Encyclopaedia Britannica [16, 14 ed.]

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THE

ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA

FOURTEENTH

EDITION

ENCYCLOPADIA BRITANNICA FIRST

EDITION

SECOND THIRD

EDITION EDITION

FOURTH

EDITION

1768

1777

1788 1801

FIFTH

EDITION

1815

SIXTH

EDITION

1823

SEVENTH EIGHTH NINTH

EDITION EDITION

EDITION

TENTH

EDITION

ELEVENTH TWELFTH

EDITION EDITION

THIRTEENTH

FOURTEENTH

EDITION

EDITION

1830 1853 1875 1902

1910 1922

1926

19209,1932

ad ~

hae

ae

a

he:

x

ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA FOURTEENTH EDITION

xN

bo

A

~~ X,

YE

=

RIRS

Se ln

ar

ANEW SURVEY OF UNIVERSAL KNOWLEDGE

VOLUME

10 MUSHROOM To OZONIDES

THE ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA COMPANY, LTD. LONDON

ENCYCLOP/EDIA BRITANNICA, INC. NEW YORK

COPYRIGHT IN ALL COUNTRIES TO

THE

BERNE

SUBSCRIBING CONVENTION

BY THE

ENCYCLOPADIA

BRITANNICA

COMPANY,

LTD.

COPYRIGHT IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA,

1929, 1930, 1932

BY THE ENCYCLOPEDIA

BRITANNICA,

INC.

Note: Pages 464, 465, 492, 493, 516 and 517 were missing from the original digital version of this volume. Replacements were inserted from the 1929 edition.

INITIALS AND NAMES OF CONTRIBUTORS IN VOLUME WITH THE ARTICLES WRITTEN BY THEM.

XVI

A. C. H.

A. Brany, B.A. }Ontario (in part). Assistant Professor of Political Science, University of Toronto. ALFRED Cort Happon, Sc.D., E.R.S. Fellow of Christ’s College, Cambridge. Formerly Reader in Ethnology in the uni ew Guinea (in part). versity of Cambridge. Author of Evolution in Art; The Wanderings of Peoples.

A. C. N.

A. C. NEEDLES. President of Norfolk and Western Railway Company.

A. D. I.

A. D. Imus, M.A., D.Sc. Chief Entomologist, Rothamsted Experimental Station, Harpenden, Hertfordshire, |Neuroptera;

A. Br.

oe and Western Railway Company, The.

England. Formerly Forest Zoologist to the Government of India, and Professor of { Orthoptera. Biology, University of Allahabad. Author of A General Textbook of Entomology; etc.

A. D. M.

A. D. Mırcgelr, D.Sc., F.I.C. Assistant Editor to the Journal of the Chemical Society. Assistant Examiner in Chem- Onde,

A. E. Da.

ALBERT Emit DAVIES.

istry, University of London and Institute of Chemistry. Alderman, London County Council. Chairman of several investment trusts. Fellow,

Royal Economic Society, and City Editor of The New Statesman. Author of The

Options

(~PUORS:

Money and the Stock and Share Markets; Foreign Investments; etc.

A. E. Hul.

A. EAGLEFIELD Hutt, F.R.C.O. Late Editor, Monthly Musical Record. Late Principal of College of Music, Hudders- pMusical Notation. field. Author of Modern Harmony; Handbook to Bach's Works; etc.

A. E. S.

AppIson ERWIN SHELDON, A.M., PH.D.

A. E. Sm.

ALFRED E. SMITH.

A. G. Ga.

ALFRED G. GARDINER.

A. Ha.

ADOLF HARNACK.

A. J.T.

Superintendent and Secretary of the Nebraska State Historical Society. Author of Nebraska, History and Stories of Nebraska; Poems and Sketches of Nebraska; etc.

}

New York (State).

Governor of New York, 1919-20, 1923-8.

Editor of The Daily News (London), 1902-19. Author of Prophets, Priests and Kings; Oxford and Asquith, Herbert Henry Asquith, rst Earl of. a mk of Sir William Harcourt; and works under the pen name of “Alpha of the ough.”

Neoplatonism (in part);

German theologian. Author of Lehrbuch der Dogmengeschichie; Das Monchtwm, seine Origen. Ideale und seine Geschichte; etc. See the biographical article: HARNACK, ADOLF. ARNOLD JOSEPH TOYNBEE. Director of Studies in the Royal Institute of International Affairs and Research (Mustafa Kemal.

A. LeR. L.

Professor of International History, University of London. Member of Middle-Eastern Section, British Delegation to the Peace Conference at Paris, , . ALAIN LeRoy Locke, A.B., P.D. a The American (in Professor of Philosophy, Howard University, Washington. Statistician, New Jersey ogr pari). Semi-Centennial Commission on the Negro, 1912-4. Author of The New Negro; etc.

A. L. J.

A. Leroy Jonnson, Sc.D.

A. L. K.

A. L. KROEBER, Px.D.

}Orthodontia.

Orthodontist, New York.

Muskogian Indians; North America (in part);

Professor of Anthropology, University of California, Author of Zuni Kin and Clan;

North Pacific Coast Indians:

Anthropology; etc.

Ojibwa.

A. LI. D.

ARTHUR LLEWELLYN DAVIS.

A. M. C.-S.

the Council of Legal Education. ALEXANDER Morris CARR-SAUNDERS, M.A.

Late Barrister-at-Law, Inner Temple, and Assistant Reader in Common Law under Negligence.

;

A. P. W.

Charles Booth Professor of Social Science in the University of Liverpool. The Population Problem; Eugenics. CoLONEL ARCHIBALD PERCIVAL WAVELL, M.C., C.M.G.

A. $. P.-P.

ANDREW Seta Princrz-Pattison, M.A., LL.D., D.C.L., F.B.A.

A. W. F. K.

i

Author of Optimum Population.

Late the Black Watch. General Staff Officer, War Office, London. British Military Attaché on the Caucasus Front, Nov. 1916-June 1917, General Staff Officer and Brigadier-General, General Staff, with Egyptian Expeditionary Force, 1917-20.

Narew, Battles of the; Narocz, Battle of Lake.

Professor of Logic and Metaphysics in the University of Edinburgh, 1891-1919. Mysticism (in part). Gifford Lecturer in the University of Edinburgh, 1921-3. Author of Man's Place in the Cosmos; The Philosophical Radicals; etc. MAJOR-GENERAL SIR ALFRED WILLIAM FORTESCUE KNOX, K.C.B., C.M.G. Duke). M. P. for Wycombe Division of Buckinghamshire. Military Attaché, Petrograd Nicholas (Grand

Embassy, 1911-8. Served with Russian Forces, 1914-7. Chief of British Military Mission to Siberia, 1918-20. Author of With the Russian Army, 1914-7. Vv

AND

INITIALS

NAMES

A. W. Hu.

Rev. ARTHUR WoLLaston Hutron, M.A.

A. W. K.

ARTHUR WILLIAM KIDDy.

A. Wt.

ALEXANDER WETMORE.

B.F. C. A.

B. F. C. ATKINSON, Pu.D.

B. S. P.

S

OF CONTRIBUTORS iNewman, John Henry.

Author of Life of Cardinal Newman; Life of Cardinal Manning; etc.

City Editor of The Morning Post, and of The Spectator, London,

,

,

F inancial Corre- pNational Debt (in part). Magazine.

spondent in London of the New York Evening Post. Editor of The Bankers

Assistant Secretary in Charge, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, and President,

American Ornithologists’ Union, United States National Museum, Washington.

niversity

peor. ee

O.

Doane seep

Cambridge.

Lecturer,

Fellow of

Research

Ornithology (in part).

o

Under-Librarian, University Library, Cambridge.

ue

;

;

,

ea

Girton

Galena

College,

tea

bal

Cambridge,

and Mistress of the College, 1922-5. Attached, British Legation, Stockholm, 1916-9.

.

Norway (in part).

Writer of The Elder Edda and Ancient Scandinavian Drama; etc.

B. W.

BECKLES WILLSON.

C. A. V.

C. A. Vilas, A.B., LL.B.

C. Br.

CLOUDESLEY BRERETON, M.A., L-Ès-L.

Author of The Hudson’s Bay Company; The Romance of Canada; Nova Scotia; Quebec: pNewfoundland (in part). The Laurentian Province; etc.

C. C. Pau.

C. C. T.

Biscuit j}National The.

General Counsel, National Biscuit Company.

Member of Legion of Honour. D-és-Litt. (Hon. Causa), Lille University. Late Divisional Inspector to the London County Council. Editor of the Education section, 14th Edition, Encyclopedia Britannica. CHARLES CooK PAULDING, A.B. Vice-President of the New York Central Lines. CHARLES CUTLER TorrEY, Pu.D., D.D. Professor of Semitic Languages, Yale University.

Company,

Oxford University (in part). : j ae Nethinim. |Northern Pacific Railway j New York Central Lines.

C. Don.

CHARLES DONNELLY, LL.B.

C. E. D.

CHARLES EDWARD DUPUIS.

C. E. L. C. E. L. C.

CHARLES E. Locke., S.B. Massachusetts Institute of Technology. CHARLES E. L. CORTHORN.

C. E. Mi.

Cartes Epwin Mitcue tt, B.A.

pran City Bank of New

C. E. T.

Cron EDGAR Ture, B.Sc., PD. F.G.S.

\Oigociases

C.G. S.

CHARLES GABRIEL SELIGMAN, M.D., F.R.C.P., F.R.S.

President, Northern Pacific Railway.

Late Adviser to the Egyptian Ministry of Public Works. Sudan, Public Works Department, 1899-1912.

C. R. B.

iOre Dressing.

Assistant Manager and Secretary of the Ottoman December, 1928, after 44 years.

Bank,

1911~28.

Retired 31 st Ottoman Bank.

President of the National City Bank of New York, and of the National City Safe Deposit Company. Chairman of the Board of the International Banking Corporation.

æ

C. J. C. N. B.

Served in Egypt 2nd file (in part).

emonstrator in Hia

Petrology, EE

University of Cambridge. RE oT ame ey

Professor of Ethnology in the University of London.

Anthropological Institute.

CHARLES JAMES.

Formerly President of the Royal

Author of The Melanesians of British New Guinea.

D. B-V.

) Orthoclase; Ottrelite.

|Nilotes: Ni

A.

f uba, The.

,

CHARLES N. Bovp, A.B., Mus.Doc. A Director of Pittsburgh Musical Institute. Theological Seminary, Pittsburgh.

AE ES Pan

R

i Instructor in Church Music, Western pMusic, Teaching of (in part).

M.A., D.Lirt., F.R.G.S., M.R.A.S.

‘C. R. Houseman, B.A.

Of the British Oxygen Company, Ltd., Research Laboratory, Middlesex.

C. Ws.

(i part);

Professor of Chemistry, University of New Hampshire, Durham, New Hampshire. iNeodymium.

rofessor of History, University of Birmingham. Late Fellow of Merton, and University Lecturer in History and Geography, Oxford. Formerly on Council of R.G.S., and of Hakluyt and African Societies, and a Member of the House of Laymen.

C. R. H.

York, The.

. Neckam, Alexander (i part).

Oxygen.

CAROLYN WELLS.

Mystery Stories (in part). Author of The Technique of the Mystery Story; etc. i D. BATIGAN-VERNE. Organ expert and tone connoisseur. Author of numerous articles on musical sub} ects, }Organ (in part), including a monograph on the ancient hydraulic organ. Editor of The Rotunda; etc. Davip EUGENE SmituH, Pu.D.

Professor Emeritus of Mathematics, Teachers College, Columbia University. Editor of the Mathematics section, 14th Edition, Encyclopedia Britannica. Author of A History of Mathematics; Progress of Arithmetic in Twenty-Five Years.

Donatp Francis Tovey, M.A., Mus.Doc. Reid Professor of Musicin Edinburgh University. Author of Essays in Musical Analysis, comprising The Classical Concerto, The Goldberg Variations and analyses of many

other classical works.

Editorial Adviser, Music section, 14th Edition, Encyclopedia

ts umerals. +. O Or

fa

pari);

;

Be

inane f

Britannica.

Davip HANNAY. Formerly British Vice-Consul at Barcelona. Author of Short History of the Royal Navy, 1217-1688; Life of Don Emilio Castelar. oa .

PA

pNelson, Horatio (in

e aon, M.Sc., F.R.S.

. odrell Protessor of Zoology and Comparative Anatomy, University College, London. Author of many papers on vertebrate palaeontology and connected subj eng in Pro- Orthogenesis. ceedings of the Zoological Society, Journal of Anatomy; etc.

part). f

INITIALS

AND

NAMES

OF CONTRIBUTORS

vii

D. Sc.

Dorotay Scarsoroucg, A.M., Litt.D., Px.D.

D. T.

DrEĮms TAYLOR,

E. A.

CAPTAIN EDWARD ALTHAM, C.B., R.N. . Secretary and Chief Executive Officer, Royal United Service Institution, since 1927. Naval Strategy and Tactics; Senior Naval Officer, Archangel River Expedition, 1918-9. Editor of the Journal of Navy and Navies; the Royal United Service Institution. Editor of the Naval section, 14th Edition, En-| Norway (in part).

Assistant Professor of English, Columbia University. Author of The Supernatural 3 Modern English Fiction; Ôn the Trail of Negro Folk-Songs; etc.

A.B., Mus.Doc.

Negro, The American (żin part). ic

Editor of Musical America.

(4

jMusic (PRENI

cyclopedia Britannica.

E. A. A.

E. A. F. E. B. A.

E. Soe

M.I.Mecu.E.

ember of the Iron and Steel Institute and the Institute of Welding Engineers.

:

E a a of Research, The Pearson and Knowles and Ryland Bros. Research Labora- Nail Manufacture. ories, EDWARD AUGUSTUS FREEMAN, LL.D. English Historian. Author of History of The Norman Conquest; History of Sicily. pNormans (in part). See the biographical article: FREEMAN, E. A. MAJOR-GENERAL EDWARD BAILEY ASHMORE, C.B., C.M.G., M.V.O.

f

Commander of the Legion of Honour. Commanded London Air Defences, 1917; First

Observer Corns in Air

Air Defence Brigade, 1920-4; Air Defence Formations, Territorial Army, 1924-8. Founded the Observer Corps of the Air Defences, 1925.

E. B. P.

E. B. T.

E. Cr.

E. D. A. Ed. M.

Epcar B. Preer, A.B., LL.D. Editor of The Poriland Morning Oregonian. UP gc eer at Tytor, D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S.

Defence.

}Oregon.

nthropologist. Author of Researches into the Early History of Mankind; Primitive Culture: Researches into the Development of Mythology, Philosophy, Religion, Language, Art and Custom. See the biographical article: TYLOR, EDWARD BURNETT.

. Ordeal (im part).

ERNST CASSIRER. Professor of Philosophy, University of Hamburg. Author of Kant’s Leben und Lehre;

de s ot p(Neo-Kantianism.

Substanzbegriff und Funktionsbegriff; etc. E. D. Aprran, M.D., F.R.S. Professor of Biology, University of Cambridge. EDUARD MEYER, D.Litt. Professor of Ancient History in the University of Berlin. Alterthums; etc.

E. E. Free, A.B., Pu.D. Lecturer in Outlines of Science, New York University.

|Nerve (in part). Author of Geschichte des

Osroene.

Author of Pocket Guide to Noise and Its Control.

Science; Weather; etc.

E. E. L.

Epwarp E. Lone, C.B.E.

E. E. T.

E. E. Tuum, E.M.

E.G.

Sır Epmunp Gosse, M.A., C.B., LL.D., Hon.Litt.D. Librarian, House of Lords, 1904-14. Sometime Assistant Librarian, British Museum. | Norton, Thomas; Clark Lecturer in English Literature, Trinity College, Cambridge, 1884-90. Pres- Novel (in part); ident of the English Association, 1921. Author of History of Eighteenth Century Liter- Ohlenschlager, Adam Gottlob (in part). Boe Collected Poems; Books on the Table. See the biographical article: Gosse, SIR DMUND. EDWIN GARRIGUES BorincG, M.E., A.M., Pu.D. Associate Professor of Psychology and Director of the Psychological Laboratory, Organic Sensations.

E. G. Bor.

Eh.

ew Britain;

Formerly Director of Eastern Propaganda. Officer in Charge, Eastern Section, News New Guinea (in part); Department, Foreign Office, 1918-21. The Times (London) correspondent in Northern AAZ ias. Ce India, Late Editor, The Indian Daily Telegraph; The Rangoon Times. Associate Editor, The Iron Age, New York, Author of Elementary Metallurgy.

Nickel-Chromium Steel; Nickel Steel; Nitrogen Hardening.

~y

Harvard University. HERR EHLERS.,

Norddeutscher Lloyd Steamship Company. National Insurance: Health (im part). Niagara River;

E. Ja.

Chief of the Norddeutscher Lloyd Literary Department. E. HACKFORTH. ‘Deputy Controller of Health Insurance, Ministry of Health, London. Epcar Japwin, Hon.D.E.

E. J. Pe.

m CE. Se ees E. J, Pearson, B.S.

E. L.

P. R. Exsa Lewxowrtscx, Pa.D., B.Sc.(Hons.), A.R.C.5.

are Fats and Waxes (part); Olive Oil (in part).

E. M. Ho.

EDWARD MORELL HOLMES.

Opium (in part).

E. Ha.

Major-General, Chief of Engineers, United States Army, Washington.

Late President of the

New

York,

New

IalOntario, Sa eer bee wey

pee eased Haven and

Hartiord

Katlroad.

Lake.

jearttord eee and Company, The.

Emeritus Curator of the Museum of the Pharmaceutical Society, London. E. N. da C. A. EDWARD NEVILLE DA COSTA ANDRADE, D.Sc., Pu.D., F.Inst.P. Quain Professor of Physics in the University of London. Author of The Structure of Nucleus. the Atom; The Mechanism of Nature; etc. Edition of the Encyclopedia Britannica.

E. N. W.

Epona Nose Wuite, A.B.

Director of the Merrill-Palmer School, Detroit, Mich. Professor of Home Economics,

Ohio State University, 1913-20.

E. P.C.

Editor of the Physics section of the 14th

Epwrtn Provan Catucart, C.B.E., M.D.. F.R.S. Gardiner Professor of Chemical Physiology, University of Glasgow, 1919-28. Regius Professor of Physiology since 1928.

Nursery Schools (im part). a rNutrition.

INITIALS

AND

NAMES

OF

CONTRIBUTORS Nazareth;

EDWARD ROBERTSON, M.A. Professor of Semitic Languages, University College of North Wales. ELIZABETH SANDERSON Harpane, C.H., LL.D., J.P.

Vice Chairman,

Territorial

Nursing Service,

Member

Olives. Mountof: Ophir ’ ’

Q.A.I.M. Nursing Board. pNursing (in part).

Member of the General Nursing Council. Author of The British Nurse in Peace and War.

Miss E. E

B.A.

Inspector of Schools to the

E. Un.

eee

London

County

és

—

Council.

sateen ace

Formerly

Hea

istress o

;

;

St. (Gectee's School for Girls and St. George’s Training College for Secondary Women Teachers, Edinburgh. EVELYN UNDERHILL To S r 7 Biles nei Fellow of King’s College, London, 1927. Upton Lecturer on Religion, Manchester

Nursery Schools (i part). . Mysticism

College, Once, 1921-2. Author of Mysticism, a Study in the Nature and Development of Man's Spiritual Consciousness; Practical Mysticism; The Essentials of Mystecism.

E. Wal. F. A. M. W. F. B. K.

Eric WALROND. Manager, Opportunity (a Negro Journal), 1925-7. F. A. M. WEBSTER.

. (in part).

peegro, The American (in part). :

Olympic Games.

Joint-Editor of The Blue Magazine, London, and writer on athletics,

FRANK BıLLIınces KELLOGG, LL.D. United States Secretary of State in the Coolidge Administration from 1925. bassador to Great Britain, 1924-5.

F. Bro.

FRANK Browne, F.J.C., F.C.S.

F. D. R.

Pharmaceutical Chemist. Government Analyst, Hong-Kong, 1893-1915. FRANK D. REEVE, M.A. Instructor of History and Government, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque.

Am-

pOutlawry of War (in part).

}Opium-Eating and Opium-Smoking.

New Mexico.

F. E. MatrHews, Pa.D., F.LC. Former Professor of Chemistry at the Royal India Engineering College, Cooper’s Hill. Consultant to Messrs. Johnson and Matthey, Research Chemists, Hatton Garden, London.

F. G. M. B. F. G. P.

F. H. A.

FREDERICK GEORGE MEESON Beck, M.A. Formerly Fellow and Lecturer in Classics, Clare College, Cambridge. FREDERICK GYMER Parsons, F.R.C.S., F.S.A. Professor of Anatomy, University of London. President, Anatomical Society of Great Britain and Ireland. Lecturer on Anatomy at St. Thomas’s Hospital and the London School of Medicine for Women.

Osmium.

f

;

Northumbria. Nerve (in part); Nervous System: y ’ Olfactory System.

FreD H. ALBEE, A.B., M.D., Sc.D., F.A.C.S. Director, Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, and Professor of Orthopaedic Surgery, | Orthopaedic Surgery (in New York Post Graduate Medical School. Author of Bone Graft Surgery: Orthopaedic

part).

and Reconstruction Surgery; etc.

F. H. Br.

FRANK HERBERT Brown, C.I.E.

i and Eastern affairs. s Member of the staff of The Times (London) for Indian London Correspondent of The Times of India. Formerly Editor of The Indian Daily Telegraph.

\ Naidu, Nehru, Sarojini; Pandit Motilal.

FREDERICK HENRY Harca, O.B.E., Pu.D., M.InsTt.C.E.

F. J. H. F. J. M. S. F. L. L.

Adviser on Metalliferous Mining to the Mines Department. Author of The Iron and Ore Deposits. Steel Industry of the United Kingdom under War Conditions; etc. FRANCIS JOHN HAVERFIELD, M.A., LL.D., F.S.A: Late Camden Professor of Ancient History in the University of Oxford, Fellow of Brasenose College and Fellow of the British Academy. Author of monographs on Numantia. Roman History, especially Roman Britain. USF’ F. J. M. STRATTON, D.S.O., M.A.

University Lecturer in Mathematics Cambridge. Lapy Lucarp, D.B.E.

Author and Journalist.

and Fellow of Gonville and Caius College,

Late Head of Colonial Department of The Times, Lon-

don. Has undertaken special commissions for The Times to South Africa, Australia and Canada. Author of A Tropical Dependency.

F. LI. G.

F. LLEWELLYN Grirritu,

M.A., Pu.D., F.B.A., F.S.A.

Professor of, and Reader in, Egyptology, Oxford University. Texts of the Christian Period; Oxford Excavations in Nubia.

F. M. S. F. N. M.

]

Nigeria (in part)

Nubia (in part); Author of The Nubian

ae Langu age and Shee

M,Professor STENTONof History, University of Reading. Editor of the History (Mediaeval) sec- lw ormandy (i part); tion, 14th Edition, Encyclopedia Britannica. J Normans (in part).

CoLonEeL FrepERic Natusca Maung, C.B., R.E.

Author of Cavalry: Its Past and Future; Evolution of Strategy; War and the World’s Life; Campaign of Leipzig; of Jena; of Ulm and many other technical essays.

Frank Ricwarpson Cana, F.R.G.S.

Editorial Staff, Encyclopedia Britannica, 1903-11 and 1914-5.

London, since 1916.

Staff of The Times,

Author of South Africa from the Great Trek to the Union; etc.

FREDERICK W. Honce. Ethnologist with Museum of the American

F. W. J.

Nova. YS

Writer and Lecturer on botanical subjects.

Napoleonic Campaigns (in part). Natal (part); Niger;

Nigeria (port); Nile (part); +Nyasaland Protectorate (in part);

Orange Free State (part). Indian, New York.

Ethnologist

charge of Bureau of American Ethnology, Smithsonian Institution, 1910-8.

Frank WILLIAM JoHNson, M.A.

\

in North America (in part).

Oak; }Oil Palm.

INITIALS F. W. Mo.

AND

NAMES

OF

CONTRIBUTORS

SIR FREDERICK WALKER Mort, K.B.E., M.D., F.R.C.P., F.R.S.

Formerly Consulting Physician to Charing Cross Hospital, London, Pathologist to London County Asylums, and Lecturer on Morbid Psychology, Birmingham University. Author of War Neuroses and Shell Shock.

F. W. O.

1X

jaca 3 Neurasthenia; Neuropathology.

Francis WALL OrrveRr, M.A., D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S. Quain Professor of Botany, University of London. Formerly President of the British Ecological Society. Author of papers on morphological and fossil botany. Editor of

Nature Reserves.

Annals of Botany; etc.

G. A. C.

REV. GEORGE ALBERT Cooke, D.D.

Regius Professor of Hebrew, Oxford, and Canon of Christ Church.

G.A.R. C.

GEOFFREY A. R. CALLENDER, M.A., F.S.A.

G. C. R.

Guy CoLwin Rosson, M.A.

G. D. Bi.

G. D. BIRKEOFF, A.M.,

G. E.

Rev. Georcz Epmunpson, M.A., F.R.Hist.S., F.R.G.S.

Secretary to the Society for Nautical Research and Professor at the Royal Naval College, Greenwich.

Pa.D.,

Sc.D.

Professor of Mathematics, Harvard University.

Sometime Foreign Mem-

Dutch

A.M., P.D.

GEORGE Francis Hitz, M.A. Assistant in Department of Coins and Medals, British Museum.

G. Gr.

G. G.T.

Editor of The Study of War.

G. H. B.

Instructor in Carriages, Military College of Science, Royal Arsenal, Woolwich. Rev. GEORGE HERBERT Box, M.A., Hon.D.D.

G. H. W.

GroRrcE H. WARBURTON.

Gir.

:

NegrK The American pari).

,

(in

New Zealand (i part); -Nigeria (in part); Norway

GILBERT GROSVENOR, A.M., Litt.D., LL.D. President, National Geographic Society, Washington. LIEUTENANT G. G. TEMPLER. Rector of Sutton, Beds. versity of London.

(in part);

Author of Sources pNumismatics (in part).

of Greek History 478-431 B.C.; Handbook of Greek and Roman Coins; etc. Major-GENERAL SiR GEORGE G. Aston, K.C.B. Lecturer on Naval History, University College, London. Professor of Fortification at the Royal Naval College, Greenwich.

Oldenbarneveldt, Johan Van

Historical {Orange, House of; -J Ostend Company.

Professor of Sociology and Economics, Fisk University, Nashville, Tenn., t9ro-2, Director of Negro Economics, U. S. Department of Labor, 1918-21.

G. F. H.

Nile, Battle of the (in part).

jNumber.

ber, Netherlands Association of Literature, and Hon. Member, Society.

GEORGE Epmunpb Haynes,

Campaigns (in

part); Navarino, Battle of (in part);

Mursel; { Nautilus; Octopus.

Assistant Keeper in the Department of Zoology, British Museum.

Formerly Fellow and Tutor of Brasenose College, Oxford.

G. E. Ha.

}Odaenathus.

hi

(in part).

i . . aty National Geographic Society i }Ordnance (im part).

Davidson Professor of Old Testament Studies in the Uni-

Nahum.

pee Fats and Waxes (in

Editor of the Sixth Edition of Oils, Fats and Waxes by E. Lewkowitsch and Chief ¢ part); Chemist of the Lewkowitsch Laboratories. Olive Oil (ix part).

Josera GIRARD. a a

; de fer du Nord. Chevalier : of the Légion eck Compagnieè Des Chemins

i Com. Nord France,de des de Chemins Fer pagnie Du. j

G. J. T.

GEORGE JAMES TURNER. Rarrister-at-Law, Lincoln’s Inn. Editor of Select Pleas of the Forests for the Selden pNorthampton, Assize of.

G. L. E.

Mıss G. L. Erres, D.Sc.

Society.

G. M. McB.

4

}

`

Lecturer in Geology, Newnham College, Cambridge. GEORGE M. McBRIDE, B.A., PE.D. University of California at Los Angeles, California.

Ordovician System. Author of Agrarian Indian Com-

munities of Highland Bolivia. GrorcE Macrınnon Wrong, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.C. Emeritus Professor of History in the University of Toronto.

Author of The British

Oruro.

ST Ontario (in part).

Nation, a History; etc.

GEORGE

EE

a

a

5

Secs

ae

eee

Fellow of Oriel College an niversity Lecturer in Modern History, ord. Hon. Member of the Historical Society of Utrecht. Author of the Dutch Alliance and the

War Against French Trade, Joint-Author of Churchwarden’s Accounts of Marston; etc.

G. Sc.

G. SCHOTT. Oceanographer, German Naval Observatory, Hamburg.

Hon. Professor of Ocean-

Netherlands (im pari).

North Sea.

ography, University of Hamburg.

G. T. M.

GILBERT T. Morsan, O.B.E., D.Sc., F.L.C., F.R.S.

_ _) Nitro-Compounds;

Director, Chemical Research Laboratory, Department of Scientific and Industrial | Olefine; Research, London. Formerly Mason Professor of Chemistry, University of Birming- Organo-Metallic ; ham, Professor in the Faculty of Applied Chemistry, Royal College of Science for e Aiea: Ireland and Professor of Applied Chemistry, Technical College, Finsbury. Author o aa ’ Editor of the Chemistry Orone of The Organic Compounds of Arsenic and Antimony. section, 14th Edition, Encyclopadia Britannica.

REV. GRIFFITHS WHEELER THATCHER, M.A., B.D. Warden of Camden College, Sydney, N.S.W. Formerly Tutor in Hebrew and Old

< rNabigha Dhubéyni.

Testament History at Mansfield College, Oxford.

H. A. Bayurs, D.Sc.

E

Assistant, Department of Zoology, British Museum

em

(Natural History).

Nemicciiica:

as >

X H. A. Ha

H. B. H. H. C. L. H. D. N. H. E. H.

H. F. P.

INITIALS

AND

NAMES

OF CONTRIBUTORS

H. ArnswortH Harrison, M.Sc., PH.D., A.I.C. Research Chemist, Chemical Research Laboratory, Teddington, Middlesex. HENRY BEETLE Hovuca, B.LItT. Publisher, Vineyard ‘Gazette, Martha’s Vineyard, Mass.

i Naphthalene. } Nantucket.

H. C.Ministry Lonc, B.Scand Trade of Agriculture and Fisheries, London. Editor of Journal of Ministry of Oats: G Cultivation s Agriculture nd Fisheries. Author of Common Weeds of the Farm and Garden; etc. ın part). HENRY DARNLEY NAYLOR, M.A.

Emeritus Professor of Classics in the University of Adelaide, South Australia. Harrison E. Howe, M.S., Sc.D. Editor, I ndustrial and Engineering Chemistry, Washington. Stone Age; Chemistry in the Home; etc.

Author of The New

?

3

New South Wales (in part). sees . ry n, Fixation of (in part).

HENRY FRANCIS PELHAM. Late Camden Professor of Ancient History, University of Oxford, Curator of the Bod- | Nerva, Marcus Cocceius (in leian Library and President of Trinity College. Author of Outlines of Roman History. See the biographical article: PELHAM, HENRY FRANCIS.

part).

H. F. T.

Harry F. Tapp, M.E.

H. H. L. B.

Hucs Hare Lercu Bettor, M.A., D.C.L.

H. J. B. D.

H. J. B. DREW.

I

H. J. Br.

H. J. BRaunHoxtz, M.A.

I

Technologist, American Oil Burner Association, Inc., and the Oil Heating Institute. Author of Hand Book of Domestic Oil Heating.

H. J. F.

Late Associé de l'Institut de Droit International, Honorary Secretary, International Law Association and Grotius Society. Formerly Acting Professor of Constitutional Law, University of London, and Secretary, Breaches of the Laws of War Committee.

,

;

Nationality and

Naturalization (in part); Neutrali ? ty.

:

New Zealand (i part).

Director of Publicity for New Zealand.

Assistant Keeper of Ceramics and Ethnography, British Museum, London. HERBERT JOHN FLEURE, D.Sc. Professor of Geography and Anthropology, University College of Wales, Aberystwyth. Hon. Secretary, Geographical Association, and Hon. Editor of Geography. Author of Human Geography in Wesiern Europe; etc. Edition, Encyclopedia Britannica.

i

Oil Heating, Domestic.

ao

Oceania (tn part). ,

New Zealand (in part).

Editor of the Geographical section, 14th

H. J. R.

HeErsert JENNINGS Ross, M.A.

H. K.-S.

H. Knox-SHaw, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.A.S. }Nebula Radcliffe Observer, Oxford. Formerly Director of Helwan Observatory, Egypt. f H. P. Hors, B.A., F.R.A.S. Assistant in the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, 1881-1920. Formerly Editor of The Observatory, Astronomical. Observatory Magazine.

Mystery (în part);

Professor of Greek, University of St. Andrews, Fife. Fellow and Lecturer of Exeter |Nemesis; : College, Oxford, 1907-11. Associate Professor of Classics, McGill University, 1911-5. FOdysseus; Oedipus; Professor of Latin, University College of Wales, Aberystwyth, 1919-27. Author of | Oracle (inz part); The Roman Questions of Plutarch; A Handbook of Greek Mythology; etc.

H. P. H. H. St. H. W. C. D.

H. W. D.

Orestes.

Henry Sturt, M.A.

Soani

Author of Idola Theatri; The Idea of a Free Church; Personal Idealism. |Nominalism. Henry WILLIAM CARLESS Davis, C.B.E., M.A. Nennius; Late, Director Dictionary of National Biography, Regius Professor of Modern History, Odo of Bayeux; Oxford, and Fellow and Tutor of Balliol College, Oxford. Orderic Vitalis (in purt). SIR a nao oe F.R.C.M., F.R.C.O. rganist and Composer. Director of Music and Chairman of the National Council . . ; of Music, University of Wales. Gresham Professor of Music and Organist, St. George’s Music, Teaching of (i part), Chapel, Windsor. Professor of Music, University College of Wales, 1919-26. Henry Wriper Keves, A.M., L.L.D. , Governor of New Hampshire, 1917-9. President of Woodsville (N.H.) National New Hampshire. Bank. United States Senator, 1919-31.

H. Wn.

WALTER HucH Joun Wirxrnson, C.I.E., I.C.S.

H. W. R.

Rev. HenRyY WHEELER Rosinson, M.A., D.D.

