important junction on the L.N.E.R. and the starting-point of a line to Lincoln and Doncaster. The church of St. Wendreda (Early English and later) has a Perpendicular timber roof. There are agricultural implement and engineering works, and corn mills.

1487 the earldom of March and the barony and castle of Dunbar MARCH, the third month of the modern calendar, containing were again annexed to the crown of Scotland. 31 days. It was the Romans’ first month until the adoption of the The title of earl of March was next held by the house of Julian calendar, 46 B.c., and it continued to be the beginning of Lennox. (See RICHMOND, EARLS AnD Duxes of; and LENNOX.) the legal year in England until the 18th century. In France it was The title of earl of March in the peerage of Scotland, by reckoned the first month of the year until 1564, when, by an edict another creation, was conferred in 1697 on William Douglas, sec- of Charles IX., January was decreed to be thenceforth the first ond son of William, rst duke of Queensberry. (See QUEENSBERRY, month. Scotland followed the example of France in 1599; but in EARLS, MARQUISES AND DUKES OF.) England the change did not take place before 1752. The Romans See Andrew Lang, History of Scotland (4 vols., 1900-07); Sir called the month Martius, from Mars, the god of war. The AngloBernard Burke, A Genealogical History of Dormant and Extinct Peerages (1866) ; Sir Robert Douglas, The Peerage of Scotland (2 vols., Saxons called March Hlyd-monath, “loud or stormy month,” or 1813) ; Lady Elizabeth Cust, Some Account of the Stuarts of Aubigny Lencten-monath, “lengthening month,” in allusion to the fact that in France (1891). the days then rapidly become longer. There is an old saying, MARCH, FRANCIS ANDREW (1825-1911), American common to both England and Scotland, representing March as philologist and educationist, was born on Oct. 25, 1825, in Mill- borrowing three days from April; the last three days of March bury, Mass. He graduated in 1845 at Amherst, where his atten- being called the “borrowing” or the “borrowed days.” tion was turned to the study of Anglo-Saxon by Noah Webster, In music, the march is the familiar type of composition used After teaching in secondary schools and at Amherst, he ‘went in to accompany and stimulate the marching of soldiers. For this 1855 as a tutor to Lafayette college, where he became in 1857 pro- purpose it is naturally strongly rhythmic in character, being fessor of English language and comparative philology—the first generally written in common time, with the principal accents chair of the kind established. In 1907 he became professor emeri- vigorously marked by the drum. The pace may be either brisk, tus, and he died in Easton, Pa., on Sept. 9, r9zz. In 1865 he pub- as In a quick march, or slow, as in a funeral march. In the matter lished Method of Philological Study of the English Language, and of structure, a trio, or alternative section in a more melodious in 1870 A Comparative Grammar of the Anglo-Saxon Language, vein, is generally provided by way of contrast to the main tune. a monumental work, and An Anglo-Saxon Reader, both marking Apart from actual military marches, the form has had attraction a new era in the study of English in America. To the “Douglass in all times for eminent composers, who have left many memotSeries of Christian Greek and Latin Classics,” which he edited, he able examples. Such are the Dead March in Saul (Handel), Beecontributed Latin Hymns (1874). He was consulting editor of the thoven’s funeral marches (pianoforte sonata in A flat and Eroica-

867

MARCHAND—MARCHESI symphony), many by Schubert, Mendelssohn’s Wedding March (Midsummer Night’s Dream music), Chopin’s Marche Funébre (B flat minor sonata), several by Wagner

grin, Huldigungsmarsch

(Tannhäuser, Lohen-

and Katsermarsch),

Elgar’s Pomp and

Circumstance series, many by the “March King” among bandmasters, John P. Sousa, e.g., Stars and Stripes Forever, etc.

MARCHAND,

JEAN

horn in Paris on Nov.

(1883-

22, 1883.

), French painter, was

He studied with Bonnat and

Merson (1902-6), but deserted conventional teaching, and exhibited at the Salon des Indépendants in 1908. He visited Russia and England on several occasions. Though Marchand came under the influence of cubism between 1910 and 1912, his work was not greatly affected by it. His human forms are treated with power and discretion, while his landscapes and still life are tinged with an intense melancholy. Exhibitions of his work were held at the Carfax Gallery, London, in 1915 and 1gr19.

MARCHAND, JEAN BAPTISTE (1863), French general and African explorer, was born at Thoissey (Ain) on Nov. 22 1863. After four years’ service in the ranks, he was, in

1887, appointed a sub-lieutenant. In 1889 he was on active service in Senegal, was twice wounded, and made a chevalier of the

Legion of Honour.

river valleys and the coast strip (often very narrow), the general level is more than soo ft. above the sea.

tanova is a branch to Macerata, San Severino and Fabriano (a station on the line from Ancona to Rome and the junction for Urbino); at Porto S. Giorgio is a branch to Fermo and Amandola, and, at Porto d’Ascoli, a branch to Ascoli Piceno.

Agriculture and Industry.—Owing largely to the mezzadria or metayer system the soil is fairly highly cultivated. The silk industries, making of strawplait and straw hats, rearing of silkworms and cocoons, with sugar-refining, tobacco, terra-cotta manufacture, brickworks and ironworks, furnish the chief occupations of the people next after agriculture and pastoral pursuits. The chief agricultural products in 1927 were:

In 1898 he carried out his historic occupation

of Fashoda (qg.v.), and for this he was promoted to commander

in the Legion of Honour. In 1902 he was made colonel and shortly after the outbreak of the World War he was appointed to command the Colonial Brigade of the XIV. Corps, and in 1915 was promoted a temporary-general of brigade. A few months later he assumed command of the roth (Colonial) Division and was

Acres under cultivation

Wheat

.

Maize Peas

.

wounded in Sept. 1915. On April 4, 1917 he was promoted general

Beans

.

of division. He retired in r919, and received the grand cross of the Legion of Honour in 1920.

Garden produce .

MARCHE or LA MARCHE, one of the former provinces of

France. It owes its name to its position, it having been in the toth century a march or border district between the duchy of Aquitaine and the domains of the Frankish kings in central France. Sometimes it was called the Marche Limousine, and originally it was a small district cut partly from Limousin and partly from Poitou. Its area was increased during the 13th century, after which, however, it remained unaltered until the time of the Revolution. It was bounded on the north by Berry; on the east by Bourbonnais and Auvergne; on the south by Limousin; and on the west by Poitou. It embraced the greater part of the modern department of Creuse, a considerable part of Haute Vienne, and a fragment of Indre. Its area was about 1,900 sq.m.; its capital was Charroux and later Guéret, and among its other principal towns were Dorat, Bellac and Confolens. Marche first appears as a separate fief about the middle of the ioth century when William IIL, duke of Aquitaine, gave it to one of his vassals named Boso, who took the title of count. In the r2th century it passed to the counts of Limousin, and this house retained it until the death of the childless Count Hugh in 1303, when it was seized by the French king, Philip IV. In 1316 t was made a duchy for Prince Charles, afterwards King Charles [V., and a few years later (1327) it passed into the hands of the amily of Bourbon. The family of Armagnac held it from 1435 0 1477, when it reverted to the Bourbons, and in 1527 it was ized by Francis I. and became part of the domains of the ‘rench crown. It was divided into Haute Marche and Basse Marche, the estates of the former being in existence until the 7th century. From 1470 until the Revolution the province was nder the jurisdiction of the parlement of Paris. See A. Thomas, Les États provinciaux de la France centrale (1879).

MARCHES,

The lower hills are very

largely composed of loose, clayey, unstable earth, while the Appenines are of limestone. The province of Pesaro and Urbino falls within the boundaries of the ancient Umbria (g.v.), while the territory of the other three belonged to Picenum (g.v.). The railway from Bologna to Brindisi runs along the coast-line of the entire territory. At Fano there is a branch to Fermignano, on the line from Fabriano to Urbino; at Falconara, near Ancona it is joined by the main line from Foligno and Rome; at Porto Civi-

THE

(It. Le Marche), a territorial division

(region) of Italy, embracing from north to south the provinces of Pesaro and Urbino, Ancona, Macerata, and Ascoli Piceno, with a population of 1,197,580 in 1921, a rise of only 108,817 since 1901. It is bounded by Emilia on the north, the Adriatic on the east, the Abruzzi on the south, and Umbria and Tuscany on the west. The chief rivers, all of which run into the Adriatic eastwards and north-eastwards, are the Metauro (anc. Metaurus, g.v.)

and the Tronto (anc. Truentus), the latter forming the southern boundary of the Marches

for some aw

distance.

Except for the

Barley

.

Sugar-beet

Potatoes Silk cocoon

Hay

‘

.

.

Vines Olives

.

Fruit (various) Chestnuts

.

Tons

69,225 I1,250 176,500

260,600 2,820 62,700

21,750 10,500

5,760

6,250 27,500

954,250 431,250 5,675

2,130

6,840

2,020

45700

2,009

872,500

188,800 (grapes)

12,782,000 (wine—gallons)

10,210 (olives 158,400 (olive oil—gallons)

10,570 4,050

Another important branch of activity is the paper industry, especially at Fabriano. Limestone quarries and sulphur mines, which, with those of Romagna, produced over 60,000 tons in 1926, supply building stone and sulphur to the regions of central Italy; chalk and petroleum are also: found. Ancona is the only really good harbour. Fishing is carried on along the entire coast.

History.—For the early history of the territory of the Marches,

see Picenum. From the Carolingian period onwards the name Marca begins to appear—first the Marca Fermana for the mountainous part of Picenum, the Marca Camerinese for the district farther north, including a part of Umbria, and the Marca Anconitana for the former Pentapolis. In 1080 the Marca Anconitana

was given in investiture to Robert Guiscard by Gregory VII., to whom the countess Matilda ceded the Marches of Camerino and of Fermo. In 1105 we find the emperor Henry IV. investing Werner with the whole territory of the three marches under the name of March of Ancona. It was afterwards once more recovered by the Church and governed by papal legates. It became part of the kingdom of Italy in 1860. The pictorial art of the Marches from the 13th century onwards has recently become the object of considerable interest. See L. Serra, Le Gallerie Comunali delle Marche (1926) ; L’Arte nelle Marche (Pesaro, 1927).

MARCHESI,

MATHILDE

(née Mathilde

Graumann)

(1826-1913), German singer and teacher, was born at Frankforton-Main on March 26, 1826. She made her début as a singer in 1844, but in 1849 began her teaching career, speedily earning a wide reputation at the conservatories of Vienna and Cologne, as well as in London and Paris. In 1852 she married Salvatore Marchesi, Cavaliere de Castrone (d. 1908), a well-known singer and teacher. Among Madame Marchesi’s pupils were Emma Calvé, Emma Eames, Melba, Emma Nevada, Gabrielle Kraus and Etelka Gerster. She published various works on the technique

868

MARCHMONT—MARCION

of singing, and in 1897 a volume of reminiscences, Marchesi and Music. She died in London on Nov. 17, 1913. Her daughter, Blanche Marchesi (b. 1863), is also a famous singer and teacher.

MARCHMONT, EARLS OF.

The ist earl of Marchmont

was Sir Patrick Hume or Home (1641-1724), son of Sir Patrick Hume, bart. (d. 1648), of Polwarth, Berwickshire. He became a member of the Scottish parliament in 1665, and opposed the harsh policy of the earl for his contumacy to London, where mouth. Suspected

of Lauderdale towards the Covenanters, and he was imprisoned. After his release he went he associated himself with the duke of Monof complicity in the Rye House plot, he crossed to the Netherlands, where he took part in the deliberations of Monmouth, the earl of Argyll and other exiles about the projected

invasion of Great Britain. Polwarth sailed to Scotland with Argyll

in 1685, and after the failure of the rising escaped to Utrecht. He accompanied William of Orange to England, and in 1689 he was again a member of the Scottish parliament. In 1690 he was made a peer as Lord Polwarth; in 1696 he became lord high chancellor of Scotland, and in 1697 was created earl of Marchmont. When Anne became queen in 1702 he was deprived of the chancellorship. He died on Aug. 2, 1724. His son Alexander, the 2nd earl (1676—1740), took the name of Campbell instead of Hume after his marriage in 1697 with Margaret, daughter and heiress of Sir George Campbell of Cessnock, Ayrshire. The earldom became dormant on the death of the 3rd earl in 1794. See The Marchmont Papers, ed. Sir G. H. Rose (1831).

MARCIAN

(c. 390-457), emperor of the East (450-457),

was born of humble parentage in Thrace, and entered the army at an early age. Eventually through the influence of Aspar and Ardaburius he became a captain of the guards, and later tribune and ‘senator. On the death of Theodosius II. he was chosen as consort by the latter’s sister and successor, Pulcheria. Marcian repudiated the payment of tribute to Attila: and reformed the finances. He repelled attacks upon Syria and Egypt (452), and

to deliver Christendom from false Jewish doctrines by restoring the Pauline conception of the gospel—Paul

being, according to

Marcion, the only apostle who had rightly understood the new message of salvation as delivered by Christ. In Marcion’s own view, therefore, the founding of his church—to which he was first driven by opposition—amounts to a reformation of Christen-

dom through a return to the gospel of Christ and to Paul; nothing

was to be accepted beyond that. This of itself shows that it is a mistake to reckon Marcion among the Gnostics. For he ascribed

salvation, not to “knowledge” but to “faith”; he appealed openly

to the whole Christian world; and he nowhere consciously added foreign elements to the revelation given through Christ. It is true

that in many features his Christian system resembles the so-called Gnostic systems; but the first duty of the historian is to point out what Marcion plainly aimed at; only in the second place have we to inquire how far the result corresponded with those purposes,

Marcion was a wealthy shipowner, belonging to Sinope in Pontus. He appears to have been a convert from Paganism to

Christianity. About A.D. 140 he arrived in Rome as a Christian,

and made himself known to the local church. Even then, however,

the leading features of his peculiar system must have been already thought out. At Rome he tried to gain acceptance for them in the

college of presbyters and in the church; but he now encountered such determined opposition from the majority of the congregation that he found it necessary to withdraw from the great church and establish in Rome a community of his own. This was about the year 144. The new society increased in the two following

decades; and very soon numerous sister-churches were flourishing

in the east and west of the empire. Marcion took up his residence

permanently in Rome, but still undertook journeys for the propagation of his opinions; and he seems never to have abandoned

bis design of gaining over the whole Church to his gospel. The distinctive teaching of Marcion originated in a comparison

quelled disturbances on the Armenian frontier (456). The other notable event of his reign is the Council of Chalcedon (451).

of the Old Testament with the gospel of Christ and the theology of the apostle Paul. Its motive was not metaphysical, but religious and historical.. In the gospel he found a God revealed who is goodness and love, and who desires faith and love from men. This God he could not discover in the Old Testament; on the contrary,

vol. i, pp. cxxix., 515-573; E. Miller, Périple de Marcien @Héraclée (1839); S. F. G. Hoffmann, Marciani Periplus (1841); E. H. Bunbury, Hist. of Ancient Geography (1879), ii. 660; A. Forbiger, Handbuch der alten Geographie, vol. i. (1842).

with them confronted the legalizing, and in this sense judaizing, tendencies of his Christian contemporaries. But the Pauline ideas lost their truth under his treatment; for, when it is denied that

he saw there the revelation of a just, stern, jealous, wrathful and variable God, who requires from his servants blind obedience, fear and outward righteousness. Overpowered by the majesty and MARCIANUS (c. av. 400), Greek geographer, was born at novelty of the Christian message of salvation, too conscientious Heraclea in Pontus. Two of his works have been preserved in a to rest satisfied with the ordinary attempts at the solution of difmore or less mutilated condition. In the first, the Periplus of the ficulties, while prevented by the limitations of his time from Outer Sea, in two books, in which he proposed to give a complete reaching an historical insight into the relation of Christianity to description of the coasts of the eastern and western oceans, his the Old Testament and to Judaism, he believed that he expressed chief authority is Ptolemy; the distances from one point to Paul’s view by the hypothesis of two Gods: the just God of the another are given in stades, with the object of rendering the work law (the God of the Jews, who is also the Creator of the world), easier for the ordinary student. The second, the Periplus of the and the good God, the Father of Jesus Christ. Paradoxes in the Inner Sea (the Mediterranean), is a meagre epitome of a similar history of religion and revelation which Paul draws out, and which work by Menippus of Pergamum, who lived during the times of Marcion’s contemporaries passed by as utterly incomprehensible, Augustus and Tiberius. It contains a description of the southern are here made the foundation of a dualistic conception of history coast of the Euxine from the Thracian Bosporus to the river Iris and of religion. It may be said that in the 2nd century only one in Pontus. A few fragments remain of an epitome by Marcianus Christian—Marcion—took the trouble to understand Paul; but of the rz books of the Geographumena of Artemidorus of it must be added that he misunderstood him. The profound Ephesus. reflections of the apostle on the radical antithesis of law and See J. Hudson, Geographia veteris scriptores graeci minores, vol, i. gospel, works and faith, were not appreciated in the 2nd century. (1698), with Dodwell’s dissertation; C. W. Müller, Geographici graeci Marcion alone perceived their decisive religious importance, and minores, See Gibbon, The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire (ed. Bury, London, 1896), iii. 384, iv. 444~445; J. Bury, The Later Roman Empire (London, 1889), i. 135~136.

MARCION

and THE

MARCIONITE

CHURCHES.

Among the Christian organisations of the middle period of the second century the most important, next to Catholicism, was the Marcionite community. It admitted all believers without distinction of age, sex, rank or culture. It was no mere school for the learned, disclosed no mysteries for the privileged, but sought to lay the foundation of the Christian community on the pure and authentic gospel of Christ. The pure gospel, however, Marcion found to be everywhere more or less corrupted and mutilated in the Christian circles of his time. His undertaking thus resolved itself into a reformation of Christendom. This reformation was

the God of redemption is at the same time the almighty Lord of heaven and earth, the gospel is turned upside down. DUALISTIC

THEORY

The general oytlines of his teaching are as follows.

Man is,

in spirit, soul and body, a creature of the just and wrathful god. This god created man from Ay (matter), and imposed on him a

strict law. Since no one could keep this law, the whole human race fell under the curse, temporal and eternal, of the Demiurge. Then a higher God, hitherto unknown, and concealed even from the Demiurge, took pity on the wretched, condemned race of men.

MARCOMANNI—MARCONI

869

He sent his Son (whom Marcion probably regarded as a manifestation of the supreme God Himself) down to this earth in order to

The Marcomanni disappeared from history during the 4th century, being probably merged in the Baiouarii, the later Bavarians.

redeem men. Clothed in a visionary body, in the likeness of a man of thirty years old, the Son made his appearance in the fifteenth year of Tiberius, and preached in the synagogue at Capernaum. But none of the Jewish people understood him. Even the disciples

See SuEBI; and E. Devrient, “Hermunduren und Markomannen” in Neues Jahrb. f. das klassische Altertum (1901), 51.

whom he chose did not recognize his true nature, but mistook him

for the Messiah promised by the Demiurge through the prophets, who as warrior and king was to come and set up the Jewish emire. The Demiurge himself did not suspect who the stranger was; nevertheless he became angry with him, and, although Jesus had

punctually fulfilled his law, caused him to be nailed to the cross. By that act, however, he pronounced his own doom. For the risen Christ appeared before him in his glory, and charged him with having acted contrary to his own law.

To make

amends

for this crime, the Demiurge had now to deliver up to the good God the souls of those who were to be redeemed; they are, as it were, purchased from him by the death of Christ. Christ then proceeded to the underworld to deliver the spirits of the departed. Then, to gain the living, Christ raised up Paul as his apostle. He alone understood the gospel, and recognized the difference between the just God and the good. Accordingly, he opposed the

original apostles with their Judaistic doctrines, and founded small congregations of true Christians. But the preaching of the false Jewish Christians gained the upper hand; nay, they even falsified the evangélical oracles and the letters of Paul. Marcion himself was the next raised up by the good God, to proclaim once more

the true gospel. This he did by setting aside the spurious gospels, purging the real gospel (the Gospel of Luke) from supposed judaizing interpolations, and restoring the true text of the Pauline epistles. Marcion was the earliest critical student of the New Testament canon and text. It is noteworthy that he refused to admit the genuineness of the Pastoral Epistles and said that the letter to the Ephesians was really addressed to the Laodiceans. On the basis of these writings Marcion proclaimed the true Christianity, and founded churches. He taught that all who put their trust in the good God, and his crucified Son, renounce their allegiance to the Demiurge, and approve themselves by good works of love, shall be saved. But he taught further—and here we trace the influence of the current gnosticism on Marcion—that only the spirit of man is saved by the good God; the body, because material, perishes. Accordingly his ethics also were thoroughly dualistic. By the “works of the Demiurge,” which the Christian is to flee, he meant the whole “service of the perishable.” The Christian must shun everything sensual, and especially marriage, and free himself from the body by strict asceticism. The golden age of the Marcionite churches falls between the years 150 and 250. During that time they were really dangerous to the great Church; for in fact they maintained certain genuine Christian ideas, which the Catholic Church had forgotten. The earliest inscription (A.D, 318) on a Christian place of worship is Marcionite, and was found on a stone which had stood over the doorway

of a house in a Syrian village. From the beginning of the 4th century they began to die out in the West, or rather they fell a

prey to Manichaeism. In the East also many Marcionites went over to the Manichaeans; but there they survived much longer. They can be traced down to the 7th century, and then they seem

), Italian inventor, MARCONI, GUGLIELMO (1874famous for establishing wireless telegraphy on a commercial basis, was born at Bologna on April 25, 1874, the younger son of an Italian father and an Irish mother. He was educated privately at Bologna, Florence and Leghorn. As a boy he took a keen interest in physical and electrical science. In 1895 the idea became firmly rooted in his mind that a system of telegraphy through space could be provided by means of electromagnetic waves, the existence of which had been foreseen mathematically by Clerk Maxwell in 1864 and later investigated experimentally by Heinrich Hertz, Oliver Lodge, Righi and others. Interesting scientific experiments had been carried out in London and elsewhere with

these electric waves, but Marconi was the first to devise the practical means by which they could be made to provide a new and revolutionary method of telegraphic communication. In the early summer of 1895, Marconi conducted a number of experiments at bis father’s country house at Pontecchio, near Bologna. These experiments, made with crude and inefficient apparatus, soon began to give results which appeared to Marconi to be remarkable, communication being established in that year over distances in excess of a mile. In 1896 Marconi came to England, and on June 2 of that year took out the first patent ever granted for wireless telegraphy based on the use of electric waves. He continued his experiments in London, and in the same year demonstrated his invention before officials of the Post Office and other representatives of Brit-

ish and Foreign Government departments. These demonstrations were first carried out on the roof of the General Post Office, St. Martin’s-le-Grand, London. Later experiments for the Post Office were carried out on Salisbury plain and across the Bristol channel from Penarth to Brean down, near Weston-super-Mare, ranges first of two, then of four, and afterwards of nine miles were obtained. In June 1897, at the invitation of the Italian Government, Marconi went to Spezia, where a land station was erected and communication with Italian warships was established up to a distance of 12 miles. He was then invited to demonstrate his apparatus in Rome, where successful tests were carried out in the presence of the late King Humbert and Queen Margherita. Other tests also took place at the Italian Chamber of Deputies. The time was now almost ripe for wireless telegraphy to be applied to commercial and utilitarian purposes, and in July 1897 a company was formed in London to acquire the Marconi patents in all countries except Italy. This company was called the Wireless Telegraph and Signal Company, Limited, which in 1900 changed its name to that of Marconi’s Wireless Telegraph Company, Limited (g.v.). For some time the company’s efforts were confined to furthering Marconi’s pioneer work. A number of interesting tests and demonstrations were undertaken round the coasts of the British Isles and abroad. Permanent stations were erected at Alum bay in the Jsle of Wight and at Bournemouth, this sta-

tion being subsequently removed to Poole.

In 1898 wireless telegraphy was first employed as a means of communication between lightships and the shore by installations on the East Goodwin lightship and the South Foreland lighthouse, separated by a distance of about 12 miles. The utility of wireless sects of the 13th century are connected with these, they also may In saving life at sea was demonstrated for the first time when, on March 3, 1899, that lightship was run down by a steamer. The be included in the history of Marcionitism. accident was at once reported by wireless to the South Foreland, BIBLIOGRAPHY .—See A. Harnack, History of Dagma, i. 266, 286; F. Loofs, Dogmengeschichte pp. 111-114; N. McLean, art. “Marcionism” enabling life-boats to be promptly sent to the assistance of the In Hastings Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics; G. Krüger, Early light vessel. In March 1898 Marconi established communication Christian Eiterature, and art. in Herzog-Hauck’s Realencyklopidie fiir across the English Channel between England and France. During brat. Theol. und Kirche, xii.; F. J. Foakes Jackson’s Christian Difficul- this year wireless was also first utilised in the naval manoeuvres for ties of the Second and Twentieth Centuries, is a study of Marcion and communication between warships over distances of 74 miles. The his relation to modern thought. first military application of wireless took place during the South MARCOMANNI, the name of a Suevic trihe “men of African War. the mark, or border.” They were often in conflict with the In Oct. 1900 the erection of a long distance wireless telegraphRoman empire, and gave their name to the Marcomannic war, station in Cornwall was commenced by Marconi and preliminary a struggle waged by the emperor Marcus Aurelius against them. tests were carried out up to a distance of about 200 miles. On

to vanish. But it was unquestionably from Marcionite impulses that the new sects of the Paulicians and Bogomils arose; and in so far as the western Cathari, and the antinomian and anticlerical

870

MARCON?DIS

WIRELESS

Dec. 12, 1901, Marconi, on his first attempt, succeeded in trans-

mitting and receiving signals across the Atlantic Ocean from Poldhu in Cornwall to St. John’s, Newfoundland. In 1902 Marconi, during a voyage on the American liner S.S. “Philadelphia,” received messages up to a distance of 700 miles

by day and 2,000 miles by night, thus first discovering the now well-known fact that wireless signals can usually be received over much greater distances at night than during the hours of daylight. In 1902 he patented a magnetic detector, and in 1905 he took out his patents for the horizontal directional aerial. In 1910 Marconi, assisted by -Mr. H. J. Round, received signals and messages at Buenos Aires from Clifden (Ireland) over a distance of about 6,000 miles. In 1912 he introduced “the timed spark system” for generating

continuous

waves.

This

system

was

employed

for

several years at many important long distance stations and by its means Marconi sent the first messages ever transmitted by wireless from England to Australia on Sept. 22, 19128. In 1916, during the World War, experiments were commenced by Marconi in Italy with very short waves, with the object of devising a directive, or beam system, of wireless telegraphy for war purposes. Later, in England, with the assistance of Mr. G. S. Franklin, important results were obtained by the use of 15-metre waves between London and Birmingham. Short waves have proved themselves capable, even when used with a minimum of power, of carrying out communications by night as well as by day over any distance, even to the antipodes. They are much more amenable to control than long waves. (See WIRELESS TELEGRAPHY.) During the World War Marconi served in both the Italian army and navy. He also visited America as a member of the Italian war mission to the United States Government. In 1919 the King of Italy appointed him plenipotentiary delegate to the Peace Conference in Paris, and in that capacity he attended the meetings of that conference and signed on behalf of Italy the peace treaties with Austria and Bulgaria. He also attended in the same capacity the meetings of the commission on mandates held in Paris and in London. Marconi was awarded the Nobel Prize for physics in 1909, the Albert Medal of the Royal Society of Arts, and, in the United States, the Franklin and the John Fritz Medals. In the same year he was nominated by the King of Italy to be a member of the Italian Senate. MARCONPS WIRELESS TELEGRAPH CO., LTD. In 1896 Guglielmo Marconi, then a young and unknown Italian inventor, came to England and took out the first patent for wireless telegraphy by means of Hertzian waves. On July 20, 1897, the Wireless Telegraph and Signal Co., Ltd., was formed to acquire Marconi’s patents and develop them commercially. In 1g0o the name of the company was changed to Marconi’s Wireless Telegraph Co., Ltd., under which name it has remained registered. In 1899 Marconi succeeded in establishing communication between England and France. This was followed by the transmission of signals across the Atlantic, an achievement which laid the foundations of world-wide wireless communication. These successes led to a considerable extension of the commercial activities of the Marconi company. The Marconi Inter-

national Marine Communication company was formed in 1900 to develop marine wireless, and, as time went on, wireless companies were formed by the Marconi company in the British

TELEGRAPH

CO., LTD.

short-wave beam system which has revolutionized long distance wireless communication. During 1926 and 1927 beam Stations for communicating between Great Britain and Canada, Australi South Africa and India, U.S.A. and South America were built. Beam stations have also been built in other countries, and this system is fast replacing the long-wave high-power system for long distance communication. The beam system has made it possible to transmit wireless telephone messages over great dis(L. C. M.) tances at much lower cost.

MARCOS

DE NIZA

(c. 1495-1558), a Franciscan friar

born in Nice about 1495. He went to America in 1531, and after serving in Peru, Guatemala and Mexico, was chosen to explore the

country north of Sonora. Preceded by Estevanico, the negro companion of Cabeza de Vaca and the “Black Mexican” of Zuñi tradi-

tions, Fray Marcos left Culiacan in March 1539, and penetrated to Zuni or the “Seven Cities of Cibola,” which he described as equal

in size to the city of Mexico. He embodied much mere hearsay in his report, the Descubrimiento de las siete ciudades, which led

F. V de Coronado to make his expedition next year to Zuñi, of which Fray Marcos was the guide; and the realities proved a great

disappointment. Fray Marcos was made Provincial of his order for Mexico before the second trip to Zuñi, and returned in 1541

to the capital, where he died on March 25, 1558.

The Descubrimiento is one of the world’s famous narratives of travel. It may be found in J. F. Pacheco’s Documentos (vol. iii.)

and Hakluyt’s Voyages (vol. ili.); also in G. Ramusio, Navigazione (vol. ii.) and H. Ternaux-Compans, Voyages (vol. iii.). See A. F. A. Bandelier, The Gilded Man (El Dorado) (1893); H. H. Bancroft, Arizona and New Mexico (San Francisco, 1888), and, for critical opinions, G. P. Winship, “The Coronado Expedition,” in U.S. Bureau of Ethnology, Fourteenth Annual Report (for 1892—93, 1896).

MARCUS AURELIUS ANTONINUS (121-180), Roman emperor and Stoic philosopher, was born in Rome ap. 121, the date of his birth being variously stated as April 6, 21 and 26. His original name was Marcus Annius Verus. His father Annius Verus (prefect of the city and thrice consul), who came of Spanish stock, had received patrician rank from Vespasian. Marcus was three months old when his father died, and was thereupon adopted by his grandfather. Hadrian adopted, as his successor, Titus Antoninus Pius (uncle of Marcus), on condition that he in turn adopt both Marcus (then 17) and Lucius Ceionius Commodus, the son of Aelius Caesar, who had originally been intended by Hadrian as his successor, but had died before him. Marcus had been, at the age of 15, betrothed to Fabia, the sister of Commodus; the engagement was broken off by Antoninus Pius, and he was betrothed to Faustina, the daughter of the latter. In 139 the title of Caesar was conferred upon him and he dropped the name of Verus. The full name he then bore was Marcus Aelius Aurelius Antoninus, Aelius coming from Hadrian’s family, and Aurelius being the original name of Antoninus Pius. In 140 he was made consul. He was educated, not at school, but by tutors, Herodes

Atticus and M. Cornelius Fronto (g.v.) in the usual curriculum

of rhetoric and poetry; but Stoicism attracted him from the first,

and at 25 he definitely abandoned Fronto, whose training was wholly literary, to learn philosophy under Rusticus the Stoic, and law under L. Volusius Moecianus. A Stoic he remained in prac-

tice; but retained the humanity of his disposition.

Emperor.—Antoninus Pius died in 161, having recommended Dominions and in other countries throughout the world. as his successor Aurelius, then 40 years of age, without menThe invention of the thermionic valve has revolutionized the ' tioning Commodus, his other adopted son, commonly called Lucius design of wireless apparatus. The Marconi company rapidly Verus. It is believed that the senate urged Aurelius to take the evolved new apparatus using thermionic valves, various types of sole administration. But he admitted Verus as giving which now cover the requirements of many fields of communica- him the tribunician and proconsular powers, andbisthepartner, titles Caesar tion. This development opened the way for the practical trans- and Augustus. In the first year of his reign Faustina gave birth mission of music and speech, and between Feb. 23 and March 6, to twins, one of whom became the emperor Commodus. 1920, the first broadcasting of musical items in England took place Aurelius’ reign was largely occupied in defending the empire from the Marconi company’s works at Chelmsford. Regular against attacks from all sides. First of all the Parthians under broadcasting of music and speech was instituted from Marconi Vologeses III. broke into Syria. Verus went out in nominal comstations at Writtle, Chelmsford, in 1921, and Marconi house, mand of the war against them, which was really conducted by London, in 1922 before the establishment of the British Broad- Avidius Cassius. The war was concluded in 165, but the'recasting company, now the British Broadcasting Corporation turning army brought a pestilence with them that spread over (B.B.C.), which began its activities in 1922. the whole empire. Aurelius accompanied Verus in wars in PanOne of the latest developments in wireless telegraphy is the nonia and Noricum in 167-8, and peace was made with the Mar-

MARCUS

HOOK—MARCY

comanni in 168. Early in 169 Verus died, leaving Aurelius sole

871

Throughout his life he was a practising, but he was not strictly

emperor. In the autumn of 169 war again broke out on the Rhine-Danube frontier, and Marcus Aurelius lived almost entirely

life, not a philosophy

at Carnuntum for three years.

speculations on the absolute nature of the deity, and no clear

The Marcomanni were eventually

an orthodox, Stoic.

In his hands Stoicism is a practical rule of of quietism.

In the Meditations

are no

driven out of Pannonia and almost annihilated, and in 174 Aurelius

expressions of opinion as to a future state. He is, above all things,

won over the Quadi the celebrated victory of the “thundering

a practical moralist.

legion,” commemorated on the column of Antonina.

Germany.—Aurelius next marched to Germany. There news reached him that Avidius Cassius, the commander of the Roman troops in Asia, had revolted and proclaimed himself emperor

(175). But after three months Cassius was assassinated, and his

head was brought to Aurelius, who with characteristic magna-

nimity, persuaded the senate to pardon all the family of Cassius. During his journey of pacification, Faustina, who had borne him rı children, died. Aurelius trusted her while she lived, and mourned her loss.

After the death of Faustina and the pacification of Syria, Aurelius proceeded, on his return to Italy, through Athens, and was initiated in the Eleusinian mysteries. He gave large sums of money for the endowment of chairs in philosophy and rhetoric, with a view to making the schools the resort of students from all parts of the empire. Along with his son Commodus he

entered Rome in 176, and obtained a triumph for victories in Germany. In 177 occurred that persecution of Christians, the share of Aurelius in which has been the subject of so much con-

troversy. Meanwhile the German War continued, and the two Quintilii, who had been left in command, begged Aurelius once more to take the field. Death.—In this campaign Aurelius, after a series of successes, was attacked, according to some authorities, by an infectious disease, of which he died after a week’s illness, either in his camp at Sirmium (Mitrovitz), on the Save, in Lower Pannonia, or at Vindobona (Vienna), on March 17, 180, in the fifty-ninth year of his age. Other accounts are: (1) that he was poisoned in the interests of Commodus (Dio. Cass. lxxi. 33, 4), (2) that he died of a chronic stomachic disease; the latter is perhaps the most likely. His ashes (according to some authorities, his body) were taken to Rome. By common consent he was deified and all those who could afford the cost obtained his statue or bust; for a long time his statues held a place among the penates of the Romans. Commodus, who was with his father when he died, erected to his memory the Antonine column (now in the Piazza Colonna at Rome), round the shaft of which are sculptures in relief commemorating the miracle of the thundering legion and the various victories of Aurelius over the Quadi and the Marcomanni. A Bree equestrian statue was set up in the Forum, now on the apitol. Aurelius was consistently hostile to Christianity, and persecution, unknown or forbidden under earlier reigns, was systematically pursued

under

his

directions.

His

attitude

was

logical

enough. The State religion was to him an essential part of the imperial system, and the Christians, particularly in their oppositon to emperor-worship, were a danger to the established order. In his work on the internal administration Marcus Aurelius was equally untiring. His reign is especially notable for legal reforms, and an attempt to arrest the fall in the legitimate birth-rate. His provincial administration was not made easier by the drain on the Treasury caused by the defence of the empire. Against his will he had to increase taxation, and he risked alienating his soldiers by refusing an increase of pay. Last of a line of emperors who all seemed to come little short of the Stoic ideal of the philosopher king, Marcus Aurelius was the best of them all.

Philosophy.—The book which contains the philosophy of

Aurelius is known by the title of his Reflections, or Meditations, although that is not the name which he gave to it himself (Tà els éavrdv). Of the genuineness of the work no doubts are how entertained.

It is believed that he wrote also an autobiog-

raphy, which has perished. The Meditations were written, it is

evident, as occasion offered—in the midst of public business, and on the eve of battles on which the fate of the empire depended—

hence their fragmentary appearance, but hence also much of their practical value and even of ‘their charm.

The goal in life to be aimed at, according

to him, is not happiness, but tranquillity, or equanimity. This condition of mind can be obtained only by “living conformably to nature,” that is to say, one’s whole nature, and as a means to that man must cultivate the four chief virtues, each of which has its distinct sphere—wisdom, or the knowledge of good and evil; Justice, or the giving to every man his due; fortitude, or the enduring of labour and pain; and temperance, or moderation in all things. It is no “fugitive and cloistered virtue” that Aurelius seeks to encourage; on the contrary, man must lead the “life of the social animal.” While he held that the prime principle in man is the social, “the next in order is not to yield to the persuasions of the body, when they are not conformable to the rational principle which must govern.” This divinity “within a man,” this “legislating faculty,” which, looked at from one point of view, is conscience, and from another is reason, must be implicitly obeyed. He who thus obeys it will attain tranquillity of mind. What gives the sentences of Marcus Aurelius their enduring value and fascination, and renders them superior to the utterances of Epictetus and Seneca, is that they are the gospel of his life. His precepts are simply the records of his practice. To the saintliness of the cloister he added the wisdom of the man of the world; he was constant in misfortune, not elated by prosperity, never “carrying things to the sweating-point,” but preserving, in a time of universal corruption, unreality and self-indulgence, a nature sweet, pure, self-denying, unaffected. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—P. B. Watson’s M. Aurelius Antoninus (1884) contains a general account—life, character, philosophy, relations with Christianity—as well as a bibliography; see also art. in Pauly-Wissowa, Realencyclopddie, s.v. “Annius” (No. 94), col. 2279, and H. D. Sedgwick, Marcus Aurelius (New Haven, 1921). For special points see:

(1) Historical: Authorities under Rome: Ancient History; S. Dill, Roman Society from Nero to M. Aurelius (1904); M. Rostovtzev, Social and Economic History of the Roman Empire (1926). (2) Relations to Christianity: Sir W. M. Ramsay, The Church in the Roman Empire (1898); W. Moller, History of the Christian Church, A.D. 1-600 (Eng. trans., A. Rutherford, 1892); W. E. Addis, Christianity and the Roman Empire (1893) ;.E. G. Hardy, Christianity and the Roman Government (1894), pp- 145 sgq., and Leonard Alston, Stoic and Christian of the 2nd century (1906); J. Dartigue-Peyrou, Marc-Aurèle dans ses rapports avec le christianisme (1897). (3) Philosopkical: Besides article Srorcs, E. Renan, Marc. Antoninus et la fin du monde antique (1882); Eng. trans., W. Hutchinson (1904) ; W. Pater, Marius the Epicurean (1888); Matthew Arnold’s Essays; C. H. W. Davis, Greek and Roman Stoicism (1903); editions of the Meditations (5, below) ; F. W. Bussell, Marcus Aurelius and the Later Stoics (Edinboro, 1910). (4) Military: E. Napp, De rebus imperat. M. Aurel. Anton. in oriente gestis (Bonn, 1879) ; Conrad, Mark Aurels Markomannenkrieg (1889) ; Mommsen, Provinces of the Roman Empire (Eng. trans., W. P. Dickson, London, 1886); for the Aurelius column, E. Petersen, A. von Domaszewski, and G. Calderini, Die Marcusséule (Munich, 1896), with historical introduction by Th. Mommsen. (5) The Meditations were published by Xylander in 1558; the best critical edition is that of J. Stich in the Teubner series (Leipzig, 1882; 2nd ed., 1903). Translations exist in almost every language; that of George Long (1862, re-edited 1900) has been superseded by those of G. H. Rendall (1898, with valuable introduction) and J. Jackson (1906, with introduction by Charles Bigg). (6) For the correspondence of Aurelius and Fronto, see Robinson Ellis, Correspondence of Fronto and M. Aurelius and Class Rev. vol. 34 p. 14 (1904).

MARCUS

HOOK, a borough of Delaware county, Penn-

sylvania, U.S.A., on the Delaware river and the Pennsylvania railroad, 19 m. S.W. of Philadelphia. Pop. (1920) 5,324; 1930, 4,867 (Federal census). It has a considerable shipping trade, oil refineries and factories making artificial silk, chemicals, barrels and congoleum. Settlement here dates from 1640. The streets were laid out by William Penn, who granted a charter to the borough in 1701.

MARCY, WILLIAM LEARNED

(1786-1857), American

statesman, was born in Southbridge, Mass., on Dec. 12,,1786. He graduated at Brown university in 1808, studied law, was admitted to the bar in Troy, N.Y., and began practice there in 1810. During the War of 1812 he served as a captain of volunteers, and Oct.

872

MARDI

GRAS—MARDUK

22, 1812 took part in the storming of the British post at St. route between the east and west. From Mardin one road leads Regis, Canada. In 1816 he became recorder of Troy, but he was west to Urfah and so to Aleppo or Aintab. A second runs north. removed from office in 1818 by his political opponents. As editor west to Diarbekr. South-east runs the road to the Tigris ang SO te of the Troy Budget he was a vigorous supporter of Martin Van Mosul and Baghdad. The town is the centre of a rich agricultural Buren, and when Van Buren’s followers acquired control of the district, the principal products being wheat, barley and sesame. A legislature in 1821 Marcy was made adjutant-general of the certain amount of wool is produced and there is a smal] cotton New York militia. From 1823 to 1829 Marcy was comptroller of and woollen weaving industry. The population is very mixed and the State, an office then especially important on account of the was (1927) 31,077 for the city and 182,773 for the vilayet. It large expenditures for internal improvements, and during this includes Arabs, Armenians, Jacobites, Kurds and a medley of period he became the leading member of the famous “Albany Asiatics. regency”? (g.v.), a group of able Democratic politicians who MARDONIUS (7. 479 3.c.), Persian general, was the son of exerted a powerful influence throughout the State by their control Gobryas, one of the conspirators against Smerdis the Magian, of the party patronage and machinery. He was one of the asso- He married Artazostra, daughter of Darius Hystaspis, and in ciate justices of the New York supreme court from 1829 to 1831, 492 was sent to succeed Artaphernes in the settlement of Ionia presiding over the trial of the alleged murderers of William Mor- with a special commission to attack Athens and Eretria. Con. gan and in other important cases; and was a member of the United trary to the usual Persian policy, he restored democracies ip

States Senate from Dec. 1831 to July 1832, when he resigned to become governor of New York. In a speech in the Senate defending Van Buren against an attack by Henry Clay, Marcy made the unfortunate remark that “to the victors belong the spoils of the enemy,” and thereby became widely known as a champion of the proscription of political opponents. He served as governor of New York for six years (1833-38 inclusive). As governor he secured the enactment, in 1838, of a general banking law, which abolished the monopoly features incident to the old banking system. In 1844-45 he was recognized as one of the leaders of the “Hunkers,” or regular Democrats in New York, and an active opponent of the ‘‘Barnburners.” He was secretary of war under President Polk from 1845 to 1849, and as such discharged with ability the especially onerous duties incident to the conduct of the Mexican War. From 1853 to 1857 he served the term as secretary of State in the cabinet of President Pierce. Few cabinet officers in time of peace have had more engrossing duties. His circular in 1853 to American diplomatic agents abroad, recommending that, whenever practicable, they should “appear in the simple dress of an American citizen,” created much discussion in Europe; in 1867 his recommendation was enacted into a law of Congress. In the same year he secured the negotiation of the Gadsden Treaty (see GADSDEN, James), by which the boundary dispute between Mexico and the United States was adjusted and a large area was added to the Federal domain. The expedition of William Walker (g.v.) to Nicaragua in 1855 further complicated the Central American situation. The diplomatic relations of the United States and Spain growing out of the noted “Black Warrior Case” furnished, perhaps, the most perplexing of Marcy’s problems, and it was largely due to his influence that war was averted. However, he was not averse to increasing his popularity and his chances for the presidency by obtaining Cuba in an honourable manner, and it was at his suggestion that James Buchanan, J. Y. Mason and Pierre Soulé, the ministers respectively to Great Britain, France and Spain, met at Ostend and Aix-la-Chapelle in Oct. 1854 to discuss the Cuban question. But the remarkable “Ostend Manifesto” (g.v.), the outcome of their conference, was quite unexpected, and Marcy promptly disavowed the document. In domestic affairs Marcy was a shrewd, but honest partisan; in diplomacy he exhibited the qualities of a broadminded, patriotic statesman, endowed, however, with vigour, rather than brilliancy, of intellect. He died at Ballston Spa, N.Y., on July 4, 1857.

For his early career, consult J. S. Jenkins, Lives of the Governors of New York (Auburn, N.Y., 1851); and for his work as secretary .of State, see James Ford Rhodes, History of the United States (vols. i. and ii., x892), and an article by Sidney Webster, “Mr. Marcy, the Cuban Question, and the Ostend Manifesto” (in vol. viii. of the Political Science Quarterly, 1893); J. B. Moore, “A Great Secretary of

State,” Pol. Sci. Quart. (vol. xxx., P. 377-396, Lancaster, Pa., 1915); “Diary and Memoranda of William L. Marc » 1849-51,” American

Hist. Rev. (vol. xxiv., P. 444~462, 641-653, Lancaster, Pa., 1919) ; De Alva S. Alexander, (1906-1923).

A Political History of the State of New

York

MARDI GRAS: see Surove Tuespay. MARDIN, a town in a vilayet of the same name in Kurdistan,

Turkey, and c. 30 m. north-west of Nisibin, on the line of the _Baghdad railway. The town is of some importance on the caravan

Tonia, and then crossed the Hellespont and invaded Thrace and Macedonia. His fleet was wrecked off Athos with enormous loss and Mardonius abandoned further progress and came back to Aria; he was superseded in 490. On the accession of Xerxes Mardonius was one of the chief instigators in the invasion of Greece. After Salamis he persuaded Xerxes to return, and himself

stayed behind with a large army. He was defeated by Pausanius and killed at Plataea in September 470. See Herodotus: Books vi~-ix.; Diod. xi., i, 28-31.

MARDUK, a late name for the god of the city of Babylon, who appears regularly in the classical Sumerian liturgies under the

titles Asar-lu-dug and Enbilulu. The original title is Asaru, which

occurs in the old pantheon at Fara, c. 3200 B.c., and so far as known, long before the city of Babylon was founded. Asaru, Asar-ri, is a title of this, originally inferior, deity of the cult of Enki at Eridu, as son of the water god, a deity of lustration, His connection with Babylon, which is first mentioned as a small city by Sargon in the 28th century B.c., may be original and very old. The title Marduk lays special emphasis upon his solar aspect.

It is certain that all the older titles of this god, Asaru, Asar-alim,

Asar-alim-nun-na, Asarludug, describe him as an inferior deity of the water cult of Eridu, and how he came to be transferred to Babylon is at present inexplicable. Alim means the mythical fish ram, symbol of his father, the water god of Eridu, and Asaru was the god of lustration at Habur in Eridu. Asarludug means “Asaru who restores man to happiness,” and describes his original activity as agent of Enki in all magical rituals of the water cult against demons. Marduk is pre-eminently the god of the magicians in Babylonian and Assyrian religion, and this was his sole sphere in the original Sumerian pantheon. With the rapid rise of Babylon under the rı kings of the rst

dynasty (2169-1870), the priests of the local cult looked for

some means of increasing the respect due to the god of the great capital and a theological reason for it. Inasmuch as the Sumerian pantheon had been universally accepted by the Accadians, and

had now a firm hold upon the religious beliefs of the Semites in

Assyria, Cappadocia and the Amoritic western country, it was impossible to make Asaru one of the three heads of the trinity; these were securely held by Anu, Enlil and Enki. But the old

war and sun god Ninurta, Zamama, son of Enlil, was largely drawn upon to make Asaru also a sun god, and more especially the god

of the spring sun. This addition to his original character as a god of lustration and magic was brought about by rewriting the Sumerian legend of Creation in which Ninurta championed the gods against the dragon of Chaos, the storm demon Zû, and then created the world. The new Semitic version in six books attributed this victory of the gods to Marduk. The name itself was

introduced at this time, amar-udu, amar-utu, and means “young

bull, the sun,” becoming, after the regular rule of Sumerian loanwords, Marutukku, Marudukku, Mé-ri-tu-[uk-ku], M aruduk, Marduku, Marduk. (See S. Langdon, Oxford Editions of Cunei-

form Texts, vol. vi. 99, 113, and Cuneiform Texts ..

in the

British Museum, vol. xxv. 34, ii. 17.) The Hebrew transcription is Merodak, and the Greek, Maradouchos, Mardakos, Mardokos, Maradach. ,

In the Semitic version of the Epic, Marduk’s birth and education

MARE—MARENGO are described.

The old theological view, that he was the son of

Enki or Ea of Eridu, is preserved, except in the Assyrian editions, where he is displaced by Ashur, son of Lahmu.

The legend

of how he was unanimously raised to the rank of a great god (in the convocation of the gods), because of his magical power

to cause objects to vamish and reappear, and for his promise to go forth to battle with Tiamat, Kingu and the dragons of darkness, is one of the principal episodes of the epic. After Tiamat was slain and the dragons bound, Marduk created heaven and earth, the constellations and planets, and fixed their movements. Finally, he ordered man to be created on the advice of his father, Ea. Kingu was then slain and from his blood “mankind” was created. This was the Eridu legend of the creation of man, but in the rival Nippurian school his creation is said to have been by the mother goddess, Aruru, from clay. Undoubtedly the Hebrew legend of the creation of Adam from

clay combines the legend of Marduk and Aruru.

Upon the epic of Creation and the myth of the conquest of

light over darkness is based the Babylonian new year festival, described in the article BABYLONIAN AND ASSYRIAN RELIGION. For the later identification of Marduk with Tammuz and the Resurrection of Bél, see Tammuz. So completely did Marduk finally dominate the religion of Babylonia that he is chiefly known to Greek and Roman writers as “lord,” Bélos, see BEL. A text proves that in the late period theological speculation went so far as to assimilate all the important deities to Marduk, but this advance toward real monotheism was obviously confined

to priests at Babylon. (See Jensen, Keilinschriftliche Bibliothek, vi. pt. 2, p. 118.) Unlike other great and older deities, Marduk had no temples and shrines outside his own city. The Sumerian

cities of the south never admitted his new rôle in the pantheon, but only his original names and character as an inferior water deity of Eridu. At Babylon his temple, Esagila, and his stage tower, Etemenanki, were the largest of the kind in Babylonia and Assyria. To Esagila, at least in the late period, all the statues of the great gods of Babylonia were brought in ships and wagons to assemble in the hall of convocation (Dukug) and fix the fates of men for the coming year at the Nisan festival. Marduk’s principal réle in astronomy was as the planet Jupiter; as such he was known as Shulpaé, a title of a deity which originally had no connection with Asaru or Marduk. The title belongs originally to Enlil, the ancient Bêl of Nippur, and is found in the oldest inscriptions. The planet must have been known as mul Shulpaé, and identified with Enlil before the 22nd century, otherwise the name would not have been chosen for Marduk when the theologians assigned to him the largest of the planets. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—Johannes Hehn, Hymnen und Gebete an Marduk, Beiträge zur

Assyriologie,

v.

279-400

(Leipzig,

1903);

A. Deimel,

Pantheon Babylonicum, No. 2,078 (Rome, 1914); H. Zimmern, Die Keilinschriften und das Alte Testament, 3rd ed., 370-396 (Berlin, 1903) ; A. Jeremias, Handbuch der altorientalischen Geisteskuliur, 273276. For symbol of Marduk (a spear) on monuments: K. Frank, Bilder und Symbole babylonisch-assyrischer Götter. (Leipzig, 1906). For his rôle in rituals of expiation, H. Zimmern, Die Beschworungstafeln Surpu (Leipzig, r901) ; K. L. Tallquist, Die Assyrische Beschworungsserie Magli (Helsingfors, 1894) ; R. C. Thompson, The Devils and Evil Spirits of Babylonia (London, 1903). (S. L.)

MARE, the female of any animal of the family Equidae, particularly of the horse. It is also used of the camel. To find a “mare’s nest” is an old saying for a purely imaginary discovery. In “night-mare,” an oppressive or terrifying dream, the termination is a word for a goblin, supposed to cause these dreams: cf. ELF.

MARE

CLAUSUM

and MARE

LIBERUM

(Lat. for

“closed sea” and “free sea”) in international law, terms associated with the historic controversy which arose out of demands on the part of different States to assert exclusive dominion over areas

of the open or high sea. Thus Spain and Portugal laid claim to exclusive dominion over whole oceans, Great Britain to the narrow seas, and so on. These claims gave rise to vigorous opposition by other powers and led to the publication of Grotius’s work Mare liberum (1608). In Mare clausum, written in 1617—18 and published in 1635, Selden asserted “‘that the sea by the law of nature

873

or nations is not common to all men but capable of private dominion or property as well as the land.” A formula was found by Bynkershoek in his De dominio maris (1702) for the restriction of dominion over the sea to the actual

distance to which cannon range, i.¢., three marine miles, could protect it (see WATERS, TERRITORIAL). See Grotius, The Freedom of the Seas (tr. by R. van D. Magoffin, 1916); Sir J. Boroughs, The Sovereignty of the British Seas (ed. Wade, 1920).

MAREE, LOCH, a fresh-water lake in the county of Ross and Cromarty, Scotland. Its name commemorates St. Maelrubha, who, in 671 founded a monastery at Applecross and a chapel (now in ruins) on Isle Maree. The lake is 134 m. long from Kinlochewe at the head of the dam erected in the 16th century (or earlier) by the iron-smelters of the Cheardach Ruardh, or

Red Smiddy, on the river Ewe by which it drains to the sea. Its greatest breadth is just over 2 m. at Slattadale, and the greatest depth 367 ft. There are over 30 islands, covering an area of nearly 1 sq.m. and lying mostly north and east of Slattadale. The largest is Eilean Subhainn, or St. Swithin’s Isle, which contains two small lakes. For two-thirds of its length the loch is flanked by mountains. On the north-east the principal heights are Ben Slioch (3,217 ft.), Ben Lair and Ben Airidh-a-Char, and, on the south-west, the peaks of Ben Eay, four of which exceed 3,000 ft. Sea trout and salmon are taken in the loch.

MAREES, HANS VON (1837-1887), German painter, was born at Elberfeld on Dec. 24, 1837. where he studied for two years under years he worked chiefly in Munich, of the historical school, and in 1864

In 1853 he went to Berlin, Steffeck. For the next eight coming under the influence he went to Rome. He also

travelled in Spain and France and spent some time in Berlin. In 1873 he received his most important commission, the painting of frescoes in the library of the Zoological museum at Naples. Although ambitious, Marées lacked self-confidence, and in the latter part of his life ceased to exhibit his work. He died in Rome on June 5, 1887, a disappointed and practically unknown man. When his works were collected at the Munich exhibition in 1891, their real value became apparent. See Meier-Grafe, Hans von Marées (vol. iii., 1909) ; Conrad Fiedler,

H. v. Marées, 2 vols., one of illustrations (Munich, 1889) ; Hans von

Marées, Briefe (Munich, 1920) ; Meier-Grafe, Der Teichner Hans von Marées (Munich, 1925).

MAREMMA,

a marshy region of Tuscany, Italy, from the

mouth of the Cecina to Orbetello, 15 to‘20 m. broad. In Etruscan and Roman times the Maremma was a populous and fertile coast plain, with considerable towns situated on the hills—Populonia, Rusdellae, Cosa, etc——and was drained by subterranean canals, which were brought to light when excavations were in progress for the building of railways. The decline of agriculture at the end of the Republic led to a conversion of the land to pasture, and the fall of the Empire resulted in neglect of watercourses. Leopold II. of Tuscany (1822-1844) made the first successful efforts to counteract malaria by drainage, filling up of swamps, and establishment of new farms, and since his time continuous efforts have been made with considerable success. See C. Nicolosi, II Litorale Maremmano; La Montagna Maremmana (Bergamo, Arti Grafiche, 1911), well illustrated.

MARENGO,

a village of north Italy, on the road between

Alessandria and Tortona, and 4łm. E.S.E. of the gates of the former. It is situated on the Fontanone brook, a small affluent of the Tanaro which marks the western edge of the plain of Marengo, the scene of the great victory won by Napoleon Bonaparte over the Austrians under Baron Melas (1729-1806) on June

14, 1800. The antecedents of the battle are described under FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY WARS. The French army, uncertain of its opponent’s position, had advanced westward from the Scrivia towards Alessandria on the 12th, and its outposts had reached the Bormida on the evening of the 13th. But contact with the main Austrian army was not obtained, and on the assumption that it was moving towards either Valenza or Genoa Bonaparte weakened his army by considerable detachments sent out right and left to find the enemy and to delay

874

MARENZIO—MARE’S-TAIL

his progress. Unknown, however, to Bonaparte Melas’s army was still at Alessandria, and on the morning of June 14 it filed out of the fortress and began its advance into the great plain of Marengo, one of the few favourable cavalry battle-grounds in north Italy. Gen. Victor had not carried out Bonaparte’s evening order to destroy the bridges over the Bormida, and the dispersion of the French army allowed only a fragmentary, though most energetic, resistance to be offered to the Austrian onset. The latter, considerably delayed at first by the Yalmagra crossing of the river Bormida, oYillanova broke up into two columns,} advanced, the right by the main road on Marengo, the left on

Castel Ceriolo. The former, per-

sonally commanded

by Melas,

was 20,000 strong, and Gen. Victor, its immediate opponent,

e e

Fe cra

MAP OF MARENGO, THE SCENE OF NAPOLEON’S VICTORY OVER THE

attack.

All arms were combined.

First, Marmont with eight of

Boudet’s guns and ten others (the rest had been abandoned in the retirement) came into action on the right of the road, replying to the fire of the Austrian guns and checking their advanced infantry: close in rear of the artillery was Desaix’s infantry with the rem. nants of Lannes’ and Victor’s troops rallying on its right and left:

on Lannes’ right, still facing Ott’s column, was Monnier, sup-

ported by the Consular Guard of horse and foot; lastly 400 sabres of Kellermann’s cavalry brigade, which had already been engaged several times and had lost heavily, formed up on the right of Desaix. About 5 p.m. Desaix advanced against the head of the Austrian main column formed by Zach. He himself fell in the at-

tack, but the onset of bis intact troops drove back the leading

Austrians upon their supports, and at the critical moment when the attack of Boudet’s single weak division had almost spent its force, Kellermann with his 400 sabres sallied out of the French line. Marmont had brought up two guns to assist the infantry, and as he fired his last round of case-shot the cavalry raced past him to the front, wheeled inwards against the flank of the great

about 10,000, or including some AUSTRIANS, JUNE 14, 1800 5,000 of Lannes’ corps who fought on his right, about 15,000 column, and rode through and through it. Zach was taken prisoner strong; the Austrians were, moreover, greatly superior in guns (in with more than 2,000 men, and Kellermann, rallying some of his all 192 to 14) and cavalry. The French disputed every yard of troopers, flung himself upon the astonished Austrian cavalry and ground, holding their first line until they had by fire and counter- with the assistance of the Consular Guard cavalry defeated it. attack forced practically the whole of the Austrian right to de- The “will to conquer” spread along the whole French line, while

ploy, and two hours passed before the Austrians managed to reach the Fontanone brook. But Victor’s troops, being disorganized and short of ammunition, had then to retire more rapidly across the plain. The retreat was orderly, according to Victor’s report, and made in échelon from the centre, and it is certain that at any rate the regiments held together, for the 6,000 Austrian sabres found no opportunity to charge home. Many guns and wagons were,

however, abandoned. On the French right, opposed to the column of Lieut.-FieldMarshal Ott, was Lannes, with some 4,000 men (excluding Watrin’s division which was with Victor) against 7,500. He too was after a time forced to retire, with heavy losses. Thus, about II A.M., Bonaparte, who was at some distance from the field, became convinced that he had to deal with Melas’s army. At once he sent out his staff officers to bring back his detachments, and pushed forward his only reserve, Monnier’s division, to support Lannes and Victor. But before this help arrived Lannes had been driven out of Castel Ceriolo, and Victor and Watrin forced back almost to San Giuliano. A little after 2 p.w. Monnier’s division (3,500) came into action, and its impetuous advance drove the Austrians out of Castel Ceriolo. But after an hour it was forced back in its turn, and by 3 p.m, therefore, the 20,000 French troops, disordered and exhausted, and in one line without reserves,”

the surprise of the Austrians suddenly and strangely became mere

panic. Lannes, Victor and Monnier advanced afresh, pushing the

Austrians back on Marengo. A few Austrian battalions made a gallant stand at that place, while Melas himself, as night came on, rallied the fugitives beyond. Next day the completely exhausted, but victorious, French army extorted from the dazed Austrians a convention by which all Italy up to the Mincio was evacuated by them. The respective losses were: French about 4,000, Austrians 9,500. See the French official Campagne de l’armée de réserve, vol. ii., by C. de Cugnac.

MARENZIO, LUCA (before 1560-1599), Italian composer,

was born probably at Coccaglia in the Bergamask before 156o. According to some accounts he was descended from a noble family of Bergamo. He was a pupil of Giovanni Contini, organist of Brescia, and began to publish books of madrigals at an early age. In 1581 he was in Venice and from 1582 to 1585 in Rome, where he was at one period chapel-master to the Cardinal d’Este. For two years he held a handsome appointment at the court of Poland, but 1595 found him back in Rome with an appointment at the Papal chapel. In Rome he became a warm friend of Cardinal Aldobrandino, the pope’s nephew. He died in Rome on Aug. 22, 1599. Marenzio’s most important compositions consist of the 16 books of madrigals, 5 books of vilanelles and airs, 2 books of

held a ragged line of battle to the right and left of San Giuliano. The best that could be expected was a prolongation of the struggle motets and I mass. (The complete list is in Eitner’s Quellen. till nightfall and a fairly orderly retreat. Melas, slightly wounded lexikon.) The 5-part and 6-part madrigals in two books are in the and believing that the battle was won, returned to Alessandria, British Museum. The Musica transalpina (1588) contains some leaving a younger man, his chief of staff Zach, to organize the of his works, and several motets are included in Proske’s Musica pursuit. divina (1853). ` Then followed one of the most dramatic events in military hisSee also “Marenzio” in Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians. tory. Of the two detachments sent away by N apoleon in search MAREOTIS, the most westerly of the lakes in the Delta of of the enemy, one only received its orders of recall. This was Boudet’s division of Desaix’s corps, away to the south at Rivalta Egypt (Arab. Mariut). On the narrow strip of land separating the and at noon heading for Pozzolo-Formigaro on the Alessandria- lake from the Mediterranean the city of Alexandria is built. (See Genoa road. At £ p.m. a brief message, “Revenez, au nom de Ecypt and ALEXANDRIA.) In classical times its shores were a Dieu!” altered the direction of the column, and between 4 and 5, region of great fertility, and in the middle ages the lake was pracafter a forced march, the division, headed by Desaix, came on to tically dry. During the siege of Alexandria in 1801 the British the battle-field. It was deployed as a unit and moved forward at cut the ridge of dunes at Aboukir and flooded the area with sea the word of command along the main road Alessandria-Tortona, water. Now, by means of pumps, the water-level of the lake the sight of their closed line giving fresh courage to the men of is kept about 8 ft. below sea-level, and cultivation has been largely Lannes and Victor. Then, while on the other side Zach was array- restored. MARE’S-TAIL, in botany, the popular name for an aquatic ing a deep column of troops to pursue along the main road, Napoleon and Desaix, themselves under fire, hastily framed a plan of herb known botanically as Hippuris vulgaris (water-milfoil family Hippuridaceae). It grows on margins of lakes, ponds and similar

‘A third column was sent out to the extreme right (3,000 under O’Reilly). This destroyed a small French detachment on the extreme left, but took little or no „part in the main battle. *The Austrians, too, fighting in “linear” formation had few reserves. About one-third only of the imperial forces in Italy was actually engaged in the battle.

localities, and has a submerged stout creeping rootstock from which spring many-jointed cylindrical stems bearing numerous narrow leaves close-set in whorls. The minute greenish flowers are borne in the leaf-axils. Like many freshwater plants it has

a wide distribution, occurring in arctic and temperate regions in

MARET—MARGARET the northern America.

hemisphere.

It reappears

in Antarctic

South

MARET, HUGUES-BERNARD, Duc pz Bassano (1763-

1839), French statesman and publicist, was born at Dijon. After

receiving a sound education, he entered the legal profession and became advocate

at the King’s Council at Paris.

The interest

aroused by the debates of the first National Assembly suggested to him the idea of publishing them, conjointly with Méjean, in the Bulletin de ’Assemblée. The publicist Charles Joseph Panc-

875

named Aedesius. She was scorned by her father for her Christian faith, and lived in the country with a foster mother keeping sheep. Olybrius, the “praeses orientis,” offered her marriage as the price of her renunciation of Christianity.

Her refusal led to her being

cruelly tortured, and after various miraculous incidents, she was put to death. Among the Greeks she is known as Marina, and her festival is on the 17th of July. She has been identified with

St. Pelagia (g.v.)—-Marina being the Latin equivalent of Pelagia ——who, according to a legend, was also called Margarito. The cult of St. Margaret was very widespread in England, where more than 250 churches are dedicated to her.

koucke (1736-1798), owner of the Mercure de France and publisher of the famous Encyclopédie (1781), persuaded him to merge this in a larger paper, the Moniteur universel, which gained a wide repute for correctness and impartiality. He was a member of the moderate club, the Feuillants; but after the overthrow of the monarchy on Aug. 10, 1792 he accepted an office in the ministry of foreign affairs, where he sometimes exercised a steadying in-

See Acta sanctorum, July, v. 24-45; Bibliotheca hagiographica, Latina (Brussels, 1899), n. 5303-13; Frances Arnold-Forster, Studies in Church Dedications (London, 1899), i. 131-133 and iii. 19.

fluence. On the withdrawal of the British legation from Paris Maret went on a mission to London, where he had a favourable interview with Pitt on Dec. 2, 1792. All hope of an accommodation was, however, in vain. After the execution of Louis XVI. (Jan. 21, 1793), the chief French diplomatic agent, Chauvelin,

In 1067 the widow and children of Edward fled from Northumberland and sought the protection of the Scottish king. The mar-

was ordered to leave England, while the French Convention declared war (Feb. 1, 1793). These events precluded the possibility of success attending a second mission of Maret to London in

January.

He was sent to Naples as ambassador of the French

Republic; but he was captured by the Austrians, and was only released in 1795 when the duchess of Angouléme was set free. Maret took part in the negotiations with Great Britain at Lille during the summer of 1797, until the coup d’état of Fructidor frustrated any peace. On the return of Bonaparte from Egypt

in 1799 Maret joined the general’s party which came to power with the coup d’état of Brumaire (Nov. 9—10, 1799). Maret now became one of the First Consul’s secretaries and shortly afterwards secretary of state. The Moniteur, which became the official journal of the state in 1800, was placed under his control. In 1804 he became minister; in 1807 he was named

count, and in 1809 he received the title of duc de Bassano. His personal devotion to the emperor was of that absolute unwavering kind which Napoleon highly valued. Maret accompanied Napoleon through most of his campaigns, including that of 18009; and in the spring of 1811 he replaced Champagny, duc de Cadore, as minister of Foreign Affairs. In this capacity he concluded the treaties between France and Austria and France and Prussia, which preceded the French invasion of Russia in 1812. He was with Napoleon through the greater part of that campaign; and after its disastrous conclusion helped to prepare the new forces with which Napoleon waged the equally disastrous campaign of 1813. But in November 1813 Napoleon replaced him by Caulaincourt, duc de Vicence. Maret, however, as private secretary of the emperor, remained with his master through the campaign of 1814, as also during that of 1815. After the second restoration of the Bourbons he was exiled, and retired to Gratz where he occupied himself with literary work. In 1820 he was allowed to return to France, and after the Revolution of 1830, Louis Philippe, king of the French, made him a peer of France; he also held two high offices for a few days. He died at Paris in 1839. He shares with Daru the honour of being the hardest worker and most devoted supported in Napoleon’s service; but it has generally been considered that he carried devotion to the length of servility, and thus often compromised the real interests of France. This view has been contested by Baron Ernouf in his work Maret, duc de Bassano, which is the best biography. For Maret’s mission to England in 1792 and his work at Lille in 1797, ee Augustus W. Miles, Letters on the French Revolution.

MARGARET,

a female proper name, which became very

pular in all Christian countries as that of Saint Margaret (g.v.). Fr. Marguerite, It. Margherita, Ger. Margareta, fr. Lat., mararita, Gr. wapyapirns, a pearl.) :

MARGARET, ST. (Sancta Marcarira), virgin and martyr,

s celebrated by the Church of Rome on July 20. According to the egend, she was a native of Antioch, daughter. of a pagan priest

MARGARET,

ST. (c¢. 1045-1093), queen of Malcolm III.