British Envoy at the Court of Nepal.

|Nepal (in part).

Chevalier of the Legion of Honour.

Principal of Regent’s Park College, London. Formerly Professor of Church History and the Philosophy of Religion in Rawdon College, Leeds.

N

HERBERT WRicreY Wirsow, M.A. Assistant Editor of the Daily Mail, and Director of Associated N ewspapers, Ltd.

I. A. L E. L. I. F. S. J.A.C.

Obadiah.

a ee Bevo Viscount

’

ISRAEL ABRAHAMS, M.A. Formerly Reader in Talmudic and Rabbinic Literature in the University of Cam- +Nasi, Joseph. bridge. Author of A Short History of Jewish Literature; Judaism; etc. IsaBEL Ery Lorp, B.L.S. to sental Cook Author of Getting Your Money's Worth. Editor of Everybody's Cook Book. er OOnery: ISABELLE F. STORY. National Parks and Editor, National Park Service, Department of the Interior, Washington. i Monuments (in part).

SrR JOSEPH ARCHER Crowe, K.C.M.G.

Author, with Giovanni Battista Cavalcaselle, of Early Flemish Painters; A New | Neer, Van Der (ia part);

History of Painting in Italy from the Second to the Sixteenth Century.

J. Al. J. A. P.

ical article: CROWE, SIR ifA.

J. ALLAN, M.A. Deputy Keeper of Coins and Medals, British Museum.

entury.

See the bi

See

; the biograph- | Ostade (in part).

INumismatics (i part).

BEV JAus ees M.A., D.D. ormerly Professorof Hebrew and Old Testament Exegesis, New College, Edinbur p. Numbers in part). Author of The Period of the Judges; Translator of Schultz’s Old Testament Theology. (n p

INITIALS J. Bai.

J. Bla.

J. E. T. H.

NAMES

OF CONTRIBUTORS

French Historian and Journalist.

Formerly Editor of the monthly review, ActionNapoleon I.

Author of Histoire de France; etc.

JAMES B. Garner, M.Sc., Pu.D. Senior Fellow, Melion Institute of Industrial Research, and Director of Research for Natur alGas. Hope and affiliated Natural Gas Companies. JAmeEs Brarr. General Manager (London), N ippon Yusen Kaisha Line. ?Nippon Yusen Kaisha. JOHN ERNEST TROYTE HARPER, M.V.O., C.B. Vice-Admiral, R.N. Director of Navigation at the Admiralty, r919-21.

J.F.C.F. J. F-K. J. G. B. j.G. G.

xi

JACQUES BAINVILLE. Française.

J. B.G.

AND

Commande

d Navigation. His Majesty’s Yacht “Victoria and Albert,’’ 1911-4. Compiled Official Record of the Battle of Jutland. ay COLONEL Jonn FREDERICK CHARLES FULLER, C.B.E., D.S.O. Military Assistant to the Chief of the Imperial General Staff. Chief General Staff Officer, Tank Corps, 1917-8. F ormerly Chief Instructor, Camberley. Author of Neuve Chapelle, Battle of. Tanks in the Great War; The Reformation of War; Sir John Moore's System of Training. JAMES FITZMAURICE-KELLy, Litt.D., F.R.H1st.S. pe Na Late Gilmour Professor of Spanish Language and Literature, University of LiverNuñez de Arce, Gaspar. H+ pool. Author of A History of Spanish Literature.

Napoleonic Campaigns (in part); y Nile, Battle of the (zm part).

J.G. BuLLockE, M.A. Civilian Lecturer, Royal Naval College, Greenwich.

JEAN GABRIEL GOULINAT.

Chevalier de la Légion d'Honneur, Sociétaire et Membre du Comité du Salon de la Oil Painting, Technique of. 5th Nationale des Beaux Arts. Author of La Technique des Peintres. y

jJ.G.M.McH. COMMANDER J. G. M. McHarpy, R.N.(retired). J. Har.

Ordnance (in part).

Department of Chief Inspector of Naval Ordnance, Admiralty, London.

Jrro HARADA. Of the Imperial Household Museums, Japan. Formerly Professor in the Nagoya College of Technology, and in the 8th Higher School. Imperial Japanese Government Commissioner to the Panama-Pacific International Exposition at San Francisco, 1915.

J. H. D.

J. H. DRIBERG.

J. H. H.

J. H. Hurron, D.Sc., C.I.E.

A = br P

Author of The Lango: A Nilotic Tribe of Uganda.

Director of Ethnology, Assam. Deputy Commissioner, Naga Hills. Angami Nagas; The Sema Nagas; etc.

J. H. O.

J. H. Orton, D.Sc.

J. L. My.

J. L. Myres, O.B.E., M.A., D.Sc.

Author of The

2a eS

Naga Hills (in pari).

Oyster.

Chief Naturalist, Marine Biological Association, The Laboratory, Plymouth.

ae yd

Wykeham Professor of Ancient History and Lecturer in Classical Archaeology in the PE of Oxford. General Secretary to the British Association for the Advancement of Science.

J. M. H.

9

Oxford

i

National Insurance: Widows and Orphans’ Pensions; Old Age Pensions. J. M. Lanois, A.B., LL.B., S.J.D. . ; : Professor of Legislation, Harvard Law School. Author of The Business of the Supreme +Nullity of Marriage (in part). J. M. HENDRI, M.A.

Deputy Controller, Ministry of Health Insurance Department, London.

J. M. La.

Court of the United States.

J. M. Le.

J. M. M. J. M. Sc.

J. R. J. R. B.

James Mervin Lesz, Litt. D.

Director of the Department of Journalism, New York University. Literary Editor of Newspapers (in part). Ve’ The Editor and Publisher. Author of A History of American Journalism; etc.

Joun Marcorm MırcuErL, O.B.E., M.C., M.A. Secretary, Carnegie United Kingdom Trust. Assistant Editor in Classics and Ancient History, 11th Edition, Encyclopedia Britannica. Joint-Editor of Grote’s History Neoplatonism (in part). of Greece. ——_ J. M. Scamme tt, A.B. Lieutenant Colonel, California National Guard and United States Army Reserve, Assistant Chief of Staff, 4oth Division. Formerly Assistant in History and Lecturer National Guard. in Political Science, University of California. ——_ . Romanes, M.A., F.G.S., M.Inst.P.T. ; ! Petroleum Geologist. }Ozokerite.

. R. Bonp, M.B.E., M.Sc., N.D.A. J Agricultural Organiser for Derbyshire.

of Agriculture.

J. R.P.

J. S.

J. S. Co.

Contributor to the Journal of the Minestry

a

ge e ve

part).

and Trade

James Rrippick Partincton, M.B.E., D.Sc. Professor of Chemistry, East London College, University of London, A Textbook of Inorganic Chemistry for University Students.

Author of Nitrogen.

Str Josran Stamp, G.B.E., D.Sc., LL.D., F.B.A.

Chairman, and President of the Executive, London Midland and Scottish Railway. Director of the Bank of England. Member of the British Royal Commission on Income Tax, 1919; of the Committee on Taxation and National Debt, 1924. British National Dividend; Representative on the Reparation Commission’s Committee on German Currency National Savings (in part}. and Finance, 1924 and Member.of the Committee of Experts, Paris, 1929. Author of uU———,--_~ Wealth and Income of the Chief Powers; Wealth and Taxable Capacity.

JAMES SUTHERLAND Corton, M.A.

Formerly Editor of The ITeo Gazetteer of India. Hon. Secretary of the Egyptian Exploration Fund, and Fellow and Lecturer of Queen’s College, Oxford. Author of India in the ‘‘Citizen”’ series, etc.

Omichund. US

Xi

J. S. F. J. S. Fa.

J. T.H.

J. Wh.

J.W. J.

INITIALS

J. W. S.

NAMES

OF CONTRIBUTORS

Sır Joux Smt Frerr, K.B.E., D.Sc., F.R.S.

Director, Geological Survey of Great Britain and Museum Formerly Lecturer on Petrology in Edinburgh University. JOHN SHIELDS FAIRBAIRN, M.B., B.Cu., F.R.C.S., F.R.C.P.

:

Napoleonite; Neck;

of Practical Geology. pNepheline-Syenite; Nephelinites; Obsidian.

Obstetric Physician and Lecturer on Midwifery and Diseases of Women, St. Thomas Hospital, and Physician, General Lying-in Hospital, London. Author of A Textbook jor Midwives; Gynaecology with Obstetrics; etc.

Joux THEODORE Hewitt, M.A., D.Sc., PH.D., F.R.S. Formerly Professor of Chemistry, East London Author of Synthetic Colouring Matters; etc.

ae

College, University

of London

Professor of Comparative Philology, Harvard University. Sometime Faulkner Fellow of the University of Manchester and Research Student (Craven Award) of the University of Cambridge. Author of The Prae-Italis Dialects of Italy, Part II.

L. C. M.

Nitrogen, Fixation of (in part). Oscan.

JAMES WELDON JoHNSON, A.M., Litt.D. , Secretary of the National Association for Advancement of Coloured People. Director |Negro, The American (in of the American Fund for Public Service. U.S. Consul to Puerto Cabello, 1906;/ part). Author of The Book of American Negro Poetry; etc.

JosErH WELLS, M.A. Vice-Chancellor, University of Oxford, 1923-26; Warden of Wadham College, Oxford, 1913-27. Author of Oxford and Its Colleges; etc.

Oxford University (in pari).

J. W. Scott, M.A., D.Px.

nD

Professor of Logic and Philosophy, University College of South Wales and

K. S.

Obstetrics.

“|

Josva WxHatTmoucH, M.A.

Corinto, 1909-12.

J. Ws.

AND

mouthshire, Cardiff,

Mon-

;Neo-Hegelianism.

KATHLEEN SCHLESINGER.

;

Author of The Instruments of the Orchestra.

}Organ (in part).

SIR Leo Curozza Money, F.R.Stat.S., F.R.G.S., F.Z.S.

Author and Journalist. Member of the War Trade Advisory Committee, 1915-8. Parliamentary Secretary to the Ministry of Shipping, 1916-8. Chairman of the Tonnage Priority Committee, 1917-8. Editor of the Economics, Engineering and Industries section, 14th Edition, Encyclopedia Britannica.

National Provincial Bank Limited.

L. D. S.

LAURENCE DupteEy Stamp, B.A., D.Sc., A.K.C., F.G.S., M.I. P.T.

L. E. B.

Sir Ernest Cassel Reader in Economic Geography in the University of London. -Oligocene. Author of An Introduction to Stratigraphy. Rev. L. Ertrott Bruns, D.D. |Numbers (in part). Vicar of Gedney, Lincolnshire.

L. E. D.

Lronarp E. Dickson.

L. F.

Numbers, Theory of. Professor of Mathematics, University of Chicago. LIon FEUCHTWANGER. German writer. Author of Jew Suss; The Ugly Duchess; etc. See the biographical [Novel Modern in the

L. H. D. B.

L. H. Duptey Buxton, M.A.

article: FEUCHTWANGER, LION.

Reader in Physical Anthropology in the University of Oxford.

L. J. B. L. J. S. L. R. D. L. R. F. L. T. H. L. V.

Asia.

LAWRENCE J. BuRPEE, F.R.G.S., F.R.S.C.

Secretary of the International Joint Commission, Ottawa, Canada. Private Secretary to three successive Ministers of Justice in the Dominion Government and for several years Librarian of the Ottawa Public Library. L. J. SPENCER, M.A., Sc.D., F.G.S., F.C.S., F.R.S. Keeper of Department of Mineralogy, Natural History Museum, South Kensington.

Formerly Scholar of Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge, and Harkness Scholar. Editor of The Mineralogical Magazine. ee es M.Com., F.C.A. ead of Sellars, Dicksee and Company. Sir Ernest Cassel Professor of fates and Business Organisation, 1919-26, and Dean of the Faculty of Economics, 1925-6, in the University of London.

Ottawa f

Olivine

Overhead Charges.

Lewis RicHARD FARNELL, M.A., Litt.D., F.R.A.S., F.B.A.

Formerly Rector of Exeter College and Vice-Chancellor of the University (1920-3), Oxford. Lecturer in Classical Archaeology, University of Oxford, and Wilde Lec- Mystery (in part). turer in Comparative Religion. Author of Cults of Greek States; Evolution of Religion.)

L. T. HocBen, D.Sc.

Nucleus. Professor of Zoology, University of Cape Town, South Africa. an mnd Lurcr VILLARI. Italian Vice-Consul in New Orleans, 1906; Philadelphia, 1907; Acting Consul at Mussolini, Benito; Boston, 1909. On the Secretariat of the League of Nations, 1920-3. Author of Naples, Kingdom of (in

part).

Tialian Life in Town and Country; The Fascist Experiment; ete.

Lovrs Wey,

M. C. R.

M. C. RAYNER.

M. ďd’O.

MAURICE DOCAGNE. Professor of Applied Geometry, Ecole Nationale des Ponts et Chaussées and Professor

M. G. D.

?

ippur.

L. Wi.

M. E. P.

Nineveh:

Author of Peoples of Ni

M.A., LL.D., Lirrt.D.

Business Manager, The New York Times.

Author of Mycorrhiza.

of Geometry, Ecole Polytechnique, Paris. MARLEN E. PEW. Editor of. The Editor and Publisher, New York.

Rr. HoN. Sır MOUNTSTUART ELPHINSTONE GRANT Durr, G.C.S.1., F.R.S. Under-Secretary of State for India, 1868~74. Under-Secretary of State for the Colonies, 1880-1. Governor of Madras, 1881-6. Author of Studies in European

Ochs, Adolph Simon. yet

Mycorrhiza.

Nomography. News Agency (in part).

Oliphant, Laurence (i part).

Politics; Notes from a Diary.

eee ey eer Vey

INITIALS M. Gu.

AND

NAMES

OF

CONTRIBUTORS

M. GUILLAUME.

xili

:

M. Gy.

Managing Director of Le Petit Journal, Paris. MONTGOMERY GREGORY. Principal, New Jersey Avenue School, Atlantic City.

N. A. C.

NELSON ANTRIM CRAWFORD, M.A. Editor-in-Chief of Household Magazine, Topeka, Kan. mation, United States Department of Agriculture.

?Nivelle, Robert George. iNegro, The American (in part).

Formerly Director of infor.| Nonpartisan League.

Associate Editor,

The Midland.

N. B. J.

N. B. Jopson, B.A.

N. M. P.

Norman MosLEY PENZER, M.A., F.R.G.S., F.G.S. Author of Cotton in British West Africa; The Tin Resources of the British Empire; The}Nickel (in part).

O. C. S.

O. C. STINE, PH.D.

Old Slavonic

Reader in Comparative Slavonic Philology, London University.

E

Mineral Resources of Burma; Non-Ferrous Metals and other Minerals; etc.

Bureau of Agricultural Economics, United States Department of Agriculture. of Journal of Farm Economics; Agricultural History.

O. H.T. R.

O. H. T. Risupetu, M.A., F.R.G.S.

O. J. L.

SIR oe

O. J. R. H.

O. L. B. O. R. A.

Editor

a

Professor and Head, Geography Department University College, Southampton.

oee

Cultivation and Trade

(in part).

?New South Wales (zn part).

LopcE, D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S.

rincipal of the University of Birmingham, 1900-19. Professor of Physics, University ‘ í College, Liverpool, 1881-1900. President of the British Association, 1913-4. Awarded eee the Albert Medal of the Royal Society of Arts, London, for pioneer work in wireless ` telegraphy. Author of Ether and Reality; The Ether of Space; etc. OSBERT Joun RADCLIFFE Howartu, O.B.E., M.A. ; Secretary of the British Association for the Advancement of Science. Assistant Editor }Norway (in part). for Geography, 11th Edition, Encyclopedia Britannica. Oscar Levy, M.D., L.R.C.P., M.R.C.S. : sade Editor of the authorised English translation of Nietzsche’s works. Translator (into ea Friedrich German) of Disraeli’s novels Tancred or the New Crusade and Contarini Fleming. f O. L. Brany, D.Sc., F.I.C. }Oximes. Reader in Organic Chemistry in the University of London.

OLIVIA ROSSETTI AGRESTI.

Writer, Lecturer and Interpreter to the Assemblies of the League of Nations and the

Lectured in the United States on Italian Eco-

International Economic Conference. nomic conditions, 1919, 1920, 1923.

Naples.

ptes,

Bank of

°

P. H. B.

Percy Hormes BoynrToN, A.M. Professor of English, University of Chicago.

, Editor of American Poetry. Author of Novel (in pari).

P. Lo.

Percy Lonemurr, D.MET., M.B.E.

P. P. C.

Puitre Putnam Cuase, A.M., LL.B.

R. A. K.

REv. RONALD ARBUTHNOT KNOX.

R.A.S. M.

ROBERT ALEXANDER STEWART MacatisteR, M.A., F.S.A., Litt.D., LL.D.

R. B. F.

RayMOND BLAINE Fospicx, M.A., LL.D. Formerly Commissioner of Accounts, City of New York. Author of American Police Systems; European Police Systems; Keeping Our Fighters Fit; etc.

-New York City.

R. D. Ca.

R. D. CARMICHAEL.

Number Sequences.

R. Don.

Srr Ropert Donatp, G.B.E., LL.D. Chairman, Empire Press Union, 1915-26.

R. E.C.

RacHEeL ELEANOR Crowpy, D.B.E. Chief of Social Questions and Opium Traffic Section, Secretariat, League of Nations.

American Literature; etc.

Past President, Institute of British Foundrymen and Sheffield Foundry Trades Technical Society. Director, Harvard University Summer School. Lecturer in History and Tutor in History, Government and Economics, Harvard University.

Needle.

l New England.

Mystery Stories (in part).

Author of The Viaduct Murder; The Footsteps at the Lock; etc.

Professor of Celtic Archaeology, University College, Dublin. President of the Royal Oisin i Irish Academy and of the Royal Society of Antiquaries of Ireland, 1925-8. Author of Ireland in Pre-Celtic Times; The Archaeology of Ireland; etc.

,

Oor

Professor of Mathematics at University of Illinois, Urbana, I. Ltd., to 1918.

} Managing Director of United Newspapers, pNewspapers (in part).

Editor of The Daily Chronicle, 1902—18.

;

aa

R.F.C.

Raymonp F. Crist, D.D.S., LL.B.

R. F. M.

Rozert Foster Moore, O.B.E., M.A., F.R.C.S.

Director of Citizenship, United States Department

Commissioner of Naturalization. of Labor.

Ophthalmic Surgeon, St. Bartholomew’s

Hospital; Surgeon,

Moorfields Eye Hos-

pital; Consulting Ophthalmic Surgeon, Maudesley Hospital, London. Secretary, Ophthalmological Society of the United Kingdom. Author of Medical Ophthalmology.

,

R. G. Hu.

Ray G. HULBURT.

R. Git.

Roy GITTINGER, PH.D.

R. H.R.

Sır Henry Rew, K.C.B.

,

;

a

Director of Information and Statistics, American Osteopathic Association, Chicago. Formerly Editor of Journal of Osteopathy.

ye

e

a

Dean of Undergraduates and Professor of English History in the University of Oklahoma. Author of The Formation of the State of Oklahoma; etc.

,

:

Board of Agriculture and Fisheries, 1898; Assistant Secretary, 1906-18; Secretary to the Ministry of Food, 1916-7. Chairman, Inter-Departmental Committee on Un-

employment

Insurance in Agriculture, 1925-6.

Opium Traffic.

Nationality and Naturalization (in part).

Ophthalmology.

Osteopathy.

Oklahoma. Mutton; Open-Field System. fe Us

INITIALS

XIV

AND

CONTRIBUTORS

OF

NAMES

R. H. Ra.

RosBERrT HERON RASTALL, Sc.D., F.G.S.

,

R. J.

Sır RosBERT Jones, C.B., K.B.E., CH.M., D.Sc., F.R.C.S., F.R.C.S.E.

R. La.

ROBERT LATOUCHE.

Oolite.

University Lecturer in Economic Geology. Fellow of Christ’s College, Cambridge. Member of Council of the Geological Society, 1915, and Mineralogical Society, 1918. Editor of the Geology section, 14th Edition, Encyclopædia Britannica.

,

Orthopaedic Surgery (in part).

Lecturer on Orthopaedic Surgery, University of Liverpool. Director of Orthopaedic Surgery, St. Thomas’ Hospital, London. President, British Orthopaedic Association, 1921-5. English Editor, International Journal of Orthopaedic Surgery.

re

Archivist of the department of Tarn et Garonne.

.

,

Author of Histoire du comté du pNormandy

(in part).

Maine au Xe et au XIe siècle.

R. M. F.

Miss R. M. FLEMING.

R. N. B.

ROBERT NISBET BAIN. Assistant Librarian,

a

?Ossetian Autonomous Areas.

Librarian, The Geographical Association, Aberystwyth.

aed

ical History of Denmark,

Nikon; Olgierd (in part); e aaa . | Osterman, Andrei Ivanovich ey 2383—1909. Author T. E E are The ae: (in part);

Norway and

Sweden 1513-1900;

lhe

Furst

Komanovs, ILOI3—

n

1725; Slavonte Europe: The Political History of Poland and Russia from 1469 to 1796.

R. N. R. B.

R. N. RupMosE Brown, D.Sc.

Head of the Department of Geography, University of Sheffield.

New Siberian Islands;

Member of the | Nicholas, Northern or Lenin

Scottish Antarctic Expedition, Scotia, 1902-4, and of the Scottish Arctic Expeditions to Spitsbergen, 1909-12, 1914 and 1919. Author of Spitsbergen; etc.

Rave R. PLATT, A.B.

,

f

Land; Novaya Zemlya.

f

:

Head, Department of Hispanic American Research, American Geographical Society of New York.

R. T. GI.

SIR RICHARD TETLEY GLAZEBROOK, K.C.B., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S.

R. T. Wa.

Rapa T. WALKER. Architect, Voorhees, Gmelin and Walker, New York. tectural magazines.

:

Oxenstjerna, (in part). Count Bengt

Orinoco.

,

Chairman Aeronautical Research Committee. Director, National Physical Laboratory, 1899-1919. Editor of Dictionary of Applied Physics.

Newton, Sir Isaac.

, Ornament, Architectural.

Contributor to various archi-

R. U. Saycr, M.A.

Natal (in part);

maritzburg, Natal. RAYMOND WILLIAM POSTGATE.

Orange Free State (in part). ;

Lecturer in Material Culture and Physical Anthropology, University of Cambridge. | Nyasaland Protectorate (in Formerly Lecturer in Geology and Geography, Natal University College, Pieterpart);

R.

W.

P.

S. A. C.

Editorial Staff, 14th Edition, Encyclopedia Britannica.

Author of The Bolshevie|New> eo

Theory; Revolution from 1789-1906; The Builders’ History; ed. Pervigilium Veneris. STANLEY ARTHUR Cook, LittT.D. University Lecturer in Hebrew

and Aramaic;

onnor,

Lecturer in Hebrew and Syriac and

(in pari), 4

Feargus

“dward.

Nabataeans (in part).

Fellow, Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge. Editor for Palestine Exploration Fund. Co-Editor of the Cambridge Ancient History.

btorwes (in part); Norwegian Language and Literature (in part).

S. C. H.

S. C. HAMMER, M.A.

S. C. P.

CoLONEL THE Hon. SIDNEY CORNWALLIS PEEL, D.S.O., T.D. Barrister. Vice-President, Morocco State Bank. Commander, Hafidian Order.

iNational Bank of Egypt.

SANFORD D. COLE.

l

S.

D.

C.

S. E. W. S. G. O. S. H. M.

S. J. B.

Oslo Correspondent of The Times, London.

S. K. L. S. L.

S. Le.

ee

Of Middle Temple, Barrister-at-Law. Assistant Editor of seventh edition of Carver i aie Laws. on Carriage of Goods by Sea. Formerly Board of Trade Pilotage Commissioner. STEVENSON E. WARD. National Bank of Commerce President of the Nationa! Bank of Commerce. in New York. SIDNEY GEORGE OWEN. denja

Formerly Student and Tutor of Christ Church, Oxford.

lOvid (in part).

SYDNEY HERBERT MELLONE, M.A., D.Sc. Lecturer, Manchester College, Oxford.

Examiner in Philosophy, Universities of st. Andrews, 1899-1902; London, 1902-6; Edinburgh, 1907-10; in Psychology, Edinburgh, 1913-6. Lecturer in the University of Manchester, 1911-21.

Ophites.

S. JOSEPHINE BAKER, M.D. Lecturer on Child Hygiene, Columbia Healthy Babies; Child Hygiene.

S. K.

Editor of The Norway Year Book.

and New

York

Universities.

Author ofbNursery Equipment.

SIGURD KOLSRUD.

Norwegian Language and

Professor of the Scandinavian Languages in the University of Oslo, Norway. Literature (in part). S. K. Lortgror, A.B., P.D. } Anthropologist, Museum of the American Indian, Heye Foundation, New York. -Ona. Author of Tulum, an Archaeological Study of Eastern Yucatan; etc. STEPHEN Lancpon,, M.A., B.D., Pu.D. Professor of Assyriology, Oxford, since 1919. Curator in the ay Museum, lets Babylonian Section, Philadelphia, 1916-8. Director of the Weld-Blundell l and Field Oannes. Museum Expedition to Mesopotamia since 1922.

STuART Lewis, A.M., P#.D., D.C.L., M.F.S.

Professor of Law, New Jersey Law School. Author of Party Principles and Practical S Politics; An Outline of American Federal Government.

National Convention, The. i

INITIALS S. N.

AND

NAMES

OF CONTRIBUTORS

XV

SIMON NEWCOMB. Late Professor of Mathematics in the United States Navy, Professor of Mathematics and Astronomy, Johns Hopkins University, and Editor of the American Journal of Neptune (în part). Mathematics. See the biographical article: NEWCOMB, SIMON.

S. T. H. W.

CAPTAIN S. T. H. Witton, R.N.(retired).

‘

S. T. M. S. Ya.

STEPHEN T. MATHER. Director of the National Park Service, United States Department of the Interior. SEIRYO YAMANOUCHI.

T. A.

THomas Asupy, D.Lirt., F.B.A., F.S.A., Hon.A.R.I.B.A.

Late Assistant Director of Naval Ordnance, Admiralty, London.

New Zealand (in part).

| National Parks and Monuments (in part).

jNippon

Professor of Commercial and Colonial Policy, Tokyo University of Commerce. Formerly Director of the British School at Rome.

Author of Turner’s

Visions of

Rome; The Roman Campagna in Classical Times; Revised and completed for press a Topographical Dictionary of Ancient Rome (by the late J. B. Plattner).

Ginko.

Nola; Orvieto; Ostia.

T. Ba.

THOMAS Baker, D.Sc., M.MErt., F.I.C., F.Inst.P. Chief Metallurgist and Head of Research Department, Messrs. Peech and Tozer, Ltd. |Open-Hearth Steel Process.

T. E. R. P.

Rev. THEODORE EVELYN REECE Puitties, M.A., F.R.A.S., F.R.MEtT.Soc.

Secretary, Royal Astronomical Society, 1919-26; President, 1927 and 1928. Director

.

-Neptune (2x part).

of The Jupiter Section of the British Astronomical Association.

TatsBot F. Hamiin, B.A., B.ARCH. Instructor in the History of Architecture, Columbia University, New York.

Chair-

-Order.

man, City Plan Committee of the Merchants’ Association, New York.

CoLonEL Srr THomas HUNGERFORD

F.R.G.S., F.R.S.A.

T. J. E. T. L. H.

Ho.tpricu, K.C.M.G.,

K.C.LE.,

ae

I

West

Fronter

Province (in part). o (in pari);

Author of The Indian Borderland; The Countries of The King’s Award; etc. Major T. J. EDWARDS.

Secretary to the Honours and Distinctions Committee, The War Office, London. Officers (in part). Sir Tuomas LitTLe Heatu, K.C.B., K.C.V.O., Sc.D., F.R.S. Hon. Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge. Author of A History of Greek Mathe- {vicomachus matics; etc.

T. O. T. Sm.

V. D. V.R. C. W. A. P. W. A. Ro.

W. A. W.

THOMAS OKEy, M.A. Osier. Professor of Italian, ; Fellow of Gonville and Caius College; Cambridge University. T. E. Smitrn, M.A. Optics Principal Assistant, Physics Dept., National Physical Laboratory, Teddington. ° Ohio. Vic(tTor) DONAHEY. Governor of the State of Ohio 1923-9. V. R. CROSWELL, B.Cu.E. Naval Stores. Manager, Hercules Powder Company, Hattiesburg, Miss. W. ALISON Purtiies, M.A. Nibelungenlied; Lecky Professor of Modern History, Dublin University. Contributor to The Cam- Nicholas I. (in pari). bridge Modern History; etc.

j

}Negro, The American (in

W. A. Roprnson, A.M.

part). State Supervisor of Negro High Schools, State Dept. of Education, Raleigh, N. C. W. A. Wooster, Pu.D. . tome:

Demonstrator in Mineralogy in the University of Cambridge.

Opal.

W. B.G.

WILLIAM BENJAMIN GREGORY, M.E., M.M.E. Professor of Engineering, Tulane University.

. New Orleans (in pari).

W. B. P.

WILLIAM BELMONT PARKER, A.B.

Olmedo, José Joaquin de.

W. B. W.

W. Basıt Worsrorp, M.A.

W. B. Wo.

W. BrrKkBecK Woop, M.A.

W. C. B. T.

W. C. B. TUNSTALL, M.A.

Editor of South Americans of To-day.

Author of A History of South Africa; Lord Milner's Work in South Africa; The Empire

,

-Nigeria (in part).

on the Anvil; etc.

Nashville (in part).

Author of A History of the Civil War in the United States.

| Navarino, Battle of (in part).

Civilian Lecturer, Royal Naval College, Greenwich.

W. de B. H.

W. DE Bracy HERBERT.

W. D. M.

WiLtrAM DILLER Martruew, A.M., P.D., F.R.S.

Barrister-at-Law.

W. E. C.

,

Professor of Palaeontology and Director, Museum of Palaeontology, University of

California.

W. E. A.

Official Secrets. fObscenity;

Recorder of Newcastle-under-Lyme.

W. E. ARMSTRONG.

eae Guinea (in part);

Formerly Lecturer on Social Anthropology, University of Cambridge. , WALTER E. CorLrrnceE, D.Sc., F.L.S.

Keeper of the Yorkshire Museum.

Editor of The Journal of Zoological Research.

Lecturer on Economic Zoology, University of Birmingham.

W.E.G.

Str WILLIAM EpmMuND GARSTIN, G.C.M.G. British Engineer. Inspector General of Irrigation, Egypt, 1892. rage and Assuan Reservoir.

W. E. V.

W. E. Wurrenovuse, M.Sc.

Lecturer and Demonstrator in Geography, University College of Wales, AberystFormerly Gilchrist Scholar in Geography.

Oceania (im part). ,

Ornithology (in part).

Built Assuit Bar-Nile(in pari).

W. E. VAUGHAN, A.M., Pu.D.

wyth.

>Mylodon.

Author of various scientific treatises on fossil vertebrates.

iOberammergau. (Norway (77 part).

INITIALS W. F. Re.

AND

NAMES

OF CONTRIBUTORS o,

Wiırrram Frooran ReEDDAawayY, M.A., F.R.Hist.S.

Norway (in part).

Fellow and Lecturer of King’s College, Cambridge, and University Lecturer. Forin the merly Censor of Fitzwilliam Hall, Cambridge. Author of “Scandinavia Cambridge Modern History.

W. Gam.

W. GAMBLE, F.R.P.S.

W. Gi.

Str WILFRED GRENFELL, K.C.M.G., M.D., F.R.C.S., L.R.C.P., LL.D. | Author of Autobiography of a Labrador Doctor; Labrador Looks at the Orient; Tales of ~Newfoundland (in part).

W. H. Le.

W. H. LEFFINGWELL.

W. H. Po.

WALTER HERRIES POLLOCK, M.A. Editor of Saturday Review, 1833-94. Author of Lectures on French Poets; etc. Witurorp I. Kine, Pu.D.

!Music Printing.

Editor, Penrose’s Annual.

Labrador; etc.

W. I. K.

Management Engineer.

Office Appliances; Office Management.

Author of Office Management; etc.

Professor of Economics, New York University School of Commerce.

Musset, Alfred de (in pari).

W. J. D. W. La.

W. LATEY

W. L. F.

WALTER Lynwoop FLEMING, A.M., Pu.D.

W. L. Ro.

W. L. Ross. President of New York, Chicago and St. Louis Railroad.

W. L. W.

Rev. W. L. Warre, M.A., D.D.

Of the Middle Temple, and the Probate and Divorce Courts, Barrister-at-Law.

l

,

National Savings (in part).

Author of The

Wealth and Income of the People of the United States. W. J. Dakin, D.Sc., F.L.S., F.Z.S. Derby Professor of Zoology, University of Liverpool. Formerly Professor of Biology in the University of Western Australia. Author of Textbooks on Zoology; etc.

Onycophora.

}Nullity of Marriage (in pari). oe

Nullification.

Dean of College of Arts and Sciences and Professor of History, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tenn. Author of Documentary History of Reconstruciton.

|New York, Chicago and St. Louis Railroad.

_ | Naphtali;

Lecturer in Biblical Criticism and Exegesis of the Old Testament, Manchester Uni-

-Nimrod;

versity.

Noah.

Principal of Hartley College, Manchester.

W. M. D.

W. M. Davis, D.Sc., PH.D.

W. M. S. W. P. P.

W. M. Smart, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.A.S. John Crouch Adams Astronomer and Chief Assistant, Observatory, Cambridge. W. P. PYCRAFT.

W. P. Re.

WILLIAM PEMBER REEVES.

Professor of Geology in Harvard University.

raphy.

Author of Physical Geography.

,

:

Orbit. Nest:

Assistant-Keeper in Charge of Osteological Collections, Museum of Natural History, South Kensington. Author of History of Birds; A Story of Bird Life; etc. Chairman, National Bank of New Zealand.

.

Formerly Professor of Physical Geog- >North America (im part).

Od

Agent-General and High Commissioner

for New Zealand, 1896-1908. Director, London School of Economics, Author of State Experiments in Australia and New Zealand.

t ith ontornithes.

New Zealand

1908-19.

W. R. Ca.

WILLIAM RICHARDS CASTLE.

W. R. Mo.

WILLIAM RicHARD Morritu, M.A.

}

W. R. S.

W. ROBERTSON Surtu, LL.D.

l

W. S. E.

WILLIAM S. EICHELBERGER, A.B., PH.D.

W. S. L.-B.

WALTER SYDNEY LAzARUS-BARLOw, M.D., F.R.C.P. Member of the Cancer Committee, Ministry of Health.

(in part)

Outlawry of War (in pari).

Assistant Secretary of State, Washington.

Formerly Professor of Russian and Other Slavonic Languages in the University of Nestor. Oxford and Curator of the Taylorian Institution, Oxford, Author of Russia; etc.

;

Philologist, Physicist, Archaeologist, Biblical Critic, Editor of the oth Edition of tne}Nabataeans (im part),

Encyclopædia Britannica.

Professor of Mathematics, United States Navy, since 1900. Director of the Nautical

;

-Newcomb, Simon.

Almanac, United States Naval Observatory.

Formerly Professor of

ae

Experimental Pathology, Middlesex Hospital Medical School, London University. Myelitis. Editor of the Medical section, 14th Edition, Encyclopedia Britannica. Editor of | Medical Science section, 14th Edition, Encyclopedia Britannica.

W. S.T.

WARREN S. THOMPSON.

W. Se.

P. WitHELM Scuuipt, D.TxH., $.V.D.

W.T. C.

WILLIAM THOMAS CALMAN, D.Sc., F.R.S.

North America (in part).

Professor of Sociology, Miami University, Oxford, Ohio.

;

lNumeral Systems. Professor, History of Culture and Speech of Primitive Peoples, Vienna University. Keeper of the Department of Zoology, British Museum (Natural History).

W. Tho.

WALLACE THompPson, B.Sc., Litr.D. Editor-in-Chief of Ingenteria International (New York).

Fellow of the Royal Geographical Society. Author of The People of Mexico; Trading with Mexico,

Initial used for anonymous contributors.

iOstracoda. pNicaragua.

THE ENCYCLOPA DIA BRITANNICA FOURTEENTH

EDITION

VOLUME 10 MUSHROOM TO OZONIDES USHROOM.

The edible fungus of this

floccose, never viscid. The cuticle of a mushroom readily peels away from the thick flesh beneath. The cap has a narrow dependent margin or frill; this originates in the rupture of a delicate continuous wrapper, which in the infancy of the mushroom gions of all parts of the world. Many edible entirely wraps the young plant. The gills underneath the cap are at fungi depend upon minute and often ob- first white, then rose-coloured, finally brown-black. A point of scure botanical characters for their de- great importance is to be noted in the attachment of the gills near termination, and may readily be con- the stem; the gills in the true mushroom are, however, usually founded with worthless or poisonous spe- more or less free from the stem, they never grow boldly against cies; but that is not the case with the common mushroom, for, al- it or run down it; they may sometimes just touch the spot where though several other species of Agaricus somewhat closely approach the stem joins the bottom of the cap, but never more; there is it in form and colour, yet the true mushroom, if sound and freshly usually a slight channel all round the top of the stem. When a gathered may be distinguished from all other fungi with ease. It mushroom is perfectly ripe and the gills are brown-black in colour, almost invariably grows in rich, open, breezy pastures, in places they throw down a thick dusty deposit of fine brown-black or where the grass is kept short by the grazing of horses, herds and purple-black spores; it is essential to note the colour. The stem is flocks. Although this plant is popularly termed the “meadow firm, slightly pithy up the middle, but never hollow; it bears a mushroom,” it never as a rule grows in meadows. It never grows floccose ring near its middle; this originates by the rupture of in wet boggy places, never in woods, or on or about stumps of trees. the thin general wrapper of the infant plant. An exceptional specimen or an uncommon variety may sometimes Like all widely spread and much-cultivated plants, the edible be seen in the above-mentioned abnormal places, but the best, the mushroom has numerous varieties, and it differs in different true, and common variety of the table is the product of short, up- places and under different modes of culture in much the same way land, wind-swept pastures. A true mushroom is never large in size; as our kitchen-garden plants differ from the type they have been its cap very seldom exceeds 4, at most 5 in. in diameter. The large derived from, and from each other. examples measuring from 6 to 9 or more in. across the cap belong Many instances are on record of symptoms of poisoning, and to Agaricus arvensis, called from its large size and coarse texture even death, having followed the consumption of plants which have the horse mushroom, which grows in meadows and damp shady passed as true mushrooms; these cases have probably arisen from places, and though generally wholesome is coarse and of inferior the examples consumed being in a state of decay, or from some flavour. The mushroom usually grown in gardens or hot-beds, in mistake as to the species eaten. It should always be specially cellars, sheds, etc., is a distinct species known as Agaricus horten- noted whether the fungi to be consumed are in a fresh and wholesis. On being cut or broken the flesh of a true mushroom remains some condition, otherwise they act as a poison in the same way white or nearly so, the flesh of the coarser horse mushroom changes as any other semi-putrid vegetable. Many instances are on record to buff or sometimes to dark brown. To summarize the characters where mushroom-beds have been invaded by a growth of strange of a true mushroom—it grows only in pastures; it is of small size, fungi and the true mushrooms have been ousted. When mushdry, and with unchangeable flesh; the cap has a frill; the gills are rooms are gathered for sale by persons unacquainted with the diffree from the stem; the spores brown-black or deep purple-black in ferent species mistakes are of frequent occurrence. A very comcolour, and the stem solid or slightly pithy. When all these char- mon spurious mushroom in markets is A. velutinus, a slender, acters are taken together no other mushroom-like fungus—nearly ringless, hollow-stemmed, black-gilled fungus, common in gardens and about dung and stumps; it is about the size of a mushroom, a thousand species grow in Britain—can be confounded with it. The parts of a mushroom consist chiefly of stem and cap; the but thinner in all its parts and far more brittle; it has a black stem has a clothy ring round its middle, and the cap is furnished hairy fringe hanging round the edge of the cap when fresh. Anunderneath with numerous radiating coloured gills, free from the other spurious mushroom, and equally common in dealers’ basstem. The cap is fleshy, firm and white within, never thin and kets, is A. lacrymabundus ; this grows in the same positions as the watery; externally it is pale brown, dry, often slightly silky or last, and is somewhat fleshier and more like a true mushroom; it name is known botanicaly as Agaricus campestris or Psalliota campestris. It grows in short grass in the temperate re-

mae OO eee

2

MUSHROOM

has a hollow stem and a slight ring, the gills are black-brown mottled and generally studded with tear-like drops of moisture. In both these species the gills distinctly touch-and grow on to the stem. Besides these there are numerous other black-gilled species which find a place in baskets—some species far too small to bear any resemblance to a mushroom, others large and deliquescent, generally belonging to the stump- and dung-borne genus C oprinus. The true mushroom itself is to a great extent a dung-borne species, therefore mushroom-beds are always liable to an invasion from other dung-borne forms. Sometimes cases of poisoning follow the consumption of what have really appeared to gardeners to be true bed-mushrooms, and to country folks as small horse mushrooms. The case is made more complicated by the fact that these highly poisonous forms now and then appear upon mushroom-beds to the exclusion of the mushrooms. This dangerous counterfeit is A. fastibilis, or sometimes A. crustuliniformis, a close ally if not indeed a mere variety of the first. A description of one will do for both, A. fastibilis being a little the more slender of the two. Both have fleshy caps, whitish, moist and clammy to the touch; instead of a pleasant odour, they have a disagreeable one; the stems are ringless, or nearly so; and the gills, which are palish-clay-brown, distinctly touch and grow on to the solid or pithy stem. These two fungi usually grow in woods, but sometimes in hedges and in shady places in meadows, or even, as has been said, as invaders on mushroom-beds. The pale claycoloured gills, offensive odour, and clammy or even viscid top are decisive characters. Besides the foregoing the difference in the nature of the attachment of the gills near the stem, the absence of a true ring, and of a pendent frill will be noted. The colour, with the exception of the gills, is not unlike that of the mushroom. In determining fungi no single character must be relied upon as conclusive, but all the characters must be taken together. Sometimes a beautiful, somewhat slender, fungus peculiar to stumps in woods is mistaken for the mushroom in A. cervinus; it has a tall, solid, white, ringless stem and somewhat thin brown cap, furnished underneath with beautiful rose-coloured gills, which are free from the stem as in the mushroom, and which never turn black. It is probably a poisonous plant, belonging, as it does, to a dangerous cohort. Many other species of Agaricus more or less resemble A. campestris, notably some of the plants found under the subgenera Lepiota, Volvaria, Pholiota and Psalliota; but when the characters are noted they may all with a little care be easily distinguished from each other. The better plan is to discard at once all fungi which have not been gathered from open pastures; by this act alone more than nine-tenths of worthless and poisonous species will be excluded. In cases of poisoning by mushrooms immediate medical advice should be secured. The dangerous principle is a narcotic, and the symptoms are usually great nausea, drowsiness, stupor and pains in the joints. A good palliative is sweet oil; this will allay any corrosive irritation of the throat and stomach, and at the same time cause vomiting. In Paris mushrooms are cultivated in enormous quantities in dark underground cellars at a,depth of from 60 to 160 ft. from the surface. The stable manure is taken into the tortuous passages of these cellars and the spawn introduced from masses of dry dung where it occurs naturally. In France mushroom-growers do not use the compact blocks or bricks of spawn so familiar in England, but much smaller flakes or “leaves” of dry dung in which the spawn or mycelium can’be seen. Less manure is used in these

cellars than is generally seen in the mushroom-houses of England, and the surface of each bed is covered with about an inch of fine white stony soil. The beds are kept artificially moist by the application of water brought from the surface, and the different gallerjes bear crops in succession. As one is exhausted another is in full bearing, so that by a systematic arrangement a single proprietor will send to the surface from 300 Ib. to 3,000 Ib. of mushrooms per day. The passages sometimes extend over several miles, the beds sometimes occupying over 20 m., and, as there are many proprietors of cellars, the produce of mushrooms is very large. The mushrooms are not allowed to reach the fully expanded condition, but are gathered in a large button state, the whole growth of the mush-

room being removed and the hole left in the manure covered with fine earth; the beds remain in bearing for six or eight months, The equable temperature of these cellars and their freedom from draught is one cause of their great success and to this must be added the use of natural virgin spawn. The fairy-ring mushroom or champignon, Marasmius Oreades, is more universally used in France and Italy than in England, although it is well known and frequently used both in a fresh and in a dry state in England. It is totally different in appearance from the pasture mushroom, and, like it, its characters are so distinct that there is hardly a possibility of making a mistake when its

peculiarities are once comprehended. It has more than one advantage over the meadow mushroom in its extreme commonness, its profuse growth, the length of the season in which it may be gathered, the total absence of varietal forms, its adaptability for

being dried and preserved for years, and its persistent delicious taste. It is by many esteemed as the best of all the edible fungi found in Great Britain. Like the mushroom, it grows in short open pastures and amongst the short grass of open roadsides. The fairy-ring mushroom is about one-half the size of the pasture mushroom, and whitish-buff in every part, the gills always retaining this colour and never becoming salmon-coloured, brown or black. The stem is solid and corky, much more solid than the flesh of the cap, and perfectly smooth, never being furnished with the slightest trace of aring. The buff gills are far apart, and in this

they greatly differ from the somewhat crowded gills of the mushroom; the junction of the gills with the stem also differs in character from the similar junction in the mushroom. The mushroom is a semi-deliquescent fungus which rapidly falls into putridity in decay, whilst the champignon dries up into a leathery substance in the sun, but speedily revives and takes its original form again after the first shower. To this character the fungus owes its

generic name (Marasmius) as well as one of its most valuable qualities for the table, for examples may be gathered from June to November, and if carefully dried may be hung on strings for culinary purposes and preserved without deterioration for several years; indeed, many persons assert that the rich flavour of these fungi increases with years. Champignons are highly esteemed for flavouring stews, soups and gravies. A fungus which may carelessly be mistaken for the mushroom is M. peronatus, but this grows in woods amongst dead leaves, and has a hairy base to the stem and a somewhat acrid taste. Another is M. urens; this also generally grows in woods, but the gills are not nearly so deep, they soon become brownish, the stem is downy, and the taste is acrid. Agaricus dryophilus has sometimes been gathered in mistake for the champignon, but this too grows in woods where the champignon never grows; it has a hollow instead of a solid stem, gills crowded together instead of far apart, and flesh very tender and brittle instead of tough. Another small and common species, M. porreus, is pervaded with a garlic flavour; a third species, M. alliaceus, is also strongly impregnated with the scent and taste of onions or garlic. Two species, M. impudicus and M. foetidus, are in all stages of growth highly foetid. The curious little edible Agaricus esculentus, although placed under the subgenus Collybia, is allied by its structure to Marasmius. It is a small bitter species common in upland pastures and fir plantations early in the season. Although not gathered for the table in England, it is greatly prized in some parts of the Continent. In the United States and Canada many hundred species of edible fungi occur, many of which are highly prized for their delicious flavour. In the moister districts, especially in the eastern States and Provinces, numerous choice species are found in abundance, including several of the best-known Old World mushrooms, as the meadow mushroom (Psalliota campestris), the fairy ring (Marasmius Oreades) and the chanterelle (Cantharellus cibarius). However, owing to the wide prevalence of the deadly

amanita or death angel (Amanita phalloides), the fly mushroom

(A. muscaria), and other dangerously poisonous species, extreme

caution must be exercised in gathering native mushrooms for the table. Because of the frequency of fatal cases of mushroom

poisoning, sometimes 30 a year in New York city and vicinity, wild mushrooms should never be eaten, even in the smallest

MUSHROOM

12 ti pide e

PAINTED

FOR

THE

ENCYCLOPAEDIA

BRITANNICA

BY

HELEN

DAMROSCH

e Y

a bB ae

ti

fs

TEE-VAN

MUSHROOMS Thousands of kinds of mushrooms grow widely throughout the world. While many are highly prized table delicacies, others, comparatively few in number, are deadly poisonous. At certain stages in their growth—See

l. Chanterelle (Cantharellus cibarius), edible. 2. Barometer Earth Star (Geaster hygrometri-

cus), edible. 3. Warty Puffball (Scleroderma vulgare). 4. Pine Flammula (Flammula Sapinea). 5. Bitter Boletus (Boletus felleus). 6. Jack-my-lantern (Clitocybe illudens),

Juminescent,

poisonous.

the article Mushrcom—the most dangerous kinds closely resemble the finest edible forms, so that in the selection of wild mushrooms extreme care is absolutely necessary 7. Net-bearing

Dictyo-

phora (Dictyophora duplicata). 8. Stink Horn (Ithyphallus impudicus), offensive. 9. Honey Agaric (Armillaria mellea), edible. 10. Coral Milky Cap (Lactarius torminosus). ll. Pungent Russula (Russula emetica),

some of for food

poisonous. 12. Peppery Milky Cap (Lactarius piperatus). 13. Fly Agaric (Amanita muscaria), deadly poisonous. 14. Reddish Agaric (Amanita rubescens). 15. Death Angel

(Amanita Yellow

phalloides),

Amanita

deadly

(Amanita

poisonous.

velatipes)

16.

MUSHROOMS—MUSIC quantities, until their identification as wholesome species has been determined with absolute certainty. Poisoning by the deadly amanita, even when it is eaten in minute quantities, has been almost invariably fatal despite all medical treatment. Recently, however, an antiphallinic serum, prepared by the Pasteur Institute of Paris, has proved so effective as a remedy that the French government requires by law each département to keep a supply of it available for use by physicians. There are, however, many wholesome wild species, of excellent quality and flavour, that are readily distinguishable from the noxious kinds. Among the easily recognized edible species are

the shaggy mane (Coprinus comatus), the inky cap (Coprinus atramentarius), the oyster mushroom (Pleurotus ostreatus), the honey agaric (Armillaria mellea) and the parasol mushroom (Lepiota procera), regarded by many authorities as the best edible mushroom. Besides the foregoing all morels, coral fungi and puff balls, if used when fresh, are edible. See Funct; More; Purr BALL; TRUFFLE. See W. G. Smith, Mushrooms and Toadstools (1879); W. Falconer, Mushrooms; How to Grow Them (1891, 1925); M. C. Cooke, Edible and Poisonous Mushrooms (1894) ; G. F. Atkinson, Edible and Potsonous Mushrooms (1903); N. L. Marshall, The Mushroom Book (1905, 1923); R. L. Castle, Mushrooms (1910); E. L. T. Cole, Guide to the Mushrooms (1914); W. B. McDougall, Mushrooms (1925); W. S.

Thomas, Field Book of Common Gilled Mushrooms

MUSHROOMS,

COOKERY

(1928).

OF. Edible mushrooms con-

tain some nitrogenous food and about 90% water. Eaten with other foods they are of great service in the diet on account of their flavouring properties. It is dangerous to eat mushrooms which have been gathered by anyone who has not studied the different kinds. Among the most familiar kinds are the common meadow mushroom (Agaricus campestris); button (immature) mushrooms employed chiefly for garnishing purposes and as an addition in high-class dishes; and truffles (underground fungi). To prepare ordinary mushrooms for cooking, pick over and wipe with a flannel dipped in salt. Peel and remove stalks where necessary. The latter may be used for flavouring stews, soups, sauces, etc.

Mushrooms may be grilled (broiled) and served with maître d'hôtel or plain butter, etc.; baked in the oven under glass (or in a shallow dish) ; stewed in a casserole with other foods, e.g., Italian pastes, rice, or in a well-flavoured sauce; or, they may be used in stuffings for turkey, poultry and game; they are also employed for garnishes in making galantines, etc. Stewed Mushrooms.—Place the mushrooms in a stewpan with 2 oz. of butter, salt, a squeeze of lemon juice and a blade of mace. When cooked, stir in a white liaison of flour and butter blended together. Stir well and serve either as an entrée, or on toast as a savoury. This dish may be varied by adding other ingredients and may be served as a cream by adding a sauce of cream and beaten-up eggs. Fried Mushrooms.—These are frequently added as an addition to a mixed grill. Frying should be done in a frying pan and not in a deep pan of fat. It is best to use good margarine or butter. Grilled Mushrooms.—Large mushrooms should be chosen

for grilling. Grease the gridiron before cooking. Place flesh side uppermost on the gridiron. Stuffed Mushrooms.—Good-sized mushrooms are needed for stuffing. Any well-flavoured forcemeat can be used though certain flavours blend better with mushrooms than others, e.g., game. To stuff, remove the stalks and pile the forcemeat in the centre of each mushroom. Squeeze lemon juice over and cover with buttered paper or place under glass. Bake in the oven for half an hour. Mushroom Ketchup.—Sprinkle salt freely over large meadow mushrooms and leave them to stand for a few hours, then mash them in a mortar and set aside for 48 hours. Stir from time to time. Press through a colander and place in a pan. Boil up, skim

carefully and simmer for an hour. Strain into a pan and leave until the next day. Then strain again leaving the sediment at the bottom of the basin and add one ounce of black peppercorns, a blade of mace, half an ounce of allspice, one quarter of an ourice of ginger and half an eggspoonful of grated lemon rind

3

to each quart of liquor. Boil up and reduce to half the quantity. Bottle and store in a dry place.

MUSIC,

The Greek povouxn (se. réxvy) from which this

word is derived was used comprehensively the Nine

Muses.

Contrasted

with

for ail the arts of

-yyuuvacrixh

(gymnastic)

it

included the culture of the mind as distinguished from that of the body. Thus the singing and setting of lyric poetry formed but a small, if a central, part of a “musical” education which ranged

from reading and writing to the sciences of mathematics and astronomy besides all the arts of literature. The philosophers valued music both in the ancient general sense and in our restricted sense, chiefly as an educational element in the formation of character; so that we obtain little light from them on the pure aesthetics of the Greek art of musical sounds. 1, INTRODUCTION The present article deals mainly with the musical art-forms matured by European civilization since the 14th century. More ancient music is discussed frankly as beyond our power of appreciation except in the light of prehistoric origins. Our Western art of music stands in the unique position that its language has been wholly created by art. Music owes but little to nature in the form of acoustic science, and still less to the sounds that occur outside works of art. It is already a mature musical art that selects the acoustic facts, just as in painting it is art that determines the selection of optical facts. Wise critics have, since Ruskin’s day, abandoned the attempt to settle a priori how much of nature an aesthetic system ought to digest; and music differs only in degree from literature and the plastic arts as to independence of nature. Yet the difference is often important. Perspective existed as a science before it was taken up by painters, and as a human experience before it became a science. The naive Western spectator has seen enough of it in pictures to make him resent its neglect, whether in modern art or in the masterpieces of China and Japan. In music the nearest analogy to perspective is the system of tonality developed by the great composers from

Alessandro Scarlatti to Wagner.

(See Harmony.)

Every step

in its evolution has been fiercely contested; and even twenty years after the end of Wagner’s long career not every responsible musician was ready to admit Wagnerian tonality as a legitimate enlargement of the classical system. If we set aside language and the organized art of music, the power of distinguishing sensations of sound is no more complex than the power of distinguishing colours. On the other hand sound is the principal medium by which most of the higher animals both express and excite emotion; and hence, though until codified into human speech it does not give any raw material for elaborate human art, it suffices for bird-songs that are as long prior to language as the brilliant colours of skins, feathers and flowers are prior to painting. Again, sound as a warning or a menace is an important means of self-preservation; and it is produced instantly and instinctively. All this makes musical expression a pre-human phenomenon in the history of life, but is unfavourable to the early development of musical art. Primitive music could mysteriously re-awaken instincts more elemental than any that could ever have been appealed to by the deliberate process of drawing on a flat surface a series of lines calculated to remind the eye of the appearance of solid objects in space. But the powers of music remained magical and unintelligible even in the hands of the supreme artists of classical Greece. We may be perfectly sure that if the Greeks had produced a music equivalent to the art of Palestrina, Bach or Beethoven, no difficulty of deciphering would have long prevented us from recovering as much of it as we have recovered of Greek literature. Some enthusiasts for Oriental lore assure us that long ago the Chinese knew all about our harmonic system but abandoned it after they had exhausted it. This need not worry us. The Oriental aristocrat conceals in his politeness a profound contempt for our efforts to patronise his culture; and that contempt is justified when we show such ignorance of our own music as to suppose that a music of similar calibre could have utterly

MUSIC

4

disappeared from a living nation whose most ancient plastic art and literature commands our respect and rewards our study. When we trace the slow and difficult evolution of our harmonic system we cease to wonder that it was not evolved sooner and elsewhere, and we learn to revere the miracle that it was evolved at all.

2. NON-HARMONIC AND GREEK MUSIC

Music before the rise of a harmonic system is of two kinds, the unwritten or extemporaneous, and the recorded or scientific. At the present day the music of races that have not acquired Western harmony often pleases us best when it seems most extemporaneous. Tradition can go far to fix the forms and even the details of a performance that may, without the aid of words or dance, last for hours. With words or dance, music becomes more capable of being fixed by writing; but the first musical problems are as far beyond conscious reasoning as the origins of language. Birds solved them before human beings; and folk-music can show real beauty when the systematic music of its day is arbitrary and uncouth. Moreover, folk-music, together with the present music of barbarous races and Oriental civilization, can give us materials such as anthropology uses in reconstructing the past from its vestiges in the present. For us the music of ancient Greece is by far the most important branch of musical archaeology. Unfortunately the approach to this most difficult subject has been blocked by lack of co-ordination between scholarship and musicianship; and the ascertained truth is less instructive to the general reader than the history of opinions about it. These opinions begin to be interesting when they are expressed by musicians whose music we can understand. The natural tendency of such musicians was to suppose that Greek music was like their own; and each advance in knowledge is marked by disillusion. The first difficulty presented by ancient Greek writers was sufficiently disconcerting. The Greek terms for “high” and “low” were found to be reversed. Our own meaning seems founded in nature; and science confirms it. Our “high” or “acute” notes demand tense vocal cords and cor-

The Greeks had three genera of scale: the diatonic, the chromatic and the enharmonic. Of these the diatonic divides the tetrachord most evenly, as E, D, C, B:A, G, F, E. This gives us our diatonic scale in what Palestrina would call the Phrygian mode. The Greeks found that all its notes could be traversed (as a knight’s move can traverse our chessboard) in a series of intervals which they called concords. (They thought of them only as successions, not combinations of sound.) These were the 4th (in the ratio 4:3); the 5th (3:2); and the octave (2:1). (Our

own “perfect concords” are in these ratios.)

Scales with chro-

matic tetrachords (E, Ci, CH, B:A, Fit, Ff, E) could also be traversed by the concordant intervals, but not so easily. The enharmonic tetrachords, which only the most accomplished singers could sing, were beyond the reach of perfect concords; and for us they would need a special notation, as E, C, B’, B ; A, F, E’, Ed; where B’ and E’ signify something like quarter-tones

above the BH and Ef. Yet this difficult scale was said to be the

oldest of all; which seems not unlikely when we observe that it gathers three notes closely to the bottom of the tetrachord, leaving a gap of a major 3rd from the top. Eliminate the quartertones, and there remains a pentatonic scale E, C, B:A, F, E, which is more likely to be the earliest filling out of the downward 4th than the scales in which the auxiliary note is a whole tone away. And if this nucleus had the prestige of a mystic antiquity musicians would feel a pious pride in mastering the difficulty of filling it up like the other genera. If authorities on Greek music would abandon their habit of writing scales and reckoning intervals upwards, their results, whether correct or not, would become much more lucid. For, as Parry points out, it is only our harmonic system which makes us think of scales as normally rising; and when a musician applies the term “cadence” to chords that rise from dominant to tonic he contradicts the literal meaning of the word. Until the most recent times classical scholars have ruthlessly closed the door upon all hope of further light from the comparison of Greek data with the phenomena of extant non-harmonic folk-song and Oriental scales. If such a comparison is to have respond to vibrations of “high” frequency. A great 16th century any meaning we must assume that the now universal phenomena composer, Costanzo Porta, inferred a mystery here, and argued of modes existed in ancient Greece. Modes, as far as non-harthat the Greeks had mastered the art of a totally invertible monic melody is concerned, are various cross-sections of a standpolyphony, such as Bach afterwards displayed in two fugues in ard scale. Thus, Scottish music shows very clearly five pentatonic Die Kunst der Fuge. Porta accordingly wrote a 4-part motet modes. Adding the 8ve to complete the scale, these are, r. C, A, (Vobis datum est cognoscere mysterium) which could be sung G, F, D, C; 2. D, C, A, G, F, D; 3. F, D, C, A, G, F; 4. G, upside down: and his contemporary Vincentino composed 4-part F, D, C, A, G; 5. A, G, F, D, C, A. In the article Harmony the motets in each of the three Greek genera, diatonic, chromatic and ecclesiastical modes of pure polyphony are given with their fondlyenharmonic. (See Hawkins’s History of Music, i. 112, seq.) imagined Greek names. Pre-harmonic music without modes is They are as good as any other music written on a priori princi- contrary not only to our Western prejudices but to the whole ples, and the enharmonic motet may be commended to some of trend of anthropological research. In these circumstances classical our modern experimenters in quarter-tones. But they represent scholars, under the guidance of D. B. Monro, crushed all hopes as much knowledge of Greek music as we possess of the inhabit- by deciding that the Greeks had no modes at all, but that either ants of Mars. their ‘“apyoviay or their rovdr (the terms, whatever they mean, The truth must be sought by other methods and by far the most are not synonymous) were mere transpositions of the three genpromising is the study and comparison of the present scale of era into various pitches, just as our “‘keys” are transpositions of nations, whether barbarous or cultured, who have not come into our pair of major and minor modes. contact with the classical harmony of the West. When Monro published his Modes of Ancient Greek Music in A readable account of musical origins may be found in Parry’s 1894, musicians had learnt too well the lesson that Greek music Evolution of the Art of Music. Following the researches of A. J. must not be expected to make sense. They would never dispute Hipkins and A, J. Ellis, Parry illustrates the fact that most of the a point of classical scholarship; and it did not occur to them that primitive scales, notably the pentatonic scales prominent in Scot- Monro might be just so innocently familiar with modern music tish and Chinese music, are built around the interval of a down- as not to realize that he might as well impute high-church tendward 4th (as from C to G) which was probably the first melodic encies to Alcibiades because of “the splendour of his liturgies” interval to become fixed in the human mind as being simple as impute to the ancient Greeks a system of keys related by enough but not too wide. A scale would begin to form by the mere transposition. But musicians only thought that even the accretion of other notes near the bottom of this interval. Now most unprejudiced anthropological comparison of extant scales take another 4th with similar accretions below the former, either could prevail no more than Macfarren’s Victorian assumptions conjunctly (as G to D below the C-G) or disjunctly (as F-C). could do in a dispute with Monro. Fortunately in 1916 Mr. G. H. The resulting scale will either fill-or include an octave, it does Mountford, in a degree thesis, satisfied classical scholars that not matter which; for the filled octave of the conjunct tetra- Monro was in error and that the Greek modes were modes in the chord contains in another position the notes of the included universal and proper sense of the term. octave of the disjunct tetrachords, as can be seen in the combined Miss Kathleen Schlesinger has found, by experiments with series C, A, G, E, D, C, A, G. And the octave was recognized from a monochord, a means of producing modes on mathematical printhe outset as a limit after which a musical series repeats itself. ciples. Certainly the Greeks did measure musical intervals mathe-

MUSIC matically on a string; certainly Miss Schlesinger’s system is among the very first things that could have happened in that way; and its results produce many phenomena that ought to have occurred in

ancient Greek music. There is, for instance, a remarkable passage in Plato’s Republic (VII, 531) where Socrates gibes at the pedantries of the merely practical musicians who spend hours in arguing whether this and that note are too near to allow another note between them. And Miss Schlesinger’s various scalés comprise between them notes quite close enough to explain how the practical musician could get into difficulties about what was obvious

to the philosopher. Miss Schlesinger has, moreover, tuned a pianoforte on the basis of her theory, and the result is acoustically very interesting. So much then, for a priori theory and

practical experience. If Miss Schlesinger’s results are not Greek they ought to have been. The other line of approach is through the experience of setting the choruses of Greek tragedy to a modern music which confines itself to a strict representation of the metre and sets strophe and antistrophe to the same melody. The composer should not attempt Greek modes, on whatever theory, or he will achieve nothing

better than an effect of singing ‘““We won’t go home till morning” on the supertonic of a minor key and with a beat missing. Instead of thus warping his imagination the composer should translate all that modern culture enjoys in Greek poetry into a music that he can enjoy; restricting himself mainly to one note to a syllable and, while making his instrumental accompaniment as beautiful as he likes, straying into no by-paths of musical tone-painting other than the most natural symbolisms. The Greek rhythmic forms prove musically fascinating, and there is full scope for fine melody within them. The strict correspondence of strophe and antistrophe causes difficulties which reveal much. Even a unisonous accompaniment, such as the Greeks had, can glide over a difference of punctuation or indeed a running on of the sense between strophe and antistrophe, as at the end of the enormous first chorus of Agamemnon; and the technique of such compromises closely resembles that of Schubert and Brahms in strophic songs, and has the subtlety of Greek simplicity. Aristophanes, in the Frogs, laughs at the interlinear Oparro Oparto Oparr (or “plunketyplunk”) of the Aeschylean lyre. The passage seems to indicate something more extensive than a merely connective tissue; but exaggeration is not unknown in comedy. More difficult and therefore still more instructive are the occasional contrasts of sentiment between strophe and antistrophe. In another chorus in Agamemnon the pretty ways of a lion-cub are to be sung to the same music as the tale of disaster that befell the man who adopted it when, on growing up, it behaved as might be expected. The highest point of pathos in the first chorus, one of the supreme things in poetry, is the moment where the description of the sacrifice of Iphigeneia turns into a reminiscence of her singing in her father’s halls and then runs on into the antistrophe, with the words “The rest I saw not, nor will I tell.” After which the same music has to express the pious hope that the queen who now approaches shares the wishes of the chorus for the welfare of the land she holds in trust. From Plato we learn that musicians degraded themselves by imitating the roaring of lions and the whistling of winds. But what was the Greek criterion for the singing voice? Certainly very different from ours; for Aristotle says that certain highpitched modes (but what is “high” in this context?) are suited to the voices of old men. An age-limit is the only criterion the heartless modern critic has for the voices of old men. Be this as it may, the safest inference from it is that every educated Greek was expected to sing well as an integral part of the art of speaking well. Perhaps our modern contrast between the singing and the speaking voice did not exist. Nowadays it is not uncommon to fnd a high soprano speaking normally around the A or G below the treble staff. (See also AristoTLeE; ARISTOXENUS; Euctip; Pyrsacoras.)