Canmore king of Scotland, was the daughter of the English prince Edward, son of Edmund Ironside, and sister of Edgar Aetheling.

riage of Malcolm and Margaret was followed by several invasions of Northumberland by the Scottish king, probably in support of the claims of his brother-in-law Edgar. A considerable portion of the old Northumbrian kingdom had been reduced by the Scottish kings in the previous century, but up to this time the English population had little influence upon the ruling element of the kingdom. Malcolm’s marriage undoubtedly improved the condition of the English, and under Margaret’s sons, Edgar, Alexander I. and David I., the Scottish court practically became Anglicized. Margaret died on Nov. 17, 1093, four days after her husband and her eldest son Edward, who were slain in an invasion of Northumberland. She rebuilt the monastery of Iona, and was canonized in I25I on account of her benefactions to the Church. MARGARET (1353-1412), queen of Denmark, Norway and Sweden, the daughter of Valdemar IV. of Denmark, was born in 1353 and married ten years later to King Haakon VI. of Norway. Her first act, after her father’s death (1375), was to procure the election of her infant son Olaf as king of Denmark. Olaf died in 1387, having in 1380 also succeeded his father; and in the following year Margaret, who had ruled both kingdoms in his name, was chosen regent of Norway and Denmark. She now turned to Sweden, where the nobles were in arms against their unpopular king, Albert of Mecklenburg. At a conference held at Dalaborg castle, in March 1388, the Swedes were compelled to accept all Margaret’s conditions, elected her “Sovereign Lady and Ruler,” and engaged to accept from her any king she chose to appoint. On Feb. 24, 1389, Albert, who had returned from Mecklenburg with an army of mercenaries, was routed and taken prisoner at Aasle near Falképing, and Margaret was now the omnipotent mistress of three kingdoms. Stockholm, then almost entirely a German city, still held out; fear of Margaret induced both the Mecklenburg princes and the Wendish ‘towns to hasten to its assistance; and the Baltic and the North Sea speedily swarmed with the privateers of the Viktualien brédre or Vitalianer, so called because their professed object .was to revictual Stockholm. Finally the Hansa intervened, and by the compact of Lindholm (1395) Albert was released by Margaret on promising to pay 60,000 marks within three years, the Hansa in the meantime to hold Stockholm in pawn. Albert failing to pay his ransom within the stipulated time, the Hansa surrendered Stockholm to Margaret in September 1398, in exchange for very considerable commercial privileges. It had been understood that Margaret should, at the first convenient opportunity, provide the three kingdoms with a king who was to be her nearest kinsman, and in 1389 she proclaimed her infant cousin, Eric of Pomerania, king of Norway. In 1396 homage was rendered to him in Denmark and Sweden likewise,

Margaret reserving to herself the office of regent’ during his

minority. To weld the united kingdoms still more closely together, Margaret summoned a congress of the three councils of state to Kalmar in June 1397; and on Trinity Sunday, June 17, Eric was crowned king of Denmark, Norway and Sweden. The proposed act of union divided the.three Rigsraads, but the actual

876

MARGARET—MARGARET

deed embodying the terms of the union never got beyond the stage of an unratified draft. Margaret revolted at the clauses which insisted that each country should retain its own laws and customs, and be administered by its own dignitaries, as tending to prevent amalgamation, but she avoided every appearance of an open rupture.

A few years after the union of Kalmar, Eric, now in his eighteenth year, was declared of age and homage was rendered to him in all his three kingdoms, but during her lifetime Margaret was the real ruler of Scandinavia. So long as the union was insecure, Margaret had tolerated the presence near the throne of

MAULTASCH

rivalry between the French and English factions in Scotland was complicated by private feuds of the Hamiltons and Douglases the respective heads of which houses, Arran and Angus, were contending for the supreme power in the absence of Albany in France, where at the instance of Henry VIII. he was detained by Francis I. Margaret, quarrelling with her husband over money matters, sided at first with Arran and began to agitate for a

divorce from Angus. In this she was probably aided by Albany

who found an unexpected ally in the queen-mother, Margaret being temporarily alienated from the English party by her brother

Henry’s opposition to her divorce.

When Albany returned tg

“good men” from all three realms (the Rigsraad, or council of state, as these councillors now began to be called); but their

Scotland in 1521 his association with Margaret gave rise to the accusation that it was with the intention of marrying her that

influence was always insignificant. In every direction the royal authority remained supreme. The offices of high constable and earl marshal were left vacant; the Danehoffer or national assemblies fell into desuetude, and the great queen, an ideal despot, ruled through her court officials acting as superior clerks. Margaret also recovered for the Crown all the landed property which had been alienated during the troublous days of Valdemar IV. This so-called “reduktion,” or land-recovery, was carried out with the utmost rigour, and hundreds of estates fell to the Crown. Margaret also reformed the Danish currency. In foreign politics she maintained a strict system of neutrality. On the other hand she spared no pains to recover lost Danish territory. Gotland she purchased from its actual possessors, Albert of Mecklenburg and the Livonian Order, and the greater part of Schleswig was regained in the same way. Margaret died suddenly on board her ship in Flensborg harbour on Oct. 28, 1412.

he favoured her divorce from Angus. As Albany was strongly supported by the Scottish parliament, Angus found it necessary

See Danmarks riges historie, den senere Middelalder, pp. 358-412 (Copenhagen, 1897-1905) ; Erslev, Danmarks historie under dronning Margrethe (Copenhagen, 1882—r901); Hill, Margaret of Denmark (London, 1898). (R. N. B.)

MARGARET

(1489-1541), queen of Scotland, eldest daugh-

ter of Henry VII, king of England, by his wife Elizabeth, daughter of Edward IV., was born at Westminster on Nov. 209, 1489. She married James IV. of Scotland on Aug. 8, 1503, but the scanty dowry given by her avaricious father embittered the relations between the two kingdoms, which the marriage, although

to withdraw to France till 1524.

During these years there was

constant warfare between the English and the Scots on the border, but in May 1524 Albany was obliged to retire to France. Henry VIII. continually aimed at securing the person of his nephew, the king of Scots, but he was proclaimed a reigning sovereign in July

1524. The queen-mother married Henry Stewart, second son of Lord Avondale, immediately after her divorce from Angus in 1527, Margaret and her new husband, who was created Lord Methven, now became for a time the ruling influence in the counsels of James V. But when her desire to arrange a meeting between James and Henry VIII. in 1534 was frustrated by the clergy and the council, Margaret in her disappointment revealed certain secrets to Henry which led to her being accused by her son of

betraying him for money and of acting as an English spy. She died at Methven Castle on Oct. 18, 1541. See A. Lang, History of Scotland, vol. i. (1900); M. A. E. Green, Lives of the Princesses of England (6 vols., 1849-55); The Hamilton Papers, ed. by J. Bain (2 vols., Edinburgh, 1890) ; John Leslie, History of Scotland, ed. by T. Thompson (4 vols., Edinburgh, 1830); Sir H. Ellis, Original Letters Illustrative of English History (1825-46).

MARGARET

(1283-1290), titular queen of Scotland, and

generally known as the “maid of Norway,” was the daughter of Eric II., king of Norway, and Margaret, daughter of Alexander III., king of Scotland. Her mother died soon after Margaret’s birth, and in 1284 the estates of Scotland decided that if Alexander died childless the crown should pass to his granddaughter. In March 1286 Alexander was killed and Margaret became queen. The English king Edward I. was watching affairs in Scotland, and in 1289 a marriage was arranged between the infant queen and Edward’s son, afterwards Edward II. Margaret sailed from Norway and reached the Orkneys, where she died in Sept. 1290. Some mystery surrounded her death, and about 1300 a woman from Leipzig declared she was Queen Margaret. The impostor, if she were such, was burned as a witch at Bergen.

accompanied by a treaty of perpetual peace, did nothing to heal. The whole of Margaret’s life after her marriage was an unending series of intrigues, first with one political faction then with another; her conduct being mainly influenced by considerations affecting her pocket. Margaret was crowned at Edinburgh in March 1504. Between 1507 and 1510 two sons and a daughter were born, all of whom died in infancy; in 1512 she gave birth to a son who succeeded his father as James V.; in 1514 she bore a posthumous son, Alexander, created duke of Ross, who died in the following year. A See A. Lang, History of Scotland, vol. i. (Edinburgh, 1904); A. O. Early Sources of Scottish History, AD. 500-1286, vol. 2 dispute with her brother Henry VIII. over a legacy was a con- fpr 1922). tributory cause of the war which ended at Flodden, where James IV. was killed in Sept. 1513, having by his will appointed MarMARGARET MAULTASCH (1318—1369), countess of garet sole guardian of her infant son, now James V. Scotland was Tirol, nicknamed Maultasch (pocket-mouth) on account of the divided mainly into two parties, one in favour of alliance with shape of her mouth, was the daughter and heiress of Henry, duke England, and the other with France. The leader of the latter was of Carinthia and count of Tirol. When Henry died in 1335 CaJohn Stewart, duke of Albany, next heir to the crown of Scotland rinthia passed to Albert IIL., duke of Austria; but Tirol was after Margaret’s sons; Margaret herself for the most part inclined inherited by Margaret and her young husband, John Henry, son to the English faction; and when Albany returned to Scotland of John, king of Bohemia, whom she had married in 1330. This from France on the invitation of the Scottish parliament in the union was not a happy one, and the Tirolese disliked the governspring of 1514, the conflict grew almost to civil war. Her mar- ment of Charles, afterwards the emperor Charles IV., who ruled riage to Archibald Douglas, earl of Angus, on Aug. 6, 1514 alien- the county for his brother. Margaret combined with the Estates ated many of the nobility, especially the earls of Arran and Home, and expelled her husband, and supported by the Emperor Louis and made her entirely dependent on the house of Douglas. IV., who, declaring her marriage null and void, married her m It also furnished the council with a pretext for removing her from 1342 to his own son Louis, margrave of Brandenburg, whom the regency and guardianship of the king in favour of Albany in Margaret thet pronounced Count of Tirol. The local nobles July 1515. She fled to England in September, where a month were, however, soon discontented with their new rulers. Supported later she bore to Angus a daughter, Margaret, who afterwards by the Pope, who placed the Emperor and his son under the became countess of Lennox, mother of Lord Darnley and grand- ban, they attacked Margaret, who defended herself bravely until mother of James I. of England. her husband put down the rebellion. Louis died in 1361 and In 1516 Margaret went to her brother’s court in London, while Margaret’s only son, Meinhard, in 1363. On Sept. 29, 1363, Angus, much to his wife’s displeasure, returned to Scotland, where | Margaret handed over Tirol to Rudolph IV., duke of Austria, he made peace with Albany and was restored to his estates. The and retired to Vienna, where she died on Oct. 3, 1369. She lived

MARGARET

OF ANJOU—-MARGARINE

fong in the memory of the people of Carinthia, who regarded her as an amazon, and called her the Wicked Greil. See A. Huber,

Geschichte

der Vereinigung

Tirols mit Oesterreich

(Innsbruck, 1864). Her story is the subject of Lion Feuchtwanger’s novel The Ugly Duchess.

MARGARET

OF AUSTRIA

877 (1522-1586),

duchess

of

Parma and regent of the Netherlands from 1559 to 1567, was a natural daughter of Charles V. Her mother, Margaret van Ghent,

was a Fleming. She was brought up by her aunts Margaret of Austria and Maria of Hungary, who were successively regents of MARGARET OF ANJOU (1430-1482), queen of England, | the Netherlands from 1507 to 1530 and from 1530 to 1555. In daughter of René of Anjou, titular king of Naples and Jerusalem, 1533 she was married to Alexander de’.Medici, duke of Florence, was born on March 23, 1430. She married Henry VI. king of who was assassinated in 1537, after which she became the wife of England on April 23, 1445. Her marriage had been negotiated by Ottavio Farnese, duke of Parma, in 1542. The union proved an William de la Pole, duke of Suffolk, and when she came to Engunhappy one. Like her aunts, who had trained her, she was a land, Suffolk and his wife were her only friends. Naturally she woman of masculine abilities, and Philip II., when he left the fell under his influence, and supported his policy. This, added to Netherlands in 1559 for Spain, acted wisely in appointing her her French origin and sympathies, made her unpopular. Her regent. In ordinary times she would probably have proved as active share in politics began after Suffolk’s fall in 1450. She successful a ruler as her two predecessors in that post, but her not only supported Edmond Beaufort, duke of Somerset, in his task was very different from theirs. She had to face the rising opposition to Richard of York, but concerned herself also in the storm of discontent against the Inquisition and Spanish despotism, details of government, seeking pecuniary benefits for herself and and Philip left her but nominal authority. He was determined to her friends. As a childless queen her influence was limited; and pursue his own arbitrary course, and the issue was the revolt of when her only son, Edward, was born on Oct. 13, 1453, her husthe Netherlands. In 1567 Margaret resigned her post into the band was stricken with insanity. From this time she was the hands of the duke of Alva and retired to Italy. She died at Ortona ardent champion of her husband’s and son’s rights; to her energy in 1586. the cause of Lancaster owed its endurance, but her implacable See L. P. Gachard, Correspondance de Margutrite d’Autriche avec spirit contributed to its failure. Phillippe IT. 1554-1568 (Brussels, 1867-87); R. Fruin, Het voorspel When York’s protectorate was ended by Henry’s recovery in van den tachtig jarigen vorlog (Amsterdam, 1856); E. Rachfahl, January

1455,

Margaret,

not content

with

the restoration of

Somerset and her other friends to liberty and office, pushed her politics to extremes. The result was the defeat of the Lancas-

Margaretha von Parma, Statthalterin der Niederlande, 1559-1567 (Munich, 1895); also bibliography in Cambridge Modern History,

ii. 795-809 (1904). MARGARET OF AUSTRIA trians at St. Albans, and for a year Margaret had to acquiesce in York’s power. Ultimately, in October 1456 at Coventry, she procured some change in the government. Though formally reconciled to York in March 1458, she continued to intrigue with her

partisans in England, and even with friends in France. After the Yorkist failure at Ludlow in 1459, Margaret embittered the struggle by a wholesale proscription of her opponents in the parliament at Coventry. She was not present with her husband at Northampton on July 10, 1460. She made her way to Scotland, and from Mary of Gelderland, the queen regent, purchased the promise of help at the price of surrendering Berwick. Margaret was still in Scotland at the date of Wakefield, so was not, as alleged by hostile writers, responsible for the barbarous treatment of York’s body. But she was with the northern army which defeated Warwick at St. Albans on Feb. 17, 1461; for the executions which followed she must bear the blame. After Towton Margaret with her husband and son once more took refuge in Scotland. A year later she went to France, and with help from her father and Louis XI. equipped an expedition which landed in Northum-

berland in October, and achieved some slight success; but on the

(1480-1530),

duchess

of

Savoy and regent of the Netherlands from 1507 to 1530, daughter of the archduke Maximilian of Austria, afterwards the emperor Maximilian I., was born at Brussels on Jan. 10, 1480. In April 1497 she was married at Burgos to the Infant John, heir to the throne of Castile and Aragon. She was left a widow, however, a few months later. In 1501 Margaret became the wife of Philibert II., duke of Savoy, who only survived until 1504. The sudden death of her brother the archduke, Philip the Handsome (Sept. 25, 1506), opened out to her a new career. In 1507 she was appointed by her father regent of the Netherlands and guardian of her nephew Charles, afterwards the emperor Charles V. Charles came of age in 1515, but he entrusted Margaret with the regency, and she held the post until her death in 1530. She was a wise and prudent ruler, of masculine temper and intrepidity, and very capable in affairs.

See E. Münch, Margaretha von Österreich (Leipzig, 1883); Th. Juste, Charles-Quint et Marguérite d'Autriche (Brussels, 1858); A. Le Glay, Maximilien I. et Marguérite d'Autriche (with correspondence, Paris, 1839); De Quinsonas, Matériaux’ pour servir a@ Phistoire de Marguérite d'Autriche (Paris, 1855), and E. E. Tremayne, The First Governors of the Netherlands: Margaret of Austria (1908).

way to seek further help from Scotland the fleet was overwhelmed MARGARINE, the name first given by Chevreul to an ina storm. In the spring she was again trying to raid Northumberland. In August 1463 she crossed to Sluys in Flanders. She artificial substitute for butter, made from beef and other animal was almost destitute, but was courteously treated by Charles the fats, and sometimes mixed with real butter. The name of “butBold, then coynt of Charolais, and joined her father in France. terine” has also been used. The word margarine was adopted Margaret never lost her hopes of her son’s restoration. But when because of the pearly lustre of the fat, from L. margarita—Gr. at last the quarrel between Warwick and Edward IV. brought her mar garttés, a pearl. Artificial butter, or “margarine-mouries,” was for some years the opportunity, it was with difficulty that she could consent to be reconciled to so bitter an enemy. After Warwick’s success and manufactured in Paris according to a method made public by the Henry’s restoration Margaret still remained in France. On the eminent chemist Mége-Mouries. Having surmised that the forday of Warwick’s defeat at Barnet (April 14) Margaret and mation of the butter fat contained in milk was due to the absorpEdward landed at Weymouth. Three weeks later the Lancastrians tion of fat contained in the animal tissues, he was led to experiwere defeated at Tewkesbury, and Edward was killed. Margaret ment on the splitting up of animal fat. The process he ultimately was captured a few days after, and brought to London where for adopted consisted in heating finely minced beef suet with water, five years she remained a prisoner. Finally Louis XI. ransomed carbonate of potash, and fresh sheep’s stomach cut up into small her under the Treaty of Pecquigny, and she returned to France fragments. The mixture he raised to a temperature of 45°C in January 1476. Margaret lived for six years in Bar and Anjou, (113°F). The influence of the pepsine of the sheep’s stomach In poverty and dependent for a pension on Louis, who made her with the heat separated the fat from the cellular tissue; he resurrender in return her claims to her father’s inheritance. She moved the fatty matter, and submitted it when cool to powerful died on April 25, 1482 and was buried at Angers cathedral. hydraulic pressure, separating it into stearine and oleomargarine, BrsriocrapHy-—~For contemporary English authorities see under which last alone he used for butter-making. Of this fat about Henry VI. French authorities and especially the Chroniques of George the proportions of ro lb. with 4 pints of milk, and 3 pints of water de Chastellain, and the Mémoires of Philippes de Comines contain much that is of value. The Letters of Margaret of Anjou (Camden were placed in a churn, to which a small quantity of anatto was Soc., 1863) have small historical importance. There have been numer- added for colouring, and the whole churned together. The comous biographies, the chief is Mrs. Hookham’s Life of M argaret of pound so obtained when well washed was in general appearance, Anjou (1872). taste and consistency like ordinary butter, and when well freed

878

MARGARITA

from water it was found to keep a longer time. The process of manufacture was improved from time to time, and before the end of the World War the product, particularly vegetable margarine, was so like butter in flavour and appearance that it was occasionally difficult to distinguish from the product it was made to imitate. Generally speaking, three types of margarine exist: (a) animal margarine, (b) vegetable margarine and (c) mixed margarine. Varieties of Margarine.—Animal margarine has as a basis the material called oleo oil which is made by pressing premier JUS by hydraulic presses, so as to separate the soft oil (oleo oil) from the hard fat (oleo stearine}. Premier jus, as the name implies, is the first running of fat obtained by heating the fatty tissues of the caul and the kidneys of cattle at a temperature not exceeding 100° to 120° Fahrenheit. This fat is washed with brine and allowed to crystallize or “grain,” and is pressed to obtain the oleo oil. The fatty basis of vegetable margarine usually consists of a hard fat mixed with a liquid vegetable oil. The hard fat in this case is usually either about 25% of hardened (hydrogenated) oil, or 65 to 70% of coconut or palm-kernel oil. As liquid oils, cotton seed, arachis, soya bean and many others are used in accordance with the price and quality of the product desired. All these materials are subjected to a very drastic process of refinement and deodorization. In the case of mixed animal and vegetable margarine the solid fat is either premier jus itself or oleo stearine, z.e., the residue left after pressing premier jus. Whichever type of fatty basis is used it is subjected to a process of incorporation with milk. Skimmed milk is generally used for the purpose, not so much for the sake of saving the cost as because it is more readily obtained of a greater bacterial purity than whole milk. The skimmed milk, previously pasteurized, is placed in vats (ripening tanks), and is there inoculated with a pure culture of lactic acid-producing organisms—mainly bacillus acidi lactis Leichmann—which coagulate souring milk. The temperature is carefully controlled and, in a scientifically organized factory, the souring to the required extent is arranged to take place by a definite time. Great care is taken to keep the culture free from adventitious organisms which would produce undesirable flavours and impair the keeping properties of the finished product. Mould fungi are specially undesirable as they produce an unpleasant rancid flavour in the margarine, particularly when made with vegetable fats. When the milk has reached the desired state of sourness, as determined by analysis, it is churned with the fat, with or without artificial colouring matter, in specially constructed jacketed churns fitted with beaters for finely incorporating the previously melted fat with the soured milk. This churning process has to be carried out with great skill, care being taken to maintain the correct temperature and to stop the churning at the exact point when the emulsion reaches its maximum thickness, as continued churning causes the mass to become thin again. Various types of continuous emulsifiers other than churns are in use, some of which are very efficient. When the emulsion has reached the desired state, the product is then finished by either the wet or the dry process.

Wet and Dry Processes.—In the wet process the emulsion

is projected against a violent spray of iced water, which causes the emulsified fat to solidify in fine globules; the solidified mass which is produced subsequently floats on a tank of cooled water, from which it is removed and mechanically worked until the desired consistency is obtained. Salt and preservative, if any, are incorporated into the mass together with more colour. About 30% of milk is used in the wet process. The dry process is more economical, and little more than half the amount of milk is then required. In this process the emulsion from the churns is run in a gentle stream on to large rolls cooled Inside with brine. The emulsion, as it solidifies on the surface of the rolls, is scraped off by knives and then worked on tables, kneaders and rolls, in the same manner as in the wet process. Admixture with Butter.—Margarine, like butter, must not

contain more than 16% of water. The admixture of butter with

margarine to the extent of more than 10% of the former isprohibited. This regulation is still in force, though it seems Original! to have been made to dispel the fear of the farmer that butter might be adulterated with small quantities of margarine to make

such an excellent product that his trade might suffer, and that

the public might be defrauded.

Modern methods of analysis are

able to determine the percentage of butter fat in margarine to

within comparatively narrow limits, which was not the case when

margarine was first invented.

Margarine usually contained 0-25% of boron preservative, ex. cept the type termed “fresh-roll,” in which preservative was not

used. For many years up to 0-5% of boron preservative was per-

mitted, but under British regulations which came into force in

1927, preservatives, other than salt, are not permitted. The ny.

tritive value of margarine has long been a subject of discussion.

The chemical composition of butter is very similar to margarine,

which actually gives the same number of calories or heat units

as butter, and an average margarine is as digestible as an average

butter.

The

average

butter

is characterized

by considerable

vitamin content, whereas margarine is practically devoid of any such characteristic.

(See W. Clayton, Margarine, 1920.)

(E. R. Bo; R. G. P.) MARGARITA, an island in the Caribbean sea belonging to Venezuela, about 12m. north of the peninsula of Araya, and constituting—with Tortuga, Cubagua and Coche—a political division called the Eastern Federal district now known as the state of Nueva Esparta (from 1904 to 1909). The island is about 4om.

long from east to west, has an area of 400sq.m., and consists of two mountainous extremities, nearly separated by the Laguna Grande on the south, but connected by a low, narrow isthmus.

The highest elevation on the island is the peak of Macanao,

4,484ft., in the western part, the highest point in the eastern part being the peak of Copei, 4,170 feet. The higher valleys of the interior are highly fertile and are well adapted to grazing and stock-raising. The principal industries are fishing and the making of salt. The pearl fisheries, which were so productive in the 16th and 17th centuries, have been continued ever since with more or less success. The Venezuelan pearls are not considered to be as good as the oriental pearls. A domestic industry of the women is that of making coarse straw hats, which are sold on the mainland. The islands have abundant marine life and the fishing is a constant source of livelihood for the people. The products of Margarita, however, are insufficient to support its population, and large numbers periodically emigrate to the mainland. The population was estimated in 1904 at 40,000, composed in great part of half-caste Guayqueri Indians. The population in 1926 was 69,392. The capital is Asunción (pop. in 1926, 5,488), on the east side of the island and its principal port is Pompatar on the south coast. The two small ports of Puebla de la Mar (Porlamar)

and Puebla del Norte are merely open roadsteads. The silicate deposits on the Island of Margarita cover 1,700ac. of property totalling 7,400ac. in extent. The magnesia occurs in massive veins. The Margarita deposit lies in a soft decomposed serpentine formation, where it can be easily handled by steam shovels or other mechanical excavating equipment. The deposit on Margarita island has always been characterized as the highest grade of magnesia yet discovered. The island of Margarita was discovered by Columbus in 1498, and was bestowed in 1524 upon Marceto Villalobos by Charles V. In 1561 the freebooter Lope de Aguirre ravaged the island, and in 1662 the town of Pompatar was destroyed by the Dutch. For a long time Margarita was attached to Cumana, but in the 18th century it was made administratively independent. Its traders rendered invaluable assistance to the revolutionists in the War of Independence, and the Spanish general, Morillo, was driven from its shores in 1817; in recognition of this it was made a separate State and with the surrounding smaller islands was renamed Nueva Esparta (New Sparta). The first Spanish settlement m South America was Nueva Cadiz, founded in 1515 on the barren island of Cubagua; but the place was abandoned when pearlfishing and slave-trading ceased to be profitable. The settlement was totally destroyed by earthquake and tidal wave in 1543-

MARGATE—MARGUERITE

879

MARGATE, a municipal borough and seaside resort in the signed the separate peace with the Central Powers. This treaty, Isle of Thanet, England, 74 m. E. by S. of London by rail. Pop. (1931) 31,312. Margate, on the north coast of Thanet, was an ancient and senior non-corporate member of Dover. In 1347 it contributed 15 ships of small tonnage at the time of the siege of Calais. A pier existed before 1500, but by the reign of Henry VIII. i was in a decayed condition. The amount of corn shipped was

small, the droits being insufficient to keep the pier in repair. Under Elizabeth Margate was still an obscure fishing village employing about 20 small vessels (“hoys”) in the coasting and river trades,

chiefly in the conveyance of grain, on which in 1791 it chiefly subsisted. The droits increased, but were not properly collected until 1724. In 1777 the pier was rebuilt and about this time Margate first began to be known as a bathing-place. In 1835 Margate

was still a liberty of Dover and no right of citizenship could be acquired. In 1857 it was incorporated. In 1777 a weekly market was granted on Wednesday and Saturday. It is now held daily,

but principally on those two days. The town is now practically contiguous with Westgate on the west and with Broadstairs on the south-east. An electric tramway connects it with Broadstairs and Ramsgate, and during the season it is served by pleasure steamers from London. The municipality owns over 8 m. of sea-front, with promenades along almost the whole distance. A jetty built in 1854 permits the ap-

proach of vessels at all tides. A pier constructed in 1815 is now chiefly used by fishermen and colliers. The church of St. John the Baptist, founded in z050, contains some portions of Norman architecture, the remainder being Decorated and Perpendicular. The manor house of Daundelyon, or Dent de Lion, with its early rth century gateway remains between Margate and Westgate. Duting the widening of the Minster road in 1922 an Anglo-Saxon cemetery was discovered.

MARGGRAF,

ANDREAS

SIGISMUND

(1709-1782),

German chemist, was born at Berlin on March 3, 1709. He studied chemistry at Berlin and Strasbourg, medicine at Halle, and mineralogy and metallurgy at Freiberg, and returned to his native city in 1735 as assistant to his father, who was chief apothecary at the court. In 1738 he was elected to the Berlin Academy of Sciences, which in 1754 put him in charge of its chemical laboratory and in 17609 appointed him director of its physics class. He died in Berlin on Aug. 7, 1782. His name is especially associated with the discovery of sugar in beetroot in 1747. Marggraf introduced the microscope as an aid to chemical enquiry, and used this instrument to detect the presence of minute sugar crystals. In another research dealing with the nature of alum he showed that one of the constituents of that substance, alumina, is contained in common clay, and that it is quite distinct from lime. He explained and simplified the process of obtaining phosphorus from urine, and made some observations on phosphoric acid; but though he noted the increase in weight that attends the oxidation of phosphorus he remained an adherent of the phlogistic doctrine. For his time he was a skilful chemical analyst. His papers were presented to the Berlin Academy, and with the exception of a few of the latest were collected in two volumes of Chymische Schriften in 1761-67.

MARGHELAN:: see FERGHANA. MARGHILOMAN, ALEXANDRE

(1854-1925),

Ru-

manian statesman, was born at Buzeu on July 4, 1854. He studied law and political science in Paris. In 1884 he was elected a deputy as a member of the Conservative party, of which he became

leader in 1914.

Marghiloman was convinced that economic rea-

sons demanded

close relations between Rumania

and Germany

and Austria-Hungary. At the beginning of the World War, he advocated Rumania’s neutrality and when in 1916 Bratianu offered him a portfolio in his cabinet, Marghiloman refused on the ground

that he could not assume the responsibility of an insufficient military preparation. He remained in Bucharest under the German occupation, where he organized the relief work for the population, but rejected the proposals of the German commander to form in Bucharest a Government for the purpose of concluding a separate peace.

In March, 1918, Marghiloman went to Jassy at

the request of the king and formed a Government which eventually

however, was never ratified. When the war ended Marghiloman, whose party had lost all influence in Rumania owing to its Germanophile record, ceased to play any part in Rumanian politics and after his death in Buzeu on May 10, 1925, the Conservative

party ceased to exist, its members joining General Averescu’s (People’s) party. MARGIN, the amount by which the value of collateral given

as security for a loan exceeds the amount of the loan itself. In making collateral loans, banks demand such an excess in order to safeguard themselves in case of shrinkage in the value of the collateral. The margin usually required is about 20%, and when, through decrease in the value of collateral, it falls appreciably below this percentage, the borrower may be required to deposit

additional collateral. In the security market margin signifies the amount of cash which a person places with his broker when he

wishes to buy or sell stock or bonds “on margin.” In buying on margin the purchaser supplies only a certain percentage, or margin, of the amount of money required, and the remainder of the funds for the deal are advanced by the broker, eitber from his own capital or by borrowing. The minimum margin which a customer must deposit with his broker depends largely upon the market character of the security concerned in the deal and its price. There is no universal custom or rule as to size of margins. If the market price declines after the purchase, the customer may be called upon for additional margin in order to comply with the margin requirements of his broker. Likewise if a customer sells short and the price of the security advances he may be called upon for additional margin. In either case if the additional margin is not supplied and the customer’s equity decreases to the point where the broker is in danger of sustaining a loss, the broker may close out the account by the sale or purchase of the (T. H. B.) security as the case may be. ), (1858SAMUEL DAVID MARGOLIOUTH, British Arabic scholar, was born in London on Oct. 17, 1858, the son of a missionary. Educated at Winchester and New College, Ozford, he devoted himself to Arabic studies, in which he obtained a European reputation. In 1889 he became Laudian professor of Arabic at Oxford. He was a member of the council of the Royal Asiatic Society from 1905 onwards, and its director in 1927; in 1928 the triennial gold medal of the society was presented to him. He held many other honours.

His work was done mainly

in two branches, the study of the Arabic commentaries on Aristotle and the history of Mohammedanism. With H. F. Amedroz he wrote a standard work on the Eclipse of the Abbasid

Caliphate (7 vols., 1920-21). MARGRAVE (Ger. Markgraf), a German title meaning “count of the March.” The margraves had their origin in the

counts established by Charlemagne and his successors to guard the frontier districts of the empire, and for centuries the title was always associated with this function. In the 12th century the margraves of Brandenburg and Austria (the north and east marks) asserted their position as tenants-in-chief of the empire; with the break-up of the great duchies the others did the same; and the margraves henceforward took rank with the great German princes. The title of margrave very early lost its original significance, and was borne by princes whose territories were in no sense frontier districts; e.g., by Hermann, a son of Hermann, margrave of Verona, who assumed in r112 the title of margrave of Baden.

MARGUERITE,

the popular name for the plant known

botanically as Chrysanthemum frutescens (family Compositae), a shrubby perennial with smooth leaves cut pinnately into narrow segments and flower-heads two or three inches across produced singly in summer and autumn on slender erect stalks. The white ray-florets surround a yellow disk. It is a mative of the Canary isles, and a favourite for decoration and for greenhouse cultiva-

tion, window-boxes and open ground in the summer. The yellow marguerite (étoile d’or) has somewhat larger pale yellow flowers and glaucous leaves. The plant is propagated from cuttings taken in autumn from old plants and placed in sandy loamy soil in cold frames. By pruning the shoots in autumn the plants may be grown into very large specimens in the course of a few seasons.

MARGUERITE

880

D°’ANGOULEME—MARHEINEKE

The African subshrub, Felicia amelloides (family Compositae) known in cultivation as blue daisy, is also called blue marguerite. MARGUERITE D’ANGOULEME (1492-1549), queen of Navarre, was the daughter of Charles d’Orléans, count d’Angouléme and was born in Angouléme on April 11, 1492. She was two years older than her brother Francis I. She was betrothed early to Charles, duke d’Alencon, and married him in 1509. She was not very fortunate in this first marriage, but her brother’s accession to the throne made her, next to their mother, Louise of Savoy, the most powerful woman of the kingdom.

She became

a widow in 1525, and married in 1527 Henri d’Albret, titular king of Navarre. Navarre was not reconquered for the couple as Francis had promised, but ample apanages were assigned to Marguerite, and at Nérac and Pau miniature courts were kept up, which yielded to none in Europe in the intellectual brilliancy of their frequenters. Marguerite was at once one of the chief patronesses of letters that France possessed, and the chief refuge and defender of advocates of the Reformed doctrines. Round her gathered C. Marot, Bonaventure Des Périers, N. Denisot, J. Peletier, V. Brodeau, Boaistuau, Le Macon and many other men of letters, while she protected Rabelais, E. Dolet and others. For a time her influence with her brother prevailed, but latterly political rather than religious considerations led him to wage a flerce persecution against both Protestants and freethinkers, a persecution which drove Des Périers to suicide and brought Dolet to the stake. Marguerite’s own inclinations seem to have been rather towards a mystical pietism than towards dogmatic Protestant sentiments. Marguerite died in Odot-en-Bigorre on Sept. 21, 1549. By her first husband she had no children, by her second a son who died in infancy, and a daughter, Jeanne d’Albret, who became the mother of Henry IV. She does not, from the portraits which exist, appear to have been regularly beautiful, but as to her sweetness of disposition and strength of mind there is universal consent. Her literary work consists of the Heptaméron, of poems entitled Les Marguerites de la marguerite des princesses, and of Letters. The Heptaméron, constructed, as its name indicates, on the lines of the Decameron of Boccaccio, consists of 72 short stories told to each other by a company of ladies and gentlemen who are stopped in the journey homewards from Cauterets by the swelling of a river. It was not printed till 1558, ten years after the author’s death, and then under the title of Les Amants fortunés. Internal evidence is strongly in favour of its having been a joint work, in which more than one of the men of letters

who composed Marguerite’s household took part. It is a delight-

ful book, and strongly characteristic of the French Renaissance. The Letters are interesting and good. The Marguerites consist of a very miscellaneous collection of poems, mysteries, farces, devotional poems of considerable length, spiritual and miscellaneous songs, etc. The Derniéres poésies, not printed till 1896 (by M. A. Lefranc), are interesting and characteristic, consisting of verseepistles, comédies (pieces in dramatic form on the death of Francis I., etc.), Les Prisons, a long allegorical poem. of amorousreligious-historical tenor; some miscellaneous verse chiefly in dizains, and a later and remarkable piece, Le Navire, expressing

her despair at her brother’s death.

BIBLIOCRAPHY.——Of the other works, never yet completely edited,

the best editions are, for the Heptaméron, Leroux de Lincy (r855); for the Lettres, F. Genin (1841); and for the M arguerites, F. Frank

(1873).

English translation of the Heptaméron; A. Machen

(1887),

with introduction by A. M. F. Robinson (Mme. Darmesteter), and an anonymous translation (1894) with introduction by G. Saintsbury. The religious poem, Le Miroir de L’Ame Pécheresse, was translated

by Queen Elizabeth. See also V. Durand, Marguerite de Valois et la Cour de François Ier (1848); F. Lotheissen, Königin Margarethe von Navarra (1885); H. de la Ferrière, M arguerite d’Angouléme

(1891); Edith Sichel, Women and Men of the French Renaissance (x901); P. Courtault, Marguerite de Navarre (1904); A. Lefranc, Grands écrivains de la renaissance (1914). |

MARGUERITE

DE VALOIS,

brother, Henry II., encouraged the early efforts of the Pléiade,

(See Ronsarp.) At the Savoy court at Turin she continued her patronage of literature. MARGUERITE

(MARGOT)

DE

VALOIS

(1553-

1615), queen of Navarre, was born on May 14, 1553, daughter of Henry II. by Catherine de’ Medici. Famous for her beauty

her learning, and the looseness of her conduct, she was married after a liaison with the duke of Guise, to Henry of Navarre

afterwards Henry IV., on the eve of St. Bartholomew’s day. There were no children of the marriage. Marguerite was estab. lished in the castle of Usson in Auvergne, and after the accession of Henry the marriage was dissolved by the pope. But Henry and Marguerite still continued friends; she still bore the title of

queen; she visited Marie de’ Medici on equal terms; and the king

frequently consulted her on important affairs, though his some.

what parsimonious spirit was grieved by her extravagance. Marguerite died in Paris on March 27, 1615. She left letters and

memoirs the latter of which are admirably written, and rank among the best of the 16th century. She was the idol of Bran-

tome,

and is the “Reine

romance.

Margot”

of anecdotic

history and

BIBLIOCRAPHY.—The Mémoires, Poésies et Lettres were edited by F. Guessard (1842), L. Lalanne (1858), C. Caboche (1860). The

chief of many lampoons against her was the famous Divorce satirique,

variously attributed to Agrippa d’Aubigné, Palma

See L. de Saint Poncy, Histoire C. Merki, La Reine Margot et la La Vraie Reine Margot (1908) ; H. and ed. 1911); J. H. Mariéjol, La

de fin N. Vie

Cayet and others.

Marguerite de Valois (1887); des Valois (1905); A. Savine, Wiliams, Queen Margot (190, de M. de Valois (1928).

MARGUERITTE, PAUL (1860-1918) AND VICTOR (1866— ), French novelists, both born in Algeria, were the sons of General Jean Auguste Margueritte (1823—70). Paul Margueritte, born Feb. 1, 1860, who has given a picture of his home in Algiers in Le Jardin du passé (1895), was sent to the military school of La Fléche for the sons of officers, and became in 1880 clerk to the minister of public instruction, His earlier novels include: Amants (1890), La Force des choses (1891), Sur le retour (1892), La Tourmente (1893), Ma grande (1892), Ame @enfant (1894) and L’Eau gui dort (1896). From the time of

his collaboration with his younger brother Victor Paul Margueritte’s work gained in colour and force. Among the books written in common by the brothers, the most famous is the series known under the collective title, Une Epoque, dealing with the events of 1870-71, and including the novels Le Désasire (1898), Les Trongons du glaive (1900), Les Braves gens (1901), La Commune (1904). They also collaborated in an Histoire de la guerre de 1870-1871 (1903). These books were founded on documentary and verbal information, amassed with great care

and arranged with admirable art; the authors were, in this case,

historians rather than novelists. La Commune is a bold indictment of the methods adopted by the victorious party. The novelists

also attacked the laws governing marriage and divorce and the abuses entailed lets and in the (1902), and Le Poum (1898).

by the dowry demanded from the bride, in pamphnovels, Femmes nouvelles (1899), Les Deux vies Prisme (1905). One of the best is the child story Their literary partnership was dissolved in 1907.

Paul Margueritte was one of the original members of the Académie de Goncourt. He died on Dec. 30, 1918. After the World War Victor Margueritte wrote other novels, the most famous of which is La Gargonne (1922), and entered

political controversy with two books on the question of responsibility for the war; Les Coupables and Appel Aux Consciences, both written in 1925, MARHEINEKE, PHILIP KONRAD (1780-1846), German Protestant divine, was born at Hildesheim, Hanover, on May

1, 1780. He Heidelberg. where from worked with

studied at Gottingen, and lectured at Erlangen and In 1811 he became professor ordinarius at Berlin, 1820 he was also preacher at Trinity Church and Schleiermacher. When he died, on May 31, 1849,

(1523-1574), duchess of he was a member of the supreme consistorial council. At first

Savoy, daughter of Francis I., was born on June 5, 1523, In St. Germain-en-Laye, and married Emmanuel Philibert, duke of Savoy, in 1559. She was a good scholar, and at the court of her

influenced by Schelling,

Marheineke

found

a new

master in

Hegel, and came to be regarded as the leader of the Hegelian

Right. He sought to explain all the orthodox doctrines of the

MARI-—MARIA Church in an orthodox way in terms of Hegel’s philosophy. Mar-

peineke’s developed views on dogmatics are given in the third

edition (1847) of his Die Grundlehren der christlichen Dogmatik gis Wissenschaft. When he published the first edition (1819) he

was still under the influence of Schelling;

the second edition

(1827) marked his change of view. His works on symbolics show

profound scholarship, keen critical insight, and rare impartiality. The Christliche Symbolik (1810-14) has been pronounced his masterpiece. See A. Weber, Le Système dogmatique de Marheineke

(1857).

MARI, a Baluch tribe on the Dera Ghazi Khan border of

Baluchistan.

Land is periodically divided, by lots, according to

males—occasionally by families.

What has been called hyper-

gamous endogamy prevails among the chiefly families.

Artificial

defloration seems to be practised on women just before marriage. Female infanticide, attributable to the strict endogamy of females in chiefly families, is no longer practised. See Census of India, r9zz and 1921.

MARIANA, JUAN DE (1536-1624), Spanish historian and Jesuit, was born at Talavera. In 1561 he went to teach theology in Rome, reckoning among his pupils Robert Bellarmine, afterwards cardinal; then passed into Sicily, and in 1569 was sent to Paris, where his expositions of the writings of Thomas Aquinas attracted large audiences. He returned to Spain in 1574. Mariana’s great work, Historiae de rebus Hispaniae, first appeared in 25 books at Toledo in 1592; ten books were subsequently added (1605), bringing the work down to the accession of

THERESA

BBI

Philip, duke of Orleans. According to her, Louis Philippe was not the son of Philip duke of Orleans, but a supposititious child, his father being one Lorenzo Chiappini, constable at the village of Modigliana in Tuscany. The story is that the duke and duchess of Orleans, travelling under the incognito of Comte and Comtesse de Joinville, were at this village in April 1773, when the duchess gave birth to a daughter; and that the duke, desiring a son in order to prevent the rich Penthièvre inheritance from reverting to his wife’s relations in the event of her death, bribed the Chiappinis to substitute their newly-born male child for his own. Maria Stella, the supposed daughter of Chiappini, went on the stage at Florence and married, at thirteen, the first Lord Newborough, after whose death she married the Russian Count Un-

gern-Sternberg. In 1830 she published Maria Stella ou un échange dune demoiselle du plus haut rang contre un garçon de plus vile cohdition (reprinted 1839 and 1849). This coincided with the advent of Louis Philippe to the throne, and her claim became a weapon for those who. wished to throw discredit and ridicule on the “bourgeois monarch.” She died in poverty in Paris on Dec.

23, 1843.

See R. P. Gallwey, Mystery

of Maria

Stella, Lady

Newborougk

(1907) ; M. Vitrac, Philippe-Egalité et M. Chiappini (1907), which is based on unpublished material in the Archives nationales, and destroys

Maria Stella’s case.

MARIA

THERESA

(1717-1780), archduchess of Austria,

queen of Hungary and Bohemia, and wife of the Holy Roman emperor Francis I., was born at Vienna on May 13, 1717, eldest daughter of the Emperor Charles VI. (q.v.) and Elizabeth of Charles V. in 1519, and ina still later abstract of events the author Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel. On Feb. 12, 1736 she married her cousin completed it to the accession of Philip IV. in r621. It was so Francis of Lorraine (g.v.), then grand duke of Tuscany, and well received that Mariana was induced to translate it into Span- afterwards emperor. Five sons and eleven daughters were born ish 1601-23. Though in many parts uncritical, the work is justly of this marriage. From the date of her father’s death on Oct. 20, esteemed for its research, accuracy, sagacity and style. Of his 1740, till her own death in 1780, Maria Theresa was one of the other writings the most interesting is the treatise De rege et regis central figures in the wars and politics of Europe. But unlike institutione (1599). In its sixth chapter the question whether it is some sovereigns, whose reigns have been agitated, but whose perlawful to overthrow a tyrant is freely discussed and answered in sonal character has left little trace, Maria Theresa had a strong the affirmative, a circumstance which brought much odium upon and in the main a noble individuality. There was no affectation the Jesuits, especially after the assassination of Henry IV. of in her assumption of a becoming bearing or in her picturesque France, in 1610. words. The common story, that she appeared before the HunSee L. von Ranke, Zur Kritik neuerer Geschichisschreiber (Leipzig, garian magnates in the diet at Pressburg in 1741 with her infant 1874); and Cirot, Études sur les historiographes espagnols; Mariana, son, afterwards Joseph II., in her arms, and so worked on their historien. (Bordeaux, 1905). feelings that they shouted Moriamur pro rege nostro Maria MARIANAO, a suburb of Havana, Cuba, 6 m, from the Theresia, is only mythically true. But during the delicate negocapital, and about 1,500 ft. above the sea. It, therefore, possesses tiations to secure the support of the Hungarian nobles she una pleasant climate which has brought a population (1928) of doubtedly did appeal to them with passionate eloquence, and some 20,000 people. On the coast below is Marianao beach, a with a pardonable sense of the advantage she obtained from her popular watering-place. youth, her beauty and her sex. Maria Theresa was especially MARIANAS, MARIANNES or LADRONES IS- preoccupied with her position as heiress of the rights of the house LANDS: see Pacrrrc ISLANDS. of Austria. Therefore, when her inheritance was assailed by MARIANAS ot MARANHAS, a tribe of South American Frederick of Prussia, she fought for it with the utmost deterIndians on the river Jutahy, north-western Brazil. They wear small mination, and for years cherished the hope of recovering the pieces of wood in their ears and lips, but are not tattooed. lost province of Silesia. Her practical sense showed her the Marianas were found on the upper reaches of the Putumayo necessity of submitting to spoliation when she was overpowered. across to the Yapura. She accepted the peace of Berlin in 1742 in order to have a free MARIANNA, a city of eastern Arkansas, U.S.A., on the hand against her Bavarian enemy, the emperor Charles VII. L’Anguille river and the Missouri Pacific railway, 15 m. from (qg.v.). When Frederick renewed the war she accepted the strugthe Mississippi river; county seat of Lee county. Pop. (1920) gle cheerfully, because she hoped to recover her own. Down to 5,074 (64% negroes); in 1930 it was 4,314. It is a shipping point the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1748 she went on fighting for for cotton, fruit and other agricultural products. Silesia or its equivalent. In the years following the peace she ap-

MARIANUS

SCOTUS

(1028-1082 or 1083), chronicler

(who must be distinguished from his namesake Marianus Scotus [d. 1088], abbot of St. Peter’s, Regensburg), was an Irishman by birth, and called Moelbrigte, or servant of Bridget. He was educated by a certain Tigernach, and having become a monk he crossed over to the continent of Europe in 1056, and his subsequent life was passed in the abbeys of St. Martin at Cologne and of Fulda, and at Mainz. He died Dec. 22, 1082 or 1083. „Marianus wrote a Chronicon, which purports

to be a universal

history from the creation of the world to r082. The Chronicon was

very popular during the middle ages, and in England was extensively used by Florence of Worcester and other writers. It was frst printed at Basle in 1559, and has been edited with an introduction by G. Waitz for the Monumenta Germaniae historica. Scriptores (Bd. v.).

MARIA

STELLA,

the self-styled legitimate daughter of

plied herself to finding allies in France and Russia who would help her to recover Silesia. Here, as later in the case of Poland, she subordinated her feelings to her duty to the state. Though she denied that she had ever written directly to Madame de Pompadour, it is certain that she allowed her ministers to make use of the favourite’s influence over the French king. When fate

decided against her in the Seven Years’ War she bowed to the inevitable, and was thenceforward a resolute advocate of peace. Tn internal government she worked to promote the prosperity of her people, and to give more unity to an administration made up by the juxtaposition of many states and races with different characters and constitutions. Her instincts, like those of her enemy Frederick and her 'son Joseph II., were emphatically absolutist. She suspended the meetings of the estates in most parts

MARIAZELL—MARIE

882

of her dominions. She was able to do so because the mass of her subjects found her hand much lighter than that of the privileged classes who composed these bodies. Education, trade, religious toleration, the emancipation of the agricultural population from feudal burdens—all had her approval up to a certain point. She would favour them, but on the distinct condition that nothing was to be done to weaken the bonds of authority.

was the last great act of her reign, and so Maria Theresa judged it to be ina letter to Prince Kaunitz; she said that she had now finished her life’s journey and could sing a Te Deum, for she had secured the repose of her people at whatever cost to herself. The rest, she said, would not last long. Her fatal illness developed in the autumn of the following year, and she died on Nov. 28, 1780. When she lay painfully on her deathbed her son Joseph said to her, “You are not at ease,” and her last words were the answer, “I am sufficiently at my ease to die.”

See A. von Arneth, Geschichte Maria as (Vienna, 1863-79) and J. F. Bright, Maria Theresa (1897);Theres M. Gael, Maria Theresa (x900) ; also AUSTRIA.

MARIAZELL,

a town in Styria, Austria, situate

d in the valley of the Salza, near Lake Erlauf and surrounded by peaks of the north Styrian Alps, grows in importance as a summer resort and as a centre for winter sports. It possess es a rath century miracle-working image of the Virgin enshrined in a special chapel of the 14th century church, which is visited by over r 50,000 pil-

grims each year. Pop. (1923), 1,900.

See O. Eigner, Geschichte Mariazell (Vienna, 1900).

des

aufgehobenen

Mariast, the church of which is a popular place of pilgrimage, MARICOPA, a Yuman tribe living near the Pima on Gila river, Arizona; originally no doubt driven out from the lower Colorado by intertribal warfare, like the Halchidhoma and

She took part in the

suppression of the Jesuits, and she resisted the pope in the interest of the state. Her methods were those of her cautious younger son, Leopold II., and not of her eldest son and immediate successor, Joseph II. She did not give her consent even to the suppression of torture in legal procedure without hesitation, lest the authority of the law should be weakened, Her caution had its reward, for whatever she did was permanently gained, whereas her successor in his boundless zeal for reform brought his empire to the verge of a general rebellion. In her private life Maria Theresa was equally the servant of the state and the sovereign of all about her. She was an affectionate wife to her husband Francis I.; but she was always the queen of Hungary and Bohemia and archduchess of Austria, like her ancestress, Isabella the Catholic, who never forgot, nor allowed her husband to forget, that she was “proprietary queen” of Castile and Leon. She married her daughters in the interest of Austria, and taught them not to forget their people and their father’s house. In the case of Marie Antoinette (g.v.), who married the dauphin, afterwards Louis XVI., she gave an extraordinary proof of her readiness to subordinate everythin g to the reason of state. She instructed her daughter to show a proper respect to her husband’s grandfather, Louis XV., by behaving with politeness to his mistresses, in order that the alliance between the two courts might run no risk. The signing of the peace of Teschen, which averted a great war with Prussia, on May 13, 1779,

Benedictinerstiftes

OR, a town of Slovenia, Yugoslavia, the German Pop.

Marburg. (1921) 30,641, mainly Slovenes with a Jewish colony. It is a popular summer resort and tourist centre, picturesquely situated on the Drave, here spanned by a magnificent iron bridge. There was a settlement at Maribor in Roman times, but the present town arose in the roth century; in the r2th and 13th centuries the town ruled a vast district; in 1480-81 it was captured by King Matthias of Hungary, and in 1529 and 1 532 was unsuccessfully attacked by the Turks. During the Napoleonic wars the French occupied it. The principal buildings are the Cathedral, dating from the xrath century, but with many later additions, among them a x7th century tower 136 ft. high; and the x 5th century castle, famous for its sculptures, Maribo r, served both by rail and first class roads, and in the midst of a fertile fruit and wine-growing district, has a large trade in wine and grain, and especia

lly in timber from the surrounding forests. Its industr

ial products are leather, boots and shoes, iron and tinware , liqueurs and ‘sparkling wine, oil refining and milling and it has a weekly market for pork, poultry and eggs. Near by is the village of

ANTOINETTE

Kohuana whom they absorbed in the 19th century. The date of the Maricopa removal is not known.

, queen of Rumania (1875-

), was born at East-

well Park, Kent, on Oct. 29, 1875, the eldest daughter of Alfred, duke of Edinburgh, second son of Queen Victoria. On Jan. 10, 1893 she married Prince Ferdinand, afterwards king of Rumania From this marriage six children were born: Prince Charles, who

married Princess Helen of Greece, Princess Elizabeth, married to the ex-king George of Greece, Princess Marie, later queen of

Yugoslavia, the princes Nicolas and Mircea (d. 1916) and Princess Ileana. The queen was a Protestant, but the children, in accordance with the Rumanian constitution, were brought up in the Orthodox faith. Queen Marie took a great interest in the develop-

ment of her adoptive country. Red Cross and charity organizations were formed at her initiative and, as a Red Cross nurse

during the World War, she looked after the wounded in hospitals

and ambulances up to the firing line. Queen Marie devoted much

of her time to writing, and her published works include The Lily of Life (1913), My Country (1916), Stealers of Light (1916) and Zlderim (1925), while on her travels she wrote extensively

for the American and other press. Together with King Ferdinand, Queen Marie was crowned at Alba Julia on Oct. r 5, 1922, but retired from active politics on his death in 1927.

MARIE AMELIE THERESE

(1782-1866), queen of

Louis Philippe, king of the French, was the daughter of Ferdinand IV., king of Naples, and the archduchess Maria Carolina. She was born at Caserta, on April 26, 1782, and received a pious education. Her girlhood was spent in exile. She married Louis Philippe in November 1809. Returning to France in 1814, the duke and duchess of Orleans had barely established themselves in the Palais Royal in Paris when the Hundred Days drove them into exile. Marie Amélie took refuge with her four children in England, where she spent two years at Orleans House, Twickenham. Again in France in 1817, her life at N euilly until 1828 was

the happiest period of her existence. Her attention was absorbed

by the care and education of her numerous family, even after the revolution of 1830 had made her queen of the French, a position accepted with forebodings of disaster justified by her early experience of revolutions. During her second exile, from 1848 to her death on March 24, 1866, she lived at Claremont.

See A. L. Baron Imbert de St. Amand, La Jeunesse de Marie Amélie (1891), Marie Amélie au Palais Royal (1892), Marie Amélie et la cour de Palerme (1891), Marie Amélie et la cour des Tuileries (1892), Marie Amélie et apogée de règne de Louis Philippe (1893), Marie Amélie et la société française en 1847 (1894), and M arie Amélie et la duchesse @’Orleans (1893).

MARIE ANTOINETTE (1755-1793), queen of France, ninth child of Maria Theresa and the emperor Francis I., was born at Vienna, on Nov. 2, 1755. She was brought up under an austere régime and educated with a view to the French marriage arranged by Maria Theresa, the abbé Vermond being appointed

as her tutor in 1769. Her marriage with the dauphin, which took

place at Versailles on May 16, 1770, was intended to crown the

policy of Choiseul and confirm the alliance between Austria and France. This fact, combined with her youth and:the extreme cor-

ruption of the French

court, made

her position very difficult.

Madame du Barry, whose influence over Louis XV. was supreme, formed the centre of a powerful anti-Choiseul cabal, which suc-

ceeded in less than a year after the dauphin’s marriage in bringing about the fall of Choiseul and seriously threatening the Austrian alliance. Thus the young princess was surrounded by enemies

both at court and in the dauphin’s household, and came to rely almost entirely upon the Austrian ambassador, the comte de Mercy-Atgenteau, whom Maria Theresa had instructed to act

as her mentor, at the same time arranging that she herself should

be kept informed of all that concerned her daughter, so that she might at once advise her and safeguard the alliance. Hence arose

the secret correspondence of Mercy-Argenteau, an invaluable record of all the details of Marie Antoinette’s life from her mar-

MARIE

ANTOINETTE

riage in 1770 till the death of Maria Theresa in 1780. Marie Antoinette soon won the affection and confidence of the dauphin and endeared herself to the king, but her position was

precarious, and both Mercy and Maria Theresa had continually to urge her to conquer her violent dislike for Madame du Barry. The accession of the young king and queen on the death of Louis XV. (May 10, 1774), was hailed with great popular enthu-

833

immediate cause of the revolution. The year 1789 was one of disaster for Marie Antoinette; on March ro her brother Joseph II. died and on June 4 her eldest son. The same year saw the assembling of the States-general, the taking of the Bastille, and the events leading to the terrible days of Oct. 5 and 6 at Versailles and the removal of the royal

family to Paris. Then began the negotiations with Mirabeau, siasm. But her first steps brought Marie Antoinette into open whose high estimate of the queen is well-known. But the queen hostility with the anti-Austrian party. She was urgent in obtain- was violently prejudiced against him and he never gained her ing the dismissal of d’Aiguillon, and did all in her power to secure full confidence. She was naturally incapable of seeing the full the recall of Choiseul, though without success. Her impatience import of the revolution. She dreaded the thought of civil war; of the cumbrous court etiquette shocked many people, and her and even when she had realized the necessity for decisive action taste for pleasure led her to seek the society of the comte d’Artois the king’s apathy and indecision made it impossible for her to and his young and dissolute circle. But the greatest weakness in persuade him to carry into effect Mirabeau’s plan of leaving her position lay in her unsatisfactory relations with her husband. Paris and appealing to the provinces. Her difficulties were inThe king, though affectionate, was cold and apathetic, and it creased by the departure of Mercy for The Hague in Sept. 1790, was not till seven years after her marriage that there was any for Montmorin, who now took his place in the negotiations with possibility of her bearing him an heir. Mirabeau, had not her confidence to the same extent. Feeling The end of the period of mourning for the late king was the herself helpless and almost isolated in Paris, she now relied signal for a succession of gaieties, during which the queen dis- chiefly on her friends outside France—Mercy, Count Axel Fersen played a passion for amusement and excitement which led to and the baron de Breteuil; and it was by their help and that of unfortunate results. Being childless, and with a husband whom Bouillé that after the death of Mirabeau, on April 8, 1791, the she could not respect, her longing for affection led her to form plan was arranged of escaping to Montmédy, which ended in the various intimate friendships, above all with the princesse flight to Varennes (June 21, 1791). After the return from Varennes the royal family were closely de Lamballe and the comtesse Jules de Polignac, who soon obtained such an empire over her affections that no favour was guarded, but they still found channels of communication with too great for them to ask, and often to obtain. In frequenting the outside world. The king being sunk in apathy, the task of the salons of her friends the queen not only came in contact with negotiation devolved upon the queen; but in her inexperience of a number of the younger and more dissipated courtiers, but she affairs, and the uncertainty of information from abroad, it was fell under the influence of various ambitious intriguers whose hard for her to follow any clear policy. Her courageous bearing interested manoeuvres she was induced to further by her affection during the return from Varennes had greatly impressed Barnave, for her favourites. Thus she was often led to interfere for frivo- and he now approached her on behalf of the constitutional party. lous reasons in public affairs, sometimes with serious results, as For about a year she continued to negotiate with them, forwardin the case of the trial of the comte de Guines (1776), when her ing to Mercy and the emperor Leopold II. letters and memoranda interference led to the fall of Turgot. At the same time her ex- dictated by them, while at the same time secretly warning them travagance in dress, jewellery and amusements (including the gar- not to accept these letters as her own opinions, but to realize that dens and theatricals at Trianon, of the cost of which exaggerated she was dependent on the Constitutionals. (Letters of July 31, reports were spread) and her presence at horse-races and masked 1791 to Mercy. Arneth, p. 193 and 194, and letter of Aug. 1.) She balls in Paris without the king, gave rise to scandal. agreed with their plan of an armed congress and Fersen left BrusAt this critical period her brother, the emperor Joseph II., sels on a mission to the emperor to try to gain his support and decided to visit France. As the result of his visit he left with checkmate the émigrés, whose rashness threatened the queen’s the queen a memorandum in which he pointed out to her in plans. plain terms the dangers of her conduct. For a time the emAs for the constitution (Sept. r79r), “tissue of absurdities” peror’s remonstrances had some effect, and after the birth of though the queen thought it, she considered that in the circumher daughter, Marie Thérèse Charlotte (afterwards duchesse stances the king was bound to accept it in order to inspire cond'Angoulême) in Dec. 1778, the queen lived a quieter life. The fidence (Arneth, pp. 196, 203; Klinckowstrém, Fersen, i. 192). death of Maria Theresa (Nov. 29, 1780) deprived her of a wise Mercy was also in correspondence with the Constitutionals, and friend, and by removing all restraint on the rashness of Joseph II. in letter after letter to him and the emperor, the queen, strongly was bound to increase the dislike of the Austrian alliance and supported by Fersen, insisted that the congress should meet as cause embarrassment to Marie Antoinette. Her position was much soon as possible, her appeals increasing in urgency as she saw strengthened by the birth (Oct. 22, 1781) of a dauphin, Louis that Barnave’s party would soon be powerless against the exJoseph Xavier Francois, and on the death of Maurepas, which tremists. But the congress was continually postponed. On March left the king without a chief minister, she might have exerted 7, 1792 Leopold II. died, and was succeeded by the young Francis great influence in public affairs. But personal motives alone II. Marie Antoinette’s actions were now directed entirely by Ferwould lead her to interfere in public affairs, especially when it sen, for she suspected Mercy and the emperor of sacrificing her was a question of obtaining places or favours for her favourites to the interests of Austria (Fersen, i. 251; Arneth, pp. 254, 256, and their friends. The influence of the Polignacs was now at etc.). The declaration of war which the king was forced to make its height, and they obtained large sums of money, a dukedom, (April 20) threw her definitely into opposition to the revolution and many nominations to places. But, in response to Mercy and she betrayed to Mercy and Fersen the plans of the French and Joseph II.’s urgent representations, Marie Antoinette exerted generals (Arneth, p. 259; Fersen, li. 220, 289, 308, 325, 327). She herself on behalf of Austria in the affairs of the opening of the was now certain that the life of the king was threatened, and the Scheldt (1783-1784) and the exchange of Bavaria (1785), in events of June 20 added to her terrors. She considered their only which, though she failed to provoke active interference on the hope to lie in the armed intervention of the powers, and endorsed part of France, she succeeded in obtaining the payment of con- the suggestion of a threatening manifesto which should hold siderable indemnities to Austria. the National Assembly and Paris responsible for the safety of Two more children were born to her; Louis Charles, duke of the king and royal family. Immediately after Brunswick's maniNormandy, afterwards dauphin, on March 27, 1785, and Sophie festo followed the storming of the Tuileries and the removal of the Hélène Beatrix (d. June 19, 1787), on July 9, 1786. In 1785- royal family to the Temple (Aug. 10). During all these events 1786 the affair of the Diamond Necklace (g.v.) revealed the and the captivity in the Temple Marie Antoinette showed an undepth of the hatred which her own follies and the calumnies varying courage and dignity, in spite of her failing health and the of her enemies had aroused against her. The public held her illness of her son. After the execution of the king (Jan. 17, 1793) responsible for the bankrupt state of the country which was the several unsuccessful attempts were made to rescue her and her

884

MARIE

DE FRANCE—MARIE

children, ahd negotiations for her release or exchange were even opened with Danton; but as the allied armies approached, her trial and condemnation became a certainty. She had already been separated from her son, the sight of whose ill-treatment added to her sufferings; she was now parted from her daughter and Madame Elizabeth, and removed on Aug. r, 1793 to the Conciergerie, where she was under the closest guard and subjected to the most offensive espionage. On Oct, 14 began her trial. Her noble attitude, even in the face of the atrocious accusations of Fouquier-Tinville, commanded the admiration even of her enemies, and her answers during her long examination were clear and skilful. The following were the questions finally put to the jury:— (1) Is it established that manoeuvres and communications have existed with foreign powers and other external enemies of the republic, the said manoeuvres, etc., tending to furnish them with assistance in money, give them an entry into French territory, and facilitate the progress of their armies? l (2) Is Marie Antoinette of Austria, the widow Capet, convicted of having co-operated in these manoeuvres and maintained these communications ? , (3) Is it established that a plot and conspiracy has existed tending to kindle civil war within the republic, by arming the citizens against one another? (4) Is Marie Antoinette, the widow Capet, convicted of having participated in this plot and conspiracy?

The jury decided unanimously in the affirmative, and on Oct 16, 1793 Marie Antoinette was led to the guillotine, leaving behind her a touching letter to Madame Elizabeth, known as her “Testament.” As to the justice of these charges, we have seen how the queen was actually guilty of betraying her country, though it was only natural for her to identify the cause of the monarchy with that of France. To civil war.she was consistently opposed, and never ceased to dissociate herself from the plans of the émigrés, but here again her very position made her an enemy of the republic. All her actions had as their aim—firstly, the safeguarding of the monarchy and later, when she saw this to be impossible, that of securing the safety of her husband and her son.

DE’ MEDICI

1883) ; Mémoires de la baronne d’Oberkirch (2 vols., M. Tourneux (op. cit.) discusses the authenticity of

Paris, 18s 3). Many of the

memoirs.

GENERAL Worxks:—A. Sorel, L’Europe et la Rév. fr. vol. ii, 1904), contains a good estimate of Marie Antoinette. See also (188s P. de Nolhac, Marie Antoinette, dauphine (Paris, 1897); La Reine Marie Antoinette (8th ed., 1898), which gives good descriptions of Versailles

Trianon, etc.; M. de la Rocheterie, Histoire de Marie Antoinette G

vols., Paris, 1890) ; G. Desjardins, Le Petit-Trianon (Versailles, 183s), For her trial and death, see E. Campardon, Marie Antoinette a Iq Conciergerie (1863). See also A. Vuaflart and H. Bourin, Les Porirmts de Marie Antoinette (1909); A. Cabanès, La Princesse de Lamballe

intime (1922); P. M. de Ségur, Marie Antoinette (1921; Eng, trans, 1927); John G, Palache, Marie Antoinette (1929). C. B. Pg) `

MARIE DE FRANCE (f. c. 1175-1190), French poet and fabulist, In spite of her own statement in the epilogue to her

fables: to mean to have life in

“Marie ai num, si suis de France,” generally interpreted that Marie was a native of the Île de France, she seems been of Norman origin, and certainly spent most of her England. Her language, however, shows little trace of

Anglo-Norman provincialism. Like Wace, she used a literary dia-

lect which probably differed very widely from common Norman speech. The manuscripts in which Marie’s poems are preserved date from the late 13th or even from the 14th century, but the language fixes the date of the poems in the second half of the rath century.

The Jais are dedicated to an unknown king, who is identified as Henry IT. of England; and the fables, her Ysopet, were written according to the Epilogus for a Count William, generally recognized to be William Longsword, earl of Salisbury. Marie lived and wrote at the court of Henry II., which was very literary and purely French. Queen Eleanor was a Provençal, and belonged to a family in which the patronage of poetry was a tradition. There

is no evidence to show whether Marie was of noble origin or simply pursued the profession of a trouvére for her living. The origin of the dais has been the subject of much discussion. Marie herself says that she had heard them sung by Breton minstrels. Gaston Paris (Romania, vol. xv.) maintained that Marie had heard the stories from English minstrels, who had assimilated the Celtic legends. In any case the Breton lays offer abundant evidence of borrowing from Scandinavian and oriental sources, The Jats which may be definitely attributed to Marie are Guigemar, Equitan, Le Fréne, Le Bisclavret (the werewolf), Les Deux amanis, Laustic, Chaitivel, Lanval, Le Chévrefeuille, Milon,

BIBLIOGRAPHY. —M. 'Fourneux, Marie Antoinette devant l'histoire. Essai bibliographique (2nd ed., Paris, r90r) ;,id. Bibliogr. de la ville de Paris ... (vol. iv., 1906), nos. 20980-21338; also Bibliogr. de femmes célèbres (Turin and Paris, 1892, etc.). The most important material for her life is to be found in her letters and in the correspondence of Mercy-Argenteau, but a large number of forgeries have found their way into certain of the collections, such as those of Paul Vogt d@Hunolstein and F. Feuillet des Conches, while most of the works on Marie Antoinette published before the appearance of Arneth’s publications (1865, etc.) are based partly on these forgeries. For a detailed examination of the question of the authenticity of the letters see the introduction to Lettres de Marie Antoinette. Recueil des lettres authentiques de la reine, publié pour la société d’histoire contemporaine, par M. de la Rocheterie et le marquis de Beaucourt (2 vols., Paris, 1895-1896). Of the highest importance are the letters from the archives of Vienna published by Alfred von Arneth and others: A. von Arneth, Maria Theresia und Marie Antoinette, ihr Briefwechsel 1770-8780 (Paris and Vienna, 1865); Marie Antoinette, Joseph II, und Leopold If. ihr Briefwechsel (Leipzig, Paris and Vienna, 1866) ; id. and A. Geffroy, Correspondance secrète de Marie-Thérèse et du comte de Mercy-Argenteau (3 vols., Paris, 1874); id. and J. Flammermont, Correspondance secréte du comte de Mercy-Argenteau avec Joseph II. et le prince de Kaumitz (2 vols., Paris, 1889-1891) ; for further letters see Comte de Reiset, Lettres de la reine Marie Antoinette ala landgrave Louise de Hesse-~Darmstadt (1865); id. Lettres inédites de Marie Antoinette et de Marie-Clotilde, reine de Sardaigne (1877). See also Correspondance entre le comte de Mirabeau et le comte de la Marek, 1789-2791, recueillie ... par F. de Bacourl (3 vols., Paris, 1857), and R. M. de Klinckowstrém, Le Comte de Fersen et la cour de France (2 vols., Paris, 1877-1878). The chief memoirs are: Mme. Campan, Mémoires sur la vie privée de Marie Antoinette (sth ed., 2 vols., Paris, 1823, Eng. trans., 1887), the inaccuracy of which is demonstrated by J. Flammermont in Kiudes critiques sur les sources de histoire du xviiie sitcle: Les Mémoires de Mme. Campan, in the Bulletin de la Faculté des lettres de Poitiers (4th year, 1886, pp. 56, 109); J. Weber, Mémoires concernant Marie Antoinette (3 vols., London, 1804-1809; Eng. trans., 3 vols., London, 1805-1806) ; Mémoires de M. le baron de Besenval (3 vols., Paris, 1805); Mémoires de M. le duc de Lauzun (and ed., 2 vols., Paris, 1822); E. Bavoux, Méms. secrets de J. M. Augeard, secrétaire

born at Fontainebleau in September of the next year; the other

Vigée-Le-Brun, Mes souvenirs (2 vols., Paris, 1867); Mémoires de Mme. la duchesse de Tourzel, ed. by the duc de Cars (2 vols., Paris,

queen of Spain; Christine duchess of Savoy; and Henrietta Maria

des commandements de la reine M. Antoinette (Paris, 1866); Mme.