3. HARMONIC ORIGINS The latent harmonic sense of the Greeks is shown in the fact that their diatonic scale was amenable to the Pythagorean science

Š

of harmonic ratios. And we cannot suppose that no notice was taken of the combined sounds resulting from reverberation in halls and caverns, or from striking several strings of the lyre at once. Yet the fact remains that outside the orbit of our own Western music of the last six centuries we know of no harmonic system that has advanced beyond drones below the melody and cymbals (our Authorized Version is right in reading “tinkling cymbal”) or bells above it. Music, as we now understand it, consists in the interaction of three elements as inseparable (but not as interchangeable) as the three dimensions of Newtonian space. The Greeks knew two, rhythm and melody, which are as ancient as human consciousness and evidently have their meaning for some other animals. But non-harmonic melody is a very different thing from melody that implies harmony. (See MELODY exs. 1 and 2 with their discussion.) When we hear an unaccompanied folk-song we involuntarily think of it as the top line of a series of harmonies. If it isreally pre-harmonic it will prove unamenable to that interpretation, and then we shall think it quaint. Neither the quaintness nor the harmonic interpretation ever entered into its intention. Life is too short for Western musicians to devote much of it to the violent mental gymnastics of thinking away the harmonic ideas that have made Western music enjoyable throughout five centuries. We may perhaps widen our experience by going back another two centuries; for it was agreed by all the musicians in

Vienna that a concert of “Gothic” music was their most interesting musical experience of the year 1928. In the article Harmony the main steps are indicated by which mediaeval musicians advanced from doubling melodies in 4ths and sths (as the unoccidentalised Japanese are said to be doing now) to an aesthetic system of polyphony that demands

com-

plete independence in its melodic threads and forbids consecutive 5ths and 8ves as barbarous. The details of this evolution are abstruse; but two main issues may be mentioned here. Polyphony could not have been established without fixed scales and a repository of known melody for composers to work upon. The scale was set in order in Graeco-Roman times by Ptolemy the astronomer, who flourished a.p. 130 and from whose time the history of the “ecclesiastical modes” becomes continuously traceable until the records of music are secured by the art of printing. The necessary repository of melody was supplied by the ancient plain-songs of the church, many of which claimed to have come uncorrupted from the music of Solomon’s temple and certainly had a continuous history reaching back to early Christian services in the catacombs of Rome. In Av. 384 a large body of these “tones” was set In order by St. Ambrose. According to a tradition accepted, after some “historic doubts,” by good authorities, St. Gregory revised and enlarged the Ambrosian collection; and the whole corpus of Gregorian music undoubtedly familiarizes Roman Catholics of to-day with a music enormously more ancient in its origin than any harmony. This music forms the principal melodic

foundation of Palestrina’s polyphony; but by his time it had become corrupted, and we must look to the Solesmes edition of 1904 for the text and method of singing plain-song in the perfection it is held to have attained shortly after the death of St. Gregory. The essential difference between the Ratisbon tradition (which we may loosely call Palestrinian) and that of Solesmes is that the Palestrinians impatiently curtailed the flourishes

of the plain-song much as Palestrina did with the Gregorian themes he used in polyphony; whereas the Solesmes method restores the free speech-rhythm which makes the flourishes (or melismata) possible in a rapid delivery. Some of these melismata are very extensive, and the Palestrinians (who gradually developed the modern organist’s habit of providing each note of a Gregorian melody with a separate chord) had some excuse for mistaking them for corruptions of style. The Gregorian tradition did not stand alone. There was an ancient Visigoth (or “Spanish’’) tradition; and there are the traditions of the Eastern Church. Professor J. J. W. Tillyard

has shed much light on Byzantine music (q.v.), including a promising opening in the deciphering of the earliest Neumae, diacritical signs above the words, supposed to indicate musical notes.

MUSIC

6

He uses the method of interpreting the past from vestiges of primitive usage in the present, Controversies as to the number of modes, whether 8 or 12, raged till late in the 16th century.

The

Dodecachordon of Glareanus settled the question in favour of twelve, as its name implies. Meanwhile composers developed polyphony by ear and got no help whatever from the theorist. Quite independent of modes and entirely practical was the hexachord scheme (see HexacHorp) developed in the 11th century

Ex. 1. Sumer is icumen in. (A) Leading part, followed by 3 other voices at distances of 4 bars. *

Sum-er

is i-cum-en

in,

by Guido d’Arrezzo (g.v.). The general reader may learn something of the hexachord sys-

tem very pleasantly from the music-lesson in The Taming of the Shrew. Hortensio’s gamut says “Gamut am I, the ground of all accord. .. D sol re, one clef [ż.e., sign, or key], two notes have I: E la mi: show pity or I die.” “Gamut” is a survival of Greek tradition; for the bottom note of the Greek scale was identified with the bass G, and this “ground of all accord” is an octave below the Ut of the hard hexachord. Hence it is GammaRe Mi Fa Ut nexacnor t. D isis Sol Solin the hardhard hexachord aa in the

ut.

Re in the natural hexachord

C.D,

Es FF;

Gy

Sol La

A

Ut’ Re’ Mi Fa Sol Lal Tt 4s

af - ter cal-ve

cu.

Bul-luc sterteth, buck-e vert-eth,

two names but only:one position or “clef,” unlike B which has to be flattened in the soft hexachord (F to D). (Morley writing

in 1597, calls A flat the B clef.) E is La in the hard hexachord and Mi in the natural hexachord.

Between Fa of the natural hexachord and Mi of the hard hexachord a dissonant tritone 4th exists. It gave great trouble to mediaeval musicians, who assigned it to the devil. Mi contra Fa est Diabolus in Musica. To the early harmonic and contrapuntal processes alluded to in the article Harmony some details must be added. The famous unwritten songs of the aristocratic troubadours or trouvères of the 12th and 13th centuries undoubtedly set the fashion in melody, and probably set it in the direction of Sumer is icumen in; that is

mur-ie

sing cuc - cu.

Wel sing-es thu cu - cu, ne swik thu nau

er Repeat ad infinitum; each voice ending at * *.

(B) The Pes

to say, in the Ionian mode (that modus lascivus that is identical with our major scale) and ina lilting trochaic rhythm

J dildd Sumer is icumen in contains no technical feature that has not been found in other compositions of its period, but nothing within two centuries of it achieves either its euphony or its easy handling of canon in four parts on a canonic bass in two. Its consecutive 5ths which sound licentious to us were in its own day the sole justification of the scheme.

It confirms other evidence that the imperfect concords (3rds and 6ths) must have obtained squatter’s right in music in spite of theorists; for a very early practice known as ghimel or gymel consisted in singing in 3rds. This is not merely doubling, for the 3rd must oscillate between major and minor according to its

cu e cu Sing cu ~ cu, Sing Repeat so long as the upper voices are singing

(C) Bars 33-40 in score.

nu,

(The reader may with pleasure and

profit make his own score of the whole, or, still better, sing 1t with

five friends, from the above.)

position in the scale; and this adjustment requires an advanced harmonic system. When scholars tell us that singing in 3rds was traditional in Britain before the Roman Conquest, we must demur, especially when they tell us (in Grove’s Dictionary of Music and, Musicians, 3rd edition) that we must not expect to find written records of “so simple a process.” Similarly we must

not expect to find ancient Greek written records of so simple a process as steam locomotion. Still, let us not be unduly sceptical as to the extent to which popular licence and unrecorded extemporisation could advance beyond all the theoretic lore that scribes will record. The troubadours disdained both the practice of accompaniment (which they left to their servants) and the art of scientific or written music. Not until the time and work of Adam de la Hale, surnamed the Hunchback of Arras (c. 1230-1288) can we trace the development of the troubadour into the learned musician. Nearly a century later, when literature is unbending from its universal Latin and becoming truly universal by becoming vernacular, we find the poet Machault, who stands with Petrarca among Chaucer’s masters in the technique of verse, producing music that marks a technical advance discoverable by grim toil of expert analysis. But so far we may pardonably dismiss all such

fs

oa

Tooo cu

Sing

-

cu On.

cu -

cu.

e

nu,

ADP- o

Ĉe

-P-e

=a Sing

cu |

- cu.

Sing

cu

~

a

Se 4 ——— cu,

nu.

MUSIC archaic work (except Sumer is icumen in) with Burney’s sly comment on the earliest piece of recorded music known to him: “It is not of such excellence as to make us greatly regret the loss of such music; though the disposition of those who were pleased by it may have been a great blessing to them.” When music is too archaic or inaccessible to give us aesthetic data more may be

learned from the disposition of those who were pleased by it than from its recorded technical data. Before the middle of the fifteenth century music had passed for ever out of the stage at which we need know other things of the composer than his music. As early as 1437 an Englishman, John Dunstable, had acquired a European reputation. The Golden age of the 16th century had no use for archaic music, and Morley in his Plaine and Easie Introduction to Practickall Musicke

quotes Dunstable much as we might now quote Bach if all Bach’s works were lost except for traces of contemporary hostile criticisms and awe-inspired laudations. To call Dunstable the “‘inventor of counterpoint” is no better than to call Cadmus the inventor of the alphabet. But he is the earliest composer whose polyphony is in direct line with that of the golden age; for Dufay the first important master of the Netherlands, where the true polyphonic tradition was for long thought to have originated, is now known to have died in 1474, twenty-one years after Dunstable. And when Dr. Walker, in his History of English Music praises a motet by Dunstable for its extraordinary distinction of style, he is indulging in no pious fancies but is describing permanently intelligible aesthetic values. By the end of the r5th century counterpoint was substantially fixed, practice was still imperfect and aims were uncertain, but skill was increasing and in the 16th century we leave archaic music behind. 4, THE GOLDEN AGE

From this point onwards the history of music is best studied in the masterpieces of the art. Each period has its own art-forms. Articles relevant to the Golden Age are Harmony, Section 3; INSTRUMENTATION, Section 2; CoNTRAPUNTAL Forms; COUNTERPOINT; MapricaL; Mass; Moret; with the biographies and critical notes on PALESTRINA; VICTORIA; Lasso; TALLIS; Mor-

LEY; Byrp.

See also AICHINGER, ALLEGRI, ANERIO (G. and F.);

Animuccia; ARCADELT; BATESON; BENNET (J.); Buzzi; DzEsPRES (Josquin) ; EccarD; FARRANT; GABRIELI (A.and G.) ; GENET (of Carpentras); Grszons; GuERRERO; Hanpi (Gallus); HasLER; Isaac (Heinrich); Marenzio; Morisey (Thomas); OBRECHT; OKEGHEM; SWEELINCK; ‘TAVERNER; WEELKES, WILBYE. The external history of music is not so casily brought into true relation with the arl as popular legends would have it. Everybody is familiar with the story of the drying up of polyphony in the foolish ingenuities of Flemish contrapuntists until, at the hehest. of the Council of Trent, Palestrina wrote the Missa Papae Marcelli in a pure and simple style which convinced the authorities that polyphonic music could be devout. The facts are not quite so simple. Undoubtedly there was a great deal of barren ingenuity in the work of the lesser Flemish masters; and the great Obrecht himself had written masses in which the liturgical text is drowned beneath five other texts which each voice sings to other plain-chants and themes of old songs. The secular tunes thus freely introduced were not always sung as canti fermi too slow to be recognized. Recognition sometimes even led to the singing of the original words. One old song, L'homme armé, became the string round which every possible ingenuity crystallized in the composition of the Mass. There is no reason to doubt that the state of church music both deserved and received the serious attention of the Council of Trent. On the other hand, not all Flemish music was silly, and many

of the quaintest “canonic” devices were really nothing but harmless cryptography applied to music that was composed on purely artistic lines. Burney discovered this when, with his usual flair for good illustrations, he quoted some dry ingenuities from Okeghem (or Okenheim) and followed them by the wonderful Deploration de Jehan Okenheim by that master’s great pupil Josquin des Prés who is the first unmistakably great composer

7

and who has been well named “the Chaucer of music.” No listener can fail to recognize, from anything like a competent performance, the spontaneous beauty and poetic depth of this music, throughout which, while the other voices sing an elegy in French, the tenor intones in Latin the plain-chant of the Requiem beginning on a note a semitone lower than the liturgical pitch, and

continuing in the wailing melodic mode thus produced. Burney had the wit to see that the “canon” ung demiton plus bas did not mean that some other part was to answer the tenor in canon, but was merely the “rule” for reading the cryptogram, the tenor being written at the normal pitch. Many Flemish devices are well calculated to give coherence or climax to a large composition. One voice may wander up and down the scale with a single figure and a single motto-text while the other voices tell their whole story in polyphony. For instance, declaim the words Miserere mei Deus in monotone rising one step just for the first syllable of Deus. Start on the fundamental note of the scale, and at intervals repeat the phrase a step higher each time. After reaching the sth degree go down again. Josquin’s Miserere is a setting of the whole 51st Psalm, woven round a tenor part entitled Vegans and constructed on this plan. It is one of the first mature masterpieces in the history of music. Palestrina’s art is too subtle for rigid Flemish devices; but once, in one of his finest motets, Tribularer si nescirem he uses Josquin’s Miserere burden in exactly Josquin’s way. Lasso is thoroughly Flemish in both sacred and secular music; and in a motet on the resurrection of Lazarus he makes a soprano Vagans cry Lazare, veni foras from the beginning of the narrative until the chorus reaches these words, and joins in with them in triumphant polyphony. We must not, then, be misled by the ecclesiastical tradition that condemns Flemish music wholesale. In any case the concern of the church authorities was liturgical rather than artistic. The bishops would have been for the most part glad enough to see Church music restricted to the note-against-note style of Palestrina’s litanies, Stabat Mater, Improperia and last book of Lamentations. A very sublime style it is, and Tallis’s Responses, in their authentic form, are a noble illustration of it. But, as Dr. Jeppesen (The Style of Palestrina and the Dissonance) has clearly shown, Palestrina’s Missa Papae Marcelli shows special signs of being a deliberate demonstration that a high degree of polyphony can be reconciled with clear choral delivery of the words. Certainly the ecclesiastical authorities did not long succeed in preventing the use of secular themes in church music. Many great musicians of to-day have a musical culture which ignores the Golden Age; and a knowledge of Palestrina is still considered, as it was in the days of Bach and of Beethoven, rather an out-of-the-way specialty. This is like a culture based on Latin and sceptical of Greek; good as far as it goes, but limited and cocksure like an r8th century gentleman’s artistic impressions of the Grand Tour. An illustration of the most perfect style of the Golden Age is appended to the article Moret. 5. THE MONODIC REVOLUTION

AND ITS RESULTS

Until Palestrina’s art attained its height, the path of progress in music for the best part of two centuries was that of purity. It was not the free and bold spirits but the idlers and dullards who broke rules and disliked contrapuntal forms. The Hispano-Roman style of Victoria and Palestrina was not everything. It was not secular (though Palestrina’s madrigals make him as supreme in that form as in church music), and it was not, like our glorious English polyphony, experimental or racy of the soil. But it was metropolitan, and the boldest of our Tudor composers would have been no such fool as not to hold it supreme. But already before the death of Palestrina a new music was groping towards the light; and for this music the path of progress was no more that of purity than the path of omelette-making is that of the conservation of egg-shells. Eve’s apple was not more fatal to man’s earthly paradise than the rise of instrumental music and dramatic solo declamation was to the hope of continuing the Golden Age of music into the 17th century. The revolution did not consist in this detail or that. To

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NAPLES,

THE

METROPOLIS

1. View of the city of Naples, the bay, and Mount Vesuvius from the Corso

Vittorio Emmanuele, a winding driveway which ascends the slopes above the city. The massive structure in the distance at the right is

the Castel Nuovo (13th century), long a royal and vice-regal residence. Extending into the bay to the right of the castle is the Molo

San Vincenzo, off which the largest ocean

liners are moored.

Com-

mercial shipping is chiefly served at the Molo San Gennaro and Molo Orientale further to the left 2. A narrow street in Naples characteristic of the older city

OF SOUTHERN

3. Typical

Neapolitan

ITALY street scene in the newer part of the city, showing

the five and six storey, densely populated tenements with shops on the street level

4, Via Roma, still popularly called the Via Toledo, after its founder Don Pedro di Toledo (1532-54), viceroy during the Spanish regime. With

its continuation, the Via Enrico Pessina, this street runs in a nearly

straight line for 1% miles, from the Palazzo Reale to the Museo Nazionale. It is one of the busiest streets of the modern city

NAPLES,

BANK

OF—NAPLES,

Many of the Romans of the upper classes, from a love of Greek manners and literature, resorted to Neapolis, either for education and the cultivation of gymnastic exercises or for the enjoyment of music and of a soft and luxurious climate. It was the favourite residence of many of the emperors; Nero made his first appearance on the stage in one of its theatres; Titus assumed the office of its archon; and Hadrian became its demarch. It was chiefly at Neapolis that Virgil composed his Georgics; and he desired to be buried on the hill of Pausilypon, the modern Posilipo, in its neighbourhood, though his traditional tomb is really a columbarium of some family unknown. It was also the favourite resi-

dence of the poets Statius (A.D. 61) and Silus Italicus (A.D. 25), the former of whom was a Neapolitan by birth. After the fall of the Roman empire, Neapolis suffered severely during the Gothic wars. Having espoused the Gothic cause in the year 536, it was taken, after a protracted siege, by Belisarius, who diverted the water of a subterranean aqueduct, marched into the city through it, and put many of the inhabitants to the sword. In 542 Totila besieged it and compelled it to surrender, but after being recovered by Narses, it long remained a dependency of the exarchate of Ravenna, under the immediate government of a duke, appointed by the East Roman emperors. When the Lombards

pushed their conquests in the south, the limits of the Neapolitan duchy were considerably narrowed. In the beginning of the 8th century, at the time of the iconoclastic controversy, the Neapolitans, encouraged by Pope Gregory III., threw off their allegiance to the Eastern emperors, and established a republican form of government under a duke of their own appointment, Under this régime Neapolis retained independence for nearly 4oo years, though constantly struggling against the powerful Lombard dukes of Benevento. The Normans, in their turn, gradually superseded all powers in the south of Italy, and checked the Saracens in their advances through Apulia. From that date the history of Naples becomes that of a kingdom, sometimes separate, sometimes merged with the kingdom of Sicily in that of the Two Sicilies. The city of Naples henceforth formed the metropolis of the kingdom to which it gave its name. (See NAPLES, KIncDom oF.) BIBLIOGRAPHY.—-R. T. Giinther, Earth Movements in the Bay of Naples (Oxford, 1905); Rolfe and Ingleby, Naples in 1888 (London, 1888) ; Black, Naples in the Nineties. (1897) ; Arthur Norway, Naples,

Past and Present (London, 19012).

NAPLES, BANK OF, is an autonomous, public utility, nonprofit earning foundation, incorporated under a charter granted in 1866. Its origins date back to 1539 when two public-spirited Neapolitans, Aurelio Paparo and Leonardo di Palma, founded in their city a first bank with a capital of 4,000 ducats for granting loans on pledge and without or at a very low rate of interest to free the poorer classes from the evils of usury. The institution rapidly developed, and survived all the vicissitudes of the kingdom of Naples. After the annexation of Naples to the kingdom of Italy the Banco di Napoli remained a bank of issue. Regional interests and the still strong traditions of regional independence maintained this situation until May 6, 1926, when the Banca d’Italia became the sole bank of issue. The Banco dz Napolz is a foundation organized as a trust, administered by a Board whose members are nominated by the

Government, by the province and municipality of Naples, and by the organs representing the commercial activities of the province. Its officers have the status of public officials. Its capital and reserves stood in Dec. 1927 at 1,251-7 million lire. It acts as a savings bank, an agricultural credit bank, and a pledge bank for the southern provinces, and discharges the services connected with emigrant remittances from abroad, for which purpose it has agencies in New York and Chicago. Part of its profits are assigned to purposes of public utility and charity, the bulk going to increase its reserves. By a process of amalgamation it has absorbed the agricultural credit institutes of the Southern provinces and is now the most powerful instrument for the progress of South Italian agriculture

and one of the most effective agencies for economic development.

(O, R. A.)

KINGDOM

NAPLES, KINGDOM

OF

SI

OF, the name conventionally given

to the kingdom of Sicily on the Italian mainland (Sicily beyond the Faro), to distinguish it from that of Sicily proper (Sicily on this side of the Faro, ż.e., Messina). The leaders of the Norman house of Hauteville, Robert Guiscard and Richard of Aversa, in 1059 did homage to Pope Nicholas II. (g.v.) for all the conquests they made both in the island and upon the mainland. In 1130 Roger de Hauteville (Roger IT. as “great count’ of Sicily) assumed the style of king as Roger J. In this way the south of Italy, together with the island of Sicily, was converted into one political body. The Hohenstaufen.—After the death of Tancred, son of William II., the emperor Henry VI., of the house of Hohenstaufen, who by his marriage with Constance or Costanza d’Altavilla, daughter of Roger I. (d. 1154), laid claims to the kingdoms of Naples and Sicily, descended into Italy in 1194. He easily conquered both the mainland and the island, but died in 1197. Costanza then had her son, Frederick (b. 1194) proclaimed king, and obtained the support of the Holy See on condition that the kingdom should be once more recognized as a fief of the Church. The Hohenstaufen kings afterwards refused to admit this claim; thus provoking the persistent hostility of the popes and many foreign invasions. Costanza died in 1198, leaving Pope Innocent

IIT. regent and tutor to her son.

In 1209 Frederick married

Costanza, daughter of the king of Aragon, with whose help he succeeded in reducing a large part of Sicily to obedience. Two years later he was elected king of the Romans, and in 1220 he was crowned emperor in Rome by Pope Honorius III., but continued to reside in Sicily. In 1227 Gregory IX. excommunicated him because he delayed the crusade which he had promised to undertake. Frederick sailed for Palestine the following year and on his return defeated the army which the pope had sent into Neapolitan territory, peace being made at San Germano in 1230 and the excommunication withdrawn. In 1231 he issued the celebrated Constitutions of the Sicilian kingdom at the parliament of Melfi. He died in 1250. His son Conrad IV. succeeded to the empire, while to his illegitimate son Manfred he left the principality of Taranto and the regency of the southern kingdom. Conrad died in 1254, leaving an infant son, Conradin (b. 1252), and Manfred was appointed vicar-general during the latter’s minority. In 1258, on a rumour of Conradin’s death, Manfred was offered and accepted the crown of Naples and Sicily. The rumour was false, but he retained the crown, promising to leave the kingdom to Conradin at his death and to defend his rights. Angevin and Aragonese.—In 1265 Clement IV., wishing to rid himself of the Hohenstaufen, induced Charles of Anjou, brother of Louis IX. of France, to come to Italy. Agreeing to accept the kingdom of the Two Sicilies as a fief of the Church, Charles, in 1266, marched, southward with the privileges of a crusader (see CHARLES I., king of Naples and Sicily). Manfred was defeated and killed at Benevento, and Charles was soon master of almost the whole kingdom. In Sicily, however, Charles’s government soon made itself odious by its exactions and the insolence and cruelty of the king’s French officials and favourites. The malcontents were led by the salernitan noble Giovanni da Procida, who had induced Peter III. of Aragon, husband of Manfred’s daughter Costanza, to make good his shadowy claims to the crown of Sicily. On Easter day 1282, just as Charles was preparing an expedition to the East, the popular rising known as the Sicilian Vespers broke out at Palermo and resulted in the massacre of nearly all the French in the island. Peter reached Palermo in September. Pope Martin IV. proclaimed a crusade against the Aragonese, and the war continued for many years. The Sicilian fleet under Ruggiero di Lauria defeated that of the Angevins at Malta in 1283, and in 1284 in the Bay of Naples. Charles I. died in 1286; his heir, Charles the Lame, being a prisoner, was not crowned until two years later. (See Cuartes II., king of Naples and Sicily, and FREDERICK JII., king of Sicily.) Charles II. died in 130ọ and was succeeded by his second son

Robert, who became leader of the Guelphs in Italy. War between

NAPLES,

82

KINGDOM

Naples and Sicily broke out once more, when Frederick allied himself with the emperor Henry VII. on his descent into Italy and proclaimed his own son Peter heir to the throne. Robert died in 1342; he had been a capable ruler, a scholar, and a friend of Petrarch, but his authority was limited by the rights of a turbulent and rebellious baronage (see Ropert, king of Naples). He was succeeded by his granddaughter Joanna, wife of Andrew of Hungary, who was assassinated in 1345, not without suspicion of Joanna’s complicity. Andrew’s brother Louis, king of Hungary, attempted to make good his claims on Naples and avenge the murder of Andrew; but as Pope Clement refused to recognize his claims he went back to Hungary in 1348 and Joanna and her second husband Louis of Taranto were crowned at Naples by the pope’s legate in 1352, but Niccolò Acciaiuoli, the seneschal, became the real master of the kingdom. Joanna nominated Louis of Anjou her heir, but while the latter was recognized by the anti-pope Clement VII., Pope Urban VI. declared Charles of Durazzo (great-grandson of Charles II.) king of Sicily al di quà

del Faro (i.e. of Naples}.

Charles conquered the kingdom and

took Joanna prisoner in 1381, and had her murdered the following year. Louis failed to drive out Charles, and died in 1384. A

OF

ceived and, with the Tuscan Bernardo Tanucci as his minister, introduced many useful reforms. In 1759 Charles III., having succeeded to the Spanish crown, abdicated that of the Two Sicilies in favour of his 8-year-old son Ferdinand, who became

Ferdinand IV. of Naples and III. of Sicily, with a regency under

Tanucci.

The regency ended in 1767, and the following year

Ferdinand married the masterful and ambitious Maria Carolina, daughter of the empress Maria Theresa. With the help of John Acton, an Englishman whom she made minister in the place of Tanucci, she secured a rapprochement with England and Austria,

On the outbreak of the French Revolution the king and queen were not at first hostile to the new movement; but in 1793 they joined the first coalition against France, instituting severe persecutions against all who were remotely suspected of French

sympathies. Republicanism, however, gained ground, especially among the aristocracy. In 1798, during Napoleon’s absence in Egypt and after Nelson’s victory at Aboukir, Maria Carolina induced Ferdinand to go to war with France. The French marched on Naples, but not until Jan. 20, 1799, were the invaders masters of the city. On the 23rd the Parthenopaean republic was proclaimed. The Republicans were men of culture and high character, but doctrinaire and unpractical, and they knew very little

period of anarchy followed during the reigns of Charles III. and his son Ladislas, and on the latter’s death in 1414 he was suc- of the lower classes of their own country. Meanwhile the court ceeded by his sister Joanna II. (g.v.), during whose reign the at Palermo sent Cardinal Fabrizio Ruffo to Calabria, to organize kingdom sank to the lowest depths of degradation. Louis died in a counter-revolution. He succeeded beyond expectation, and with 1434 and Joanna in 1435. Alphonso was recognized as king of his “Christian army of the Holy Faith” (Esercito Cristiano della Naples by Pope Eugene IV. in 1443. Santa Fede), consisting of brigands, convicts, peasants and some Under Alphonso, surnamed “the Magnanimous,” Sicily was soldiers, advanced on the capital, whence the French, save ‘for a once more united to Naples and a new era was inaugurated, for small force under Méjean, withdrew. On June 13 Ruffo and his the king was at once a brilliant ruler, a scholar, and a patron of hordes reached Naples and, after a desperate battle at the Ponte letters. He died in 1458, leaving Naples to his illegitimate son della Maddalena, entered the city. The French in Castel Sant’ Ferdinand I. (Don Ferrante) (g.v.), and Sicily, Sardinia, and Elmo and the Republicans in Castelnuovo and Castel dell’ Uovo Aragon to his brother John. Ferdinand died in 1494 and was still held out and finally an armistice was concluded anda capitusucceeded by Alphonso. In the September of the following year lation agreed upon, whereby the castles were to be evacuated Charles VIII. of France entered Italy and conquered the Neapoli- and the garrisons free to remain in Naples unmolested or to sail tan kingdom without much difficulty. Alphonso abdicated, and for Toulon. his son Ferrandino and his brother Frederick withdrew to Ischia. Nelson at Naples.—On June 24 Nelson arrived with his fleet, But Ferrandino, with the help of Ferdinand II. of Spain, was able and on hearing of the capitulation refused to recognize it save in later to reoccupy his dominions. He died much regretted in 1406 so far as it concerned the French. Ruffo indignantly declared that and was succeeded by Frederick. The country was torn by civil the treaty had been signed, not only by himself but by the Ruswar and brigandage, and the French continued to press their sian and Turkish commandants and by the British captain, Foote, claims; until, with Gonzalo de Cordoba’s victory on the Garigliano On the 26th Nelson changed his attitude and informed the cardinal in Dec. 1502, the whole kingdom was in Spanish hands. that he would do nothing to break the armistice; while CapSpanish Rule—QOn Ferdinand’s death in 1516, the Habs- tains Bell and Troubridge wrote that they had Nelson’s authority burg Charles became king of Spain, and three years later was to state that the latter would not oppose the embarcation of the elected emperor as Charles V.; in 1522 he appointed John de Republicans, who thereupon embarked on the vessels prepared Lannoy viceroy of Naples, which became henceforth an integral for them. But on the 28th Nelson, acting on despatches from the part of the Spanish dominions. Spanish rule presently provoked court (in reply to his own), held up the vessels and many of the several rebellions. On July 7, 1647, tumults occurred at Naples Republicans were arrested. Caracciolo, who commanded the Rein consequence of a new fruit tax, and the viceroy, Count d’Arcos, publican Fleet, was tried by court-martial on board Nelson’s flagwas forced to take refuge in the Castelnuovo. The populace, led ship, condemned to death, and hanged at the yard arm (see by an Amalfi fisherman, known as Masaniello (g.v.), obtained CaRACCIOLO and NEtson). arms, erected barricades, and, while professing loyalty to the king On July 8 King Ferdinand arrived from Palermo and the State of Spain, demanded the removal of the oppressive taxes and trials resulted in hundreds of persons being executed, including murdered many of the nobles. D’Arcos came to terms with some of the best men in the country, such as the philosopher Masaniello; but in spite of this, and of the subsequent assassina- Mario Pagano, the scientist Cirillo, Massa, the defender of Castel tion of Masaniello, the disturbances continued. dell’ Uovo, and Ettore Caraffa, the defender of Pescara. After In 1670 disorders broke out at Messina, which developed into the peace of Amiens in 1802 the court returned to Naples, where an anti-Spanish movement; and while the inhabitants called in the it was well received. But when the European war broke out again French, the Spaniards, who could not crush the rising, called in in the following year King Ferdinand played a double game, apthe Dutch. In 1707 an Austrian army conquered the kingdom and pearing to accede to Napoleon’s demands while negotiating with Spanish rule came to an end. Britain. After Austerlitz, Napoleon declared that “the Bourbon The Bourbons.—In Sicily the Spaniards held their own till dynasty had ceased to reign” and sent an army under his brother the peace of Utrecht, in 1713, when the island was given over to Joseph to occupy the kingdom. Duke Victor Amadeus of Savoy, who assumed the title of king. Joseph Bonaparte and Murat.—Ferdinand and Maria In 1718

he had to hand back his new possession to Spain, which,

in 1720, surrendered it to Austria and gave Sardinia to Victor

Amadeus. In 1733 the treaty of the Escurial between France, Spain, and Savoy against Austria was signed. Don Carlos of Bourbon, son of Philip V. of Spain, easily conquered both Naples and Sicily, and in 1738 he was recognized as king of the Two Sicilies, Spain renouncing all her claims. Charles was well re-

Carolina fled to Palermo in 1805; in Feb. 1806 Joseph Bonaparte entered Naples as king. A cultivated, well-meaning, not very intelligent man, he introduced many useful reforms and abolished feudalism, but the taxes and forced contributions proved very

burdensome.

Joseph’s authority did not exist throughout a large

part of the kingdom, where royalist risings, led by brigand chiefs,

maintained a state of anarchy, and a British force, under Sir Jobn

NAPLES, KINGDOM OF Stuart, defeated the French at Maida in Calabria (July 6, 1806). In 1808 Napoleon conferred the crown of Spain on Joseph and

appointed Joachim Murat king of Naples.

Murat

continued

Joseph’s reforms and reorganized the army; and although he introduced the French codes and conferred many appointments and estates on Frenchmen, his administration was more or less native and favoured the abler Neapolitans. The king gained many sympathies; he gradually became estranged from Napoleon and secretly opened negotiations with Austria and Great Britain.

In

Jan. 1814 he signed a treaty with Austria, and the following month proclaimed his separation from Napoleon. But when Napoleon

escaped from Elba, Murat suddenly returned to the allegiance of

his old chief, marched into northern Italy, and from Rimini issued his famous proclamation in favour of Italian independence (March 30, 1815). He was subsequently defeated by the Aus-

trians several times and on May

18 sailed from Naples for

France (see Murat, Joacuim). On the 23rd the Austrians entered

Naples to restore Bourbon rule. The Restoration.—Ferdinand and Maria Carolina had continued to reign in Sicily, where the court’s extravagance and the odious Neapolitan system of police espionage rendered their presence a burden instead of a blessing to the island. A bitter conflict broke out between the court and the parliament, and the British minister, Lord William Bentinck, forced Ferdinand to resign his authority and appoint his son regent and introduced many valuable reforms. In £812 a constitution on British lines was introduced, and the queen, who was perpetually intriguing against Bentinck, was exiled. Bentinck, whose memory is still cherished in the island, departed in 1814. Ferdinand dissolved parliament in May 1815, after concluding a treaty with Austria for the recovery of his mainland dominions by means of an Austrian army. On June 9 Ferdinand re-entered Naples and bound himself in a second treaty with Austria not to introduce a constitutional government. At first he abstained from persecution and received many of Murat’s old officers into his army. In Oct. 1815 Murat, believing that he still had a strong party in the kingdom, landed with a few companions at Pizzo di Calabria, but was immediately captured by the police and the peasantry, court-martialled, and shot. Ferdinand proclaimed himself king of the Two Sicilies at the congress of Vienna, incorporating Naples and Sicily into one state, and abolished the Sicilian constitution (Dec. 1816). In 1818 he concluded a Concordat with the Church, by which the latter renounced its suzerainty over the kingdom, but was given control over education, the censorship, and many other privileges. But there was much disaffection throughout the country, and the Carbonarist lodges had made much progress, especially in the army (see CARBONARI). In July 1820 a military mutiny broke out at Caserta, the mutineers demanding a Spanish constitution although professing loyalty to the king. Ferdinand, feeling himself helpless to resist, acceded to the demand. The new government’s first difficulty was Sicily, where the people had risen in rebellion demanding their own charter of 1812, and although the Neapolitan troops quelled the outbreak with much bloodshed the division proved fatal to the prospects of liberty. This outbreak seriously alarmed the Powers responsible for the preservation of the peace in Europe. At the congress of Troppau (Oct. 1820) the famous protocol was issued affirming the right of collective “Europe” to interfere to crush dangerous internal revolutions. Both France and Great Britain protested against this dangerous principle; but by general consent King Ferdinand was invited to attend the adjourned congress, fixed to meet at Laibach in the spring of the following year. Under the new constitution the permission of parliament was necessary before the king could leave Neapolitan territory. This was weakly granted, after Ferdinand had sworn the most solemn oaths to maintain the constitution. He was scarcely beyond the frontiers, however, before he repudiated his engagements, as exacted by force. The powers authorized Austria to march an army into Naples to restore the autocratic monarchy. General Pepe commander of the Constitutional forces, was sent to the frontier at the head of 8,000 men, but was completely defeated by the

83

Austrians at Rieti on March 7. On the 23rd the Austrians entered Naples, followed soon afterwards by the king. Every vestige of freedom was suppressed, and the inevitable State trials instituted with the usual harvest of executions and imprisonment. Pepe saved himself by flight. (See FerpInanp IV., king of Naples.) Ferdinand died in 1825 and was succeeded by his son Francis I, an unbridled libertine, under whom the corruption of the adminis-

tration assumed unheard-of proportions.

(See Francis I., king

of the Two Sicilies.} He died in 1830 and was succeeded by his son, Ferdinand II., who at first awoke hopes that the conditions of the country would be improved; but on the death of his first wife, Cristina of Savoy, he married Maria Theresa of Austria, who encouraged him in his reactionary tendencies and brought him closer to Austria. The desire for a constitution was by no means dead, and the survivors of the old Carbonari gathered round Carlo Poerio, while the Giovane Jialia society (independent of Mazzini) promoted a few sporadic outbreaks easily crushed. The following year the Venetian brothers Bandiera, acting in concert with Mazzini, landed in Calabria, believing the whole country to be in a state of revolt; they met with little local support and were quickly captured and shot, but their deaths aroused much sympathy, and the whole episode was highly significant as being the first attempt made by Italians from other parts of the country to promote revolution in the south. Revolution of 1848.—On Jan. 12, 1848, a revolution under the leadership of Ruggiero Settimo broke out in Sicily. These events were followed by demonstrations at Naples, and on Jan. 28 the king granted the constitution. The popular demand was now that Naples should assist the Lombards in their revolt against Austria, for a feeling of Italian solidarity was growing up. Ferdinand declared war against Austria (April 7, 1848); and a Neapolitan army under General Pepe marched towards Lombardy in May, while the fleet sailed for Venice. But a dispute between the king and the parliament concerning the form of the royal oath having arisen, a group of demagogues with criminal folly provoked disturbances and erected barricades (May 14). The king refused to open parliament unless the barricades were removed. A few shots were fired on the r5th, the Swiss regiments stormed the barricades and street fighting lasted all day. By the evening the Swiss and the royalists were masters of the situation. A new ministry under Prince Cariati was appointed. Parliament was dissolved, the National Guard disbanded and the army recalled from the Po. In Sicily the revolutionists were bitterly hostile to the Neapolitans. The Sicilian assembly met in March 1848, and Settimo in his inaugural speech declared that the Bourbon dynasty had ceased to reign and that Sicily united her destinies to those of Italy; Settimo was elected president of the Government. After the Austrian victories Ferdinand sent a Neapolitan army under Carlo Filangieri (q.v.) to subjugate the island. The troops landed at Messina, whose citadel had been held by the royalists throughout, and after three days’ desperate fighting the city itself was captured and sacked. Filangieri marched forward, committing many atrocities. In April he reached Palermo while the fleet appeared in the bay, and tumults having broken out within the city the Government surrendered on terms which granted amnesty for all except Settimo and 42 others. For a few months after the dissolution of the Neapolitan parliament the Government abstained from persecution, but with the crushing of the Sicilian revolution its hands were free; and when the commission on the affair of May 15 had completed its labours thousands of respectable citizens were thrown into prison, such as L. Settembrini, Carlo Poerio, and Silvio Spaventa. The abominable conditions of the prisons in which the best men of the kingdom were immured were made known to the world by the famous letters of W. E. Gladstone, which branded the Bourbon regime as “the negation of God erected into a system of government.” In 1857 Carlo Pisacane, an ex-Neapolitan officer

who had taken part in the defence of Rome,

fitted out an

expedition, with Mazzini’s approval, from Genoa, and landed at Sapri in Calabria; but the local police assisted by the peasantry attacked the band, killing many, including Pisacane himself, and

84-

NAPOLEON

I.

[BIRTH

Garibaldi entered the instance king and queen sailed for Gaeta; on the 7th capturing most of the rest. The following year, at soldiers, and was of full still was city the although alone, the sentences Naples of Great Britain and France, Ferdinand commuted a part of the rith the on sm; enthusia nan Il, received with delirious of some of the political prisoners to exile. (See Ferdi on Capua. Cavour now retired rest the and ted capitula royalists , king of the Two Sicilies.) southern his son, decided that Sardinia must take part in the liberation of In May 1859 Ferdinand died and was succeeded by s might induce him follower i’s Garibald that feared he for Italy, to wrote a, Francis II. (g.v.). Victor Emmanuel, king of Sardini would have but Francis to proclaim the republic and attack Rome, which him proposing an alliance for the division of Italy, consequently a Piedmontese army tion; interven French d provoke shot were and d mutinie refused. In June part of the Swiss Guard tan territhe whole occupied the Marche and Umbria and entered Neapoli down; and this affair resulted in the disbanding of its head. On Oct. x and 2, 1860, at l Emmanue Victor with tory were ls proposa Various cy. force—the last support of the autocra ians, aland a battle was fought on the Volturno and the Garibald made for an alliance with Sardinia, but Francis rejected them he met 26th the On s. victoriou were numbers, in inferior though indeed began to negotiate with Austria. king of Italy and him hailed and Teano at l Emmanue Victor reaching were Garibaldi—iIn the meantime events in Sicily s subsequently handed over his conquests to him. On Nov. 3 a a crisis destined to subvert the Bourbon dynasty. Mazzini’ plebiscite was taken, which resulted in an overwhelming majority orto trying been had Pilo, emissaries, F. Crispi (g.v.) and R. favour of union with Sardinia under Victor Emmanuel. Gariin they ganize a rising in favour of Italian unity and, although departed for his island home at Caprera, while L. C. Farini baldi d persuade they bands, armed few a merely succeeded in raising d viceroy of Naples and M. Cordero viceroy of appointe was imbe to knew Garibaldi (g.v.) that the revolution, which he remnant of the Bourbon army was concentrated last The Sicily. minent, had broken out. Garibaldi, whose hesitation had been at Gaeta, the siege of which was begun by Cialdini on Nov. 5; Genoa, near Quarto, at overcome, embarked on May 5, 1860, on Jan. 10, 1861, the French fleet, which Napoleon III. had sent with 1,000 picked followers on board two steamers, and sailed Gaeta to delay the inevitable fall of the dynasty, was withto and “Marsala reached n expeditio the for Sicily. On the 11th at the instance of Great Britain; the fortress surrendered drawn recoldly landed without opposition. Garibaldi was somewhat 13 and the royal family departed by sea. The citadel of Feb. on for once at forth set he but n; populatio d ceived by the astonishe capitulated a month later and Civitella del Tronto on Messina hip dictators the assuming Salemi, where he issued a proclamation On Feb. 18 the first Italian parliament met at Turin 21. March of Sicily in the name of Victor Emmanuel, with Crispi as secreed Victor Emmanuel king of Italy. Thus Naples and proclaim and the of 3,000 defeated and tary of state. On the 15th he attacked to be a separate political entity and were absorbed ceased Sicily this enemy under General Landi at Calatafimi; the news of into the united Italian kingdom. ut througho agitation nary revolutio the brilliant victory revived BrsrrocrapHy.—F. Carta, Storia del regno delle Due Sicilie (1848); the island, and Garibaldi was joined by Pilo and his bands. By a F. Pagano, Istoria del regno di Napoli (1832, etc.) ; J. Albini, De gestis which force, Colonna’s General avoided he ruse devised cleverly regum Neapolit. ab Aragonia (1588); several chapters in the Storia expected him on the Monreale road, and entering Palermo from politica d'Italia (1875-82) ; F. Lanzani, Storia dei comuni Italiani .. . delle signorie Italiane dal 1313 al 1530; Misilmeri received an enthusiastic welcome. After three days’ fino al 1313; C. Cipolla, Storiapreponderanze straniere, 1530-1789; A. le durante L’Italia Cosci, not Lanza, General r, commande st street fighting the Bourboni d'Italia dal 1789 al 1799; G. de Castro, Storia @’ Storia Franchetti, asked left, knowing that the Garibaldians had scarcely a cartridge Italia dal 1799 al 1814; F. Bertolini, Storia d'Italia dal 1814 al 1878; for and obtained a 24 hours’ armistice (May 30). Garibaldi went G. Pepe, Mémoires, new ed. (1906) ; N. Nisco, G ultimi 36 anni del see Nelson on board the British flagship to confer with the Neapolitan reame di Napoli (1889). For a defence of Nelson’s action, and the Neapolitan Jacobins (Navy Records Society, 1903), edited by generals Letizia and Chrétien; then he informed the citizens by H. C. Gutteridge, with a bibliography. A. T. Mahan, Life of Nelson means of a proclamation of what he had done, and declared that (2nd ed., 1899), and English Historical Review for July 1809 and . he would renew hostilities on the expiration of the armistice Oct. 1900. For the other side see C. Giglioli, Naples in 1799 (1903); Although unarmed, the people rallied to him as one man, and F. P. Badham, Nelson at Naples (1900) ; P. Villari, “Nelson, Caracciolo (Nuova Antologia, Feb. 16, 1899); A. Lanza became so alarmed that he asked for an unconditional e la Repubblica Napolitana” Napoli dal 13 giugno al 12 luglio, 1709 Gli avvenimenti di extension of the armistice, which Garibaldi granted; 15,000 Maresca, (1900) ; B. Croce, Studii storici sulla rivoluzione Napoletana del 1799 revothe leaving 7, June on Naples for Bourbon troops embarked (1897). For an account of the French period see C. Auriol, La France, lutionists masters of the situation. The Sardinian Admiral PAngleterre, et Naples (1906), and R. M. Johnston, The Napoleonic see N. Nisco, Gh Persano’s salute of 19 guns on the occasion of Garibaldi’s official Empire in South Italy (1904). For the latest period Whitehouse, The R. H. (1889); Napoli di reame del anni 36 ultimi call constituted a practical recognition of his dictatorship by (1899). See further G. Bianco, La Naples of Kingdom the of Collapse the Sardinian (Piedmontese) Government. In July further rein- Sicilia durante Voccupazione Inglese (1902); Francesco Guardione’s forcements of volunteers under Cosenz and Medici, assisted by Il Dominio dei Borboni in Sicilia (1908) ; G. Trevelyan, Garibaldi and Cavour, arrived at Palermo with a good supply of arms furnished the Thousand (1909) and Garibaldi and the Making of a oe by subscription in northern Italy. Garibaldi’s forces were now NAPOLEON I. (1769-1821), emperor of the French. raised to 12,000 men, besides the Sicilian squadre. Cavour’s attempt to bring about the annexation of Sicily to Sardinia failed, Napoleon Bonaparte was born at Ajaccio on Aug. 15, 1769, the for Garibaldi wished to use the island as a basis for an invasion year following the reunion of Corsica with France. His father, of the mainland. When the Garibaldians advanced eastward they Charles Buonaparte—it was not until after 1796 that the spelling encountered a force of 4,000 of the enemy under Colonel Bosco Bonaparte was adopted—came of a good family which had been at Milazzo; on July 20 a desperate battle took place, resulting in established in the island since the 16th century. The family a hard-won Garibaldian victory. The Neapolitan Government origins may perhaps be traced to Tuscany, an Italian province, then decided on the evacuation of the whole of Sicily except the the relations of which with Corsica had always been close. Nacitadel of Messina, which did not surrender until the next year. poleon himself, in later years, scoffed at the exaggerated tales The news of Garibaldi’s astonishing successes entirely changed invented by flatterers and courtiers, of the lordly status formerly the situation in the capital, and on June 25, 1860, the king held by the family at Treviso and Bologna. Yet his father was granted a constitution, and appointed A. Spinelli prime minister. undoubtedly of noble birth, and was the delegate of the Corsican Disorders having taken place between Liberals and reactionaries, nobility at Paris. Charles Buonaparte married Laetitia Ramolino, Liborio Romano was made minister of police in the place of a woman of strong character and great personal beauty. He was Aiossa. The king appealed to Great Britain and France to pre- a lawyer by profession and brought up a large family in difficult vent Garibaldi crossing the Straits of Messina, and only just times. After the Corsicans had, several times, revolted against failed (for this episode see under Lacarta, Sir James). On Aug. their Genoese masters, the republic of Genoa, despairing of ever 19 Garibaldi crossed with 4,500 men and took Reggio by bringing the rebels to submission, ceded its rights to France, storm. He was soon joined by the rest of his troops, 15,000 in all, against which the Corsicans, led by Paoli (q.v.) at first attempted the Neapolitan army collapsed before Garibaldi’s advance, and resistance. Charles Buonaparte joined Paoli’s party. He even the people rose in his favour almost everywhere. On Sept. 6 the joined him in his campaign, taking with him his wife and children,

NAPOLEON

EARLY LIFE]

I.

85

lest they should be seized as hostages by the French. When Paoli | way in which he pronounced Napolione. was beaten and had to fly Charles Buonaparte became reconciled Between his spells of garrison duty at Valence and at Auxonne to French rule and benefited by the protection of M. de Marbeuf, as a young artillery officer, a part of his early career of which the governor, to whom he was able to make himself useful. In little is known was passed in the leave which he spent on more 1779, sent on a mission to Versailles, he took with him his second than one occasion in Corsica, where the somewhat complicated son, Napoleon, for whom M. de Marbeuf had obtained a bursary affairs of his family demanded his presence. At Ajaccio in Sept. at the military academy at Brienne.

EARLY LIFE

These facts enable us to understand the character of Napoleon. He was born a Frenchman, of a family which, unwilling at first to become French, afterwards unreservedly accepted the fait accompli. From the age of ten he was educated with other boys of his own class by French people according to French ideas. Though we must make due allowance for heredity, family influence, and the impressions of early childhood, it is an exaggeration to explain Napoleon, as historians since Stendhal have been too much inclined to do, entirely in the light of his Corsican and Tuscan origin, and to see in him the incarnation of a condottiere, or of a 14th century Italian city despot, a modern Castruccio Castracani. It is more important to bear in mind that young Bonaparte, born in an island which had only just become part of France, shared neither the traditions nor the prejudices of his new country. In 1789, at the age of 20, he came into the Revolution with an open mind, feeling neither like nor dislike for many things which other Frenchmen either regretted or frankly detested. If he remained Corsican in temperament he was, by virtue of the instruction he had received, and the books he had read, preeminently a man of the 18th century. His occasional early philosophical writings leave no doubt as to this side of his character, which is also illustrated by the life-long habit of epigrammatic, well-turned, often paradoxical expression, a trait which he had in common with Chamfort and Rivarol; witness his celebrated definition of love as “une sottise faite à deux.” Further, having lost his father in 1785, and having been designated by him as the head of the family, although he was the second and Joseph the eldest son, he had known poverty and the responsibility of helping to provide for his mother, brothers and sisters. Success was more necessary to him than to others, and the upheaval of 1789 favoured the ambitious. We must realize therefore that he entered the Revolution in rather an unusual frame of mind, occasionally ardent, joining the Jacobins without hesitation, but also capable of coolly judging events as when on June 20, at the capture of the Tuileries, he was moved to scorn by the weakness of Louis XVI. We must also remember that, having begun his studies at the cadet school at Brienne, he completed them at the Ecole Militaire in Paris,

where (1784-5) he received a solid grounding in the work of an artilleryman and an officer. It would be wrong to look on him as a kind of self-taught genius, a god of war, who might be said to have discovered, taught, and even created strategy and tactics. The Artillery Officer.—He himself acknowledged, modestly and loyally, his debt to his teachers. He had studied the treatises of Bourcet and of Guibert, who had evolved from modern armaments new principles and methods of warfare. Asa sub-lieutenant at Auxonne, after leaving the Ecole Miltaire, he received at first hand instruction from baron du Teil, brother of the author of a remarkably advanced work on the use of modern artillery. He profited by the instruction, and always spoke of it with appreciation. However gifted a man may be, he still needs inspiration and counsel, and learns more from his predecessors than he himself passes on to his contemporaries and to posterity. The genius of Napoleon was not least evident in the way in which he made use of the instruction which he received. Curiously enough, Guibert in his Systéme de guerre moderne had predicted that a great man would arise to put into practice the military theories which were then taking shape. These facts, which place Napoleon in his proper intellectual environment, seem to the writer to throw more light on his mind and his character than would countless anecdotes of his childhood and schooldays, such as that at Brienne he was nicknamed Paille au nez by his companions because of the

1789, he found his elder brother Joseph deep in the affairs of

the democratic party which had inevitably, with the progress of the Revolution, become the party of France. Paoli, who had at first thought that events in France would bring about Corsican independence, had soon been disillusioned, Jacobinism being essentially a unifying and centralising force. He inclined therefore to the counter-revolution and entered the opposite camp. Napoleon, promoted lieutenant in 1791 on the reorganization of the artillery, was stationed for another three months at Valence,

where he continued his studies, and even wrote an essay on a subject set for competition by the academy of Lyons: “What are the principles and institutions most likely to bring about the greatest happiness of mankind?” He treated the subject in the style and according to the principles of Jean Jacques Rousseau. When, years afterwards, Talleyrand showed him the essay, he threw it into the fire. He was again in Corsica from Sept. 1791 to May 1792. Feeling ran high in the island, as a result of the disestablishment of the Catholic Church. He plunged into political intrigue, outstayed his leave, and became liable to the penalties in force against deserters and émigrés. On April 20, 1792, however, the legislative assembly had declared war on Austria. Officers were needed. Instead of undergoing any penalty, Bonaparte, whose zeal for the Revolution was well known, was made a captain. In this capacity he remained in Paris for several months, and witnessed the great events of the Revolution. After the September massacres, he went to-Ajaccio to take home his sister Elisa from the convent of Saint Cyr which had just been closed. This was his last visit to his native country. The break with Paoli was now complete. Bonaparte was on the side of the “patriotes,” while the old champion of independence was appealing to the English against the Republic, One and Indivisible. Paoli was victorious. Bonaparte and his family, now entirely ruined, had to fly from the island and take refuge in France. This was the termination of what we may call his “‘insular” period. As he himself said afterwards, once he had left Ajaccio, more important affairs left him little time to think of Corsica and Paoli. Early Military Opportunities—In Sept. 1793, Napoleon Bonaparte was still unknown to the world which was to ring with his name. Amazed himself at his extraordinary career, and the incredible swiftness of his rise to power, he said in Saint Helena to Las Cases, “Centuries will pass before the unique combination of events which led to my career recur in the case of another.” Favourable circumstances were also required to bring the young artillery officer to the front, and these were not lacking. The republic, which had challenged half Europe, had to face foreign and civil war, under conditions of anarchy. Bonaparte was a Jacobin, with a great reputation as an artillery officer. At Beaucaire, on his way to Paris, he had written a pamphlet, the Souper de Beaucaire, in which he had refuted the arguments of three Southern federalists or counter-revolutionaries. It is probable that it reflects a conversation which actually took place in an inn of the little town beside the Rhone. Its publication attested the patriotism of its author. The good word of Robespierre’s brother and of Napoleon’s compatriot, the deputy Salicetti, were also of assistance. At this juncture it was necessary to recapture Toulon, the inhabitants of which had rebelled against the Convention and called in the assistance of an English squadron. An able officer of artillery was required to direct the siege operations. Bonaparte was chosen. There has since grown up the legend of “the great Napoleon at the siege of Toulon,” though the part which he really -played was essentially that of a technical expert. He found in command General Carteaux, formerly an artist, who was too ignorant even to understand that to take Toulon he must capture the position which commanded the roadstead. Things were no better under

36

NAPOLEON

his successor, Doppet, and until the arrival of General Dugommier, a soldier of greater experience, who, together with Gasparin, the people’s commissary, recognized the knowledge and good sense of the young artillery officer. On the fall of Toulon in Dec. 1793, Napoleon was promoted general of brigade, and in Feb. 1794 he was given the command of the artillery of the army of Italy. These were still subordinate positions, offering little opportunity for prominence. He spent the next few months—the period of the Terror—in inspecting fortifications and was even for a time “suspect” for having reconstructed an old fort at Marseilles, a town which had also risen against the Convention. He had rejoined the army of Italy, when fresh disaster seemed imminent. After the 9th Thermidor, his relations with the Jacobins became compromising. Accused of having disclosed certain plans to the younger Robespierre, he was arrested, but, in default of evidence, was released on Carnot’s instructions. Nevertheless his position at this juncture was extremely precarious. Under the nerveless leadership of Schérer, he had no opportunity of distinguishing himself in the Italian campaign except at Saorgio and on the Roja. He was marking time, in fact. Like a true soldier he detested the campaign in la Vendée, and he refused the command of an infantry brigade which was to be sent against the Western royalists. Aubry, the minister of war, removed him from the active list in consequence. Reverses.—He now experienced real poverty, and had to sell his books and his watch. He thought of taking service with the sultan to re-organize the Turkish army. Madame Tallien, wife of the member of the Convention, whom he met at this time, interested herself in him and made his peace with the authorities. When Kellermann lost the lines of the Apennines it was remembered that Bonaparte knew Italy, he was taken into consultation, and joined the topographical service of the army. At this time, in the autumn of 1795, Hoche, Marceau and Joubert were already famous; Bonaparte was still unknown. It looked almost as if fortune were definitely against him. The only thing which he had brought back from his campaigns was the itch and, probably, the malaria, which made him very ill. He was obliged to shave his head, which was later on to bring him the nickname of “le petit tondu.” Small in stature, thin, yellow-faced, : badly dressed, his person was unimposing and no one would have seen in him the future emperor of the French. The Insurrection of 1795.—It needed a day of revolution and of civil war to bring him into prominence, by giving him the chance to do the Republican Government a service, the vital service of saving the Republic. In the autumn of 1795 the majority of the people of Paris were chafing against dear food, assignats and never-ending war. The Convention, by declaring for a constitution designed to keep its own members in power, provoked an Insurrection, which, owing to the weakness of General Menou, very nearly succeeded. The Convention then placed the deputy Barras in command of the home forces. He, having known and learnt to value Bonaparte at the siege of Toulon, asked for, and obtained, his appointment as second in command. The young general at once assumed complete control, issued rapid orders, forestalled the insurgents who were about to capture the artillery parked at Les Sablons, and shot them down in the rue SaintHonoré, on the steps of the church of Saint-Roch. In less than a

day he had subdued a serious royalist rising (r3 Vendémiaire— Oct. 4, 1795). He had saved the republic and earned the nick-

I.

[IN POWER

feeding the troops; it was hoped they would live on the conquered territory. At the beginning of March 1796 Bonaparte married

Josephine. At the end of the month he arrived at his headquarters at Nice. . ; i His army consisted of thirty thousand starving soldiers, in

want of everything. He issued to them the famous proclamation :—“You are badly fed and all but naked. . . . I am about to lead you into the most fertile plains in the world. Before you are

great cities and rich provinces; there we shall find honour, glory, and riches.” He entered Italy on April 10. His plan of campaign—the separation of the Piedmontese from the Austrians

—was very simple; he executed it successfully after severe actions at Montenotte, Millesimo and Dego. While he was conducting the campaign, he did not forget that he was a general of the Revolution, and issued to the Italian people proclamations which, while treating the Catholic religion with respect, spoke the language of liberty. The king of Sardinia

took fright, and, on the advice of the Archbishop of Turin, sued for peace to an army “with neither artillery, cavalry, nor shoes

to its feet.” The pope and the dukes of Parma, Modena and Tuscany were not long in following the example of Victor Amadeus. Great political schemes were taking shape in Bonaparte’s

mind, but first he had to beat the Austrians.

This was, indeed,

his first experience of large-scale operations. The crossing of the bridge of Lodi was a bold achievement which made his name known in a day all over France and indeed all over Europe. That day, by an old camp custom, his soldiers dubbed him corporal, and another nick-name, the “petit caporal,” stuck to him. New Republics.—In May, some wecks after the setting out of his ragged army, he entered Milan in triumph. He could write to the directory: “The republic holds all Lombardy.” At that same moment he received from Paris orders which upset all his plans. Sure that his resignation would not be accepted, he sent it in, and, while waiting for the answer, harried the Austrians, whose generals “faithful to the old system of warfare, scattered their troops in small detachments before a man who practised mass-movement.” The further Bonaparte advanced with so small an army, the greater was the need for skill and boldness. At Arcola he suffered in his own person, by falling into a swamp. These “miracles of genius and courage” were crowned by the victory of Rivoli, followed by the preliminary negotiations of Leoben (April 18, 1797). “No other general could show such fourteen months.” He had forced Austria to sue for peace. He had founded the Cispadane, the Cisalpine, and the Ligurian republics, which brought a large part of Italy under the same régime as France, and preparations were begun for its annexation. He had been able to provide for his army by requisitioning; to conquer without costing the treasury anything, and had even sent money to Paris. Finally when the Republicans, having lost their majority in the Councils, were in need of help, Bonaparte, though he had cause for complaint against the directory, sent them his subordinate Augereau, for the coup de force of Fructidor (Sept. 1797) directed against the royalists and the moderates. True, the royalists and moderates wanted peace, while Bonaparte agreed with the Jacobins, and aspired to secure France’s “natural frontiers.” He was able to congratulate himself on fulfilling both desires

by the Treaty of Campo-Formio

(Oct. 17, 1797).

By it the

emperor ceded to France both Belgium and the left bank of the Rhine. Glorious as it was, however, and in keeping with Revoluname Général Vendémiuire. tionary foreign policy, the treaty, far from ending the war, perpetuated it. To assure the permanence of these conquests the ITALIAN AND EGYPTIAN CAMPAIGNS goodwill of England was necessary, and England was not in a Italy.—His first reward was the hand of Josephine, a beautiposition to give it; compulsion was therefore necessary. The ful Creole, widow of the viscount de Beauharnais, who had been whole story of Napoleon up to Waterloo turns on this. Henceguillotined during the Terror. Josephine, whose morals were forth he was to struggle against England, and in that struggle he none too strict, was living at this time mainly by her wits. The was in the end to be vanquished. general was six years younger than she, but he seemed to be on England and Egypt.—The brusqueness of his manner, and the threshold of a brilliant career, and the marriage freed her still more his popularity with the masses made him an object of from poverty. He had, in fact, as his second reward been ap- suspicion, in spite of the services which he had rendered the pointed commander in chief of the Army of Italy. Like Josephine, Republic. He, on his side, despised the corrupt government of the the government of the Republic was at the end of its financial directory, “a governmen t of lawyers,” whether Jacobin or moderresources. At this moment, indeed, there was difficulty enough in ate. He soon realised that their plans for an invasion of England

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In any case he thought it parliamentary

prudent to quit France for a time. The East had always fascinated him. “Only in the East can one do great things,” he said. Read-

ing and reflection had convinced him that Egypt was one of the

keys of the world. This idea had already emerged in the days of Louis XIV., and was taken up again during the 18th century wars between France and England; there too Napoleon had his forerunners. He planned to strike at the power of England through

Egypt and the route to India, and to stir the imagination of his own country-men. The directory accepted the scheme. The Egyptian expedition was thus indirectly to be the means of forcing the British government to recognise the territorial ac-

quisitions of the Revolution. The weakness of this plan, a weakness inherent in the whole struggle with England, was that France had no navy. Though Bonaparte, by a fortunate combination of circumstances, was able to land his army near Alexandria (July 1, 1798), Nelson, a month later (Aug. 1), destroyed the French fleet at Aboukir. From that moment the Egyptian expedition, instead of being “le commencement d’une grande chose” was merely an adventure. In vain Bonaparte executed a brilliant campaign, cap-

turing Cairo, and subduing the country in three weeks.

Of the

great expedition nothing has endured but famous sayings, such as “Soldiers, from these pyramids forty centuries look down on you”; the Institute of Egyptology; the diffusion of the French language in the valley of the Nile; and, in Bonaparte’s own case, a romantic touch of orientalism, symbolised by his faithful mameluke Roustan. Nevertheless, to carry through his great scheme, he undertook the conquest of Syria. Acre, under Admiral Sidney Smith, held out. “That man made me miss my destiny,” he said later.

18th BRUMAIRE AND THE CONSULATE The Coup d@’Etat.—The expedition was, in fact, a failure. Bonaparte realized that there was nothing to be done in Egypt. At the same time came news which told him that there was work for him in France. The directory was in difficulties both at home and abroad. Disorder was rampant, finance and currency desperate, discontent everywhere. The Government, not knowing which way to turn, swayed one day to the Jacobins, the next to the moderates. In Germany the war continued, and in Italy the Republican armies suffered a series of reverses, and invasion was only checked with difficulty by Brune at Bergen, and by Masséna at Zürich. The restoration of the monarchy seemed inevitable. The republic could be saved only by a military leader. “T seek a sword,” said Sieyés, one of the five directors, racking his brains for a general to whom he could confide the defence of the Republic. At that crucial moment Bonaparte decided to return. He went boldly on board a frigate, slipped through the English cruisers in the Mediterranean, and landed at Fréjus on Oct. 8, 1799. He was greeted with shouts of “Long live the republic.” He was the man of the hour for all those who desired an end of anarchy but were opposed to the return of the Bourbons. Without him the Revolution was a lost cause. This consideration is essential to the understanding of the famous coup d'état of the r8 Brumaire (Nov. 9, 1799). The coup d’état was organized, indeed, from within. Not only had Bonaparte accomplices among those in power, he had not even to offer or to impose himself; he was sought out. Baudin, a deputy from the Ardennes, and a staunch Republican, died of joy when he heard of the return of “Général Vendémiaire,” who was once more to save the Republic. Of the five directors, Sieyés, though a regicide, had given up hope of saving the country except by a dictatorship, of which he hoped to be the head, with Bonaparte as his strong right hand. Roger-Ducos was of the same opinion. The third, Barras, was corrupt, and would do anything for money. Only the remaining two, Moulin and Gohier, were immovable in their Jacobinism, and had to be silenced. Resistance could come only from political circles, the assemblies, or perhaps from part of the army, where Jacobinism was still strong. The conspirators were assured in advance of the support of public opinion. It is, therefore, essential to note that the coup d'état was conceived and organized by Sieyés, who took charge of the

side, while Bonaparte charged with assuring the support of forget that from its origin to the days the Revolution had undergone many violated its different constitutions over The pretext for the transference of

was an executive agent the army. We must not of Fructidor and Prairial, forcible changes and had and over again. the two legislative assemblies from Paris to Saint Cloud on the 18 Brumaire was a terrorist plot invented for the occasion. The plan, though well laid, all but miscarried. On the first day, that of z8 Brumaire, all went well, and, as the Convention had done in Vendémuazre, the assemblies placed Bonaparte in command of their forces. On the morrow at Saint Cloud, affairs took a dangerous turn. The Upper Chamber or Council of the “Ancients” had been won over, but the lower or Council of the Five Hundred, whose Jacobin members had had time to summon their forces, greeted the general with shouts of “Down with the dictator! Outlaw him!” Bonaparte lost the thread of his speech, lost countenance, and for a moment was surrounded by a threatening crowd of deputies. Soldiers came to his assistance; however, the day would have been lost but for his brother Lucien, who had made his way in politics and was president of the assembly. Declaring that the right of free speech had been outraged, he dramatically threw off his insignia and rushed into the court of the Orangery to harangue the still hesitating soldiers. Bonaparte, having recovered from a fainting condition, appeared, his face bleeding where, in his agitation, he had scratched it. This made the soldiers think that he had been wounded. General Leclerc, his brother-in-law, thus charged at the head of his grenadiers and cleared the hall of the refractory deputies. That very evening Bonaparte, Sieyés and Roger-Ducos were elected “consuls” by the Council of the Ancients. The Revolution was not over. Bonaparte was to continue it under monarchical forms, and to give it at last a government. Sieyés dreamed of giving a constitution to France, but France had worn out so many constitutions during the last ten years! Bonaparte, who had used the “ideologues” as stepping stones to power, now made it clear to them that they had a master; and of Sieyés’ constitution, only such portions as suited him remained. Authority was narrowing its limits. Five directors had given place to three consuls. First Consul.—Immediately after, Napoleon became the first, the only one, elected for ten years. Public opinion gave him what was practically unlimited power. Disillusion and anxiety made him master of France. Some were tired of violence and disorder. Others, who had profited by the Revolution to possess themselves of national property, feared the return of the Bourbons and its restoration to its former owners. The mass of the people therefore, desired the consolidation of the new régime. Had it not been for the 78 Brumaire, it is probable that the restoration of the legitimate branch would have taken place much sooner, before the Napoleonic empire had consolidated the results of the revolution by permanent institutions. The great mistake of the royalists was to look upon Bonaparte as another General Monk. He replied with disdain to the overtures of the comte de Provence— the future Louis XVIII. The royalists in their turn hastened to resume the struggle against him, thus definitely marking him as the representative of the “revolution in arms.” The Revolution was further indissolubly bound to its idea of “natural frontiers,” and could not surrender the conquests which the rest of Europe refused to recognise. The war had to go on, whether they liked it or not—a fact which entailed government by a soldier. With the rest of his heritage, Bonaparte had to accept the necessity which had made the weak directory as warlike as the Convention. His term of power served merely to post-

pone the inevitable catastrophe. Reforms.—His first work was to restore order and to regulate the administration of government. Here his lack of prejudice helped the first consul. As has already been said, being of French education, but not of French origin, he neither disliked nor regretted the old régime. He was thus able to adopt the strong

points of the old monarchical system and reject the weaknesses of revolutionary democracy. The Revolution had made the system of election universal, in the civil service, in the magistracy, and

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in the police: a fault which killed successive governments. Bonaparte replaced the elected committees by prefects and sub-prefects, thus re-establishing and multiplying the old intendants. Unwilling to restore completely the independence of the magistracy, of which the parlements had availed themselves against the crown, he gave the government the right to nominate magistrates, while making them, in the interests of justice, irremovable. Thus, making use of the experience both of the monarchy and of the revolution, Bonaparte framed the system known as the constitution of the year VIII. based on administrative centralization which subordinated the nation to the State, and which has been so convenient for governments that it has been kept in being by all the succeeding régimes. Altered only in detail, it subsists today. At the outset Bonaparte justified the hopes aroused by his coup d’état. The mass of the people longed for peace at home and abroad. He appeared to fill the rôle of peacemaker. Having rid himself of Sieyés, he associated with himself, for form’s sake, two other consuls, Cambacérés and Lebrun, men of ripe age and moderate views, the latter of whom had been secretary to Chancellor Maupeou under Louis XV. When a plebiscite was taken, the First Consul was approved by three million votes. He immediately reassured both the solid middle class, and the revolutionaries who had enriched themselves during the Revolution. He wiped out the last relics of Jacobinism, by suppressing the progressive forced loans, and the law of hostages. He re-opened the churches and pacified the Vendée by putting an end to religious persecution and thus indicating a forthcoming concordat with the Pope. With the help of a former official of the monarchy, Gaudin, who became duke of Gaeta, he reorganised the finances, and prepared the way for a return to a stable currency. Marengo and Hohenlinden.—Abroad his task was more difficult. There is no reason to think that Bonaparte was not sincere in trying to put an end to hostilities, though he may have wished to prove to the peace party that peace was unobtainable. The proof, in any case, was quickly forthcoming. The emperor of Russia having retired from the coalition, it remained to deal with England and Austria. The first consul offered a cessation of hostilities. It was a mistake to think that England, so long as she remained mistress of the seas, would ever allow France to retain possession of the mouths of the Scheldt. Pitt refused. Then Bonaparte made another miscalculation. A smashing victory on the Continent would, he thought, compel England to yield. He persisted in this erroneous idea until Waterloo. His history henceforth is a striving for the impossible, 7.e., the capitulation of Great Britain on a point she had never admitted—the annexation of Belgium—by a France, which was powerless at sea. seven months after the r8 Brumaire, he boldly crossed the Alps by the Great Saint Bernard to compel Austria to make peace. On June 14, 1800, the hardly won victory of Marengo made him once more master of Italy. Together with Moreaw’s victory at Hohenlinden in December, it forced the Emperor Francis to sign the treaty of Lunéville, by which Austria recognized all the conquests of the Revolution. The left bank of the Rhine became part of France, and was divided into departments. This was the triumph of Bonaparte and of the revolution. For the first time in history France had regained her “natural frontiers,” those of Gaul as known to Caesar. By the treaty of Lunéville, the British government lost her last Continental ally. The war was costing dear, and many people were weary of it. Trade was severely affected. The first consul, who knew this, resumed in appearance the preparations for invasion, which had been begun in 1797. When, after the fall of Pitt, negotiations were begun with the London cabinet, he strove to drive a bargain, renouncing all claims on Egypt. In March 1802, the treaty of Amiens was signed. It was, and could only

be a truce, but the French saw in it definitive peace, and the prestige of the first consul was increased. Extensions of Powet.—In the midst of his success there was

one seed of anxiety. He was in power only for ten years. Three had already passed, and opposition was beginning to make itself felt. A Jacobin conspiracy was discovered. Soon after he nar-

rowly escaped being killed by an infernal machine, Former ter-

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rorists were thought to be responsible, but Fouché, the minister

of police, found that the criminals were royalists instigated by the irreconcilable Cadoudal. Then the Tribunate instituted by Sieyès, opposed Bonaparte’s favourite ideas; the Concordat with

the Pope, the Order of the Legion of Honour, the Civil Code. Their opposition would become more formidable as the ten year period drew to a close. Definitely to establish the Consulate, and to make it safe from attack, permanence was desired. Thus by a

natural progression opinion tended towards the revival of the

monarchy in favour of the first consul.