Yonec and Eliduc. The other similar lays are anonymous except the Laz d’Ignaure by Renant and the Lai du cor of Robert Biket, two authors otherwise unknown. They vary in length from some 12,000 lines to about roo. Marie’s Ysopet is a collection of fables translated from an English original which she erroneously attributed to Alfred the Great, who had, she said, translated it from the Latin. Another poem

attributed to her is L’Espurgatoire Seint Patriz, a translation from the Tractatus de purgatorio S. Patricii (c. 1185) of Henri de Salterey, which brings her activity down almost to the close of the century.

See Die Fabeln der Marie de France (1898), ed. by Karl Warnke

by Eduard Mall; and Die Lais der with the Marie de help Franceof materials (2nd ed., left 1900), ed. by Karl Warnke, with com-

vols. vi.

works being Kohler; the’two Reinhold Normannica notes parative and iii. of the byBibliotheca of Hermann Suchier; also J. Bédier in Revue des deux mondes (Oct. 1891) ;“Marie Alice Kemp-Welch in de France” in Nineteenth

Century

(Dec.

1907);

and Winkler,

Sitzengber. d. Wiener Akad, vol. 183, 1918. Lais see Reuue

For an analysis of the

de philologie française, viii. 16x seq.; Karl Warnke,

Die Quellen der Esope der Marie de France (1900). The Lais were first published in 1819 by B. de Roquefort. L’Espurgatoire Seint Patriz was edited by T. A. Jenkins (Philadelphia, 1894). Some of the apes ie paraphrased by Arthur O’Shaughnessy in his Lays of France 1872).

MARIE

DE’ MEDICI

(1573-1642),

queen consort and

queen regent of France, daughter of Francis de’ Medici, grand

duke of Tuscany, and Joanna, an Austrian archduchess, was born in Florence on April 26, 1573. She married Henry IV. of France

in October 1600.

Her eldest son, the future Louis XIIL, was

children who survived were Gaston duke of Orleans; Elizabeth

MARIE een of England.

During

FEQDOROVNA—MARIE

her husband’s

lifetime

Marie

de’

Medici showed little sign of political taste or ability; but after

his murder in 1610 when she became regent, she devoted herself to affairs with unfailing regularity and developed an inherited passion for power. She gave her confidence chiefly to Concini, afterwards maréchal d’Ancre, the husband of Leonora Galigai, a friend of her childhood. Under the regent’s lax and capricious

mle the princes of the blood and the great nobles of the kingdom

revolted; and the queen, too weak to assert her authority, con-

sented at Sainte Menehould (May 15, 1614) to buy off the discontented princes. In 1616 Richelieu entered her councils. Louis

XIII, who was now 16 years old, threw off the tutelage of his mother and Concini. By his orders Concini was murdered,

LOUISE

married the Grand Duke Alexander was tsarevich from 1881 until the throne in 1904; and Olga, whose Oldenburgsky was dissolved during

835

Mikhailovitch; Michael, who birth of a direct heir to the marriage with Prince Peter the war.

MARIE GALANTE, an island in the French West Indies.

Pop. (1921) 22,608. It lies in 15° 55’ N. and 61° 17’ W., 16 m. S.E. of Guadeloupe, of which it is a dependency. It is nearly circular in shape and 55 sq.m. in area. A rocky limestone plateau 67% ft. high occupies the centre of the island, and from it the land descends in a series of well-wooded terraces to the sea. The shores are rocky, there are no harbours, and the roadstead off Grand Bourg is difficult of access, owing to the surrounding reefs. The climate is healthy and the soil rich; sugar, coffee and cotton

Leonora Galigai was tried for sorcery and beheaded, Richelieu was banished to his bishopric, and the queen was exiled to Blois. After two years of virtual imprisonment she escaped in 1619

being the chief products. The largest town is Grand Bourg (pop. 7000) on the south-west coast. The island was discovered by Columbus in 1493, and received its name from the vessel on which

of Richelieu was followed by her exile to Compiégne, whence she

of Stanislas Leszczynski (who in 1704 became king of Poland) and of Catherine Opalinska. During a temporary flight from Warsaw the child was lost, and eventually discovered in a stable; on another occasion she was for safety’s sake hidden in an oven. In his exile Stanislas found his chief consolation in superintending the education of his daughter. Her marriage with Louis XV. took place at Fontainebleau on Sept. 5, 1725. Marie’s one attempt to interfere in politics, an effort to prevent the disgrace of the duke of Bourbon, was the beginning of her husband’s alienation from her; and after the birth of her seventh child, Louise, Marie was practically deserted by Louis, who openly avowed aseries of liaisons. She died at Versailles on June 24, 1768.

French who settled here in 1648 suffered and became the centre of a new revolt. Louis XIII. easily dis- he was sailing. The from the Dutch and the British, but since both attacks numerous was persed the rebels, but through the mediation of Richelieu for a short period of British rule in the early part of reconciled with his mother, who was allowed to hold a small 1766, except they have held undisturbed possession. century, roth the in council royal court at Angers, and resumed her place in the MARIE LESZCZYNSKA (1703-1768), queen consort of 1621. For a single day, the journée des dupes, Nov. 12, 1630, she born at Breslau on June 23, 1703, being the daughter seemed to have succeeded against the minister; but the triumph France, was

escaped in 163x to Brussels.

From that time till her death at

Cologne on July 3, 1642 she intrigued in vain against the cardinal.

See A. P. Lord, The Regency of Marie de Médicis (1904); L. Ratiffol, La Vie intime d’une reine de France (1906; Eng. trans., 1908).

MARIE

FEODOROVNA

(Mare

SOPHIA

FREDERIKA

DAGMAR) (1847—1928), empress of Russia, second daughter and fourth child of King Christian IX. of Denmark, was born Nov. 2%, 1847. Originally betrothed to Nicholas, eldest son of Alexander IJ., tsar of Russia, on his death she married, on Nov. 9, 1866, the Grand Duke Alexander Alexandrovitch, his younger brother, heir-apparent to the Russian throne, and was known thenceforward as Marie Feodorovna. The grand duke succeeded to the Russian throne as Alexander III., in 1881, on the assassinatim of his father by revolutionaries. The empress’s home life was a happy one, and she took no part in politics. Her husband was for many years in danger of his life and every precaution was taken for his safety. There was on his accession a natural tendency to reaction, and on the advice of Pobiedonoszeff, Alexander III. refused to accept the Constitution prepared by his father. As his accession to the throne had never been expected, he had been trained as a soldier, and had little political knowledge or ability. The empress interested herself particularly in philanthropy and education, and as head of the “department of the institution of the empress Marie” greatly extended the work of the institution, establishing new schools, hospitals and relief centres of various kinds. She endeared herself to the people of Russia by her personal interest as well as by her wide philanthropic activities. She was trained as a nurse during the Russo-Turkish war, and greatly developed the Russian Red Cross organization, of which she was the head. From the death of Alexander III., in 1894, she lived in retirement in the Anitchkov palace in St.

Petersburg (Leningrad), visiting Denmark and England where

she was staying on the outbreak of the World War. She returned to Russia, in spite of an attempt in Berlin to send her back to England, and worked actively for the Russian Red Cross. Her

attempts to warn her son, Nicholas II., against the influence of

Rasputin were unsuccessful. Three months after Rasputin’s nurder the revolution broke out and the emperor abdicated. The

empress Marie, who was at Kiev, met him for the last time at Mohilev. She was permitted, with other members of the royal family, to live in the Crimea, under close guard. When the Crimea came under German occupation she was given the oppor-

tunity of returning to Denmark through Germany, but refused, and only left for England after the armistice in April 1919. During her later years she lived at Hvidöre, in Denmark; she died at Copenhagen on Oct. 13, 1928. The empress had five children, Nicholas, who became emperor as Nicholas II.; George, who died at the age of 23; Xenia, who

See H. Gauthier Villars, Le Marge de Louis XV. d'après des documents nouveaux (1900); P. de Nolhac, Lo Reine Marie Leczinska (1900) and Louis XV. et Marie Leczynska (1900); P. Boyé, Letires du roi Stanislas & Marie Leszczynska 1734-66 (Paris and Nancy, 1901) ; and C. Stryienski’s book on Marie Joséphs de Saxe (La Mere des trois derniers Bourbons, 1902).

MARIE LOUISE (1791-1847), second wife of Napoleon 1,

was the daughter of Francis I., emperor of Austria, and of the princess Theresa of Naples, and was born on Dec. 12, 1791. It is probable, though not quite certain, that the first suggestions of a marriage between Napoleon and Marie Louise emanated secretly from the Austrian chancellor, Metternich. The prince de Ligne claimed to have been instrumental in arranging it. In any case the proposal was well received at Paris both by Napoleon and by his ministers; and the difficulties respecting the divorce of Josephine, were surmounted. The marriage took place by proxy in the church of St. Augustine, Vienna, on March 11, 1810. The new empress was escorted into France by Queen Caroline Murat, for whom sbe soon conceived a feeling of distrust. The civil and religious contracts took place at Paris early in April, and during the honeymoon, spent at the palace of Compiégne, the emperor showed the greatest regard for his wife. “He is so evidently in love with her,” wrote Metternich, “that he cannot conceal his feelings, and ail his customary ways of life are subordinate to her wishes.” His joy was complete when on March 20, 1811, she bore him a son who was destined to bear the empty titles of “king of Rome” and “Napoleon II.” Before the campaign of 1812, she accompanied the emperor to Dresden; but after that scene of splendour misfortunes crowded upon Napoleon. In January 1814 he appointed her to act as regent of France (with Joseph Bonaparte as lieutenant-general) during his absence in the field.

At the time of Napoleon’s first abdication (April rr, 1814),,

she succeeded in spite of the efforts of Joseph and Jerome Bonaparte in reaching her father, the emperor Francis, while Napoleon was on his way to Elba. She, along with her son, was escorted into Austria by Count von Neipperg, and refused to comply with the

entreaties of Napoleon to proceed to Elba; and her alienation

from him was completed when he ventured to threaten her with

MARIENBAD—MARIETTA

886

a forcible abduction. During the Hundred Days she remained in Austria, and manifested no desire for the success of Napoleon in France. At the Congress of Vienna the Powers awarded to her and her son the duchies of Parma, Piacenza and Guastalla, in con-

formity with the terms of the treaty of Fontainebleau (March,

1814); in spite of the determined opposition of Louis XVIII. she gained this right for herself owing largely to the support of the emperor Alexander, but she failed to make good the claims of her son to the inheritance. (See NAPOLEON II.) She proceeded

alone to Parma, and had to acquiesce in the title “duke of Reichstadt” accorded to her son. Long before the news of Napoleon’s death reached her she was living in intimate relations with Neipperg at Parma, and bore a son to him not long after that event. Napoleon on the other hand spoke of her in his will with marked tenderness, and both excused and forgave her infidelity. Neipperg became her morganatic husband; and they had other children. In 1832 she visited the duke of Reichstadt at Vienna when he was dying. Her rule in Parma, conjointly with Neipperg, was characterized by a clemency and moderation which were lacking in the other Italian states in that time of reaction. She preserved some of the Napoleonic laws and institutions; in 1817 she established the equality of women in heritage, and ordered the compilation of a civil code which was promulgated in January 1820. On the death of Neipperg in 1829 his place was taken by Baron Werklein, whose influence was hostile to popular liberty. In 1831 Marie Louise had to take refuge with the Austrian garrison at Piacenza; on the restoration of her rule by the Austrians its character deteriorated, Parma becoming an outwork of the Austrian empire. She died at Vienna on Dec. 18, 1847. See Correspondance

de Marie

Louise

r799-1847

(Vienna,

1887);

J. A. Baron von Helfert, Marie Louise (Vienna, 1873) ; E. Wertheimer,

Die Heirath der Erzherzogin Marie Louise mit Napoléon I, (Vienna, 1882); and The Duke of Reichstadt (Eng. ed., 1905). See also the Memoirs of Bausset, Mme. Durand Méneval and Metternich; and Max Billard, Tke Marriage Ventures of Marie Louise, English version by Evelyn, duchess of Wellington (1910) ; D. Masson, L’impératrice Marie Louise (1902); Cuthell, An Imperial Victim (1912); Gachot, Marie Louise intime (1912) ; C. de Clary-et-Aldringen, Souvenirs (1914).

MARIENBAD,

a watering-place in north-west Bohemia,

Czechoslovakia, situated on the south-eastern outskirts of the Císařský Les at an altitude of 2,093 ft. amidst delightful surroundings, enclosed on all sides except the south by gently sloping hills clad with pine forests intersected by lovely walks. Although its mineral springs have been known for centuries and are mentioned in a document dated 1341 as belonging to the abbey of Tepla, they attracted few people until Josef Nehr, the doctor of the abbey, demonstrated their curative properties during the period 1779-1820, and the town did not receive a charter until 1868. After this date it grew rapidly in popularity and 1s now one of the most frequented spas in Europe. The waters are cold and varied in composition, some, like those of Carlsbad, being alkaline-saline but of greater strength, others being rich in iron, and are used in the treatment of liver troubles, gout, diabetes and obesity. Most are used for bottling and drinking but the cure also involves a carefully regulated diet; the water is also bottled and exported in large quantities. In addition to the springs there are peat baths very rich in iron. The town is small and well-built, most of its hospitals, bathing establishments and other public buildings being quite modern. In the vicinity lie many places of interest, e.g., the rock of Podhorn (2,776 ft.), about 3 m. E., with extensive views of the Böhmer Wald and Erz Gebirge, and, about 7 m. E., the old abbey of Teplá, founded in 1r93 though the present building dates from the 17th—18th centuries and has a fine library and collection of rare manuscripts; and, to the north-east, the small spa of Kénigswart. Pop. (1923) 6,909. E Lang, Führer durch Marienbad und Umgebung

(Marienbad,

T1902).

MARIENBURG (Polish, Malborg), a town in the Prussian province of East Prussia, 30 m. by rail to the S.E. of Danzig on the right bank of the Nogat, a channel of the Vistula, here spanned by bridges. Pop. (1925) 21,039. The castle of the Teutonic order

here was originally founded in 1274 as the seat of a simple commandery against the pagan Prussians, but in 1309 the head-

quarters of the grand master were transferred hither from Venice and the “Marienburger Schloss” soon became one of the largest and most strongly fortified buildings in Germany. In the middle of the 15th century, the castle passed into the hands of the Poles by whom it was allowed to fall into neglect and decay. It catie

into the possession of Prussia in 1772, and was carefully restored at the beginning of the 19th century.

It consists of three parts,

the Alt- or Hochschloss, the Mittelschloss, and the Vorburg, and js built of brick, in a style of architecture peculiar to the Baltic provinces. Marienburg manufactures agricultural machinery, sugar, and has saw mills. It carries on a considerable trade in grain, wood, flax and is the seat of important cattle and horse markets, In the old market-place, many of the houses in which are built

with arcades, stands a Gothic town-hall, dating from the end of the r4th century.

MARIENWERDER, 2a town in the Prussian province of East Prussia, 3 m. E. of the Vistula, 23 m. S. of Marienburg by

rail. Pop. (1925) 13,752. The town was founded in the year 1233 by the Teutonic order. It has a cathedral of the rath century, a triple Gothic edifice, restored in 1874.

In the cathedral

were buried two grand masters of the Teutonic order.

Under

Article 96 of the Treaty of Versailles a plebiscite was held to decide whether the territory should belong to Poland or to East

Prussia, which resulted in favour of the latter.

The industries

include saw-mills, sugar-refineries, breweries and printing-works.

MARIE THERESE

(1638-1683), queen consort of France,

was born on Sept. ro, 1638, at the Escorial, being the daughter of Philip IV. of Spain and Elizabeth of France. The treaty of the Pyrenees in 1659 stipulated for her marriage with Louis XIV. Marie renouncing any claim to the Spanish succession. Marie Thérése was married in June 1660, when Philip IV. with his whole court accompanied the bride to the Isle of Pheasants in the Bidassoa, where she was met by Louis. She died on July 30, 1683, at Versailles, not without suspicion of foul play on the part of her doctors. Of her six children only one survived her, the dauphin Louis, who died in 1711. See the funeral oration of Bossuet (Paris, 1684), E. Ducéré, Le Mariage de Louis XIV. daprés les contemporains et des documents inédits (Bayonne, 1905) ; Dr. Cabanés, Les Morts mystérieuses de lhistoire (1900); M. Duclos, Madame de La Valliére et Marie Thérèse (r904), and the literature dealing with her rivals Louise de la Vallière, Madame de Montespan and Madame de Maintenon.

MARIETTA,

a city of Georgia, U.S.A., 20 m. N.W. of

Atlanta, on Federal highway 41, at an altitude of 1,118 ft.; the county seat of Cobb county. It is served by the Louisville and Nashville and the Nashville, Chattanooga and St. Louis railways. The population was 6,190 in 1920; 7,638 in 1930. It is both a winter and a summer resort, and has a variety of manufacturing industries. The city was founded c. 1840 and chartered 1852.

At Marietta

there is a national

cemetery,

than 10,000 Federal soldiers are buried.

in which more

The Kenesaw mountain

(1,809ft.), about 24m. west of the city, was the scene of a stubborn action of the Civil War, in which the Federals lost 2,500 men. After the Confederate retreat from Dalton in May 1864, Gen. W. T. Sherman, the Federal commander, made

Marietta his next intermediate point in his Atlanta campaign, and the Confederate commander, Gen. J. E. Johnston, established a line of defence west of the town. After several preliminary engagements Sherman, on June 27, made an unsuccessful attempt to drive the Confederates from their defences at Kenesaw mountain—the only instance in his campaign of a frontal attack on a strongly entrenched position. He then resorted to a flanking movement which forced the Confederate general to retire

(July 2) toward Atlanta.

MARIETTA,

a city of south-eastern

Ohio, U.S.A., the

county seat of Washington county; on the Ohio river at the mouth

of the Muskingum. It is on Federal highways 21 and 50, and is served by the Baltimore and Ohio and the Pennsylvania railways.

Pop. 15,140 in 1920 (95% native white); and 14,285 in 1930 by Federal census. The city’s streets are lined with magnificent

old shade trees, including the largest elm on record in the United 4

MARIETTE—MARIGNANO states. It is surrounded by a hilly country of much natural beauty, devoted largely to market gardens and apple orchards:

isthe centre of one of the oldest gas and oil fields in the country, till producing about 1,250,000 bbl. annually; and has substantial and diversified manufacturing industries, with an output in 1927

valued at $12,213,000. 1927 was $31,904,330.

The assessed valuation of property for The city operates under the mayor-and-

council form of government, and has in addition a “service director” with the functions of a city manager. It is the seat of Marietta college (chartered 1835, continuing an academy founded

in 1797) which has a valuable historical museum and rare collections of Americana, including the original records of the Ohio

Company, the Rodney

M. Stimson collection (relating chiefly

to the history of the Ohio and the Mississippi valleys), and the Charles Goddard Slack collection of historical documents and prints. In the centre of Mound cemetery (where many of the pioneers are buried) is one of the most perfect specimens of the mound-builders’ work, and there are other prehistoric earthworks in and near the city, including a double embankment leading down to the Muskingum river. Marietta is the oldest settlement in Ohio. It was founded on April 7, 1788 (near Ft. Harmer, built in 1785) by a company of revolutionary officers from New England under the leadership of Gen. Rufus Putnam. The name was chosen to honour Marie Antoinette. Here the North-west territory was formally organized, Marietta was made the capital, and on July 15 Arthur St. Clair took his oath of office as the frst governor. The blockhouse (“Campus Martius”) in which Gen. Putnam lived at first, his later home, and the original land office of the Ohio Company, still stand, and are carefully preserved x historic monuments. Black Hole cave, in the outskirts of the ity, was an important “station” on the Underground railway. MARIETTE, AUGUSTE FERDINAND FRANCOIS (1821-1881), French Egyptologist, was born on Feb. 11, 1821 at Boulogne, where his father was town clerk. Entrusted with a zovernment mission for the purpose of seeking and purchasing Coptic, Syriac, Arabic and Ethiopic mss. for the national collec‘ion, he started for Egypt in 1850; and soon after his arrival he liscovered the ruins of the Serapeum and the subterranean catacombs of the Apis bulls. His original mission being abandoned, funds were now advanced for the prosecution of his researches, ind he remained in Egypt for four years, excavating, discovering md despatching archaeological treasures to the Louvre, of which œ was on his return appointed an assistant conservator. In 1858 xe accepted the position of conservator of Egyptian monuments 0 the ex-khedive, Ismail Pasha, and removed with his family to Cairo. The museum at Bula was founded immediately. The pyranid-fields of Memphis and Sakkara, and the necropolis of Meylum, and those of Abydos and Thebes were examined; the great emples of Dendera and Edfu were disinterred; important excavalons were carried out at Karnak, Medinet-Habu and Deir el-

887

then prevailing. The young king of France had gathered an army about Lyons, wherewith to overrun the Milanese; his allies were the republics of Venice and Genoa. The duke of Milan, Maximilian Sforza, had secured the support of the emperor, the king of Spain, and the pope, and also that of the Swiss cantons, which

then supplied the best mercenary soldiers in Europe. (See Swiss Wars.) The practicable passes of the Alps and the Apennines were held by Swiss and papal troops. Francis, however, boldly crossed the Col de lArgentière (Aug. 1515) by paths that no army had hitherto used, and Marshal de La Palisse surprised and captured a papal corps at Villafranca near Pinerolo, whereupon the whole of the enemy’s troops fell back on Milan. The king then marching by Vercelli, Novara and Pavia, joined hands with Alviano, the Venetian commander, and secured a foothold in the Milanese.

But in order to avoid the necessity of besieging

Milan itself, he offered the Swiss a large sum to retire into their own country. They were about to accept his offer, not having received their subsidies from the pope and the king of Spain, when a fresh corps of mercenaries descended into Italy, desirous both of gaining booty and of showing their prowess against their new rivals the French and Lower Rhine “lJansquenets” (landsknechts) and against the French gendarmerie, whom (alluding to the “Battle of the Spurs” at Guinegatte in 1513) they called “hares in armour.” The French took position at Melegnano to face the Swiss, the Venetians at Lodi to hold in check the Spanish army at Piacenza. Alviano, who was visiting the king when the Swiss appeared before Melegnano, hurried off to bring thither his own army. Meantime the French and the Swiss engaged in an exceedingly fierce struggle. The king’s army was grouped in front of the village, facing in the direction of Milan, with a small stream separating it from the oncoming Swiss. On either side of the Milan road was a large body of landsknechts, a third being in reserve. The French and Gascon infantry (largely armed with arquebuses) was on the extreme right, the various bodies of gendarmerie in the centre. In front of all was the French artillery. The battle opened in the afternoon of Sept. 13. As the Swiss advanced in three huge columns, the French guns fired into them with terrible effect, but the assailants reached the intersected ground bordering the stream, and thus protected from the rush of the French gendarmerie, they debouched on the other side, and fell upon the landsknechts. The crowd of combatants, the gathering darkness, and the dust, prevented any general direction being given to the battle by the leaders of either side. Francis himself at the head of 200 gendarmes charged and drove back two large bodies of Swiss which were pressing the landsknechts hard. The battle went on by moonlight till close on midnight, when the Swiss retired a short distance. Both sides spent the rest of the night on the battlefield, reorganizing their broken corps. Francis and his gendarmes were the outpost line of the French army, and remained all night Jabri; Tanis (the Zoan of the Bible) was partially explored in the mounted, lance in hand and helmet on head. Next morning at Jelta; and even Gebel Barkal in the Sudan. The Sphinx was bared sunrise, the battle was renewed. The Swiss now left their centre o the rock-level, and the famous granite and alabaster monument inactive opposite the king and with two strong corps attempted niscalled the “Temple of the Sphinx” was discovered. Mariette to work round his flanks. That on the left made for the French vas raised successively to the rank of bey and pasha. He died at baggage, but found it strongly guarded by landsknechts, who -airo on Jan. 19, 1881. drove them back. The nearest French gendarmerie joined in the His chief published works are: Le Sérapéum de Memphis (1854 and pursuit, but a detachment from the Swiss centre fell upon these ollowing years) ; Dendérah, five folios and one 4to (1873~75) ; Abydos, wo folios and one 4to (1870-80) ; Karnak, folio and 4to (1875) ; Deir and destroyed them. This detachment in turn followed up its l-Bahari, folio and 4to (1877); Listes géographiques des pylônes de advantage until as Francis himself expressed it, “the whole camp Karnak, folio (1875); Catalogue du Musée de Boulaq (six editions, turned out” to aid the landsknechts and “hunted out” the Swiss. 864-76) ; Aperçu de l'histoire d'Égypte (four editions, 1864-74, etc.) ; Meantime the Swiss left attack had closed with the French in-es Mastabas de l'ancien empire (edited by Maspero) (1883). See Notice biographique,” by Maspero in Auguste Mariette. Oeuvres fantry bands and the “aventuriers” (afterwards the famous corps TER (tome 1, Paris, 1904), and art. Ecypt: Exploration and of Picardie and Piedmont), who were commanded on this day by earch, the famous engineer Pedro Navarro. It was in the main a strugMARIGNANO, BATTLE OF, fought on Sept. 13 and 14, gle of arquebus against pike, but it was not the arquebus alone, 515, between the French army under Francis I. and the Swiss. or even principally, that gave the victory to the French. When (he scene of the battle—which was also that of a hard fought the Swiss ranks had been disordered, the short pike and the sword gagement in 1859 (see ITat1an Wars)—was the northern out- came into play, and aided by the constable de Bourbon with a kirts of the village of Melegnano, on the river Lambro, rom. handful of the gendarmerie, the French right more than held its E. of Milan. The circumstances: out of which the battle of own until Alviano with the cavalry from Lodi rode on to the field Varignano arose, almost inconceivable to the modern mind, were and completed the rout of the Swiss. In the centre meanwhile the lot abnormal in the conditions of Italian warfare and politics two infantries stood fast for eight hours, separated by the brook,

888

MARIGNOLLI-—MARIGOLD

while the artillery on both sides fired into it at short range. But the landsknechts, animated by the king, endured it as well as the Swiss; and at the last, Francis leading a final advance of his exhausted troops, the Swiss gave way and fled. Only 3,000 Swiss escaped out of some 25,000 who fought. On the French side probably 8,000 were killed or died of wounds. The battle lasted 28 hours. Its tactical lesson was the efficacy of combining two arms against one. The French gendarmerie, burning to avenge the insult of “hares in armour,” made more than thirty charges by squadrons, and they were admirably supported by their light artillery which played havoc with the Swiss pikemen whom the mounted charges had brought to a halt. Marignano was thus a landmark in the power of the new arm, and at the same time the last and greatest triumph of the armoured lancer; and as a fitting close to the battle the young king was knighted by Bayard on the field. But, above all, in signalizing the military decline of the Swiss it afforded yet more proof in history of the: truth that good soldiership is not enough, without generalship, and that conservatism towards military progress will undermine the firmest foundations of military power. MARIGNOLLI, GIOVANNI DE’, a notable traveller to the Far East in the r4th century, born probably before 1290, and sprung from a noble family in Florence. In 1338 there arrived at Avignon, where Benedict XIE. held his court, an embassy from the great khan of Cathay (the Mongol-Chinese emperor), bearing letters to the pontiff from the khan himself, and from certain Christian nables of the Alan race im his service, who asked for a priest. The pope replied to the letters, and appointed four ecclesiastics as his legates to the khan’s court. The name of John o Florence, 7.¢., Marignolli, appears third on the letters of commission. A large party was associated with the four chief envoys; when in Peking the embassy still numbered thirty-two, aut of an original fifty. The mission left Avignon in December 1338; picked up the Tatar envoys at Naples; and travelled via Constantinople and the Black Sea to the court af Mohammed Uzbeg, khan of the Golden

Horde, at Sarai on the Volga. The khan entertained them haspitably during the winter of 1339-1340 and then sent them acrass the steppes ta Armalec, Almalig or Almaligh (Kulja), the northern seat. of the house of Chaghatai, in what is now the province of Ii. “There,” says Marignolli, “we built a church, bought a piece of graund . . . sung masses, and Daptized several persons, notwithstanding that only the year before the bishop and six other minor friars had there undergone glorious martyrdom for Christ’s salvation.” Quitting Almaligh in 1341, they seem to have reached Peking (by way of Kamul or Hami) in May or June 1342. They were well received by the reigning khan, the last of the Mongol dynasty in China. An entry in the Chinese annals fixes the year

of Marignalli’s presentation by its mention of the arrival of the

in Abhandl. der k. béhm Gesellsch. der Wissenschaften, vol. yi.. F

Kunstmann, in Historisch-politische Blatter von Phillips und Gia

xxxviii., 701-719, 793-813 (Munich, 1859); Luke Wadding, Annals minorum, A.D. 1338, vil. 210-219 (ed. of 1733, etc.) ; Sbaralea, Supple.

mentum et castigatio ad scriptores trium ordinum S. Francisci a Waddingo, p. 436 (Rome, 1806); John of Winterthur, in Eccard, Corpus historicum medii aevi, vol. i. 1852; Masheim, Historia Tartarorum ecclesiastica, part i. p. 115; Henry Yule, Cathay and the Way T hither ii. 309—394 (Hak. Soc., 1866) ; C. Raymond Beazley, Dawn of Modern

Geography, iit. 142, 180-181, 184-185,:215, 231, 236, 288-309 (1906), MARIGNY, ENGUERRAND DE (1260-1315), French

statesman, was born at Lyons-la-Forét in Normandy. After the death of Pierre Flotte and Hugues de Bonville at the battle of Mons-en-Pevéle in 1304, he became Philip IV.’s grand chamber. lain and chief minister. In 1306 he was sent to preside over the

exchequer of Normandy.

He received numerous

gifts of land

and money from Philip as well as a pension from Edward IL. of

England. He was an able instrument of Philip’s policy, and shared the popular odium which Philip incurred by debasing the coinage. He obtained rich appointments for many of his relatives, and secured increased revenue for the king. His peace with the Flemings in 1314 disappointed the princes of the blood.

He was accused of receiving bribes, and Charles of Valois de-

nounced him to the king himself; but Philip stood by him. After the death of Philip IV. on Nov. 29, 1314 the feudal party, whose power the king had tried to limit, turned on his ministers and chiefly on his chamberlain. Enguerrand was arrested, and twentyeight articles of accusation including charges of receiving bribes

were brought against him.

He was refused a hearing; but his

accounts were correct, and Louis was inclined to spare him anything more than banishment to the island of Cyprus. Charles

of Valois then brought forward a charge of sorcery. Enguerrand was condemned at once and hanged on the public gallows at Montfaucon, protesting that in all his acts he had only been

carrying out Philip’s commands (April 30, 1315).

See contemporary chroniclers in vols. xx. te xxiii. of Ð. Bouquet,

Historiens de la France; P. Clément, Frois drames historiques (1857); Ch. Dufayard, La Réaction féodale sous les fils de Philippe le Bel, in the Revue historique (1894, liv. 241-272) and }v. 241—290.

MARIGNY,

JEAN DE (d. 1350), French bishop, was a

younger brother of the preceding. In 1313 he was made bishop of

Beauvais; he completed the choir of Beauvais Cathedral, the enormous windows of which were filled with the richest glass. But the work was interrupted by the Hundred Years’ War. Jean de Marigny was one of the king’s lieutenants in southern France in 1341 against the English invasion. In 1346 he held Beauvais against the English, who had overrun the country up to the walls of the city. Created archbishop of Rouen in 1347, he enjoyed his new honours only three years; he died on Dec. 26, 1350.

MARIGOLD.

This name has been given to several plants,

of which the following are the best known: Calendula officinalis, great horses from the kingdom of Fulang (Farang or Europe), one the pot-marigold; Tagetes erecta, the African marigold; T. patula, of which was 1: ft. 6 in. in length and 6 ft. 8 in, high, and black »the French marigold; and Chrysanthemum segetum, the corn all over. marigold. All these belong to the family Compositae; but Caltha Marignolli stayed at Peking or Cambalec three or four years, palustris, the marsh marigold (q.v.), belongs to the Ranunculaceae.

after which he travelled through eastern China to Zayton or Amoy Harbour, quitting China apparently in December 1347, and reaching Columbum (Kaulam or Quilon in Malabar) in Easter week of 1348. He returned home by way of a circuitous route, reaching Avignon in 1353, where he delivered a letter from the great khan to Pope Innocent VI. In the following year the emperor Charles IV., on a.visit to Italy, made Marignolli one of his chaplains. Soon after, the pope made him bishop of Bisignano; but he appears to have accompanied the emperor ta Prague in 1354-1355; in 1356 he is found acting as envoy to the pope from Florence; and in 1357 he is at Bologna. The date of his death is unknown. ' Nobody seems to have noticed the fragmentary nates left by

ter. He remarks of “the marigolde” that it is called Calendula “as if is to be seene to flower in the calends of almost euerie

quam antehac egita by Father Gelasius Dobner.

golds, are natives of Mexica, and are equally familiar garden plants, having beer long in cultivation. Gerard figures five

See Fontes rerum bohemicarum, iii. 492-604 (1882, best text); G. Debner’s Monumenta hist. bok., vol. ii. (Prague, 1768) ; J. G. Meinert,

cit., p. 609). Besides the above species the following have been

The first-mentioned is the familiar garden plant with large orange-coloured blossoms, and is probably not known in a wild state. There are now many fine garden varieties of it. The florets are unisexual, the “ray” florets being female, the “disk” florets male. This and the double variety have been in cultivation for at least three hundred years, as well as a proliferous form, C. prolifera, or the “fruitful marigolde” of Gerard (Herbal, p. 602), in which small flower-heads proceed from beneath the circumference of the flower. The figure of “the greatest double marigold,” C. multiflora maxima, given by Gerard (loc. cit., p. 600) is larger than most specimens now seen, being 3 in. in diame-

Marignolli of his journeys interpolated in his Annals of Bohemia, moneth.” , compiled by order of the emperor, till 1768, when the chronicle Tagetes patula, and T. erecta, the French and African mariwas published in vol. ii. of the Manumenta hist. Bohemiae nus-

varieties of Flos africanus, of the single and double kind (loc.

MARIT

AUTONOMOUS

AREA—MARINE

introduced later: T. lucida, T. signata, also from Mexico, and T. tenuifolia from Peru. Chrysanthemum segetum, the yellow corn marigold, is indigenous to Great Britain, and is frequent in corn-fields in most parts of England. When dried it has been employed as hay.

It is also used in Germany for dyeing yellow.

MARIT AUTONOMOUS

AREA, an administrative unit

of the Russian S.F.S.R., created in 1920. Area 23,525 sq. kilometres. Pop. (1926) 482,519. It is surrounded by the Tatar A.S.S.R., the Chuvash A.S.S.R., and the Provinces of Nizhegorod

and Vyatka, and lies between 55° so’ N. and 57° 40° N. and 45° 39’ and 50° 18’ E. The surface consists of a plain sloping south to the Volga river, with higher ground in the east forming the watershed between the tributaries of the Volga and the Vyatka. The chief rivers are the Volga, which flows through part of the south-west, and after passing through the north of the Chuvash A.S.S.R., forms the south-eastern boundary of the Marii region, the Great and Little Kokshag and the Vetluga, tributaries

of the Volga. The area lies in the taiga forest zone and 64% of it is covered with coniferous forest, pine and fir predominating. Timber and wooden wares made by the peasants provide the largest source of income, the nearness of the Volga being a great asset for export. A railway was constructed in 1923 from Kazan to Krasnokokshaisk (formerly Tsarevokokshaisk), the administrative centre, a small town of 4,265 inhabitants. Kozmodemiansk, on the Volga, has 7,655 inhabitants and is a great timber

centre with an annual timber fair. Apart from these two, there

are no other town centres. The soils are not very favourable for agriculture, consisting mainly of sands, clays and forest earths. The climate is severe and continental, ranging between —14-0° C and 20° C and the rainfall averages 440 mm. falling mostly in summer. In some years the spring rains fail, as in 1921, and the crops are ruined. In other years, however, in spite of poor methods and implements, sufficient rye and oats are grown in the

north to allow of export. Potato and flax cultivation is increasing and there are a few indications that the traditional three-field system is being replaced by more intensive methods. Horses, cows, sheep and pigs are reared, but there is little dairying. The projected continuation of the railway northwards may encourage dairying and plans are under consideration for establishing instruction centres. The Marii Area was not a war zone, but it suffered terribly

from the 1921 famine and from a disastrous forest fire, and con-

ditions are by no means stable yet. Chalk is worked in the north

BIOLOGY

889

(1926) 11,419. It has grown since 1856 as an entrepôt for the gold mines situated in the Mariinsk toga, 45 m. from the railway and 65 m. from the town itself. Aluminium is found with the gold. The town has iron smelting and machinery works and flour-mills. (2) A village of Asiatic Russia in 51° 53’ N., 140° ro’ E., occupied by the Russians in 1852, and situated on the right bank of

the Amur river. It is the centre for the 27 fishing stations included in the Mariinsk fishing district which extends for 263 m. along the

lower Amur river. The district grows rye, barley, oats and vegetables. (3) A canal in the Leningrad area of the Russian S.F.S.R. linking the Kovzha river, flowing into Byelo lake, with the Vytegra river, flowing into Lake Onega. It was built in 1808, and forms part of the Mariinsk series of waterways which connect the Volga river with the Ladoga-Neva system.

MARIN, LOUIS (1871+), French politician, entered the chamber of deputies in 1905, and soon attracted attention by his work on the financial commission, of which he became rapporteur-général, In 1919, with Franklin-Bouillon, he voted against the ratification of the treaty of Versailles on the ground that it did not ensure security to France. He became chairman of the union républicaine démocratique group in the chamber, and as the leader of the largest of the republican conservative groups was a powerful opponent of the Briand-Caillaux government of June-July 1926. He was minister of pensions in the Poincaré cabinet on July 1926.

MARINE BIOLOGY is not merely the study of the kinds of living things that are found in the oceans and seas; it is concerned with the ways in which the environment of salt water of varying temperature, salinity, depth, pressure and other physical conditions affects the life histories and abundance and nature of marine organisms. Many kinds of plants and examples of all the great sub-kingdoms of animals live in the sea, but in studying systematic botany and zoology we are concerned mainly with the classification, structure and development of these organisms, and the question of the environment does not interest us greatly. There are, however, groups of plants and animals that are exclusively or predominantly marine. There are others that live drifting about in sea water; others, again, that live attached to the sea bottom; some that live at abyssal depths in the ocean, and others that live only in very shallow water—and so on; and the study of these particular conditions has high interest. Then the salts in the sea, their varying concentration and their origins: the varying depths of the seas and oceans; the enormous pressures at great depths; the darkness even at limited depths; the great ocean currents; the tides which regularly cover and uncover the littoral zone; the interchange of materials between the sea and the land, or the sea and the atmosphere—all these are conditions that powerfully affect the kinds and the abundance of living things in the oceans and seas. Thus we may regard marine biology as the study of the forms of life that belong to a particular environment —that of the seas and oceans—and of the ways in which these forms of life have become adapted so as best to utilize that environment. The Kinds of Organisms Found in, the Sea.—There are peculiar and limited regions which are both land and sea—such are the littoral zone, or foreshore, salt-marshes, etc.—-and here many kinds of plants may be found. But in the sea itself, and on the lower parts of the foreshore, plant life is represented mainly by the rooted Algae and the planktonic Diatoms. Many kinds of unicellular organisms—the Peridinians, for example—are sometimes described as animals, sometimes as plants. From the broader point of view, however, marine plant life is represented by the large, rooted Algae and by the planktonic Diatoms and Peridin-

and there are extensive peat beds which will prove a valuable asset when transport is provided. There are small glass and flourmilling enterprises, and besides making wooden goods, the peasants make leather, felt, rope, string, pottery and other articles needed for daily use. A factory for the production of resin and turpentine is under construction (1928). Plans for the improvement of conditions are hampered by the illiteracy of the people, the literacy rate being only 26.2%. Better provision for the present generation is made than in some other areas, but a large Proportion of children are receiving no education and medical help is altogether inadequate; trachoma, itch and other infectious diseases are wide-spread. The population consisted in 1926 of Marii 51-4%, Russians 43-6%, with some Tatars and Chuvashes. The Marii were called by the Russians Cheremis or Tcheremis. They speak a Finnish dialect akin to Mordvinian and Permian, but are much more dolichocephalic and it has been suggested that they are connected with the neolithic dolichocephalic population of the shores of Lake Ladoga. They inhabited a region further to the west than their present habitat up to the rrth century, but moved eastward into the marsh and forest region when Slav colonization began, and ians. The marine vertebrate animals are the whales, seals, porWere settled in their present home in the rath century. Moscow poises, etc.—these are true mammals that evolved terrestrially and annexed the region in the 16th century but the Marii remained then assumed marine habitats. There are marine birds, separate from the Russian colonists and have retained their ously the habitats of these animals are not exclusively but obvisea water, language and customs. (See also FINNO-UcRIAN. ) as in the case of the marine mammals. There are no marine amMARITINSK (1) a town in the Siberian area of the Russian phibians. Marine reptiles are reptesented S.F.S.R. in 56° 16’ N., 87° so’ E,, on the Kiya river, which is snakes. The fishes are, of course, exclusively by turtles and sea aquatic, and the manavigable for rafts only, and on the Trans-Siberian railway. Pop. jority of the species are marine. The arthropods are the groups

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of animals commonly represented by the Crustacea, spiders, mites,

millipedes and insects. There are a few insects that inhabit the foreshore or the shallow waters adjacent to this zone, but there are no truly marine mites, spiders or millipedes. The Crustacea are exclusively aquatic and they are abundant in the sea, having

there much the same rôle as that of the insects on the land. They

are quite ubiquitous and are represented by an immense variety of species. The molluscs are nearly all aquatic animals, only a few species of Gastropods (univalves) inhabiting the land. They are far more abundant in the sea than in fresh waters. The echinoderms (that is the starfishes, sea urchins, feather-stars and sea-cucumbers) are exclusively marine. The coelenterates (the zoophytes, medusae, “jelly-fishes,” siphonophores, corals, etc.) are almost entirely marine.

The mixed

assemblage

of worms,

polyzoa, rotifers, etc., are mostly aquatic and they are about equally represented in the sea and in fresh water. Sponges are almost entirely confined to the sea. The protozoa are ubiquitous. Perhaps we had better use the term Protista, for this does not make the rather arbitrary distinction between animal and plant organisms. These unicellular forms of life inhabit all possible habitats, but their variety and abundance in the sea is far greater than on the land. In general, the dominant groups of land animals are the mammals and insects, while the dominant groups of marine animals are the Crustacea and fishes. The dominant land plants are the flowering ones while the dominant marine forms are the Diatoms and the bottom-living Algae. By “dominance” we mean abundance, ubiquity of distribution and variety of adaptations. There are few places on the land where one does not find mammals, while there is no region of the sea where there are not fishes. Similarly, insects of some kind are distributed everywhere, almost, on the land, in the soil, in the air, or even parasitic in other animals or in plants; just the same can be said of the occurrence of the Crustacea in the sea.

The Categories of Life in the Sea.—It is very helpful to think about marine organisms according to their general habitats: from this point of view we divide them into the general kinds— Benthos, Nekton and Plankton. The Benthic plants and animals are those that are rooted or attached to the sea bottom (the Algae, corals, barnacles, many molluscs, sea anemones, etc.); those that live in burrows or crawl about in the sand or other deposits of the sea-bottom (many molluscs, worms, some Crustacea, etc.); those that are “semi-sedentary,” that is, crawl about for relatively short distances on the bottom (such as the starfishes, many molluscs, worms, etc.); in general, the attached, sedentary, semisedentary and burrowing bottom living forms of life. The Nektic animals are those that are actively locomotory so that they can carry out long migrations apart altogether from, or even in opposition to, currents. Such are the fishes, the whales, seals, porpoises and other marine mammals and the great cuttle-fishes. Some of these animals, the whales, seals and sharks, can carry out migratory voyages comparable in speed and distance with those made by great ocean steamships. The Plankton (q.v.) are all those forms of life (usually microscopic in size) that are passively drifted about in the sea by the agencies of tides and currents. Zones of Life in the Sea.—It is also very convenient to bear in mind the classification of habitats made by Edward Forbes, the Manx naturalist. We can distinguish (on coasts where there are tidal rises and falls) a Littoral Zone which is bounded by the shore levels to which the spring tides rise and fall. This zone of “foreshore” is, twice a day, covered by the sea and the animals living there are therefore exposed to relatively violent changes. Sea weeds, zoophytes, barnacles, worms and many molluscs are typical inhabitants of this zone. Below the level of the low water marks of spring tides is the Lamnarian zone, so-called because of the characteristic abundance of the large “tangle,” or Laminaria. We may take this region to extend out to sea as far as the depth of 10 fathoms (though Darwin found Laminaria in Patagonian seas, growing up to the surface from a depth of about 45 fathoms). Outside this region is the Coralline zone in which the ordinary red, green and brown algae begin to disappear and where the calcareous algae, the Nullipores, are abundant. (Forbes ım-

BIOLOGY agined this region to be bounded by the limiting depth of 30 fathoms.) In deeper water he regarded the bottom as being life. less: at least if life existed it exhibited “but a few sparks to mark

its lingering presence.” Outside the 300 fathom depth was, in his conception, the “Azoic zone.” Nowadays the Littoral, Laminarian and Coralline zones of Forbes still retain a general validity. But we should say that characteristic faunas begin to be recognized when the depth ex. ceeds about 100 fathoms. We add to Forbes’s categories, therefore, a Deep Water zone and an “Abyssal zone.” It is impossible to delimit these regions except in a very general way but we may think about the former as contained between the roo and the

1,000 fathoms contour lines and of the latter as being the immense region of sea bottom where the ocean is more than about 1,000 fathoms in depth.

Thus no part of the ocean is lifeless so far as our investigations go. The conditions vary remarkably: in the greatest abysses there is absolute darkness, a temperature which is just

about freezing point, and pressures that are measured by tons to the square inch—yet living fishes and invertebrates are there. In

polar seas beneath the ice there may be temperatures that are lower than that of the freezing point of fresh water, yet some form

of life may be extraordinarily abundant. Rather high temperatures (up to 30°C. or 86°F.) are found in the Red sea, yet life

is also abundant there. Even in the stagnant and apparently poisonous water of the lower levels of the Black sea there is plenty of unicellular life. Thus organisms have adapted their activities to almost every kind of physical conditions that is exhibited in naturally occurring water masses. We now consider the physical conditions and the associated biology in these various life-zones. The Littoral Zone.—Wherever there is a marked tidal rise and fall of the sea, and not too great a slope of the sea bottom, there is a littoral zone. There are coasts formed of steep cliffs and here we can usually see a more or less vertical face of rock

where the sea level rises and falls and where there are different kinds of attached organisms according to the level. Often, however, a steep coast has a rocky terrace at the foot of the cliffs and this flat is covered and uncovered by the tide. It is rocky with ledges, pools and boulders and there are abundant algae, zoophytes, sea anemones, Polyzoa and shore fishes. The nature of the rocks that form the cliffs may sometimes be seen to affect the fauna and flora. There are other coasts that are low and consist of materials that are easily eroded, and here there is a tendency for the for" mation of beaches consisting of gravels and sands; such a foreshore is relatively bare of life and the common littoral organisms

may and has sive

be a few Algae, with barnacles, limpets, periwinkles, mussels little else. More often, perhaps, the coast is a low one that been subject to prolonged marine denudation, so that extensandy flats are formed. In spite of the variable nature of the

coastal materials such a foreshore generally consists mainly of

quartz sand, for this is an irreducible residue resulting from erosion. Such sandy flat foreshores may have very considerable extent, occupying the greater parts of bays and estuaries.

The

sandy zone is broken by shallow and variable channels. Mud and quicksand may be present. In such regions the forms of life are not at all obvious, nevertheless there may be great numbers of various kinds of organisms; usually there are lamellibranch molluscs (such as cockles) in the sand; perhaps worms (such as Arenicola) which live in burrows, and everywhere in the interstices of the sand grains there are Diatoms and other unicellular organisms,

Sometimes, as off the coast of England, there may be

quite important sand fisheries (for cockles). The variety of the conditions on the foreshore is so great that we can only suggest it here Reef-like formations may be set up by worms which make stift, sandy tubes. In the tropics there arè huge regions of foreshore of disintegrated coral rock, all of which has been built up by organic action. In cold and temperate Jati-

tudes large Algae tend to be prominent in the lower levels of the

littoral zone, but tbere is an obvious scarcity of these in tropical climes where coral reefs exist, the reason being that photosynthesis (see later) is there carried on by the coral polypes. Gen-

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DEEP

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The water is extremely surface, where daylight never penetrates. These fishes live in the depths of the sea, half a mile or mor e beneath the organs that serve to attract prey as well rescent phospho have Many point. freezing cold, even at the equator having a temperatur e near the and, below, are represented as they would the picture the fish are shown in detail 3. Malacosteus niger. as to shed a faint light around them. In the upper half of punctatum. 2. Myctophum grimaldii. Opisthoproctus 1. depths. ocean the in habitat appear in their natural violaceus Macrourus 7. 5. Linophryne arboriter. 6. Rhynchoc eratias rostratus.

4. Gonostoma

polyphos.

MARINE erally the characteristic faunas and floras are affected, to some

extent, by the nature of the adjacent land. Organisms that live on the littoral zone must adapt themselves to a greater range of physical conditions than do those that live in the adjacent Laminarian zone. They must be able to live out of

water and so crustacea

(like the barnacles) or molluscs (like

mussels, periwinkles or limpets) must be able to close their shell

cavities so as to prevent their organs of respiration from being dried up when the tide is out. Respiration ceases during those hours. Molluscs like cockles or worms (such as the lug) must be able to burrow into the sand when the tide has ebbed, and many small worms and other invertebrates also do this. A rhythmic

BIOLOGY

89I

fathoms is the supreme region of organic production. Much more life comes into existence per unit area here than anywhere else in the seas and oceans. The very shallow sea bottoms—from low tide level out to about five fathoms are the nurseries of the marine faunas. The great majority of fishes and invertebrates are reared up to the later juvenescent stages here. Most of the common fishes spawn at some distance from the land and over deeper water than five fathoms, but the eggs and the resulting larvae nearly always drift in towards the shallowest parts of the sea and it is, indeed, prob-

able that the spawning grounds have been determined (by the process of natural selection) so that they may be placed in such habit of sand-burrowing may thus be established and the organ- positions that the eggs and larvae produced may be carried by the isms often exhibit this rhythm, moving up and down in the sand resultant tidal streams and the prevailing wind-drifts on to the even when they are removed from the shore and kept in an shallow water zone near the land. Spawning nearly always occurs aquarium in sand covered by water kept at a constant level. Then in the spring and early summer, so that the fish larvae arrive on there are much greater variations of temperature on the fore- the nursery grounds at the time of increasing and maximal sea shore than in the sea, for the exposed sand becomes heated to a temperature and this accelerates their further development. The greater extent by the sea during the summer, or cooled to a strong illumination of the bottom and the presence of nutritive greater degree during the winter. The salinity of the water on the substances coming down from the land encourage the reproduction littoral zone also shows extreme variations because it is often of the Algae so that vast numbers of spores are liberated into the diluted by streams and rivers entering the sea and rainfall affects sea. All unicellular Algae, the Diatoms and the Peridinians are it more than the sea. Heavy storms tend to shift the sand and favoured in the same way. These spores and unicellular organother materials of the sandbanks and beaches, and wave action isms may be eaten by the larval fishes, or they may be eaten by is maximal here. Therefore the littoral organisms tend to adapt small crustaceans and molluscs, which are in their turn the foods themselves to such shocks: limpets and barnacles, for instance, of the little fishes. At the same time, and for the same reasons, a cling very tightly to rocks and stones, and many worms form sandy great number of species of marine invertebrates—crustaceans, reefs into which they burrow. molluscs, worms and echinoderms chiefly—abound on the shallow The Shallow Water Zone.—Sometimes the sea bottom slopes water zone. steeply downwards just outside the littoral zone: this is the case It is here that the evolution of most species of marine animals often where the coast line is bold and there are high cliffs, and it (and all marine plants) has taken place and it is probable that is particularly the case round oceanic islands and coral reefs. (In from the shallow water zone, all other regions of the seas and the latter regions the sea bottom is sometimes said to descend oceans and lands have been populated during the geological period. “precipitously,” though this description exaggerates the slope.) In Production in the Sea.—It is usual to distinguish between many parts of the world, however, there are extensive flat and marine plants and animals but the best division is into “producers” shallow sea bottoms in the neighbourhood of the land, and here and “consumers.” Consider the nutritive processes of such animals the depths may vary only between about 10 and 20 fathoms. The as fishes, Crustacea, Mollusca, etc.—they are usually carnivorous, North sea is such a region. This shallow-water zone includes eating other smaller animals, but many are herbivorous, living on Forbes’ Laminarian region and part of his Coralline one. The Diatoms, unicellular Algae, or even the larger marine plants. The physical conditions must be noted: the water being shallow, sun- fleshy parts of these food-organisms are digested and assimilated light may penetrate to the bottom; rivers and streams spread over and the animal thus obtains the energy necessary for its existence. the zone; there are usually rapid tidal streams and currents which When the proteins, carbohydrates and fats, of which the food conmix the water and also distribute planktonic organisms (see sists, have been utilized in the production of energy the elements of PLANKTON); there is a certain amount of shifting of the bottom these substances are excreted as nitrogenous residues (such as deposits and there are greater annual temperature variations than urea and uric acid), carbonic acid and water. These excreted substances cannot be utilized as food by animals. Obviously, then, in the deeper water far from the land. All these conditions are favourable for marine life; the pene- animals can only subsist on the fleshy materials of other animals tration of sunlight to the sea bottom enables the Algae to live and and plants. If there were only animals in the sea (or on the land) reproduce there while being also advantageous to the Diatoms and they would eat each other until there was only one individual left other unicellular plants that exist in the plankton at all levels down —which would then die of starvation! This is why animals are to the bottom; the fresh water that enters the sea contains organic called “consumers.” The plants or plant-like organisms can, however, utilize as food matter coming from land that is covered with vegetation and it also contains silica and phosphates, which are materials that are just those nitrogenous residues and carbonic acid that are exindispensable for plant life in the sea; the dilution is important, creted by animals. Perhaps the micro-organisms called Bacteria for a degree of salinity that is rather less than that of open sea may have to transform the nitrogenous residues into ammonia water is the most favourable condition for marine life; the rapid salts, or salts of nitric acid, before the plants can utilize them, but tidal streams distribute these indispensable nutritive substances this is not always necessary. From water, carbonic acid, simple over the whole area and prevent stagnation, and they also carry inorganic nitrogenous substances, and traces of other salts the the spores, eggs and larvae of fixed plants and animals to regions plants can build up in their tissues protein, carbohydrates and fat, Where they have opportunities of settling down in suitable en- which substances can then be utilized as food by herbivorous anivironments; a certain amount of disturbance of the bottom de- mals. The carnivores feed upon other carnivores, or upon the posits of sand and mud is favourable to life, for decomposed herbivores. The latter feed on the plants. All animal life therefore organic materials are removed and distributed in the sea, where depends, in the long run, upon plant life: ‘All flesh is grass.” they become nutritive substances for the plants; finally, the This is why the plants are called “producers.” greater range of temperature variation seems to be a stimulus to But for plant production light is necessary, for it is only by reproduction and growth of most kinds of organisms. utilizing the energy of solar radiation that the marine plants are It is on the shallow-water region, with its limited depths and its able to convert simple inorganic chemical substances into proteins, flat and smooth, sandy and muddy bottom deposits that the sea carbohydrates and fats. This is why the shallow water zone is the fisheries proceed. All kinds of fishing operations are easier on great region of organic production—because it is lit up to a suffithese shallow grounds and the fish-life is always more abundant cient degree at all levels even to the bottom. It is true that the here than it is offshore. But, above all, the sea bottom and the superficial layers of the ocean are also well-illuminated but, far overlying water from low tide mark out to a depth of 10 to 20 from the land, there is not the same abundant supply of mineral

892

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food stuffs for the pelagic plants, therefore the degree of production is far less there than it is in the shallow water zone. The sum of the processes by which the producers form carbohydrate materials from carbon dioxide and water is called photosynthesis. See PLANTS: Photosynthesis.

The Nature of the Producers.—The marine organisms that

can perform the work of photosynthesis are (1) the planktonic Diatoms, (2) the planktonic Peridinians, (3) many unicellular Algae and Flagellates, (4) the great seaweeds (Algae) that live on the bottom in the littoral and shallow-water zones, and (5) “Symbiotic Algae” that are commensal with other organisms. (The order is roughly that of the importance of the various groups of organisms in marine production.) The “symbiotic Algae” require a few words: They are green, chlorophyllian cells that are included among the tissues of animals belonging to various groups, such as the corals, some worms, some molluscs, and possibly other forms; they are not parasitic in the sense that they tend to injure the tissues of the animal in which they live; they use the nitrogenous residues or excretions of their associate and they contribute carbohydrate (which they synthesize from carbon dioxide and water) to the tissues of the associate. The relation is that of commensals, or messmates, and it is advantageous to both the organisms. The classificatory place of these green cells is not known but we may regard them as of the nature of unicellular Algae which infect the associate in much the same way that certain bacteria infect the roots of leguminous plants. (See SYMBIOSIS.) The Deep-water and Abyssal Zones.—There is no precise distinction between the shallow-water and the deep-water regions. Outside the 20-fathom contour line the sea bottom deepens very gently towards the continental slope, which is the region of transition between the continental shelf and the ocean beds. The continental shelf may be regarded as the marginal zone of sea bottom which is bounded by the 1,000-fathom contour line, and the oceanbed may be regarded simply as the region outside the continental shelf. Sometimes the gradient from the shelf region is steeper than the gradient on the shelf, but study of charts will show that this is not generally the case. The ocean “abysses” we may take to be the limited regions where the depths are greater than about three miles. It is convenient to make these delimitations but they are very often very far from being precise ones in practice. Deep Water Faunas.—Now wherever we make investigations we find that the general character of the bottom faunas changes as we pass from the shallow-water into the deep-water regions. Such changes are well-marked ones in the cases of marine species that we know well—for instance, the fishes, so that kinds of fish on the markets can generally be recognized as having come from particular limits of depth of sea, and even from quite definite geographical regions. The same is the case with those Crustacea, molluscs, and echinoderms, etc. that are fairly well known. Here we refer to the benthic animals—obviously it is all the same to a nektic or planktonic organism, whether it lives in water that is shallow or deep——what affects it is distance from the influence of the land. This subject could be treated in great detail but the reader must here be referred to works on geographical distribution. He should note that marine benthic faunas vary geographically, every sea area having a more or less different bottom life from every other one. But even in the same geographical region there are differences in the fauna that are associated with differences in depth. The Abyssal Fauna.—So we proceed at once to consider the fauna of the sea bottom which is, in general, 2,000 to 3,000 fathoms in depth: there are, of course, places where 3,000 fathoms is greatly exceeded. Now there are some quite remarkable physical conditions associated with sea floors that are deeper than 2,000 fathoms. (1) The pressure of the water is very great, amounting, roughly, to about one ton per square inch for every 1,000 fathoms

(say, one mile) of depth. (2) There is practically no light, the darkness being that of a very well shielded photographer’s dark room. Some ultra violet radiation may penetrate to these depths but it must be negligible from the point of view of the physiology of the animals living in the abysses. (3) The temperature is low, being only two or three degrees above the freezing point of fresh water. (4) There is no production of organic matter, for in the

BIOLOGY absence of light there can be no plant life. (5) There is nearly absolute uniformity of physical conditions: seasons come and go but there is no change in temperature or in any of the other condi-

tions that affect life. To us these abyssal conditions would seem

intolerably monotonous,

Abyssal animals are of the same general kinds as the shallow

water ones, and it is probable that the deep sea has been populated

from the shallow regions. Yet these deep sea animals can always

be recognized as having had that origin. The fishes are very characteristic: big heads, long attenuated bodies, large eyes or else very small ones. All abyssal animals are coloured in monotones, so that the absence of the bright, polychromatic markings of the shal-

low water species is notable. The fishes eat each other and they and all other abyssal animals must live on the ooze at the ocean

bottom—to some extent at least. This ooze is said to be nutritive,

since it consists of the dead bodies of planktonic organisms, the putrefaction of which is retarded by the low temperature at the

bottom. There are no plants, of course. But our knowledge of abyssal faunas is meagre in the extreme. Very few hauls with dredges and trawls have been made in comparison with the fishing on shallow water regions, fishing instruments are ineffective to some extent in such great depths, There may be great animals there that the little trawls which we use cannot catch and retain. In all speculations as to abyssal life this deep ignorance of the details must always be borne in mind. Marine Faunas and Floras.—Every large part of the ocean and seas has its characteristic fauna and flora—thus the North sea contains many species that are also found in the English channel and the Irish sea, but there are a few that are plentiful in each of these regions and very scarce in the others. In the case of the fishes (which are well known) this is very noticeable. Still greater differences exist between the Norwegian seas and the Mediterranean, while if we consider such a region as the Gulf of Siam we should find few species indeed that were common to this area and any part of the Atlantic ocean. This subject is one of enormous detail and the student must consult works on the geographical distribution of marine plants and animals. The rule is that differences both in the kinds, and the abundance of marine organisms go along with wide geographical differences, and this is not due entirely to differences in physical conditions, for many parts of the Atlantic are similar in these latter respects to many parts of the Pacific, yet the faunas and floras are not identical, or even like each other. In the process of evolution of species there has been segregation in all the great marine regions so that diverse faunas and floras have developed in each. While this is so there are still a few truly cosmopolitan species—some of the great sharks and tunnies among the fishes, and some of the whales. These animals may roam over most of the world ocean. Even some of the planktonic animals—a few of the copepods, for instance, may be widely distributed. In general, the abundance of life is greater in the temperate and polar seas than in the tropical ones: that is, far more individual animals and plants are to be seen in a unit region of sea, or sea bottom in the colder, than in the warmer seas. There is, however, a greater diversity of life in the tropical seas, that is, more species

may be seen there than in the higher latitudes. The great sea fisheries of the world (round the British Isles, off the coast of Norway, the Faeroes and Iceland, off Newfoundland, off the coast of British Columbia, and in the Japanese seas) are in temperate or sub-polar regions. The great seal and whale fisheries are—or were—in polar waters, and the wealth of life in the Antarctic, in the shape of the penguin rookeries, is well known. The reason for this distinction between the colder and warmer marine faunas and floras has been ascribed to the greater abundance and more vigorous activity of certain bacteria in the warm seas. These organisms destroy the mineral nitrogenous substances that are essential for plant life. If there is less vegetable plankton there must be less crustacean and molluscan plankton and so an abundant source of food for fishes

and invertebrates (and even whales) that exists in cold water becomes reduced in the warmer seas.

MARINE BIOLOGICAL METHODS Every biological investigation of a marine region begins with

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3. Portuguese man-of-war by (2) an oceanic bonito (Gymnosarda pelamis). 1. Two-winged flying fish (Halocypselus evolans) pursued man-of-war fish (Nomeus gronovii), to all invaders except (7) the diminutive Portuguese inhabit it: (8) mouse that (Physalia arethusa) whose long tentacles are fatal fish small ike arms. 4. Velella cyanea. 5. Sargasso weed and which spends its life undisturbed among the streamer-l (Portunus sayi). 6. Nectalialoligo. 11. Beroe ovata.

(10) swimming crab fish (Pterophryne histrio), (9) naked mollusc (Scyllaea pelagica), rrha. 14. Common jellyfish (Aurelia flavidula). 12, Venus’ girdle (Cestus veneris). 13. Dactylometra quinqueci

15. Pyrosoma atlanticum

MARINE a description of the species of plants and animals that occur there.

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893

animals that have spines or other projecting parts, but these are

usually attached to the naturalist’s dredge. All marine biological surveys involve physical measurements. suitable names given to them. The habits and life histories of the The depth is found by hand-lines, deep-sea lines and sounding various species are then studied—that is, an ecological survey is machines. While a sounding is being made bottom samples are made. Collecting methods, as applied to the littoral zone, are very usually collected. Thermometers attached to the sounding lines simple: the beach especially towards low water of high spring give the temperatures of the water at any required depth. Watertides is searched; the sand and mud is raked for burrowing ani- bottles, also attached to the sounding lines, collect samples of the mals; the interstitial sand water is filtered so as to obtain micro- water at various depths and these samples are often examined for scopic organisms; rock pools containing much seaweed are dragged dissolved gases, salinity, bacterial organisms, etc. The density of the water at the surface, the bottom or any intermediate depth, with small conical canvas nets in order to obtain the microcrustacea that shelter there—and so on. The methods are all obvious. is now generally found by making chlorine litrations of samples Collecting on the sea bottom in the shallow water zone requires collected by the water-bottles. The transparency of the water is the use of a sailing boat. Formerly the naturalist’s dredge was important and there are several good methods of gauging this. In used but this instrument is now superseded by the fisherman’s general, there is no end to the number and variety of physical trawl-enet. The dredge was simply a rectangular frame of iron determinatives that may be made in the course of an ecological about 3 to 4ft. long and gin. to a foot in breadth. The long edges survey and the ingenuity of the investigator is sure to be exeract aS scrapers, a bag of coarse or fine netting is laced to the cised in such work. Nowadays, a marine biological investigation requires considerframe. Two handles attached to the latter are connected with a strong rope and the whole apparatus is dragged from the boat, able organization, for the information that can be obtained merely along the sea-bottom. The dredge is still used when it is desired by shore collecting and by trawling and dredging in shallow water to collect animals that burrow in the superficial deposits of the is very limited. Deep water at great distances from land must be visited, and so large and well-equipped vessels must be embottom or live there attached to stones. The trawl-net is far more commonly employed for general col- ployed. The voyage of circumnavigation of the “Challenger,” lecting. This instrument consists essentially of a wooden beam, carried out in 1871-73, still remains the model on which all such 1o to 30ft. long. At either end is a stirrup-shaped iron which keep expeditions are planned. The shallow seas, such as those round the the beam about a foot above the bottom. A long bent rope, British Isles, or even the seas of the East Indian archipelagoes, attached to the irons, sweeps on the bottom. A conical bag of have been explored by vessels of the type of the modern steam netting is laced to the beam and foot-rope. The whole is dragged trawler, or by ships that are not much larger, but deep sea trawlon the sand or mud. If there are large stones the trawl-net cannot ing, dredging and sounding require the use of powerful vessels be used. There are very many forms of this apparatus; the capable of keeping the sea in any weather and working in circumtechnique of constructing and using it is difficult, and nowadays stances impossible for the trawlers. The main object in such expeit is quite necessary to employ fishermen for the purpose. In deep ditions has been to spend as much time as possible merely in water large vessels are necessary and steam power, both for pro- collecting, preserving and storing specimens for detailed examinapelling the ship and hauling up the trawl-net, is quite essential. tion ashore after the expedition has returned; still, much has Trawl-nets, in the hands of capable fishermen, can be employed to be done on board, and so the ship is equipped as a floating at any depths, but such collecting operations are laborious and laboratory with all the apparatus and materials commonly in use | and with everything so arranged that such laboratory work can difficult and their descriptions cannot be attempted here. The organisms living in the sand and mud on the sea bottom be done in the somewhat difficult conditions that are experienced cannot adequately be collected by the dredge or trawl. Small on the high seas. The “Challenger” expedition was organized at a grabs are used for this purpose, and these consist essentially of time when much less was known about the methods of deep sea two or more open scoops which close when they touch the bottom, , investigation than at present. For instance, the modern industry thus lifting up a sample of the deposit, with its included organ- of steam-trawling did not exist; the use of steel wire rope for isms. Peterson’s bottom-sampler is such a large grab which lifts trawling and sounding, etc., had just been introduced but was up a definite part, say 4+ square metre of the upper layers of the quite undeveloped and the fastidious methods of chemical and bottom materials. The grab is emptied on deck and the material physical investigation of sea-water that are now employed had is washed through sieves of various meshes. The organisms are not been worked out. The deep sea expeditions of the last 30 years have had the advantage of these developments but none of thus picked out and are then preserved. Sea bottom deposits are obtained in this way, or by the use them has had the wide scope of the “Challenger” enterprise. In practice, the methods of collecting animals and plants from of sounding-tubes. The latter dip into the soft bottom oozes and fill up with the material. Suitable valves prevent the ooze from the sea and sea bottom that are now employed are those of the being washed out when the sounding apparatus is hauled up to professional fisherman. The exploring ships are, in regard to their the surface. The ooze is usually dried and then examined micro- trawling, dredging and general collecting equipment, modelled on scopically for the remains of the shells etc. of the demersal or- the plan of a steam trawler, using the large trawls, windlasses, and ganisms. Nektic animals, such as pelagic fishes, crustacea, cephalo- steel wire ropes of the fishing vessels. The latter, however, do pods, etc., which frequent the intermediate strata of water, are not often work in deeper water than about 150 fathoms, whereas captured by pelagic nets. These are instruments of many forms the exploring vessels must be able to sound, dredge and trawl in that are attached to the tow-rope at various distances from the water of any depth down to 5,000 fathoms. The methods, howbottom. Sometimes drift-nets, trammel-nets, etc. are used. These ever, are only extensions of those employed in the steam trawlers, are large nets buoyed to a surface rope and floating vertically in and though many specialized forms of fishing gear are used, experienced skippers and mates of trawlers are able to use such appa-’ the water. Fishes etc. strike against them and are enmeshed. Plankton is collected by specially constructed nets that operate ratus and even to devise its form and construction. Added to this, on the surface, on the bottom or at any desired depth. There are there is the purely scientific side of the expedition, but the basis very many forms of these nets. Traps are employed on the bot- is that of a powerful and well-equipped steam fishing vessel, tom in shallow water. All these apparatus are variations of the worked by professional fishermen. For some years past the attempt has been made to secure confisherman’s lobster pot. They are let down to the bottom and the records of marine biological data; thus it is possible to tinuous rope carrying them is buoyed at the surface. Usually they are baited, and occasionally an electric lamp, fed by a cable, has been sound continuously; there are theoretically possible methods of used as a lure. They are left on the bottom for a day or more obtaining a continuous record of the density of the water through and are then hauled. Hooks and lines, baited and lowered to the which a ship sails; thermographs are instruments that give a conbottom, are also often used to collect fishes and other bottom tinuous record of sea temperature, and an apparatus for obtainThese organisms must be collected and identified, and if there are any that are new to science, formal diagnoses must be made and

animals.