He himself was silent,

asked for nothing, and let his friends work for him. This they did most effectively. After the triumph of the peace of Amiens,

they proposed a

national token of gratitude. The Senate accorded only a prolongation of power for a further ten years. This was a discom-

fiture. Then Cambacérès thought of consulting the people whether Napoleon Bonaparte (his Christian name was beginning to be

used officially) should be made consul for life It was carried by three and a half million to less than ten thousand votes. The first consul also received the right to choose his successor (Aug: 1802). Although he then had no children, there was nothing to prevent him from choosing his son, if he should have one. Hereditary monarchy was thus on the point of being re-established, after so many solemn protestations to the contrary. From that time the sovereigns of Europe began to regard Bonaparte as one of themselves. They watched him “climbing step by step towards the throne,” though there were to be further happenings before he reached it. It would be an error to accuse him of having sought to gain the crown by means of a new war. The establishment of the empire was an indirect consequence of the renewal of hostilities in May 1803, the immediate cause of which was a dispute over Malta and the interpretation of the treaty of Amiens, though for reasons easily understood, and beyond the control of statesmen, peace could never have been more than a truce. Could England allow France to remain in permanent possession of the finest coast line and most valuable ports of the Continent from

Rotterdam to Genoa? To put the question is to answer it. And we must remember that Napoleon had received Belgium and Holland in trust for the Revolution. Counterplots—France and England slowly prepared for a struggle which this time must be carried to the bitter end. The twice abandoned plan of invading Great Britain was again resumed, and a camp was formed at Boulogne. Meanwhile the irreconcilable royalists, encouraged by the first consul’s new difficulties, conspired with General Pichegru to assassinate him. Georges Cadoudal, who had landed in France, succeeded in implicating the celebrated Moreau, jealous of the first consul. The discovery of this plot infuriated Bonaparte. He accused the émigrés of ingratitude, publicly affirmed his republican sympathies, and declared that the intention was to destroy the revolution in his person. He determined to strike. A young prince of the house of Condé, the duke of Enghien, one of the Bourbons, was forcibly seized on the territory of the duchy of Baden, summarily tried and shot. Bonaparte has been universally condemned for this judicial murder, which set “a ditch filled with royal blood” between the older dynasty and the throne upon whose steps he stood. His regicide monarchy was no longer suspect even to the fiercest republicans. Just as the infernal machine had contributed to the success of the first plebiscite, the conspiracy of Cadoudal and Pichegru facilitated the proclamation of the empire. The first consul had escaped the conspirators, and the danger helped his cause. THE FIRST EMPIRE

. The consulate for life seemed too precarious; a Napoleonic dynasty would survive its founder. Since his enemies, who

were the enemies of the revolution, wished to destroy him “he must be made king or emperor, so that heredity should reinforce his power by ensuring him of natural and unquestioned successors and, by rendering useless crimes against his person, should remove the temptation to commit them.” (Thiers.)

Thus France returned to hereditary monarchy, approved by a

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unanimous vote of the Senate, and by a plebiscite. The empire was proclaimed on May 18th, 1804, the title of emperor being chosen because the word king was inseparably connected with the Bourbons, and because it sounded more impressive, more military. It evoked, moreover, memories of Rome and of Charlemagne And, like Charlemagne, Napoleon wished to be crowned

by the Pope, not in Rome but in Paris. After some hesitation

Pius VII. granted his request. On Dec. 2, at Notre Dame the amazing ceremony took place, and the soldier of the revolution

became the anointed of the Lord. Moreover he took the crown from the hands of the Pope, and placed it on his own head. And Josephine the Creole adventuress, became empress. But Napoleon could dare all. He built up a new nobility, he gathered together a court. France approved of everything. When the wife of Marshal Lefebvre (the celebrated Madame Sans-Géne, who had been a washer-woman) became the duchess of Dantzig he dared even ridicule. Boulogne, Ulm and Cadiz.—The empire united theold France with the new; in it revolutionary and monarchical ideas were combined. There was general satisfaction. Prosperity had returned with ordered government. No one troubled about the one weak point. The empire could not be really established, nor the conquests of the revolution assured, without the defeat of the British power. Napoleon did not forget it, and in the midst of his re-organization of home affairs, his thoughts were on the camp at Boulogne. He knew that to settle finally with England he must overcome her on her own ground, and must have therefore, were it only for one day, free passage across the Channel. A third coalition was forming. He could, he was sure, defeat its forces by land, but this new victory would be no more effective than earlier ones, so long as the British navy was undefeated. With the help of Admiral Decrés, Napoleon had laboured since the days of the consulate to re-establish the French navy, ruined by the Revolution. But a navy is not built in a day. Failure at Boulogne was to change the fortunes of the empire. Yet the plan was bold and simple. France had two squadrons. The destruction of one mattered little if, while it fought, the other could slip into the Channel and for 24 hours assure the transport of the troops gathered at Boulogne. On this strategy everything turned; it failed. Villeneuve failed Napoleon, as Grouchy was to fail him at Waterloo. The admiral was uneasy about his equipment, his officers, and his raw and untrained crews. His anxiety was shared by Decrés, the minister of marine. Napoleon spent the month of Aug. 1805 in cruel suspense. Villeneuve, he learnt at last, had not dared to enter the Channel and instead of bearing towards Brest, was making sail to the south. Once more the invasion of England must be abandoned, or at least postponed. Austria was openly threatening, Russia was arming, Prussia could not be depended upon. Austria must be brought to the knees without delay. Napoleon broke up the camp al Boulogne, marched into Germany with amazing rapidity (“The

emperor makes war with our legs,” said his soldiers) and forced General Mack to surrender at Ulm on Oct. 19. Two days later this magnificent victory, with all those which were to follow it, was nullified. Villeneuve, blockaded by Nelson in Cadiz, had tried to escape. The British fleet, though smaller in numbers, had destroyed the Franco-Spanish off Cape Trafalgar. From that day the French empire was doomed. Napoleon was faced with the hopeless task of subduing England, absolute mistress of the seas. All his future was governed by that impossibility. Austerlitz and Jena.—Because he had not crossed the Straits of Dover, he was to go in vain even to Moscow. In vain he sought to triumph first over the Continental powers, hoping then to find the British government discouraged and in a mood for compromise. The Russians having offered battle, he defeated them, and also a fresh Austrian army, in the most brilliant of his victories, that of Austerlitz (Dec. 2, 1805), exactly a year after his coronation. In a few weeks the third coalition was wiped out. The armies of France, under the single command of a man who was a military genius and an absolute sovereign, seemed invincible.

Napoleon, and perhaps he alone, knew that no decision had been

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reached. He rejected Talleyrand’s plan for a reconciliation with Austria, and, returning to the idea which had inspired his Egyptian expedition, planned to strike at England through the East. By the peace of Pressburg he made of a subjugated and diminished Austria a means of communication with Constantinople. The vision was taking shape. To realize it, however, he must dominate all Europe. Within a few years he exhausted the Empire in the attempt. With the conquest of Belgium as a starting point, the revolution urged its successor to vast enterprises, for which neither the military genius of Napoleon nor his political ability would suffice. It was not mania for conquest but the logical development of these schemes which led him to annexations and dangerous territorial adjustments which disquieted all Europe. His brother Joseph became king of Naples, his brother Louis king of Holland. He formed the states of Southern Germany into the Confederation of the Rhine, with himself as president. Prussia, charged with closing the Baltic to the English, was promised Hanover, and the Bourbons, dethroned in Naples, were to have the Balearic isles. After the death of Pitt, he tried to conciliate England by offering secretly to restore Hanover. These diplomatic moves served only to make him two enemies, Prussia, which he had humoured for so long, and Spain, a former ally. The Prussian campaign saw another of the lightning strokes which he understood so well. The Prussian Army, which had lived on the reputation gained under the great Frederick, was routed at Jena (Oct. 1806). In a few weeks the defence had collapsed, and Napoleon was master of the greater part of Prussia. The Subjugation

of Europe.—Since

Prussia had refused to

lend herself to his schemes, he would make northern Germany another annex to his empire, himself closing the Baltic and eventually all Europe, to English commerce. From Berlin he promulgated the Continental blockade, an idea arising naturally out of the situation, simple, easy to set out on paper, but entailing the suppression of the independence of all the nations of Europe, since the prohibition of trade with England to be effective must be general. The Continental blockade was the consequence of

and the counter-strike to Trafalgar. But Napoleon was caught in a net from which there was no escape. He had set himself an endless task. After Ulm had to come Austerlitz, after Austerlitz, Jena. After Jena he had to complete the conquest of Prussia, and to complete it, to defeat Russia, penetrate further into the East, cross the Vistula. At Eylau (Feb. 8, 1807), three hundred leagues away from France, he fought in the snow a bloody and inconclusive battle. A new effort, the calling up of next year’s conscripts was demanded of Frenchmen “that peace might be won.” In June at Friedland, the grande armée was again victorious. Once more Napoleon had the illusion that the goal was reached, that he was master of Europe and could hold England to ransom. The tzar Alexander, highly strung and impressionable, was now won over to the idea of an agreement with the emperor of the French for a policy of partition on 18th century lines. This time Turkey was to be divided instead of Poland. Napoleon was convinced that, allied with Russia against England, able to close the Mediterranean against her, threatening her even in India, he would force her to her knees. The meeting at Tilsit, and the conclusion of the pact of friendship between the emperor of the East and the emperor of the West, seemed to justify the costly victories which had led the French army as far as the Niemen. Spain, Prussia and Austria.—The first disappointment was that the Franco-Russian alliance determined England to fight more fiercely than ever; her answer was a declaration of war against Russia, and the bombardment, of Copenhagen. The Continental blockade everywhere led to increasing difficulties. Portugal showed no eagerness to shut out English trade. Junot had to be sent there with an army. Spain was also giving trouble, and Napoleon determined to drive the Bourbons from Madrid. As if he were transferring prefects, he placed his brother Joseph on the throne of Charles IV., and succeeded him at Naples by Murat, who had married Caroline Bonaparte. At the same time the occupation of the Papal States by General Miollis, charged

with enforcing the blockade, embroiled him with the Pope. The

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system drove Napoleon to increasing severity. To hold Germany and Italy, together with the Adriatic coasts, and the Spanish peninsula, would soon require a standing army of a million men, while the patience with which his conquests and his violence were

endured would decrease in proportion to the dispersion of his

troops.

Spain gave the signal for resistance. The Spanish people refused to recognise Joseph, and a wide spread insurrection broke out. When, in July 1808 General Dupont surrendered at Baylen, the Napoleonic empire suffered its first military reverse. The news resounded all over Europe. At the same time an English army landed in Portugal and Junot succumbed to superior numbers. Napoleon’s desire to direct and control Spanish affairs had not only caused the English to be received as liberators, but had committed himself to an endless struggle against a people in arms. The uprising of the Spanish nation was infectious. In Prussia, in Tirol, in Dalmatia, patriotism was extolled, and the idea of a holy war for national independence took root and grew. In later days the emperor realized that Spain had been his first check, and that the limit of his power had been attained. In spite of a fresh interview at Erfurt, at which the two emperors paraded their friendship before an audience of kings, the Franco-Russian alliance languished. The partition of Turkey was hindered by the question of Constantinople, which neither emperor wished to see in the power of the other. Alexander was beginning to doubt the power of his new friend. Napoleon, feeling that the ill-success of his policy in Spain was injuring his prestige, determined himself to cross the Pyrenees, and re-establish Joseph in Madrid. Incited by England and lavishly supplied with English money, Austria took advantage of his absence to re-enter the struggle. Napoleon had to return in haste from the Ebro to the Danube. The Austrian plans were carefully laid, and their opposition was far from negligible. Essling was a difficult, and, Wagram (July 1809) a costly victory, but in both he carried the day. Russia.—From these very successes, however, there arose a further complication. Napoleon had made use of Poniatowski and his Poles against the Austrians. Alexander, who, in any case, had remained neutral, feared that Napoleon was planning the reconstitution of Poland. Abandoning his former ally, he denounced the Continental blockade, and had in his turn to be encountered. The idea of conquering England by Europe and Asia, the sea by the land, had brought about a result which, though it seems at first absurd, was yet the logical conclusion. It was with no light heart that Napoleon decided to carry the war into Russia. He still hoped that it might not be necessary, if Spain were subdued and if the United States, to whom he had ceded Louisiana and promised Florida, declared war on England, which, attacked in its vital interests by the Continental blockade, would at last sue for peace. There was no doubt that the blockade was having a disastrous effect`on British trade; its results on the commerce of other nations were no less serious. Holland refused to enforce it, and Napoleon was obliged to resume control from his brother Louis, who had espoused the cause of his new subjects. He annexed the country, and divided it into departments, thus giving England a fresh reason for remaining under arms. In this way the Continental blockade led either to fresh wars or to expansions of territory which the English inevitably refused to recognise, since they had never recognised those revo-

lutionary conquests which the new ones consolidated. France was growing uneasy.

Common sense made it clear that

this extension of territory and of war could not go on indefinitely, and yet no end was in sight. Far-seeing members of the emperor’s own circle, such as Talleyrand and Fouché, began to fear that affairs were going wrong. “If it only lasts,” said Laetitia Ramolino, Madame Mère. Yet the empire never seemed so great, nor the future so secure as in 1810. Marie-Louise.—Already on a level with kings, Napoleon in his second marriage equalled the proudest dynasties. The head of the house of Habsburg gave him the hand of his daughter. Josephine, though she was loved by the people and her dethronement regretted, was growing old and she had given him no heir. He was tired of her, and anxious to ensure the succession.

The

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emperor of Austria must have shared his confidence in the future, since he was willing to accept the “Corsican ogre” as his son-in-

law. The marriage contract on that of Louis XVI. and he was now admitted, in one even his life. The following the empire had an heir, who

with the archduchess was modelled Marie-Antoinette, into whose family of the most extraordinary episodes of year Marie-Louise bore him a son; was given the title king of Rome, as

the heir to the Holy Roman Empire had been named king of

the Romans. But in 1811 Rome was but the capital of the department of the Tiber. The pope had been deported to Savona and was about to be imprisoned at Fontainebleau. By the Continental blockade the restorer of Catholicism in France had been led to alienate Catholics all over the world. Nevertheless, excommunicated, having driven the Bourbons from N aples and from Madrid,

the man who 20 years before had been an insignificant officer with neither name nor fortune, married a daughter of the Habsburgs. Confident in his star, he carried all before him. Though his marriage gratified his ambition, Napoleon had decided upon it only after the failure of negotiations for an alliance with a sister of Alexander. He would have preferred a Russian princess, for more than one old veteran of the Revolution, re-

membering

Marie-Antoinette,

asked why the “little corporal”

should marry another “Austrian.” But the Russian emperor was gradually disengaging himself from the alliance, on which Napoleon was ceasing to rely. Moscow.—Realising that the Russians would never consent to the extension of the French empire, which under the necessity of the Continental blockade had ended by annexing the Hansa towns of Bremen and Hamburg, and making them the principal cities of two of its hundred and thirty departments, he saw that war

was inevitable.

French territory now stretched to the Baltic,

and the nearer its boundaries approached those of Russia, the

greater was the danger of conflict. Difficulties arose continually over Oldenburg, Poland, the East, and the reluctance of Russia to abandon trade with England. The two allied emperors were arming against each other. These preparations were themselves a further offence. Convinced that this new struggle had been decreed by fate, and that his work would not be accomplished till he had vanquished Russia as he had vanquished Prussia and Austria, Napoleon now assembled for the campaign of 1812 the greatest army which the world had yet seen, an army of “twenty nations” made up of contingents from all the peoples allied to or dependent on France, a sort of Western crusade against Asiatic Russia. By natural inclination, as much as by policy, Napoleon raised again for this crusade the battle cry of the Revolution, the liberation of nationalities, of which the reconstitution of Poland was to be the token. He forgot that the Spaniards were already fighting for their independence, and that the nationalism, awakened by principles of the Revolution, was stirring the people of Germany. Alexander, who could play many parts, also spoke the language of liberalism, invoked justice, enlisted on his side the countries defeated and subjugated by France or in rebellion against her, and prepared for peace with Prussia and Austria by complicity in the partition of the Polish provinces. Napoleon was thus to stake everything on the inevitable Russian campaign. Victorious, he would be master of the East, of Constantinople, of all Europe, and would at last force the English to capitulate. Defeated, he himself would have given the signal for the debacle. The war which began in 1792, having carried the French to the gates of Moscow was to return by a swift and violent revulsion to the gates of Paris. In June 1812 the grande armée crossed the Niemen. According to their custom, the Russians declined battle. Alexander had said that he would retire if necessary beyond Tobolsk, while Napoleon imagined himself dictating peace from Moscow. The Russians

set fire to the city, and made no peace. Then began a retreat which after the passage of the Beresina became a disaster.

In the

month of December, Ney and Gérard arrived at Königsberg almost alone. The grande armée had melted away. Realising the extent of the catastrophe, and its probable effects in Europe and in France itself, the emperor had secretly left the army, which was kept in-ignorance of his departure. The news of General Malet’s

NAPOLEON

ABDICATION]

conspiracy, which had reached him in Russia, had shown him

how precarious was his position and how much weakened his prestige. The Loss of Germany.—The subsequent history of the Empire is the story of a rapid return to the conditions under which Na-

poleon had assumed the dictatorship in 1799. The Republicans themselves on the 18th Brumaire had entrusted him with the task of saving the Revolution and its conquests. To this end France had allowed him to take the crown, to found a dynasty, to

overrun

three-quarters

of

Europe

and

to raise

countless

armies. All in vain. In a few months he was back at his starting point. The Spanish insurrection of 1809 had encouraged England to persevere, and had revived the resistance of the conquered peoples. The disasters of the Grand Army in 1813 spurred on his enemies still more. “A few more sacrifices,” said the English, “and our end is accomplished.” Not even the long hoped for declaration of war by the United States, due not to French diplomacy but to the doctrine of the freedom of the seas as opposed to the English

“tyranny at sea,” could affect the determination of the British government. Everything pointed to a vast change of fortune in favour of the cause of which England, at one moment, had re-

mained the sole champion. Nationalist propaganda was bearing fruit in Germany. Prussia, while still protesting fidelity to Napoleon, had shifted her allegiance, and secretly reconstituted her army. A Prussian corps in French service, commanded by General York, went over to the Russians. Its defection made a great sensation in Germany and hastened the continued retreat to the Elbe of the remnants of the French army. The Prussian government then unmasked and, obedient to popular opinion, proclaimed a war of liberation and independence. Napoleon chose to consider his Russian defeat as an accident. In Germany it would always be easy for him, he thought, to beat the Prussians and the Russians; having raised and trained a fresh army he did, in fact, beat them at Lutzen and at Bautzen. The campaign of 1813 opened well. He was, however, justly apprehensive of Austria, and instead of following up these fresh successes he agreed to an armistice, so as to be ready for the third adversary. A coalition of Austria, Prussia and Russia had no terrors for him. He wished to settle with it as quickly as possible, thinking that he held enough cards to secure even from England a favourable peace. The victory of Dresden (Aug. 27) seemed to justify this. But, one after the other, his generals, badly served by their contingents from the Germanic Confederation, were beaten in the field, and his plans were delayed. At Leipzig, where he had returned to prevent the junction of his three opponents, Napoleon fought a three days’ battle (Oct. 16-19), during which his Saxon troops went over to the enemy. Having lost this immense battle, and all Germany with it, he had to fall back to the Rhine. In November what had been the grande armée entered Mainz, after fighting its way through the Bavarians who in their turn had betrayed him. Was it possible, on the banks of the Rhine, to secure peace on the basis of “natural frontiers’? The question had been identical under the Revolution. Prussia showed herself at last as the German power most fiercely opposed to France, and England insisted on the renunciation of Antwerp. This was, as it had been during twenty years of war, the question at stake. Disintegration.—Holland had risen against French rule. Belgium was tired of conscription and of taxes, and there also was awaking an old, invincible consciousness of nationality. ‘The British government, well informed on the condition of France, was aware of her exhaustion. Everything, they knew, had been organized for conquest, nothing for defence. The Allies were much superior in numbers. Even within its own boundaries the Napoleonic empire was tottering. Their determination to finish the business once and for all carried even more weight than Prussia’s hatred, and the negotiations which took place before the Allied entry into Paris were for that reason insincere. It had been clear since 1798 that, with England undefeated, France could make

peace only on returning to her former frontiers.

No one knew better than Napoleon himself that he was, as the

IL.

QI

Convention and the directory had been, bound hand and foot by the war and its conquests. He must defend those conquests to the end, or perish with them, as the Revolution had perished. The very nature of his power and the conditions on which he had received it, forbade him that honourable and prudent peace which he has been vainly reproached for failing to achieve. First the allies would have none of it, though their unwillingness was veiled to give the impression in France that only the insensate ambition of the emperor stood in the way; secondly, no government of revolutionary origin could accept the former boundaries. The situation was the same as in 1799. “As things are,” said Napoleon, “no one but a Bourbon can succeed me.” The Bourbons, however, succeeded him for another reason. When the Allies invaded France in 1814, they were not in agreement on the form of government. They had not made war for the re-establishment of the monarchy before or now. The Austrian emperor preferred the regency of his daughter Marie-Louise, which would have given him control of French policy. The emperor of Russia dreamed of a king of his making, such as Bernadotte, one of the luckiest adventurers of the Revolution, who by an unprecedented combination of circumstances had become crown prince of Sweden and had betrayed Napoleon. Prussia, concerned only with her own aggrandisement, cared little who ruled in France provided that she obtained her share of the spoils. Thus Castlereagh, who wished to see France smaller, but free and in subjection neither to Austria nor to Russia, became convinced that a Bourbon monarchy alone would fulfil England’s conditions, since, according to Albert Sorel, “this government of principles and not of expedients would be neither the debtor nor the client of any of the Allies.” Unknown to, or uncomprehended by the French, this was the reason for the restoration, which to them seemed to be arbitrarily imposed by the enemy, though, in accordance with the English theory of the balance of power, it was intended to preserve their national independence. Napoleon’s campaign in France, the most brilliant of them all, was a barren masterpiece. Albert Sorel has compared his victories, Brienne, Champaubert, Montmirail, Montereau, to that of Valmy. The Allies hesitated and wondered whether to negotiate. But just as the Revolution had demanded that the enemy should quit French territory, so Napoleon insisted on the guarantee of “natural frontiers.” He could do no less, but the object of the coalition was to deprive France of them. “We must reassume the uniform and the courage of ’93,” he said in Feb. 1814. He clung instinctively to the Revolution, and welcomed the proffered assistance of Carnot, former comrade of Robespierre, and one of the few revolutionaries who had held aloof from the empire. The allies on their side remembered that when, after Valmy, the invaders had retired behind the Rhine, Revolutionary France had decided to pursue them. This recollection stiffened their determination, and strengthened their alliance. The four powers bound themselves afresh by the pact of Chaumont, and resumed the offensive, determined to dictate terms of peace. Everything was crumbling around Napoleon. With the last levies which France could give him, scarcely more than children, he again tried to hold back the enemy, then to outflank and defeat them. His plans failed for want of men. On March 30 the Allies were masters of Paris, and a German wrote from Montmartre, “Nine and a half centuries ago our emperor Otto planted his eagles on these hills.” Abdication.—On April 11, 1814, at Fontainebleau, Napoleon abdicated. Not only had his Senate, the child of the Corps Législatif of Brumaire, itself the child of the Convention, deserted him and declared for the Bourbons, but his marshals fiercely urged him to renounce his sovereignty and leave the country. They had returned to the position before the z8 Brumaire, from which the Directory had sought to escape. It is again Albert Sorel who notes that the empire ended, as the consulate began, by one of those “days” which had overthrown so many revolutionary governments. On May s, Louis XVIII. entered Paris, while the fallen emperor landed on the island of Elba where his sovereignty was recognized. The former master of Europe now reigned over a few square miles. But he was only forty-five and in the full force

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NAPOLEON

of his powers. A man of such immense energy and such ardent imagination could not resign himself so easily to defeat. Only 25 years separated the beginning of the revolutionary era from his fall. A quarter of a century, however crowded with events, is a short space of time. What had happened? In the part of its programme which included republican government, and “natural frontiers,” the Revolution had doubly failed: first, when to save

itself it had had recourse after the 18th Brumaire to a dictatorship, to absolute sovereignty, to the empire; and again when after incessant fighting for “natural frontiers,” the empire had ended by laying France itself open to invasion. Conditions which the Revolution would never accept even though the refusal involved a military despotism, were now imposed. France was obliged to return to her former boundaries, and this involved the restoration of the Bourbons. It was the only possible solution, and there were few in 1814 who did not accept it. Talleyrand, who was far from being a legitimist, played a principal part in the restoration, simply because he realized that it was the only solution. Any government, whether republican or imperial, which sprang from the revolution, was doomed to war, and France had already waged war to the limit of her strength. The monarchy alone could assume the heavy responsibility of concluding peace on the terms offered. Hence when the French had forgotten the disasters and the despotism of the empire arose the reproach that the Bourbons had “returned in the baggage waggons of the enemy.”

The return of Louis XVIII. was accompanied by the grant of

the “Charter,” and representative government. He did not restore the institutions of pre-revolutionary France, but on the contrary, retained those of Napoleon, of the year VIII., even confirming the greater number of his prefects in their office. It remained to make peace in Europe. Louis XVIII. and Talleyrand, making use of the jealousies which had arisen among the allies, sought to make the general settlement as favourable as possible to France. The Congress of Vienna was still sitting when, early in March 1815, the news came “like a bombshell” that “Bonaparte” had escaped from Elba. It had all to be done over again. There are few examples in history of such sentimental and passionate episodes as the return from Elba. Though the good sense of the French protested against the adventure, it caught at their hearts. Napoleon brought with him so many memories, and with them the tricolor. The daring of his landing in France recalled the return from Egypt. He had only to appear, and almost all France rushed to support him. Yet moderate men realized that the emperor’s new adventure was all but hopeless, and would end in a catastrophe even worse than that of 1814. Liberals regretted the loss of the “Charter.” France was sick of war, and the abolition of conscription had been the most insistent demand made on the Bourbons. Napoleon maintained that he had been recalled by the people, universally dissatisfied with the restored monarchy. There was, of course, unavoidable friction between the old émigré society and the new. There were in particular soldiers who had held out alone in Germany, Holland and Italy, and had not returned to France till after the convention of April 23. These had not witnessed the invasion, and felt that the fall of the emperor had been undeserved. There was also to be reckoned with, the discontent of the officers who had been placed on half pay. None of this was really serious, however. Only the presence of Napoleon himself, escaped from his island prison, could have brought about the flood of popular feeling by which he re-conquered France in three weeks. He had only to appear and all was forgotten, the disasters of yesterday and those which his return implied, the slaughter which had brought curses on his name, the detested conscription. Officers and men rallied round him. He had not lost his power of appealing to them, and he stirred their hearts by memories of past glory. After the first moments of hesitation the detachments first sent against him declared for him. Grenoble, then Lyons opened its gates. Marshal Ney, who had undertaken to apprehend him and to bring him back if necessary in a cage, wavered, was carried away, and fell into his arms. The Hundred Days.—Having landed in the gulf of Juan with a handful of men on March 1, 1815, he was at the Tuileries on the 2oth, and Louis XVIII. had fled to Ghent.

I.

A hundred

[WATERLOO

days:

the adventure

lasted no longer,

and was

doomed from the outset. Three months’ madness. To understand why Napoleon, who, ten months before, had been deserted and denied by all, became the master of France in three weeks in a rush of passionate enthusiasm, we must take into account the change in himself, and the new rôle which he played in opposition to the Bourbons. He was not only a military genius. He was a supremely able politician, and his talents had been perfected during the revolution. He now awoke its memory, talking to the soldiers of glory and to the people of peace and liberty. The ‘former despotic emperor returned a demagogue. Two things menaced him. There was first the fear that the allies would again take up arms, but that he assured the people would be prevented by his father-in-law, the emperor of Austria. Then there was his own despotism. But he told the peasants that they were threatened

with the revival of tithes, seigniorial privileges and rights. “I come,” he said, “to free you from bondage and serfdom.” He who

had restored the rights of the Church, and founded a new nobility now incited the mob against the nobles and the priests. To the Liberals he promised representative government, the freedom of the press, everything which Louis XVIII. had already granted, but

with a new revolutionary tinge. The idea of a liberal Napoleon conformable with the principles of the Revolution, remained in men’s minds. From it dates that alliance of the Bonapartists with the Liberals which disturbed the restoration and the reign of Louis Philippe, and paved the way to the era of Napoleon III. Abroad the consequences of the return from Elba were no less grave. The allies at Vienna learned the news on March 13. They immediately declared the emperor an outlaw. The pact of Chaumont was renewed. Resumption of the war was certain, and new disasters probable for France. Talleyrand, the French representa-

tive at the Congress, was in a cruel position. Foreseeing the event, he associated himself with the allies in order at least to keep the conditions of the Treaty of Paris, and to prevent the next treaty from being made even more severe. It was easy afterwards to pillory this prudent decision, and to assert that the Bourbons had joined with the enemies of the French people. When those who had compromised themselves in the Hundred Days sought for an excuse, they used this treacherous argument. DOWNFALL AND CAPTIVITY Waterloo.—Napoleon had never held the illusion that the allies would permit him to reign, nor that he could reign, over a France reduced to its former boundaries.

He was still subject

to the law which had in the past driven him incessantly to battle. Outlawed by Europe, he prepared to fight. He could still command his followers, but the enthusiasm of the early days had evaporated and there were sinister forebodings. There were many abstentions from the plebiscite held, as before, to approve the supplementary Act to the constitution. The assembly of the Champ de Mazi resuscitated as the festival of Federation, was gloomy. The spirit of the people was exhausted, their minds disturbed, and Napoleon’s supporters uneasy. To prevent a new invasion, the Emperor left for Belgium on June 12 with the intention of separating Wellington and Bliicher, who had a hundred thousand men more than he, and defeating them successively. In spite of a success at Ligny, he failed to prevent the junction of the English and the Prussians. This was partly due to what is usually called ill-fortune, but is really the resultant of many forces. Grouchy, a second-rate general to whom Napoleon had given a command in reward for political services, blundered, and remained inactive during the great battle which took place on June 18 at Waterloo—the name of a disaster unparalleled since Trafalgar. © On his return to Paris on June 20 no other course but a second abdication was open to Napoleon. All was over. The Napoleonic drama culminated in disaster. It would appear that in order to strike the imagination of mankind a hero’s life should end with a great misfortune. If he had died a natural death in his palace, or fallen on the field of battle, Napoleon would never have become to posterity the figure

we know. Lives like his must end in martyrdom, which crowns them with the pity caused by human suffering and the respect due

NAPOLEON

SAINT HELENA]

to misfortune. Saint Helena idealised the emperor’s memory, and his gaolers unwittingly prepared for him a sort of poetic immortality. Though his imprisonment in a distant island was a punishment relatively slight as cornpared with the torture of Joan of Arc, and though the man who placed the imperial crown upon his own head had little in common with the young girl who led her king to his crowning at Reims, there is some similarity in the moral effect and the historical renown of their death. The

last phase of Napoleon’s

life may be regarded as his trans-

figuration. After Waterloo, the energy which his presence had re-awakened relaxed. On his return to Paris he felt himself abandoned. The Chamber declared itself against him, and appointed an executive commission to govern with the ministers. He must either forcibly dissolve it, or abdicate. He decided to abdicate in favour of his son, the king of Rome, and made known his intention of going to the United States. The executive commission replied that two frigates, then in waiting at Rochefort, were at his disposal, and requested him to hasten his departure. He remained a week longer at Malmaison, then, as a last despairing throw of the dice, offered his sword against the invaders as a simple general. He then undertook to leave for America. His offer was refused. He left Malmaison on June 29 and arrived at Rochefort on July 3. The two frigates were there, but the “Bellerophon” and other English ships were cruising before the harbour and blocked the outlet. One hope was left, to slip past and get out to sea. Napoleon would not run the risk of arrest as a fugitive. Thanking all those who offered to help him to escape, he decided on a plan he had had in mind several days, which seemed to him to be the most worthy of him as having an element of greatness, namely to demand asylum from the British government. Maitland, the commander of the “Bellerophon,” had let him know that the request would be well received. Thus Napoleon wrote his famous letter to the prince regent :— “Your Royal Highness, Exposed to the factions which distract my country and to the enmity of the greatest powers of Europe, I have ended my political career, and I come, like Themistocles, to appeal to the hospitality of the British people. I put myself under the protection of their laws, and beg your royal highness, as the most powerful, the most determined and the most generous of my enemies, to grant me

this protection.”