Swabs or tangles may also be used to entangle loose

ing a continuous sample of the plankton contained im the water

MARINE

894

ENGINEERING

has also been developed. See A. C. Hardy, “A New Method of Plankton Research,” in Nature (Oct. 30, 1926).

These types are described on subsequent pages. Reciprocating Marine Steam Engines.—All marine recip-

BrsriocrarHy.—Camobridge Natural History, ed. S. F. Harmer and A. E. Shipley (1895-1909); C. Darwin, Journal of Researches during the Voyage of H. M.S. Beagle (1840-42, and many later eds.) ; On the structure and distribution of Coral Reefs (1842, latest ed. in G. T. Bettany’s Minerva Library 1890); J. A. Johnstone, Conditions of Life in the Sea (1908); Challenger Society, Science of the Sea, ed. G. H. Fowler (1912); F. W. Flatteley and C. L. Walton, The Biology of the Sea Shore (1922); Sir W. A. Herdman, Founders’ of Oceanography (1923); F. M. Davies, “An Account of the Fishing Gear of England and Wales,” in Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries, ser. 2, Sea Fisheries, vol. ix., No. 6 (1927). See also the publications of the International Council for the Exploration of the Sea, particularly the series Publications de Circonstance (Copenhagen, 1903),

rocating engines now installed are stage-expansion engines, that is, steam expands in stages from the highest pressure cylinder

through the intermediate

stages, and finally exhausts into the

condenser, where it is condensed and returned to the boiler in

the form of feed water. Stage-expansion engines may

be grouped

as follows. Com.

TET

SECTION

LOW

PRESSURE

OF

PisTon

etc.

MARINE BIOLOGICAL

STATIONS

Marine biological stations are laboratories situated at convenient places on the sea coast, where the water is free from pollution and where there are good grounds for collecting living marine plants and animals. Vessels, equipped for trawling, dredging and other biological work at sea, are usually attached to the stations. The latter have always aquarium tanks and biological

ee

ae

apparatus, etc. These institutions collect and describe the organisms inhabiting the region accessible to the workers. They also study seasonal changes in the abundance of marine life; the

SECTION OF PRESSURE PISTON

LOW PRESSURE PISTON JUNK RING REMOVED

ecology (qg.v.) of the species of plants and animals (that is, the

natural conditions under which they live), modes of reproduction and life-histories of species. All these objects oblige the investigators to deal with the living organisms. Formerly biological stations were established in order to give opportunities of study to investigators who had professional duties elsewhere and who could afford to spend vacations at some research work. Although all the stations still make provision for such research workers as well as for students in training, who can thus supplement ordinary university work with observations of plants and animals in the living state, most of the marine biological stations now maintain resident staffs. There are important marine biological stations all over the world. The most famous one is at Naples. This was founded in 1872 by Dr. Anton Dohrn. It was maintained partly by privately obtained funds and partly by contributions from many foreign universities and governments. There is also a station at Monaco, founded by Prince Albert I. and now carried on, in connection with an oceanographical museum, Monaco, and an institute in Paris, under a foundation. The best known American station is at Wood’s Hole on the coast of Massachusetts.. This is perhaps more frequented than any other similar institution in the world. Other important American stations are established on the At-

lantic coast at Mount Harbor, Long Island, Calif., Pacific Grove, The principal German

Desert Island, Maine, and at Cold Spring N.Y., and on the Pacific coast at La Jolla, Calif., and at Friday Harbor, Washington. station is at Heligoland, but there are sev-

eral other well-known laboratories at lake stations. The principal British station is that founded by the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom; it is situated at Citadel Hill, Plymouth. Other English and Scottish biological and fishery stations are now working at Cullercoats in Northumberland, Port Erin, in the Isle of Man, Millport and Aberdeen in Scotland and at Lowestoft. There are 26 French stations and one important one in Japan. Most of the British and foreign stations ‘have aquaria to which the public are admitted. See C. A. Kofoid, The Biological Stations of Europe (1910), for excellent accounts of the various institutions. (J. A. J.)

MARINE

ENGINEERING.

There

are three

distinct

types of marine engines, and these may be grouped as follows: (1) steam engines with coal or oil-fired boilers; (2) internal combustion engines, such as the diesel or semi-diesel engines;

and (3) the above two types with electrical transmission of power between the prime mover and the propeller shaft; viz., engines with turbo-electric or diesel-electric drives. Of course, group (x) includes reciprocating steam engines, turbines (geared or otherwise) or combined turbine and reciprocating engines.

HIGH JUNK

FIG.

1-—HIGH

PRESSURE

AND

LOW

PRESSURE

PRESSURE

PISTON

RING REMOVED

PISTONS

pound:—In this type there are two cylinders, the high pressure and the low pressure. Steam actuates the piston in the high-pressure cylinder, and from there it passes into the low-pressure cylinder, completes its work in this cylinder, and finally exhausts

to the condenser.

Triple expansion.—In this engine, as its name

implies, steam exerts its power in three stages before exhausting to the condenser. Quadruple expansion—lIn this type the

steam is used four times before exhausting into the condenser, the usual design being to fit two intermediate cylinders. General Construction.—The engine cylinders are supported by columns, which also act as a guide for the crossheads. This crosshead forms a hinged joint between the piston rod and the connecting rod, which is provided with turned pins on either side,

connected to the forked end of the connecting rod, and provided with suitable bearings. The connecting rod is in turn connected to the crank with suitable bearings. The eccentrics governing the valve motion are keyed on to the shaft, the eccentric straps usually being made of a brass composition, lined with white metal. Link motion affords a means of quick reversal, and also allows an

earlier or a later cut-off of the steam by regulating the valve admitting the steam to the cylinders. The link operates in conjunction with two eccentrics, and is actuated by means of a small steam reversing engine, or by a hand wheel connected with a reversing shaft. The reversing mechanism is placed along the front

of the engine. low-pressure

Fig. 1 shows details of the high-pressure and

pistons

of a high-powered

marine

reciprocating

MARINE

BY

COURTESY

OF

THE

FRENCH

l. Control bridge, S.S. “Paris.” indicator

drum

PLATE I

LINE

INTERIOR helm

ENGINEERING

(seen

over

OF

PILOT

HOUSE

AND

BOILER

The instruments are (right to left): Astern

wheel at stern of vessel, used when

top

of wheel)

pilot wheel

registering

movement

of

Is out of order; pilot wheel

with magnetic compass in case and semi-circular indicator (above) showing

points to port or starboard when steering; Sperry automatic gyropilot, connected to wheel compass (right) and gyro-repeater compass (left); large drum (centre) indicates whether or not the propellors are clear;

ROOM

drum

at left

OF

LARGE

indicates

OCEAN

movement

LINERS

of vessel

looking

astern

from

bridge.

Above on wall are (left) electromegaphone; (centre) triangular roll indicator above raised window. 2. One of the many sections of the boiler room,

S.S. “Ile de France.” Each boiler is rated at 2400 h.p.: 32 boilers on ship, 4 furnaces to each boiler, four sets of tubes to each furnace, total of 514 smoke tubes (63.5 mm. diam.), 190 water tubes (40 mm. diam.). Oil is used for fuel, the burners being visible along passageway

MARINE

PLATE II

ENGINEERING

SS

A

a

ir Ay

BY

COURTESY

OF

(1,

2, 3, 4)

MODERN

THE

ROYAL

MAIL

CONTROL

STEAM

PACKET

SYSTEMS

COMPANY,

AND

(6)

THE

POWER

FRENCH

MACHINERY

1. Main switchboard in electrically driven motorship ‘‘Alcantara” of Royal Mail Steam Packet Co., 22,500 tons, built by Harland & Wolff, Belfast, 1927. Board controls distribution of electric power to motor driven auxiliary machinery and lighting circuits of the ship

2. View of engine room M.S. “Alcantara,” at cylinder-head level, showing valve mechanism of the two Burmeister & Wain 8-cylinder Diesel engines 3. Main

engine

manoeuvering

Dial, left centre,

is ahead

and

control

and astern

platform,

revolution

M.S.

“Alcantara.”

Indicator.

LINE

Right

IN OIL AND

ELECTRIC

OCEAN

VESSELS

foreground, fuel oi! and air controls and starting control valves

4. Two of four motor generating

units, each having capacity of 400kw.

Each of these units is driven by a 600-b.h.p. Diesel oil engine 5. Parsons’ double reduction gearing as fitted in the fabricated 1st class ships. At right are two turbines whose shafts have pinions operating the two reduction gears (centre) which in turn operate reduction gear (left) direct connected to shaft of ship

the large

6. View of engine room, S.S. “Ile de France.” At right, water pump; backs ground, steam turbines; left, controls; above, ventilator

MARINE

ENGINEERING

asset in the case of warships and passenger steamers; (d) engines are placed well down in vessel, an all-important point in warships; (e) there is less expenditure of lubricating oil; (f) there is no cylinder lubrication, thus clean feed water is returned to the boilers; (g) there is absence of vibration, a big factor in

steam engine. The advent of the marine steam turbine, the Lentz Double Compound, and the marine internal-combustion engines, and the electric transmission of power for propelling machinery certainly has led many shipbuilders to install one or the other of these

warships and passenger steamers; (%4) smaller attendance is required than in the case of reciprocating steam engines; (z) there is superior governing (balance), good parallel running and eventurning moment; (j) priming (the passage of water mixed with the steam from the boilers), which would fracture the cylinder covers of a steam reciprocating engine, has no material effect on a marine steam turbine; (k) overloading (forcing the turbines) can be indulged in within reasonable limits; (J) it is more economical than the reciprocating marine steam engine except at the lowest speeds. The large-sized turbines are more economical in steam per horse-power developed than the best triple or quadruple expansion engine, as the turbine is able to take full advantage of the whole of the expansive energy of the steam. Two well-known

types, but it is interesting to note that in some recent large liners

the carefully balanced triple-expansion engine has been installed. DIAGRAM OF IMPULSE TURBINE

Noe INCREASE OF VELOCITY

—.. /

DROP oF STEAM PRESSURE

7

DIAGRAM OF REACTION TURBINE Drop oF STEAM PRESSURE IN NOZZLE & VANES r

fe

VELOCITY

es FIG. 2.—DIAGRAM ACTION TURBINES

SHOWING

ACTION

OF

STEAM

types of marine turbines in general use are the combined impulse

INCREASE OF STEAM

Ve

IN

and reaction turbine and the impulse turbine. There are naturally many modifications of these types. Combined Impulse and Reaction Turbines.—This arrangement consists of the usual reaction turbine with a single impulse stage, in the nozzles of which there is a considerable pressure and consequently loss of heat, giving a large proportion of effective work in this stage. The effect of this is the shortening of the turbine with economy, and permitting for moderate powers of the complete expansion of the steam on a single shaft. There is a saving in weight and space, the machinery arrangement is simplified, and the propulsive efficiency is improved with slower propeller speed. The nozzles are grouped in a box on the forward side of the cylinder, the impulse rotor blading is fitted on a rim,

LINE OF SHAFTING IMPULSE

AND

895

RE-

Experiments are being carried out to utilize steam at a much higher pressure than formerly, and excellent results are expected. Combined Reciprocating Engines and Steam Turbines.— This method ensures that the whole of the expansive energy of

the steam is utilized to its fullest extent. An excellent example of this arrangement is the White Star “Olympic.” The arrangement has proved an economical one, and is as follows: each wing propeller shaft is driven by a reciprocating engine, the low pressure

LOW PRESSURE TURBINE

CIRCULATING WATER INLET AND OUTLET

Low PRESSURE ASTERN EMERGENCY STEAM BRANCH

Low PRESSURE AHEAD EMERGENCY STEAM BRANCH

Uy

RING FLANGE

INTERMEDIATE

J

PRESSURE TURBINE

————=

AFT

j

//

ee

EMERGENCY EXHAUST TO CONDENSER

GEAR CASE

|

| | r) í

|

FORWARD

||

v= ASAg | I f

THRUST BLOCK

Low PRESSURE ASTERN STEAM BRANCH

E r A

BLANK FLANGE

AHEAD EMERGENCY INLET TO INTERMEDIATE PRESSURE TURBINE

Z C—O

\ et = NN

HIGH PRESSURE AHEAD STEAM BRANCH

: J /X

HIGH PRESSURE ASTERN STEAM BRANCH

HIGH PRESSURE AHEAD EXHAUST BRANCH TO INTERMEDIATE PRESSURE TURBINE

HIGH PRESSURE ASTERN EXHAUST TO LOW PRESSURE ASTERN TURBINE

~~ FIG.

3.—GENERAL

ARRANGEMENT

OF

MARINE

GEARED

HIGH PRESSURE TURBINE

TURBINES

and for astern working, astern nozzles are fitted. This arrangement is particularly suitable for light warships. The action of the impulse turbine and the reaction turbine is shown diagramMARINE STEAM TURBINES matically (fig. 2). Geared Turbines.—Fig. 3 shows the general arrangement. The advantages of the marine steam turbine which have led to its more general adoption during the past few years are as These turbines are rapidly gaining favour for marine propulsive purposes. The chief trouble with the marine turbine arose follows :— (a) There are fewer working parts, as no slide valves, pistons with the propeller. It is necessary that a turbine for maximum and connecting rods are required. This means also that fewer efficiency should run at a high rate of revolution, whilst for prospare parts have to be carried; (b) the steam is supplied direct peller efficiency, much lower rates of revolution are necessary. from the boilers with no intervening loss; such as occurs through The solution for this was by the introduction of some form of glands, etc., when a reciprocating steam engine is the prime gearing between the turbine and the propeller. Experiments mover; (c) there is considerably less danger of breakdown, a big have been made with several forms of reduction gearing, such as

cylinder of which exhausts into a Parsons low-pressure turbine driving the central shaft.

MARINE

896 the electrical, hydraulic

and

mechanical.

Mechanical

ENGINEERING gearing

appears to show advantages over the other forms, an efficiency of

over 98% being obtained in the case of the single reduction and over 97% with the double reduction. There is practically no limit to the ratio of such reduction. A complete unit of geared turbines is to be found in certain twin screw torpedo-boat destroyers. Double-reduction gearing finds favour for the following reasons: (a) the type permits larger ratio between revolutions of turbines and propellers without excessive size of gear wheels; higher revolution of turbine permits, for the same power, smaller

block. The Michell block possesses marked advantages over tha older form of multiblock. The device (fig. 4) consists of one

collar on the shaft, the thrust being taken byaseries of pads cap.

able of a slight rocking movement. These pads maintain a continuous flow of oil between the metal surfaces, which are thus kept

apart by as many oil wedges as there are pads to produce them. MARINE INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES One of the principal reasons which has led to the adoption of the internal-combustion engine for marine propulsion is the

turbines, and increase in the number of turbines for the same power further reduces the size of each unit; (b) high revolutions or greater blade speed are possible, resulting in the nearest approach to the point where the blade speed in relation to the steam speed gives maximum economy; (c) a small turbine permits of a pivot-thrust block being used, as the dummy can be omitted, and all unbalanced load taken by the block; (d) small turbines have small rotors and can thus be made of a much more robust construction; (e) variations in temperature for any single turbine are kept moderate, and these turbines are therefore suit-

CYLINDER HEAD

CYLINDER

PISTON

able for use with superheated steam; (f) the parts being smaller, the turbines can more easily be overhauled, repaired or renewed. Plate II. (fig. 5) shows an example of double-reduction gearing. The Turbo-electric Drive.—The first application of electricity for the transmission of power between the prime mover and the propeller shafts in ships was first adopted in America in the year 1908. This proved most successful, and many of the world’s warships are now so equipped. The electrical equipment is an alternating current generator suitable for direct coupling to a high-speed turbine, a motor of suitable speed for direct coupling to the propeller shaft, a direct current exciter or an auxiliary generator, from which direct current can be obtained, and suitable control gear. The whole can be regarded as a reduction gear, the ratio of reduction being proportional to the number of poles on the generator and motor. The main driving power is transmitted magnetically across large air gaps giving an elastic medium for absorbing shocks, and thus making it a simple and reliable form of speed reduction. The electric drive lends itself particularly to any speed reduction between the turbine and the propeller. The general advantages are perfect balance with no sliding surfaces and no reciprocating parts, thus making this method free from vibration and smooth in operation; the electric drive is noiseless, an important factor in passenger ships; there is perfect control in heavy seas without danger of the pro-

PISTON Rop |

, INSPECTION DOOR

CONNECTING ROD

ENGINE FRAMING

CRANK-CHAMBER

|

FIG. 5.—BURMEISTER AND WAIN MARINE DIESEL ENGINE, SHOWING SECTION THROUGH ONE CYLINDER thermal efficiency of this prime never. The thermal efficiency par

of a diesel engine is 40% to 45%, according to size; whereas that of a reciprocating steam engine with coal-fired boilers is 20% to 25%. As regards running, the fuel bill is about half that for am

er

a

wy

FIG, 4.—COMPONENT PARTS OF MICHELL THE SINGLE COLLAR ON THE SHAFT

THRUST

BLOCK,

SHOWING

pellers racing; the rapid manoeuvring of the machinery is a very big asset in warships; and the upkeep costs are less than with any other form of marine propelling machinery. `

The Michell Thrust Block.—With all marine installation of gearing a Michell thrust block is essential to the satisfactory working of the gears. The whole of the gearing is an independent

oil-fired boiler ship fitted with geared turbines; there is a very great saving of space occupied by the machinery, and a reduction In personnel. Against these advantages we have the greater initial cost, complication of parts, a greater number of spare parts have to be carried, and it is probable that the repair and upkeep bill will exceed that for steam units. For a given power the diesel compares

unfavourably

as regards weight with the steam tur-

bine and oil-fired boiler combination, and the head-room is greatly limited (this, especially from a naval point of view,

is a marked disadvantage); but the possibilities of this prime mover are endless. The diesel has been and is being installed in

large liners, and doubtless when a speed of, say, 25 knots can be reached, combined with a simple and reliable design of engine,

unit as far as attachment to the turbine is concerned, being driven this type of engine will be installed in the mammoth Atlantic from the turbine bya flexible coupling. It is necessary, therefore, record-breakers. The present types of marine internal-combusto hold the gearing in a position from which it will not vary more tion engines work either on the two-stroke or on the four-stroke than a predetermined amount. There being no collars for this principle; but many competent authorities affirm that the marine purpose on the gear shaft, and as a slight lateral movement is oil engine of the future will be a double-acting two-stroke with necessary when the thrust collar moves over from driving ahead port-scavenging, this design giving an engine of low initial cost te astern, the whole of the gearing is located from the thrust and simple construction. The solid (or mechanical) injection of

MARINE

ENGINEERING

the fuel is likely to be adopted generally in preference to the air

injection system, Owing to the reduction in first cost that is ob-

tained by its use. Operation of the Four-stroke Marine Diesel Engine.—

The working principle of this engine is as follows: during the first

897

down and first uncovers the upper scavenging port, but the valve being closed no action occurs until the piston moves farther down and uncovers the exhaust ports situated opposite the scavenge ports. Exhaust commences immediately and relieves the pressure in the cylinder, so that when the lower range of scavenging ports

is uncovered the air enters the cylinder and commences to sweep downward stroke the piston draws air in through the suction out the remainder of the exhaust products. The scavenging valve valve; during the return stroke the suction valve and all other opens before the completion of the down stroke, so that the in air the and closed are atmosphere the communications with scavenging takes place through both upper and lower ports, and the cylinder is compressed. Towards the end of the stroke, the fuel pump injects into the cylinder the necessary quantity of oil continues through the upper port until after the piston on its for the combustion stroke, so that when the piston arrives at upward stroke has covered the exhaust port. This arrangement ensures a most effective means of clearing out the exhaust proddead centre the fuel burns rapidly, raising the pressure and ucts, and also provides for an excess quantity of air by enabling stroke downward next the temperature in the cylinder. During of the piston the burnt gas is expanded, doing work; during the the compression stroke to commence slightly above atmospheric pressure. In other words, supercharging is possible. In marine fourth stroke, the piston sweeps out the burnt gasses into the atmosphere through the open exhaust-valve, completing the four engines of over 1,000 hyp. electrically driven scavenging pumps cycles. Fig. 5 shows a section through one cylinder of a four- are provided. The Diesel-electric Drive.—The application of this drive stroke marine engine by Burmeister and Wain. For single-screw has been made to smaller ships. The employment of electric emare revolutions low at running engines ships, long-stroke ployed in order to obtain a good propeller efficiency. For twin- transmission allows comparatively small diesel engines, each coupled to a generator, to be used, the power being transmitted screw ships, short-stroke engines are used, as higher speeds are to motors on the propeller shafts. The arrangement and speed of permissible without reducing the propeller efficiency. The Two-stroke Marine Diesel Engine.—A good example of the engines are independent of the propeller shaft, and the engines ‘his marine internal-combustion engine is the Sulzer two-stroke, are short and not of excessive height. As there is no mechanical connection between the engines and the propeller shaft, the subdivision of the ship with watertight bulkheads, to comply with

the regulations, is simplified. In vessels fitted with this type of machinery it will be possible to use the same prime mover for

REVERSING MECHANISM

both propelling and auxiliary purposes. MARINE STEAM

CYLINDER

SCAVENGE TRUNK

SCAVENGE VALVE

EXHAUST

—

ENGINE

FRAMING

CRANKSHAFT

CRANK-CHAMBER

FIG. 6.-—-SECTION

THROUGH

SULZER

TWO-CYCLE

MARINE

ENGINE

a section through this engine being shown (fig. 6). The distinc-

tive feature of this design is the method of scavenging and recharging the cylinder; i.e., removing the burnt products of the

firing stroke and replacing these with a charge of fresh air. This

is accomplished as follows; The scavenge air supplied by a pump is led to the scavenge trunk, which communicates with the cylinder through two ports at the bottom of the liner, the upper port

GENERATORS

Water-tank Boilers.—In this type of marine steam generator the fire passes through the tubes and the water circulates outside the tubes. The principal boiler of the mercantile marine, and, till late years, of the various navies of the world, is the cylindrical Scotch marine boiler (fig. 7), the various parts being clearly indicated.. The experience gained after many years with this boiler proved it to be undoubtedly a good, safe and easily understood generator, and also comparatively easy to clean. These boilers are made single-ended and double-ended, and are cylindrical in shape with flat ends. The illustration shows a single-ended type. The furnaces or flues are corrugated in order to allow for expansion and compression. One to four furnaces are fitted, either terminating in a common combustion chamber, or, a better plan, being fitted with an independent combustion chamber to each furnace. In the boiler shown the furnaces are fitted each with separate combustion chambers, and are stayed as shown. The tubes are of commercial size, being obtainable in practically every port in

the world, and are fitted with cap ferrules at the combustion chamber end to prevent burning away of the tube ends. The boiler is, however, excessively heavy, unequal strains are set up (unless a feed water circulator is used), and the space per horse-power is much greater than with the water-tube types. Another point against this boiler is the length of time taken to raise steam, ten to 14 hours usually being allowed. Against these disadvantages we have the greater quantity of water carried, with consequent ease of keeping steam and water levels, and the same skill is not required in firing up, cleaning fires, etc., as is necessary with the water-tube types. The boiler is fairly economical as compared with the wateztube types. Of course, in the case of explosion, much greater damage would be done owing to the greater steam and water space. Water-tube Boilers.—As its name implies, in this type of generator the water passes through the tubes, and the heat from the furnaces outside the tubes. It is only within the last few years that

the water-tube boiler has been seriously considered as a rival to the cylinder water-tank generator. For naval purposes, of course, there is no question as to which type is suitable; and for both naval and mercantile marine purposes the two outstanding features of the water-tube boiler are common.

Briefly, these two points are as

being controlled by a valve, When the piston is at the top of follows: (a) the water-tube boiler is very much lighter; (b) the

its stroke, and combustion takes place in the usual manner, both ports are closed by the piston skirt. The piston then moves

boiler requires much smaller space for the same horse-power, or

gives much greater horse-power for the same space. Both these fac-

$ 4

898 i

MARINE

ENGINEERING

BOLTS OF ANTI-CORROSION APPARATUS

CYLINDRICAL SHE LL

FLAT ENDS ELECTRICAL ANTI-CORROSION APPARATUS

COMBUSTION ChAMBER BOILER STAYS

BOILER STAYS BOILER TUBES BOILER TUBES

STAYS OF

COMBUSTION CHAMBER

CORRUGATED FURNACES

FIG.

7.—SINGLE-ENDED

CYLINDRICAL

tors are of paramount importance in the merchant service. By the reduction of boiler weight and space the cargo-carrying capacity, or passenger accommodation, is greatly increased, with consequent greater earning power for the vessel. It must be borne in mind that much higher pressures can be carried, which is essential for warships, mail steamers, and crossChannel packets, especially when turbine-engined; and this pressure can be carried with perfect safety. Forcing, that is, using a higher pressure than that for which the boiler was designed, can be carried out, and steam can be raised very quickly without undue strain on the working parts.

SCOTCH

MARINE

BOILER

are also the best means to adopt to ensure protection and cleanlness of the boiler surfaces against corrosion. Prevention of Boiler Corrosion.—Zinc slabs or bars are fit-

ted to the interior of marine boilers so as to be electro-negative to

all other parts of the boiler to attract the galvanic attention of acids. The zinc slabs are suspended in the steam and water spaces of the boilers; in some water-tube boilers zinc angle bars are used.

One of the best known marine water-tube boilers is the Yarrow

(fig. 8). The construction is simple and thus the process of cleaning, an all-important matter with water-tube boilers, is an easy matter. The Yarrow boiler consists of a large water drum and two lower water drums, connected by a series of inclined generating tubes (fig. 8). The boiler feed water is pumped into: the steam drum, descends through the tubes most remote from the fire and rises through the tubes nearest the fire, where it is converted into steam. After leaving the steam drum the steam enters a superLONGITUDINAL DIVISION PLATES ——

™

ANGLE BAFFLES

FIG. 9.—SIMPLE

OIL FUEL

SPRAYER

It is essential that slabs are fitted so as to protect the whole of the surfaces, and worn slabs should be renewed. The latest method of preventing boiler corrosion is the electrolytic. By this system electrolytic conductivity is produced in the water by supplying a current of electricity from a source outside the boiler to metallic anodes, insulated from the boiler shell. The current can be supplied continuously and its strength controlled; i.e., increased or decreased regardless of the wear or deterioration produced on the anodes, thereby ensuring permanent efficiency of protection. OIL BURNING IN MARINE BOILERS

Since the World War oil fuel burning for marine boilers has made rapid strides, and but for the question of cost would be more

FEED

FIG.

8.—YARROW

MARINE

WATER-TUBE

PARTITION

PLATE

BOILER

heater, where it is superheated, and thence through the steam valve to the engine. General.—The modern trend is towards much higher boiler pressures, higher temperatures, and the more efficient burning of

the fuel and generation of steam in the boilers. There is no reason why pressures of 700 lb. or 800 Ib., should not be cartied, as the trials of the high-pressure turbine steamer “King George V.” were most successful, and showed a marked improvement in the consumption of fuel, in this case coal, compared with such a vessel using steam at the normal working pressure. Superheating the steam, air preheating, increase in boiler feed water tempera ture and analysis of the funnel gases are all receiving due attention, as

generally

adopted.

As

an

example

of saving in boiler

room staff, after the Cunarder “Aquitania” was converted to burn oil, her firemen were reduced to 42, as against 320 when coal-burning. Again in a coal-burning torpedo-boat destroyer of I0,coci.h.p. the complement of stokers was 30. In the latest class destroyers of 28,000s.h.p. and 1,400 tons, burning oil fuel alone, the stoker complement is 12. The advantages of oil fuel are as follows: (a) superior evaporative power per weight of fuel carried, giving increased radius of action—z lb. of oil with a heat value of 19,000 B.T.U. will evaporate 15 lb. of water up to and at 212°F., and r Ib. of coal with a heat value of 14,500 B.T.U. will evaporate ro Ib. of water up to and at 212°F.; (5) ease of shipping into bunkers and putting into fires—only hoses and attachments are required; (c) less stokehold staff and bunker space required;

(d) absence of coal dust and ashes—a big asset; (e) no necessity to open furnace doors with consequent loss; (f) proper regulation of combustion, and capability of forcing the boiler; that is,

obtaining more than the designed output.

Disadvantages of Liquid Fuel.—(a)

;

Uncertainty of obtain-

MARINE

INSURANCE

ing supplies; (b) complication of piping and machinery; (c) possible leakage and danger from fire; (d) special appliances required for burning; (e) liquid and solid impurities found in the oil; (f)

widespread contamination of water-ways.

Method of Burning.—Before entering the boiler furnace the

oil has to be atomized, that is, split up into a fine spray, and for this purpose three methods are adopted; że., atomizing by means

899

the water and causing boiler corrosion.

Another method coming

into favour is the removal of the air in the feed water by mechanical de-aeration, and this method seems to possess advantages over the removal of the air by chemical means. BısLiocraray.—E. M. Bragg, The Design of Marine Engines and Auxiliaries (1917); H. L. Callendar, Properties of Steam and Thermodynamic Theory of Turbines (1920); J. Lamb, The Running and Maintenance of the Diesel Engine (1921); A. E. Seaton, Manual of Marine Engineering (1921); H. Atkinson, Marine Diesel Engine and Semi-Diesel Engine Operation and Management (1921); L. C. Grant, The Steam Turbo-Alternator (1921); The Marine Oil Engine Handbook (Temple Press, 1922); A. P. Chalkley, Diesel Engines for Land and Marine Work (1922); T. Croft, Steam Turbine Principles and

Practice (1923); F. J. Drover, Marine Engineering Practice (1924) ; R. Sennett and Sir H. R. Oram, The Marine Steam Engine (1924) ;

F. J. Drover, Marine Engineering Repairs (1925); E. Prince, The Management of Marine Engines and Boilers (1925) ; D. T. MacHutch-

ison, High Vacuum and Surface Condensers (1925).

MARINE INSURANCE.

FIG. 10.—MARINE

BOILER FURNACE,

SHOWING

OIL SPRAYER

IN POSITION

of steam, compressed air, and pressure. Owing to freedom from breakdown and reliability the last method is generally adopted in naval and marine practice. Many different forms of burners or sprayers are adopted. Fig. 9 shows a simple sprayer, in which the oil is forced round a series of helical threads upon the surface of a cone. By this means a whirling motion is imparted to the oil, the narrowed passage at the exit producing an increase in velocity. These factors greatly assist the spraying. The sprayers are fitted to distribution boxes on the furnace front. Fig. ro shows a patent form of sprayer fitted to the furnace front of a cylindrical marine boiler. The pressure system of oil burning is very simple and is as follows: oil is drawn from the ship’s tanks and strained; this removes all solid impurities which would choke the sprayers. The oil isdelivered from the oil pumps under pressure, an air vessel in the pipe-line assisting in maintaining a steady supply. The oil next passes to filters called cold filters and from there to heaters. This heating process may form particles of carbon in the oil, which particles are removed by passing it through filters fitted on the delivery side of the heater. From these filters, called hot filters, the oil passes under pressure to the distribution boxes on the boiler front, and from these through the sprayers, where it is atomized, to the furnace. For warships and fast passenger steamships oil is the ideal boiler fuel, but it is not considered that oil will become general in the mercantile marine owing to the question of cost. Many ships are now fitted to burn oil alone, coal alone or coal and oil combined. Marine Auxiliaries. The great increase in the number of auxiliary engines now fitted in naval and mercantile vessels calls for as much attention as do the main propelling engines. As regards design, the majority of marine auxiliaries follow accepted practice, but the following units call for special consideration. Marine Condensets.—The modern method is to ensure high vacuum combined with reliability and that the weight of the apparatus be as low as possible consistent with the work the condenser is called upon to perform. Separate air pumps are installed, one pumping out the feed water, and the other maintaining a high vacuum by pumping air from a cooler part of the condenser. Tube failure, through corrosion, is a frequent source of trouble, and the many experiments carried out with tube metal mixtures have not eliminated this. Electrolytic Protection, similar to that used to prevent boiler corrosion, has been adopted with good results. Metallic packing for the tubes, in place of the ordinary tape packing, has been tried with excellent results. i In connection with marine condensers a system has been devised

known as the closed feed system. By this method the condensate is removed from the condenser and discharged to the boiler without exposure to the atmosphere, thus preventing air mixing with

(F. J. D.)

Marine insurance is the insurance

of interests—property and earnings—that may be imperilled in a maritime adventure. These two groups of interest include such as (1) ship and goods, (2) freight and passage money. Marine insurance is also a protection against certain liabilities such as shipowner’s liability for collision damages, and carriers’ responsibility for goods, and against losses occasioned by sacrifices for the

general safety of an adventure.

(See GENERAL AVERAGE.)

It is

transacted in all nations having trade which necessitates transport, even those which have no sea ports, and is the safeguard of the shipowner, merchant, banker, mortgagee, and of any who risk their property, money, or credit in commercial or financial enterprise and of those who have occasion to send valuable objects from one place to another. Primarily marine insurance is concerned with sea transport, but it is adapted to the insurance of transport of any kind, and frequently policies concerning goods for overseas transport include a certain amount of risk on shore. See also Lioyps. Practice.—In practice marine insurance is a complicated business transacted for the most part through the medium of brokers who, by their expert knowledge, can select the best market in which to place their clients’ risks, and obtain the terms most suitable for the adventure to be insured. So far as the hulls of ships are concerned, sailing vessels are generally insured for each voyage, while steamers are insured for periods of time, generally twelve months. The risks against which the hulls of ships are insured by the full (with average) policy, are the perils of the seas, and similar perils covered by the traditional marine policy in common use, including sacrifices made in “General Average” (q.v.). It is also customary to add, by the use of clauses, insurance against liability for damage done by collision and certain other liabilities and perils. It is also customary in Great Britain to exclude war risks from the marine policy, these being insured separately, or covered on a mutual basis by associations formed for that purpose amongst shipowners. During the World War the amount to be covered on both ships and cargo against war risks was so great that the British Government instituted a war risk bureau which functioned simultaneously with the open market, and this system of a national war risk insurance office was also adopted by other countries, including some of those which remained neutral. So far as marine perils: are concerned, the hulls of ships are also insured under policies which do not include the risk of particular average, and also under policies which cover total loss, general average (other than damage to ships), salvage charges and collision liabilities, these being known as “free of damage absolutely” insurances. Another form of insurance is the “free of particular average” policy which does not pay particular average unless the vessel has been stranded, sunk, on fire, or in collision. “Particular average” is partial loss caused by a peril insured against, and which is not general average. In connection with hull insurances, shipowners also insure their freight, their insurance premiums, and an indefinite interest known as “disbursements,” the amount of which represents the financial loss over and above the actual value of the vessel which a shipowner incurs when his vessel is totally lost. Goods and merchandise, valuables, securities and other concrete

900

MARINE

INSURANCE

transportable interests are insured under the traditional marine form of policy, risks being added by means of clauses, of which the principal are the “with average” and “free of particular average” clauses of the Institute of London Underwriters. The “with average” clauses cover practically every fortuitous accident which

may occur during transit, while the “free of particular average” clauses cover total loss, general average and certain other liabilities, but do not cover particular average unless the vessel has been stranded, sunk, on fire or in collision. These clauses also extend the risk of sea transit to cover the goods from the time they leave the warehouse at the port of shipment, until delivery at the consignee’s or other warehouse at the destination named in the policy,

or until the expiry of fifteen days from midnight of the day on which the discharge of goods from the overseas vessel is completed, whichever may first occur. Extension of the risk to 30 days from the completion of discharge is made when the destination to which the goods are insured is without the limits of the port of discharge. Legislation.—In Great Britain, marine insurance was the subject of sporadic legislation up to the end of the roth century. In the reign of Elizabeth an Act was passed (43 Eliz. c. r2) setting up a Court of Policies of Insurance to arbitrate in cases of dispute. The Act of 1720 incorporating the Royal Exchange Assurance and London Assurance, has already been mentioned. In 1745 an Act (z9 Geo. 2. c. 37) prohibited the issue of wagering policies, and also policies of re-insurance, and although this Act was not finally repealed until the passing of the Act of 1906, its provisions with regard to re-insurance became obsolete. From the passing of this Act, until the Act of 1906 there appears to have been no legislation of importance dealing with marine insurance, other than certain finance acts dealing with policy duties, but during that period case law, mainly owing to the efforts of Lord Mansfield, had created precedents on practically every point likely to be raised on marine policy, and the Act of 1906 (6 Edw. 7 c. 41) was largely a codification of this case law, although certain provisions with regard to the prohibition of gambling policies were embodied in it. These provisions were amplified by the Marine Insurance

(Gambling Policies) Act of 1909.

The Act of 1906, while codifying the existing law, did not, however, do away with litigation over points not previously decided. It is by no means as comprehensive as some of the continental codes, and while its provisions have proved singularly free from ambiguity since they have seldom been the subject of litigation, there still arise questions outside its scope which have to be decided in courts of law. It is, nevertheless, to the Marine Insurance Act of 1906 that reference may best be made on points arising out of marine insurance questions, especially where matters of principle and not of detail are concerned. The Policy.—Reference has already been made to the marine policy, which, in Great Britain, is invariably based upon the traditional form which has been evolved from the early policies mentioned in the historical review. The Marine Insurance Act gives a form of policy which may be used, but which is not compulsory. This form is based on the traditional policy, and is, in fact, almost identical with the form adopted by Lloyd’s underwriters in 1779 (see Luovp’s). The custom is, however, to supplement the policy by a clause excluding war risks, while since 1919, as a result of the case of British and Foreign Marine Insurance Co. v. Sanday (Times L.R. 266 and 374) it has become customary to add the frustration clause which prevents underwriters from being held liable for loss due to loss of market caused by the frustration of a voyage owing to arrests, restraints or detainments of kings, princes or peoples. This policy, archaic in form, and described by Justice Buller as an “absurd and incoherent document,” has been so explored in the course of time, by means of legal action, that there remains very little, if any doubt as to the legal interpretation of any of its : clauses. It has already been shown, however, that the policy, by itself, is rarely used, and in modern practice the contract of marine insurance is usually expressed in a policy based upon the traditional form, but supplemented or modified by clauses in which the real

terms of the contract are to be sought, rather than in the Policy

itself. All policies of marine insurance must be stamped in accordance with the Stamp Act 1891 (54 and 55 Vict. c. 39) if they are to have validity in Great Britain.

The scale of stamp duties payable on policies of marine insurance is that of the Finance Act, the current scale in 1928 being that of the Act of 1920 (zo and rr Geo. 5 c. 18 $. 41).

The provisions of the Act, together with those of the schedule. prevent any insurance being effected for more than twelve months,

but to meet the cases of vessels insured for time which are at seq

or in distress at the time the policy expires, the Act of roor pro-

vides that a policy of sea insurance may contain a continuation

clause, and shall not be invalid on the ground only that by reason of the clause it may become available for a period of more than twelve months. A policy with a clause of this nature is chargeable

with a stamp duty of sixpence in addition to that otherwise

chargeable, and the “Institute time clauses” under which the majority of British vessels are insured, contain a continuation clause which is in conformity with the provisions of the Finance Act of 1gor. The Revenue Act 1903 (3 Edw. 7 c. 16) allows marine policies

on building risks to run for periods longer than twelve months, and to be stamped as voyage policies. The Contract.—From the Marine Insurance Act it is learnt that a contract of marine insurance is one whereby the insurer undertakes to indemnify the assured in a manner and to the extent thereby agreed, against marine losses. It may, by express terms, or by usage of trade, be extended so as to protect the assured against losses on inland waters or on any land risk which may be incidental to any sea voyage. It is to be noted, however,

that subsequent litigation, Muller v. l’Uniom Maritime (LLL. Rep. KB.17. 90.CA,18. 339. HL. 20.90) throws doubt on whether the contract is identical, with regard to the risk on land, to that with regard to the risk on sea. The Act defines “maritime perils” as “perils consequent on or incidental to, the navigation of the sea, that is to say, perils of

the seas, fire, war perils, pirates, rovers, thieves, captures, seizures, restraints and detainments of princes and peoples, jettison, barratry and any other perils either of the like kind or which may be designated by the policy.” Before the Act was passed, case law had decided that “all other perils” meant only perils ejusdem generis with those of the sea, but even now it cannot be said that the end of dispute as to what is, or what is not covered by the policy has been reached, although precedents exist on all the main points. In practice, however, the marine cargo policy is frequently extended by clauses (the express terms of the Act) to cover perils not strictly those of the seas, such as, for instance, theft, the risk of “thieves” in the policy meaning “robbery with violence, or breaking in.” Insurances on the hulls of vessels are also extended by clauses, the principal addenda being the indemnification of the assured against liability for collision done to any other ship or vessel; loss or damage due to accident in loading or discharging, or through the negligence of the master, mariners, engineers or pilots, and loss or damage due to the bursting of boilers, or through latent defects in the machinery or hull. These clauses are, so far as Great Britain is concerned, mostly those issued by the “Institute of London Underwriters,” a body composed of representatives of the marine insurance companies. Insurable Interest.—The Act, after stating that every contract of marine insurance by way of gaming or wagering, is void, proceeds to define what an insurable interest is. A person has an

insurable interest when he stands in any legal or equitable relation to the adventure, or to any insurable property at risk therein in consequence of which he may benefit by the safety or due

arrival of the insurable property, or may be prejudiced by its loss, or by damage thereto, or by the detention thereof, or may incur liability in respect thereof. He must, however, be interested

in the subject matter insured at the time of loss, though he need not be when the insurance is effected. An example of the application of this is when goods are sold in transit, and the insurance

is transferred to the purchaser.

An assured cannot, however,

MARINE

INSURANCE

acquire interest subsequent to a loss by any act or election after he is aware of the loss. Insurable Value.—Subject to the express provisions or valuation of the policy, the insurable value of ship, freight goods, and other subject matter is laid down by the Act. Broadly speaking, this is the value of the interest at the inception of the risk plus incidental charges, including insurance. It is now the almost invariable practice to insert the value in the policy, in which case

that value becomes the basis of all claims and adjustments.

Disclosure and Representation.—The Marine Insurance Act states that “a contract of marine insurance is a contract based upon the utmost good faith, and, if the utmost good faith be not observed by either party, the contract may be avoided by the

other party.” This is the basis of the whole of the business of marine insurance, which, in Great Britain, is largely transacted

by means of verbal representations by the assured or his broker to the underwriter, and this being so, the importance of the observance of the principle of good faith is apparent. According to the Act, the assured must disclose to the insurer, before the contract is concluded, every material circumstance which is known

to the assured, who is deemed to know every circumstance which, in the ordinary course of business, ought to be known by him. Failure to make such disclosure voids the contract. The Act also states that every circumstance which would influence the judg-

ment of a prudent insurer in fixing the premium, or determining whether he will take the risk, is material, but no circumstance need be disclosed which is known or presumed to be known to the insurer. Every material representation made by the assured or his agent to the insurer during the negotiations for the contract, and before the contract is concluded, must be true, or the insurer may void the contract. Representations as to matters of expectation or belief must be made in good faith, but representations may be corrected or withdrawn before the contract is concluded. The contract of marine insurance is deemed to be concluded when the proposal of the assured is accepted by the insurer, whether the policy be then issued or not: and for the purpose of showing when the proposal was accepted, reference may be made to the slip, or covering note, or other customary memorandum of the contract, although it be unstamped. To appreciate the meaning of this provision it is necessary to explain that in Great Britain marine insurance is generally transacted by making a brief memorandum of the essential details of a risk on a slip, upon which the insurer writes the amount he will accept on that risk, appending his initials. The contract thus expressed cannot be legally enforced, but when a stamped policy is prepared embodying its terms, the slip may be produced as evidence of the intentions of the parties to the contract. A covering note is a memorandum issued by the insurer, or by a broker, to the assured, stating that the risk is covered, the terms on which the insurance has been effected, and the premium to be paid. Measure of Indemnity.—According to the Act, the sum which the assured can recover in respect of a loss is, in the case of an unvalued policy, the full extent of the insurable value, or in the case of a valued policy, the full extent of the value fixed by the policy; this, however, is subject to any express provisions of the policy. In the event of total loss the measure of indemnity is the sum fixed by the policy, in the case of a valued policy, or in an unvalued policy, the insurable value of the subject matter Insured. In the case of partial loss of a ship, the measure of indemnity is the reasonable cost of repairs, less the customary deductions, but not exceeding the sum insured in respect of any one casualty. The customary deductions are for depreciation, t.e., since new material is substituted fór old when repairs are effected, but in the case of steamships it is generally expressly agreed that

no deductions shall be made.

In the case of freight, the measure

of indemnity is such proportion of the sum fixed by the policy, in the case of a valued policy, or the insurable value in the case of an unvalued policy, as the proportion of the freight lost by the assured bears to the whole freight at the risk of the assured under the policy. In the case of partial loss of goods, the measure of indemnity, in the case of a valued policy, is such proportion of the sum fixed

gol

by the policy as the insurable value of the part lost bears to the insurable value of the whole, ascertained as in the case of an unvalued policy.

In the case of an unvalued policy, the measure

of indemnity for partial loss is ascertained as in the case of total loss, z.¢., the insurable value of the subject matter insured. In the case of goods arriving damaged by a peril insured against, the measure of indemnity is such proportion of the sum fixed by the policy in the case of a valued policy, or of the insurable value in the case of an unvalued policy, as the difference between the gross sound and damaged values at the place of arrival, bears to the gross sound value. In the case of general average and salvage charges, the measure of indemnity (subject to the provisions of the policy) is the full amount of the contribution, if the subject matter liable for contribution is insured for its full contributory value, but if it is not so insured, or if only part be insured, the indemnity payable by the insurer must be reduced in proportion to the under-insurance, and where there has been a particular average loss which constitutes a deduction from the contributory value and for which the insurer is liable, the amount

must be deducted from the insured value in order to ascertain what the insurer is Hable to contribute. Where the assured has effected an insurance in express terms against any liability to a third party the measure of indemnity, subject to any express provision in the policy, is the amount paid or payable by him to such third party in respect of such liability. An instance of this is insurance against collision liability, where it is customary for the insurer to cover only three-fourths of the risk, leaving one-fourth to be borne by the assured. The practice has arisen, however, of covering the assured’s one-fourth mutually in associations of shipowners formed for that purpose. In cases not specifically provided for in the Act, the principle enunciated in the provisions of the Act is to be applied.

Warranties.—In marine insurance a “warranty” is some particular thing that the assured undertakes shall, or shall not be done—an undertaking that some condition shall be fulfilled; or the affirmation or negation of the existence of a particular state of fact. Warranties must be complied with exactly, whether they be material to the risk or not; or the insurer is discharged from liability as from the date of the breach of warranty. Examples of warranties are where the assured warrants that a vessel is in good safety on a certain date; where he warrants that a vessel shall not proceed on certain voyages; or where he warrants that he is uninsured for a specified proportion of the amount at risk. These are “express warranties,” and must be inckided in, or written upon, the policy, or must be contained in some document incorporated by reference into the policy. There are also “implied warranties” as, for instance, that the vessel shall be seaworthy at the commencement of the voyage, but there is no implied warranty of seaworthiness in a policy for a period of time; nor, in the case of goods, that the goods are seaworthy. Breach of warranty is excused, under the Marine Insurance Act, when, by change of circumstance, the warranty ceases to be applicable to the circumstances of the contract, or where compliance with the warranty is rendered unlawful by any subsequent law. A breach of warranty may be waived by the insurer; and in practice it is customary, in the case of some warranties, to make provision in the policy to the effect that in the event of breach, the risk‘is “held covered” either at a specific premium, or at a premium “to be arranged.” According to the

Act, when an additional premium is to be arranged in a given event, but no arrangement is made, premium is payable. Where a warranty is broken, the of the defence that the breach has ranty complied with, before loss. Double Insurance.—Where two

then a reasonable additional

assured cannot avail’ himself been remedied, and the war-

or more policies are effected by or on behalf of the assured on the same adventure and interest, or any part thereof, and the sums insured exceed the indemnity allowed by the Marine Insurance Act, the assured is said to be over-insured by double insurance. In such circumstances he may according to the Act, claim payment from the insurers in such

902

MARINE

INSURANCE

order as he may think fit, unless the policy otherwise provides, but he is not entitled to receive any sum in excess of the indemnity allowed by the Act. Where, however, the policy is a valued policy, the assured must give credit as against the valuation for any sum received by him under any other policy without regard to the actual value of the subject matter insured. Where the policy is unvalued, he must give credit, as against the full insurable value, for any sum received by him under any other policy, and where the assured receives a sum in excess of the indemnity allowed by the Act, he is deemed to hold such sum in trust for the insurers, according to their right of contribution amongst themselves.

The insurers, on their part, are bound, by the Act, to contribute rateably to the loss in proportion to the amount for which they are liable under their contracts, and if any insurer pays more than his proportion of a loss, he is entitled to maintain an action for contribution against the other insurers. Where the assured has over-insured under an unvalued policy, a proportionate part of the premium is returnable, but if the policies have been effected at different times, and the earlier policy has, at any time, borne the entire risk, or if a claim has been paid on the policy in respect of the full sum insured, no premium is returnable in respect of that policy; nor is any premium returnable when a double insurance is effected knowingly by the assured. Subrogation.—Where there is a loss either partial or total, the insurer becomes entitled to the advantage of every right of the assured in respect of the subject matter of the loss. A good example of this is where there has been a total wreck, and the underwriter has paid a total loss, since he then becomes entitled to the proceeds of the sale of the wreck. On broad lines, the assured must account to the insurer for any diminution of the loss. A very general application of this right of subrogation is where the insurer pays a loss and then proceeds against a third party to recover; for his own benefit, but in the name of the assured; in respect of a liability that third party may have incurred. Re-Insurance.—Re-insurance is the indemnification of one insurer by another in respect of liabilities that the ‘former has incurred in the course of business, and the Marine Insurance Act of 1906 gives the re-insured an insurable interest in his risks, but stipulates that unless the policy provides, the original assured has no right or interest in respect of such re-insurance. Re-insurance may be either facultative, which is the re-insurance of specified individual risks, or by treaty. A treaty of re-insurance is an agreement by one insurer to accept a stated proportion of the whole, or any specified part of, the business accepted by another, it being customary to place limits as to the maximum amount that may be given off under the treaty. In connection with these treaties an anomalous situation has arisen concerning their validity under British law, for while they are undoubtedly contracts of marine insurance, the fact that they cover no specified amount makes it impossible to pay duty on them in accordance with the provisions of the Stamp Act so that it would seem that they are

unenforceable in law. The leading legal decision on this point is

drafted after consultation with the Trade Associations interested

in the commodities

to be insured, and are therefore acceptable

to both parties to the contract of insurance.

clauses are the “London Jute Associations “London Corn Trade Associations Clauses.”

Examples of these Clauses” and the The institute has

established various sub-committees, of which the most important is the “Technical and Clauses Committee,” the title of which ex.

plains its functions, and which keeps in close touch with various trade associations with a view to maintaining clauses in accordance with the requirements of the trades those associations represent. An important committee which sits under the auspices of

the institute, is the “Joint Hull Committee,” on which Lloyd’s

Underwriters and the Liverpool market are represented, and which deals with such matters as the framing of agreements with regard to hull rates and values, the drafting of “warranties” governing voyages and seasons, and similar matters, Lloyd’s Underwriters Association is another important market

institution, to which practically all the active underwriting mem-

bers of Lloyd’s belong, and which works in close collaboration

with the Institute of London Underwriters on matters of principle, and sometimes on matters of practice. Lloyd’s Brokers Association is a body representative of the brokerage side of the

business at Lloyd’s while the Corporation of Insurance Brokers represents brokers in all parts of Great Britain. The Chartered

Insurance Institute, largely educational in function, holds examinations in marine insurance, and there are local institutes in connection with the Chartered Institute. Market Institutions in Other Countries.—Elsewhere there

are, in most markets, local or national institutions concerned with the regulation and government of business, such as the Central Underwriters Association of Norway, the Association for the Im-

provement of Marine Insurance in Holland, the “Verband” or

Union of Underwriters in Germany, and the “Union des Syndicats” in Paris. These are similar, in many respects to the Institute of London Underwriters, and are in constant communication with that body and each other. There is also the “International Marine Insurance Union” with headquarters in Berlin, in which the majority of national markets are represented by the leading companies. This institution holds an annual conference

at which matters of common interest are discussed, and has been the means of promoting a number of international agreements, the principal of which is the “dangerous drugs” agreement, by which underwriters are pledged to incorporate in all policies on drugs a clause making it imperative that all claims shall be accompanied by a certificate from the government of the country of origin authorizing the shipment in respect of which the claim is made. This agreement made in the first place at the instance of the British Foreign Office, has proved effective in checking the trade in opium, cocaine, and other drugs scheduled in the International Opium Convention. BrsiioGRAPHY.—F. Martin, History of Lloyd’s and Marine Insurance (1876, Bibl.) ; H. G, Lay, Marine Insurance; A Text Book of the History of Marine Insurance including the formation of Lloyd’s Regtster of Shipping (1925, Bibl.) ; C. F. Trenerry, Origin and Early History of Insurance (1926. Very extensive Bibl. British and foreign); D. King-Page, Marine Insurance During The Last Hundred Years

that of the House of Lords In re National Benefit Assurance Co., Lid. (31 Ll. L. Rep. 321). In practice, however, legal difficulties (1926) ; C. Wright and Ernest Fayle, A History of Lloyds (1928); are not likely often to arise, since most treaties provide that M. D. Chalmers and C. Douglas Owen, The Marine Insurance Act stamped policies shall be issued in respect of the risks accepted (1907); S. Huebner, Marine Insurance (1920, Bibl.); J. Arnould, under the contract, and in the event of dispute arising, legal action Arnould on the law of Marine Insurance and Average, 11th edn. (1924, Bibl.) ; W. H. Eldridge, Marine Policies znd edn. (1924) ; R. L. Boon, can be taken on these policies. Institutions.—In marine insurance, the institutions which A Concordance to the Marine Insurance Act 1906 (1924); W. Gow, Marine Insurance, 5th edn. (1929). (D. K.-P.) exist for the purpose of furthering and protecting the interests of underwriters play a very prominent part. In Great Britain the UNITED STATES oldest of these institutions is the Liverpool Underwriters AssociaMarine insurance business in America as in Great Britain, is tion, founded in 1802, but the leading body is the Institute of transacted for the most part through the medium of brokers. SailLondon Underwriters, founded in 1884, and composed of the ing vessels are generally insured for each voyage, and steamers majority of the companies transacting marine business in London, are insured for periods of time, generally 12 months. The risks

including the London branches of companies in Liverpool and other provincial cities. This body formulates and issues the clauses to which reference has already been made, and a special feature of its work in this connection is the drafting of special sets of clauses for the insurance of trades. These clauses are

against which the hulls of ships are insured are about the same in the United States as in Great Britain. Goods and merchandise are insured against various risks and on various terms and conditions dependent on the nature of goods, voyage, trade customs, etc. The various States all have their insurance laws for the licensing

MARINES and regulation of the companies and the activities of agents and brokers, and all the States also have a so-called insurance depart-

ment as a branch of the State Administration.

Until recently,

there has been no uniformity in the laws of the various States dealing with marine insurance. There has been some effort to bring about uniformity and the District of Columbia, New York, Pennsylvania and New Jersey passed laws bringing about uniformity as to regulation and taxation. There is no Federal act similar to the Marine Insurance Act of 1906 which codified the laws of England, and most of the States have no such code.

The law and practice governing the contract, and regarding insurable interest, insurable value, disclosure and representation, measure of indemnity, warranties, double insurance and reinsurance are substantially the same as in Great Britain. There are some variations and amongst them is the rule of law as to what constitutes a constructive total loss and the extent of the insurers’ liability in the case of general average and salvage

charges where the contributory value of the interest is in excess of the insured value. As regards an implied warranty of seaworthiness in a policy for a period of time the law of the United States is not as broad and as favourable to the assured as the

English act. In the United States many, if not most, double insurance policies provide how losses and premiums shall be dealt with

in such cases. The most common clause provides that resort shall first be had to the policy of earlier date for collection of a loss or a claim, and that only the excess of the whole loss or claim over the amount recoverable under the policy of earlier date shall be recovered under the policy of later date, and that the premium attaching to the excess of the amount insured over the insurable interest in the policy of later date shall be refunded. Regarding subrogation, in the United States, on payment of a loss the insurers acquire the rights of the owners in respect of and to the extent of the amount paid. The American Institute of Marine Underwriters suggests policy forms and acts on behalf of underwriters in matters affecting the general welfare of the business but does not deal with rates. Practically all the American and various foreign companies admitted to do business in the United States are members of this organization. The United States Salvage Association participated

993

regiments were detailed for sea service; these regiments captured Gibraltar in 1704, and held it during the subsequent siege from Oct. 1704 to April 1705, for which service the corps still bears

the name Gibraltar on its appointments. Most of these regiments were transferred to the army in 1713. In 1739 marines were again required in the fleet, and ten regiments in all were formed; also three regiments in New York by the provincial authorities for service at Carthagena; all were disbanded at the peace in 1749. On April 5, 1755, the Admiralty established the corps on its present basis; organization in regiments having proved unsatisfactory, 60 companies were raised and divided into three divisional headquarters, one each at Chatham, Portsmouth and Plymouth, from which officers and men were, and still are, drafted as required for service afloat or elsewhere. These headquarters are their homes to which they remain attached throughout their service, active or reserve. The Royal Marines are a trained body of soldiers maintained by the Admiralty for service at sea or with the fleet; their charges are borne on the naval estimates.

Parliament in the Army Annual Act gives the authority for a force of marines, the numbers being fixed by Order in Council; when ashore, since 1879, they have been subject for discipline to the Army Act; prior to this they had their own Annual Mutiny Act and Articles of War. When afloat they are subject to the disciplinary provisions of the Naval Discipline Act, but in both cases their conditions of service, enlistment and discharge are still governed by the unrepealed portions of their own Acts 11 and 12 Vict. c 63. The marines were an infantry corps until 1804 when, owing to difficulties with the Royal Artillery manning the bomb vessels, Lord Nelson suggested that the marines should perform the duty; accordingly a company of artillery was formed at each headquarters from picked officers and men, who were then trained and

paid as artillery. In 1919 the pay of both branches was assimilated to that of the Royal navy. In 1805 a 4th Division with another artillery company was formed at Woolwich. Before the institution of the naval gunnery school, known as H.M.S. “Excellent,”

the artillery companies were the only body of seamen or marines who were systematically trained in gunnery. In 1832, however, the artillery companies were ordered to be disbanded, but two in by most American companies and a number of the foreign were retained. In 1855 the infantry branch became a corps of admitted companies, supplies services for the survey and inspec- light infantry and adopted the badge of the Bugle, the R.M.A. tion of hulls. The American Marine Insurance Syndicate com- Companies wearing the Grenade. In 1862 the artillery companposed of most American and a large percentage of the foreign ies, which had increased to 17, under a colonel, quartered in Ft. admitted companies, issues joint policies on the hull, disburse- Cumberland but attached to the Portsmouth Division (then ments and earnings of steamers. It has become the principal stationed at Gosport), were formed into a separate corps as the market for the insurance of these risks on American steamers. Royal Marine Artillery, and the officers, who had hitherto been The Board of Underwriters of New York, formed in 1820, is interchangeable, were placed on a separate list. In 1867 the barcomposed of the principal American and foreign admitted com- racks at Eastney were built for them. In 1869 the Woolwich dipanies, Its principal functions are the reporting of casualties, vision was abolished, and a depot was established at Deal to handling of losses, surveying of cargo, handling of proceeds, stow- train all recruits. In 1904 the naval Band Service was transferred age of cargo, inspection of the loading and discharging of vessels, to the Royal Marines, and bandsmen for the navy are now rearbitrations, salvage awards, examination of adjustments, reports cruited as marines and trained at the R.N. School of Music at on maritime inventions and the appointment of commissioners of Eastney. pilots. (W.N.D.) In the World War 1914-19 the corps was largely expanded, MARINES may be defined as sea-soldiers, that is, soldiers and though nany auxiliary units had to be raised, the organization trained for fighting at sea as well as on land. They have been worked efficiently and met all demands as they arose. Besides employed from the earliest times. The Greeks and Romans used the artillery and infantry units afloat and ashore, the corps prosoldiers specially armed and trained for service in their fleets, vided 2,000 men tọ man the guns of the defensively armed called Epibatai and Classiarii respectively. In mediaeval times merchantmen and raised the following units for Admiralty work: soldiers were embarked in the ships of war, and in the Tudor —submarine miners, labour corps for discharge of the supply navy each ship had its complement of soldiers as well as sailors. ships in France, engineers and the auxiliary units for the R.N. Great Britain.—The marine was not included in the com- Division. The R.M. units on shore included the howitzer and plements of ships until the Admiralty obtained an order in anti-aircraft brigades, and the siege guns R.M.A. on the Western Council, dated Oct. 26, 1664, instituting the “Duke of York and Front; the R.M.L.I. brigades in Antwerp, Gallipoli and France; Albany’s Regiment of Foot,” a regiment of 1,200 “Land souldgers heavy batteries in East Africa; the landing force (4th Bn) at prepared for sea service.” It was principally recruited in the -Zeebrugge; garrisons of coast defences and naval bases; and City of London, probably from the trained bands, and hence the numerous ship landing parties. At the armistice the strengths, privilege shared by the marines of marching through the City with including reserves, were:—R.M.A. 9,412, R.M.L.I. 30,140, R.M. colours flying, drums beating and bayonets fixed. This regiment, Band 1,633. The numbers were gradually reduced until, in 1923, after service in the Dutch war, was disbanded in 1689. Two other the strength was only 9,000, consequent on which, coupled with Tegiments were raised in 1690 and disbanded in 1699. the Treasury demands for economy, one division was ordered to

In June 1702, six marine regiments were raised and six line

be reduced, with the result that the R.M.A. & R.M.L.I. were

904

MARINESCU—MARINI

once more amalgamated into one corps with the title of the Royal Marines; the distinctive badges of the grenade and bugle being replaced by the older badge of the Lion and Crown. Enlistment into the corps is for 12 years with the colours with permission to re-engage for another nine years to earn a pension.

There are also two classes of reserve, (i) Men who have completed 12 years with the Colours, (ii) Pensioners. Training.—The Royal Marine is now a fully trained infantry soldier; he is likewise a naval gunner, similar to the Bluejacket. Selected men qualify as naval gunlayers and gunnery instructors, land artillery specialists, machine gunners, signallers, etc. Re-

cruits are trained in infantry drill and musketry at Deal and are then transferred to one of the headquarters to complete their training; headquarters also carry out the training ofall the specialists. Officers are entered by direct competition; they are trained with the corps and at the various naval schools of instruction; they also attend the army instructional schools and pass the army examinations for promotion. Badges.—The badge of the corps is the “Globe” (granted by King George IV. in 1827 in place of inscribing the battle honours—which were too numerous—on the colours) surrounded by

service when

required for war

or a national emergency.

The

Marine Corps reserve in 1928 consisted of 415 officers and 8,300 enlisted men. The emblem of the corps is a hemisphere bearing the map of the Americas, superposed upon a foul anchor and surmounted by an eagle with spread wings, and the motto

of the corps is Semper Fidelis. The emblem is emblazoned upon

the corps standards and worn as insignia by officers and enlisted men.

(D. Wi.)

BIBLIOGRAPHY.—Gillespie, History of the Marine Corps (to 1803):

Nicholas, History of the Royal Marine Forces (to 1845); Edye, His.

tory of the R.M. Forces 1664-1701; Col. C. Field, R.M.LLI, Britain's

Sea Soldiers to 1912, 2 vols.; Ditto, 1914-1919, Gen. Sir H. E. Blumberg K.C.B., R.M. Note.—For an account of the Marine forces of France and Germany see under the respective countries.

MARINESCU,

GEORGE

(1864-

), Rumanian neu-

rologist, was born at Bucharest on Feb. 23, 1864. He was educated

at the faculty of medicine of Bucharest and then went to Paris, where he worked under Dr. Charcot at the Salpêtrière, carrying out valuable researches on the histopathology of the nervous sys-

tem.

A year later he went to Frankfurt and worked with Prof.

Weigert, He then continued his research work on nervous diseases in Berlin and Brussels. In the latter town he published his

the laurel wreath (awarded for services at Belleisle 1761) with

work on the treatment of epilepsy, for which

suant to an act of the First Continental Congress, passed Nov. 190, 1775, Which authorized the organization of two battalions of marines to aid in the defence of the colonies. In its organization,

series of researches upon the microscopic structure of nerve cells and their changes in different phases of activity or damage.

he obtained a prize the name Gibraltar and the motto Per Mare Per Terram. The from the Académie Royale de Belgique. In 1900 he was appointed original badge of the “Foul Anchor” is also worn with the Royal professor of neurology at the university of Bucharest. In the Crest of the Lion and Crown. The corps was granted the title autumn of 1916 Prof. Marinescu went to London where the medof “Royal” in 1802 for services in the French wars. H.M. King ical research committee made him a whole-time grant. At the (H. E. BL.) George V. is colonel-in-chief of the corps. L.C.C. Maudsley hospital. Denmark hill, in collaboration with United States Marine Corps.—This corps was founded pur- Lt.-Col. F. W. Mott, F.R.S., he applied himself to an important

MARINETTE, acity of north-eastern Wisconsin,

U.S.A., on duties and training this force was modelled after the British ma- Green bay (Lake Michigan) at the mouth rines of that date. As thus organized the Marine Corps became opposite Menominee (Michigan); a port of the Menominee river, of entry and the county an element of the naval service of the country and from that date seat of Marinette county. It is on Federal highway 41 and is to the present it has so remained, a military and administrative served by the Chicago and North Western, organization, complete in itself, forming an integral element of kee, St. Paul and Pacific, and the Wisconsinthe Chicago, Milwauand Michigan railthe naval service. It is commanded by a major-general com- ways, and by lake steamers and ferries. Pop. (1920) 13,610; 1930, mandant with headquarters at Washington, D.C., where with 13,734 Federal census, The mouth of the river forms a fine harbour the assistance of three staff departments he administers the affairs for the two cities. Its total traffic in 192 5 was 247,872 tons of vesof the corps under the direction of the secretary of the navy. Its sel cargo and 500,583 tons by car-ferry. The city’s development mission under the naval policy of the United States is: “To sup- and prosperity has depended largely on the surrounding forests. port the fleet or any part thereof in the accomplishment of its It has large saw mills, paper, pulp and flour mills, and other manumission.” ‘The duties of the corps are many and varied and may facturing industries (for which water-power is available from the be classified as follows: (a) detachments to guard and protect river), with an aggregate output in 1925 valued at $8,743,290. navy yards, naval bases and other naval utilities at home and The lumber industry in this section reached abroad; (b) guards for American legations in foreign countries; 1905, and the population of the city was at itsits peak about 1895maximum (16,195)

(c) landing forces to protect American lives, properties and interests; (d) forces of occupation to restore order and to maintain peace in disturbed countries; (e) stations for marine corps admin-

istrative and training purposes, such as training bases, supply de-

pots and the recruiting service; (f) marine detachments for seryice on board the ships of the fleet; (g) expeditionary forces for service with the fleet in war.

in 1900. Marinette was settled by the French about 1830, and was named for Queen Marinette, of the Menominee Indians, a white woman who became a noted fur-trader and was regarded by the Indians as a superior being. The city was incorporated in 1887.

MARINETTI, FILIPPO TOMASO

(1878~

writer, was born at Alexandria on Dec. 22, 1878, and

), Italian

studied in The marines have taken a prominent part in every war in Paris, graduating at the Sorbonne; in 1899 he also graduated in which the United States has been engaged and have also seen much law at the University of Genoa. He was the founder of the futurist service in peace-time occupations of foreign countries. In the movement, publishing the original futurist manifesto in the Paris Spanish-American War in 1898 the corps consisted of 75 officers Figaro on Feb. 20, 1909. For a time he edited the international and 2,000 enlisted men, and was then increased until in 1917, when review Poesia, but his most characteristic work was M afarka le the United States entered the World War, it had a strength of 51r futuriste, published in French in 1910. He also wrote for the officers and 13,124 enlisted men. During that war it was still stage Le rot Bombance (1905), a satirical tragedy, and other further increased and a total of 31,824 marines was sent over- plays, and published a volume on the futurist theatre, Teatro seas for service in the A.E.F. The 4th Brigade of Marines was sintetico futuristo (1916). In 1914 he wrote an extraordinary a part of the 2nd Division of the A.E.F., where it served in many volume entitled Zang-twmb-tuuum on the Balkan war, and parengagements with conspicuous gallantry, suffering many casualties ticularly on the siege of Adrianople. Other futurist essays are Noi in battle and winning many mentions and decorations. The futuristi (1917), Manifesti del futurismo (4 vol., 1920), Demostrength of the Marine Corps in 1928 was 1,249 officers and crazia futurista (1919). On the outbreak of the World War he 18,000 enlisted men. The peace-time operations of the Marine advocated Italian intervention in his Guerra sola igiene del mondo Corps have included expeditions to China, Cuba, Nicaragua, (1915). Otto amici in mia bomba deals with war experiences; Mexico, Panama, Haiti and Santo Domingo. In addition to the while in Futurismo e fascismo (1922) he expresses his support of regular forces of the Marine Corps the laws provide for a mathe Fascist movement. rine corps reserve which receives training during short periods INI or MARINO GIAMBATTISTA (1569-1625); each year and may, by direction of the President, be called into Italian poet, was born at Naples on Oct. 18, 1569. After a riotous

MARINKOVIC—MARION

995

youth, during which he became known for his Canzone de’ baci, he secured the powerful patronage of Cardinal Aldobrandini, whom he accompanied from Rome to Ravenna and Turin. An edition of his poems, La Lzra, was published at Venice in 1602-14. His

to the headship of the neo-Platonic school at Athens on the death

ungoverned pen and disordered life compelled him to leave Turin and take refuge from 1615 to 1622 in Paris, where he was favour-

Antoninus jn 1559; separately by Fabricius at Hamburg in a and re-edited in 1814 by Boissonade with emendations and

ably recognized by Marie de’ Medici. There his long poem Adone was published in 1623. Adone contains over 40,000 lines; the story of Venus and Adonis is overlaid with all kinds of digressions, mythological, descriptive, etc. Its smooth and polished verse and its fanciful style found many imitators. He died at Naples on March 25, 1625. The licence, extravagances and conceits of

Marini, the chief of the school of “Seicentisti’? (see ITALY: Literature), marked the close of a great era, and the beginning of a period of decadence. “Marinism” was in Italy what “Gongorism” was in Spain. It was part of a general movement in favour of an artificial and ornamented style which was evident throughout western Europe. Marini also wrote a religious epic, La strage degli innocentz (1633) and other works, of which a selection was edited by Zirardini (1862). A new edition of his letters, Epistolario, appeared in 1924. See A. Gustarelli, La vita et Popera di G. Marino (Leghorn, 1918).

of Proclus.

But he was compelled to seek refuge at Epidaurus

from persecution by the Christians. His chief work was a biography of Proclus, first published with the works of Marcus MARINUS OF TYRE, geographer and mathematician, the

founder of mathematical geography, flourished in the 2nd cen-

tury A.D. He lived before Ptolemy, who acknowledges his great obligations to him. His chief merits were that he assigned to each

place its proper latitude and longitude, and introduced improvements in the construction of his maps. See E. H. Berger, Geschichte der wissenschaftlichen Erdkunde

Griechen (1903).

der

, MARIO, GIUSEPPE, Count or Cannia (1810—1883), Ital1an singer, the most famous tenor of the roth century, son of

General di Candia, was born at Cagliari in 1810. While serving

as an officer in the Sardinian army he was imprisoned at Cagliari for some trifling offence. On his release he fled to Paris. There his success as an amateur vocalist produced an offer of an engagement at the Opera. He studied singing for two years under M. Ponchard and Signor Bordogni, and made his début in 1838 in Meyerbeer’s Robert le Diable. In 1839 he joined the company

MARINKOVIC, DR. VOIESLAV (1876), Yugoslav statesman, was born in Belgrade on May 1, 1876. He was educated in Belgrade and Paris, and in rgor entered the ministry of of the Théâtre Italien, which then included Malibran, Sontag, finance in Belgrade. In 1906 he entered the SkupStina; in 1913 Persiani and Grisi, Rubini, Tamburini and Lablache. In a short represented Serbia on the Finance conference in Paris charged time he won a European reputation in Italian opera. Mario had with liquidating the financial side of the Balkan Wars; in 1916 a handsome face and a graceful figure, and his voice, though less he was Serb Delegate to the Inter-Allied conference in Paris. powerful than that of Rubini or that of Tamberlik, had a softHe was a Progressive member of the coalition cabinet 1914-7, ness and richness which have never been equalled. He was an when he resigned office, and took part in drafting the Corfu ideal stage lover, and he retained the grace and charm of youth Declaration. In Nov. 1928 he rejoined the cabinet. In 1919, with long after his voice had begun to show signs of decay. He creDavidović (g.v.) and others, he formed the Democratic Union ated very few new parts, that of Ernesto in Don Pasquale (1843) (afterwards Party). From Dec. 1921—June 1922 he was minister being perhaps the only one deserving of mention. Among his of the interior, and carried through the reorganization of the best parts were Otello in Rossini’s opera of that name, Gennaro in Electoral Law. In the Davidovié Cabinet (1925) he became min- Lucrezia Borgia, Almaviva in I} Barbiere di Siviglia, Fernando in ister of foreign affairs, and resumed that office after Dr. Ninčić La Favorita, and Manrico in I} Trovatore. In 1856 he married (g.v.) had resigned in Dec. 1926. In his policy Marinković leant Giulia Grisi, the famous soprano, by whom he had five daughters. definitely more towards France than his predecessor had done, Mario bade farewell to the stage in 1871. He died at Rome in but still attempted to maintain good relations with Italy. reduced circumstances on Dec. 11, 1883. MARINO, town, Italy, province of Rome, 15 m. southeast of MARION, FRANCIS (1732-1795), American soldier, was Rome by rail, and also accessible by electric tramway. Pop. born in 1732, at Winyah, near Georgetown, S.C., of Huguenot an(1921) 9,656. It is on a spur of the Alban Hills, 1,165 ft. above cestry. In 1761 he served in a campaign against the Cherokees. sea level, and occupies the site of the ancient Castrimoenium, a In 1775 he was a member of the South Carolina Provincial Conmunicipium of no great importance, though the surrounding dis- gress. Commissioned a captain, he took an active part in the detrict, which now produces much wine, is full of remains of ancient fence of Ft. Moultrie in Charleston harbour (1776), and in the villas. In the early 13th century it belonged to the Frangipani, unsuccessful siege of Savannah (1779). In 1780 the British capbut passed to the Orsini in 1266. In 1379 a battle took place here tured Charleston and overran the State. Made a brigadier-general between the partisans of Urban VI. and those of the anti-pope by Governor Rutledge, Marion showed his genius in organizing a Clement VII. of Geneva (the Orsini having taken the side of the band of guerrilla volunteers; he gained recruits and trained them latter), who were, however, defeated; and in 1399 Marino was to be fearless riders and good marksmen, and “Marion’s Brigade” apparently under the Papacy. In 1419 it passed to the Colonna became known far and wide for its successful exploits against the family, to whom it still belongs. British. His sudden attacks often resulted in the capture of suSee T. Ashby, in Papers of the British School at Rome, vols. iv., v.; perior numbers and intimidated the Tories. Col. Tarleton was F. Tomassetti, Campagna Romana iv. (1926) 173 seq. sent to capture him, but soon despaired of finding “the old swamp

MARINUS, the name of two popes. Marinus I., sometimes

called Martin II., pope from 882 to 884, was the son of a Tuscan priest, and entered the church at an early age, becoming a deacon about 862. Three successive popes sent him as legate to Constantinople, and he also negotiated on behalf of pope John VIII. with the emperor Charles the Fat. About the end of December 882 he succeeded John VIII. as pope. Having secured his position, Marinus restored Formosus, cardinal-bishop of Porto, and anathematized Photius. This pope was on friendly terms with the English king, Alfred the Great. He died in May 884, and was succeeded by Adrian IIT.

Marinus II., sometimes called Martin III., pope from 942 to 946, was merely the puppet of Alberic (d. 954), prince and senator of the Romans. He died in May 946, and was succeeded by Agapetus IT.

MARINUS, neo-Platonist philosopher, was born in Paiestine

and was early converted to the old Greek religion. He succeeded

fox,” who eluded him by following swamp paths. His men united

with Gen. Greene’s forces for important engagements at George-

town, Ft. Watson, Ft. Motte and Eutaw Springs. For a skilful

rescue of Col. Harden’s men, hemmed in by a superior British force which he defeated at Parker’s Ferry, he received the thanks

of Congress. In 1782, his brigade deteriorated during his absence;

and there was a conspiracy to hand him over to the British.

From 1782 to 1790, Marion served in the State senate where

he opposed harsh treatment of the Tories. He was made commander of Ft. Johnson with a salary of £500 per annum, in recognition of his services. He died on his estate in Berkeley

county on Feb, 27, 1795. As a soldier he was quick, resourceful

and calm, a great partisan leader.

See W. D. James, Life of Francis Marion

(1821); M. L. Wiems,

Life of Francis Marion (1833); W. G. Simms, Life of Francis Marion eae z McCrady, History of South Carolina in the Revolution I901-02).

906

MARION

MARIONETTES

MARION, a city of southern Illinois, U.S.A., roo m. S.E. of by a mask and wig (unless the face and hair are already Carved Saint Louis; the county-seat of Williamson county. It is served by the Chicago and Eastern Illinois, the Illinois Central and the

Missouri Pacific railways. Pop. (1920) 9,582 (93% native white); and 9,033 in 1930 by the Federal census. It is the commercial centre of a rich agricultural and coal-mining region, and has various manufacturing industries. The city was founded about 1842 and incorporated in 1896.

and painted on), the rest by clothing firmly attached to the ledge at the base of the neck (fig. 2). If desired, legs and feet can he attached.

To operate, put the doll on the hand like a glove, always keeping the forearm upright so that the puppet will stand straight. Arm and head movements are made with the fingers. The stage has

MARION, a city of Indiana, U.S.A., 60 m. N.E. of Indian-

apolis, on the Mississinewa river; the county-seat of Grant county. It is served by the Big Four, the Chesapeake and Ohio, the Nickel Plate, the Pennsylvania and electric railways, and by motor bus and truck lines. The population was 23,747 in 1920; 24,496 in 1930. Itis the trade centre for a fertile farming region, and has important manufactures (including glass, trucks, radio cases, malleable iron, gasolene motors, stoves, brick, paper and flour) with an output in 1927 valued at $24,771,779. Marion college (established 1889) is an institution of the Wesleyan Methodist Church. At Upland (12 m. S.E.) is Taylor university (1846). Marion is the seat of a United States Veterans Bureau hospital (accommodating 1,500 psychiatric cases). The city was chartered in 1889 and is named after Gen. Francis Marion. It was a “station” on the “Underground railway” (the name given to the secret chain of passages by which slaves were passed along into Canada or other “free” territory).

MARION, a city of Ohio, U.S.A., 44 m. N. by W. of Columbus; the county seat of Marion county.

It is on Federal high-

ways 23 and 30 (the Lincoln), and is served by the Big Four, the Erie, the Hocking Valley and the Pennsylvania railways. Pop. (1920) 27,891; in 1930, 31,084. It is the trade centre of a rich farming district, and has lime and sandstone quarries, railroad shops, steel mills, glass works and other large manufacturing industries, making notably steam shovels, dredges, road rollers, tractors, threshers and other agricultural machinery. The factory output in 1925 was valued at $25,778,856. Marion was the home

of Warren Gamaliel Harding from 1884 until his death in 1923.

It was the scene of his “front-porch campaign” in 1920, and here he is buried. The city was laid out in 1821 and chartered in 1890.

MARIONETTES

no floor; a curtain or a three-sided screen with an opening for the proscenium arch is required. The little roll or draw curtain is suspended from a frame-work or from wooden strips across the top of the screen.

similarly suspended.

Painted or dyed scenery behind the dolls is

Puppets

must be held high so that the

operator’s head is invisible. A ledge along the base of the proscenium arch offers a place on which to rest “properties.” The

stage lighting (floods or strips) should shine upon the puppets’ faces, as well as upon the scenery. Humorous, lively plays are best for this grotesque, intimate type of puppet-show. String Marionettes are made of the same materials as hand

or PUPPETS, jointed figures which, by puppets. If the head is of plaster or stuffed cloth there should be

various devices, are made to move in mimicry of persons or ani-

a wire from ear to ear with a loop at either end, and another wire, twisted on to this, running down through the neck with a loop at the end (fig. 3). If the head is of wood, screw eyes at sides and at bottom of neck are used. The torso can be one piece; but separate shoulders (fig. 4), and hip pieces of wood with a centre

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Limbs FIG. 1

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mals—usually for dramatic performances. The closely related shadows are flat cutout figures which are exhibited in silhouette against a lighted screen. The following are commonly accepted methods of producing and operating the simpler types of string marionettes, hand puppets and shadow figures. Hand Puppets can be of wood, plaster, plastic wood, papiermaché or stuffed cloth. Head and neck are in one piece with a hole running up the neck for the first finger of the operator (fig. 1). The arms consist of cylin-

drical cuffs (cardboard strength-

Flic. 3

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ened with cloth) which are glued or tacked to wooden hands. The „a flat strip of wood about ro in. long with a shorter cross-bar. operator’s second finger and thumb fit, each, into a cuff. A small A leather strip tacked to the cross-bar slips over the back of the stuffed bag is suspended by tapes from a ridge at the base of the operator’s hand. The head strings are tied (from the loops at neck. Grasping this bag in the palm with the two last fingers gives ears) to ends of cross-bar and hold the weight of the doll. The a firmer control. The cuffs also are attached to the bag with tapes. hand strings are attached to the front end of the controller. The This framework of the hand puppet is then concealed—the head back string from the back waist-line of doll, is attached to the rear

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G. G. Saintsbury in Hist. of the French Novel, vol. i. The western balf of the department is hilly (920 ft. near Reims) I9QI7). with Tertiary rocks of the Paris basin deeply cut by Marne, See also C. A, Sainte-Beuve, Causeries du lundi, iv.; S. Lenel, Un Vesle and Suippe. From beneath the eastward-facing scarp edge Homme de lettres au XVIII. siécle, Marmontel (1g02). of these rocks the chalk emerges to floor the eastern half of the MARMORA (anc. Proconnesus), an island in the sea of the department (Champagne Pouilleuse), the surface of which rises same name. (See below.) Originally settled by Greeks from Mile- eastward up the dip slope of the rock to the forested scarp (860 tus in the 8th century B.c., Proconnesus was annexed by its power- ft.) of the Lower Chalk, again facing east. From beneath this, in ful neighbour Cyzicus in 362. The island has at all times been turn, emerge ‘the impervious Lower Cretaceous rocks of La noted for its quarries of white marble which supplied the material Champagne humide, drained by the upper Aisne, which runs for many of the buildings of Constantinople. northward, parallel to the scarp. See C. Texier, Asie mineure (1839-49); M. I. Gedeon, Ipoxévynaos Marne has the temperate climate of the Seine region; the an(Constantinople, 1895) ; an exhaustive monograph by F. W. Hasluck nual mean temperature is 50°, the rainfall about 24 in. Oats, in Journ. Hell. Stud., xxix. (1909). wheat, rye and barley, lucerne, sainfoin and clover, and potatoes, MARMORA, SEA OF, the small inland sea which (in part) mangold-wurzels and sugar-beet are the principal agricultural separates the Turkish dominions in Europe from those in Asia, crops, and choice vegetables are grown. The raising of mixed and is connected through the Bosporus with the Black Sea (qg.v.) merino sheep and of other stock and bees is profitable. The vineand through the Dardanelles with the Aegean. It is 170 m. long yards on the hill slopes of Reims, Épernay and Châlons produce (E. to W.) and nearly so m. in extreme width, and has an area of the best Champagne. Pine woods are largely planted in Cham4,500 sq.m. Its greatest depth is about 700 fathoms, the deepest pagne-Pouilleuse. The department produces peat, fire-clay, millparts (over 500 fathoms) occurring in three depressions in the stones and chalk. i northern portion—one close under the European shore to the Reims has an old-established woollen industry. The manufacsouth of Rodosto, another near the centre of the sea, and a third ture of wine-cases and other goods for the wine trade is carried at the mouth of the Gulf of Ismid. There are several consider- on. There are also small metalworks. Besides these there are glassable islands, of which the largest, Marmora, lies in the west, off works, whiting and oil works. The chief imports are wool and the peninsula.of Kapu Dagh, along with Afsia, Aloni and smaller coal; exports are wine, grain, live-stock, stone, whiting, pit-props islands. In the east, off the Asiatic shore between the Bosporus and woollen stuffs. Communication is afforded chiefly by the and the Gulf of Ismid, are the Princes’ Islands. The Sea of river Marne and by the Eastern railway. There are four arrondisseMarmora is the ancient Propontis, Turk. Mermer Denisi. ments—namely those of Chalons (the capital), Epernay, Reims, MARMOSET, the name of any of the small tropical Ameri- and Vitry-le-Frangois—with 33 cantons and 662 communes. can monkeys classed in the family Hapalidae. Marmosets are The department belongs partly to the archbishopric of not larger than squirrels and present great variation in colour; Reims and partly to the see of Châlons. Châlons is the headall have long tails, and many have the ears tufted. They differ quarters of the VI. army corps (Metz). Its educational centre and from the other American monkeys in having one pair less of court of appeal are at Paris. The principal towns are Châlonsmolar teeth in each jaw. The common marmoset, or ouistiti, is sur-Marne, Reims, Epernay and Vitry-le-Francois, Ay and Hapale jacchus. See PRIMATES. : Sézanne. MARMOT, a large, thickly built, burrowing Alpine rodent MARNE, a river of northern France, 328 m. long, rising on allied to the squirrels, and typifying the genus M armota, of which the Plateau of Langres, 3 m. S. of Langres, flowing in a wide there are numerous species ranging from the Alps through Asia valley across the Jurassic and Cretaceous north of the Himalaya, and in North America. All these may and uniting with the Seine at Charenton,rocks of the Paris basin an eastern suburb of be included under the name marmot. In addition to their stout Paris, Leaving Langres on the left the river flows northward, build and long thickly haired tails, marmots are characterized by | passing Chaumont, as far as St. Dizier, where it turns west, rethe absence of cheek-pouches, and the rudimentary first front | ceives the Blaise (left), passes Vitry-le-Francois where it receives toe, which is furnished with a flat nail, as well:as by features of | the Saulx (right), Châlons and Epernay, where it enters picturthe skull and cheek-teeth. Europe possesses two species, the | esque-and undulating country of Tertiary rocks. It passes Cha-

928

MARNE

teau-Thierry and Meaux and is joined by the Petit-Morin (left), |veloped what remained of the French forces. The supreme comOurcq (right) and Grand-Morin (left). It is canalized from | mand operation order, the only one issued in regard to the battle, Paris to Dizy beyond which it is accompanied byalateral canal | is of such importance that the greater part of it is quoted:— which connects with the Saône. It is also connected by canal with “The enemy is bringing up new formations and concentrating superior forces in the neighbourhood of Paris to protect the capthe Rhine and the Aisne.

MARNE, THE FIRST BATTLE OF THE (Sept. 6-ọ, | ital and threaten the right flank of the German Armies.

1914), the first great turning point in the World War. A strategi- | “The I. and II. Armies must therefore remain (sic) facing the cally decisive victory for the Allies, it brought the rapid and appar- east front of Paris. Their task is to act against any operations of ently resistless advance of the German hosts through Belgium and the enemy from the neighbourhood of Paris and to give each France to a halt and forced them to retire northwards. The other mutual support to this end. French reckon in the battle only the Armies west of Verdun, “The IV. and V. Armies are still operating against superior thus excluding Dubail’s and de Castelnau’s Armies! in Alsace- forces. They must maintain constant pressure to force them Lorraine; the Germans include the whole front from Belfort south-eastwards . . . Whether by co-operating with the VI. and round to Paris, and, as they attacked on this with all their seven VII. Armies they will then succeed in forcing any considerable Armies and the fighting east of Verdun formed an important part of the enemy’s forces towards Swiss territory cannot yet be

part of their plan, their definition is followed here. After the “Battles of the Frontier’ in the later part of August and the retreat of the French and British forces, Gen. Joffre attempted to lengthen his line to the westward and prevent envelopment of the Allied left flank by collecting near Amiens on the left of the British Expeditionary Force a new army, under Gen. Maunoury, formed of divisions drawn from other parts of the line. Before this Army could be completely organized, its leading divisions came into contact with the enemy and became involved in the general retirement. At this period the B.E.F., under Field-Marshal Sir John French, consisted of :-— I. Corps (Lieut.-Gen. Sir D. Haig) 1st Division (Maj.-Gen. S. H. Lomax), 2nd Division (Maj.-Gen. C. C. Monro). II. Corps (General Sir H. L. Smith-Dorrien),

foreseen.

“The VI. and VII. Armies will continue to hold the enemy in position in their front, but will take the offensive as soon as

possible against the line of the Moselle between Toul and Epinal,

securing their “The III. mands either operate . . .

flanks against these fortresses. Army ... will be employed as the situation de. . . to support the I. and II. Armies or to coin the fighting of our Armies on the left wing.”

Regardless of the fact that the I. Army was beyond the Mame

going south, it was ordered to remain, facing west, between the Oise and the Marne, and the II. Army, not yet across the Marne, was ordered to remain between that river and the Seine. The II. Army took immediate steps to obey this order; Bülow ordering his right corps as pivot to halt and the remainder to wheel forward so as to change front from south to west. The first stage of the wheel, to be carried out on the 6th, was to be to the line Montmirail-Marigny, a position not quite reached by the 3rd Division (Maj.-Gen. H. I. W. Hamilton), II. Army when the battle came to an end on the oth. The I. Army 5th Division (Maj.-Gen. Sir C. Fergusson). continued its advance on Sept. 5 towards the Seine, Kluck reIII. Corps (Maj.-Gen. W. P. Pulteney), 4th Division (Maj.-Gen. T. D’O. Snow), with r9th In- porting that he considered it best to settle with the French armies in the field first and then invest Paris. He, however, began fantry Brigade attached. The Cavalry Division (Maj.-Gen. E. H. H. Allenby), of 4 preparatory steps for facing west, and when, in the afternoon, the representative of the supreme command, Lieut.-Col. Hentsch cavalry brigades, and the sth Cavalry Brigade. The Royal Flying Corps (Brig.-Gen. Sir D. Henderson) of 5 arrived, he approved of the preparations, but added that “the movement to face west might be made at leisure; no special squadrons. haste was necessary.” Thus on the afternoon of September 5 Lines of Communication troops. four corps of the I. Army were across the Grand Morin, The German Movements and Orders Before the Battle. with two cavalry corps ahead of them; but there was only a —As the German pursuit proceeded, Gen. von Kluck, command- weak flank guard, the IV. Reserve Corps (3 infantry brigades) ing the German J. Army on the extreme west of the line, which and the remains of the 4th Cavalry Division (smashed up by the had fought at Mons and Le Cateau and occupied Amiens, came British on Sept. 1) in échelon behind its right flank. The II. to the conclusion that the B.E.F. and Maunoury’s troops were Army was a day’s march behind the I., still facing south; the routed and practically dispersed, and that Gen. Lanrezac’s Army other German Armies were acting in conformity with their on the right of the British was in consequence the left of the orders. French line. The action of Lanrezac in attacking at the battle of The French and British Movements and Orders.—The Guise (Aug. 29-31), without assistance on his left, confirmed him change of direction, to the south-east, of the German I. Army in these views. In conjunction, therefore, with Gen. von Biilow had been observed and reported by British aviators on the morn(II. Army), instead of continuing the advance in order to cross ing of Sept. 3, and they added at 5 p.m. that it was crossing the the Seine below Paris, as ordered, Kluck on Aug. 31 wheeled Marne. At 7 p.m. Maunoury reported that there were no German south-eastwards past the northern front of the French capital, troops west of a line Paris—Senlis; at 8:45 p.m. the British found with the object of striking the supposed French flank. After that there was only one German corps (IV. Reserve) left in the some of his advanced troops and his cavalry corps had been Ourcq valley. All this information was fully confirmed on the roughly handled by the British on Sept. 1, he turned south, but 4th. Gen. Joffre, however, did not at once change his plans. subsequently resumed his south-eastward course. The German Three days previously on Sept. x, by instruction No. 4, sent out Supreme Command at first accepted Kluck’s views, but on Sept. by officers in motor cars at 2 p.m, he had provisionally fixed as 4 Gen. von Moltke, the Chief of the General Staff and virtual the limit of the retirement the moment when his armies were Commander-in-Chief, became alarmed. Information reached him situated as follows :— that the French were passing divisions from east to west, and that “Sarrail’s army north of Bar de Duc; there were considerable assemblies of troops near Paris. On the De Langle’s army, behind the Ornain east of Vitry; evening of the 4th he despatched to the seven German Armies, Foch’s army behind the Aube, south of Arcis; >warning messages, which he consolidated into a formal operation

order on the 5th. This order brought to an end the great wheel that was to-sweep the French into Switzerland, and substituted for it a plan by which the Paris forces were to be held off by the I. and II. Armies, whilst the other five armies attacked and en"For the sake’ of clearness, the French Armies are called by the names of their commanders; the Germans by their numbers.

Lanrezac’s army, behind the Seine, south of Nogent.”

On the 2nd, at 11:40 P.M., he had by a note changed this limit and put the general line on which his forces as a whole should establish themselves considerably farther back on the right. It was defined by Joinville, Brienne, Arcis, Nogent and Pont sur Yonne.

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The British were to be behind the Seine, close to Paris, from | line Sezanne-Courtacon, and then attack northwards; Foch was Melun to Juvisy, their left in touch with Maunoury’s Army, now to cover the right of d’Esperey by holding the exits of the part of the garrison of the entrenched camp of Paris. The Mili- Marais de St. Gond. tary Governor of Paris, Gen Galliéni, who had been warned on In order to profit by the coolness of the night the troops of Sept. 3 (apparently about 8 a.m.) that his troops in the eventual Foch, d’Esperey and Sir J. French had marched off before the offensive would be required to act in the direction of Meaux, orders arrived. Galliéni received his copy at 2:35 A.M., but, knowseems to have been the first to realize that there was no time to ing Joffre’s intentions after his telephone conversation, which lose in taking advantage of the tremendous opportunity that the closed before ro P.M., had already passed the information on to Germans were offering by their flank march past Paris. At 9 A.m. Maunoury. Foch, whose headquarters were nearest to the Grand on the 4th he proposed to Gen. Joffre by telephone to use his Quartier-Général, then at Chatillon, received his at 1:30 a.m. and forces at once to attack from north of Paris eastwards against between 5 and 6 a.m. he was able to stop the retirement of his the German flank. The French commander-in-chief replied at corps. D’Esperey was not so fortunate; what time he received noon by telegraph approving of the idea, but preferring that the the telegram is not recorded, but his orders founded on it are attack should be made south not north of the Marne, which timed 6 a.m. His corps, having moved off at midnight to continue meant postponement and loss of time. Joffre then set about en- their retirement, he could not do more than modify the halting suring the co-operation of the B.E.F., and about 4 p.m. received places of some of them; his centre and left passed the line defined through the mission at Sir John French’s headquarters at Melun, by Joffre, and the right detained by rear-guard fighting with the to which Galliéni had paid a visit, a definite assurance of the enemy did not reach it. The B.E.F. was in worse case. The fullest support. Meantime he had been in communication with orders carried by motor reached G.H.Q. before the telegram, at d’Esperey—now in command, vice Lanrezac of the V. Army— 3 A.M., and the corps had already started southwards, one of them as to the condition of his troops and when they could attack. five hours earlier. Thus the British made a march farther to the Between 5 Pm. and 8 p.m. two telegraph messages arrived from south than Joffre counted on, and had two marches to the front d’Esperey—the exact hour cannot be fixed, the times of receipt to reach the place assigned, instead of one. It was in all probare not marked, but they are between letters received at 5 P.M. ability a fortunate circumstance that the B.E.F. was not in a and 8 p.m. In these he stated that he could not attack before the position to obey and try to reach the line Coulommiers—Changis on 6th, and that Gen. H. Wilson, the sub-chief of the general staff the sth. For if it had done so its five divisions and one cavalry of the British army, who was with him, agreed that the B.E.F. division cut off from all help would have come isolated into could be on the line Coulommiers—Changis on that date. Gen. collision with the greater part of eight divisions of the German I. Joffre had meantime fixed on the 7th. In the evening, however, Army and four cavalry divisions. Early on Sept. 5, Joffre issued Galliéni on return from British G.H.Q. again telephoned personally orders to his centre: to de Langle to stay his retreat and attack to him informing him of the measures taken for the eastward northwards; to Sarrail to attack westwards against the German march of the Army of Paris and urging him that there was not flank presented to the troops near Verdun. a moment to be lost, with the result that Joffre definitely inSept. 5: The First Contact.—The Germans, the exponents of formed Galliéni that the general attack would take place on the envelopment, by thrusting forward between Verdun and Paris, 6th, and that he might attack north of the Marne as he wished, had placed themselves in a position exposed to envelopment on and gave him a summary of his orders, in which the destination both flanks. They had completely misunderstood the situation, of the B.E.F. as mentioned above was specified. Orders were over-estimated their initial successes and under-estimated the then prepared, and telegraphed in cypher timed 11:15 P.M. on fighting powers of the Allies. Gen. von Kuhl, Kluck’s chief of Sept. 4, to Maunoury and d’Esperey, 1x:50 p.m. to Foch and the staff, has written:— Galliéni, and 12:10 a.m. on the sth to British headquarters. “Neither the supreme command nor J. Army headquarters had Duplicates were sent by motor car. the remotest idea of an immediately imminent offensive of the General Joffre’s orders directed the forces on the left of his whole French Army. The continuation of the French retreat was line to take up positions during Sept 5 ready to attack on the accepted as settled. There was only a question of our flank being front and flank of the German I. and II. Armies on the morning threatened from Paris. ... The great offensive on the whole of the 6th. Maunoury was to be north-east of Meaux, ready to front of the forces came as a complete surprise. No sign, no cross the river Ourcq eastwards in the direction of Chateau prisoner’s statement, no newspaper tattle had given warning of it.” Thierry; the B.E.F. to advance to the line Coulommiers—Changis, But this was not the end of their mistakes. By Moltke’s orders teady to move north-eastwards; d’Esperey to fall back to the of the evening of Sept. 4, the I. and II. Armies were to face

930

MARNE

towards Paris. This might guard the flank of the German army as a whole, but would expose their own particular left flank in the new position to the oncoming French, and would leave an enormous gap in the original front towards the south. Yet this extraordinary order Biilow was proceeding to carry out, although Kluck was in no hurry to do so, seeing no necessity to be frightened at the “Paris bogey.” Events of the 5th, however, were to scare the latter commander out of his optimism. Pressing on south-eastwards with four corps and taking no precautions to investigate the situation on his flank either by cavalry or aeroplane, his flank guard came in contact about 1:30 p.m. with an advanced guard of Maunoury’s army, north-west of Meaux, and was forced back. This began the battle of the Ourcq. Owing to bad staffwork, or an attempt to conceal a defeat, news of this disaster—-which meant that his right, now 6m. south of Meaux was completely uncovered—did not reach Kluck until “shortly after midnight.” At last he set hurriedly about obeying the supreme command’s orders to take position between the Marne and the Oise. But even now only partially. Early on the 6th he

sent first the II. Corps (his right) and then the IV. back across the Marne to the assistance of his flank guard, leaving his other two corps with Biilow. Before dealing with the fighting on the Ourcq and in the British sector of the battle, where the decision fell, the events on the eastern flank and centre, where practically deadlock set in, will be summarized. The Battle on the Eastern Flank and in the Centre.— The German VII. and VI. Armies, under Crown Prince Rupprecht, were “to attack against the Moselle between Toul and Epinal.” That is, they were required to force the fortress line of the French eastern frontier. Yet it was to avoid the uncertainties and diffculties of this very task that the German Government had taken the momentous decision to allow their Armies to enter Luxembourg and violate Belgian neutrality. Until Moltke had “watered down” the plan of his predecessor, Field-Marshal Graf Schlieffen, it had been intended to enter Netherlands territory also. The enterprise proved beyond the powers of the Germans. Met by the stout defence of Dubail’s and de Castelnau’s armies, Rupprecht’s armies were unable to make any progress and lost heavily, so that on Sept. 8 he stopped the offensive in order to spare the troops, and was ordered “to prepare to occupy a rear defensive position at once.” The German V. and IV. Armies did no better. Pushing on past the west side of Verdun, the V. (crown prince of Prussia) had to face eastwards towards the fortress. It prevented Sarrail from making any attempt to roll up the German line, but suffered most severely from French artillery fire and for three days was pinned to the ground. A diversion by small forces east of Verdun had no effect. At 2 p.m. on the oth the Crown Prince, in desperation, ordered a night attack in the hope of capturing the French guns that were killing his men. This operation, owing to short notice, was a complete fiasco, the Germans firing on each other. The German IV. Army, assisted by half of the III. Army, encountered de Langle, who stood on the defensive and then counter-attacked. After severe fighting on his flanks (actions of Revigny and Vitry), the Germans failed to make ground. By the morning of the gth, the Germans were reduced by the French artillery fire to seeking what shelter they could in trenches and dead ground. Thus on the eastern half of the battlefield, where the Germans were the attackers, they had the worse of the fighting and there was no decision.

The II. Army (Bülow) and the other half of the German III. Army co-operating with it were at the opening of the battle facing nearly south, half-way between the Seine and Marne. Opposite them were Foch’s army and the right of d’Esperey’s. The former general—owing to his having received Joffre’s orders of Sept. 4 in time to act on them—was actually in contact with the enemy. Severe fighting at once ensued near the Marais de St. Gond. But it was not Bulow’s object to break through. He was merely pivoting on his centre so as to change from facing south to facing west towards Paris, between the Seine and the

Marne,

endeavouring

to reach the line Montmirail-Marigny.

Thus heavy pressure was brought on Foch, and he was forced

back and had to call on d’Esperey for help. But, with the assistance of the X. Corps lent by d’Esperey and of the XVII. Corps sent by Joffre to fill the gap between his army and de Langle’s Foch was able to remain in the line and fulfil his task of guarding

the flank of Joffre’s main attack of the left wing—d’Esperey French and Maunoury.

The Allied Left Wing—It has been seen how on the morning of the 6th Kluck (I. Army) had withdrawn the II. and Iv. Corps to succour his flank guard threatened by Maunoury on the Ourcq.

This left in front of d’Esperey and French the right half

of the German II. Army (the pivot of Biilow’s wheel), the IX. and III. Corps of the I. Army, rear guards of the IT. and Iv. Corps, and two cavalry corps. During the day d’Esperey made

no progress but the B.E.F. gained ground against a weakening opposition, about 5m. on the right, which had to wait for the French, and 12m. on the left. Maunoury also made an advance, and so dangerous did it appear that on the morning of the 7th Kluck summoned the IX. and III. Corps from their place in the

line next to the IJ. Army, and sent them also back across the

Marne to join the rest of his army on the Ourcq. These two corps

were thus marching on the 7th and 8th, and were wasted so far as the battle went; for they only appeared opposite Maunoury on the oth. In the great gap, some 30m. wide, left in the German front

by the removal of the I. Army were now only two cavalry corps (which contained five Jager battalions and extra machine-gun companies) and some infantry detachments, and no one was appointed to take command of them as a whole. The way through the German front appeared almost open:

the Germans themselves had created a gap in their front such as, in the succeeding years of trench warfare, each side strove in

vain to batter through its opponent’s line. Unfortunately Gen. Joffre’s plan, like the famous Plan XVII. with which the campaign had been opened, took no account of ground. In Aug. rorq the French were committed to an offensive into the defiles of the Vosges and the forests of the Ardennes, where they were ambushed by the enemy. Now the advance of d’Esperey and the B.E.F. was confronted by a series of transverse rivers, the Grand Morin, the Petit Morin and the Marne, all passable only at the bridges, some of which had been destroyed by the French in the retreat. Nevertheless, in very hot, dry and dusty weather, the Allies forced the passage of the Grand Morin on the 7th and of the Petit Morin on the 8th. The German resistance in the gap was practically broken, and there was every chance of cutting off Kluck and falling on his rear, although he hastily despatched first a composite brigade and then the sth Division to stop the British. On the evening of the 8th Sir John French’s five divisions were close up to the Marne. D’Esperey, having farther to go, was not within reach of the river; but his right had driven back the right of the German II. Army and widened the gap.

Mau-

noury’s army (of seven divisions, only two of which were active troops, the rest being reserve), had ceased to make any progress against the six divisions of the German I. Army, to reinforce which four more were now on the way. Sept. 9th: The Passage of the Marne.—Early

on Sept. 9

the British cavalry, driving off the Germans, seized two bridges over the Marne below Chateau Thierry; the 6th Infantry Brigade secured another, and by 7:30 a.m. the I. Corps (Haig), the right of the B.E.F. was beginning to cross the river. In the centre, the II. Corps (Smith-Dorrien) found two bridges intact and unde-

fended, and by 9 a.m. the vanguards of both its divisions were

across.

Reports were now received from the Flying Corps that

there were large masses of Germans north of Chateau Thierry (actually the German sth Cavalry Division and infantry attached to it), and the I. Corps, as there were no French troops across the river on its right, halted and began to entrench to. secure itself against a counter-stroke. As the French- historian, Gen. Palat, bas written, “our Allies were very notably ahead of Conneau’s Cavalry Corps, which itself was bound to outpace the. V.

Army (d’Esperey).” The head of the sth Division, the left of the II. Corps, met with considerable resistance after crossing from a German composite brigade, and the 3rd Division, learning this and finding the I, Corps,on its right at a standstill, also halted.

MARNE

931

On the left, the 4th Division (Snow) had started at 4:45 A.M.

Kuhl, Kluck’s chief of the staff. Hentsch had been despatched by Gen. von Moltke at midday on the 8th to visit the V., IV., III., II. and I. Armies in succession, a round trip of 400m, According to the court of enquiry, the proceedings of which Ludendorff promulgated to the general staff, Hentsch was given full powers to co-ordinate a retreat, “should rearward movements have been initiated”——and he was despatched by Moltke in full expectation that such movements had been begun. Hentsch found none had taken place in the V., IV. and III. Armies, and then spent the night of the 8th-ọoth at II. Army headquarters, where he observed cavalry on the British right did not begin crossing the Marne at a spirit of depression and pessimism. He left early on the morning Azy just below Chateau Thierry until 1 p.m. (Palat), and did of the ọth, before definite orders for the retreat had been given, not get up level with the British I. Corps until the latter had but apparently convinced that they would soon be given. Owing halted for the night. Meanwhile, farther east, Foch was again to blocks and panic on the road, it was past midday when he arheavily attacked, particularly on his right, but d’Esperey was rived at I. Army headquarters, taking seven hours to go 6om.; making good progress, driving back Biilow’s right, so that he he did not see Gen. von Kluck, dealing only with Kuhl. Hentsch was able to lend Foch a division. The latter therefore withdrew states that he found orders for retirement had already been issued. Grossetti’s division from his left in order to restore the combat Kuhl denies this, but admits that such orders had gone out by on his right by counter-attack. telephone owing to the overzeal of a subordinate officer, since dead, On the British left, Maunoury’s left was being forced back on who had misunderstood him. What, according to Kuhl, had been the exterior defences of Paris, for he had against him the addi- ordered at 11:30 A.M., and was in course of execution in view of tional weight of the greater part of Kluck’s IIT. and IX. Corps, the British advance, was a wheel backwards of the left only of the which had now reached the battlefield, and also the fourth I. Army. Thus Kuhl’s contention is that Hentsch, in view of brigade of the IV. Reserve Corps which had appeared from Ant- the situation of the II. Army, ordered the I. to retreat and quoted werp on his outer flank. But the farther the German I. Army ad- his full powers given for the purpose of co-ordinating a retirevanced from the Ourcq the more it suffered from the fire of the ment. Hentsch’s statement is to the effect that the retirement had heavy guns of the Paris defences, which had been brought into been decided on, and that he merely gave Kuhl the direction in the field, and had already taken heavy toll of it in the previous which the I. Army was to retire, north-eastwards, so as to join up three days’ fighting. Where, therefore, the enemy seemed to be with the II. Army. The court of enquiry accepted Kuhl’s view, advancing—opposite Foch’s right and against Maunoury—further adding, however, that Hentsch was justified ‘‘as the case provided progress was unlikely and a decision impossible. Kuhl goes even for in his instructions, the initiation of rearward movements, had farther, and says:— arisen.” A curious feature of the events at German I. Army head“Even a victory over Maunoury could not prevent us [I. quarters is that Kuhl, by his own account, accepted Hentsch’s Army] from having our left flank enveloped by superior force, verbal instructions without requiring that so important a decision and from being driven away from the main army. The I. Army should be in writing, and without taking him to see Kluck, the stood isolated.” army commander. In one of the books that he has written on the with the intention of crossing at La Ferté sous Jouarre. It found both bridges over the Marne, there nearly a hundred yards wide and very deep, broken (they had been blown up by the French in the retreat); the enemy were holding the farther bank at all likely points of passage. About ı r.m., two battalions, followed later by a third, managed to cross by a weir a mile above La Ferté, and another battalion crossed at a railway viaduct 3m. above. But by this time, 2:30 P.m., the Germans had abandoned the defence of the passages, and were making off. Conneau’s

At this crisis, at rı P.M., the Germans began their retirement from the battlefield. The German Retirement.—What happened on the German

side was the subject of a special enquiry in 1917, after Hindenburg had become chief of the general staff; numberless books have been written in Germany on the battle, and a strenuous endeavour has been made to show that the German retreat was unnecessary. One school would attribute it to a misunderstanding—the I. Army (Kluck) and the II. Army (Bülow) retiring because each thought the other was doing so. The German official history and an official monograph entitled Das Marnedrama issued by the Reichsarchiv take the view that the retreat was ordered by Lieut.-Col. Hentsch as the representative of the Supreme Command with full powers for the purpose. The monograph sums up the matter in the words:— “Thanks to the initiative of the German Army and corps commanders, thanks to the ability of the regimental leaders right down to platoon and section leaders, thanks to the valour of the troops, the battle ended with the victory of the German arms at the decisive point. . . . Then the forces on the Western Front were called back from the victory they had won by the word of the representative of the supreme command.” This view does not, however, seem to be borne out by admitted facts. Gen. von Bülow (subsequently promoted to Field-Marshal) definitely claimed to have ordered a retirement of bis army, and

battle he has admitted that:— “The break-through of the British and the French V. Army which was threatening brought about the decision in the battle of the Marne.” At 2 p.m. the retirement of the I. Army in the general direction of Soissons was begun. Its preliminary movements having brought it from facing west to facing south-west, and all the roads having been cleared by sending back the transport and trains, it was a comparatively easy matter. But, owing to the direction of the British advance, the I. Army could not incline inwards towards

the IJ. Army and retreated due north, still leaving a gap in the

so clear. There are two distinct versions, those of Lieut.-Col.

German line. The German withdrawal, covered by rear guards, was not immediately obvious. It was not until 3 p.m. that the British I. Corps resumed its advance, and then owing to its fatigue only a short one was made to a line 5m. from the Marne. The left (5th) division of the II. Corps remained in contact with the enemy until dusk. It was not until 9 p.m. that the 4th Division on the extreme left was able to begin a bridge over the Marne at La Ferté, ten of its 16 battalions (including the 19th Brigade) being then still south of the river. Conneau’s Cavalry Corps had crossed the Marne at Chateau Thierry, and now came up alongside the I. Corps but none of d’Esperey’s infantry had reached the Marne. In Foch’s Army Grossetti’s division brought from the left to counter-attack arrived too late to follow the enemy except with a few shells. It was not until 5 p.m. that Maunoury, after a hard day’s fighting in which he had been reinforced by every man that Galliéni could send from the Paris garrison, was able to report that the Germans were in retreat, covered by their artillery. The evening reports from the air confirmed that everywhere along the battle line retrograde movements of the enemy were taking place; but, his main bodies having got a good start during the day, and his rear guards being able to slip off in the darkness. there was no pursuit until next day, and then Joffre’s instructions to Maunoury were to gain ground to the left and endeavour to envelop the enemy’s right; the order to head the columns off by

Hentsch, the emissary of the supremié command, and Gen. von

flanking them from the west was not issued until the 13th. The

thereby to have saved the situation.

The committee of enquiry

found that Bülow came to this decision “independently.” At ọ A.M. on the oth he received definite air reports that six columns (fve British and one French cavalry) were approaching the Marne, and, no news of any success of the I. Army reaching him,

by rz A.M. he had issued orders for the retreat to begin at I P.™m.

and so informed the I. Army; the movements took place accordingly, and the III. Army conformed to them. ‘What happened at I. Army (Kluck) headquarters is not quite

932

MARNE

German I. and IT. Armies were thus able to pursue their way prac- | Army sought to cross the Marne near Dormans and to converge

tically undisturbed back to the Aisne, there to make another stand. | with the main advance in the region of Epernay. But although The gap between them was then filled by fresh troops released by | this day marked the last German bid for victory, the actual atthe capitulation of Maubeuge. At 5 p.at. on the roth orders were | tack was by no means the Germans’ supreme effort, nor had it the sent by the supreme command to the IV. Army to retire, and at | decisive aims popularly ascribed to it at the time. For Luden.

noon on the 11th to the V. Army. The VI. and VII. Armies had | dorff still adhered to his guiding idea that the British, severely ceased their attacks on the oth and retired to a selected line.

shaken in the great battles of March and April, should be the

The Victory.—At 8:15 p.m. on the oth Sir John French’s orders changed the word “advance” of the previous days to “pursuit”; Gen. d’Esperey, in an order issued from the historic field of Montmirail on the same evening, accurately summarized the

| Aididees

battle :—

9 |

“Held on his flanks, his centre broken, the enemy is now retreating towards the east and north by forced marches.” The Germans had entered Belgium and France with 78 divisions, excluding cavalry divisions. Of these they only managed to bring 44 divisions on to the great front between Verdun and Paris,

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back to East Prussia and eight (XV., III. Reserve, IX. Reserve | $ Corps) kept from the battle at the investments of Antwerp, Maubeuge, etc. The French, with 23 divisions in Alsace-Lorraine against 22 German, had 51 divisions and five British divisions

MARN.

against q4 German. The French Reserve divisions were not up to | a ME om war Camsssm on the Verdun-Paris front. Thus there were 56 Allied divisions

Be t

~

the standard of the German Reserve formations, but all the Allied | Syry 15 AND AuGusT 4, 1918 divisions in falling back had received reinforcement, whilst the

i

BETWEEN

,

Germans hampered by the destruction of the railways and handi- | target for his decisive blow and that their front in Flanders capped by the very rapidity of their advance, had not been able should be the stage on which he would produce his final drama of to get up drafts to fill the gaps in their ranks, so that as regards | victory.

actual combatants, numbers were still more in favour of the Allies. | The attack on May 27 (see CHEMIN-DES-DAMES, BATTLE OF Neither the French nor the Germans have yet published their |THE) across the Aisne had been conceived merely as a diversion

losses, but the Allies captured 38,000 prisoners and 160 guns be- | to draw the Allied reserves away from Flanders. So also with the sides other trophies including colours. June 9g attack, less bountiful in its fruits, that had been launched

The moral effect of the victory both on the Allies and on the | near Compiègne to break down the buttress of Allied territory

Germans was immense, for the legend of German invincibility was | that lay between the huge salients created by the German attacks broken. That the material and tactical results were not more im- | of March and May. When, instead, this German attack was broken portant is due partly to the immense fatigue of the Allies after the | of by Ludendorff, with little gained but his own reserves still earlier battles, the long retreat of 13 days and a four-day battle | further drained, he considered “the enemy in Flanders still so

in summer heat. But it would seem to be partly due to the direction of the main Allied attack having been frontal and across the courses of several rivers. Greater success would no doubt have been achieved had Maunoury’s flank attack, between the rivers,

been made stronger.

Possibly his army would have done better

i strong that the German army could not attack” there yet. So he | planned a further diversion—to be made by forty-seven divisions |attacking on either side of Rheims. | But the sands of time were slipping out for the Germans, and American reinforcements, like the sands of the shore in potential

even if it had been no stronger but composed of better trunps; for | number, were slipping in to become a cement for the Allied line

it consisted of only two active divisions (7th and r4th), badly | of battle.

Appreciating this, Ludendorff intended his Flanders

mauled in the frontier fighting, an Algerian division and four Re- | attack, once more towards the nodal point of Hazebrouck, to serve divisions shaken by fighting near Amiens. Had some of the | follow on the 2oth, only five days after the Rheims diversion. On

14 British Territorial Force Divisions and 14 mounted brigades | July 16 actually, as soon as the Rheims attack was under way, with the 6th Division, still in England, been landed at the Channel | artillery and aircraft were sent off by train to the Flanders front,

coast ports to fall on the German communications and rear, a | 20d Ludendorff himself moved to Tournai to supervise the decisive tactical result might have been obtained and the war | Preparations. — finished. In any case, with such addition to their forces, the Allies | _ But preparation was never to be completed by execution. For would have been better placed to have obtained a decision in the | the Rheims

diversion had not even the opening Success of its

“Race to the Sea,” in which actually they were always “an army | predecessors, and on July 18 the Allied counterstroke so jeapor-

corps too few and 24 hours too late.” dised the Germans’ situation that Ludendorff felt compelled to BIBLIOCRAPEY.—British Oficial History of the Great War: “Mili- | postpone, if not yet to abandon, the fulfilment of his dream. One

tary Operations France and Belgium, 1914,” vol. i. 1922 (where there | reason of the failure of the July 15 attack was that east of Rheims

is a bibliography); “Les Armées Françaises dans la Grande Guerre, | it was met by an “elastic defence” in face of which the German

ee

e Ene Ere

latter containing a bibliography).

MARNE,

SECOND

BATTLE

Band g = ee f hate

, OF THE.

(J. E.

onslaught lost its momentum before it reached the real position

E.)E. | Of the: French resistance. Much misplaced praise oe has been lavished h Ga

This marked |

the turning of the tide in the final year of the World War (g.v.).

On July 15, 1918, the Rheims district was the scene of the last

this “Gouraud manoeuvre.” For this ascription of its origin Is was i actually yet anotherjoerof the many war legends.; The manoeuvre ni due to Pétain, that cool, unemotional military economist who,

German offensive on the Western Front, and three days later, | called to be commander-in-chief after the Nivelle fiasco of 1917, when this was stemmed, the ebb began under pressure of the | had systematically worked to rebuild the French army and to great Allied counterstroke. It was thus composed of two acts, | restore the stability of its man-power and moral, previously under-

which require separate analysis.

mined by the extravagant offensives of 1914-1917.

th of the nating g illustration Ilustration of

damage done

isi

One illumi-

that cases o f desertion

, I. THE GERMAN OFFENSIVE IN CHAMPAGNE alone had risen from 509 in 1914 to 21,174 in 1917. This opened on July 1s, 1918, and the German plan was to Not content merely to reorganise, Pétain had set himself to attack on either side of Rheims, the principal effort being made | insure against a recurrence of the trouble by tactics that should by the German I. and ITT. Armies towards Châlons, while the VII. | be an economy both of force and of the nervous force of the er hin rere erry ry Oe eS SR, SL LS aa. o

MARNE combatant.

933

To this end, one method was an elastic defence in | the attack—to the south-west of Rheims between the Vesle and

depth, to allow the initial shock and impetus of the enemy’s | the Marne, on July 16—remained fruitless, for it had cost the

attack to be absorbed by a thinly held forward position, and then | enemy too dear for him to repeat such sacrifices.

Next day a

to await him on a strong position in rear, when the enemy’s troops | queer hush of expectation spread over the whole battlefield. The

would be oe the a of the bulk of their supporting artillery. | stage was set for the great “revanche.” his method Pétain had sought to appl i This g PP ACAMEE Tae artarik of Il. THE COUNTER-OFFENSIVE June 9, but, although it was partially successful, its full effect The Allied counter-offensive under Pétain’s direction comprises was lost through the reluctance of the local commanders, still clinging to their old offensive dogmas, to reconcile themselves to | two phases: (1) the first extends from July 18-28, and includes a voluntary yielding up of a few square miles of worthless ground. the victorious battles of Fayolle’s main group of armies in the And before July 15, when the coming German attack was defi- Soissonnais and on the Ourcq, and the closing stage of the denitely expected, a week’s argument was required before Pétain | fensive battle of Champagne and Rheims during the same period, could persuade the lion-hearted Gouraud, in command of the in which the centre group under Maistre re-established its front French IV. Army east of Rheims, to adopt this elastic manoeuvre. | and passed to the attack. This first phase, again, comprised three It was finally decided to leave nothing along the line of outposts !| successive manoeuvres: the breaking of the enemy positions by (constituted by the Monts de Champagne) but “islands” of re- | the Reserve group of armies on July 18 and 19; the re-occupation sistance, which would be required to sacrifice themselves for the | of Château-Thierry and the south bank of the Marne by the purpose of dissipating the enemy attack and keeping it under | centre group of armies, in combination with the right of the the well-controlled fire of the main position established in the rear. | Reserve group, on July 20 and 21; and the co-ordination of the But even when we have ascribed it to the right source, the ac- | advance of the two groups of armies on both banks of the Ourcq cumulation of historical error is not fully corrected. For the | in the general direction of Arcy-Sainte-Restitue and Fére-enmethod was not the revolutionary innovation that it has been | Tardenois on July 23 and 24. (2) The second phase, sometimes termed. The Germans, in fact, had used it on Sept. 25, r9r5— | called the battle of Tardenois, July 29 to Aug. 4, which included nearly three years before—to discomfit the great French autumn | the recapture of Soissons and the push towards the Vesle. offensive in Champagne. And the underlying idea can be traced French Preparations.—Acting upon Pétain’s instructions, back another 2,000 years—to Cannae, where Hannibal applied it | Fayolle, commanding the Reserve group of armies, had prepared against the Romans in a distinctly more subtle and decisive way. | a counter-offensive against the west flank of the great German But it sufficed, even in the mild way of 1918, to thwart the Ger- | salient which protruded between Soissons and Rheims towards the man attack east of Rheims, where its effect was immeasurably | Marne. These preparations were continued with the utmost strengthened by the German failure to achieve such a surprise as | secrecy while the centre group of armies (Maistre) were checking had marked their earlier offensives of 1918. Even the exact hour | the last enemy offensive (July 15 and 16) and (from the 17th) was discovered by an evening raid on July 14 which brought in| arranging a riposte. This was entrusted to two armies, the V. and 27 prisoners who, on being questioned, revealed the fact that the | the [X.—which adjoined the right of the Reserve group of German attack was to be launched next morning, the artillery | armies. The V. Army (Berthelot), which had been so heavily preparation being timed for 12.10 am. Before it began, the | attacked at Rheims, had eight divisions in first line (including the French counter-preparation and counter-battery fire opened on the | Italian 3rd Div.), and one infantry and two cavalry divisions in whole of the enemy front. Between 4.15 and 5.30 a.m., the al-| second line. The British 51st and 62nd Divisions were on the ready shaken German infantry advanced to the attack on a so | move to reinforce it. The IX. Army (de Mitry) had five divisions, mile front, from Château-Thierry to Massiges (leaving out the | including the American 3rd Division in first line, one division in

Rheims Salient).

To the east of Rheims the enemy infantry | second line, and two reserve divisions, including the American

was broken up by French artillery fire and decimated by the | 28th Division. machine-guns distributed along the outpost line before even reach- | The Reserve group was to operate with the X. and VI. Armies.

ing the main line of resistance, which, in spite of repeated assaults, | The X. Army, under Gen. Mangin, who was responsible for the they failed to break at a single point. To the west of Rheims the | principal attack, had 1o divisions in front line, including the situation was less favourable for the French.

American

rst and 2nd Divisions, placed on the flanks of the

German Success at Dormans.—But the dramatic nature of | Moroccan Division in the centre of the army, and six divisions in this repulse east of Rheims has obscured the fact that it was not | second line, making a total of 16 infantry divisions—besides three the whole battle. West of Rheims the front had only been | cavalry divisions. In the rear of the army the British 15th and stabilised for a month since the last German thrust, and the newly | 34th Divisions were in reserve. In addition, the army was given improvised position was a handicap to the execution of the elastic | a large number of tanks and strong artillery reinforcements. The method by commanders who were slow to grasp it. In front of the | task which Mangin set before his troops was “to break through French V. Army (Berthelot) the Germans made some progress | the enemy front between the Aisne and the Ourcq and push

between the Marne and the Ardre in the direction of Epernay, | straight on in the direction of Fere-en-Tardenois in liatson with the

and the French centre (V. French Corps and II. Italian) was | offensive of the VI. Army.” On his right the VI. Army, comthrown back on the second position along the line Pourcy-Belval- |manded by Degoutte, whose own right was engaged in the deReuil-sur-Marne. Lastly, the right of the VI. Army (Degoutte) | fensive battle, had only seven divisions in front line—among them

was not able to stop the attackers from crossing the Marne on | the American 4th and 26th Divisions (American I. Corps)—and

either side of Dormans, between Jaulgonne and Verneuil. The | one division in second line. Degoutte was to attack with his own

VII. German Army thus established a bridgehead south of the | resources only, reinforced, however, by tanks and by British river, in front of the V. Army’s left and the VI. Army’s right; |bombing aircraft. SETON ,

it also regained touch with the I. German Army on the slopes of | The attack had been prepared with infinite precautions for

the Montagne de Reims. Thus here the German attack had | maintaining secrecy. The reinforcing divisions were only brought deepened the corner of the great bulge made. in May, and not | up to the front during the last two days, their movement being

only pushed across the Marne but behind Rheims, so that it| carried out by night, between July 14 and 16, the mounted ele-

threatened to cut under this pivot of the Allied resistance. If | ments marching and the unmounted carried by motor transport. the threat had an important influence on the French plan for the | A violent storm, which burst during the night of the 17th-18th

counter-stroke, its physical progress was stopped on July 16.. The | intensified the darkness and made movements in the woods diffiGerman attack had degenerated into local actions, disconnected | cult; but it was.favourable to-surprise and by 4 a.m; the attackand therefore useless. By vigorous counter-attacks the French had | ing divisions of the X. and VI. Armies were in position and ready even recaptured some of the lost ground, while their artillery and ' to move without any sign of uneasiness having been shown by the aircraft, by bombarding the Marne crossings, made it increasingly ' enemy. At 4.35, without a single preliminary round, the whole difficult for the Germans to obtain supplies. The only progress in

of the artillery opened fire from the Aisne to the Marne, and 16

934

MARNE

front line divisions moved forward with the tanks, while all the air squadrons went up.

In the X. Army the infantry and tanks

advanced without an artillery preparation behind a rolling barrage, turning the enemy’s strong defensive positions and quickly

gaining a footing on the plateau north-east of the forest of VillersCotterets. In the VI. Army, on the contrary, the attacking divisions continued their artillery preparation against the enemy’s defensive position for 14 hours, and only attacked at 6:15 A.M. The Attack.—The surprise was complete, and along the whole front the enemy lost practically all his advanced units and batteries. His resistance was only effective in two localities—one on the front of the XI. Army Corps, which had no tanks, the other on that of the II. Corps, which came under oblique fire from the heights of Chouy. Mangin received information of the first results achieved towards 8 o’clock, and exploited them without delay by the judicious use of his reserves. Robillot’s Cavalry Corps, however, had experienced extreme difficulty in debouching from the forest of Villers-Cotterets, as it was encumbered with troops and baggage, and could as yet operate only with dismounted squadrons. On the first day the enemy lost 12,000 prisoners and 250 guns. The battle raged throughout the night and the next day. The two French armies made substantial progress, even in the difficult region of Louatre-Chouy-NeuillySaint-Front, where the XI. and II. Corps combined their attacks to subdue the enemy resistance. The bombing aircraft attacked the Marne crossings and the enemy concentrations at Oulchy-leChateau and Fére-en-Tardenois. Meanwhile the centre group was preparing to clear the south bank of the Marne. But its units were exhausted by resisting the German attacks of July 15-18, and to reinvigorate them the British XXII. Corps (51st and 62nd Divs.) was brought in to relieve the Italian Corps. Pétain took care to insist that it was not a question of a simple relief. “It will be carried out on the move—that is to say, it will take the form of a surprise attack, carried out with the co-operation of the French units on either side.” Nevertheless it was not until the 2oth that the Centre group was able to push forward. On that day its IX. Army reached the south bank of the Marne, evacuated by the enemy during the night, while in the V. Army the British XXII. Corps was heavily engaged in the Courton wood. The fighting continued to be severe throughout July 21 and 22. On the two extreme wings the Germans offered a stubborn resistance to the attacks of the X. and V. Armies which pressed on their flanks. It was clear that they were seeking to gain time to evacuate the material and troops that had been pushed into the Marne “sack.” On July 21 the French 30th Division reoccupied Chateau-Thierry, and the American 3rd Division crossed the Marne to the east of the town, and entered the Barbillon wood. In the VI. Army the American I. Corps and the French VII. and IJ. Corps advanced on the plateau of Etrepilly and Latilly, and on the 22nd, at noon, the VI. Army re-established its communfcations by way of Chateau-Thierry. On the same evening fractions of the V. and IX. Armies gained a footing north of the Marne. The interest of the battle came to be focussed on the heights dominating the Ourcq valley from the north—Orme du Grand Rozoy and Butte Chalmont. Once these heights were captured the Germans could not hope to hold on to the line of the Ourcq. A pause occurred for the relief of tired divisions and the redistribution of the forces. The IX. Army was withdrawn from the front, and the convergence of the advance had so shortened the front that the IX. Army was withdrawn, and even the VI. Army, now reinforced by the fresh American 42nd division, closed up. Advance Checked at Fére-en-Tardenois——Some progress was made on July 27 and 28: the VI. Army reached the Ourcq and gained a foothold in Fére-en-Tardenois; the V, Army reoccupied its positions on July 15. But from the 28th at noon, the VI. and V. Armies met with a stubborn resistance that was solidly established from Fére-en-Tardenois to Ville-en-Tardenois. The II. Corps was unable to debouch from Fére. The American TI. Corps, which had advanced as far as Sergy, was violently

counter-attacked there by a Guards Division. The village was taken: and retaken four times and finally held by the American

42nd Division, though only at the cost of heavy losses. In the centre, therefore, the situation remained practically wnchanged on July 29 and 30. Only the right.of the X. Army made

definite progress. On the 28th the XI. Corps took Butte Cha). mont, and on the 2oth the XXX. and XI. Corps with the British 34th Division occupied Grand Rozoy; but the divisions in line

had reached the limit of their powers

after several days of

incessant fighting.

The Germans had solidly maintained their flanks as a safeguard to cover their line of retreat towards the Vesle. All that could be done was to hasten their retreat by convergent action against

the plateaux

of the Tardenois.

The

French

counter-offensive

had at least cleared the Marne valley and the Paris-Avricourt

railway line. The second phase was now to begin, and the French

armies, on July 29, received fresh instructions from Pétain. The VI. Army, reinforced by the III. Corps and charged with the main effort was to “push vigorously, and without stopping, in the general direction of Fismes and Bazoches with its whole front, its left to establish itself in the region of Saponay so as to facilitate the debouching of the right wing of the X. Army towards Cramaille.” The X. Army was, by successive actions starting from its right (the south), to press in the general direction of Braine. The V. Army was to support the right wing of the VI.

Army.

Reliefs were carried out within the armies. The VI. Army put considerable American forces into line: the 42nd and 32nd in the first.line, the 4th and 28th in second line, while the 26th and 3rd were being reconstituted in the Marne valley. On the 31st the American 28th, 32nd and 4th Divisions entered Cierges and the Meuniére wood. In this way the enemy’s attention was drawn to the centre on the evening of the 31st, while the next

morning (Aug. 1), at 4:45, the right of the X. Army attacked in its turn and, after severe fighting, occupied the whole crest that extends from L’Orme du Grand Rozoy to Saponay inclusive. On the same day the VI. Army, though it succeeded in capturing the Meuniére wood, failed before Saponay on account of the extreme fatigue of its attacking divisions. German Retirement to the Vesle——But at dawn on Aug. 2 the three French armies found themselves facing void. The enemy had fallen back on the Vesle, where he intended to establish himself firmly, On the 3rd, the left of the X. Army, which had reoccupied Soissons unopposed the previous evening, reached the Aisne. Its right, together with the VI. and V. Armies, arrived in the immediate vicinity of the Vesle. Contact was reestablished everywhere. All along the front the German artillery and machine-guns were active. On Aug. 4 and 5 the Allied troops aligned themselves along the banks of the Vesle, the American 32nd Division entered Fismes and the advanced guards succeeded in crossing the river at some points. But the enemy counterattacked vigorously, and in view of this well-organized resistance and of the impending Allied operations elsewhere (see AMIENS,

BATTLE OF, 1918, and Wortp War), Foch decided to suspend the offensive. Ill. A STRATEGICAL

RETROSPECT

The clue to the course of this battle might aptly be put in terms of the old conundrum—‘“When is a counter-stroke not a counterstroke?” Foch’s faith in the offensive as a sovereign remedy for all troubles had not been shaken by his hard experience in r915 and r916. When the crisis of March 1918 called him to the su-

preme command of the Allied armies (see Wor~D War), he had scarcely set about his unenviable task of restoring the bent and

battered front before he was contemplating an offensive. Even before the new collapse of the Aisne front on May 27 he had issued a “directive” to Haig and Pétain, commanders of the British and French field armies respectively, for attacks to free the lateral railways.

'

If this project showed his practical belief in this theory of

freedom of action, it is also evidence that he had no idea of luring the Germans into vast salients which he could cut off in flank— as was the conception subsequently extolled by popular propa-

gandists. Similarly, the truth of the great counter-stroke of July

MAROCAIN

935

18 is that it was not conceived, by Foch at least, as a counter- sipated them. This July 18 counter-stroke, conceived as such by stroke. But the refrain “attaguez” was chanted so continually : Pétain and amended by Foch, was by no means decisive in its that sooner or later it was bound to coincide with a “psychologi- result. It may be that Foch's impetuosity robbed him of such results; that Pétain’s oft-derided “caution” would have reaped cal moment”—as on July 18. In the meantime Ludendorff’s keenness in pursuing a similar a larger harvest. Nevertheless, if the battle had no clearly decisive material or policy and the wariness of Pétain and Haig helped to prevent the Allied forces becoming seriously involved in a premature offensive even moral effect on the Germans, this first tastc of victory after before the balance of numbers changed. It was Pétain who had such deep and bitter draughts of defeat was an incalculable moral conceived the plan of the defensive-offensive battle as it was stimulant to the Allies, and perchance its depressing effect on the actually waged—first a parry to the enemy’s thrust and then a German morale was more insidiously damaging than was at first riposte when he was off his balance. On June 4 he had asked visible. So that Foch, who was ever concerned only with moral Foch to assemble two groups of reserves at Beauvais and Eper- factors, which cannot be mathematically calculated, may well have nay respectively with a view to a counter-stroke against the flank been content. He had gained the initiative, and he kept it— of any fresh German advance. The first group, under Mangin, that was enough; results mattered little. For his strategy was had been used to break the German attack of June 9, and was simple, not the complex masterpiece of art which legend has then switched a little further east to a position on the west flank ascribed to him. It was best expressed in his own vivid illustraof the German salient between Soissons and Rheims which bulged tion: “War is like this. Here is an inclined plane. An attack is like this ball rolling down it. It goes on gaining momentum and towards the Marne. Foch, however, planned to use it for the strictly offensive pur- getting faster and faster on condition that you do not stop it. pose of a push against the rail centre of Soissons. While this If you check it artificially you lose your momentum and have to (B. H. L. H.) was being prepared, the intelligence service made it clear that begin all over again.” MAROCAIN. A ribbed or corded variety of dress fabric of the Germans were about to launch a fresh attack near Rheims. Foch thereupon determined to anticipate it, not retort to it, by comparatively light texture, constituting one of several varieties launching his offensive on July 12. Pétain, however, had the con- of the crepe or crimped type, of which crepe georgette, crepe-detrary idea of first stopping and then smiting the enemy when Chine and crepe voile are the more typical examples. Although the latter had entangled himself. And, perchance curiously, the fabrics of this class are usually woven on the principle of the French troops were not ready on July 12, so that the battle was simple plain weave and other elementary structures, the peculiar fought rather according to Pétain’s than to Foch’s conception. crepe effect which is the distinctive characteristic feature of these But not altogether. For Pétain’s plan had comprised three phases fabrics is not due to the weave, but results partly from the ab—first, to hold up the German attack; second, to launch counter- normal amount of twist in the warp, weft, or both series of strokes against the flanks of the fresh pockets it was likely to threads, and partly from the employment of yarn spun with the make on either side of Rheims; third, and only third, when the twist in reverse directions. Hence, some threads are spun “twistGerman reserves had been fully drawn towards those pockets, to way,” and others “weft-way,” corresponding (in the worsted inunleash Mangin’s army in a big counter-offensive eastward along dustry) to “crossband” (left twist) and “openband” (right twist), the baseline of the main bulge—the enemy’s rear—and so close respectively. The threads of reverse twist are usually disposed in

the neck of the vast sack in which the German forces south of the Aisne would be enclosed. Events and Foch combined to modify this conception. When the Germans on July 15 and 16 pressed across the Marne west of Rheims, to avert the danger Pétain was driven to use most of the reserves he had intended for the second phase of the counterstroke. And to replace them he decided to draw from Mangin’s army, and postpone the latter’s counter-offensive—already ordered by Foch for July 18. When Foch—full of eagerness and with his spirit still more fortified, if that was possible, by Haig’s promise to send British reserves—heard of Pétain’s action he promptly countermanded it. Hence on July 18 Mangin and the French left wing launched their counter-offensive while the defensive battle was still in progress in the centre and on the right wing. This meant that the second phase of Pétain’s plan had to be dropped out, and instead of the right wing attracting the Germans’ reserves in order to enable the left wing to fall on their naked back, the left wing’s offensive eased the pressure on the right wing. To compensate as far as possible the initial passivity of the right wing the British reserves (51st and 62nd Divisions), which were sent thither, were used to relieve the defending troops “on the move,” passing direct to an attack. In the centre Americah reserves were similarly used, and thus a general pressure began along the whole face of the great salient. But this convergent pressure did not begin until July 20, and by that time the opening surprise—due to the sudden release of a mass of tanks without any preparatory bombardment—of the left wing’s attack was over and its impetus slackening. Thus the Germans, fighting hard for breathing space, gained the time they required to draw the bulk of their forces out of the sack, even though they left 30,000 prisoners and much material behind. And once they were safely back on a straight and much shortened line along the Vesle,

the fabric with a “two-and-two” thread disposition, ż.e., two threads spun “twist-way,” and two threads spun “weft-way,” in succession, uniformly. Also, the relative counts of warp and weft, as well as the relative number of warp-ends and picks per inch in the fabric, are factors which have a marked influence in the development of a more or less pronounced crepe or crimped effect. This crepe or crimped effect, which characterizes fabrics of this class, results from the natural tendency of the highly-twisted threads of “reverse” twist to untwist in reverse directions, and thereby assume a wavy appearance resulting from their slight distortion from a perfectly straight line. Also, the ribbed or corded effect results from the disparity which exists in respect both of the relative counts and amount of twist in the warp and weft yarn, as well as in the relative number of warp and weft threads per inch, in the fabric. Marocain fabrics are usually produced from a combination of two different classes of textile material consisting either of a silk or artificial silk warp, and worsted weft; whilst an inferior imitation marocain fabric is produced from all-cotton yarn both for warp and weft. They are also made in a variety of textures from various counts of yarn and with different proportions of warpends and picks per inch, according to quality.