The allies at this moment were in agreement on only one point of their treatment of Napoleon. There must be no new return from Elba, and it would be perhaps even easier to return from America. The victors, to tell the truth, did not know what to do with him, and every solution presented difficulties. Their secret hope was that he would commit suicide, or perish on his way, the victim of a “White Terror.” Or they would have liked Louis XVIII. on his return to Paris to have him summarily tried, condemned and executed. “We wish,’ wrote Lord Liverpool to Castlereagh, “that the king of France would have Bonaparte shot or hanged. It would be the best end to the business.” But no one wished to take the responsibility, and Louis XVIII. less than anyone else. And Alexander I. and Wellington were working to save Napoleon’s life. So the fate of the man regarded as an outlaw, “outside human society,” kostis generis humani, had still to be decided. By his surrender to England the “Corsican ogre” laid on her the task of custody which Lord Liverpool would willingly have left to others. Louis XVIII., who had returned to Paris on July 9, was anxious

for the matter to be settled as quickly as possible, without taking the odium on himself. He ordered the prefect of Rochefort to keep the ex-emperor on the frigate La Saale, and to give him up to Commander Maitland, on the latter’s requisition. Napoleon thought it more dignified to surrender without waiting for summons or arrest. On July 15 wearing the green coat of the chasseurs de la garde, and the small hat, his favourite uniform, and that in which he is always popularly represented he went on

board the “Bellerophon.” One wonders if he deceived himself as to his fate and believed that the British government would allow him to go to America, or to remain at liberty in England, which had always welcomed exiles and was looked on as a political asylum.

He may have

I.

93

remembered Paoli and Theodore, king of Corsica for a brief period, who had come to London, to die. Strangely enough there has been found among his papers a short literary exercise, an imaginary letter from Theodore asking Walpole for protection. In his school exercise books is also the phrase “Saint Helena, a little island.”

The Voyage.—If{ Napoleon had hoped to remain at liberty he

was undeceived when the “Bellerophon” arrived at Plymouth. Admiral Keith delivered to him, in the name of the British government a letter which informed ‘General Bonaparte” that in order to deprive him of further opportunities of disturbing the peace of Europe, it was necessary to restrain his personal liberty, and that to this end Saint Helena had been chosen as his future residence. He might take with him three companions, from among those who had accompanied him to England, and a surgeon. The emperor, on receipt of the letter, protested that he was the guest and not the prisoner of the British government, and that the rights of hospitality were being violated in his person. He then resigned himself, and set an example of stoicism to his followers. He did no more than put into writing the verbal protest which he had made to Admiral Keith. Napoleon took with him into his captivity General Bertrand, a former grand marshal of the palace, Count Montholon, aide de camp, and General Gourgaud, and a civilian, the count de Las Cases. Countess Bertrand and Countess Montholon were of the party, as well as Las Cases the younger, and several servants. On Aug. 7 they embarked on the “Northumberland,” commanded by Admiral Cockburn, and almost immediately set sail. The voyage lasted more than two months. Napoleon preserved his impassibility, even though the officers and crew had been ordered to refrain from paying him marks of respect, and he was addressed merely as “General.” On arriving at Saint Helena Cockburn

even said to General Bertrand, “I know of no emperor living in this island, nor of any person with a right to that position, having, as you say, travelled with me on the Northumberland.” Reading was Napoleon’s chief distraction, during this long and monotonous voyage which was bearing him for ever from France and from his family. He had read to him from the Encyclopedia Britannica everything concerning Saint Helena and the countries near which the ship was passing. After a turn on deck he would lean against a gun, which the midshipmen soon called “the emperor’s gun,” and talk at length of his past life, telling stories of his career. Las Cases, who kept a journal was thus led to begin his Memorial of Saint Helena. Soon Napoleon himself decided to dictate his recollections, beginning with his Italian campaign. Saint Helena.—On Sunday, Oct. 15 the “Northumberland” dropped anchor before Saint Helena. Napoleon looked through his glasses at the island which was to be his tomb, without, says Las Cases, showing the slightest emotion, and then worked as usual. They landed the next day. The dwelling intended for the prisoner was called Longwood, and, as it was in bad repair and not ready for his reception he stayed temporarily at the small house “The Briars,” of which Las Cases says: “The Emperor Napoleon, who was once so powerful, and master of so many crowns, found himself reduced to a little hovel a few square feet in dimensions, with neither curtains, shutters, nor furniture. He had to sleep, dress, eat, work, live there, and if there was cleaning to be done he had to go out of doors.” Napoleon protested more than once against this “infamous treatment,” against the fact that he was treated as a prisoner of war, though he had himself taken refuge under the English flag, and against the prohibition of news of his wife and son. In December, Longwood was ready at last, and the little company moved there, together with Doctor O’Meara of the Northumberland who had asked to share Napo-

leon’s exile, since no other doctor was available. He also has written an interesting account of the captivity. Longwood, which had been a farm, was larger and a little more comfortable than “The Briars.” Napoleon remained there till his death, spending his time in talking over his past career, dictating his reminiscences, reading, doing a little gardening, riding in the narrow limits permitted him, and even in learning English, which

I4

NAPOLEON

he read fairly fluently, but would never speak. His chief troubles were the prohibition of correspondence with his family, and the badness of the food. His imprisonment became still more rigorous when, in April 1816, Admiral Cockburn was replaced by Hudson Lowe. The new Governor, obsessed with the fear of losing his prisoner, and, seeing nothing but espionage and plans of escape, made himself detested. Under his petty persecution Napoleon remembered with regret the régime of Admiral Cockburn. First Las Cases, accused of having organised a correspondence with the outer world, was deported to the Cape; O’Meara, the next to go, was replaced by the Corsican doctor, Antommarchi. In 1818 Gourgaud, who could not agree with his companions, left Saint Helena. Only Bertrand and Montholon stayed till the end.

Napoleon’s health was suffering. It is possible that the climate, the food and mental anguish assisted the tendency towards cancer which he inherited from his father. His strength rapidly declined. In March 1821, he took to his bed. In April he dictated his will. “It is my wish” he said “that my ashes shall be laid to rest on the banks of the Seine among the French people whom I have loved so well.” He added “I am dying before my time, murdered by the English oligarchy and its hired assassin” (Hudson Lowe). He died on the morning of May 5 in his send year. His body was dressed in his favourite uniform, that of the chasseurs de la garde, and covered with the cloak he had worn at Marengo. He was buried in a lonely spot near a spring shaded by two weeping willows. He had often walked there. “Here lies” was on the stone. No name. The Napoleonic Legend.—He had said one day, “What a romance my life has been.” Napoleon knew mankind too well, he was in fact too great an artist not to realise that his captivity and

his martyrdom gave him a magnificent opportunity of impressing himself upon posterity. On that lonely rock he was seized by an idea as great as were his plans of campaign or the Code civil. He would prepare, if not for himself, at least for someone of his race, something better than a return from Elba. He foresaw the nineteenth century, and would catch its imagination.

Two thou-

sand leagues away from France he divined the medley of sentiment and emotion forming there:—- Austerlitz and Waterloo, the triumph and humiliation of the tricolor, the Revolution of 1789 ending in the return of the Bourbons, all the longings for liberty and for glory which would torture the people of France. Buried desires would rise again, resuscitated by regret and the magic of remembrance. Napoleon had always known how to appeal to the French people. He had not lost the art. So the Memorial of Saint Helena was to become the Gospel of Saint Helena. During the hundred days he had already allied himself with the Liberals and the Republicans. The great Carnot had wept on his shoulder after the second abdication. He spent his years of exile in reviving the Napoleonic legend, in confounding it with liberalism, in “changing the eagle’s plumage.” He dreamed sometimes that he was working for himself, and that the people aroused by his promises would drive out their Kings and come to deliver him. “We are martyrs to an immortal cause,” he said. “We struggle against oppression and the voice of the nations is for us.” In the conversations which were published to the world by his companions in captivity, he made himself the apostle of a new political doctrine, which, inspired by the principles of 1789, had the character and the fascination of a religion. It was a vast idealistic programme, a declaration of the rights and duties of the French people, a reshaping of Europe on the principles of liberty, equality, fraternity and justice. He identified his cause with that of universal freedom. The peoples must be set free, and a holy alliance of nations substituted for a holy alliance of Kings. “There are” he said “strivings for nationhood which must be satisfied sooner or later.” No people should be left under the domination of another, and different sections of the same race, which wish to unite, ought not in the future to be separated. “Though they are scattered there are in Europe more than thirty million Frenchmen, fifteen million Spaniards, fifteen million Italians and thirty million Germans. I should like to have made each of these peoples a single united nation.” He re-told his own

I.

[PERSONALITY

story, giving it a humanitarian and idealistic bias. He represented his dictatorship as that of a liberal, or “crowned Washington,” a despot in spite of himself and for the world’s good, waging war to found the United States of Europe. He called himself the

Messiah of the Revolution whose name would be for the peoples

“the emblem of their hopes.” This lofty incarnation triumphed. Popular imagination represented Napoleon at Saint Helena as on a sort of Mount Sinai. Béranger’s songs, Victor Hugo’s poems added to the glamour. In 1840 the government of Louis-Philippe obeyed the national will by sending the prince de Joinville to bring back the remains of the emperor. The “return of the ashes” was a historic day. Since then, Napoleon rests in the Invalides. Another poet, Lamartine, warned Louis-Philippe that this return foreshadowed another, And, indeed, thanks to the legend woven by his uncle, after the

revolution of 1848, Louis Napoleon was elected president of the republic, and then restored the empire, accomplishing in foreign policy, by his support of Italian unity, the programme of nationalities, though the integration of Italy was not yet completed. Thus the Napoleon of Saint Helena survived.

THE NAPOLEONIC RECORD The Soldier.—We must now briefly consider this man, whose personality was in every respect far above the mean, as a commander and as a legislator—as soldier and sovereign. His master concepts may be gathered from his various sayings. “The art of war” he said “is simple and wholly executive. There is nothing ideological about it.” And again “The whole art of war consists of a careful and well-thought out defensive, together with a swift and bold offensive.” Simplicity and rapidity are the dominating features both of his campaigns and his battles. “The art of war” he said at the beginning of his career “‘consists, with inferior forces, in always having larger forces than the enemy at the point of attack or defence.” To do this rapidity of movement is required. “Energy, rapidity” was his constant admonition to subordinates. One must concentrate one’s own forces, keep them together, lead the enemy to give battle in the most unfavourable conditions; then, when his last reserves are engaged, destroy him by a decisive attack and end the war as quickly as possible. As Napoleon himself said, all these precepts could be compressed in a very small book. He had, in fact, a method, not a system. “One of the characteristic features of Napoleonic strategy,” says Marshal Franchet d’Esperey, “is that, the goal once chosen and boldly chosen, the method does not vary, though, being supple, it adapts itself to circumstances.” One might just as well say “the measure of the method is the commander’s measure.” Napoleon’s power of rapidly summing upasituation and making his decision, explains his victories. As Clausewitz has well said: “On the field of battle everything depends on a decision made in a few minutes.” Napoleon summed up everything, including himself, in the words: “No precise rules can be laid down. Everything depends on the character of the general, his abilities, his weakness, the quality of his troops, the range of their weapons, the weather and a thousand other circumstances which never repeat themselves.” Hence before the battle his meticulous study of the position, of alternative suppositions, a keen examination of the psychology of his opponent, and the rigorous use of information, material and moral. The weak point was that everything depended on Napoleon. He saw everything, did everything, took account of the most insignificant details, himself directly gave all the orders. His lieutenants, having the habit of obedience, were merely executants who took no initiative. Berthier, although he held the position of chief of staff, said that he counted for nothing with the army. Therefore, an indisposition of the emperor was suffcient to disorganize the machine. Then, from 1812 onwards, the number of troops involved became too large, and the commander’s vision no longer sufficiently sure. It was a war of armies, not of army corps. The Napoleonic system began to give less favourable results. An exaggerated belief in his “star” and his genius, and his heavy demands on an exhausted France, explain the final catastrophe. He had long profited from the concentration of power in his own person. He

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BONAPARTE 4. “Napoleon 1,” statue by Philippe-Laurent Roland.

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In the Paris Institut

Bona5. House in the Place Letizia, Ajaccio, Corsica, in which Napoleon parte was born. From the drawing by Eric Pape ;

6. “Napoleon Crossing the Alps,” by J. L. David. At Versailles 7. “Longwood,”

Napoleon’s residence at St. Helena.

Drawing

Pena, from a photograph belonging to L. C. Billings

by Harry

NAPOLEON

BIBLIOGRAPHY]

himself rejoiced in being almost the only great captain to hold absolute authority over a rich and populous country, and command its resources both of men and money. Yet in spite of his enormous intellectual energy he gave way in the end under the

burden.

He insisted on regulating the minutest details of his

carious.

Founded

government. Thus the decree which still governs the Theâtre Frangais was signed at Moscow. Moreover his empire was preon victory and success, it could not survive

defeat. Remembering after Waterloo Louis XIV. unshaken by misfortune, he said, “If I had been my own grandson, I could have retreated as far as the Pyrenees.” The Sovereign.—Yet he did more than win and lose battles. He gave to France laws which for the most part still endure. We have seen that when he became first consul, France had fallen practically into anarchy. The ancient laws, excessively complicated, because they differed from province to province and were customary and traditional, had been wiped out by the revolution. The new laws, so far as they existed at all, were too revolutionary in character and unadapted to normal society. The code civil

united what in Roman law and in tradition was best suited to France under the conditions engendered by the Revolution. It may be said to be a systemization of good sense, at the same time logical and historical. Napoleon had no legal training, and his share in the work should not be exaggerated, but he intervened continually with the dominating idea that, though the work of the revolution must not be undone, order must be restored in France. Here again he profited by his lack of prejudice and his trained intelligence. He carried out the transition from old to new France. Probably he alone could have re-established the conditions necessary to settled government without being accused of relinquishing the “civil victories of the revolution.” He was able to reimpose indirect taxation and in particular food taxes, the most unpopular of all, the abolition of which had made it impossible to place the finances of the Republic on a sound basis. The council of state, the public accounts office, the courts of justice, the universities, the rights of the Banque de France, all these were established, counterbalancing the work of the revolutionary demagogues, and they serve to this day as restraining influences on the occasional over-violence of democracy. On the other side of the picture we see excessive centralization which stifled provincial life and local characteristics, cast the whole country in the same mould, and made the State supreme over the entire people—a system singularly favourable to “‘étatisme.” Thus as a legislator, and as a legendary figure, Napoleon appeared as the restorer of order and authority and the embodiment of progress. BrBLioGraPHY.—(I.) Genera. (A) Sources. The chief source is the Correspondance published by order of Napoleon III. (28 volumes, Paris

1857-59), followed by the Oeuvres de Napoléon à Sainte Hélène (1870, 4 vols.). This is incomplete. There should also be consulted: Lecestre, Lettres inédites de Napoléon Ie’ (1897, 2 vol.); de Brotonne, Idem (1898)

and Dernières lettres inédites (1903); A. Chuquet,

Ordres et

apostilles (1911-12, 4 vol.); Picard et Tuetey, Correspondance inédite (1912-13, 4 vols.). The most complete itinerary has been given by

Schnermans: Itinéraire général de Napoléon [er (1908). For legal documents, see Bulletin des lois, 3rd and 4th series; Duvergier, Collection (vols. 12 to 18); Dalloz, Répertoire (1st ed. 1865-—70-—48 vols.). (B) History. Histories of the Napoleonic period are innumerable. The oldest, such as that of Sir Walter Scott, have little more than antiquarian interest. This is not the case with: Thiers, Histoire du Consulat et de Empire (1845-1862), 20 volumes with tables and maps. Numerous editions in all languages); Lanfrey, Histoire de Napoléon Jer (1867— 75, 5 volumes); Oncken, Das Zeitalter der Revolution des Kaiserreiches und der Befreiungskriege (1880, 2 vol.) ; Taine, Les origines de la France contemporaine, 3rd part, le Régime moderne (1891-94— unfinished) ; A. Fournier: Napoleon I. Eine Biographie (Wien und Leipzig, 1886-18903, 3 vols.); Lavisse et Rambaud: Histoire générale (Vol. IX. 1893) ; Masson, Napoléon et sa famille (10 vol. 1897-1913) ; J. Holland Rose, The Life of Napoleon I. (1905 2 vols.) ; The Cambridge Modern History (vol. IX., Napoleon, 1906) ; W. M. Sloane, Life

of Napoleon Bonaparte (1910, bibliog.) ; Lavisse: Histoire de la France

contemporaine (Vols. II. and III. by G. Pariset, 1923); E. Ludwig: Napoleon (1924); Madelin, Histoire politique r515 to 1804 volume 4 of the Histoire de la nation francaise, by G. Hanotaux.

(II.) Yours anb TRANG.

(A) Sources. Napoleon’s early works

have been published by Masson and Biagi under the title Napoléon inconnu (1895, 2 vols.) but the editors have been charged with cor-

I.

95

recting the text improperly. (B) Histery. Gadobert, La jeunesse de Napoléon Ier (1897); A. Chuquet, La jeunesse de Napoléon Jer (3 vol. 1897—99) ; P. Cottin, Toulon et les Anglais en r793 (1898); C. J. Fox, Napoleon Bonaparie and the Siege of Toulon (Washington, 1902); J. Colin, L'éducation militaire de Napoléon Ier (1902); O. Browning, Napoleon, the First Phase (1905); H. F. Hall, Napoleon’s Notes on English History (1905); H. Zivy, Le 13 vendémiaire (1898). (III.) From THE ITALIAN CAMPAIGN TO THE 18TH BRuMaTRE. (A) Sources. Here must be cited the memoirs of all the great figures of that time. There are in particular, those of the directors: the memoirs of Barras (ed. Duruy 1895-96 4 vols.); of Barthélemy, ed. Y. de Dampierre (1914); of Carnot, ed. his grandson; of Gohier (1824, 2 vols.) ; of La Revelliére (1895, 3 vols.). See also the Mémoires of Masséna, ed. Koch (1849-50, 7 volumes). For the expedition to Egypt: Les Mémoires de Bourrienne (Vols. II. and III. 1829); the Lettres de Geoffroy Saint Hilaire, ed. Hamy (1901); Volume ITI. of Nelson’s Despatches and Letters. Under the title: Paris pendant la réaction thermidorienne et le Directoire Aulard has published many police reports and extracts from newspapers (s vols. 1898-1902). (B) History. A. Sorel, L'Europe et la Révolution francaise (Vol. V. Bonaparte et le Directoire, 1903); Guyot, Le Directoire et la paix de Europe (1911) ; Clausewitz, Der Feldzug von 1796 in Italien (1883) ; Colin: Etude sur la campagne de 1796-1797 (1818); Fabry, Campagne d’Italie (1900-01 3 vols.), followed by Mémoires (1905) and Rapports (1905), the whole edited by the historical section of the French General Staff; Gaffarel: Bonaparte et les républiques italiennes, 1796-97 (1895); C. Tivaroni, Storia critica del Risorgimento italiano (first three vols., Turin 1888-97) ; Bianchi, Storza della monarchia piemontese (Turin 1885 4 vols. Vol. II.). The most recent and much the most satisfactory work on Egypt is La Jonquiére, L’expédition d'Egypte (1900-07, 5 vols., ed. historical section of the General Staff). For the coup d’état, see Vandal, L’avénement de Bonaparte (Vol. I. 1903 with a critical indication as to its sources) ; J. Bainville, A S (1926) ; Rocquain, L'Etat de la France au 18 Brumaire 1874).

(IV.) THE PRIVATE Lire or NaroLeon. (A) Sources. The principal memoirs are those of the Duchesse d’ Abrantés (1831-37, 18 vols.) ; of Mme. de Remusat (1879~80, 3 vols.) ; the Considérations and Dix années d’exil of Mme. de Stael; the memoirs of various members of the staff of the palace, such as Beausset (1827-28, 4 vols.), Constant (1830-31, 6 vols.), Baron Fain (1908), General Durand (1819, 2 vols.) and Meneval (1894, 3 vols.) etc. The work entitled Mémoires et Correspondance de limpératrice Joséphine (1820) is apocryphal. See also Empress Marie-Louise, Correspondance 1799~1847° (Vienna, 1887); Jérôme, Mémoires et Correspondance, ed. du Casse (1861—66. 7 vols.) ; Joseph, Mémoires et Correspondance, ed. du Casse (1853—54, 10 vols.) ; Queen Hortense, Mémoires (3 vols. 1927). (B) History. Frédéric Masson, Napoléon et les femmes (1893); Napoléon chez lui (1894); Bouchot, La toilette à la cour de Napoléon (1895); A. Lévy, Napoléon intime (1893); de Lescure, Napoléon et sa famille (1867); Larrey, Madame Mère (1892, 2 vols.); Masson: Joséphine de Beauharnais, Madame Bonaparte, Joséphine impératrice, Joséphine répuđdiée (1899roro. 4 vols.); Rocquain, Napoléon Ier et le Roi Louis (1878); Welschinger, Le divorce de Napoléon (1899), Le Mariage de Napoléon (Revue révolutionnaire, 1888. IT.); Masson, Marie-Louise (1903); Masson, Napoléon et. son fils (1904). See also Bonaparte (Family). (V.) Forzicn Poricy AND Wars. (A) Sources. Martens, Recueil général des traités d'alliance et de paix, with appendices and tables (Göttingen, 1817—76); Talleyrand, Lettres inédites à Napoléon, ed. Pallain (1889), and Mémoires, ed. de Broglie (1891—92, 53 vols.) ; Metternich, Mémoires (8 vols:, Vols. 1 and 2); Hardenberg, Denkwiirdigkeiten (ed. Ranke, Leipzig, 1877, 5 vols.) ; Nesselrode, Lettres et papiers (Vols. III. to V. 1905-07) ; Castlereagh, Memoirs and Corvespondence (1848—53, 12 vols.) ; Tratchevski, Documents diplomatiques concernant les relations de la France et de la Russie (St. Petersburg, 1890-91, 2 vols. in Russian and in French); Bailleul, Preussen und Frankreich Dipl. Corr. (Leipzig, 1881-87, 2 vols.). For the details of military events and the actual life of the armies we must have recourse to the memoirs of generals and soldiers, such as:—Bernadotte: Correspondance (1819) ; Davout, Correspondance (1887, 4 vols.) Gille, Mémoires d’un conscrit (1892); Lavallette: Mémozres (1831. 2 vols.); Coignet, Cahiers (1883); Marbot, Mémoires (1891—3 vols.) ; Marmont, Mémmoires (1856-57, 9 vols.); Murat, Correspondance, Lettres et documents (1899 and 1908-14) ; Soult, Mémoires (1854, 3 vols.) etc. These memoirs are of unequal value, and should be accepted with considerable reserve. (B) History. Bourgeois, Manuel historique de politique étrangère, vol. II. (1898) ; Sorel, L’ Europe et la Révolution française vols. VI. VII. et VIII. with tables (1903-04); Tramond, Manuel @histotre maritime de la France (1916) ; A. T. Mahan, Influences of Sea Power on the French Revolution and Empire (1892 2 vols.); Driault, Napoléon et PEurope (1910); Pingaud, Bonaparte, président de la république italienne, La domination française dans Vitalie du Nord (r914, 2 vols.); H. A. L. Fisher, Napoleonic Statesmanship: Germany (1903) ; Froidevaux, “La politique coloniale de Napoléon” (Revue des auestions historiques, 1901); A. Lévy, Napoléon et la paix (1903); Driault, La politique orientale de Napoléon (1904) ; Marshal Franchet d’Esperey and General Mangin, Histoire militaire et navale (Vol. VIII. of the Histoire de la nation francaise of Hanotaux).

96

NAPOLEON

II.—NAPOLEON

For the details of military and diplomatic events:—Roberts: “The negotiations preceding the peace of Amiens” (Transactions of the Royal Hist. Soc. 1901 Vol. XX.) ; H. M. Bowman, Preliminary Stages of the Peace of Amiens (Toronto 1900) ; Philipson, “La Paix d'Amiens” (Revue historique 1901) ; O. Browning, England and Napoleon in 1803 (1887); J. H. Rose, “Napoleon and English Commerce” (Engl. Hist. Rev. 1893) ; Select Despatches . . . relating to the Formation of the Third Coalition (1904) ; Coquelle, Napoléon et PAngleterre (1904); O. Brandt, England und die napoleonische Weltpolitik 1800-3 (Heidelberg 1916); Yorck von Wartenburg, Napoleon als Feldherr (1885-86 2 vols.) ; Camon: La guerre napoléonzenne : Précis des campagnes (1903), les Systèmes d’opérations (1907), les Batailles (1910), la Fortification (1914); and, always interesting Jomini: Vie politique et militaire de Napoléon Ier (1827 4 vols. and maps). Mathieu Dumas, Précis des évènements militaires (1817-26 19 vols.) ; Roche, Die Kontinentalsperre (Naumbourg 1894) ; Oman, History of the Peninsula War (1902-11 4 vols.); Greillon, Les guerres d'Espagne (1902); Fabry, Campagne de Russie (1900-03, 5 vols.) ; Chuquet: La guerre de Russie (1912 3 vols.); Clement, Campagne de 1813 (1904); Houssaye, 1814 (x vol. 1888), r815 (3 vols. 1895-1905) ; Fournier, Der Kongress von Chatillon (Leipzig, 1900); P. Gruyer, Napoléon roi de Vile d'Elbe (1906).

(A) Sources. Contemporary memoirs eT} INTERNAL Porres. already cited; Aulard, Paris sous le Consulat (4 vols.), Paris sous le premier Empire (Vols. I. and II.) (unfinished), a collection of police reports and newspaper articles; Gaudin, duke of Gaeta: Mémoires, Souvenirs, Opinions et Ecrits (new edition in 3 vols., 1926) ; Portalis, Discours et travaux sur le Code Civil (1844) ; Pasquier, Histoire de mon temps (1893-95 6 vols.); Bouwlay de la Meurthe: Documents sur la négociation du Concordat et sur les autres rapports de la France avec le Saint-Siège (1891-1905 6 vols.) ; Villemain, Rapport au roi sur Pinstruction secondaire (1843 in.4°) ; Cousin, Défense de l'Université (Discours, 1844); Pelet de la Lozére, Opinions de Napoléon sur divers sujets de politique et d’administration (1833). (B) History: Vandal, L’avénement de Bonaparte (2 vols. 1905) ; Esmein, Précis élémentaires du droit francais (1908) ; Aucoc: Le Conseil d’Etat (1876) ; L. Madelin, Fouché (1901 2 vols.); E. Mousset, Histoire de Padministration provinciale, départementale et communale (1885); Régnier, Les Préfets du Consulat et de Empire (1907); Passy, Frochot, préfet de la Seine (1867); Dejean, Beugnot (1907); Pingaud, Jean de Bry, préfet de Besançon (1909); Levy Schneider, Jean Bon Saint André, préfet de Mayence (Vol. II. 1901); Stourm, Les finances du Consulat (1902); Marion, Histoire financière Vol. IV. (1797, 1925), a first class piece of work; A. Madelin, Le premier Consul législateur (1865), Livre du Centenaire de la Cour des Comptes; Schmidt, L'organisation de PUniversité Impériale (Ecole des Hautes Etudes Sociales, 1912, La lutte scolaire). (C) On the Concordat and Religious Questions: Abbé Mounet, Histoire générale de l'Eglise, Vol. VII. (1916) ; Debidour, Histoire des rapports de l'Eglise et de État 1898; Rinieri, La diplomazia pontificale nel secolo XIX, Vol. I. (Rome 1902 Fr. tr. Verdier 1903) ;

III.

the Bourbons of having arranged the return from Elba, had to go into exile. The ex-king Louis, who now lived at Florence, had

compelled her by a scandalous law-suit to give up to him the elder

of her two children. With her remaining child she wandered, under the name of duchesse de Saint-Leu, from Geneva to Aix, Carlsruhe and Augsburg. In 1817 she bought the castle of Arenenberg, in the canton of Thurgau, on a wooded hill looking over the Lake of Constance. Hortense supervised her son’s education in person,

The young prince also studied at the gymnasium at Augsburg, and there he acquired his slight German accent.

In 1823 he accompanied his mother to Italy, visiting his father at Florence, and his grandmother Letitia with Le Bas on the banks of the Rubicon. berg to complete his military education and Colonel Dufour, who instructed him

at Rome, and dreaming He returned to Arenenunder Colonel Armandi in artillery and military

engineering. At the age of twenty he was a “Liberal,” an enemy

of the Bourbons and of the treaties of 1815; but he was dominated by the cult of the emperor, and for him the liberal ideal was confused with the Napoleonic. Revolution of 1830.—The July revolution of 1830, of which he heard in Italy, roused all his young hopes. He could not return to France, for the law of 1816 banishing all his family had not

been abrogated.

But the liberal revolution knew no frontiers.

Italy shared in the agitation. He had already met some of the conspirators at Arenenberg, and it is practically established that

he now joined the associations of the Carbonari.

Following the

advice of his friend the Count Arese and of Menotti, he and his

brother were among the revolutionaries who in February 1831 attempted a rising in Romagna and the expulsion of the pope from Rome. They distinguished themselves at Civita Castellana, a little town which they took; but the Austrians arrived in force, and during the retreat Napoleon Louis, the elder son, took cold, fol-

lowed by measles, of which he died. Hortense hurried to the spot and took steps which enabled her to save her second son from the Austrian prisons. He escaped into France, where his mother,

on the plea of his illness, obtained permission from Louis Philippe

for him to stay in Paris. But he intrigued with the republicans, and Casimir-Périer insisted on the departure of both mother and son. In May 1831 they went to London, and afterwards returned to Arenenberg. For a time he thought of responding to the appeal of some of d'Haussonville: PEglise romaine et le premier Empire (1868-69, 5 the Polish revolutionaries, but Warsaw succumbed (September vols.). (D) On the opposition and the various plots: E. Daudet, 1831) before he could set out. Moreover the plans of this young Histoire de émigration (3 vols. 1886-90 and 1904-05) and La Police et les Chouans sous le premier Empire (1898); Chassin, Les pacifications and visionary exfant du siécle were becoming more definite. The de l'Ouest (Vol. III. 1899); G. de Cadoudal, Georges Cadoudal et la duke of Reichstadt died in 1832. His uncle, Joseph, and his Chouannerie (1887); E. Guillon, Les complots militaires sous le Confather, Louis, showing no desire to claim the inheritance promsulat et PEmpire (1894) ; H. Welschinger, Le duc d Enghien (1888 and ised them by the constitution of the year XUI., Louis Napoleon ee ; Hamel, Histoire des deux conspirations du général Malet henceforth considered himself as the accredited representative 1873). of the family. He endeavoured to define his ideas, and in 1833 (VIL) Sant HELENA. (A) Sources. Captain F. L. Maitland, Narrative of the Surrender of Bonaparte (1826 and 1904); Gourgaud, published his Réveries politiques, suivies dun projet de constituJournal de Sainte Héléne de 1815—1818 (2 vols. 1847); Montholon, tion, and Constdérations politiques et militaires sur la Suisse; Récit de la captivité de Pempereur Napoléon (2 vols. 1847) ; Las Cases, in 1836, as a captain, in the Swiss service, he published a Manuel Mémorial de Sainte Héléne (4 vols. 1823); Barry O’Meara, Napoleon in Exile or A Voice from St. Helena (2 vols. 1823). (B) History. Sir d'artillerie, in order to win popularity with the French army. T. Ussher, Napoleon’s Last Voyages (1895-96); Lady Malcolm, A Diary of St. Helena (1899); W. Forsyth, History of the Captivity of Napoleon at St. Helena (3 vols. 1853); Basil Jackson, Notes and Reminiscences of a Staff Officer (1903); Earl of Rosebery, Napoleon, the Last Phase (1900) ; R. C. Seaton, Napoleon’s Captivity in Relation to Sir Hudson Lowe (1903); J. H. Rose, Napoleonic Studies (1904). (J. Bat.)

NAPOLEON II.: see REICHSTADT, JOSEPH CHARLES, DUKE

Strasbourg Conspiracy.—With the aid of his friend Fialin

and of Eléonore Gordon, a singer, and of certain officers, such as Colonel Vaudrey, an old soldier of the Empire, commanding the 4th regiment of artillery, and Lieutenant Laity, he tried to bring about a revolt of the garrison

of Strasbourg

(Oct. 30,

1836). The conspiracy was a failure, and Louis Philippe, fearing

lest he might make the pretender popular either by the glory of

O F.

an acquittal or the aureole of martyrdom, had him taken to Lorient and put on board a ship bound for America, while his (1808-1873), emperor of the French, was born on April 20, 1808, accomplices were brought before the court of assizes and acquitted in Paris at 8 rue Cerutti (now rue Laffitte), and not at the (February 1837). The prince was set free in New York in April; Tuileries, as the official historians state. He was the third son of by the aid of a false passport he returned to Switzerland in Louis Bonaparte (see Bonaparte), brother of Napoleon I., and August, in time to see his mother before her death on Oct. 3, 1837. | At any other time this attempt would have covered its author king of Holland (1806-10), and of Hortense pE BEAUHARNAIS (g.v.). Of the two other sons of Louis Bonaparte and Hortense, with ridicule. Such, at least, was the opinion of the whole of the the elder, Napoleon Charles (1802-1807), died in infancy; the family of Bonaparte. But his confidence was unshaken, and in ; second, Napoleon Louis (1804-1831), died in the insurrection of the woods of Arenenberg the romantic-minded friends who re- ’ the Romagna, leaving no children. mained faithful to him still honoured him as emperor. And now

NAPOLEON

III. [Cxarres Lours NAPOLEON BONAPARTE]

Exile of Hortense—After Waterloo, Hortense, suspected by | the government of Louis Philippe, by an evil inspiration, began to

NAPOLEON act in such a way as to make him popular.