A typical example of marocain fabric is woven either with a warp of silk, or else artificial silk, and highly twisted worsted weft of fine counts, with 170 warp threads of 150 denier silk,

and 70 picks of 60’s worsted weft, per inch, which produces a

fabric having a distinctly fine-ribbed effect, with the ribs extend-

ing transversely across the width of the fabric, 7.¢., in the direction ant ` of the hard-twisted and coarser picks of worsted'weft.

An imitation marocain fabric of very light and open texture '‘is' welt, with: $6¢@arp silk’ial woven from a cotton warp and artific threads of 2/80’s highly-twisted cotton yam (disposed m the fabric with a two-and-two end arrangement of “‘twist-way”. and

Ludendorff felt able, on Aug. 2, to order preparations for fresh “weft-way” yarn, uniformly), and 80 picks of 120‘to-1 so denier attacks in Flanders and east of Montdidier. artificial silk weft, per inch. Hence, the fine ribs extend length Six days later his offensive dreams were finally dissipated—but |! wise of the fabric, i.e., in the direction of the warp gts x ally important to. realise that 1t was not the second it is historic

Battle of the Marne—‘Foch’s great cotmter-stroke”—which dis-

'

H.

N.) '

936

MAROCHETTI-—MAROT

MAROCHETTI, CARLO, Baron (1805-1867), Italian ‘pears to have been educated at the university of Paris, ang to sculptor, was born at Turin. His first systematic instruction was | have then begun the study of law. Jean Marot took great pains given him by Bosio and Gros in Paris, but between 1822 and 1830 to instruct his son in the fashionable forms of verse-making, he studied chiefly in Rome. From 1832 to 1848 he lived in France. after the complicated rules of the rhétoriqueurs. Clément himself His “Fallen Angel” was exhibited in 1831. In 1848 Marochetti practised with diligence this poetry (which he was to do more than removed to London, where he executed statues of Queen Victoria, any other man to overthrow), and he has left panegyrics of its Lord Clyde (the obelisk in Waterloo Place) and Richard Coeur- coryphaeus Guillaume Crétin, the supposed original of the Ram. de-Lion (Westminster). His style was vigorous and effective, but inagrobis of Rabelais, while he translated Virgil’s first eclogue in 1512. He became page to Nicolas de Neuville, seigneur de rather popular than artistic. He died in London in 1867. MARONITES, a Christian people of the Ottoman Empire in Villeroy, and this opened to him the way to court life. As early as 1514, before the accession of Francis I., Clément communion with the Papal Church, but forming a distinct denomination. The original seat and present home of the nucleus of the presented to him his Judgment of Minos, and shortly afterwards Maronites is Mt. Lebanon. It seems most probable that the he was either styled or styled himself facteur (poet) de la reine Lebanon offered refuge to Antiochene Monothelites flying from to Queen Claude. In 1519 he was attached to the suite of the ban of the Constantinopolitan Council of A.D. 680; that these Marguerite d'Angoulême, the king's sister, the great patron of converted part of the old mountain folk, who already held some letters. He was also a great favourite of Francis himself, attended kind of Incarnationist creed; and that their first patriarch and his the Field of the Cloth of Gold in 1520, and celebrated it in verse. In 1524, Marot accompanied Francis on his disastrous Italian successors, for about 500 years at any rate, were Monothelite, and perhaps also Monophysite. Nevertheless the question of union campaign. He was wounded and taken at Pavia, but soon rewith Rome became a practical one in the 12th century; but the leased, and he was back again at Paris by the beginning of 152s, local particularism of the Lebanon was averse to union, which was His luck had, however, turned. Marguerite for intellectual reanot effected until the 18th century. Clement XII. sent to Syria sons, and her brother for political, had hitherto favoured the Assemanus, a Maronite educated at the Roman college of Gregory double movement of Aufklärung, partly humanist, partly ReXIII.; and at last, at a council held at the monastery of Lowaizi forming, which distinguished the beginning of the century. on the 3oth of September 1736, the Maronite Church accepted Formidable opposition to both forms of innovation, however, was from Rome a constitution which is still in force, and agreed to now manifested, and Marot, who was at no time particularly abandon some of its more incongruous usages such as mixed con- prudent, was arrested on a charge of heresy and lodged in the vents of monks and nuns. It retained, however, its Syriac liturgy Chatelet, February 1526. A friendly prelate, acting for Marand a non-celibate priesthood. The former still persists unchanged, guerite, extricated him before Easter. His imprisonment is dewhile the Bible is read and exhortations are given in Arabic; and scribed in a vigorous poem entitled Enfer. His father died about priests may still be ordained after marriage. But marriage is not this time, and Marot appears to have succeeded to his place of permitted subsequent to ordination, nor does it any longer usually valet de chambre to the king. He was certainly a member of the precede it. The tendency to a celibate clergy increases, together royal household in 1528 with a stipend of 250 livres, besides which with other romanizing usages, promoted by the papal legate in he had inherited property in Quercy. In 1530, probably, he Beirut, the Catholic missioners, and the higher native clergy who married. Next year he was again in trouble, not it is said for are usually educated in Rome or at St. Sulpice. The legate exer- heresy, but for attempting to rescue a prisoner, and was again cises growing influence on patriarchal and other elections, and on delivered; this time the king and queen of Navarre seem to have Church government and discipline. The patriarch receives con- bailed him themselves. firmation from Rome, and the political représentation of the In 1532 he published (it had perhaps appeared three years Maronites at Constantinople is in the hands of the vicar apostolic. earlier), under the title of Adolescence Clémentine, the first Rome has incorporated most of the Maronite saints in her calen- printed collection of his works. Of the many editions of this work dar, while refusing (despite their apologists) to canonize either Dolet’s edition of 1538 is believed to be the most authoritative, of the reputed eponymous founders of Maronism. Unfortunately, Marot was implicated in 1535 in the affair of The Maronites are most numerous and unmixed in the north of “The Placards,”! and this time he was advised or thought it best Lebanon. Formerly they were wholly organized on a clan system to fly. He passed through Béarn, and then made his way to under feudal chiefs, of whom those of the house of Khazin were Renée, duchess of Ferrara. At her court he wrote his celebrated the most powerful; and these fought among themselves rather than Blasons (a descriptive poem, improved upon mediaeval models), with the Druses or other denominations down to the 18th century, which set all the verse-writers of France imitating them. But the when some Arabs began to stir up strife between Maronites and duchess Renée was not able to persuade her husband, Ercole Druses (see Druses). The Maronite population has greatly in- d’Este, to share her sympathy with the Reformers, and Marot creased at the expense of the Druses, and is now obliged to emi- had to quit the city. He then went to Venice, but before very grate in considerable numbers. Increase of wealth and the influ- long the pope Paul III. remonstrated with Francis I. on the ence of returned emigrants tend to soften Maronite character, and severity with which the Protestants were treated, and they were the last remnants of the barbarous state of the community— allowed to return to Paris on condition of recanting their errors. even the obstinate blood-feud—are disappearing. Marot returned with the rest, and abjured his heresy at Lyons. In See F. J. Bliss in Pal. Expl. Fund Quarterly Statement (1892) ; and 1539 Francis gave him a house and grounds in the suburbs. authorities for Drusrs and LEBANON. It was at this time that his famous translations of the psalms MAROONS. A nègre marron is defined by Littré as a fugi- appeared. The powerful influence which the book exercised on tive slave who betakes himself to the woods; a similar definition contemporaries is not denied by anyone. The psalms were sung of cimarron (apparently from cima, a mountain top) is given in in court and city, and they materially advanced the cause of the the Dictionary of the Spanish Academy. The old English form Reformation in France. Indeed, the vernacular prose translaof the word is symaron (see Hawkins’s Voyage, § 68). The term tions of the Scriptures were in that country of little merit or “Maroons” was applied almost as a proper name to the descend- power, and the form of poetry was still preferred to prose. At the ants of those negroes in Jamaica who at the first English occupa- same time Marot engaged in a literary quarrel with a bad poet tion in the 17th century fled to the mountains. named Sagon, who represented the reactionary Sorbonne. Half MAROT,

CLEMENT

(1496-1544), French poet, was born

at Cahors, the capital of the province of Quercy, some time during the winter of the year 1496-1497. His father, Jean Marot (c. 1463-1523), whose name appears as des Mares, Marais or Marets, was a Norman, a poet of considerable merit, and held the post of escripvain (apparently uniting the duties of poet laureate and historiographer) to Anne of Brittany. Clément ap-

the verse-writers of France ranged themselves among the Marotiques or the Sagontiques. The victory, as far as wit was concerned, naturally rested with Marot, but probably a certain

amount of odium was created against him, which may have had

1These “placards” were the work of the extreme Protestants. Pasted up in the principal streets of Paris on the night of Oct. 17, 1534, they vilified the Mass and its celebrants, and thus led to a renewal of the religious persecution.

MAROT— MARQUESS something to do with his subsequent misfortunes. The publication of the psalms gave the Sorbonne a handle,

and the book was condemned by that body. In 1543 it was

evident that he could not rely on the protection of Francis. Marot accordingly fled to Geneva; but he had, like most of his friends,

been at least as much of a freethinker as of a Protestant, and the austere city of Calvin was no place for him. He had again to fy, and made his way into Piedmont, and he died at Turin in the autumn of 1544. In character Marot seems to have been a typical Frenchman of the old stamp, cheerful, good-humoured and amiable enough, but probably not very much disposed to elaborately moral life and

conversation or to serious reflection. With other poets like Mellin de Saint Gelais and Bordeau, with prose writers like Rabelais and Bonaventure Desperiers, he was always on excellent terms.

His importance in the history of French literature is very

great, and was long rather under than over-valued. Coming immediately before a great literary reform—that of the Pléiade— Marot was both eclipsed and decried by the partakers in that reform. In the reaction against the Pléiade he recovered honour; but its restoration to virtual favour, a perfectly just restoration, again unjustly depressed him. Marot was a reformer, and a reformer on perfectly independent lines, and he carried his own reform as far as it would go. His early work was couched in the rhétoriqueur style, the distinguishing characteristics of which are elaborate metre and rhyme, allegoric matter and pedantic language. In his second stage he entirely emancipated himself from this, and became one of the easiest, least affected and most vernacular poets of France. In these points indeed he has, with the exception of La Fontaine, no rival, and the lighter verse-writers ever since have taken one or the other or both as model. In his third period he lost a little of this flowing grace and ease, but acquired something in stateliness, while he lost nothing in wit. The most important early editions of Marot’s Oeuvres are those published at Lyons in 1538 and 1544. In the second of these the arrangement of his poems which has been accepted in later issues was first adopted. In 1596 an enlarged edition was edited by Francois Miziére. Among modern editions are those of P. Jannet (1868-72; new ed., 1873—76) ; and of G. Guiffrey, only vols. ii. and iii. (1875-81) of which were issued. For information about Marot himself see the section concerning him in G. Saintsbury’s The Early Renaissance (1901); A. Tilley, Literature of the French Renaissance, vol. i., ch. iv. (1904) ; P. Villey, Recherches sur la Chronologie des oeuvres de Marot (1921); P. A. Becker, Clément Marot, Sein Leben und Seine Dichtung (1926).

MAROT, DANIEL

(1661-?), French architect, furniture

designer and engraver, and the pupil of Jean le Pautre, was the son of Jean Marot (1620-1679), who was also an architect and engraver. He was born in Paris in 1661. He was a Huguenot, and was compelled by the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes in 1685 to settle in Holland. His earlier work is of the second period of Louis XIV., but eventually it became tinged with Dutch influence, and in the end the English style called “Queen Anne” owed much to his manner. In Holland he was taken into the service of the Stadtholder, who, when he became William III. of England, appointed him one of his architects and master of the works.

He designed the great hall of audience for the States-General at The Hague and also decorated many Dutch country-houses. In England he concentrated upon the adornment of Hampton Court Palace. Among his plans for gardens is one inscribed: “Parterre d’Amton-court inventé par D. Marot.” Much of the furmiture— especially the mirrors, guéridons and beds-—~at Hampton Court

bears unmistakable traces of his authorship. Splendour and elaboration are the outstanding characteristics of Marot’s style, and he appears to have been responsible for some of the curious silver furniture which was introduced into England from France in the

937

in 1718, and the date of his death is unknown. Much of our knowledge of his work is obtained from the volume of his designs published at Amsterdam in 1712: Oeuvres du Sieur D. Marot, architecte de Guillaume II. Roi de la Grande Bretagne, and to Receuil des planches des sieurs Marot, pére et fils. In addition to decorative work these books contain prints of scenes in Dutch history, and engravings of the statues and vases, produced by Marot, at the Palace of Loo. See also Das Ornamentwerk des Daniel Marot with preface by P. Jenssen (1892).

MARPRELATE CONTROVERSY, a war of pamphlets waged in 1588 and 1589 between a puritan writer who employed the pseudonym “Martin Marprelate” and defenders of the Estab-

lished Church. Martin’s tracts are characterized by violent and personal invective against the Anglican dignitaries, and by a plain and homely style combined with pungent wit. The special point of his attack was the Episcopacy. The pamphlets were printed at a secret press established by John Penry, a Welsh puritan. After three tracts had been issued, it appeared to some of the ecclesiastical authorities that the only way to silence Martin was to have him attacked in his own railing style, and accordingly certain writers of ready wit, among them John Lyly, Thomas Nashe and Robert Greene, were secretly commissioned to answer the pamphlets. Among the productions of this group were Pappe with an Hatchet (1589), probably by Lyly, and An Almond for a Parrat (1590), which, with certain tracts under the pseudonym of Pasquil, has been attributed to Nashe (g.v.). Meanwhile, in July 1589, Penry’s press, now at Wolston, near Coventry, produced two tracts purporting to be by “sons” of Martin, but probably by Martin himself, namely, Theses Martinianae by Martin Junior, and The Just Censure of Martin Junior by Martin Senior. Shortly after this the press was seized; Penry, however, was not found, and in September issued from Wolston or Haseley The Protestation of Martin Marprelate, the last work of the series, though several of the anti-Martinist pamphlets appeared later. Penry then fled to Scotland, but was later apprehended in London,

charged with inciting rebellion, and hanged (May 1593).

BIBLIOGRAPHY.—See, for list and full titles of the tracts, related documents and discussion of the authorship, E. Arber’s Introductory Sketch to the Martin Marprelate Controversy (1880), which, however, gives no connected account of the matter. See also articles on John Penry and Job Throckmorton in Dict. of Nat. Biography. The more important tracts have been reprinted by Petheram in his series of Purz-

tan Discipline Tracts (1842-60), in Arber’s English Scholar's Library Nero) in R. W. Bond’s edition of Lyly and in the editions of

ashe.

MARQUAND, HENRY GURDON

(1819-1902), Ameri-

can philanthropist and collector, was born in New York city April 11, 1819. He was the first honorary member of the American Institute of Architects, and president (1889-1902) of the Metropolitan Museum of Art, to which he made valuable presents and loans from his collection of paintings. He died in New York city February 26, 1902.

MARQUARDT,

JOACHIM

(1812~1882),

German his-

torian and writer on Roman antiquities, was born at Danzig on April 19, 1812. He studied at Berlin and Leipzig and became in 1859 head of the gymnasium in Gotha, where he died on Nov. 30, 1882. He continued W. A. Becker’s Handbuch der römischen Alterthumer which took 20 years to complete. Marquardt then embarked on a revised edition of the whole with Theodore Mommsen and other scholars. He himself contributed vols. iv.—vi. (Römische Staatsverwaltung, 1873-78; and ed., 1881-85), and

vol. vii. (Das Privatleben der Römer, 1879-82; 2nd ed., by A. Mau, 1886). ,

MARQUESS or MARQUIS, a title and rank of nobility.

In the British peerage it is the second in order and therefore next to duke. In this sense the word was a reintroduction from abroad; but lords of the Welsh and Scottish “marches” are occasionally termed marchiones from an early date. The first marquess in England was Robert de Vere, the oth earl of Oxford, who was created marquess of Dublin by Richard II. on Dec. 1, 1385, and assigned precedence between dukes and earls. On Oct. 13, following, the patent of this marquessate was recalled, Robert de

latter part of the 17th century. At Windsor Castle there is a silver table, attributed to him, which is an exceedingly fine example of its type. During his life in France Marot made many designs for André Charles Boulle (g.v.), more especially for long case and bracket clocks which were intended to be mounted in chased and gilded bronze. Marot designed practically every detail in the internal ornamentation of the house—carved chimney-pieces, ceilings, panels for walls, girandoles and wall brackets, and was also Vere then having been raised to a dukedom. John de Beaufort, a prolific designer of gold and silver plate. Marot was still living earl of Somerset, the second legitimatized son of John of Gaunt,

938

MARQUETRY—MARQUETTE

was raised to the second marquessate as marquess of Dorset on the family, André Charles Boulle (g.v.), succeeded to his lodging Sept. 29, 1397, but degraded again to earl in 1399. The Commons in the Louvre on his death in 1672. The members of this family petitioned for the restoration of his marquessate in 1402, but he are perhaps the best known of the French marqueteurs. Thei; himself objected because “le noun de Marquys feust estraunge greatest triumphs were gained in the marquetry of metal ang noun en cest Roialme.” From that period this title appears to tortoise-shell combined with beautiful ormolu mountings. The have been dormant till the reign of Henry VI., when it was re- names of Roentgen, under whom the later German marquetry vived (1442), and thenceforward it maintained its place in the | perhaps reached its highest point, Riesener and Oeben, testify to British peerage. Anne Boleyn was created marchioness of Pem- their nationality. A good deal of marquetry was executed in broke in 1532. A marquess is “most honourable,” and is styled England in the later Stuart period, mainly upon long-case Clocks, “my lord marquess.” His wife, who is also “most honourable,” cabinets and chests of drawers, and it is often of real excellence. is a marchioness, and is styled “my lady marchioness.” The coro- Marquetry in a shallower form was also extensively used in the net is a circlet of gold on which rest four leaves and as many large latter part of the 18th century. The most beautiful examples of

pearls, all of them of equal height and connected. The cap and the art in Italy are mainly panels of choir stalls or sacristy cuplining, if worn, are the same as in the other coronets (see CROWN boards, though marriage coffer. were also often sumptuously and Coronet). The mantle of parliament is scarlet, and has three decorated in this manner. With the increase in luxury and display and a half doublings of ermine. i in the 17th and 18th centuries in France and Germany cabinets In France, so early as the gth century, counts who held several and escritoires became objects upon which extraordinary talent counties and had succeeded in making themselves quasi-independ- and expenditure were lavished. In South Germany musical instruent began to describe themselves as marchiones, this use of the ments, weapons and bride chests were often lavishly decorated word being due to the fact that originally none but the margraves, with marquetry. In modern practice as many as four or even six or counts of the marches, had been allowed to hold more than one thicknesses are put together and so cut. When all the parts have county. The marchio or marquess thus came to be no more than been cut and fitted together face downwards, paper is glued over a count of exceptional power and dignity, the original significance them to keep them in place and the ground and the veneer are of the title being lost. In course of time the title was recognized carefully levelled and toothed so as to obtain a freshly worked as ranking between those of duke and count; but with the decay surface. The ground is then well wetted with glue at a high temof feudalism it lost much of its dignity, and by the 17th century perature and the surfaces squeezed tightly together between the savour of pretentiousness attached to it had made it a favour- frames called “cauls” till the glue is hard. There are several ite subject of satire for Moliére and other dramatists of the classi- modes of ensuring the accurate fitting of the various parts, which cal comedy. Abolished at the Revolution, the title of marquess is a matter of the first importance if the artistic effect is to be was not restored by Napoleon, but it was again revived by Louis secured. (See INLAYING.) XVIII, who created many of Napoleon’s counts marquesses. MARQUETTE, JACQUES (1637-1675), French Jesuit

| |

This again tended to cheapen the title, a process hastened under the republic by its frequent assumption on very slender grounds in the absence of any authority to prevent its abuse. In Italy too the title of marchese, once borne only by the powerful margraves of Verona, has shared the fate of most other titles of nobility in becoming common and of no great social significance. (See also

MARGRAVE.) MARQUETRY

(J. H. R.) (Fr. marqueterie, from marqueter, to inlay,

missionary and explorer, re-discoverer (with Louis Joliet) of the Mississippi, was born at Laon, went to Canada in 1666, and was sent in 1668 to the upper lakes of the St. Lawrence. In 1673 he was chosen with Joliet for the exploration of the Mississippi, of which the French had begun to gain knowledge from Indians of the central prairies. The route taken lay up the north-west side of Lake Michigan, up Green bay and Fox river, across Lake Winnebago, over the portage to the Wisconsin river, and down the latter into the Mississippi, which was descended to within

literally to mark, marquer), an inlay of ornamental woods, ivory, bone, brass and other metals, tortoise-shell, mother-of-pearl, etc., 700 m. of the sea, at the confluence of the Arkansas river. Enterin which shaped pieces of different materials or tints are combined ing the Mississippi on May 17, Joliet and his companion turned to form a design. It is a later development of the ornamental back on July 17 and returned to Green bay and Michigan (by inlays of wood known by the name of Intarsia, and though in the way of the Illinois river) at the end of Sept. 1673. On the main the latter was a true inlay of one or more colours upon a journey Marquette fell ill of dysentery; and a fresh excursion darker or lighter ground, while marquetry is composed of pieces which he undertook to plant a mission among the Indians of the of quite thin wood or other material of equal thickness laid down Illinois river in the winter of 1674-75 proved fatal. He died on upon a matrix with glue, there are examples of Intarsia in which his way home to St. Ignace on the banks of a small stream (the this mode of manufacture was evidently followed. In order to lesser and older Marquette river) which enters the east side of gain greater relief the wood was shaded or tinted. A combination Lake Michigan in Marquette bay (May 18, 1675). His name of tortoise-shell and metal, the one forming the ground and the is now borne by a larger watercourse which flows some distance other the pattern upon it, which may be classed as marquetry also from the scene of his death. appears in the 17th century. The subjects of the intarsiatori are See Marquette’s Journal, first published in Melchissédech Thévegenerally arabesques or panels with elaborate perspectives, either not’s Recueil de Voyages (1681), and fully given in Martin’s Relations inédites, and in Shea’s Discovery and Exploration of the Mississippi of buildings or cupboards with different articles upon the shelves Valley (1852); cf. also Pierre Margry’s Découvertes . ... des Français seen through half-open doors. The later marqueteurs used a freer dans Pouest et dans le sud de VAmérique septentrionale (1614-1754), form of design for the most part, and scrolls and bunches of Mémoires et documents originaux (1875), containing Joliet’s Détails flowers appear in profusion, while if architectural forms occur and Relations; Francis Parkman, La Salle and the Discovery of the they are generally in the shape of ruins amid landscape. The Great West (1869) ; Agnes Repplier, Pére Marquette, Priest, Pioneer and Adventurer (1929). greater portion of the examples in England are importations, either from Holland (in which country very fine work was proMARQUETTE, a city of the Upper Peninsula of Michigan, duced during the latter half of the 16th and 17th centuries) or U.S.A., on the south shore of Lake Superior; a port. of entry from France. The reputation of the Dutch marqueteurs was so and the county seat of Marquette county. It is on Federal highgreat that Colbert engaged two, named Pierre Gole and Vordt, way 41, and is served by the Duluth, South Shore and Atlantic for. the Gobelins at the beginning of the ryth century. Jean and the Lake Superior and Ishpeming railways, and lake steamers.

Macé of Blois, the first Frenchman known to have practised the The population was 12,718 in 1920 (24% foreign-born white) and art, who was at work in Paris from 1644 (when he was lodged in was 14,789 in 1930 by the Federal census. Marquette has a beauthe Louvre), or earlier, till 1672, as a sculptor and painter, learnt tiful location on a bluff 100 ft. above the lake, in a picturesque it in the Netherlands. His title was “menuisier et faiseur de summer-resort region. It is the seat of the Northern State N ormal cabinets et tableaux en marqueterie de bois”: but as early as school (established 1899) and the Upper Peninsula State prison 1576 a certain Hans Kraus had been called “marqueteur du roi.” ‘and House of Correction (1885), and a diocesan centre of the Jean Macé’s daughter married Pierre Boulle, and the greatest of Roman Catholic and the Protestant Episcopal churches. A state

MARQUEZAS—MARRAKESH park lies just west of the city; there is a state fish hatchery 3 m. E., and at Ruse, 20 m. E., a United States forest experiment station. Presque Isle, within the city, is a great natural park, nearly

surrounded by the lake, with herds of deer on its heavily wooded hills.

Marquette

is an important

manufacturing,

mining,

ore-

shipping, and wholesale distributing centre. The commerce of its harbour in 1925 amounted to 1,692,554 tons (practically all iron ore and coal) valued at $5,984,116. Its factories (chiefly wood-

working and chemical plants) had an output in 1925 valued at $6,176,060. Both the railroads have their general offices and shops here. Marquette was settled about 1845, incorporated as a village in 1859, and chartered as a city in 1871. For the first few

years it was called Worcester. MARQUEZAS

_

or MENDANA

MARQUIS, DONALD ROBERT PEARY (1878); American poet and playwright, born on July 29, 1878, at Walnut, Illinois, U.S.A. He was educated at Knox college, Galesburg, Ill. Later he worked as a reporter on several newspapers and assisted Joel Chandler Harris in editing the Uncle Remus magazine. From 1912 to 1922 he conducted a column, “The Sun Dial,” in the New York Sun, where his wit and wisdom attracted attention. Among his published collections of humorous poetry, satirical prose and plays the best known are Danny’s Own Story (1912), Dreams and Dust (1915), Hermione (1916), Prefaces (1919), The Old Soak, a play (1921), Sonnets to a Red Haired Lady (1922), The Dark Hours, a play (1924), Out of the Sea, a play (1927).

MARR, CARL (1858ISLANDS

(Fr. Les Mar-

939

), American painter, was born at

Milwaukee, Wis., on Feb. 14, 1858. He was a pupil of Henry guises), an archipelago of the Pacific Océan lying between 7° 50’ Vianden in Milwaukee, of Schauss in Weimar, of Gussow in Berand 10° 35’ S. and 138° 50’ and 140° 50’ W., and belonging to lin, and of Otto Seitz, Gabriel and Max Lindenschmitt in Munich. France. It extends over 250 m. from south-east to north-west, His first work, “Ahasuerus, the Wandering Jew,’ received a medal in Munich. One of his pictures, “Episode of 1813,” is in the Hanand has a total area of 480 sq.m. The southern or Mendaña group consists of the islands Fatuhiva or Magdalena, Motane or over Provinzial-Museum, and his “Germany in 1806” received a San Pedro, Tahuata or Santa Christina and Hivaoa or Dominica. gold medal in Munich and is in the Städtische Gemäldegalerie of With these is often included the rocky islet of Fatuhuku or Hood, Königsberg. A large canvas “The Flagellants,” now in the Millying in mid-channel to the north of Hivaoa. The north-western or waukee public library, received a gold medal at the Munich expoWashington group is formed of seven islands, the four largest sition in 1889. Another canvas, “Summer Afternoon,” in the being Huapu or Adams, Huahuna or Washington, Nukuhiva (70 Phoebe Hearst collection, received a gold medal in Berlin in 1892. m. in circumference) and Eiao. Along the centre of each island Marr became a professor in the Munich academy in 1893, and in is a ridge of mountains, attaining an altitude of 4,042 ft. in 1895 a member of the Berlin academy of arts. Huapu, whence rugged spurs forming deep valleys stretch towards MARRADI, GIOVANNI (1852), Italian poet, was the sea. The volcanic origin of the whole archipelago is proved born at Leghorn, and educated at Pisa and Florence. His prinby the principal rocks being of basalt, trachyte and lava. Vege- cipal volumes of verse are Canzone moderne (1870), Fantasie tation is luxuriant in the valleys, which are well watered with marnie (1881), Canzoni e fantasie (1853), Ricordi lirici (1884), streams and terminate seaward in small “bays.” The flora includes Poesie (1887), Nuovi canti (1891), Ballate moderne (1895) and about four hundred known species, many of them identical with a Rapsodia Garibaldina (3 parts, 1894, 1902 and 1903). He was those belonging to the Society Islands. The vegetable products much influenced by Carducci, and became well known not only comprise bananas, bread-fruit, yams, plantains, wild cotton, bam- as a critic but also as a charming descriptive poet. boos, sugar-cane, coco-nut and dwarf palms, and several kinds MARRAKESH (erroneously Morocco or Marocco Crry), of timber trees. The land fauna however is poor; there are southern capital and largest town of Morocco. It lies in a spacious few mammals with the exception of dogs, rats and pigs; and plain—Blad el Hamra, “The Red”—about 15 m. from the northamphibia and insects are also generally scarce. Of twenty species ern underfalls of the Atlas, and 96 m. E.S.E. of Saffi, at a height of birds more than half belong to the sea, where animal life is as of 465 metres. Ranking during the early centuries of its existence abundant as about other sub-tropical Polynesian groups. The as one of the greatest cities of Islam, Marrakesh has long been climate is hot and damp. During the greater part of the year in a state of grievous decay, but it is rendered’ attractive by the moderate easterly winds prevail, and on the larger islands there exceptional beauty of its situation, the luxuriant groves and garare often both land and sea breezes. The rainy season accom- dens by which it is encompassed and interspersed, and the magpanied by variable winds sets in at the end of November, and nificent outlook which it enjoys towards the mountains. Open lasts for about six months. During this period the thermometer spaces of great extent are numerous within the walls. Tabzya or varies from 84° to 91° F; in the dry season its average range rammed concrete of red earth and stone is the almost universal building material, and the houses are consequently seldom more is from 77° to 86°. The Marquezas Islands were discovered in 1595 by Alvaro than two storeys in height. The great square, Djemaa-el-Fna, Mendafia, who, however, only knew of the south-eastern group, situated in the middle of Marrakesh, is crowded daily; the very to which he gave the name by which they are generally known extensive suks are situated on the edges of the square. The (although they also bear his own), in honour of Don Garcia palace of the sultan covers an extensive area, and beyond it lie Hurtado de Mendoza, marquis of Cafiete, viceroy of Peru, and the imperial parks of Agudal, 3 km. long and 1,500 metres wide, patron of the voyage. Captain Cook pursuing the same track planted with fruit trees of all sorts; the palm grove which surrediscovered this group, with the addition of Fatuhuku, in 1774. rounds Marrakesh stretches as far as the Tensift; it covers 13,000 | The north-western islands were first sighted by the American hectares and contains 90,000 palm-trees. The ramparts of Marrakesh are pierced by monumental gateCaptain Ingraham in 1791, and given the name of Washington by him; the French Captain Marchand followed in the ways; the most beautiful is the Kasba gate, Bab-Aguenaou. The same year, and Lieut. Hergest in 1792. The Russian explorer, chief religious buildings are the masque of Koutoubiya, or Adam Ivan Krusenstern, made an extensive investigation of the Mosque of the Scribes (12th century), with its monumental archipelago in’ 1804. In 1813 the American Commodore David tower 67-5 metres high, the most beautiful monument of MarraPorter failed to establish.a colony here; and in May 1842, after kesh; the mosque of Kasba or Djama-Moulay-Yazid, near to French Roman Catholic missionaries had prepared the way, Rear- which are the tombs of the Sa’adi sharifs, fine monuments’ in admiral Dupetit-Thouars took formal possession of the archi- which are buried the sovereigns of the last-but-one Moroccan pelago for France. A complete settlement was not effected with- dynasty (16th-17th centuries); Djama-el-Mouasine; Djamaout bloodshed and about 1860-70 the colony was practically Bab-Doukkala, the sanctuary of Sidi-ben Slimane-el-Djazouli, abandoned. At the time of the French annexation (1842) the that of Sidi-bel-Abbés, patron of Marrakesh; the medersa Benpopulation was 20,000 and this has now fallen to about 2,300. Youssef (16th century). There are three beautiful monumental The archipelago, which has some small trade in copra, cotton and fountains, those of El-Mouasine, of Sidi-el-Hassan or Ali and of cotton seeds, is administered by a French resident. The natives, Sekkaia Echrob ou-Chouf. The palace of Babia, built from 1894 a pure Polynesian race, are usually described as physically the to 1900, serves to-day as Residence. A European town was built 2-5 km. from the original one, at finest of all South Sea islanders, and therefore preeminent among foot of the hill of Gueliz (527 metres), which is crowned by the many finely built races. ries ME

940

MARRAM-GRASS—MARRIAGE

a military camp. Founded in 1973, it is traversed by wide avenues bordered with trees. The population of Marrakesh is 149,263, of which 12,718 are Jews and 3,652 Europeans. The natives are a mixture

of the descendants

of Andalusian

Moors

of original

Rehemna of the neighbouring plains, of Chleuk mountaineers and

classes are often debarred from marrying each other, or else they are expected to marry. The rules of incest, of exogamy, of hyper-

gamy and of preferential mating form the sociological conditions of marriage. To these are added in certain societies such preparatory arrangements and conditions as initiation, special training

of Sahara Draoua. Marrakesh is the chief town of the region of Marrakesh, the residence of a khalif of the sultan and the centre of action of the grand Kaid Glaoud. It is connected by good roads with Mazagan, Mogador, Safi and Casablanca; a broadgauge railway (x metre 44), finished in 1928, joins Marrakesh

for marriage, moral and economic tests, which have to be satisfied before marriage can be entered upon. The aspects, the forms and the conditions of marriage have to be discussed in turn, though it is not possible to draw a sharp line of division between these

to Casablanca (250 kilometres). Marrakesh, designated Morocco by the old European authors, was founded in 1062 by Youssef-ben-Tachfin, founder of the

sociated in day-dreams and in fiction, in folk-lore and poetry, in

dynasty of the Almoravides. It was from Marrakesh that Abdel-Moumen, the first sovereign of the dynasty of the Almohades, set out to conquer all Northern Africa, and it was that town that he made the capital of his empire (1147). From 1184 to 1198, the sultan Yakout-el-Mansour built there the mosque and the tower of Koutoubiya, at the same time that he caused to be built the Giralda at Seville and the mosque of the tower of Hassan at Rabat, the most famous monuments

of the Almohade

period and the best built of the Maghreb. The Merinide sultans preferred Fez to Marrakesh, but the Saadi sharifs again made it the chief Moroccan capital. The Alaouite sharifs of the reigning dynasty, from time to time, stay there for more or less prolonged periods, and are erecting various buildings there. After a violent combat at Sidi-bou-Othman, where he put to flight the bands of the insurgent El-Hoba, Col. Mangin entered Marrakesh with the French troops on Sept. 7, 1912. See A. Chevrillon, Marrakesh dans les palmes (Paris, 1919); Z. and I. Tharaud, Marrakesh ou les seigneurs de Atlas (Paris, 1919) ; Plan de Marrakesh, 4 1/10,000% p.p. le service géographique de PArmée:

Henri Basset et H. Terrasse, Sanctuaires et forteresses almohades; le minaret de la Kotobiya (Hesperus, 1924-26).

MARRAM-GRASS.

(Ammophila

arundinacea), an impor-

tant sand-binding grass, called also beach-grass, and sea marram, native to sandy sea coasts of Europe and North America from North Carolina northward and to the shores of the Great Lakes, It is an erect somewhat coarse perennial, with hard, tough, scaly, creeping rootstocks; long, involute leaf-blades; and a pale, dense, spikelike flowering panicle. Marram is employed in Europe to hold in place the barrier dunes along coasts, as in Holland; also with like success on Cape Cod, Mass., and at San Francisco, Calif.

MARRIAGE,

Human beings, like all higher animals, multiply

by the union of the two sexes. But neither conjugation, nor even the production of offspring, is as a rule sufficient for the maintenance of the species. The further advanced the animal in the order of evolution, the longer the immaturity and the helplessness of the young and the greater the need for prolonged parental care and training. It is thus the combination of mating with parenthood which constitutes marriage in higher animals, including man. Even in its biological aspect, “marriage is rooted in the family rather than the family in marriage” (Westermarck). 1. The Biological Foundations of Human Mating.—In human societies, however, there are added to the sexual and

parental sides of marriage other elements: marriage is given the hall-mark of social approval; it becomes a legal contract; it defines the relations between husband and wife and between parents and children, as well as the status of the latter; it imposes duties of economic co-operation; it has to be concluded in a public and solemn manner, receiving, as a sacrament, the blessings of religion and, as a rite, the good auspices of magic. Human marriage also appears in a variety of forms: monogamy, polygyny and polyandry; matriarchal and patriarchal unions; households with patrilocal and matrilocal residence. Other forms, such as “group-marriage,” “promiscuity,” “anomalous” or “gerontocratic” marriages have been assumed by some writers as an inference from certain symptoms and survivals. At present these forms are not to be found, while their hypothetical existence in prehistoric times is doubtful; and it is important above all in such speculations never to confuse theory with fact. Marriage again is in no human culture a matter of an entirely free choice. People related by descent or members of certain |

subjects. 2. Love and Martriage.—Love

and marriage are Closely as-

the manners, morals and institutions of every human community —but marriage is more than the happy ending of a successful

courtship. Marriage as an ideal is the end of a romance; it js also the beginning of a sterner task, and this truth finds an emphatic expression in the laws and regulations of marriage

throughout humanity. Love leads to sexual intimacy and this again to the procreation of children. Marriage on the whole is rather a contract for the production and maintenance of children than an authorization of sexual intercourse. The main reason why marriage has not been regarded as establishing an exclusive sexual relationship lies in the fact that in many human societies sexual relations have been allowed under certain conditions before marriage, while marriage did not necessarily exclude the continuance of similar relations. Marriage, however, remains the most important form of lawful intercourse, and it dominates and determines all extra-connubial liberties. In their relation to marriage the forms of licence can be classified into prenuptial liberty, relaxations of the marriage bond, ceremonial acts of sex, prostitution and concubinage. 3. Prenuptial Intercourse.—In the majority of savage tribes

unmarried boys and girls are free to mate in temporary unions,

subject to the barriers of incest and exogamy and of such social regulations as prevail in their community. But there are other tribes where chastity of the unmarried is regarded as a virtue, especially in girls, and any lapse from it severely censured or even punished. Many of the lowest savages, such as the Veddas, Fuegians, Kubu of Sumatra, Senoi and other Malayan negritos, do not tolerate sexual intercourse before marriage. Among the Bushmen and the Andamanese instances of prenuptial unchastity do occur, but they are not condoned, still less provided for by

custom and moral approval. The Australians, however, allow prenuptial freedom, except perhaps a few of the South-eastern tribes. On a higher level we find considerable variety in this respect. All over the world, in Oceania, in Asia, in Africa and in both Americas, examples could be quoted of peoples who demand continence more or less stringently, and of their neighbours who allow full freedom. In a few cases only can we find the demand of chastity expressed in very definite usages, which physically prevent incontinence, such as infibulation, practiced among the N.E. African, Hamitic and Semitic peoples and reported also from Siam, Burma and Java. The testing of the bride by a publicly exhibited token of defloration, which forms part of certain marriage ceremonies and which expresses the value of virginity, is carried out more or less thoroughly and naturally lends itself to deception and circumvention. It is found sporadically throughout

the world, in the noble families of Oceania (Tonga, Samoa, Fiji), in Asia (Yakuts, Koryaks, Chuwash, Brahui of Baluchistan, Southern Celebes), in America (Chichimec of Mexico), in Africa (Mandingo, Kulngo, Ruanda, Yoruba, Swahili, Morocco, Algeria and Egypt) and likewise among many Semitic and Hamitic peoples. In other parts of the world we are merely informed that chastity is praised and prenuptial intercourse censured (Bantu, Kavirondo, Wa Giyama, Galla, Karanga, Bechuana of Africa; Dobu, Solomon Islanders, of Melanesia; Omaha, Mandan, Néz-

Pércé, Apache, Takelma of N. America; Canelas and Kanaya of S. America, Bódo and Dhimél of Indo-China, Hill Dyaks of Borneo).

Freedom to mate at will may be fully allowed and even enjoined

and provided for by such institutions as the mixed houses for bachelors and girls (Trobriand Islanders, Nandi, Masai, Bontoc

LEGITIMACY]

MARRIAGE

Igorot). In some communities prenuptial intercourse is not meant

941

arrangements is that children should not be produced outside a

to lead to marriage, and there are even cases (as among the

socially approved contract of marriage.

Brazil), where two prenuptial lovers are not supposed to marry. Elsewhere prenuptial mating is a method of courtship by trial

in an (S.E. Hupa India again

In several tribes, the

Masai, Bhuiya and Kumbi of India, Guaycuru and Guana of remedy for the disgrace of a prenuptial child consists therefore

and error, and it leads gradually into stable unions, and is finally transformed into marriage. Thus among the Trobriand Islanders “sexual freedom” is considerable. It begins very early, children already taking a great deal of interest in certain pursuits and amusements which come as near sexuality as their unripe age allows.

This is by no means regarded as improper or immoral,

is known and tolerated by the elders and abetted by games and customary arrangements. Later on, after boys and girls have reached sexual maturity, their freedom remains the same, with the result that there is a great deal of indiscriminate mating. In fact, at this age both sexes show a great deal of experimental interest, a tendency to vary and to try, and here again a number of arrangements and customs play into the hands of these juvenile lovers. As time goes on, however, and the boys and girls grow older, their intrigues naturally and without any outer pressure, extend in length and depth, the ties between lovers become stronger and more permanent. One decided preference as a rule develops and stands out against the lesser love affairs. It is im-

portant to note that such preferences are clearly based on genuine

attachment resulting from real affinity of character. The protracted intrigue becomes a matter of public notice as well as a test of mutual compatibility, the girl’s family signify their consent and marriage is finally concluded between the two lovers.

(Malinowski). Similar forms of prenuptial selection are found in other tribes (Igorot of Luzon, Akamba of E. Africa, Munshi of N. Nigeria). In no instance, however, is prenuptial liberty regarded by the natives as a negation or substitute for marriage. In fact it always is in such communities in the nature of a preliminary or preparation to marriage; it allows the young people to sow their wild oats, it eliminates the cruder forms of sex impulse from matrimonial selection and it often leads youths and girls to exercise a mature choice based on attraction of personality rather than on sexual appeal. 4. The Principle of Legitimacy.—Perhaps the most important fact in the consideration of prenuptial unchastity is the rule that freedom of sexual intercourse does not generally extend to freedom of procreation. One of the symptoms of this is that in all communities where chastity is demanded and enforced, the lapse from it entails more censure on girls than on boys, while prenuptial pregnancy is penalised much more severely than mere wantonness. But even where prenuptial unchastity becomes an institution not merely condoned but enjoined by tribal law, pregnancy is often regarded as a disgrace. Among the aristocratic fraternities of Polynesia, the areot of Tahiti and the ulitao of the Marquesas, licence between the men and the women was universal, but children of such unions were killed, unless adopted by a married couple. Among the Melanesian communities of New Guinea and the adjacent archipelago which allow of full sex liberty before marriage the occurrence of pregnancy under such circumstances is a grave disgrace to the mother and entails disabilities on the child. The Masai punish a girl for prenuptial pregnancy, although with them the free unions of unmarried boys and girls are an institution. A similar combination of prenuptial full licence with severe punishment of illegitimate childbirth is recorded from several African tribes (Wapore, Bakoki, Banyankole, Basoga, Akikuyu, Nandi, Beni Amer), from America (Indians of Brit. Guiana, Guaycuru and Guana of Brazil, Creeks and Cherokees), from Asia (Lisu of Burma, Nias Islanders of Malay Archipelago), from Melanesia (Mekeo and N. Solomon Islanders) and from Siberia (Aleut). In all such cases pregnancy is no doubt prevented by contraceptive practices, which however have been reported from very few savage tribes by trustworthy informants; or by abortion, which is far more frequent; or expiated by a punishment of the mother, and sometimes also of the father. The main sociological principle embodied in these rules and

obligation of the presumptive father to marry the girl Bantu, Madi, Bavuma, Kagoro of Africa; Tepehuane and of America; Kacharis, Rabhas, Hajongs and Billavas of and Assam; Kayans and Punans of Borneo). In some cases a child of a free union is desired and expected to come,

indeed it is a condition to marriage, which is concluded upon its arrival (Sea Dyak, Hill Dyak, Iruleas, Moi, Bontoc Igorot of Asia; natives of Bismarck Archipelago; Lengua, Guarayos and Pueblo Indians of America: Wolofs and Bambata of Africa). Such cases, although they are in a way the opposite of those in which a prenuptial child is a disgrace, involve the same principle: the provision of a father for the child, that is the elimination of illegitimate offspring. As a matter of fact, in all instances where a prenuptial pregnancy is welcomed, the reason for it is that children

are regarded in that community as an advantage. The father consequently need not be forced to marry the mother, he does so of his own accord because fruitful marriage is desirable. Thus in

all human societies a father is regarded as indispensable for each child, że., a husband for each mother. An illegitimate child— a child born out of wedlock—is an anomaly, whether it be an outcast or an unclaimed asset. A group consisting of a woman ` and her children is a legally incomplete unit. Marriage thus appears to be an indispensable element in the institution of the family. (See Malinowski, Sex and Repression, pp. 212—217.)

5. Relaxations of the Marriage Bond.—Among tribes where chastity is demanded from unmarried girls and youths, marital fidelity is also usually enjoined. As a rule adultery is regarded as a grave offence and more severely penalised than prenuptial incontinence, though exceptions to this rule do exist. In many communities where freedom is granted before marriage, once the matrimonial knot is tied both partners or the wife at least are bound to remain faithful, under more or less serious penalties (Trobrianders, Mailu, Nukuhiva, Maori of Oceania; Land and Sea Dayaks, Kukis, Hajongs, Saorias, Ceramese of Indonesia; Botocudos and Guarayos of S. America: Illinois, Comanche, Iroquois, Pawnee, Californian Indians of N. America; Timne, Ashanti, Konde, Zulu, Kafirs and Thonga of Africa). The penalty inflicted upon an adulterous wife is invariably much graver than upon an unfaithful husband, and considerable differences obtain according to the circumstances of the offence, the status of the third party, the husband’s anger and his attachment to his wife. There are, however, a number of communities in which the marriage bond is broken as regards the exclusiveness of sex with the consent of both partners and with the sanction of tribal law, custom and morality. In some societies the only occasion on

which the wife is allowed connection with other men, nay, has to submit to their embraces, is at the very beginning of mar-

riage. This custom has apparently been known in mediaeval Europe under the name of “ius primae noctis.” It certainly exists in many savage cultures (Brazilian Indians, Arawaks, Caribs, Nicaraguans, Tarahumare of S. and C. America; Ballante, Bagele,

Berbers of Africa; Banaro and S. Massim of Melanesia; Aranda, Dieri and other Australian tribes). Such customs are to be regarded not so much as the abrogation of matrimonial exclusiveness, but rather as expressing the superstitious awe with which sexual intercourse, and above all defloration, is regarded by primitive peoples (Crawley, Westermarck). As such they should be considered side by side with the numerous instances in which girls are artificially deprived of their virginity, without the intercourse of any man; with prenuptial defloration by strangers; with temporary prostitution of a religious character, and with sexual intercourse as a puberty rite.

A greater encroachment upon sexual exclusiveness in marriage is found in the custom of wife-lending as a form of hospitality. This is very widely distributed over the world (see the comprehensive references in Westermarck, History of Human Marriage, voL 1, pp. 225-226). It must be realised that this practice is not an infringement of the husband’s rights, but rather his assertion of authority in disposmg of his wife’s person. Very often indeed

942

MARRIAGE

a man will offer his sister, daughter, slave or servant instead, a fact which indicates that this custom is not so much the right of another man to infringe upon the matrimonial bond as the right of the head of the household to dispose of its female inmates. Very often sexual hospitality is exercised in anticipation of future reciprocal benefits, and must be considered side by side with the custom of wife-exchange (Gilyak, Tungus, Aleuts of N. E. Asia; Bangala, Herero, Banyoro, Akamba, Wayao of Africa; various Himalayan and Indian tribes; S. Massim-of Melanesia; Marquesas, Hawaii, Maori of Polynesia; and various Australian tribes). At times there is an exchange of wives at feasts, when general orgiastic license prevails (Araucanos, Bororo, Keres of S. America; Arapahos, Gros Ventres and Lower Mississippi tribes of N. America; Dayaks and Jakun of Indonesia; Bhuiyas, Hos, Kotas of India; Ashanti, Ekoi and various Bantu tribes of Africa; Kiwai Papuans). On such festive and extraordinary occasions not only are the sexual restrictions removed, and the sexual appetite stimulated, but the ordinary discipline is relaxed, the normal occupations abandoned and social barriers over-ridden, while at the same time people indulge in gluttony, in desire for amusement and social intercourse. Sexual license, as well as the other relaxations, liberties and ebullitions at such feasts fulfils the important func_tion of providing a safety-vent which relieves the normal repressions, furnishes people with a different set of experiences, and thus again tends to safeguard ordinary institutions. These cases where wives are exchanged for sexual intercourse only must be distinguished from the less frequent instances of prolonged exchange, with common habitation, more or less legalised. Among the Eskimo of Repulse Bay, “If a man who is going on a journey has a wife encumbered with a child that would make travelling unpleasant, he exchanges wives with some friend who remains in camp and has no such inconvenience. Sometimes a man will want a younger wife to travel with, and in that case effects an exchange, and sometimes such exchanges are made for no special reason, and among friends it is a usual thing to exchange wives for a week or two about every two months” (Gilder, Schwatka’s Search, p. 251). Analogous forms of prolonged exchange are found among certain tribes of S. India, while among the Siberian Chukchi a man will often enter on a bond of brotherhood with those of his relatives who dwell in other villages, and when be visits such a village his relative will give him access to his wife, presently returning the visit in order to make the obligation mutual; sometimes cousins will exchange wives for a prolonged period. Again, among the Dieri, Arabana and cognate tribes of C. Australia, a married woman may be placed in the so-called pirrauru relationship to a man other than her husband. Such a man may, with the husband’s permission, have access to her on rare occasions. Or if the husband be absent and give his consent the woman may join her paramour for some time at his camp, but this is apparently rare. In order to lend his wife in this way a man must wait until she is allotted by the tribal elders as the pirrauru to another man. Then he may consent to waive his marital rights for a short time, though we are expressly told he is under no constraint to do so. Circumstances, jealousy, even the disinclination of the woman are obstacles all of which must make the carrying-out of pirrauru rights extremely rare. This custom has been adduced as a present-day occurrence of group marriage, but

this is obviously incorrect. It is always a temporary and partial surrender of marital rights consisting of a long and permanent connubium with occasional rare episodes of extra-marital liaison. It is important to remember that we have come to regard marriage as defined primarily by parenthood. Now social parenthood in native ideas, behaviour, custom and law is not affected by these various forms of relaxation just described. The children are reckoned as belonging to the legal husband, and in this as in many other ways-—economic, legal and religious—these temporary relaxations do not seriously disturb the marriage relationship. It must be realised with regard to fatherhood that even where the main principles of physiological procreation are known, savages

do not attribute an undue importance to actual physiological paternity (see KinsHIp).

[ECONOMICS

' woman who is considered the legal father of her children, whether i he be their physiological father or not..

|

6, Concubinage.—This can be defined as a legalised form of

cohabitation, which differs from marriage in that it implies a con. siderably lower status of the female partner and her offspring, than that enjoyed by the legal wife. It is a terminological con. fusion to speak of concubinage, when there is temporary access to a woman, or exclusively sexual rights in her. On primitive levels of culture real concubinage does not exist. Some similarity to it can be found in the institution of subsidiary wives. In certain

polygynous communities there is one principal wife and the sub-

sidiary ones have a much lower status, as is the case among the

Guarani, Central Eskimo, Araucanians, Apache, Chippewa (America); Chukchi, Koryak, Yakut (N.E. Asia); Marquesas Islanders, Tongans, Tahitians, Maori, Marshall Islanders (Poly. nesia); Awemba, Wafipa, S.E. Bantu, Herero, Nandi, Yoruba,

Ewhe

(Africa); Ossetes, Kadaras,

Khambis

(India);

Battas,

Bagobo, Kulaman (Indonesia). It is not correct to regard the institutions of temporary and limited partnership described above, such as the pirrauru of C. Australia or the protracted exchange of partners among the Eskimo, as concubinage.

4. Prostitution.—The institution of commercial eroticism or prostitution has a very limited range among primitive peoples. It

has been reported from Melanesia (Santa Cruz, Rossel Island), Polynesia (Line Islands, Caroline Islands, Easter Island, Hawaii),

Greenland, N. America (Omaha), S. America (Karaya, Uitoto, Boro), W. Africa, E. Africa (Banyoro). In its relation to marriage it begins to play a very important part only in higher cul-

tures (see PROSTITUTION).

On the one hand it provides an easy

satisfaction for the sexual appetite to unmarried men or those who for some reason cannot cohabit with their wives. It thus constitutes an institution complementary to marriage. On the other hand, in certain communities, of which Ancient Greece is a notable example, ż.e., “hetairism,” prostitution in a higher and more refined form, allowed some women to devote themselves to cul-

| tural pursuits and to associate with men more freely than was possible to those legally married. On the whole it is rather a subsidiary institution than either a relaxation or a form of sexual preparation. Unlike the other forms of sexual licence, prostitution is neither directly correlated with marriage nor does it affect its integrity so seriously as do the forms of matrimonial relaxation which involve both husband and wife. 8. The Economics of the Household and Family.—We are thus led at all stages of our argument to the conclusion that the institution of marriage is primarily determined by the needs of the offspring, by the dependence of the children upon their parents. More specially, the mother since she is handicapped at pregnancy and for some time after birth, needs the assistance of a male partner. The rôle of male associate and helpmate is almost universally played by the husband exclusively, though in some extremely matrilineal societies the wife’s brother shares with the husband in some of the responsibilities and burdens of the household. The economic as well as the biological norm of a family is thus mother, child and husband—or exceptionally both the husband and the wife’s brother. In the vast majority of human societies the individual family, based on monogamous marriage and consisting of mother, father and children, forms a self-contained group, not necessarily however cut off from society. Within the household there is a typical

scheme of division in functions, again almost universal. By virtue of natural endowment the wife has not only to give birth to and

nourish the children, but she is also destined to give them most of the early tender cares: to keep them warm and clean, to lull them to sleep and soothe their infantile troubles. Even in this the husband often helps to a considerable degree, prompted by natural inclination as well as by custom. This latter often imposes upon

him duties and ritual manifestations such as taboos during the pregnancy of his wife and at childbirth, and performances at the

time of confinement, of which the couvade (g.v.) is the most

It is almost always the husband of the ; striking example.

All such obligations

emphasize

the father’s

943

MARRIAGE

ECONOMICS]

responsibility and his devotion to the child. Later on in the educa- | gians of America; Bushmen, Hottentots, Bapedi, Bakumbi, Nuer tion of offspring both parents have to take part, performing their |of Africa; negrites of Philippines; Ainu of Japan.) (See also Wesrespective duties, which vary with the society and with the sex of | termarck, History of Human Marriage, vol. ii., 360-364; Briffault,

the children.

The Mothers, vol. i. pp. 268-302.)

Apart from the special task of producing and rearing the chil-

In a few cases which might be regarded as the extreme develop-

dren, the wife normally looks after the preparation of the food, | ment of mother-right combined with matrilocal conditions, the she almost invariably provides the fuel and the water, is the ac- |wife remains at her mother’s residence and the husband does not tual attendant at the hearth or fireplace, manufactures, tends and | even take up a permanent abode there, but simply Joins her as a owns the cooking-vessels, and she is also the main carrier of |frequent and regular but still temporary visitor (Menangkabau burdens. In the very simplest cultures the woman also erects the |Malays of Sumatra, Pueblo and Seri Indians of N. America, hut or shelter and looks after camp arrangements

Bushmen, Andaman Islanders).

(Australians, | Nairs of Malabar).

The husband is the protector and ; exception.

Such extreme cases of mother-right are an

They are the product of special conditions found as

defender of the family, and he also performs all the work which | a rule at a high level of culture and should never be taken as

requires greater strength, courage and decision, such as hunting | the prototype of “primitive marriage”

(as has been done by

game, fishing, heavy building of houses and craft, and clearing the | Bachofen, Hartland and Briffault).

The most important fact about such extreme matriarchal contimber. The division of labour between husband and wife outside the | ditions is that even there the principle of social legitimacy holds

household follows the line of men’s and women’s occupations | good; that though the father is domestically and economically

which differ with the community, but on the whole make fighting, | almost superfluous, he is legally indispensable and the main bond hunting, sailing, metal work purely male occupations; collecting, | of union between such matrilineal and matrilocal consorts is paragriculture, pottery, weaving predominantly female; while fishing, | enthood. We see also that the economic side can have a symbolic, cattle-tending, making of clothing and utensils are done by one sex| ritual significance—the gift-exchange functions as token of affection—it marks thus a sociological interdependence, while it has or the other according to culture. The division of labour outside the household does not mean | hardly any utilitarian importance. 1o. Marriage as an Economic Contract.—This last point, merely that husband and wife collect food and manufacture goods for their family each in a different manner. It means also as a! together with the foregoing analysis of the household and family ‘rule that each has to collaborate with other members of the com- | economics, allows us to frame the conclusion that while marriage munity of the same sex in some wider collective enterprise, from | embraces a certain amount of economic co-operation as well as of which the family benefits only partially and indirectly. In spite | sexual connubium, it is not primarily an economic partnership of repeated theoretical assertions as to the existence of the | any more than a merely sexual appropriation. It is as necessary “closed household economy” or even of individual search for |to guard against the exclusively economic definition of marriage as food among primitive peoples, we find in every community, how- | against the over-emphasis of sex. This materialistic view of ever simple, a wider economic collaboration embracing all mem- | marriage, to be found already in older writers such as Lippert, E. bers and welding the various families into larger co-operative | Grosse, Dargun, appears again in some recent important works. units (cf. B. Malinowski, “Primitive Economics of the Trobriand | Criticising the exaggeration of-:sex, Briffault says about marriage: Islanders,” Econ. Journal, 1921; “Labour and Primitive Eco- | “The institution, its origin and development, have been almost exclusively viewed and discussed by social historians in terms of nomics,” Nature, December, 1925). che operation of the sexual instincts and of the sentiments consee} we better the facts, relevant of knowledge our fuller The on the one hand the dependence of the family upon the rest of | nected with those instincts, such as the exercise of personal choice, the community, and on the other hand the duty of each individual |the effects of jealousy, the manifestations of romantic love. The to contribute not only to his own household but to those of; origin, like the biological foundation, of individual marriage being others as well. Thus in Australia a great part of a man’s yield | essentially economic, those psychological factors are the products have in hunting has to be divided according to fixed rules among his | of the association rather than the causes or conditions which relatives, own and classificatory. Throughout Oceania a network | given rise to it.” And again: “Individual marriage has its foundasoof obligations unites the members of the community and overrules | żon in economic relations. In the vast majority of uncultured of light the in exclusively almost regarded is marriage cieties | Isthe economic autonomy of the household. In the Trobriand part lands a man has to offer about half of his garden produce to his | economic considerations, and throughout by far the greater it has sister and another part to various relatives, only the remainder be- of the history of the institution the various changes which (The ing kept for his own household, which in turn is supported sub- | undergone have been conditioned by economic causes.” writer.) present the of those are italics the 1; p. ii., vol. Mothers, Economic relatives. other and brother stantially by the wife’s This is a distortion of a legitimate view. Marriage is not enobligations of such a nature cutting across the closed unity of the upon for economic considerations, exclusively or even tered | we which of tribe single every from quoted be could household nor is the primary bond between the two parties estabmainly; have adequate information. from each other. The most important examples however come from the com- lished by the mutual economic benefits derived bonds even matrimonial of importance the by shown best is This | and husband where munities organised on extreme mother-right, nor co-operation nor wife are in most matters members of different households, and ; where there is neither community of goods er ame

are, like sex, a means to an end, their mutual economic contributions show the character of gifts |even full domesticity. Economics dual parental influence over the and education rearing, the is which rather than of mutual maintenance.

of the obligations of mar9. The Split Household Under Matrilocal Mother-right. | offspring. Economic co-operation is one assistance in legal and mutual cohabitation, sexual like and riage ; based marriage —Most of what has’been said so far refers to the the married by law and enjoined on a united household and associated as a rule both under father- | moral matters it is prescribed to certainly 1s not either the right and mother-right with patrilocal residence. This means that ; by religion in most cultures. But it marriage. of cause unique the or end principal | the bride moves to the husband’s community, when she either

erroneous as the overjoins his family house or camp, or else inhabits a house built for | xr. “Marriage by Purchase.”—As as the vera causa and hypostasis its and economics on emphasis | Patrilocal the new couple and owned in the husband’s name. out of some one economic

marriages are by far the most prevalent all over the world.

essence of marriage is also the tearing

it a special name and thus an artificial entity. Maitrilocal marriage consists in the husband’s joining the wife’s | trait and giving regard to the initial gifts at marcommunity, taking up residence in her parents’ house and often | This has been done notably with the husband. More or less conby given when especially riage, | be may residence Matrilocal them. having to do some services for

husband to his wife’s family at marriage permanent; or it may be temporary, the husband having to re- | siderable gifts from the s the comprehensive list of referencein (see widely very occur | also having and law, parents-inhis main for a year or two with xxiii.). chap. IT., vol. Marriage, Human f o History k, Westermarc | Fuepossibly to work for them. (Eskimo, Kwakiutl, Guaycuru,

944

MARRIAGE

The term “marriage by purchase” applied to such gifts usually serves to isolate them from their legal and economic context, to introduce the concept of a commercial transaction, which is nowhere to be found in primitive culture as a part of marriage, and to serve as one more starting point for fallacious speculations about the origin of marriage. The presents given at marriage should always be considered as a link—sometimes very important, sometimes insignificant—in the series of services and gifts which invariably run throughout

marriage. The exchange of obligations embraces not only the husband and the wife, but also the children, who under motherright are counted as one with the mother while under father-right they take over the father’s obligations. The family and clan of

the wife, and more rarely of the husband, also become part of the scheme of reciprocities. The presents offered at marriage by the husband are often made up of contributions given him towards this end by his relatives and clansmen (Banaka, Bapuka, Thonga, Zulu, Xosa, Bechwana, Madi of Africa; Toradjas, Bogos of Indonesia; Buin, Mekeo, Roro, Trobrianders of Melanesia), and are not all retained by the girl’s parents but shared among her relatives and even clansmen (Achomawi, Delaware, Osage, Araucanians of America; S.E. Bantu, Swahili, Pokomo, Turkana, Bavili, Ewhe, Baganda, Masai, Lotuko of Africa; Ossetes, Samoyeds, Aleut, Yakut, Yukaghir of Siberia; Koita, Mekeo, S. Massim, Buin of Melanesia). The giving of presents is thus a transaction binding two groups rather than two individuals, a fact which is reflected in such institutions as the inheritance of wives, sororate, levirate, etc. A correct understanding of the initial marriage gift can be obtained only against the background of the wider economic mutuality of husband and wife, parents and children, maternal and paternal families and clans. Another type of marriage gift is the Jobola found among the

patrilineal and patrilocal communities of the S.E. Bantu, who

live by combined agriculture and cattle-raising. The wife and children are here regarded as a definite economic and sociological asset. The wife is the main agricultural and domestic worker, while the children are valuable because the boys continue the line and the girls bring in wealth at marriage. Marriage is concluded by the payment of cattle, the amount varying greatly according to tribe, rank and other considerations from a couple of head to a few score. These cattle are known as lobola, or “bride-price,” as is the current but incorrect anthropological expression. The lobola in fact is not the motive for the transaction, nor is there any bidding on any market, nor can the cattle be disposed of at will by the receiver, z.e., the girl’s father. Some of them have to be distributed by him according to fixed tribal custom among particular relatives of the girl; the rest he has to use for the provision of a wife for his son, ż.e., the girl’s brother, or else, if he has no male heir, he contracts another wife for himself, in order to obtain the desired male descendants. In case of divorce the marriage gift has to be returned as the identical cattle given and not merely in an equivalent form. The lobola is thus rather a symbolic equivalent representing the wife’s economic efficiency, and it has to be treated as a deposit to be spent on another marriage. In Melanesia the husband’s initial gift at marriage is a ritual act, and is always reciprocated by the wife’s family. This is the case also among certain American tribes (Tshimshian, Coast Salish, Bellacoola, Delaware, Ojibway, Navaho, Miwok): in Siberia (Mordwin, Ainu, Buryat, Samoyed, Koryak), and in Polynesia (Samoa). This return gift may take the form of a dowry given to the bride by her father or parents or other rela-

tives but also directly or indirectly benefiting her husband (Green-

landers, Brazilian aborigines, Yahgans of America; Ibo, Ovambo, S.E. Bantu, Banyoro, Masai of Africa; Buryat, Yukaghir, Samoyed of Siberia; Toda of India; Banks Islanders, Buin, Maori

of Oceania). In some communities the balance of gifts is so much

in favour of the husband that instead of wife purchase we could speak of buying a husband for the girl (N. Massim; coast tribes of Br. Columbia; Tehuelches of Patagonia; Yakut).

Both con-

cepts, however, that of “wife purchase” and “husband purchase” are obviously inadmissible.

[LEGAL ASPECT

12, Property and Inheritance Within Marriage.—As a tule, whatever the manner of economic inauguration of Marriage,

and whatever the mutual services exchanged between the part. ners, the latter have not only their own sphere of activity byt their own possessions. The wife usually claims the title and right of disposing of her articles of apparel, of the domestic utensils

and often of the special implements and fruits of her pursuit. The importance of woman’s work in agriculture, her social infiyence due to this and her specific claims to the agricultural produce —not the ownership of the land, which is generally vested in man-—have given rise to the economic theory of mother-right (see below, 13 and 14).

Very often the possessions of the husband and wife are ipherited by their respective kindred, and not by the surviving partner. The inheritance of the wife by the husband’s brother (the custom of levirate g.v.), which is known from the Old Testament, but has a fairly wide range of distribution (see the exten-

sive lists given by Westermarck, loc. cit. vol. iii., pp. 208-210: Briffault, The Mothers, vol. i., pp. 767—772) is not to be regarded as an economic transaction. Like the inheritance of a widow under

mother-right and like the custom of killing the widows and the suttee of India, it is the expression of the matrimonial bonds outlasting death, and defining the widow’s behaviour afterwards (see below, 20).

13. Marriage as a Legal Contract.—Marriage is never a mere cohabitation, and in no society are two people of different

sex allowed to share life in common and produce children without having the approval of the community. This is obtained by going through the legal and ritual formalities which constitute the act of marriage, by accepting in this the obligations which are entailed in marriage and the privileges which it gives, and by having later on to submit to the consequences of the union as regards children. The legal side of marriage is therefore not made up of special activities, such as constitute its sexual, economic, domestic or parental aspect. It is rather that special side in each of these aspects, which makes them defined by tradition, formally entered upon, and made binding by special sanctions. First of all, the whole system of obligations and rights which constitute marriage is in each society laid down by tradition. The way in which people have to cohabit and work together is stipulated by tribal law: whether the man joins his wife or vice versa; whether and how they live together, completely or partially; whether the sexual appropriation is complete, making adultery in either partner an offence, or whether, subject to certain restrictions, there may be waiving of the sexual rights: whether there is economic co-operation and what are its limits. The details and the typical rules and variations of all this have already been discussed, as well as, incidentally, the ways in which the rules are enforced. But it must be added that in no other subject of anthropology is our knowledge so limited as in the dynamic problems of why rules are kept, how they are enforced, and how they are

evaded or partially broken. (Cf. B. Malinowski, Crime and Custom in Savage Society, 1926.) Only on one or two points are we habitually informed by ethnographic observers, as to what penalties attach to a breach of law and custom and what premiums are set on their careful and generous observance. Thus, we are often informed how adultery is dealt with, though we usually get exaggerated accounts of the severity of the law on this point.

Again, to anticipate,

incest and exogamy are usually surrounded with definite sanctions, some social and some supernatural. The manners and morals of daily contact within the household are usually laid down and enforced by that complicated and imponderable set of forces which governs all human behaviour in its everyday aspects and makes

people distinguish between “good” and “bad form” in every human society. The validity of the economic duties of husband and wife are as a rule based on the fact that the services of the one are conditional on the services of the other, and that a very lazy

or unscrupulous partner would eventually be divorced by the other. 14. Divorce.—This brings us to the subject of the dissolution of marriage. Marriage is as a rule concluded for life—at times

STATUS]

MARRIAGE

beyond death, as mentioned above. It is questionable whether the short period “marriages” reported from isolated districts (Eskimo of Ungava district, some tribes of the Indian Archipelago, Arabia,

Persia, Tibet) deserve the name of marriage, i.e., whether they should not be put into a different sociological category; but our

accounts of them are too slight to allow of deciding this question. In some tribes we are told that marriage is indissoluble (Veddas, Andamanese, certain tribes of the Indian Archipelago and Malay Peninsula). The general rule, however, is that divorce

945

their legitimisation by the presumptive father or some other man. In connection with this latter point it is necessary to realise that the children have invariably to return in later life some of the benefits received earlier. The aged parents are always dependent on their children, usually on the married boys. Girls at marriage often bring in some sort of emolument to their parents and then continue to help them and look after them. The duties of legal solidarity also devolve on the children, uniting them to father or

their arrival. In fact the main ground for divorce, besides adultery, economic insufficiency or bad temper, is sterility in the wife or impotence in the husband. This emphasises the aspect of marriage as an institution for the preservation of children. .The threat of divorce and of the disabilities which it entails is one of the main forces which keep husband and wife to their prescribed conduct. At times the husband is kept in check by the payment he gave at marriage and which he can reclaim only when

mother according to whether we deal with a matrilineal or a patrilineal society. One of the most important legal implications of marriage is that it defines the relation of the children to certain wider groups, the local community, the clan, the exogamous division and the tribe. The children as a rule follow one of the parents, though more complex systems are also in existence, and the unilateral principle of descent is never absolute. This however belongs to the subject of Kinship (g.v.; cf. also MOTHER-RIGHT). 17. Modes of Concluding Marriage.—In studying the legal aspect of marriage, it is extremely important to realise that the matrimonial contract never derives its binding force from one single act or from one sanction. The mistake has often been made in discussing the “origin of marriage,” of attributing to this or that mode of concluding it a special genetic importance or legal value. Marriage has in turn been derived from mere subjugation by brutal force (the old patriarchal theory); from ap-

the union is dissolved through no fault of his. At times the considerable economic value of the wife is the motive of his good and dutiful conduct. 15. The Status of Husband and Wife.—tThe duties of the wife towards the husband are apparently in some communities enforced to a considerable extent by his personal strength and brutality, and by the authority given him by custom, In others, however, husband and wife have an almost equal status. Here again, unfortunately, we find too often in ethnographical accounts generalities and stock phrases such as that “the wife is regarded as the personal property of the husband,” as “his slave or chattel,”

propriation by capture in foreign tribes (McLennan’s hypothesis) ; from feminine revolt against hetairism (Bachofen); from economic appropriation or purchase (the materialist interpretation of early marriages); from pithecanthropic patriarchy (Atkinson, Freud); and from matria potestas (Briffault). All these views overstate the importance of one aspect of marriage or even of one element in the modes of its conclusion; some even invent an imaginary state or condition. In reality marriage is the most important legal contract in every human society, the one which refers to the continuity of the race; it implies a most delicate and difficult adjustment of a

Societies;Schurtz, Altersklassen und Männerbünde). In all tribes,

important place is usually taken by the classical list of the various

(g.v.), is possible, but not easy, and entails damages and disabili-

ties to both partners. Even where divorce is said to be easy for husband and for wife, we find on further enquiry that a considerable price has to be paid for the “liberty to divorce,” that it is easy only to exceptionally powerful or successful men and women, and that it involves in most cases loss of prestige and a moral stigma. Often also divorce is easy only before children have been born, and it becomes difficult and undesirable after

or else again we read that “the status of the wife is high.” The passionate and emotional relationship with domestic and economic only correct definition of status can be given by a full enumeration co-operation; it involves the cohabitation of male and female, of all mutual duties, of the limits to personal liberty established perennially attracted and yet in many ways for ever incompatible; by marriage, and of the safeguards against the husband’s bru- it focuses in a difficult personal relationship of two people the tality or remissness, or, on the other hand, against the wife’s interest of wider groups: of their progeny, of their parents, of shrewishness and lack of sense of duty. It is often held that their kindred, and in fact of the whole community. The validity of the marriage bond derives its sanctions from mother-right and the economic importance of woman’s work, especially in agricultural communities, go with a high social status all these sources. This expresses one of the most important truths of the wife, while in collecting, nomadic and pastoral tribes her concerning marriage. The complexity of motives for which it is status is on the whole lower (E. Grosse, in Die Formen der entered, the utility of the partners to each other, their common Familie und die Formen der Wirtschaft; Schmidt and Koppers, interest in the children’s welfare, last, not least, the interest which .the kindred and the community have in the proper upbringing of in Völker und Kulturen). Marriage not only defines the relations of the consorts to each the offspring——these are the real foundations of marriage and the other, but also their status in society. In most tribes, marriage source of its legally binding character. All this finds an expression in the modes of contracting marriage. and the establishment of an independent household are a condition for the attainment of the legal status of full tribesman in the These always contain the element of public approval; the collabmale and of the rank and title of matron in the woman. Under oration of the families and the kindred of each partner; some the system of age-grades (g.v.) the passage through certain in- material pledges and securities; some ritual and religious sancitiation rites is a condition of marriage and this is as a rule con- tions; last, not least, the consent of the parties concerned. In the old manuals and statements concerning marriage an cluded soon after it is permitted (cf. Webster, Primitive Secret however, all normal and healthy tribesmen and women are mar-

ried, and even widows and widowers remarry if they are not too old, under the penalty of losing some of their influence. The attainment of a full tribal status is always a powerful motive for marriage. 16. The Laws of Legitimate Descent.—Marriage affects not only the status of the consorts and their relations, but imposes also a series of duties on the parents with regard to children, and defines the status of children by reference to the parents. As we know already in virtue of the universal principle of legitimacy, the full tribal or civil status of a child is obtained only

through a legal marriage of the parents. Legitimacy is at times sanctioned by penalties which devolve on the parents, at times

by the disabilities under which illegitimate children suffer, at times again by inducements for the adoption of children or for

“modes ‘of concluding” it: marriage by capture, by purchase and by service, by infant betrothal, elopement, exchange, mutual consent, and so on (cf. even such an excellent and recent account as the article on “Marriage,” by Rivers, in Hastings’ Enc. of Religion and Ethics). This classification is unsatisfactory. It exaggerates as a rule one aspect out of all proportion, and attributes to this one aspect an overwhelming influence upon the whole institution which it

never possesses.

“Marriage by purchase” we have already dis-

missed as a crude misnomer, while “service” is but a detail in the economics of certain marriages. “Marriage by capture,” which has played such a prominent part in speculation and controversy from McLennan onward, never could have been a real institution: though a man may occasionally wed a woman captured by |force in a war, such an occurrence is always an exception; it never

946

MARRIAGE

[RITES

of motives, and its stability has always to be secured byasuitable compromise between conflicting interests. 18. The Religious and Ceremonial Side of Marriage__ fights and ritual capture occur at wedding ceremonies over a wide area (see Westermarck, History of Human Marriage, ii., 254-2775 The sanctity of the marriage bond is not found merely in the Crawley, ii, 76-100; Briffault, ii, 230-250). They are capable Christian religion, nor is it a prerogative of the higher cultures. of interpretation in terms of actual psychology and of existing The supernatural sanction, derived from a solemn, publicly cele. social conditions (Westermarck, Crawley, Briffault, Havelock brated, spiritually as well as ethically hallowed ceremony, adds to Ellis). To regard them as survivals of “marriage by capture” the binding forces of mere law. Marriage is valid as a legal conis erroneous, and on this point there is now an almost universal tract in so far as its breach is visited by worldly retributions agreement. Capture and violence, as well as purchase from other and its generous fulfilment carries worldly benefits. As a sacratribes, or on the slave-market, lead to concubinage, and at times ment, marriage in primitive and civilised societies alike, is protected by spiritual powers, rewarding those who observe matrisupply prostitutes, but only very rarely legal wives. Like the contract itself, so also the modes of concluding it monial duties meticulously and piously, and punishing those who contain a great variety of binding and of determining factors. But neglect them. The religious aspect of marriage is therefore closely akin to a real and relevant distinction can still be made between those marriages which are contracted primarily by rules of tradition; the legal, in that it adds to the validity and sanctity of other functhose which are arranged for by the families or the kindred of the tions, rather than establishes new ones. It finds expression in the consorts; and those which arise from free and spontaneous choice acts of establishment and those of dissolution: religious rites are of the mates. In no type of marriage is any of these three elements to be found at betrothal and wedding, while divorce is often reli—tradition, arrangement by families or their consent, and free giously defined and qualified, and at death the breach of the bond choice—completely absent. But one or other may be conspicu- finds its spiritual expression in the duties, observances and ceremonies incumbent on the surviving partner. Besides these cereously predominant. The most usual type of traditionally prescribed union is cross- monial manifestations in which the bonds of marriage are relicousin marriage (see CousIN MARRIAGE), with a wide distribution, giously tied or dissolved, religious ethics establish those rules of practised very extensively all over Oceania, Australia and S. India, matrimonial conduct which are sanctioned supernaturally or felt and sporadically in Africa, N. America and Asia. The marriage of binding through their appeal to moral sense rather than to selfparallel cousins is less frequent, and found notably among Semitic interest. 19. Ceremonies of Betrothal and Wedding.—Betrothal peoples (cf. Frazer, Folk-Lore in the Old Testament, vol. ii., pp. 145 sqq.; B. Z. Seligman, “Studies in Semitic Kinship,” Bull. can be defined as an act preliminary to marriage, establishing School Oriental Studies, 1923-24). Even less common are mar- mutually presumptive claims. The period between betrothal and riages prescribed between other classes of relatives, ¢.g., between marriage varies, and where it is short, it is often difficult or even a man and his brother’s daughter (N. Australia, some parts of impossible to decide whether we deal with an act of betrothal Melanesia), or his sister’s daughter (S. India), or his father’s or an inaugural wedding rite. It is also unprofitable to draw a very sister (certain parts of Melanesia, Dene of N. America). An- sharp line of distinction between infant betrothal and infant other type of prescribed marriage is by inheritance, of which the marriage. Where betrothal imposes real obligations and a valid tie, the rites then observed usually fulfil in their religious bearing levirate and sororate (g.v.) are the most notable. Besides such traditionally defined unions, there are also mar- the same function as those of marriage, and consist of the same riages recognised as convenient and desirable by the respective or similar actions, both as regards ritual technique and symbolic

was a rule, still less a “stage in human evolution.” Tribal endogamy (see below, 22) is the universal rule of mankind. Ceremonial

families and arranged for by them.

Infant betrothal (prevalent

in Australia and Melanesia), where a definite claim is established; or infant marriage (reported especially from India), where the bond is effectively concluded, are two of the most usual forms of these. The main motive for infant unions is the determination of the families to secure a convenient union. In Australia, where an infant is often allotted to a mature male, the power of old men and their keenness to secure young wives, are at the root of this institution. Whether similar conditions existed, or even still survive in Africa, is an interesting problem (see B. Z. Seligman, “Marital Gerontocracy in Africa,” Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute, 1924). In many communities, including some advanced nations of Europe, marriage is mainly determined by social or financial considerations, and in this the parents of bride and bridegroom have as much to say as the two people directly concerned. In some

meaning. It will be best therefore to discuss the binding rites of marriage and betrothal together. These rites and ceremonies cover a very wide range, from the simplest act, such as a meal openly taken in common, to complex and elaborate tribal festivities, extended over a considerable period of time. But in every human society marriage is concluded by a ritual enactment. It might be disputed whether such

rites in their simplest form present a genuine religious character; but most sociologists would agree that they always possess some religious elements in that they are solemn and public; in their moréė developed -form and in higher cultures they become definitely religious. It will be best in discussing the nature of wedding rites not to draw too pedantic a distinction between their legal and religious aspects, since the two often merge or shade into each other imperceptibly. “The most general social object” of a wedding rite is “to give primitive tribes two brothers exchange sisters (Australia), or publicity to the union” (Westermarck). By this the legal as a man’s matrilineal uncle or patrilineal aunt has some say (Melane- well as the religious sanction of the union is established. The sia). Where the initial payments are very heavy and where they contract is made binding in that all the members of the comare used to secure a wife for the bride’s brother, marriage is munity bear witness to it; it is hallowed in that the two mates usually also a matter for an arrangement rather than free choice. solemnly and openly declare before man, God or other spiritual With all this free choice still remains the most important ele- powers that they belong to each other. ment. Very often an infant betrothal or some other form of ar20. The Symbolism of Marriage Ritual—A marriage rite ranged union is broken by one of the people directly affected, and is as a rule also a ritual act with a symbolic significance, and as marriage by elopement, with the subsequent consent of family such it is often conceived to possess a magical efficacy, it contains and kindred, overrules all other considerations. Invariably in all a moral precept or expresses a legal principle. communities the majority of unions come from the initiative of A. Biological Symbolism—Thus the fundamental purpose of the partners. Marriage by free personal choice is the normal marriage, the continuity of the race, is indicated in wedding marriage, and the choice is mainly determined by personal attrac- ceremonies by ritual, intended to make the union fruitful, to tion, which does not mean merely a sexual or erotic attraction. obviate the dangers associated with sexual intercourse, especially In general the physical appeal combines with compatibility of with defloration, and to facilitate the various stages of the process character, and such social considerations as suitability of rank of generation from the first act to delivery. Among the fertility and of occupation and of economic benefits, also influence the rites a prominent place is taken by the use of fruit or grain or choice. Here again the nature of marriage entails a complexity other cereals, which are sprinkled over the newly-wedded couple

MARRIAGE

RITES]

or on or round the nuptial bed, or handed to them or brought into

947

mostly the dramatic expression of the fact that the bride has

contact with them in some other way. Rites, such as the accom-

to be torn from her old home, that this is a violent and critical

paniment of the bride by alittle child, the use of various symhols of generation, and the direct offering of prayers and sacrifices, are all intended to make the union fruitful. The breaking of some object at the wedding serves to avert the dangers of defloration and to facilitate the consummation of the union. The undoing of knots and laces, found in many wedding rites, makes for easy delivery at childbirth. In all these acts we see the ritual

act, a final one. D. Marriage as a New Bond.—But the most important type of wedding rite is that which lays down that marriage is a sacramental bond. Here again the symbolism is wide and varied, from the most direct expression of union by the joining of hands or of fingers, the tying of garments, the exchange of rings and chains, to complicated dramatic enactments of the separation and union. An important symbolism of the new ties to be established consists in the performance of some act which in future will consti-

expression of the biological nature of marriage.

B. Marriage as a Crisis—As an official and public recognition ‘of a biological fact, as the most important contract ever entered

by two individuals, and as the act which creates a new social entity, the family, marriage is a crisis. Now a crisis in human life

is always surrounded

by powerful emotions:

hopes, fears and joyful anticipations.

forebodings

and

Innumerable wedding rites

are in existence which are obviously intended to remove the dangers associated with the crisis of marriage. Dangers apprehended in subjective forebodings are usually conceived in the form of evil agencies: demons or ghosts or malevolent spirits, forces of black magic, mysterious concatenations of ill-luck. These have to be kept at bay or counteracted, and we find innumerable rites intended to avert ill fortune and bring happiness and good chance to the new household. Among these are the avoidance of certain days and places as unlucky, or on the other hand the selection of certain days as being of good omen; the shutting out of evil influences from the place where the wedding is being celebrated; the making of noises, the firing or brandishing of some weapon; the bathing or washing of bride and bridegroom or sprinkling them with water; the lighting of fires and waving of torches; the circumambulation of the bridegroom’s tent or of the church; the beating of the bridegroom’s tent, and the observance by the bride and bridegroom of various kinds of abstinences with regard to action and eating. Other forms in which bad luck can be side-tracked are: the disguising of the real actors, who may dress in the clothes of the opposite sex, cover themselves, or paint their faces.; the substitution for them of effigies; marriage by proxy; and the contracting of mock marriages with trees or animals or inanimate objects. Finally an important antidote against all supernatural dangers is the state of spiritual invulnerability which is achieved by moral purity and the observance of those mixed ethical and ritual rules which in primitive culture often surround important acts of human life. The most important tabu of this kind, in connection with marriage is obviously the tabu of sex-continence. The principle that the bride and the bridegroom have to abstain from intercourse for some time after the wedding, is known all over the world from primitive savagery to the most refined ethics of the Christian church, from Australia to the New World (cf. Westermarck, II., 547-564), while on the wedding night there are occasionally other minor abstinences. It is characteristic that while the bride and the bridegroom are. often considered in a state dangerous not only to themselves but also to others, they are at the same time a source of blessing and of beneficent influences. Thus certain rites are supposed to influence favourably the welfare of other persons even independently of their relations to the principals; joining in at a wedding is sometimes believed to produce benefit; a wedding is looked upon as a potential cause of other weddings; while good luck is often expected from contact with the bride or bridegroom or something | worn by them. C. Marriage as a Sociological Change.—Marriage is a crisis not merely in the spiritual sense. It is also an actual sociological transition from one state to another, both partners forsaking their old families to form a new one. The rupture with the pa-

rental family, clan, local community or tribe is expressed in a

number of interesting wedding rites. Sham fighting between the bridegroom or his party and the bride’s family, or some other kind of resistance made by the latter; the barring of the wedding procession; weeping and other ritual expressions of grief and unwillingness on the part of the bride and her relatives; and the mimic enactment of capture or abduction of the bride—these are

tute one of the normal duties or privileges of married life. Such

acts in a way define the nature and exclusiveness of marriage by anticipation in ritual performances. Among them, naturally the most important are the ceremonial performance of the sexual act and the ceremonial participation in a common meal. In certain ceremonies the symbolism lays down the relative domains of marital influence. Thus in some cases the assertion of the husband’s power is prominent: he is presented with a whip, or he boxes the bride’s ears, or mimically beats her, and so on. In others again the wife may attempt by similar acts to mark her

independence and her power over her husband.

The economic

aspect of marriage is often also expressed in some magical act, intended to ensure prosperity to the future household, e.g., by the smearing of butter and honey by the bride over the pole of the tent to ensure abundance of staple food. Again, the division of economic functions is expressed in other rites, as where the wife tends the fire, prepares and cooks food for her husband, etc. E. The General Function of Wedding Symbolism.—These examples cover the most important though by no means all the ideas expressed in wedding rites. It is easy to see that the symbolism is extremely rich and varied, and that it embraces almost all the aspects of marriage. There are rites which bear directly upon sex and upon gestation; there are rites with a clear domestic and those with an economic significance; there are rites referring to emotional attitudes at marriage and to moral ideas as to its ends. In technique they are all legal, magical or religious. In short, the ceremonial of marriage covers and expresses all the relevant sides of the institution of marriage, and as such it has been a most fruitful and revelatory subject of anthropological study. It also has been the main source of errors and pitfalls. In order to avoid them it is important to realise that all ritual symbolism is necessarily vague. Speaking of the marriage ceremonies, Professor Westermarck rightly lays down that “Anthropologists are often apt to look for too much reasoning at the bottom of primitive customs. Many of them are based on vague

feelings rather than on definite ideas” (History of Human Mar-

riage, IL., 563). The ritual symbolism at marriage also expresses as a rule mixed and compound meanings in most of the acts. Thus the spilling of corn over the couple may mean fecundity, prosperity, good husbandry as well as union, and probably it vaguely expresses all these elements. Sham fights and captures, tree marriages or marriages by proxy have obviously a plurality of meanings. Nor is the function of symbolism exhausted by its direct and literal meaning. A ritual act, fixed by tradition, defining the relevant manner of concluding a contract, impresses by pomp and circumstance its social importance and its binding force in the moral sense. The ethical rules and tabus which usually go hand

in hand with ritual add to this spiritualising function of wedding ceremonies. The public and official nature of the marriage act,

often marked by the presence of an officiating priest, ruler or magician; heralded by banns and public announcements; sealed by witnesses and documents; enhanced by the sacredness of place and of time constitutes the widest and most general function of the rite, and that is to make marriage public, binding, sacred and morally impressive. at. The Dissolution of Marriage in Ritual.—The binding forces of the marriage contract, and its ritual and moral character, are expressed as clearly at the dissolution by divorce or | death as at its inception. Unfortunately our information ss so » defective on this point that a brief survey only can be given.

948

MARRIAGE

[ENDOGAMY

Endogamy proper is the rule which allows marriage only be. Divorce in higher cultures is a religious matter, to be carried out under the supervision of the church, and with the observance tween members of a section of a tribe, and forbids unions between of certain formalities which express and safeguard the sanctity members of two sections. Strict endogamy is rare. It occurs of the sacrament. From lower cultures we find only a few mainly in India where members of the same caste only are al. examples of divorce rites, where such symbolic acts as the break- lowed to marry (see Caste and Endogamy). In other parts of ing of a rod, the tearing of a leaf, or the casting away of some India we find a system called hypergamy (q.v..) in which a man is object are publicly performed (Kacharis, Hajongs, Khasis of allowed to marry. a woman of a lower section in his caste, He N.W. India; Bagobo of Mindanao; Tumbuka of C. Africa; cer- may also marry a woman of the same section if other conditions allow this. But a woman may not marry a man of a lower section tain Canadian Indians; Maori of New Zealand). Far more material is at our disposal referring to the per- on penalty of loss of status of her whole family. In some comsistence of the matrimonial bonds at death. They are never dis- munities there is competition to secure husbands of high sections, In primitive communities endogamy is not very widespread. It solved automatically by the decease of either partner, and their tenacity is greater for the widow than for the widower. But in occurs in tribes where there is a degraded class of artisans or else either case the death of one consort imposes a number of ritual stratification by rank (Polynesia; Korea, Japan; Trobriand Is. and moral observances on the other, the fulfilment of which is an lands of Melanesia; Algonkin, Salish of N. America; Masai, Banyankole, Karanga and other tribes of E. and S. Africa). In such essential part of the marriage contract. The widow, or widower, usually plays the most prominent part cases we often find endogamy in what might be called an approxi. among all mourners. Thus among certain peoples the widow has mate form. Indeed such approximate endogamy, as a tendency to to perform various duties, extending over a more or less consider- marry within the profession, class or rank, is, as an unwritten law, able period, at the grave of her husband. She has to sleep beside well-nigh universal in primitive and civilized communities. Another type of endogamy which is very widespread is that or over it; to supply it with provisions; to keep a fire burning there perpetually (Takulli, Kutchin, Mosquito, Pima Indians associated with religion. In very few religions is marriage outside of America; Minas, Nsakara, Baganda of Africa; Pentecost the group of the faithful permitted. Islam, Judaism, Christianity Islanders and certain Papuans of Oceania; Kukis of India). and Hinduism are cases in point. Primitive religion as a rule need Even more telling are the long series of tabus and duties to be not be intolerant as regards mixed marriages, because there the observed by the widow before she is allowed to remarry: she must tribal barriers and lack of communication act with sufficient remain chaste, refrain from bathing or renewing her garments, stringency. avoid certain foods, etc. (Omaha, Stlathlumh, Creek, Chickasaw, 23. The Prohibition of Incest.—The most widely spread Algonkin, Iroquois, Dakota, Eskimo of N. America; Angoni, and most rigidly enfarced qualification to marriage is the set of Bakoba, Baya, Bawele, Baganda, Akamba, Herero, BaThonga, rules which prohibit unions between the members of the same Zulu of Africa; Amovor tribes and Kukis of India; Bontoc Igorot family. These are known as the rules of incest (g.v.), and play a of the Philippines; Maori of New Zealand; Ainu, Yakuts, Kam- great part in the constitution of the family (g.v.} and in the reguchadal of N.E. Asia). lation of primitive kinship (g.v.). Incest has become also of similar regulations prevent the widower from entering into great importance in modern psychology through the speculations a new alliance immediately after he has been set free by his wife’s of Freud and the psychoanalytic school (see PsycHOANALYsIS). death. Thus among many peoples (Greenlanders, Eskimo, Aleut; Although incestuous unions hetween near relatives are univerDakota, Omaha, Shawnee of N. America; Herero, Bushmen, sally abhorred and prohibited, the rules differ greatly from one BaThonga, Zulu of Africa; certain Papuan tribes; the Bontoc society to another as regards the prohibited degrees as well as the Igorots and the Ainu) the surviving husband has to live single stringency and character of the sanctions. Marriages between for a time during which he is subjected to various restrictions and mother and son and between father and daughter are universally observances, such as refraining from sexual intercourse, prohibited by law, custom and moral sentiment. Statements can The most definite affirmation of the persistence of marital bonds be quoted, it is true, of tribes among whom more or less irregular 4s found among those people who completely forbid remarriage | unions between parents and children do occur. Thus marriages to widows (Tikopians, Rotumans, Marquesans, Line Islanders in | between mother and son have been reported from the Caribs, Polynesia; Chinese; Ainu of Japan; Formosans; Brahmans of ; Eskimo, Pioje, Tinne of America; Minahassa of Celebes and India) or to widowers (Ainu, Formosans, Biduanda Kallang of Kalang of Java; New Caledonians; and the Banjoro of Africa. Malay Peninsula). Again unions between father and daughter are said to occur Even this is overshadowed by the institution of suttee, the sen-. among the Minahassa of Celebes, Karens of Burma, and in the tence of death passed by religious tradition over the widow at her Solomon, Marshall and Pelew Islands of Oceania. Even better hhusband’s death so that her spirit might follow his into the next . attested are the marriages between brother and sister (Marshall world. This institution is found not only in India, from where | Islands and Hawaii; ancient Irish, Egyptian and Inca royal we have borrowed its name, but also among the Comanche, Cree | families). and certain Californian l tribes ribes of N. America; in Dahomey and | ` When we go beyond the family group, the prohibitions of maramong the BaFiote of Africa; in the New Hebrides, Fiji, Solomon | riage between uncles and nieces, aunts and nephews, first and Islands, Pentecost Island and New Zealand of Oceania. | second cousins, and so on, vary greatly. In some communities 22, The Social Conditions of Marriage. Endogamy,—| certain of these unions are explicitly encouraged and regarded as

‘With this we have finished the analysis of the various aspects of | desirable; in others forbidden. About preferential marriages be-

marriage, biological, domestic, economic, legal and religious. It| tween relatives we have already spoken (see above, 17). Exten‘will be necessary ‘still briefly to camsider marriage in relation to| sive prohibitions of marriage between distant kindred exist,

other modes of grouping, and toe discuss certain barriers to and | besides the Western Christian civilizations also among a number qualifications for matrimony, connected with membership in| of other tribes and cultures (Salish, Eskimo, Pipites of Salvador,

wider -STOUDS. ; Aztecs, Araucanians, Abipones, Ona, Yahgan of America; Koryak, _ Marriage .is never free in the sense that any man would be at | Yukaghir, Kalmuck of N.E, Asia; Torres Straits Islanders, Mekeo, liberty to marry any woman. Natural and physical impediments| Polynesians of Oceania; S.E, Bantu of Africa).

obviously do not come here under consideration, since we are 24. Exogamy.—This is the system under which far larger ‘only concerned with:social rules. Thus it is clear that in order to | groups of people are regarded as related to each other and their

marry, two people must come into contact with each other, and | members forbidden to intermarry. It is found mainly in associaunder primitive ‘conditions this ts possible only when they belong | tion with the classificatory nomenclature of kinship terms and the $o the same tribe, or to tribes who meet in peaceful commerce or| clan organisation (cf. also Exọçamy, KınsHIp, RELATIONSHIP

in warfare. Tribal or natural endogamy (q.v.), is thus the first |Terms).

Whether exogamy is genetically connected with incest,

condition of marriage, but at as af secondary interest to the soci- | ¿.e., whether it is an extension of the tabu on intercourse and

ologist, and must be distinguished ffrom strict endogamy.

marriage within the family, or an independent institution, is &

MARRIAGE

EXOGAMY]

debated question (see Westermarck, H.H.M., IL., pp. 192-2138; Frazer, Totemism and Exogamy, vol. IV., passim; Malinowski, Sex and Repression in Savage Society, part IV.). Exogamy embraces the widest number of people, where it is based on the dual organisation and debars from intercourse or marriage one half of the tribesmen and tribeswomen (cf. Duat

ORGANISATION).

Normally exogamy is an attribute of clan, że.,

of the group of people who trace their descent to a common an-

cestor, have in most cases the same totem, and fulfill a number of functions together (see CLAN, TOTEM, Kinsuip). The clans are sometimes a subdivision of the tribe, based numerically on the

dual principle, as where we have two, four or eight clans. At times there is an odd and more or less considerable number of clans, and exogamy is enforced only within each of these divisions. The prohibitions as a rule apply unilaterally (Iroquois, Huron, Lenape, Mohegan, Miami, Shawnee, Creek, Sauk, Fox, Kickapoo, Blackfoot, Dakota, Seminole of N. America; Arawak and Goajiro of S. America; Tungus, Yakut, Samoyed, Ostyak, Tartars of N.E. Asia; various aboriginal peoples of India; Torres Straits Islanders, Papuans, Melanesians, Polynesians and Micronesians of Oceania; Hottentot, S.E. Bantu, Anyanja, Wayao, Awemba, Makololo, Akonde, Masai, Akamba, Baganda and other E. African tribes; Ashanti and other W. African tribes). Only in a few cases has exogamy to be observed with regard to the clans of both parents (Omaha, Osage of N. America: certain Naga tribes of Assam; S. Massim of Melanesia; Herero, Lango of Africa). A specially complex set of conditions prevails in the tribes of C. Australia, where there is a twofold division into (a) totemic clans, which are not strictly exogamous; and (b) matrimonial classes, which strictly correspond to kinship divisions, and which are not only exogamous, but regulate marriage to the extent that a member of one of them has to marry into one and one only of the remaining three or seven classes, as the case may be (see AUSTRALIA: Ethnology). 25. The Forms of Marriage.—From the foregoing description it will be clear that there is a considerable range within which the constitution of marriage can vary. For as we have seen there can be many different arrangements in the domestic, legal, economic and ceremonial sides of marriage, and each of their manifold combinations constitutes a distinct form of marriage. The term “form of marriage” has been as a rule applied to what might be called the numeric variation in marriage, t.e., the variation according to the number of consorts united to each other; and the main “forms of marriage” usually listed are monogamy, polygyny, polyandry and group-marriage. To deal with this classification adequately it is necessary to distinguish hypothetical assumptions from actually existing social arrangements. From this point of view we can at once eliminate “group-marriage,” since our previous analysis (see above, 5) has shown that the pirrauru relationship of Australia and similar institutions among the Eskimo and in Siberia can not in their parental, economic, legal or religious functions be regarded as a form of marriage. 26. Polyandry.—This is the name given to a union in which several men are legally bound in marriage to one woman. Polyandry is the rarest of the numeric varieties of marriage, and unfortunately the one on which, in spite of its great theoretical importance, we possess but very meagre and inadequate information. Polyandry is not found among any of the more primitive peoples, and its distribution is almost completely confined to the highlands of S. India and C. Asia, with isolated exceptions, such as one African tribe (Bahima) and some Eskimo, among whom it occurs, but infrequently. In Tibet and the adjacent countries there exists polyandry of the fraternal type, 7.¢., several brothers share the wife in common. All the husbands live together with their common wife as members of the same household, and cohabit successively with her. Children born of these marriages are sometimes regarded as the legal descendants of the eldest brother-husband only; in other cases it appears that when a child is born it is attributed to him

by whom the mother asserts that she has conceived it. Among the Nayars of S.W. India there is a so-called form of polyandry which has played an important though rather deceptive

949

part in the theories of marriage. A girl goes through a form of marriage with a man, but then really consorts with a number of men who need not be related to one another. She lives apart from her partners, who cohabit with her successively by agreement among themselves. Owing to the matrilineal institutions of this people, the children of such marriages inherit from their mother’s brother, but the social importance of fatherhood is seen in the fact that the woman, when pregnant, always nominates one or other of the men as the father of the child, and he is obliged to provide for it and to educate it. Another account is that by Dr. Rivers, of the Toda polyandry, which can be taken as the representative of the simpler type of this institution in S. India. Among the Toda, several men, usually two or three brothers, share the wife, but it is the rule that they cohabit with her in succession. Again, the children are not owned in common by the husbands, but each child is allotted individually to one, not with reference to any presumption of physical paternity, but in virtue of a ritual act performed by the man over the child, an act which establishes social paternity and confers legitimate descent on the child (see above, 4). Polyandry is thus a compound marriage, in which cohabitation is usually successive, and not joint, while children and property are not shared by the husbands. 27. Polygyny.—This is a form of marriage in which several wives are united to one man, each having the status of legal consort, while her offspring are regarded as the legal descendants of the husband. As an institution polygyny (g.v.) exists in all parts of the world. There are very few primitive tribes about whom we are informed that a man is not allowed, if he can, to enter into more than one union. Many peoples have been said to be monogamous, but it is difficult to infer from the data at our disposal whether monogamy is the prevalent practice, the moral ideal, or an institution safeguarded by sanctions. It must be remembered at once that polygyny is never practised throughout the community: there cannot exist a community in which every man would have several wives, since this would entail an enormous surplus of females over males (cf. however the important contribution to this subject by G. Pitt-Rivers, The Clash of Cultures and the Contact of Races, 1927). The second important point with regard to polygyny, which is seldom brought out clearly, is that in reality it is not so much a form of marriage fundamentally distinct from monogamy as rather a multiple monogamy. It is always in fact the repetition of a marriage contract, entered individually with each wife, establishing an individual relationship between the man and each of his consorts. As a rule each relationship is little affected legally or economically by the others. Where each wife has her separate household and the husband visits them in turn, polygynous marriage resembles very closely a temporarily interrupted monogamy. In such cases there is a series of individual marriages in which domestic arrangements, economics, parenthood as well as legal and religious elements do not as a rule seriously encroach on each other. The polygyny with separate households is more universally prevalent. Among the great majority of the Bantu and Hamitic peoples of Africa, where the number of wives, especially in the case of chiefs, is often considerable, each wife commonly occupies a separate hut with her children, and manages an independent household with well-defined legal and economic rights. Where, on the other hand, as among many N. American tribes, two or more wives share the same household, polygyny affects the mstitution of matrimonial

life much more deeply. In most cases the motive for polygyny is economic and political. Thus in the Trobriand Islands (Melanesia) the chief's income is due to his wives’ annual endowment. In many African communi-

ties the chief derives his wealth from the plurality of his wives,

who by means of the produce of their agricultural labour enable him to exercise the lavish hospitality upon which so much of his power rests. A multitude of wives, however, may increase not only a man’s wealth but also his social importance, reputation and authority, apart from the influence of the number of his children. Hence we find in many Bantu communities of Africa that the desire to have many wives is one of the leading motives in the

tS

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life of every man; while the fact that in many Melanesian and Polynesian communities polygyny is a prerogative of the chief testifies to the social prestige attaching to it. 28. Monogamy.—Monogamy is not only the most important form of marriage, not only that which predominates in most communities, and which occurs, statistically speaking, in an overwhelming majority of instances, but it is also the pattern and prototype of marriage. Both polyandry and polygyny are compound marriages, consisting of several unions combined into a larger system, but each of them constituted upon the pattern of a monogamous marriage. As a rule polygamous cohabitation is a successive monogamy and not joint domesticity; children and property are divided, and in every other respect the contracts are entered individually between two partners at a time. Monogamy as the unique and exclusive form of marriage, in the sense that bigamy is regarded as a grave criminal offence and a sin as well as a sacrilege, is very rare indeed. Such an exclusive ideal and such a rigid legal view of marriage is perhaps not to be found outside the modern, relatively recent development of Western Culture. It is not implied in Christian doctrine even. Apart from such isolated phenomena as the recent Church of Latter Day Saints (Mormons) and the heretical sect of Anabaptists (16th century), polygyny was legally practised and accepted by the Church in the middle ages, and it occurs sporadically as a legal institution accepted by Church and State as recently as the middle of the 17th century (Westermarck, H.H.M., III., 50-51). Monogamy as pattern and prototype of human marriage, on the other hand, is universal. The whole institution, in its sexual, parental, economic, legal and religious aspects, is founded on the fact that the real function of marriage—sexual union, production and care of children, and the co-operation which it implies—requires essentially two people, and two people only, and that in the overwhelming majority of cases two people only are united in order to fulfil these facts. Conjugation necessarily takes place only between two organisms; children are produced by two parents only, and always socially regarded as the offspring of one couple; the economics of the household are never conducted group-wise; the legal contract is never entered upon jointly; the religious sanction is given only to the union of two. A form of marriage based on communism in sex, joint parenthood, domesticity, group-contract and a promiscuous sacrament has never been described. Monogamy is, has been and will remain the only true type of marriage. To place polygyny and polyandry as “forms of marriage” co-ordinate with monogamy is erroneous. To speak about “group-marriage” as another variety shows a complete lack of understanding as to the nature of marriage. 29. Theories of Marriage.—The last conclusions reveal once

more the important truth of scientific method that a full knowledge of facts cuts the ground from under most hypothetical speculations. The theories of human marriage have mainly been concerned with its “origins” and “history,” and attempts were made at ranging the various “forms of marriage” into an evolutionary series. Once we come to recognise that marriage is fundamentally one, and that its varieties correspond not to stages of evolution, but are determined by the type of community, its economic and political organisation, and the character of its material culture, the problem becomes one of observation and sociological analysis, and ceases to move on the slippery plane of hypothesis. The view that marriage originated in “promiscuity,” “hetairism” or “matrimonial communism,” and that monogamy is a product of gradual development through a multitude of stages, has been advanced by Bachofen, Morgan and McLennan; has found wholehearted or partial support by a number of eminent writers (Lord Avebury, Fison, Howitt, Tylor, Spencer and Gillen, Post, Kohler, Kovalevsky, Lippert, Schurtz, Frazer and others); and has been criticised and combated by Darwin, Westermarck, Lang, Grosse and Crawley. -The writings of Morgan’s school suffer from an over-emphasis of the sexual aspect, often coupled with prudish reticences; from a

misinterpretation of linguistic evidence (see Kinsutp); from a

neglect of the parental and economic aspect of marriage. They are full of fantastic and meaningless concepts such as “promis.

cuity,” “group-marriage,”’ “primitive communism,” which as a rule are not even laid down with sufficient concrete details to give hold to our imagination and remain mere words on paper.

The

German writers of this school, who have contributed a voluminous output, especially in the Zeitschrift für vergleichende Rechtswissenschaft, have certainly not neglected the legal side of marriage, but in applying to primitive societies the dry legal formalism of modern jurisprudence, and in ruthlessly forcing all facts into the cut and dried scheme of “marriage stages,” they have contributed but little which will have lasting value. The recent advocates of Morgan’s and Bachofen’s view, notably Sumner, Rivers, Keller, Briffault, have given a much better and more concrete outline of the hypothetical early stages of marriage, But even this last stand of the “group-marriage” theory is based

on an inadequate analysis of the institution and an unwarranted assumption of early sexual and economic communism as well as of group-motherhood Modern theories of marriage follow closely the lead of Darwin

on the biological side, of Westermarck in his sociological analysis, and of Crawley in some of his psychological suggestions.

Such

writers as Lowie, Kroeber and Howard in America; Thurnwald, W. Schmidt and Koppers in Germany; A. R. Brown, Malinowski, and Pitt-Rivers in Great Britain, both in their theories and in their field work show a far greater interest in the sociological analysis

of marriage, in its relation to the family, in the correlation of its aspects, in the sociological working of sexual customs, whether these be tabus, relaxations or excesses, in their reference to marriage. Some new light on marriage has been thrown by those psychoanalysts, notably J. C. Flügel, who are prepared to give serious consideration to facts in their bearing upon the Freudian doctrine

(cf. Malinowski, Sex and Repression in Savage Society). Finally important contributions to the theory of marriage have been made by those students who approach the problem in its practical applications: the eugenists (see Eugenics Review): students of population (see Raymond Pearl’s Journal of Human Biology); and scien-

tific aspects of social hygiene (American J. of Social Hygiene). Marriage like most problems of anthropology is ceasing to be a subject of speculation and becoming one of empirical research. BIBLIOGRAPHY .—See S. A. Leathley, The History of Marriage and Divorce (1916); E. Goeller, Das Eherecht im neuen Kirchlichen Gesetzbuch (1918); Ahmad Shukri, Muhammadan Law of Marriage and Divorce (1917) ; Sir Gurudasa Vandyopadhyaya, The Hindu Law of Marriage and Stridhana (1915); M. Granet, La polygynie sororate et le sororat dans la Chine féodale (1920); E. D. Vergette, Certain Marriage Customs of some of the Tribes in the Protectorate of Sierra Leone (1917); A. W. Howitt, The Native Tribes of South-East

Australia (1904); E. Spencer and F. J. Gillen, The Arunta (1927);

B. Spencer, The Native Tribes of the Northern Territory of Australia (1914) ; J. G. Frazer, Totemism and Exogamy (1910); N W. Thomas, Kinship Organization and Group Marriage in Australia (1906); E. A. Westermarck, The History of Human Marriage (3 vols. 1921); S.

Schoeffer, Das Eheproblem (1922); K. Iwasaki, Das japanische Eherecht (1904) ; E. A. Westermarck, Les Cérémonies du mariage au Maroc (1921). See also bibliographies to MARrRrIAcE: Law; SORORATE; LevrrAte; Cross-Covusrin MARRIAGE and COURTSHIP. (B. Ma.)

MARRIAGE, LAW OF. Marriage may be defined either

(a) as the act, ceremony, or process by which the legal relationship of husband and wife is constituted; or (b) as a physical, legal, and moral union between man and woman in complete community of life for the establishment of a family. It is possible to discriminate between three stages, taking marriage in the latter sense as an institution—the animal or physical stage, the proprietary or legal stage, and the personal or moral stage. In the first or physical stage the relation of the sexes was unregulated, and in many cases of brief duration. In the second or legal stage greater permanence was secured in marriage by assigning the husband a property right in his wife or wives. In the last stage the

proprietary relation falls more and more into the background, and the relation of husband and wife approximates that of two individuals entirely equal before the law. Although in the history of

marriage these three stages have been roughly successive, the order of their entering the conscious experience of the individual

MARRIAGE, LAW OF

95%

Roman Law.—The three primitive modes of marriage were is usually the reverse of their order in the development of the race; and in the solemnization of a marriage based upon affection confarreatio, coemptio in manum, and usus, all of which had the and choice the growth of the relation begins with the moral, ad- effect of placing the woman in the “power” (manus) of her vances to the legal, and culminates in the physical union, each one | husband, and on the same footing as the children. The first was a of these deriving its meaning and its worth from the preceding. In religious ceremony before ten witnesses, in which an ox was most legal systems marriage, in the sense of a ceremony, takes the sacrificed and a wheaten cake broken and divided between the form of a contract—-the mutual assent of the parties being the spouses by the priest. Coemptio was a conveyance of the woman prominent and indispensable feature. While the consent of parties by mancipatio, and might be described as a fictitious sale per aes is universally deemed one of the conditions of a legal marriage, all et libram. Usus was the acquisition of the wife by prescription, the incidents of the relationship constituted by the act are abso- through her cohabiting with the husband for one year, without lutely fixed by law. The jurist has to deal with marriage in so far having been absent from his house three continuous nights. But as it creates the legal status of husband and wife. It should be a true marriage might be concluded without adopting any of these added that, while marriage is generally spoken of by lawyers as a modes, which all fell into desuetude and with them the subjection contract, its complete isolation from all other contracts is in- of the wife to the manus. Marriage without manus was contracted variably recognized. Its peculiar position may be seen at once by by consent, without writing or formality of any kind. The recomparing it with other contracts giving rise to continuous rela- strictions as to age, relationship by consanguinity and affinity, tionships with more or less indefinite obligations, like those of land- previous marriage, etc., were in the main those which have conlord and tenant, master and servant, etc. In these the parties may tinued to prevail in modern Europe with one important exception. in general make their rights and duties what they please, the law The consent of the paterfamilias to the marriage of the children only intervening when they are silent. In marriage every resulting under his power was essential. Canon Law.—The canon law of marriage is based partly on right and duty is fixed by the law.

Inferior Forms of Union.—Besides true marriage, inferior forms of union have from time to time been recognized, and may be briefly noticed here. These have all but disappeared from modern society, depending as they do on matrimonial restrictions

now obsolete. The institution of slavery is a fruitful source of this kind of debased matrimony. In Roman law no slave could contract marriage whether with another slave or a free person. The union of male and female slaves (contubernium) was recognized for various purposes; a free woman entering into a union with a slave incurred under the S.C. Claudianum the forfeiture of her own liberty; but the bond-woman might be the concubine of a freeman. In the United States, where slavery was said to be regulated by the principle of the civil law, the marriage of slaves was so far recognized that on emancipation complete matrimony took effect and the children became legitimate without any new ceremony. In Roman law no legal marriage could be contracted unless there was connubium between the parties. Originally there was no connubium between plebs and patricians, and in later times between the Latini and Peregrini, unless it had been expressly conferred. The Lex Julia et Papia Poppaea introduced restrictions depending on the condition of the parties which later legislation extended and perpetuated. Senators under that law were forbidden to marry freedwomen or women of inferior rank, and the husband of a freedwoman becoming a senator was set free from his marriage. In the canon law new restrictions were developed. The order of the clergy were forbidden to marry. And disparity of faith was recognized by the early church as a bar to matrimony, e.g., between Christians and pagans and between orthodox

the Roman law, the validity of which the Church from the first recognized, partly on the Jewish law as modified by the new principles introduced by Christ and his apostles, developed by the fathers of the Church and mediaeval schoolmen, and regulated and defined by popes and councils. The most important of these principles was that of the indissolubility of marriage, proclaimed by Christ without qualification according to Mark x. 11, 12, and with the qualifying clause “saving for the cause of fornication” according to Matt. v. 32. This lofty view of marriage, according to which man and wife are made “one flesh” by the act of God

(“What therefore God hath joined together, let no man put asunder,” Mark x. 9) was, however, modified by the idea of the consummating act of marriage as in itself something unholy, a result of the Fall. Christ himself, indeed, did not teach this. It is to St. Paul that the idea of marriage as a sacrament is to be traced, in the mystic comparison of the relations of husband and wife to those of Christ and his Church. (Eph. v. 23-32.) Marriage, from being no more than a terminable civil contract, became a thing holy, a mystic union of souls and bodies never to be divided; valid, indeed, but not spiritually complete, without the public blessing of the Church (Tertullian, Ad uxorem, lib. ii. cap. 9); and from Augustine’s time onward it was reckoned as a sacrament. But at the same time there was a tendency to restrict its rights and its range. So far as marriage was a physical union, this had for its object solely the perpetuation of the race and the avoidance of fornication; the most that was conceded was that the intention of having offspring not only made the conjugal act blameless, but even gave to the desire that inspired it an element of good. (Augustine, de nupt. et.conc. 3.) But the ideal married and heretics. (See Dictionary of Christian Antiquities, art. life was that attributed to Mary and Joseph. Thus Augustine cited this as an example that a true marriage may exist where “Marriage”.) CoNCUBINAGE, which such restrictions tended to develop, is there is a mutual vow of chastity (op. cit. 12), and held that the noticed under a separate heading (q.v.). In the left-handed or sooner this relation was established the better. (De bono conjug. “morganatic” marriages of the German royal families we have 22.) Marriage being then an inferior state, to be discouraged the nearest approach ever made by concubinage to true marriage, rather than the reverse, the tendency was rapidly to narrow the the children being legitimate, but neither they nor the wife field within which it might be contracted. Remarriage (bigamy) acquiring any right to the rank or fortune of the husband. The was only allowed after many struggles, and then only to the laity; marriage of persons of different religions frequently requires the St. Paul had laid down that a “bishop” must be “the husband of intervention of the law as to the faith of the children, more one wife,” and to this day the priests of the Orthodox Eastern particularly in Europe as between Roman Catholics and Protes- Church may not remarry. Clerical celibacy, at first a counsel of tants. English law gives the father, except under special circum- perfection, was soon to become the rule of the Church, though stances, the right to dictate the faith of his children. (See Ix- it was long before it was universally enforced in the West; in the

FANT.) The practice on this point varies in Europe—the question

being ignored in French law, Germany following in some parts

the same rule as England, in others giving effect to ante-nuptial stipulations. In Ireland mixed marriages (i.e, between Roman Catholic and Protestant) were by rọ Geo. II. c. 13 null and void if celebrated by a Roman Catholic priest. This act was repealed

by 33 & 34 Vict. c. 110, which permits mixed marriages to be

validly celebrated by an Episcopalian or Roman Catholic clergyman, subject tọ conditions set forth in s. 38.

East it still applies only to monks, nuns and bishops. (See Cerrpacy.) The marriage of the laity was hampered by the creation of a number of impediments. The few and definite pro-

hibitions of the Roman and of the Jewish law (Lev. xviii. 6-18; xx.) in the matter of marriage between kindred, were indefinitely extended; until in 506 the Council of Agde laid it down that any consanguinity or affinity whatever constituted an impediment. Moreover, man and wife being “one flesh,” the Church exaggerated relationship by affinity into equal importance with that of con-

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sanguinity as an impediment to matrimony; and, finally, to all this added the impediments created by “spiritual affinity,” że., the relations established between baptizer and baptized, confirmer and confirmed, and between godparents, their godchildren, and their godchildren’s relatives. All this resulted in hopeless confusion and uncertainty, and it was early found necessary to modify it. Thus Pope Gregory I.

limited the impediment to the 7th degree of relationship inclusive (civil computation) which was afterwards made the law of the empire by Charlemagne. Later still Innocent ITI., by a decree (ath Lateran Council), permitted marriages between a husband and the relations of his wife, and vice versa, beyond the 4th degree inclusive. (Canonical computation.) This remains the canonical rule of the Roman Catholic Church. Impediments due to spiritual affinity were limited by the Council of Trent to the relation of the baptizer and baptized; the baptizer and the parents of the baptized; the baptizer and the godfather and godmother; the godparents and the baptized and its parents: z.e., a godfather may not marry the mother of the child he has held at the font,

nor the godmother the father of such child.

In the fully developed canon law impediments to marriage are of two kinds, public and private; near relationship, for instance, is a public impediment, impotence and force are private impediments. Impediments are further divided into separating or merely suspensive; to the first class belongs, e.g., a previous marriage not dissolved by death, which involves the nullification of the marriage even where through ignorance the crime of bigamy is not involved; to the second belongs the case of one or both of the contracting parties being under the age of puberty. Impediments, moreover, are absolute or relative; near relationship, for instance, is an absolute impediment, difference of religion between the parties a relative impediment. In addition to consanguinity and affinity, impuberty and existing marriage, the canon law lays down as public and absolute impediments to marriage the taking of holy orders and the vows of chastity made on entering any of the religious orders approved by the Holy See. In these impediments the canon law further distinguishes between those which are based on the law of nature (jus naturae) and those which are based on the law of the Church (jus ecclesise). From impediments based on the law of nature, or of God, there is na power even in the pope to dispense; e.g., marriage of father and daughter, brother and sister, or remarriage of husband or wife during the lifetime of the wife or husband of another marriage, which is held to be a violation of the very nature of marriage as an indissoluble union. From impediments arising out of the law of the Church dispensations are granted, more or less readily, either by the pope or by the bishop of the diocese in virtue of powers delegated by the pope. (See Dispensation.) Thus dispensations may be granted for marriage between persons related by consanguinity in any beyond the 2nd degree and not in the direct line of ascent or descent; e.g., between uncle and niece (confned by the Council of Trent to the case of royal marriages for reasons of State) and between cousins-german, or in the case of marriage with a heretic. In this latter case a dispensation is now (7.a., since the papal decrees ne temere of Aug. 2, 1907, which came into force at Easter 1908) only granted on condition that the parties are married by a Catholic bishop, or a priest accredited by him, that no religious ceremony shall take place except in a Catholic church, and that all the children shall be brought up in the Roman Catholic faith. In the absence of any impediment a marriage is according to the canon law completed between baptized persons by the facts of consent and consummation; the principle is still maintained that the parties to the marriage, not the priest, are the “ministers of the sacrament.” From the first, however, the Church, while recognizing the validity of private contracts, enjoined the addition of a public religious ceremony. (1 Tim. iv. 5.) Tertullian (de pudicitia, cap. iv.) says that clandestine marriages, not professed in the Church, were reckoned among Christians as all but fornication, and he speaks of the custom of seeking permission to marry from. the bishop, priests and deacons. (De monagamia, cap. xi.) This latter precaution became increasingly necessary as impedi-

ments were multiplied, and Charlemagne, in a capitulary of 802, forbade the celebration of a marriage until “the bishops, priests and elders of the people” had made diligent inquiry into the question of the consanguinity of the parties. This was the origin of the publication of banns which, long customary in France, was made obligatory on the whole Church by Pope Innocent III. In the Eastern Church the primitive practice survives in the cere-

monial blessing by the priest of the betrothal, as distinguished from the marriage ceremony. The ecclesiastical recognition of clandestine marriages, however, survived until the crying evil was

remedied by a decree of the Council of Trent (Sess. xiv. de matrim.), which laid it down that for a valid marriage it was at least necessary that consent should be declared before a priest and

in the presence of three witnesses.

Divorce, z.¢., the annulment of marriage for any cause but an impediment which makes the marriage ipso facto void, is unknown to the Roman Catholic Church. Separation a vinculo matrimonii is only possible under the canon law by a judicial

decree of nullity (ennullatio matrimonii), which implies, not the severing of the ties of a real marriage, but the solemn declaration that such marriage has never existed. There may, however, be a

“separation from bed and board?

(a thora et mensa), even

perpetual, which does not however

give either party the right

to remarry during the lifetime of the other. But, marriage not being regarded as a sacrament until consummated, it may be dissolved, if non-consummation be proved, by one or both parties

taking the religious vows, or by papal dispensation. The Church claims exclusive control over marriage, and the Council of Trent

anathematized the opinion held by Luther and other reformers, that it was properly a subject for the civil courts (si quis digerit causas matrimoniales non spectare ad judices ecclesiasticos anathema sit, Sess. xxiv. cap. 2). This attitude became of extreme political importance when even in Catholic countries the codes established civil marriage as the only legally binding form. England.—Marriage may be the subject of an ordinary contract on which an action may be brought by either party. It is not necessary that the promise should be in writing, or that any particular time should be named. Contracts in restraint of marriage, z.e., whase object is to prevent a person from marrying anybody whatever, are void, as are also contracts undertaking for reward to procure a marriage between two persons. These latter are termed marriage brocage contracts. Any man and woman are capable of marrying, subject to certain disabilities, some of which are said to be canonical as having been formerly under the cognisance of the ecclesiastical courts, others civil. The effect of a canonical disability as such was to make the marriage not void but voidable. The marriage must be set aside by regular process, and sentence pronounced during the lifetime of the parties. Impotence at the time of the marriage is a canonical disability. So was relationship within the prohibited degrees, which has been made an absolute avoidance of marriage by the Marriage Act 1835. Civil disabilities are (x) the fact that either party is already married and has a spouse still living (a decree nisi does not enable the parties to marry until it is made absolute); (2) the fact that either person is a party of unsound mind; (3) want of full age which, after remaining for centuries as in the Roman Law, viz., males 14, females 12, was, by the Age of Marriage Act, 1929, fixed at 16 for both sexes;

(4) relationship within the prohibited degrees. The statute which lawyers regard as establishing the rule on this last point is the 32 Hen. VIII. c. 38 (repealed in part by 2 & 3 Edw. VI. c. 23, in whole by 1 & 2 P. and M. c. 8, but revived by 1 Eliz. c. z, and so left as under the act of Edward), which enacts that “no prohibition, God’s law except, shall trouble or impeach any marriage without the Levitical degrees.” The forbidden marriages, as more particularly specified in previous statutes, are those between persons in the ascending and descending line in infinitum, and those between collaterals to the third degree inclusive, according to the computation of the civil law. The prohibitions extend not only to consanguinei (related by blood) but to afines (related by marriage), now altered so far as

a deceased wife’s sister is concerned.

(See p. 947.) The act of

MARRIAGE, LAW OF 1835 enacted that “all marriages which shall hereafter be celebrated between

persons

within the prohibited degrees of con-

sanguinity or affinity shall be absolutely null and void to all’ intents and purposes whatsoever.” They had previously been only voidable. The act at the same time legalized marriages within the prohibited degrees of affinity (but not consanguinity) actually celebrated before Aug. 31, 1835. | For many years an active and ceaseless agitation was carried on on behalf of the legalization in England of marriage with a deceased wife’s sister. In all the self-governing colonies, with the exception of Newfoundland, the restriction had ceased to exist. ,

953

after suspended for zı days in some conspicuous place in the registrar’s office.

Any person whose consent is necessary to an

ecclesiastical licence may forbid the issue of a certificate, but in default of such prohibition the certificate will issue at ‘the end of the 21 days. The marriage may then take place on any day within three-months of the entry of notice, and in one of the following ways: (1) in a cértified place of religious worship, registered for the ‘solemnization of marriage; in that case a registrar of the district with two witnesses: must be present, and the ceremony must include a mutual declaration of assent by the parties

and a disavowal of any impediment; (2) at the superintendent

' The first act legalizing marriage with a deceased wife’s sister was adopted by South Australia. The royal assent, however, was not

registrar's office, with the same declaration, but ‘with no religious service; (3) in a church according to the usual form, the consent

given till the parliament of that state had five times passed the bill. In quick succession similar statutes followed in Victoria,

of the minister thereof having been previously obtained; (4) ac-

Tasmania,.New South Wales, Queensland, New Zealand, West Australia, Barbados, Canada, Mauritius, Natal and Cape Colony. As regards the Channel Islands, marriages of the kind in question were made legal in 1899, and in 1907 in the Isle of Man. In England, the bill to render marriage with a deteased wife’s sister valid was first adopted by the House of Commons in 1850, and only became law by the Deceased Wife’s Sister Marriage Act 1907. The act contains a proviso justifying clergymen in refusing to solemnize marriages with a deceased wife’s sister, and it preserves the peculiar status of the wife’s sister under the Matrimonial Causes Act 1857, under which adultery with her by the husband is incestuous adultery. The celebration of marriages is now regulated wholly by statutory legislation. A complete list of the acts regulating the solemnization of marriage or confirming marriages, which through some defect might be void, will be found in Phillimore’s Ecclesiastical Law, 2nd ed. (1895). The most important acts in force are the Marriage Acts 1823, 1836, 1886 and 1898. The first of these regulates marriages within the Church of England, but was intended to be of universal application, Jews and Quakers only being excepted by sec. 31. It requires either the previous publication of banns, or a licence from the proper etclesiastical authority. As to banns, the rule of the rubric, so far as not altered by the statute, is required to be observed. They must be published on three successive Sundays at morning service after the second lesson, in the church of the parish in which the parties dwell; the bishop may, however, authorize the publication of banns in a public chapel. Seven days’ notice must be given to the clergy-

man of the names of the partiés, their place of abode, and the time during which they have lived there. If either party is under age, the dissent of the parents or guardians expressed at the time of publication of banns renders such publication null and void. Licence in lieu of banns may only be granted by the archbishop, bishop or other authority, for the solemnization of a marriage within the church of the parish in which one of the parties shall

have resided for 15 days before. Before a licence can be granted an oath must be taken as to the fact of residence and that the necessary consent has been obtained in the case of persons under age. The father, or lawful guardian, is the proper pérson to sent to the marriage of a minor, ahd the place of any such son incapacitated mentally is taken by the lord chancellor. absence of such consent does not, however, avoid a mafriage

conperThe once

solemnized. But if persons wilfully intermarry (unless by special licence) in a place not being a church or public chapel, or without due publication of banns or proper licence, or before & person not in holy orders, the marriage is null and void to all purposes. Marriage must be celebrated within three months after banns or licence, and between the hours of eight in the morning and three in the afternoon. For the relief of the great body of Dissenters the act of 1836 was passed. It permits marriage to be solemnized in two additional

cording to the usages of Jews and Quakers. The place of marriage in all cases must have been specified in the notice and certificate. In the second case, when it is desired to proceed by licence, notice must be given to the registrar of the district in which one of the persons resides, together with a declaration that he or she has resided for 15 days therein, that there is no impediment, and that the necessary consents if any have been obtained. The notice is not exhibited ‘in the ‘registrar’s office, and the certificate may be obtained at the expiration of one whole ‘day after entry, together with the licence. No reégistrar’s licence can be granted for a marriage in church or according to the forms of the Church of England—the ecclesiastical authorities retaining their jurisdiction in that respect. It is also provided that in the case of persons wilfully intermarrying in -a place other than that mentioned in the notice and ‘certificate, or without notice or certificate, etc., the marriage ‘shall be ndll and void. The various rules as to consent of parents, etc., to the marriages of minors are regulations of procedure only. The absence of the necessary consent is not a disability invalidating a marriage actually solemnized. The Act 26 Geo. IT. c. 33, commonly known as Lord Hardwicke’s Act, which forbids the solémmization of marriage without banns or licence, also enacts that “in no case whatsoever shall any suit or proceeding be had in any ecclesiastical court in order to compel a celebration j% facie ecclesiae, by reason of any contract of matrimony whatsoever whether per verba de presenti or per verba de futuro.” Blackstone observes that previous to this act “any contract made per verba de presenti, or in words of the present tense, and im case of cohabitation per verba de futuro also, was deemed valid marriage to many purposes; and the parties might be compelled in the spiritual courts to celebrate it in facte ecclesiae.” Royal marriages in England have been subject to special laws.

The Royal Marriage Act of 1772 (12 Geo. III. c. 11), passed in consequence of the marriages of the dukes of Cumberland and Gloucester, enacted that “no descendant of his late majesty George II. (other than the issue of princesses married or who may marry into foreign families) shall be capable of contracting matrimeny without the previous consent of his majesty, his héirs and successors, signified under the Great Seal. But in case any destendant of George IT., being above 25 years old, shall persist to contract a marriage disapproved of by his majesty, such descendant, after giving 12 months’ notice to the privy council, may contract such marriage, and the same may be duly solemnizéd without the consent of his majesty, etc., and shall be good except both Houses of Parliament shall declare their disapprobation thereto.” In 1886 an act was passed in the British parliament to remove doubts which had been entertained as to the validity of certain marriages solemnized in England when one of the parties was resident in Scotland. The Summary Jurisdiction (Married Wo-

men) Act of 1895 enabled a wife whose husband is convicted of ways—viz., (1) by certificate of the superintendent registrar of a an assault on her, or who has been deserted by him, or been district without licence, and (2) by such certificate with licence. In the first case, notice must be given to the registrar of the dis-

trict or districts within which the parties have resided for seven days previous, which fiotice is inscribed in a farriage-notice book, open to public inspection at all reasonable times, and theres

obliged owing to his cruelty to live apatt from him, to apply to the justices, who are empowered by the act to make an order for separation and for payment by the husband to his wife of such weekly sum, not exceeding two pounds, as théy may consider teasonable. The Marriage Act 1898 authorized the celebration of

954

MARRIAGE, LAW OF

marriages in places of worship duly registered for the solemniza- on any day at any time and without the presence of witnesses,” tion of marriages under the Marriage Act of 1836 without the and either by writing or orally or by signs, and in any form which presence of the registrar, on condition of their being solemnized is clearly expressive of intention. Such a marriage is as effectua] in the presence of a person duly authorized by the governing to all intents and purposes as a public marriage. The children body of the place of worship in question. It also made further of it would be legitimate; and the parties to it would have all the provision for the due recording of all marriages in the general rights in the property of each other, given by the law of Scotregisters. The Marriages Validity Act of 1899 removed doubts as land to husband and wife. (3) A promise followed by copula does to the validity of marriages in England on Irish banns and in Ire- not constitute marriage, unless followed either by solemnization land on English banns. Lastly, the Marriage with Foreigners Act in facie ecclesiae or declarator. Lord Moncreiff’s opinion in the 1906 enabled a British subject desirous of marrying a foreigner case of Brown v. Burns is admitted to be good law, viz. that in a foreign country to comply with the foreign law by obtaining declarator is essential to the constitution of a marriage of this from a registrar a certificate that no legal impediment to the kind, so that, if no such declarator be brought in the lifetime of marriage has been shown. Similar certificates, by arrangement both parties, the marriage can never be established afterwards. between His Majesty and foreign countries, are issued in the case The copula is presumed to have reference to the promise, but of a foreigner desirous of marrying a British subject in Great evidence may be adduced to show that such was not the case. Britain. By the Marriage (Scotland) Act 1856 it is enacted that no The Foreign Marriage Act 1892 has consolidated the English irregular marriage shall be valid in Scotland, unless one of the law relating to marriages celebrated abroad, and brings it into parties has lived in Scotland for the 21 days next preceding the harmony with the current tendencies of marriage law reform marriage, or has his or her usual residence there at the time. generally. Under it a marriage between British subjects abroad is “Habit and repute” has sometimes been spoken of as constituting as valid as a marriage duly solemnized in England (as heretofore), marriage in the law of Scotland, but it is more correctly deif celebrated in accordance with the local law or in the presence scribed as evidence from which marriage may be inferred. The of diplomatic or consular agents who are appointed to act as repute must be the general, constant, and unvarying belief of “marriage officers.” The old fiction of assimilation of a British friends and neighbours, not merely the controverted opinion of a embassy to British soil can no longer be relied upon to uphold a section of them. The cohabitation must be in Scotland, but in one marriage at a British embassy solemnized by an ordained clergy- case proof of cohabitation in another country was allowed, as man. An order in Council of Oct. 28, 1892, moreover, provides tending to throw light on the nature of the cohabitation in Scotthat in the case of any marriage under the act, if it appears to the land. The consent of parents is not necessary to the validity of marriage officer that the woman about to be married is a British the marriage, even of minors, but marriage under the age of subject, and that the man is an alien, he must be satisfied that puberty with or without such consent is void. the marriage will be recognized by the law of the foreign country United States.—The absence of ecclesiastical courts has sugto which the alien belongs. gested difficulties as to the extent to which the law of England A marriage may be solemnized on board one of His Majesty’s on this subject continued to prevail after the revolution. Bishop ships at a foreign station, provided a warrant of a secretary of holds it to be the universal fact running through all the cases State has authorized the commanding officer to be a marriage that everywhere in the country the English decisions on marriage officer. At sea, marriages on British public or private ships seem and divorce are referred to with the same apparent deference still valid at common law, if performed by an episcopally or- which is shown on other subjects to the decisions of the English dained minister. The Merchant Shipping Act 1894 (s. 240) pro- common law and equity tribunals. The same author observes vides that the master of a ship for which an official log is re- that “all our marriage and divorce laws, and of course all our quired shall enter in it every marriage taking place on board, statutes on the subject, in so far as they pertain to localities with the names and ages of the parties. embraced within the limits of particular States, are State laws Again, under the Foreign Marriage Act all marriages solem- and State statutes, the national power with us not having legisnized within the British lines by a chaplain or officer or other lative or judicial cognizance of the matter within those localities.” person officiating under the orders of the commanding officer of a Some of the States have extended the ages below which marriage British army serving abroad, are as valid in law as if they had cannot take place. The common law of the States is assumed been solemnized in Great Britain subject to due observance of all to be that “a contract per verba de presenti, or per verba de futuro forms required by law. The Naval Marriages Act 1908 authorizes, cum copula, constitutes a complete marriage.” Conditions, howfor the purpose of marriages in Great Britain, the publication of ever, may be imposed by the various State legislatures, and as to banns and the issue of certificates on board His Majesty’s ships these the rule has established itself in American jurisprudence that in certain cases, or when one of the parties to a marriage intended “a marriage good at common law is good notwithstanding the to be solemnized in Great Britain is an officer, seaman or marine, existence of any statute on the subject, unless the statute conborne on the books of one of His Majesty’s ships at sea. tains express words of nullity.” Thus in Pennsylvania, where a The principle of the English law of marriage, that a marriage statute provided that all marriages “should be solemnized before contracted abroad is valid if it has been solemnized according to 12 witnesses,” marriages not so celebrated were nevertheless held the dex loci, may be now taken to apply just as much to a marriage to be good. In New Hampshire justices and ministers of the in a heathen as in a Christian country. Whether the marriage has gospel are authorized to solemnize marriage, and all other persons or has not been celebrated according to Christian laws has no are forbidden to do so under penalties; yet a marriage by consent, bearing upon the question, providing it is a monogamous marriage as at common law, without justice or minister, has been held valid. —a marriage which prevents the man who enters into it from On the other hand, under a very similar statute in Massachusetts, marrying any other woman while his wife continues alive. it was held that “parties could not solemnize their own marriage,” Seotland.—The chief point of distinction, as compared with and that a marriage by mutual agreement, not in accordance with English law, is the recognition of irregular marriages. (1) “A the statute, was void. Bishop regards this as an isolated exception sublic or regular marriage,” says Fraser, “is one celebrated, afier to the general course of the decisions. So when State legislation lue proclamation of banns, by a minister of religion; and it may requires any particular form to be used the want thereof only de celebrated either in a church or in a private house, and on any invalidates the act if the statute expressly so enacts. Many of

day of the week at any hour of the day.” The ministers of the National Church at first alone could perform the ceremony; but

the State codes inflict penalties on ministers or justices for celebrating the marriage of minors without the consent of the parents

ther for husband and wife.” These declarations “may be emitted

Nevada, Washington, the Dakotas and Montana have for long

he privilege was extended to Episcopalians by ro Anne c. 7 or guardians. The original law as to prohibited degrees has been (1711), and to other ministers by '4 and s Will. IV. c. 28 (1834). considerably modified in the States. The prohibition of marriage (2) A marriage may also “be constituted by declarations made with a deceased wife’s sister has been abolished in the United xy the man and the woman that they presently do take each States. But New Hampshire, Ohio, Indiana, Kansas, Arkansas,

—

MARRIAGE-RATE

955

forbidden marriages between first cousins by blood, and Louisiana, ' consent of parents have been observed. (See also Marriage with Oregon, Pennsylvania, Michigan, Nebraska, Utah and Wisconsin Foreigners Act, supra.) have since adopted the same principle. Virginia prohibits the marThe code of 1900 lays down rules applicable to the celebration riage of a woman with the husband of her brother’s or sister’s of all marriages in Germany. Civil marriage alone is recognized daughter. by the code. It is effected by the declaration of the parties before Attention is also being paid to the question of marriage from a a registrar in the presence of each other of their intention to be physical point of view. New Jersey prohibits the marriage of any married. Two witnesses of full age must be present. The registrar person who has been confined in any public asylum as an epileptic, asks each of the parties whether he or she will marry the other, insane or feeble-minded patient, without a medical certificate and on their answer in the affirmative declares them duly married from two physicians of complete recovery, and that there is no and enters the marriage in the register. The marriage must be probability of the transmission of such defects. This prohibits preceded by a public notice. Marriages are void between dethe granting of a marriage licence where either party is an habit- scendants and ascendants; relatives by marriage in the ascendual drunkard, epileptic, imbecile or insane, or where the applicant ue or descending line; brother and sister of the whole or half at the time of making application is under the influence of any inlood. toxicant or narcotic drug. In Michigan, Minnesota, Kansas, New In the great majority of the other European countries civil Hampshire and Oregon, marriage is prohibited to epileptics, etc., marriage is obligatory. In Roman Catholic countries the parties except when the woman is over 45. In Michigan, also, marriage is usually supplement the obligatory civil marriage by a religious forbidden to anyone who has suffered from a venereal disease and ceremony, more especially since the papal decree Ne temere of has not been cured. The equality of property rights between Aug. 2, 1907 (which came into force at Easter 1908), which rehusband and wife is fully established in America. Indeed, in many quires marriages between Roman Catholics, or between Roman States the movement has gone so far as to give the wife in matters Catholics and those not professing that faith, to be celebrated of property and in reference to divorce greater privileges than the before a bishop or priest duly authorized for the celebration husband. Thus a husband is often liable for a wife’s debts where thereof. a wife would not be, mutatis mutandis, for a husband’s; and a wife Brsr1ocraPHY.—E. A. Westermarck, History of Human Marriage, may usually obtain a decree of divorce for any ground on which 3rd ed. (1901), with other works cited in the article Famiry. M. one may be awarded to the husband, and, in addition, for neglect Neustadt, Kritische Studien zum Familienrecht des bürgerlichen Gesetzbuchs (1907); O. D. Watkins, Holy Matrimony (1895), a compreto provide sustenance or support. Emphasis on the personal or hensive study of the history and theory of Christian marriage, from moral relation of the parties in marriage tends to throw into the the High Anglican point of view; J. Wickham Legg, “Notes on the background the legal aspects and requirements; and it tends also Marriage Service in the Book of Common Prayer of 1549,” in Eccleto minimize, so far as the State is concerned, the religious and siological Essays (1905), a valuable comparative study of Christian marriage rites, with references; the articles “Ehe, Christliche,” sacramental aspect of marriage. Marriage tends to become a by Gottschick, andnumerous “Eherecht” (many references), by Sehling, in relation established by parties between themselves, and one in Herzog-Hauck, Realencyklopédie, 3rd ed., vol. v. (Leipzig, 1898); which the consent of the parties becomes the only constitutive Abbé André, Cours de droit canon, 3rd ed. (1901), art. “Marriage,” element. In the theory of American law no ceremony is essential “A ffinité,” etc. See also AcE; Divorce; Famity; Huspanp AND WIFE; LEGITIMACY to create the marriage relation. But this position has never been endorsed by any considerable proportion of the community, and AND LEGITIMATION; MORGANATIC MARRIAGE.

in fact probably 58 and perhaps %%, of the marriages in the United States are contracted through some ceremony. Other Countries.—In France, articles 144-226 of the Code Napoléon, as amended by an act of 1907, prescribe the qualifications and conditions of marriage. The man must be 18 and the woman I5 years of age. A son and daughter under 21 cannot marry without consent of the father and mother, or of the father only if they disagree, or of the survivor if one be dead. If both are dead grandfather and grandmother take their place. Between the ages of 21 and 30 the parties must still obtain the consent of their parents, but if this be refused it can be regulated by means of a “respectful and formal act” before a notary. If the consent is not given within 30 days the marriage may take place without it. If neither parents nor grandparents be alive, parties under 21 require the consent of the family council. These rules apply to natural children when affiliated; those not affiliated require the consent of a specially appointed guardian. Marriage is prohibited between all ascendants and descendants in the direct line, and between persons related by marriage in the same line, between brother and sister, between uncle and niece, and brother-in-law and sister-in-law. Before the solemnization of marriage banns are required to be published for a period of ten days, which must include two Sundays, containing the names, occupations, and

domiciles of the parties and their parents.

There must be an

MARRIAGE-RATE.

The marriage-rate is generally ex-

pressed in terms of the number of persons married in any given population to each thousand of that population in a year. Thus if in a population of 1,250,000 there were 10,000 marriages in a year, the marriage-rate for that year would be 16-o—this rate being obtained by multiplying the number of marriages by two and dividing by 1,250,000. It is, of course, obvious that the rate will be affected by the proportion of marriageable people in the population under review, and that a population with an unusually high proportion of children under 15 years of age, or an unusually large proportion already married would, presumably, show a lower marriage-rate than would a population normally constituted

as to age and marital condition. For this reason, it is often urged that a truer measure is obtained by relating the rate, not to the entire population, but to the single, divorced and widowed who are of marriageable age. For anyone but the vital or social statistician, however, the ordinary marriage rate will suffice. Factors Affecting the Rate.—There are a variety of factors, social and economic, which affect the marriage-rate in greater or lesser degree; habit and custom, economic prosperity or adversity, housing facilities or their lack, or some such rare disturbing element as the World War. This last caused the marriage-rate in England and Wales to rise suddenly from 15-7 and 15-9 in the years 1913 and 1914 respectively to 19-4 in 1915, to fall to 13-8

interval of three days before the marriage can take place, and if a year is allowed to elapse fresh banns must be put up: On the

in 1917 and to rise to the unprecedented figure of 20-2 in 1920. Apart from such a cataclysmic upheaval, the marriage-rate is

day appointed by the parties, and in the parish to which one of them belongs, the marriage is celebrated by the civil officer or registrar reading over to them the various necessary documents,

not subject to century shows the birth and marriage-rates

with the chapter of the code relating to husband and wife, receiv-

ing from each a declaration that they take each other for husband and wife, and drawing up the act of marriage. All this has to be done in the presence of four witnesses. Marriages contracted

abroad between French subjects or between French subjects and foreigners are valid in France if celebrated according to the forms of the foreign law, provided the French conditions as to

violent changes, and, in the course of the last half a much smaller variation than is to be found in death rates. In the following table are given the recorded in certain European countries in the

years 1876, 1901, 1913 and 1926 (or 1925).

It will be seen that in 1876 the extreme range shown by these eleven countries in the marriage-rate was from 14-2 in Sweden to 17-1 in Denmark, a range of 2-9. In rgo1r the range was from 12-1 in Sweden to 17-4 in Belgium or of 5-3; in r9r3 it was from 11-8 in Sweden to 16-0.in Belgium or 4-2 and in 1926 from 11-4

MARRIAGE-RATE

956

Marriage-rate Year.

England & Wales.

Belgium. | Denmark.

L7-Lr

1876 . IQOI . IQI3 . 1926 .

(Persons married) Netherlands.

15°8 15°6 15°O 17-0

16°5 15°9 15°9 14°3

14-3 14-4

I5'O

Norway. | Scotland. | Sweden.

Switzerland.

I5'0 I4°0 I4°2 12:8

16:3 15+2 13°8 1472

16°4 14°5 I4°9

15°4 13°2 12°6 II-4

14°8*

I4°2 I2'I II.8 12°6

*r925.

in Norway to 19-2 in Belgium or 7-8. The course of the rate is

17-1 in the birth-rate: a rise of 1-5% in the marriage-rate from Igor to 1913, with a fall of 13-5% in the birth-rate, a fall in the marriage-rate from 1913 to 1926 of 9-9% while the birth-rate fell 18%. That the experience of Great Britain was common to the other countries dealt with in the first table is shown by the table below, in which are given the changes in the percentage rise or fall of the marriage and birth rates between the three periods 1876IQOI; Ig0I-1913, and 1913-1926.

curiously varied; from 1876 to Igor every country showed a decline more or less marked except Belgium which, from having one of the lowest marriage-rates in 1876, rose to having the highest in 1901. From Igor to 1913 Denmark, Italy, Netherlands and Scotland show slight increases; in England and Wales there was no change, while the other countries had some decline. Finally, the 1926 rate shows very marked recovery in Belgium and France, a smaller advance in Denmark, Sweden and Switzerland, no Period.

1876-1901 . IQOI-IQI3 . I9I3—I926

.

Period.

OE

ESSE

pt

M. Rate. + 2:0

ESRC h aerea

ASSEN

B. Rate. | M. Rate. —24°5 +3°3 + 4:4 —I9°0

i

France.

PEPPERS

B. Rate. —36°0

M. Rate.

SESS

gre

QO

— o7 —19°0

B. Rate. | M. Rate. —14°5

—3°5

—

—

3°9

—13°6

—6°Ir

— 23°09

—

=

—24°7*

Norway.

1-0

Sweden.

M. Rate.

—12°9 —I2'4 —15°2

—14°3

—

745

3148 | — 33

B. Rate. | M. Rate.

— 95

*

Switzerland.

B. Rate. | M. Rate.

-2.2

144 | —9-2

—20°3

97

— 26-8

+ 6:8

B. Rate.

—6°7

—

—14°8

—21:8

T 2.2

I°3

+11°3

70

B. Rate.

—

B. Rate.

—16°8 —6:7 — 27 +22 —12°3* | —6+3

Germany.

SRD

B. Rate. | M. Rate. —

Netherlands.

B. Rate. | M. Rate.

—11°6 + 27 — o6*

S

+51 —4°2

Italy.

M. Rate. 1876—1901 IQOI—I913 IQI3—I02ő .

AS EECA

+18°5 — $7

Denmark.

New Zealand.

Australia. Sf

+2'9

= 212

*Io25.

change in Germany, a very little drop in Italy, and marked clines in England and Wales, the Netherlands, Norway Scotland. Outside Europe there are very few countries for which marriage-rates can be given for the same periods, with the ception of Australia and New Zealand where they were:— Australia New Zealand .

1876 14°3 I5°2

901 14:6 157

1913 173 16°5

deand

the ex-

Here it will be seen that the rate rose up to the year before the war and is still at a higher level than at the beginning of the present century.

Jamaica Japan .

8-3 16-6

6-2 16-4

Marriagerate

Birth-rate

per cent.

1926 15°38 15°8

The following rates are for countries inhabited mainly wholly by non-Europeans :— IQOI I913 19°25 Ceylon . 14°2 L2*5 108

If, ignoring the intervening years, we contrast the changes of the marriage and birth-rates in 1876 and 1926, the result is as follows :—

or

8-2 17:4 (for 1924)

Marriage and Birth-rate. The correlation between the marriage and the birth-rate which was once accepted as being in the nature of things is no longer so indisputable. A comparison of the two will show that the birth-rate no longer reflects the marriage-rate in most Western countries, and that this is particularly the case in those which are considered to be in the forefront as regards their progress. One or two examples will amply demonstrate this fact. During the quarter-century from 1876 to rgor, the marriage-rate in England and Wales showed a decline of 3-6%, while the fall in the birth-rate for the same period was no less than 21-5% or about six times as great. Between rọor and 1913, as a reference to the first table will show, the marriage-rate remained unchanged, but in that period the birth-rate fell from 28.5 to 23-8 or by no less than 16-5%. Finally, from the year 1913 to 1926 there was a further fall of the marriage-rate, more marked than in the first 25 years of the period under review, amounting to 10%; the birth-rate, however, fell by no less than

25%. For Scotland, the story is much the same—a decline in the marriage-rate of 6-6% from 1876 to Igor, accompanied by one of

Australia. . increase France . . 3 New Zealand . Gs Germany . decrease Italy : 5 Netherlands 3 Sweden i Denmark i an Switzerland ; England and Wales Á% Scotland.

Norway

.

.

ji

i5

105 7°6 3'9 9'4 9°8 10°3 I1°3 12*3 12°9 13°3 14°7

26°0

per cent.

decrease j f P a 5 i 5 4 4 j

a

36-2 282 48:8 494 29° 35:6 45I 35:6 44'8 5I°0 413

38:0

Only in the case of Norway does the decline in the marriagerate show any proportion to that of the birth-rate; the latter decrease is, in every other country three or four times as great. It would possibly be more accurate to correlate the fall in the birth-rate to that of the marriage-rate as a decline in the former will, after a lapse of 20 years or so, result in the proportion of those attaining the age at which marriage is most common in

Europe (20-30 years) being smaller than before. In view, therefore, of the heavy decline in the birth-rate in the belligerent countries (and to a lesser degree in the non-belligerent ones) of Europe during the World War, one may reasonably forecast a decided drop in the marriage-rate in another decade with a further

decline in the decade following.

(S. De J.)

The United States.—The marriage rate is slightly lower in

the United States than it is in Europe. Reliable data for years earlier than 1890 does not exist. Since then for selected years the rate has varied as follows: 1890, 9-1; 1906, 10-2; 1916, 10:5;

1926, 10-3. Birth-rate statistics for a reliable registration area are available only from 1915 on. The birth-rate between 1916 and 1926 declined from 24-8 to 20-6, or 17%, while the decline in the marriage rate was but 1-1%. The United States thus followed European countries in showing a decrease in birth-rate which is far greater than the decrease in the marriage rate.

MARRUCINI—MARS MARRUCINI, an ancient tribe which occupied a small strip of territory round about Teate (mod. Chieti), on the east coast of Italy. It is first mentioned in history as a member of a confederacy with which the Romans came into conflict in the second Samnite War, 325 B.c., and it entered the Roman Alliance as a

separate unit at the end of that war (see Particn1).

The lan-

guage of the Marrucini is known from an inscription called the “Bronze of Rapino,” which belongs to about the middle of the 3rd century B.c. It is written in Latin alphabet, but in a dialect which belongs to the North Oscan group (see PAELicn1). The name of the city or tribe which it gives us is touta marouca, and it mentions also a citadel with the epithet farincris. Several of its linguistic features, both in vocabulary and in syntax, are of considerable interest. The earliest Latin inscriptions are of Ciceronian date. The form of the name shows the suffix -No- superimposed upon the suffix -co-, a change which probably indicates some conquest

of an earlier tribe by the invading Safini (or Sabini, g.v.). For further details as to Marrucini inscriptions and place-names see R. S. Conway, The Italic Dialects, p. 253 et seq.

957

a na Letters in 1872. See also David Hannay, Life of Marryat

1889). MARS, MLLE. [ANNE FRANÇOISE HYPPOLYTE BOUTET] (1779-1847), French actress, was born in Paris on Feb. ọ, 1779, the natural daughter of the actor-author named Monvel (g.v.), and Mlle. Mars Salvetat. In 1799, after the rehabilitation of the Comédie Francaise, she and her sister (Mars aînée) joined that company in which she remained for 33 years. She was incomparable in ingénue parts, and equally charming as the coquette;

she was for many

years the darling of Parisian

audiences and a favourite with Napoleon I. She retired in 1841; she was then inspectress of dramatic studies at the Conservatoire. She died in Paris on March 20, 1847. See R. de Beauvoir, Mémoires de Mlle. Mars, 2 vols. (1849), and Confidences de Mlle. Mars, 3 vols. (1855).

MARS

(Mavors, MARMAR, MARSPITER or MASPITER), after

Jupiter the most important deity of the Roman state, and never so much affected by foreign influences as to lose his essentially Roman and Italian character. Traces of his worship are found in all parts of central and southern Italy, and in several com-

(1792-1848), English sailor

munities, as we learn from Ovid (Fasti, 3. 93 seg.), he gave his

and novelist, born at Westminster on July 10, 1792, was the grandson of Thomas Marryat (physician, author of The Philosophy of Masons, and writer of verse), and son of Joseph Marryat, agent for the island of Grenada, who wrote pamphlets in defence of the Slave Trade. Young Marryat ran away to sea more than once; at 14 he entered the navy. He served with great distinction in many parts of the world until his retirement in 1830. Marryat brought ripe experience and unimpaired vivacity to his work when he began to write novels. Frank Mildmay, or the Naval O ficer, was published in 1829, and The King’s Own followed in 1830. The freshness of the new field which was opened up to the imagination—so full of vivid lights and shadows, lighthearted fun, grinding hardship, stirring adventure, heroic action, warm friendships, bitter hatreds—was in exhilarating contrast to the world of the historical romancer and the fashionable novelist. Moreover Marryat had an admirable gift of lucid, direct narrative, and an unfailing fund of incident, and of humour, sometimes bordering on farce. Of all his portraits of adventurous sailors, “Gentleman Chucks” in Peter Simple and “Equality Jack” in Mr. Midshipman Easy are the most famous, but he created

name to a month, as at Rome to the first month of the old Roman year. We know little of the character of his cult except at Rome, and even at Rome it has been variously interpreted. In historical times his chief function at Rome was to protect the state in war; it is as a god of war that he is known to all readers of Roman literature,! and Wissowa holds this to have been his original and only function. Until the time of Augustus Mars had but two temples at Rome. One of these was originally only an altar; it was in the Campus Martius, the exercising ground of the army. The other was outside the Porta Capena: here each year the Equites met in order to start in procession through the city (Dion. Hal. 6. 13). Each of these sites was outside the pomerium, and this has been explained to mean that the war-god “must be kept at a distance” (Carter, Religion of Numa, p. 19). But in the heart of the city there was a sacrarium of Mars in the regia, originally the king’s house, in which the sacred spears of Mars were kept, or rather,

MARRYAT,

FREDERICK

many other types which take rank among the characteristic figures in English fiction. He went on, through a quick succession of tales, Newton Forster (1832), Peter Simple (1834), Jacob Faithful (1834), The Pacha of Many Tales (1835), Japhet in Search of a Father (1836), Mr. Midshipman Easy (1836), The Pirate and the Three Cutters (1836), till he reached his high-water mark of constructive skill in Snarley-yow, or the Dog Fiend (1837). The best of his books after this date are those written expressly | for boys, the especial favourites being Masterman Ready (1841); Percival Keene (1842); Monsieur Violet (1842); The

Settlers in Canada (1844), and The Children of the New Forest (1847). Among his other works are The Phantom Ship (1839); A Diary in America (1839); Olla Podrida (1840), a collection of

various papers; Poor Jack (1840); Joseph Rushbrook (1841); Privateer’s Man (1844) ; The Mission, or Scenes in Africa (1845); The Little Savage (1848-49), published posthumously; and Valerie, not completed (1849). His novels form an important link between Smollett and Fielding and Charles Dickens. Captain Marryat had retired from the naval service in 1830, becoming equerry to the duke of Sussex. He edited the Metropolitan Magazine from 1832 to 1835, and some of his best stories appeared in that paper. He spent a great part of his time in Brussels. He visited Canada during Papineau’s revolt and the United States in 1837, and gave a disparaging account of American institutions in a Dary published on his return to England. In 1843 he settled at Langham Manor, Norfolk. He indulged in costly experiments in farming, so that in spite of the large income earned by his books he was not a rich man. He died at Langham on Aug. 9, 1848, his death being hastened by news of the loss of his son by shipwreck. His daughter, Florence Marryat,

herself a novelist, published his

Mars in spear form (Mars Hasta);

for on the outbreak of war

the consul had to shake these spears, saying as he did it, Mars vigila (““Mars, wake up!”). If the spears moved of themselves, the omen was bad and called for expiation. The ancilia, or sacred shields, also formed part of this symbolic armoury of the Roman state: they were carried in procession by the Salii (¢.v.), or dancing warrior-priests of Mars on several occasions during the month of March up to the 23rd (tubilustvium), when the military trumpets (fubae) were lustrated; and again in October to the

19th (armilustrium), when both the ancilia and the arms of the exercitus were purified and put away for the winter. During the four months of the Italian.winter the worship of Mars seems

at a standstill; his activity is all in the warm season, że., in the season of warfare. It is only at the end of February that we find indications of the coming Mars-cult; Quirinalia, Feb. 17 (Quirinus closely resembled Mars); first Equirria, Feb. 27. This, like the second Equirria (Mar. 14) was no doubt a rite intended to benefit the war-horses accompanied with sacrifice to Mars, preparatory to the opening of the season of arms. There is thus abundant evidence that Mars was always a deity especially connected with warfare; and it is hardly necessary to add proof of a less convincing kind, e.g., that Nerio, his feminine cult-partner, seems to be etymologically “the strong one,” or that

he is in legend the father of Romulus, the warlike king and founder of the Roman army. In founding his famous temple of Mars Ultor (the avenger of Caesar) in the Forum Augusti, Augustus gave a new turn to this worship, and for a time it seems to have been a rival of that of the Capitoline Jupiter (see Carter, Religion of Numa, p. 174 seqg.), and by about 4.p. 250 Mars became the most prominent of the di militares worshipped by the Roman Legions. There are, however, certain features in the Mars cult which IMars-bellum Hellenism.

by metonymy;

but this could

be explained

as a

958

MARS

make it probable that this god was in early times, at least, also associated with agriculture; and this is in harmony with the facts: (x) that the season of arms is also the season of the growth, ripening and harvesting of the crops; (2) that the early Roman community was an agricultural as well as a military one, as is indicated in its religious calendar (Fowler, Roman Festivals, p. 334). Thus Mars was invoked in the ancient hymn of the Arval Brothers, whose religious duties had as their object to keep off enemies of all kinds from crops and herds (Henzen, Acta Fratr. Arv. p.

eccentricity of the earth’s orbit throws our planet alittle farther from the sun and nearer the orbit of Mars in July than it does in Aug. The opposition of 1909 occurred on Sept. 24, at a point marked by the year near the equinox, and the month and years of the oppositions following, up to 1941, are also shown in the same way. Tracing them around, it will be seen that the points

of opposition travel around the orbit in about 16 years, so that

26), and his association here with the Lares (g.v.) proves that he is not regarded as a war-god who could avert the raid of an enemy. Still more striking is the invocation of Mars (with the cult-title Silvanus) in the yearly lustration of his land by the Roman farmer (Cato, De agric. 141), where Mars’s help is besought against disease and famine, not war. Three times the procession went round the land, reciting prayers and driving the victims to be sacrificed, viz., pig, sheep and ox (suovetaurilia), representing the farmer’s most valuable stock. We can hardly doubt that in the state ceremony of the Ambarvalia, #.e., the lustratio of the ager Romanus in its earliest form, the same god was invoked and the

same ritual used (Fowler, op. cit. p. 124 seg.). Again in the curious ritual of the sacrifice to Mars of the October horse (Oct. 15: Fowler op. cit. 241), though the animal was undoubtedly a war-horse, the head was cut off and decked with cakes, as we are

told (Paul. Diac. 220) ob frugum eventum. Quirinus also is not without an association with agricultural perils, for it was his fiamen who sacrificed the victims at the Robigalia on April 25, when the spirit of the mildew (Robigus) was invoked to spare

the corn (Ovid, Fasti, 4. gor seq.).!

The most reasonable conclusion seems to be that Mars, whatever his ultimate origin, became early a “high god” of the Italic peoples, and hence reflects their activities (1) in clearing forests (Mars Silvanus; cp. the fact that wolves and woodpeckers are sacred to him), (2) in agriculture, (3) in war. See Roscher in Myth. Lex. s.v., (bibl.) ; W. Warde Fowler, Roman Festivals (1908) and Religious Experience (1911) ; Wissowa, Religion

und Kultus der Romer (1912).

(W.W. F.)

MARS, in astronomy, the fourth planet in the order of distance

ORBITS OF MARS AND THE EARTH, SHOWING ASPECTS OF THE PLANET RELATIVE TO THE EARTH AND THE SUN The

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jection of the planet’s axis upon the plane of the ecliptic

from the sun, and the next outside the earth. To the naked oppositions near perihelion, when Mars is therefore nearest the eye it appears as a bright star of a decidedly reddisk or lurid earth, occur at intervals of 15 or 17 years. The axis of rotation of the planet is inclined between 23° tint, which contrasts strongly with the whiteness of Venus and Jupiter. At opposition it is brighter than a first magnitude star, and 24° to the pole of the orbit, and the equator of the planet sometimes outshining even Sirius. It is by virtue of its position has the same inclination to the plane of the orbit. The north pole the most favourably situated of all the planets for observation is directed toward a point in longitude 355°, in consequence of from the earth. The eccentricity of its orbit, 00933, is greater which the projection of the planet’s axis upon the plane of the than that of any other major planet except Mercury. The result ecliptic is nearly parallel to the line of our equinoxes. This prois that at an opposition near perihelion Mars is markedly nearer jection is shown by the straight line SP—NP, which corresponds to the earth than at an opposition near aphelion, the one distance closely to the line of the Martian solstices. It will be seen that at being about 35 million miles; the other 63 million. These num- a Sept. opposition the north pole of the planet is turned away bers express only the minimum distances at or near opposition, from the sun, so that only the southern hemisphere is presented and not the distance at other times. The time of revolution of to us, and only the south pole can be seen from the earth. The Mars is 686-98 days. The mean interval between oppositions is Martian vernal equinox is near Q and the northern solstice near 2 years 493 days, but, owing to the eccentricity of the orbit, the A. Here at the point S.P. the northern hemisphere is turned actual excess over two years ranges from 36 days to more than toward the sun. It will be seen that the aspect of the planet at opposition, especially the hemisphere which is visible, varies with 24 months. Its period of rotation is 24 h. 37 m. 22.6 s. Motions.—The accompanying diagram will convey a notion the month of opposition, the general rule being that the northern of the varied aspects presented by the planet, of the cycles of hemisphere of the planet is entirely seen only near aphelion opchange through which they go, and of the order in which the positions, and therefore when farthest from us, while the southern oppositions follow each other. The outer circle represents the hemisphere is best seen near perihelion oppositions. The distances orbit of Mars, the inner that of the earth. AE is the line of the of the planet from the sun at aphelion and at perihelion are nearly equinoxes from which longitudes are counted. The perihelion of in the ratio 6:5. The intensity of the sun’s radiation on the planet Mars is in longitude 335° at the point r, The ascending node Q is as the inverse square of this ratio. It is therefore more than is in longitude 47°. The line of nodes makes an angle of 74° 40% greater near perihelion than near aphelion. It follows from with the major axis, so that Mars is south of the ecliptic near all this that the southern hemisphere is subjected to a more perihelion, but north of it near aphelion. Around the inner circle, intense solar heat than the northern, and must therefore have representing the earth’s orbit, are marked the months during which a warmer summer season; but the length of the seasons is the the earth passes through the different parts of the orbit. It will inverse of this, the summer of the northern hemisphere being be seen that the distance of Mars at the time of any opposition longer and the heat of the southern hemisphere shorter in prodepends upon the month in which opposition occurs. The least portion. Diameter and Ellipticity.—The accurate determination of

possible distance would occur in an opposition about the end of Aug., a little before Mars reached the perihelion, because the 1See H. J. Rose in Class. Rev. xxxvi., p. 15.

the diameter of Mars presents peculiar difficulties which have not as yet been satisfactorily resolved. Ordinary telescopic measurements of diameter give results which are too great a consequence

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1-5. Show changes obtained by varying the colour of light employed in photographing: 1. was taken by ultra-violet light; 2, yellow; 3, red;

OF THE

ultra-violet light. Such an atmosphere explains the varying visibility of surface features in 2. to 4., also occurrence of clouds in 1. and 5.

4, infra-red; 5, violet. Surface markings shown in varying strength in 2, 3. and 4. are not found in 1. and 5. Note clouds in L. and 5

11. Chart of Mars at opposition of 1924. In comparing photographs with the chart the former should be viewed with the polar cap straight up.

6-8. For full description see the text 9 and 10. Photographs of a terrestrial landscape using the same colours as for 4. and 5. above. Obscuration of the distant snow-covered mountains is caused by the earth’s atmosphere, and the comparison suggests that obliteration of the surface markings in 5. is due to an atmosphere on Mars that is practically impenetrable by violet or

South is upward 12~16. Photographs of Mars showing seasonal changes during the progress of the planet’s summer. The Martian seasonal dates are: 12., May 13; 13., May 29; 14., June 23; 15., July 31; 16., Aug. 20. Note the shrinking of the polar cap and darkening of the equatorial regions with advance of the season

MARS

959

as a weather. Mars stimulates a unique and compelling interest, ng. theorizi popular and ation investig c Especially to be mentioned is irradiation, a subjective disturbance subject both of scientifi orange coloured or ruddy a presents planet the e telescop the In of vision which causes a bright object to appear larger than it is. by darker markings of a greenish blue hue which The effects of most of these factors can be evaluated and allowed disc relieved three-eighths of the area of the planet, and are, for about occupy , for, but there remains the influence of the planet’s atmosphere part, distributed in a belt just south of the equator. which possesses a certain amount of visibility, especially when it the most considerable projection into the northern hemisphere, one is There planet’s contains haze, and is seen in increased thickness at the Syrtis Major, and a few isolated dark regions occur the edge. This latter aspect of the problem has recently excited some known as n latitudes, as shown on the chart (see Plate, fig. norther the in relatsubsection the discussion, and will be further alluded to in perhaps be explained, in respect to the charts should It 11). ing to photography by light of different colors. The equatorial illustrative material relating to astronomical subjects, diameter of Mars resulting from what are regarded as the most and other practice is followed of placing them with the south usual the that reliable telescopic measures is 6,740 km. (4,190 miles). Photost, to correspond with the appearance in the field of graphs made in yellow light by R. J. Trumpler give 6,820 km. side uppermo telescope. The dark markings of Mars are permanent g invertin an surface (4,240 miles). Independent determinations of the solid some of them undergo variations in size and by Trumpler and by W. H. Wright indicate a diameter approxi- features, although ng from the dark areas into the regions of Extendi ce. appearan interis difference mately 180 km. (112 m.) less than this. If this a number of wisp-like filaments, the soare ss brightne preted in terms of the atmospheric overlayer it provides a value greater d “canals.” It seems to be generally discusse much and called which result a thickness, of go km. (55 m.) for the atmospheric have the use of powerful telescopes who s observer among agreed may be very much in error, and is mentioned here principally for to the bright regions (though limited not their occurrence is the purpose of illustrating a difficulty encountered in determining that y, more easily seen there), but that they traverse naturall are, they the diameter of the planet. dark areas as well, forming a network which completely enMeasurements of the polar and equatorial diameters indicate the the planet. At the poles of rotation are usually seen meshes accounted an ellipticity of figure greater than can reasonably be brilliant white patches, termed polar caps. These have not the for by the planet’s rotation, and greater also than seems comquasi-permanent character of the dark markings, for each of them usually The patible with the observed motion of the satellites. waxes and wanes with the coming and going of winter in the adopted measure of ellipticity or “fattening” is the fractional hemisphere to which it belongs, all but disappearing in the sumderived as quantity, This excess of equatorial over polar diameter. as shown in figs. 12 to 16 of Plate. The striking parallelism from the measurements, is o-oro (Trumpler, Lick Obs. Bull., vol. mer, this phenomenon and the yearly variation of the winter 13, p. 31); and as calculated from the dynamical considerations between and snow in our higher terrestrial latitudes suggested ice of areas that just indicated, 0-005. It appears likely at the present time to early observers, that the Martian caps are polar snow-fields, the smaller, or calculated ellipticity is correct, and that the disand this view of their constitution appears to be the one most a phenomen to crepancy in the observed value is to be ascribed generally held at the present time, although an alternative explanaof the Martian atmosphere. tion in terms of frozen carbon dioxide has been suggested. Anelsespecified not Some of the more important dynamical data other feature presented in the telescopic view of the planet is the where in this article are: so-called “limb light,” a narrow band of bluish green tint that outlines the bright limb or fully illuminated edge of the planet. Mean distance of Mars from the sun 228 million km. (141,650,000 m. The more conspicuous Martian phenomena have been known 24-1 km. (15-5 m.) per sec. Mean orbital velocity. the early days of telescopic observation. In 1610 the phases since o-108 that of the earth. Mass were observed by Galileo. The first sketches of surface detail o-150 that of the earth. Volume 4-o times that of water. were made by Huyghens in 1659. Huyghens suggested a rotation Density earth. the of that 0-38 i gravity Surface period of 24 hours, and Cassini seven years later independently estimated 24 hours and 40 minutes, which is very close to the The above are calculated for a mean Martian diameter of 6,770 actual value. The latter observer also descried the polar caps. The km. If the diameter of the solid planet is taken to be 180 km. drawings of Huyghens and of Hooke (1660), though crude when smaller (as explained above) the last three constants become: judged by modern standards, have permitted the rotation period volume, 0-141 ; density, 4:2; gravity, 0-40. to be determined with a high degree of accuracy; the value Surface Features.—The fascination of the study of the Mar- 24 37 22.6° for the sidereal revolution cannot well be in error as tian surface arises from a number of circumstances. Mars is the much as a tenth of a second. Little of value was accomplished for nearest and most favourably situated for observation of all the a century or more but in 1783 Sir William Herschel detected seaplanets. Venus it is true comes closer to us, but at the time of sonal variation in the sizes of the polar caps, and determined the its least distance the illuminated hemisphere is turned away, and position of the axis of rotation. During the nineteenth century, consequently cannot be seen. Furthermore, Mars is one of the especially its second half, with the increase in power and quality of few heavenly bodies on which we see a solid surface, like that of telescopes, further details were revealed. In 1877 Asaph Hall disthe earth. Its solidity is shown by the substantial permanency of covered the two satellites. The outstanding observer of this period its configurations; the only other astronomical objects of conse- was G. V. Schiaparelli, who in 1877 made the first comprehensive quence which present to our view surfaces of a like character are triangulation of the surface, and added greatly to the number of the Moon, and possibly Mercury; otherwise, perhaps with such in- known line-like markings which he was the first to designate considerable exceptions as the asteroids and the satellites of “canals.” Schiaparelli also reported a phenomenon with respect to planets, our telescopes reveal only fluid masses or bodies surthe reality of which his successors have not been uniformly in rounded by clouds or impenetrable vapour. In the case of the agreement, namely, the “gemination” or doubling of the canals at Moon, the only real rival of Mars in the display of surface detail, certain seasons of the Martian year. Because of the pioneer nature we have the advantage of greater proximity, which enables us to of his work, the excellence of his observations and the philosophidistinguish mountains, plains and minor features of topography, cal character of his deliberations, Schiaparelli is undoubtedly to but we encounter a sameness of aspect, due in part to its apparent be regarded as the pre-eminent student of the Martian surface; in rotational immobility and in part to the absence of an atmosphere, recent years the names of E. E. Barnard, P. Lowell, E. M. more And which is not altogether relieved by its phase variations. Antoniadi, W. H. Pickering and many others have been associated whereas we see only slightly more than half the lunar surface, with the telescopic study of Mars, and noteworthy photographs. approach, closest Mars—although its distance is such that, even at been made especially by E. C. Slipher at Lowell and by R. J. the ultimate nature of its markings can only be inferred—has have r at the Lick Observatory. Finally, inquiries of two kinds, the advantage of rotation and all parts of the planet are therefore Trumple be regarded as departures from the traditional methods may which | brought successively before us; it is, besides, surrounded by an observation, have been undertaken during the last c telescopi of | and climate of na phenome d atmosphere that provides diversifie

of several disturbing factors all of which act in a positive sense.

MARS

960 three oppositions (1922-24-26).

One of these has for its object| ferences are found at the back of the stag’s neck, and in the

the determination of the planet’s temperature through analysis of appendage to the chin (Thoth). In fact the disparities are so its thermal radiation; the other consists in the study of the planet great that fig. 6 bears little resemblance to a head of any kind. by light of different colours. Both will be discussed.

Before undertaking a more detailed description of the planet than is provided above it will be appropriate to refer to the Martian atmosphere, since it is through this gaseous envelope that the planet must be viewed, and some modification in appearance might reasonably be anticipated on this account. observations indicate that the effect of atmosphere on and appearance of the surface depends on the colour in observation, and that for colours to which the

Photographic the visibility of light used eye is most

sensitive (yellow and spectrally contiguous colours) modification of the appearance of the surface of Mars is not, except perhaps at

the polar caps, very serious; so that it is permissible to approach the study of the planet by way of its telescopic appearance.

In fig. 6 of the Plate is a photograph taken by Barnard with the great telescope of the Yerkes Observatory. It was made by yellow light, a colour to which the eye is specially sensitive, and it illustrates, as well as a monochrome representation can, the appearance of the planet when seen in the telescope under good observing conditions. The south polar cap lies on the upper right edge of the disc. To the eye the cap is normally a brilliant white, while the remainder of the lighter toned area is deep yellow or orange; the dark parts are, as has already been said, normally of a bluish green tinge. The region shown is that of the Syrtis Major, the dark triangular portion resembling the Indian peninsula, extending downward to the left. On the chart (see plate) the Syrtis will be found in long. 290°, lat. +10°. In correlating photograph and chart it is necessary to bear in mind that in the former the direction of the axis is inclined upward to the right, as is shown by the position of the polar cap. The lower of the two dark strips, which, on the photograph, reach out to the right, is the Sabaeus Sinus, approximately in long. 345°, lat. ~7°. The small excrescence, or downward projection at the extremity of the strip, is the so-called forked bay; the bifurcation is not visible in the photo-

graphs because of the disadvantageous position near the planet’s edge, but will be readily recognized on the chart. The meridian passing through the point of bifurcation has been arbitrarily chosen as the one from which areographic longitudes are measured (“areographic,” with respect to Mars,= “geographic” in relation to the earth; “areography” is Martian “geography’’). The dark areas of the planet were regarded by the early observers as expanses of water, and were called “maria” or “seas.” Even so recent an observer as Schiaparelli held this view, but it has now been generally abandoned, at least with respect. to most of the dark markings, though a number of the smaller and more variable are by some observers still regarded as lakes. Despite this change in interpretation the names mare and “sea” have continued in general use as designations of the dark areas. Conclusive proof that these areas are not bodies of water is found in the fact that we do not see the reflection of the sun in them, as we certainly should, at times of proper presentation, if they exposed free surfaces of water; other indications are that the dark markings are far from uniform in strength, that detail is visible in them, and that some are subject to marked alterations, as may be seen by intercomparing the illustrations of groups 6 to 8 and 12 to 16 of the accompanying plate. The several photographs of each group were taken at approximately equivalent presentation, and either group provides ample proof of alteration in surface markings. For the purpose of discussing some of these alterations without dependence on the rather cumbersome classical names by which they are ordinarily designated, advantage will be taken of the suggestion which fig. 7 affords of the outline of a

It seems doubtful whether the earth would exhibit, to a planetary observer, alterations of surface features comparable in magnitude with those shown in these photographs. In drawing conclusions

from such phenomena as these it is necessary to assure oneself that they are not the consequences of passing clouds, or of atmos-

pheric obscurations of one kind or another, and fig. 7 shows, in fact, in the light spot at the stag’s throat, what is in all likelihood a cloud, while temporary obscurations of one part or another of the surface have occasionally been observed that are most readily accounted for as effects of mists or other atmospheric abnormalities. There seems to be little ground, however, for doubting that much of the variation seen on Mars is real, and it becomes a matter of importance to inquire whether it synchronizes with the

Martian seasons. Schiaparelli seems to have been the first to suspect seasonal variations, and, while evidence on this point can be

supplied only by observations extending over many years, experi-

enced observers consider that some of the changes are seasonal and others not, though the evidence is not altogether consistent (Publ. Astron, Soc. Pacific, vol. 39, 11, 108-109). Many observers

of the planet, especially Lowell and members of the group of astronomers who were at one time or another associated with him at the observatory which he established, have reported seasonal alterations of a specific character. They find the dark areas to be stronger in the spring and summer of the hemisphere in which they are situated, the intensification starting in high lati-

tudes, close to the shrinking cap, and working toward the equator, sometimes crossing it. They also report changes in shade or colour accompanying these alterations in intensity, the colour

usually passing from bluish green to yellow, as the darkening is reduced, though a change from blue-green to chocolate-brown is stated to be characteristic of a certain region of the planet lying to the south of the Syrtis Major. The photographs in figs. r2 to 16 taken by Mr. E. C. Slipher at the Lowell Observatory have kindly been provided by him to illustrate seasonal alterations in the strength of certain of the markings.! A seasonal effect, the significance of which has been emphasized in interpretations of the phenomena of the caps, is a dark margin said to surround the shrinking cap. This has been explained as flooding consequent

upon the melting of the cap.

The relationship of areographic

mutation to the yearly cycle has been the subject of painstaking inquiry on the part of nearly every observer of the planet; the literature relating to it is, as a consequence, very voluminous, and

from its nature, difficult to abridge or summarize; for fuller infor-

mation the reader is referred to W. H. Pickering, Popular Astron.

vol. 35, p. 195 (1927) and Antoniadi, Bull. Soc. Astron. France, vol. 38, p. 199; vol. 40, 278.

The generally bluish green colour of the dark markings, taken in conjunction with seasonal changes to which they appear to be subject, has provided the suggestion that they are areas of vegetation, an interpretation that has been accorded warm advocacy by certain astronomers, more especially, perhaps, those whose interest is centred in habilitating an hypothesis of close parallelism between organic phenomena on Mars and on the earth. While the present writer is, to borrow a phrase of Schiaparelli from a passage quoted elsewhere in this article, “very careful not to combat this supposition, which includes nothing impossible,” he has recently pointed out that a high content of blue and violet light is to be expected in the image of dark surface areas, as a consequence of the superposition upon them of the Martian sky. That the planet’s sky probably influences the colour and appearance of the surface has long been recognized, but the evidence of recent stag’s head and antlers. The resemblance will be more apparent if photographic observations, to be referred to later, suggesting as 1t the plate is turned to the left through a right angle. It will now 1The description sent by Mr. Slipher with the photographs is as be seen that the antlers in figs. 6 and 7 are conformable but that in follows: “Actual photographs of the planet Mars displaying the

fig. 8 the object which serves as the antler on the reader’s left is gradual decrease of the snow at the south pole and the darkening of not the comparatively erect one that functions in the first two

cases. A closer examination of fig. 8 will reveal a vestige of the old antler (Pandorae Fretum), while the new one can be discerned in reduced strength in fig. 7, and as a trace in fig. 6. Other dif-

the planet’s tropics with the advance of Martian summer. This gradual darkening of certain regions of the planet in his summer season and their subsequent fading in winter seems best explained by assuming that these dark areas are due to vegetation.” The responsibility for the interpretations rests, of course, with Mr. Slipher.

961

MARS does that a very large proportion of the blue and violet light from even the brighter parts of the planet is due to the overlying atmosphere, seems to require an alteration in the apparent colour

(in the spectral direction green to blue) of surface markings, as a consequence merely of their darkness; in other words, the dark

areas might be expected to appear bluish green whether that is their real colour or not. The change from blue-green to yellow, found to accompany the seasonal fading of the dark areas, would, according to this view, be merely a consequence of their fading; but changes from green to chocolate-brown, observed by Lowell in 1903 and 1905, cannot be so regarded. The Canals.—I{ comment were confined to what is universally agreed upon with respect to the finer markings which pass under

the animals of the sea, and which produces in the shell such an exquisite conical spiral that excels the most beautiful masterpieces of gothic

architecture?

In all these objects the geometrical form is the simple

and necessary consequence of the principles and laws which govern the physical and physiological world. That these principles and these laws are but an indication of a higher intelligent power, we may admit, but this has nothing to do with the present argument.

The remarkable paper from which this excerpt is taken contains a summary of Schiaparelli’s views, and a complete reading of it is to be recommended. Since Schiaparelli’s time a number of astronomers both in Europe and America have been industrious observers of the canals, but it seems questionable whether the ground gained has been commensurate with the toll of labour its winning has exacted.

The surface of Mars is believed to be freer from topographical irregularities than that either of the earth or the Moon. This is an inference from the observed smoothness of the terminator, which would quite certainly present a more or less ragged appearance were irregularities comparable with terrestrial or lunar mountains upon or near it. It is, however, unreasonable to suppose that substantial differences in level do not exist, and the polar eccentricity and irregularity of outline of the southern cap, when shrinking, find a plausible explanation in the assumption that they are caused by local differences in the level of the ground. The relatively high temperatures of the dark areas, reported by Coblentz and Lampland, presently to be referred to, have led those observers to suggest that these areas lie at a lower level than the brighter ones. This is, however, an aspect of the Martian problem, which is still in the speculative stage. -Atmosphere.—To a celestial observer of the earth the detection of its atmosphere would offer no difficulty whatever, since the clouds, which are a part of it, would continually be seen. The discovery of the Martian atmosphere was not so easy a matter, effect. (Pickering, Mars, chap. xiv.; Trumpler, Publ. Astron. Soc. for clouds, in the ordinary sense of the word, are rare, and few Pacific, vol. 39, p. 106; Annual Rep. Mt. Wilson Obs., 1925, Pp. evidences of the obstructive effects of an atmosphere are encoun103.) Schiaparelli reported a gemination, or doubling of certain tered in observing the planet with a telescope. Nevertheless, that of the canals at stated seasons, and very positive statements have Mars has an atmosphere of some kind has long been known from been made in confirmation of this, notably by Lowell and his fol- the phenomena of the polar caps; for while it is easy to underlowers. On the other hand, skilled observers, among whom may stand how a cap could disappear simply by melting, its formation be mentioned Barnard and Pickering, have failed to observe such must quite certainly be the result of precipitation, and it was conconditions, despite long continued and careful scrutiny of the sequently inferred that there necessarily exists on the planet a planet. These diverse findings would seem to prove that a study considerable amount of vapour, the cap material, which would of the finer structure of the canals is beyond our present means itself, even in the absence of other gases, constitute an atmosphere. Furthermore, projections from the terminator of Mars have of observation. The impression of straightness and geometrical regularity made occasionally been seen, for which the most satisfactory explanation by the canals has stimulated the imaginations of certain astrono- known is that they are clouds at elevations of several miles. A mers to see in them the works of intelligent beings. Why this cloud at such an altitude, illuminated by the rising or setting sun, should be so is not altogether apparent. The remarkable systems would be seen in projection against an unilluminated part of the of streaks which radiate from some of the craters of the Moon planet, a circumstance specially favourable for its observation. On are not so interpreted, while the works of man which might be other occasions temporary obscuration, partial or complete, of regarded as of sufficient magnitude to be visible to a well equipped familiar surface markings has been interpreted in terms of obcelestial observer are not distinguished by geometrical regularity. scuring mists, while, infrequently, very striking patches, whose A world-encompassing phenomenon suggests the action of geo- mobility has left little doubt of their cloud-like nature, have been logical forces, and Schiaparelli was among those to suggest the seen and photographed upon the planet. Thus, while the meteorplay of these in the formation of the canals. His reflections on ological phenomena of Mars are not so conspicuous as those of the the suggestion that they are the work of intelligent inhabitants of earth, their observation years ago gave ample proof of Mars’s posthe planet are of interest, and we are indebted to a translation of session of an atmosphere. During the oppositions of 1924 and one of his essays (Mars, pp. 92-94) by Prof. W. H. Pickering 1926 a considerable amount of photographic evidence was obtained which appears to relate to the planet’s meteorology. for the following passage :— Attempts have not been lacking to analyze the Martian atmoswith drawn being their Their [the canals’] singular aspect, and absolute geometrical precision, as if they were the work of rule or phere through spectroscopic examination of the planet’s light. compass, has led some to see in them the work of intelligent beings, Since this light comes originally from the sun, and is merely deinhabitants of the planet. I am very careful not to combat this sup- flected in our direction by the planet, a casual examination of the

this designation very little could be said. That such markings exist there can be no question, and A. E. Douglas’s discovery of similar features on the dark areas themselves appears to have been generally confirmed. Their visibility, like that of the seas, is variable, some appearing at one time and some at another, so that their appearance in the telescopic view is not to be inferred from the network shown on one or another chart which usually includes all that have been seen, at least in a given season, by the person drawing it. Some observers report the canals as of sensible width, others as extremely fine, hair-like lines, while still others record canals of both descriptions. Schiaparelli, whose pioneer study of them is specially valuable, described them as straight, direct and continuous, and numerous observers have confirmed this impression of their appearance (Lowell, Mars and its Canals, p. 29), though astronomers of at least comparable skill and experience have reported deviations from rectilinearity, and have suggested that some of the more difficult of them may be merely the consequence of grouping by the eye of minute markings which are not separately visible, the apparent continuity being a subjective

position, which includes nothing impossible. ... Let us add further that the intervention of intelligent beings might explain the geometrical appearance of the gemination, but it is not at all necessary for such a purpose. The geometry of nature is manifested in many other facts, from which are excluded the idea of any artificial labour whatever. The perfect spheroids of the heavenly bodies and the ring of Saturn were

not constructed in a turning lathe, and not with compasses has Iris

spectrum reveals merely the composition of the sun. However, the light, or more strictly speaking that part of it by which we see the planet’s surface, must of necessity have traversed the planet’s atmosphere both on entering and leaving, and some modification of the Fraunhofer, or dark line, spectrum might reasonably be anticipated as a consequence of this circumstance. Such modification is in fact known to be effected by the earth’s atmosphere which adds to the numerous lines belonging properly to the spectrum of the sun a number of so-called “telluric” lines due to

symmetrical, starlike gures of the flowers of the field, as well as of

its own constituent gases.

described within the clouds her beautiful and regular arch. And what shall we say of the infinite variety of those exquisite and regular polyhedrons in which the world of crystals is so rich! In the organic world, also, is not that geometry most wonderful which presides over the distribution of the foliage upon certain plants, which orders the nearly

The presence of these lines of atmos-

962

MARS

pheric origin adds enormously to the difficulty of a spectroscopic study of a planet’s atmosphere, for they are precisely the lines that-one would first seek in the planet’s spectrum. Observations undertaken for the purpose of detecting on Mars any of the constituent gases of our own atmosphere therefore present peculiar difficulties, which have only partially been overcome by the adoption of very elaborate precautions.

The observations of Huggins

(1867) were for many years taken to indicate the existence of water vapour in considerable quantities in the atmosphere of Mars, and among modern investigations those carried out under the auspices of the Lowell Observatory by V. M. Slipher and F. W. Very are to the same effect. The latter observers estimated the Martian atmosphere to contain approximately 1-75 times as much water vapour, area for area, as existed in the atmosphere above their observing station at Flagstaff, Arizona, at the time of observation, that is to say 14 mm.‘of precipitable water for the Martian atmosphere. W. W. Campbell at the Lick Observatory was, however, unable to detect evidence of water vapour, and concluded that if any is present it does not exceed one fifth of the amount in the earth’s atmosphere. The most recent observations are those made with powerful apparatus at Mount Wilson by W. S. Adams and C. E. St. John, who estimate the amount to be 6%, or o-4 mm. of precipitable water, a quantity which they regard as comparable with the probable error of their determination. Their result is therefore confirmatory of that of Campbell, and the two sets of observations thus agree in assigning to the planet’s atmosphere a low absolute content of water vapour. The Mt. Wilson observers find evidence of oxygen to the amount of 16% of that above their station, or about two thirds of the oxygen content of the air above Mt. Everest. The earlier estimate of the Lowell observers is approximately half of this amount. Oxygen and water are the only substances as yet identified in the atmosphere of Mars, and the latter has not been identifed conclusively.

Apart from the slight modifications on which these observations turn, no alteration in the Fraunhofer spectrum of the sun has been observed in the light reflected from Mars. There is however a very marked change in the distribution of light through the spectrum. All observers agree that the more refrangible part of the spectrum is relatively weak, and to this fact is due the planet’s ruddy colour. Exceptions are to be noted in the cases of the polar caps, and dark areas,.for the spectrum of the caps continues in great strength into the ultra-violet, and the bluish green colour of the dark areas is due to the predominance of light of short wavelength. In view of the generally negative spectroscopic revelations of an atmosphere, and the ease with which features of the planet’s surface, more especially the polar caps, are seen in the telescope, it has until quite recently been generally believed that the atmosphere of Mars is extremely tenuous. Evidence not altogether corroborative of this view is supplied by photographs taken by light of different colours. Photographs by Light of Different Colours.—The study of Mars by the method just referred to involves a kind of analysis that has had some use in general scientific observation, and which may be said to occupy a place between precise spectroscopy, on the one hand, and the more versatile means of analysis provided through the perception of both form and colour by the eye, on the other. A series of photographs taken with approximately homogeneous light of distinct spectral regions has an advantage over the coloured presentation provided by ordinary visual perception in that its several images are separate, but its testimony, like ocular evidence, must be interpreted in the light of independently derived knowledge. Moreover, it is a matter of common knowledge that any object of diversified colour will suffer an

apparent alteration in the contrasts of its several parts if the colour of the light by which it is viewed is changed. This is a natural consequence of the phenomenon of colour. Photography provides a specially suitable means for observing such alterations because it renders them in uniform terms of photographic density. Very marked differences are occasionally found when the colour used in photographing is altered, and it is sometimes possible, through a study of these differences, to learn something of the body under observation. Differences in the aspect of Mars when

observed in this way appear first to have been described by de la B. Pluvinel and F. Baldet, and by G. Tikhoff, in 1909, but their important observations seem generally to have been over-

looked. The phenomena were rediscovered and more completely described by later observers, especially on the planet’s approach in 1924. A series of photographs, taken by light of five different regions of the spectrum, is shown in figs. 1 to 5. The

spectral positions of these regions are sufficiently well defined by

the names of colours attached to the illustrations, except in the

ultra-violet and infra-red, where the wave-lengths are approxi-

mately

3700A

and

7600A

respectively.

The

photographs

are

arranged in the order in which they were taken, which is, except in respect to fig. 5, also the spectral sequence of the colours used, It will be noted that there are progressive changes throughout the series 1 to 4. Those which relate to the position of the markings

are readily recognized as being due to the planet’s rotation on its axis. The axis passes upward to the right, and approximately through the centre of the polar cap, which is seen on some of the

photographs as a small white dot on the planet’s edge; and the

effect of rotation is to displace the markings of successive images upward to the left. After allowing for these displacements, there remain differences of a more fundamental character which will now be considered. Figures 4 and 5 were taken so closely together

in point of time that they provide substantially identical presentations of the planet, and the disparity in their appearance is one that it would be very difficult to explain as a consequence of the different colours of its several parts. Reduced contrast of markings against the bright background would be expected in a violet photograph because of their bluish green colour, but the total obliteration of all structure shown in the infra-red image, and the substitution of something of an entirely different kind, seems difficult to explain as a colour effect. Before attempting an interpretation it will be well to summarize some of the more remarkable peculiarities which pictures of this kind exhibit when taken, as during recent favourable approaches of the planet, with refined instruments and great precision of method.

(1) Excepting the polar caps and limb light, the familiar features of the planet are invisible in the ultra-violet photographs, but appear, and become increasingly conspicuous, as the wavelength of the light used in observation increases. (2) The polar caps and limb light are, on the other hand, strong in the ultra-violet photographs, and weaken with increasing wavelength. (3) Ultra-violet and violet photographs record at times whitish areas and mottlings which have been found to be temporary. These, like the polar caps and limb light, decrease in strength with increasing wave-length. (4) When the planet is near opposition there is a pronounced fading, or darkening, at the limb in the red and infra-red images. The violet and ultra-violet images are, on the contrary, usually brightest at the limb. (5) The ultra-violet and violet images are noticeably larger than those taken by red and infra-red light. The most systematic observations of Mars by this method were undertaken during the oppositions which occurred during the years 1924 and 1926. The evidence has therefore been available for only a short time, and it is doubtful whether anything approximating a consensus of opinion in relation to its interpretation exists. In lieu of a more authoritative statement an explanation which has already been tentatively advanced by the author will be offered. The theory may conveniently be approached through a consideration of figs. 9 and 10, which show small sections of a distant landscape photographed by light of the colours used in 4 and 5

directly above them. Obliteration of the distant part of the landscape in 10 is known to be due to the earth’s atmosphere, and the comparison of the two pairs of photographs is suggestive of the presence of an atmosphere of considerable optical density on Mars. The light in the upper half of ro comes from the atmos-

phere intervening between the camera and the distant snow-capped mountains. This part of the picture therefore is, in a sense, an image of the atmosphere, and if the analogy with the Martian

MARS pictures is correct the violet photograph, fig. 5, is an image of the Martian atmospheric shell. The infra-red photograph, fig. 4, is quite obviously one of the planet’s surface. Under this interpretation the excess in size of the violet and ultra-violet images referred to in (5) p. 956, is explained, because a shell must be larger than the body which it contains. Half of the difference between the diameters of the two images should obviously be the height of the Martian atmosphere, or rather the height to which it can be photographed, and this height has been provisionally estimated from the measures of the diameters as being of the order of 60 miles, though a discussion of all available material may greatly alter this estimate; indeed, a number of writers are averse to accepting so high an estimate of the atmospheric thickness (see Menzel, Astrophysical Journ., vol. 63, p. 58, 1926; Fessenkoff, Astrom. Nach., vol. 228, p. 25, 1926). The principal source of uncertainty in such a determination is encountered in the measurement of the infra-red image, which at the favourable

963

of heat received when this region is excluded by the interposition, for example, of a water cell, will indicate a substantial contribution by the planet itself, and therefore a relatively high temperature. The actual analysis, while it is not in its present approximate form very complex, involves many factors, and cannot be presented here. Of surpassing interest is the delicate electrical thermometer with which the heat measurements are made. The sensitive element is a thermo-couple of such small dimensions that the surface of the planet can be explored and the radiation of its several parts measured. These first successful measurements of planetary radiation from Mars were made in 1922 by W. W. Coblentz and C. O. Lampland at the Lowell Observatory, but those undertaken at the Martian apparitions of 1924 and 1926 by these observers, and by E. Pettit and S. B. Nicholson of Mount Wilson, are of such superior quality that only they will be considered. Temperatures of several parts of the disc, depending on these measurements, are given in the table to the nearest 10° :—

time of opposition presents a very weak edge, especially if a Sunrise

dark marking falls on a part of it which may be selected for measurement. An implication of the foregoing theory, that has been seriously disputed, relates to the polar-caps.

These features are

larger and stronger in the violet and ultra-violet photographs than in those taken by the infra-red light, and if the former are, in fact, pictures of the atmosphere, it seems difficult to escape the conclusion that the caps are in part, atmospheric phenomena. This is a conclusion that a number of excellent observers of the planet are unwilling to accept, for the reason that they regard it as incompatible with the telescopic appearance of the caps, and with their observed behaviour. A word must be said about Martian clouds. These have been known for a great many years, but so much light has been shed upon them by the recent photographs that they may properly be discussed under this head. There is substantial evidence leading to the belief that Mars has clouds of two kinds. What we shall call the first kind (see figs. 1 and 5) are specially conspicuous on photographs taken by light of the violet end of the spectrum, and are not seen on the red photographs; those of the second kind (see fig. 7 at the “stag’s throat’) have an exactly contrary behaviour, being strong in the red photographs and invisible in the violet. The term cloud is here used in a very general sense and is meant to designate merely an area of atmospheric unhomogeneity which registers a cloudlike impression on a photograph, though there is reason to believe that clouds of the second class may actually be aqueous clouds. The writer has suggested that clouds of the first class lie high in the Martian atmosphere, and those of the second at a lower level. Temperature.—That the temperature on the surface of Mars is comparable with that of the earth was long ago inferred from the behaviour of the polar caps, under the supposition that the latter are composed of ice or snow; and this inference, whatever the validity of the premise from which it was drawn, has been corroborated by some very remarkable analyses of the planet’s thermal radiation that have lately been made. The determination of the temperature of a planet through measurement of the heat it sends us presupposes a refinement of technique which, until very recently, seemed quite unattainable, for small as is the amount of heat received, it consists of two parts, that which came originally from the sun and is reflected by the planet, and that which originates in the planet’s own warmth. The second of these parts, called the planet’s intrinsic radiation, is alone the index of the planetary temperature, and in order to be utilized as such it must either be isolated from the first part, or sufficiently separated from it to permit certain characteristics ‘of thermal radiation to be recognized. The most practicable procedure that has until now been developed iş to compare the total heat received from the planet

Sunset | S. polar | N. polar

edge

EES

Mount

Wilson

edge

| SY

cap

TE

|A

region

|

—z0°C | +30%C | —10°C | —70°C

(1924)t Lowell | —20° to | — 10° to —6o0° +20°

(1926)t Lowell

|

+30°

o°

o° to +10°

+10°

— 40

Q

*Annual Report, Mt. Wilson Obs.; Carnegie Inst. (Washington, 1925).

tSci. Papers Bureau Standards, No. 553 (Washington, 1927).

Considering the difficulty of the observations, the independent estimates by the Lowell and Mount Wilson observers are remarkably accordant, especially when it is remembered that the quantity determined is the absolute temperature (or temperature measured

from the absolute zero point, —273° C) and not the difference between this and the comparatively close number which has arbitrarily been chosen as the zero of the Centigrade scale. The fall in temperature from the centre to the edge of the disc is beautifully shown; and the polar temperatures as well as those at sunrise and sunset seem painfully low to dwellers on the earth. Two outstanding points of difference are presented by the estimates made at the two observatories. The Lowell observers find the Martian afternoons to be warmer than the mornings, as is indicated by higher temperatures at sunset than at sunrise. The Mount Wilson results on the other hand show equal temperatures for morning and afternoon. Our terrestrial experience is that it is usually warmer in the afternoon than in the morning, a fact. which is due to the considerable water vapour content of the earth’s atmosphere, and the Mount Wilson observers explain the symmetry of their morning and afternoon temperature curve to be a consequence of the known scarcity of water vapour in the atmosphere of Mars. The second discrepancy relates to the temperature of the south polar cap, which alone was visible at these oppositions. The Mount Wilson observations place the temperature at —70° C, those made at Lowell indicate approximately o° C, the temperature of melting ice. This is a matter that bears critically on the question of the constitution of the polar caps. An interesting indication of the Lowell observations is that the dark parts of the planet are warmer than the bright ones, the estimated difference being 10° or 15° C, a fact which would

appear to be better in accord with the supposition that they are

merely areas of comparatively high optical absorption than that they are regions of vegetation. Optical absorption by a dark surface results in a rise of temperature, while expanses covered with vegetation are cooler than desert areas under like conditions. The estimates of temperature provided by these observations with that part of it which falls within certain limited regions of the spectrum. The spectral limitations are secured by passing the have been generally accepted with confidence, and there seems beam through various substances, notably water, of known trans- to be no ground for questioning their substantial accuracy in so missive properties. The logic of the method will be suggested by far as the central part of the planet’s disc is concerned. The calthe consideration that, since the bulk of the intrinsic radiation of culations through which they were derived do not, however, take a body well below the temperature of incandescence, such as a into account the properties of the Martian atmosphere, though the

planet, lies far in the infra-red, a great falling off in the amount

possible effects of an atmosphere were made the subject of con-

964

MARSALA—MARSCHALL

jecture by both groups of investigators. Whatever the magnitude of these effects, they must of necessity increase as the edge of the planet is approached, because of the greater amount of atmosphere intervening between us and the planet’s surface at points

remote from the centre.

VON

BIEBERSTEIN

Trumpler, Observations of Mars at the opposition of 1924. Lick Obs. Bull. vol, 13, p. 19 (Berkeley, Calif. 1927), a general discussion based principally on photographs, of its surface features, diameter and other constants, including the calculation of the diameter of the solid

surface from timed measurements of the markings; W. H. Wright

Furthermore the optical properties of Photographs of Mars made with light of diferent colours, three papers

the atmosphere are quite certainly affected by the lower temperature of the terminator, which at the most favourable time for general observation is close to the edge. That the atmosphere of Mars is not altogether negligible seems a fair inference | from photographic evidence already discussed, but we are not in possession of sufficient knowledge of its optical properties to permit a reliable estimate to be made of its effect on the planet’s ' radiation. For such reasons the temperatures derived for the polar caps and other parts of the edge are not regarded with the same confidence as those obtained for the centre. With these and other considerations in mind, Messrs. Coblentz, Lampland and | Menzel have summed up their conclusions in the following words: “We can say with some assurance that our measurements and deductions indicate that the temperature of the surface of Mars, under a noonday sun, rises considerably above the freezing point

of water—a question that had been under discussion for years” (Publ. Astron. Soc. Pacific, vol. 39, p. 100; 1927). Satellites and Pole—At the opposition of Mars which occurred in August 1877 the planet was unusually near the earth.

in Publ. Astron. Soc. Pacific, vol. 36, p. 239 (San Francisco, 1924), Lick

Obs, Bull, vol. 12, p. 48, 1925, and vol. 13, p. 50 (Berkeley, Calif.,

1927); a discussion of marked variations in the appearance of Mars when photographed by light of different colours, with suggested explanation; among subjects dealt with are the atmosphere of Mars, some of its optical properties, its extent, the phenomena of clouds and those of the polar caps; E. Pettit and S. B. Nicholson, Measurements of the Radiation of the Planet Mars; Pop. Astron. vol. 32, p. 601, a radiometric determination of the temperature of Mars; H. Struve, Uber die Lage der Marsachse und die Konstanten im Marssystem, Sitz. Königl. Pr. Akad. Wiss. XLVIII., p. 1056 (Berlin, x911). The absorption spec-

trum of the Martian atmosphere is discussed in the following papers: P. Lowell and V. M. Slipher, Lowell Obs. Bull. No. 17 (1905); V. M.

Slipher, Astrophys. Journ., vol. 28, p. 397 (1908) ; F. W. Very, Lowel] Obs. Bull., Nos. 36, and 41 (1909); W. W. Campbell, Astronomy and Astrophysics, vol. 13, p. 752 (1894), and in Lick Obs. Bull., vol. 5, p. 149 (1909), vol. 6, p. 1x (z910); and W. S. Adams and C. S. St. John, Astrophysical Journal, vol. 63, p. 133 (1926). The temperature of Mars, as derived from radiometric observations made at the Lowell Observatory, is discussed in papers contributed individually or jointly by W. W. Coblentz, C. O. Lampland.and D. H. Menzel to the Journ. Franklin Institute, vol. 199, p. 7853; vol. 200, p, 103 (Philadelphia, 1925) ; Sci. Papers, Bureau of Standards, Nos. 51 2, 553 (Washington, 1925-26); Astrophysical Journ. vol. 63, p. 177

Asaph Hall, then in charge of the 26” telescope at the Naval Observatory in Washington, took advantage of this favourable circumstance to make a careful search for a visible satellite of the planet, and on the night of Aug. rr found a faint object near the planet. Cloudy weather intervened, and the object was not again seen until the 16th, when it was found to be moving with the planet, leaving no doubt as to its being a satellite. On the night following an inner satellite much nearer the planet was observed. This discovery, apart from its intrinsic interest, is also noteworthy as the first of a series of discoveries of satellites of the outer planets. Hall named the outer satellite Deimos and the inner Phobos, from the horses that drew the chariot of the god Mars. A remarkable feature of the orbit of Phobos is that it is so near the planet as to perform a revolution in less than onethird that of the diurnal rotation of Mars. The result is that to an inhabitant of Mars this satellite would rise in the west and set in the east, making two apparent diurnal revolutions every day. The period of Deimos is only six hours greater than that of a Martian day; consequently its apparent motion around the planet would be so slow that more than two days elapse between rising and setting, and again between setting and rising. Lowell estimates the diameter of Deimos to be about 10 m. and that of Phobos slightly more. ; Long and careful series of observations have been made upon

gave it its present name, Marsa Ak, port of Ali. The harbour on

sitions of 1892 and 1894, observations were made by Hermann

the north-east, was destroyed by Charles V. to prevent its occupation by pirates. The modern harbour lies to the south-east. In

these bodies by other observers.

At the very favourable oppo-

(1926); and Publ. Astron. Soc. Pacific, vol. 39, p. 97 (1927). Among important sources of general information may be mentioned the Monthly Notices and Memoirs of the Roy. Astronom. Soc.; the

Journal and Memoirs of the Brit. Astronom. Ass.; the Bulletin of the Soc. Astronom. de France, especially papers by E. M. Antoniadi.

Popular Astronomy contains important articles by various authors, among which may be mentioned those by E. C. Slipher, and a series of reports by W. H. Pickering, beginning in vol. 22 (1914), and numbered consecutively; the latter constitute a running comment, with numerous

references,

on

contemporary

observations

of the planet.

Observations made at Lowell Observatory are recorded in extenso in

its Annals and Builetins.

Schiaparelli’s memoirs were published prin-

cipally in the Memoirs of the Reale Accademia dei Lincei of Rome.

(W. H. WR.)

MARSALA, seaport, Sicily, province of Trapani, 19 m. by rail S. of Trapani. Pop. (1921) 30,877 (town), 72,575 (commune). It is situated on the low westernmost point of the island. The cathedral, dedicated to St. Thomas of Canterbury, contains 16 grey marble columns. The town trades in Marsala wine. Marsala occupies the site of Lilybaeum, the principal Carthaginian stronghold in Sicily, founded by Himilco after the abandonment of Motya. Neither Pyrrhus nor the Romans were able to reduce it by siege, but it was surrendered to the latter in 241 B.C. In the later wars it was a starting point for the Roman expeditions against Carthage and afterwards became prosperous. The Saracens

Struve at Poulkova, who later subjected all the data up to 1909 1860 Garibaldi landed at Marsala with 1,000 men and began his to a very careful discussion (see bibliography). He showed campaign in Sicily. Scanty remains of the ancient Lilybaeum inthat the inclination of the planes of the orbits to the equator of cluding fragments of the city walls, are visible. MARSCHALL VON BIEBERSTEIN, BARON ADOLF the planet is quite small, thus making it certain that these two planes can never wander far from each other. The relations of VON (1842-1912), German diplomatist, was born at Neuershauthe several planes can be best conceived by considering the points sen, Baden, on Oct. 12, 1842. His grandfather, Karl Wilhelm, at which lines perpendicular to them, or their poles, meet the Baron Marschall von Bieberstein, ambassador of Baden in Stuttcelestial sphere. By theory, the pole of the orbital plane of each gart, represented Baden at the Congress of Vienna in 1815. Adolf satellite revolves round the pole of a certain fixed plane, differ- was educated at Frankfort-on-Main, and at the universities of ing less from the plane of the equator of Mars the nearer the Heidelberg and Berlin. He held various administrative offices in satellite is to Mars. The observations of Lowell and Slipher, and the grand duchy of Baden, sitting from 1875-83 in the upper of Trumpler, agree in placing the axis of Mars in position R.A. chamber of the Baden diet, In 1883 he was sent to Berlin as 316° -0; Dec. -+-54° -5 (Equinox of 1925). The tilt of the Martian minister for Baden in the Federal Council, and from 1884-90 he equator to the Martian ecliptic calculated from this position is represented the Council in the imperial insurance office. In 1890 he entered the imperial service, and succeeded Count Herbert 23°°4,

Bismarck as State secretary for foreign affairs under Caprivi,

Brstiocraruy.—Camille Flammarion, La Planéte Mars, etc. (2 vols., Paris, 1892-1909), a copious résumé of all publications and drawings of Mars up to 1901; W. H. Pickering, Mars (Boston, 1921), a collection of papers giving a brief account of the planet; Percival Lowell, Mars and its Canals (N.Y., 1911), a summary of this author’s views of the

had incurred the enmity of Prince Bismarck by refusing his

of the principal measurements

He was opposed by the Agrarians for advocating the reduction of

planet; T. J. J. See, Preliminary Investigation of the Diameter of Mars, Astronomische Nachrichten, vol. 157, 97 (1901), a condensed summary

made between 1651 and 1901; R. J.

continuing in that office under Prince von Hohenlohe; advice

and

the result

was

a fierce

press

campaign

but he against

him which finally obliged him to speak out when he appeared as witness at the trial of certain journalists in 1896 for lése-majeste.

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