In 1838 it caused his

partisan Lieutenant Laity to be condemned by the Court of Peers to five years’ imprisonment for a pamphlet which he had written to justify the Strasbourg affair; then it demanded the expulsion of the prince from Switzerland, and when the Swiss government

resisted, threatened war. Having allowed the July monarch to commit himself, Louis-Napoleon at the last moment left Switzerland voluntarily. All this served to encourage the mystical adventurer. In London, where he had taken up his abode, together with Arese, Fialin (says Persigny), Doctor Conneau and Vaudrey,

he was at first well received in society, being on friendly terms with Count d’Orsay and Disraeli, and frequenting the salon of Lady Blessington. He was evolving his programme of government, and in 1839 wrote and published his book: Des Idées napoléoniennes, a curious mixture of Bonapartism, socialism and pacificism, which he represented as the tradition of the First Empire. He also noted the fluctuations of French opinion. Boulogne Conspiracy.—The pretender, again thinking that the moment had come, formed a fresh conspiracy in 1840. With a little band of fifty-six followers he attempted to provoke a rising of the 42nd regiment of the line at Boulogne, hoping afterwards to draw General Magnan to Lille and march upon Paris. The attempt was made on Aug. 6, but failed; he saw several of his supporters fall on the shore of Boulogne, and was arrested together with Montholon, Persigny and Conneau. This time he was brought before the Court of Peers with his accomplices; he entrusted his defence to Berryer and Marie, and took advantage of his trial to appeal to the supremacy of the people, which he alleged, had been disregarded, even after 1830. He was condemned to detention for life in a fortress, his friend Aladenize being deported, and Montholon, Parquin, Lombard and Fialin being each condemned to detention for twenty years. On Dec. 15, the very day that Napoleon’s ashes were deposited at the Invalides, he was taken to the fortress of Ham. On the whole the régime imposed upon him was mild. He corresponded with Louis Blanc, George Sand and Proudhon, and collaborated with the journalists of the Leit, Degorge, Peauger and Souplet. For six years he worked very hard “at his University of Ham,” as he said. He wrote some Fragments historiques, studies on the sugar-question, on the construction of a canal through Nicaragua, and on the recruiting of the army, and finally, in the Progrés du Pas-de-Calais, a series of articles on social questions which were later embodied in his

Extinction du paupérisme (1844). But the same persistent idea underlay all his efforts. On May 25, 1846, he escaped to London, giving as the reason for his decision the dangerous illness of his father. On July 27 his father died.

Return to France.—He was again well received in London and he “made up for his six years of isolation by a furious pursuit of pleasure.” The duke of Brunswick and the banker Ferrère interested themselves in his future, and gave him money, as did

also Miss Howard, whom he later made comtesse de Beauregard, after restoring to her several millions. At the first symptoms of revolutionary disturbance he returned to France; on Feb. 25, he offered his services to the Provisional Government, but, on being requested by it to depart at once, resigned himself to this course. But Persigny, Mocquard and all his friends devoted themselves to an energetic propaganda in the press, by pictures and by songs. After May 15 had already shaken the strength of the young republic, he was elected in June 1848 by four departments, Seine, Yonne, Charente-Inférieure and Corsica. In spite of the opposition of the executive committee, the Assembly ratified his election. But he had learnt to wait. He sent in his resignation from London, merely hazarding this appeal: “If the people impose duties on me, I shall know how to fulfil them.” This time events worked in his favour; the industrial insurrection of June made the middle classes and the mass of the rural population

look for a saviour, while it turned the industrial population towards Bonapartism, out of hatred for the republican bourgeois. Presidency of the Republic.—On Sept. 26 he was re-elected by the same departments; on Oct. 11 the law decreeing the banishment of the Bonapartes was abrogated; on the 26th he made a speech in the Assembly defending his position as a pretender,

III.

97

and cut such a sorry figure that Antony Thouret contemptuously withdrew the amendment by which he had intended to bar him from rising to the presidency. Thus he was able to be a candidate for this formidable power. The former rebel of the Romagna, the Liberal Carbonaro, was henceforth to be the tool of the priests. In his very triumph appeared the ultimate cause of his downfall. On Dec. ro he was elected president of the Republic by 5,434,226 votes against 1,448,107 given to Cavaignac. On Dec. 20, he took the oath “to remain faithful to the democratic Republic. .. to regard as enemies of the nation all those who may attempt by illegal means to change the form of the established government.” From this time onward his history is inseparable from that of France. But, having attained to power, he still endeavoured to realize his cherished project. All his efforts (Dec. 10, 1848 to Dec. 2, 1852) tended towards the acquisition of absolute authority, which he wished to obtain, ostensibly from the people. It was with this end in view that he co-operated with the party of order in the expedition to Rome for the destruction of the Roman republic and the restoration of the pope (March 31, 1849), and afterwards in all the reactionary measures against the press and the clubs, and for the destruction of the Reds. But in opposition to the party of order, he defined his own personal policy. “The name of Napoleon,” he said on this occasion, “is in itself a programme; it stands for order, authority, religion and the welfare of the people in internal affairs, and in foreign affairs for the national dignity.” In spite of this alarming assertion of his personal policy, he still remained in harmony with the Assembly (the Legislative Assembly, elected on May 28, 1849) in order to carry out ‘‘a Roman expedition at home,” ze., to clear the administration of all republicans, put down the press, suspend the right of holding meetings and, above all, to hand over education to the Church. But he knew where to stop and how to keep up a show of democracy. When the Assembly, by the law of May 31, 1850, restricted

universal suffrage and reduced the number of the electors from 9 to 6 millions, he was able to throw upon it the whole responsibility for this coup d'état bourgeois. In fact, while trying to compass the destruction of the republican movement of the Left, he was taking careful steps to win classes. At his side were his accomplices, men ready for anything, whose only hopes were bound up with his fortunes, such as Morny and Rouher; his paid publicists, such as Romieu, the originator of the “red spectre”; his cudgel-bearers, the “Rata poils” immortalized by Daumier, who terrorized the republicans. Coup

d’Etat.—He

next entered upon

that struggle

with the

Assembly, now discredited, which was to reveal to all the necessity for a change, and a change in his favour. In January 1851 he deprived Changarnier of his command of the garrison of Paris. “The Empire has come,” said Thiers. The pretender would have preferred, however, that it should be brought about legally, the first step being his re-election in 1852. The Constitution forbade his re-election; therefore the Constitution must be revised. On the roth of July the Assembly threw out the proposal for revision, thus signing its own death-warrant, and the coup d’état was resolved upon. He prepared for it systematically. The cabinet of Oct. 26, 1851 gave the ministry for war to his creature SaintArnaud. All the conspirators were at their posts—Maupas at the prefecture of police, Magnan at the head of the troops in Paris. At the Elysée, Morny, adulterine son of Hortense, a hero of the Bourse and successful gambler, supported his half-brother by his energy and counsels. The ministry proposed to abrogate the electoral law of 1850, and restore universal suffrage; the Assembly by refusing made itself still more unpopular. By proposing to allow the president of the Assembly to call in armed force, the questors revealed the Assembly’s plans for defence, and gave the Elysée a weapon against it (“donnent barre contre elle 4]’Elysée’’). The proposition was rejected (November 17), but Louis-Napoleon saw that it was time to act. On Dec. 2 he carried out his coup d'état. Proclamation as Emperor.—But affairs developed in a way which disappointed him. By dismissing the Assembly, by offering

the people “a strong government,” and re-establishing ‘‘a France

98

NAPOLEON

regenerated by the Revolution of °89 and organized by the emperor,” he had hoped for universal applause. But both in Paris and the provinces he met with the resistance of the Republicans, who had reorganized in view of the elections of 1852. He struck at them by mixed commissions, deportations and the whole range of police measures. The décrets-lois of the year 1852 enabled him to prepare the way for the new institutions. On Dec. 2, 1852 he became in name what he was already in deed, and was proclaimed Emperor of the French. The aim which the emperor had in view was, by a concentration of power which should make him “the beneficent motive force of the whole social order’ (constitution of the 14th of January 1852; administrative centralization; subordination of the elected assemblies; control of the machinery of universal suffrage) to unite all classes in “one great national party” attached to the dynasty. His success, from 1852 to 1856, was almost complete. The nation was submissive, and a few scattered plots alone showed that republican ideas persisted among the masses. As “restorer of the overthrown altars,” he won over the “men in black,” among them Veuillot, editor-in-chief of PUnivers, and allowed them to get the University into their hands. By the aid of former Orleanists, such as Billault, Fould and Morny, and Saint-Simonians such as Talabot and the Pereires, he satisfied the industrial classes, extended credit, developed means of communication, and gave a strong impetus to the business of the nation. By various measures, such as subsidies, charitable gifts and foundations, he endeavoured to show that “the idea of improving the lot of those who suffer and struggle against the difficulties of life was constantly present in his mind.” His was the government of cheap bread, great public works and holidays. The imperial court was brilliant. The emperor, having failed to obtain the hand of a Vasa or Hohenzollern, married, on Jan. 29, 1853, Eugénie de Montijo, comtesse de Teba, aged twenty-six and at the height of her beauty. Foreign Policy.—France was “satisfied” in the midst of order, prosperity and peace. The foreign policy of the Catholic party, by the question of the Holy Places and the Crimean War (18531856), gave him .the opportunity of winning the glory which he desired, and the British alliance enabled him to take advantage of it. In January 1856 he had the good fortune to win a diplomatic triumph over the new tsar, Alexander II. It was at Paris (February 25-March 30) that the conditions of peace were settled. The emperor was now at the height of his power. He appeared to the people as the avenger of 1840 and 1815, and the birth to him of a son, Eugène Louis Jean Joseph, on March 16, 1856, assured the future of the dynasty. It was then that, strong in “the esteem and

III.

The Italian war aroused the opposition of the Catholics. After Magenta (June 4, 1859), it was the fears of the Catholics and the messages of the empress which, even more than the threats of Prussia, checked him in his triumph and forced him into the armistice of Villafranca (July 11, 1859). But the spread of the Italian revolution and the movement

for annexation

forced him

again to intervene. He appealed to the Left against the Catholics by the amnesty of April 17, 1859. His consent to the annexation of the Central Italian states, in exchange for Savoy and Nice (Treaty of Turin, March 24, 1860) exposed him to violent attacks on the part of the ultramontanes, whose slave he had practically been since 1848. At the same time, the free-trade treaty with Great Britain (January 5, 1860) aroused a movement against

him among the industrial bourgeozsze. From this time onward, in face of a growing opposition, anxiety for the future of his régime paralysed his initiative. Placed between his Italian counsellors and the empress, he was ever of two minds. His plans for remodelling Europe had a certain generosity and grandeur; but internal difficulties forced him into endless manoeuvre and temporization, which led to his ruin. Thus in October 1862, after Garibaldi’s attack on Rome, the clerical coterie of the Tuileries triumphed. But the replacing of M. Thouvenel by M. Drouin de Lhuys did not satisfy the more violent Catholics, who in May 1863 joined the united opposition. Thirty-five opposers of the government were appointed, Republicans, Orleanists, Legitimists or Catholics. The emperor dismissed Persigny, and summoned moderate reformers such as Duruy and Béhic. But he was still possessed with the idea of settling his throne on a firm basis, and uniting all France in some glorious enterprise which should appeal to all parties equally, and “sroup them under the mantle of imperial glory.” From January to June 1863 he sought this appearance of glory in Poland, but only succeeded in embroiling himself with Russia. Then, after

Syria and China, it was the “great inspiration of his reign,” the establishment of a Catholic and Latin empire in Mexico, enthusiasm for which he tried in vain from 1863 to 1867 to communicate to the French. But while the strength of France was wasting away at Puebla in Mexico, Bismarck was founding German unity. In August 1864 the emperor, held back by French public opinion, which was favourable to Prussia, and by his idea of nationality, allowed Prussia and Austria to seize the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein, After his failure in Poland and Mexico and in face of the

alarming presence of Germany, only one alliance remained possible for Napoleon III., namely with Italy. He obtained this by the convention of the 15th of September 1864 (involving the with-

admiration with which he was surrounded,” and “foreseeing a future full of hope for France,” he dreamed of realizing the

drawal of the French troops from Rome). But the Catholic party redoubled its violence, and the pope sent out the encyclical

Napoleonic ideal in its entirety. This disciple of the German philologists, this crowned Carbonaro, the friend of the archaeologists and historians who were to help him to write the Histoire de César, dreamed of developing the policy of nationalism, and of assisting the peoples of all countries to enfranchise themselves. From 1856 to 1858 he devoted his attention to the Rumanian nationality, and supported Alexander Cuza. But it was above all the deliverance of Italy which haunted his imagination. But the Catholics feared that the Italian national movement, when once started, would entail the downfall of the papacy; and in opposition to the emperor’s Italian advisers, Arese and Prince Jerome Napoleon, they pitted the empress, who was frivolous and capricious, but an ardent Catholic. Napoleon III. was under his wife’s influence, and could not openly combat her resistance. It was the Italian Orsini who, by attempting to assassinate him as a traitor to the Italian nation on Jan. 14, 1858, gave him an opportunity to impose his will indirectly by convincing his wife that in the interests of his own security he must “do something for Italy.” Events followed each other in quick succession, and now began the difficulties in which the Empire was to be irrevocably involved. Not only did the Italian enterprise lead to strained relations with Great Britain, the alliance with whom had been the emperor’s chief support in Europe, and compromised its credit; but the claims of parties and classes again began to be heard at home.

Quanta Cura and the Syllabus, especially directed against France. In vain the emperor sought in German affairs a definitive solution of the Italian question. At Biarritz he prepared with Bismarck the Franco-Prussian alliance of April 1866; and hoped to become arbiter in the tremendous conflict which was about to begin. But Königgrätz came as a bolt from the blue to ruin his hopes. French interests called for an immediate intervention. But he resigned himself to the annexation by Prussia of northern Germany. “Now,” said M. Drouin de Lhuys, “we have nothing left but to weep.” The Third Party.—Henceforth the brilliant dream, a moment realized, the realization of which he had thought durable, was at an end. The Empire had still an uncertain and troubled brilliancy

at the Exhibition of 1867.

But Berezowski’s pistol shot, which

accentuated the estrangement from the tsar, and the news of the death of Maximilian at Queretaro, cast a gloom over the Jater fétes. In the interior the industrial and socialist movement, born

of the new industrial development, added fresh strength to the Republican and Liberal opposition. The moderate Imperialists

felt that some concessions must be made to public opinion. In opposition to the absolutist “vice-emperor” Rouher, whose influence over Napoleon had become stronger and stronger since

the death of Morny, Emile Ollivier grouped the Third Party.

Anxious, changeable and distraught, the emperor made the Liberal

NAPOLEON— NAPOLEONIC concessions of Jan. 19, 1867 (right of interpellation), and then,

when Ollivier thought that his triumph was

near, he exalted

Rouher (July) and did not grant the promised laws concerning the press and public meetings till 1868. The opposition gave him no credit for these tardy concessions. There was an epidemic of violent attacks on the emperor; the publication of the Lanterne and the Baudin trial, conducted by Gambetta, were so many death-blows to the régime. The Internationale developed its

propaganda. The election of May 1869 resulted in 4,438,000 votes given for the government, and 3,355,000 for the opposition,

who also gained go representatives. The emperor, disappointed and hesitating, was slow to return to a parliamentary régime. It was not till December that he instructed Ollivier to “form a homogeneous cabinet representing the majority of the Corps Législatif” (ministry of the 2nd of January 1870). But, embarrassed between the Arcadiens, the partisans of the absolute régime, and the republicans, Ollivier was unable to guide the Empire in a constitutional course. At the Tuileries Rouher’s counsel still triumphed. It was he who inspired the ill and wearied emperor, now without confidence or energy, with the idea of resorting to the plébiscite. “To do away with the risk of a revo-

lution,” “to place order and liberty upon a firm footing,” “to ensure the transmission of the crown to his son,” Napoleon ITI. again sought the approbation of the nation. He obtained it with brilliant success, for the last time, by 7,358,786 votes against 1,571,939, and his work now seemed to be consolidated. War With Prussia.—A few weeks later it crumbled irrevocably. Since 1866 he had been pursuing an elusive appearance of glory. Since 1866 France was calling for “revenge.” He felt that he could only rally the people to him by procuring them the satisfaction of their national pride. Hence the mishaps and imprudences of which Bismarck made such an insulting use. Hence the negotiations of Nikolsburg, the “note d’aubergiste” (innkeeper’s bill) claiming the left bank of the Rhine, .which was so ‘scornfully rejected; hence the plan for the invasion of Belgium

(August 1866), the Luxemburg affair (March 1867), from which M. de Moustier’s diplomacy effected such a skilful retreat; hence the final folly which led his government into the war with Prussia (July 1870). The war was from the first doomed to disaster. It might perhaps have been averted if France had had any allies. But Austria, a possible ally, could only join France if satisfied as regards Italy; and since Garibaldi had threatened Rome (Mentana, 1867), Napoleon III., yielding to the anger of the Catholics, had again sent troops to Rome. Negotiations had taken place in 1869. The emperor, bound by the Catholics, had refused to withdraw his

troops. It was as a distant but inevitable consequence of his agreement of December 1848 with the Catholic party that in 1870 the emperor found himself without an ally. His energy was now completely exhausted. Successive attacks of stone in the bladder had ruined his physique; while his hesitation and timidity increased with age. The influence of the empress over him became supreme. On leaving the council in which the war was decided upon the emperor threw himself, weeping, into the arms of Princess Mathilde. The empress was delighted at this war, which she thought would secure her son’s inheritance.

Deposition.—On July 28 father and son set out for the army. They found it in a state of utter disorder, and added to the difficulties by their presence. The emperor was suffering from stone and could hardly sit his horse. After the defeat of Reichshoffen, when Bazaine was thrown back upon Metz, he wished to retreat upon Paris. But the empress represented to him that if he retreated it would mean a revolution. An advance was decided upon which ended in Sedan. On Sept. 2 Napoleon III.

CAMPAIGNS

99

ruin, invasion and dismemberment of France.” Restored to liberty, he retired with his wife and son to Chislehurst in England. Unwilling even now to despair of the future, he still sought to rally his friends for a fresh propaganda. He had at his service publicists such as Cassagnac, J. Amigues and Hugelmann. He himself also wrote unsigned pamphlets justifying the campaign of 1870. It may be noted that, true to his ideas, he did not attempt to throw upon others the responsibility which he had always claimed for himself. He dreamed of his son’s future. But he no longer occupied himself with any definite plans. He interested himself in pensions for workmen and economical stoves. At the end of 1872 his disease became more acute, and a surgical operation became necessary. He died on Jan. 9, 1873, leaving his son in the charge of the empress and of Rouher. The young prince was educated at Woolwich from 1872 to 1875, and in 1879 took part in the English expedition against the Zulus in South Africa, in which he was killed. By his death vanished all hope of renewing the extraordinary fortune which for twenty years placed the descendant of the great emperor, the Carbonaro and dreamer, at once obstinate and hesitating, on the throne of France. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—The Oeuvres of Napoleon III. have been published in four volumes (1854-57) and his Histoire de Jules César in two volumes (1865-69) ; this latter work has been translated into English by T. Wright. See also Ebeling, Napoleon III. und sein Hof (1891-04) ; H. Thirria, Napoléon III. avant lEmpire (1895); Sylvain-Blot, Napoléon III. (1899); Giraudeau, Napoléon III. intime (1895); Sir W. A. Fraser, Napoleon III. (London, 1895); A. Forbes, Life of Napoleon III. (1898); A. Lebey, Les Trois coups d’état de Louis Napoléon Bonaparte (1906) ; Louis Napoléon Bonaparte et la révolution de 1848 (1908) ; and F. A. Simpson, The Rise of Louis Napoleon (1909). General works which may be consulted are Taxile-Delord, Histoire du second Empire (1868-75); P. de La Gorce, Histoire du second Emptre (1894-1905) ; A. Thomas, Le Second Empire (1907); and E. Ollivier, L’Empire libéral (14 vols., 1895-1909).

NAPOLEON, a village of north-western Ohio, U.S.A., on the Maumee river and Federal highway 24, 36 m. S.W. of Toledo; county seat of Henry county. It is served by the Detroit, Toledo and Ironton and the Wabash railways. Pop. (1920) 4,143 and 4,545 in 1930. It is the trade centre of a grain-growing district, a railway division point, and has a number of factories.

NAPOLEON,

as “nap”).

a round game of cards (known colloquially

Any number may play. The cards rank as at whist,

and five are dealt to each player. The deal being completed, the player to the dealer’s left looks at his hand and declares how many tricks he would play to win against all the rest, the usual rule being that more than one must be declared; in default of declaring he says “TI pass,” and the next player has a similar option of either declaring to make more tricks or passing, and so on all round. A declaration of five tricks is called “going

nap.” The player who declares to make most has to try to make them, and the others, but without consultation, to prevent him. The declaring hand has the first lead, and the first card he leads makes the trump suit. The players, in rotation, must follow suit if able. If the declarer succeeds in making at least the number of tricks he stood for he wins whatever stakes are played for; if not he loses. If the player declaring nap wins he receives double stakes all round; if he loses he only pays single stakes all round. Sometimes, however, a player is allowed to go “Wellington” over “nap,” and even “Blücher” over “Wellington.” In these cases the caller of “Wellington” wins four times the stake and loses twice the stake, the caller of “Blucher” receives six times and loses three times the stake. Sometimes a player is allowed to declare misére, i.e., no tricks. This ranks, as a declaration, between three and four, but the player pays a double stake on three, if he wins a trick, and receives a single on three if he takes none. .

NAPOLEONIC

CAMPAIGNS.

The era of the Revolu-

surrendered with 80,000 men, and on the 4th of September the Empire fell. He was taken as a prisoner to the castle of Wilhelmshohe, near Cassel, where he stayed till the end of the war. After the intrigues of Bazaine, of Bismarck, and of the empress,

tionary and Napoleonic Wars falls into two main divisions, the first of which (1792-1801) is dealt with under the heading FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY Wars. In the present article are described the campaigns in central and eastern Europe, directed by

the Germans having held negotiations with the Republic, he was de facto deposed. On March 1, the assembly of Bordeaux confirmed this deposition, and declared him “responsible for the

Napoleon—no

longer one amongst

many

French

generals, nor

even a simple primus inter pares, but “Emperor” in the fullest sense—between the years 1805 and 1814. Napoleon’s short

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NAPOLEONIC CAMPAIGNS oF

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*A tract of the brain. BrIBLioGRAPHY.—For further details and literature of the nervous system see Quain, Anatomy (latest edition) ; R. Wiedersheims, Comp, Anat. of Vertebrates (London, 1907) ; Bronn, Classen und Ordnungen des Thierreichs, McMurrich, Development of the Human Body (London, 1923). For the theory of nerve components see Onéra Merritt, Journ. Anat. and Phys., vol. xxxix. A general discussion on the comparative anatomy and morphology of limb plexuses will be found in Miss C. W. Saberton’s paper (x906), “Nerve Plexuses of Troglodytes niger,’ Studies in Anatomy (Manchester, 1906). She refers to most of the literature on the subject, but the papers of H. Braus, Jena Zeitschr. (1898), on fish, of M. Davidoff, Morph. Jahrb. (1879), on the pelvic plexuses of fish, and of M. Fiirbringer, Gegenb. Festschr. (1897), on the spino-occipital nerves and brachial plexus of fish, are also important. See also S. W.. Ransom, The Anatomy of the Nervous System (Philadelphia, 1927; bibl.) ; A. Pitres and L. Testut, Les nerfs en schémas (Paris, 1925) ; L. Bianchi, Tke Mechanism of the Brain and the Function of the Frontal Lobes (Edinburgh, 1922; bibl.); J. R. Whitaker, Anatomy of the Brain and Spinal Cord (Edinburgh, 1921); C. U. A. Kappers, Die Vergleichende Anatomie des Nervensystems der Wirbelihtere und des Menschen (Haarlem, 1920-21; bibl.). (F. G. P.)

NESFIELD,

WILLIAM

EDEN

(1835-1888),

British

architect, one of the leaders of the Gothic revival in England, was born in Bath on April 2, 1835, and died in Brighton on March 25, 1888. His father, Maj. William Andrews Nesfield, a well-known landscape gardener, laid out Regent’s park and St. James’s park and remodelled Kew. Nesfield was educated at Eton and articled successively to William Burn, a classicist, and Anthony Salvin of the Gothic school. He then travelled for study in France, Italy and Greece. The volume of his Sketches from France and Italy (1862) became one of the text-books of the Gothic revival. In 1859 Nesfield settled in London and began in 1862 a nominal partnership with Norman Shaw, when they shared rooms, but never collaborated. Nesfield’s principal work was in domestic architecture, wherein he showed a mastery of planning and construction and a conscientious regard for detail. As he progressed he forsook the early French style of his earlier work, as seen in Combe abbey and Cloverly hall (1864) and developed a purely English manner, coming at last to English renaissance, as at Kinmel park. Among his other notable works are the lodge at

Regent’s park (1864) and at Kew gardens (1866); Farnham Royal house, Leawood, Loughton hall, Westcombe park, the Rose and Crown hotel and the bank at Saffron Walden. Many of his sketches and measured drawings are in the library of the Royal Institute of British Architects.

NEST.

Nidification or the practice of making nests concerns

sensory. It is best developed in the fish, and may be divided into pre- and post-auditory and auditory. The pre-auditory part comprises the pit and canal end organs supplied by the seventh, and also probably the olfactory organ supplied by the first nerve. The auditory apparatus, supplied by the eighth nerve, is, according to modern opinion, undoubtedly a part of this system, while the tenth nerve sends a large branch along the lateral line supply-

all that appertains to the preparation for the reception of eggs, or newly-born young, and the subsequent care thereof on emergence. Our conceptions of nidification are commonly derived from observations on birds; but mammals, reptiles, amphibia and fishes, as well as invertebrates, include species which make more or less elaborate preparation in advance for the reception of their young. The first stage in this sequence commonly consists in the selection of a definite site whereon, with a few exceptions, a nest is built in, or on which the eggs, or young, are deposited. Two factors govern this preparation,—the conditions of the environment, and

ing the special end organs of the post-auditory part,

the state of the young on emergence,

The system of the lateral line or acustico-lateralis component

is sometimes regarded merely as a subdivision of the somatic

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NESTS

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SITES

1. Sparrow hawk in a nest of sticks, England. 2. Storks on a chimney top, France; the nest of sticks and reeds is added to year by year. 3. Nest of the golden eagle, built on a high mountain ledge. 4. Female kestrel about

to feed her young in an abandoned crow’s nest, England.

5. Community

of

brown pelicans showing nests, Florida. 6. Nest of American egret, Florida. 7. Community of flamingoes, Bahamas, showing mud nests 8. Neighbour-

OF VARIOUS

HISTORY, (6) GALLOWAY

THE

NATIONAL

ASSOCIATION

OF

BIRDS

ing nests of an ibis and a little blue heron, Florida. 9. Sandhill crane approaching its nest built in a marsh, Florida. 10. Derby flycatchers in a loosely made nest, Texas. 11. Blackcap feeding her young, England.

12. American

crow on a bulky nest of sticks placed high in a tree.

Edible nests of an East Indian swift, made of solidified saliva. the North American hermit thrush, placed on the ground

13.

14. Nest of

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OF (1, 2, 4, 6, 8, 9 » 13, 14, 18) THE TRUSTEES (15) JAMES'S PRESS AGENCY

NESTING

HABITS

OF

OF

THE

BRITISH

BIRDS,

MUSEUM

(NATURAL

MAMMALS,

1. Nest of the humming bird (Panterpe insignis), Costa Rica, made of moss and spiders’ webs. 2. Japim WHang-nests (Cassicus persicus), Amazon, with their nest of woven grass suspended from a tree branch. 3. Nest of the black and yellow crested cacique, Mexico, sometimes several feet in length, made of grass and strips of palm leaf. 4. Reed warbler, England, and its cup-shaped nest of reed stems supported by several upright reeds. 5. The feathered nest of the palm swift, usually agglutinated

to the under surfaces of palm leaves or grass roofs of huts. 6. Hanging nest of the Turkistan Remera, formed of dried grasses and feathers. The bottle-

neck entrance affords protection against intruders. 7. Nest of the sociai weaver bird, Africa. It consists of an umbrella-shaped roof of grass sheltering an under surface honeycombed with numerous feather lined cavities. 8. Hanging nest of the Remera of Rumania, constructed of lichens, mosses and grass, lined with feathers. 9. Clay nest of the red oven-bird (Furnarius

HISTORY),

(3,

5,

7,

10-12,

INVERTEBRATES

16,

17)

THE

AND

AMERICAN

MUSEUM

OF

NATURAL

HISTORY,

FISHES

rufus), South America, usually about a foot in diameter. 10. Nest of twigs lined with dry leaves built by a group of Anis, Mexico. It is large enough to accommodate all the females of the company who deposit their eggs in layers separated by leaves. 11. Nest of the woodcock, a hollow scratched in the ground. 12. View of a gopher turtle habitat (Gopherus

polyphemus) (Daudin) in a sand dune showing the pile in front of the burrow where the turtle deposits its eggs. 13. Nest of the cape (African) weaver birds, constructed of grass stems and vegetable fibers suspended by long “arms” from trees, bushes or eaves. 14. Underground burrow of the mole, lined with grass. 15. Nest of the harvest mouse, woven of grass and leaves of corn and attached to cornstalks. 16. Butterfish (Pholis gunnellis) coiled around an egg mass in the reversed upper valve of a dead oyster shell. 17. Red backed salamander (Plethodon cinereus) guarding its eggs in the moist shadow of a cave nest. 18. Grass spider (A galena)

NEST Birds——With the birds a nest is not invariably made, as for example with the guillemot whose single egg is deposited on a bare

ledge of rock projecting from the face ofacliff rising steeply from the sea. Species which haunt sandy wastes make little or no prepa-

ration by way of a nest. This receptable seems originally to have been made for the purpose of keeping the incubating bird, and

the eggs, from contact with cold, damp earth. Much more elaborate are the nests of the smaller species. These placed in hedgerows, or bushes, or even on the ground, are bowlshaped structures

made

of fine

grass-stems

interwoven

with

horse-hair, and cunningly masked by moss or lichen, as in the case of the long-tailed titmouse. Some, like the thrush, use a foundation of clay, and line the interior of the nest with a mixture of decayed wood and cow-dung. Some of the African weaverbirds, and of the American hang-nests, suspend the nest, which is made of long grass-stems, and vegetable fibres, by a long “rope”

attached to the bough of a tree. Towards the end this rope is enlarged to form a spherical chamber, with an entrance at the side

in the hang-nests; and at the end of a further extension of the rope beneath the nest in the weavers.

Some of the flower-peckers of Africa build a nest of felted cotton-down. A few species make a more or less extensive use of

saliva as a cement for mud-built nests, as with the swallow-tribe, the oven-bird, and the flamingo. The use of salivary glands in

nest-building attains to its maximum with the edible swifts which use saliva alone. Such nests are used by the Chinese in making bird’s nest soup.

;

Hollow trees are used by many birds, such as the parrots and the woodpeckers, the eggs being deposited on the rotten wood at the bottom of the hole.

Others, like the sand-martin and the

kingfisher drive long tunnels into the face of a sand-bank, enlarging the end of the tunnel to form a nest-chamber. The greatness of this achievement is commonly overlooked; for it would be difficult to find birds more apparently unsuited for such a task, since the sand-martin has the feeblest of feet and an extremely short beak, while the short legs, and syndactyle toes of the kingfisher, coupled with its long, pointed beak, seem still less fitted for burrowing. While there is general conformity of type characteristic of the nests of the different groups of birds, there are striking exceptions to the rule. Thus the stork-tribe are content with a simple platform of sticks; but the hammer-head (Scopus umbretta) builds a huge nest of mud and sticks, covered in by a roof so substantial as to bear easily the weight of a man. This roof may be as much as 6ft. across. The flamingo, again, builds a steep pedestal of mud, the top of which is scooped out to receive the eggs. Parrots nest in hollow trees, but the quaker-parrot (Myopsittacus) of South America builds a large domed nest of sticks. The Gallinaceous birds make little more than an apology for a nest, fashioned in a depression in the ground. But the megapodes of Celebes, New Guinea and Australia build a huge mound of decaying vegetable matter, and laying their eggs deep down in the fermenting mass leave them to hatch by the heat thus engendered. One of the most remarkable cases of nidification among birds is furnished by the horn-bills. The eggs are laid at the bottom of a cavity in a tree, and as soon as the female has started incubation, the entrance-hole is closed by the male by means of clay;

but a space is left open wide enough for his mate to push her beak through to receive food. NON-AVIAN

NEST-MAKERS

Mammals.—Few other animals have attained to the skill in weaving displayed by birds. The harvest-mouse among the mammals is, however, the rival of most birds. The rabbit builds a nest in her burrow, and lines it with the under-fur plucked from her body, forming a parallel td the case of the ducks, geese and swans, which line the nest with down similarly plucked from the breast for this purpose. The only nest-building mammals which produce eggs are the Echidna, or spiny ant-eater, and the duck-billed platypus or Ornithorhynchus.

The nest is of the simplest character, placed

243

in a chamber at the end of a long tunnel dug by the animal. Reptiles.—Among the reptiles nest-building goes little or no further than digging a hole in the ground, and depositing the eggs within it, leaving them to their fate as in the case of the megapodes among the birds. The European pond-tortoise, however, takes a little more trouble. She first prepares the ground by watering it from the bladder, and from special anal water-sacs. Then, boring a hole with the tail, as one would use a stick, the feet are used to enlarge it. When about five inches deep the eggs are laid at the bottom, and the soil is put back again and beaten down flat. The crocodile digs a hole in the sand nearly two feet deep, laying her eggs therein and covering them up. But she returns periodically to sleep above her treasures. She is thus at hand to assist the young to escape at the time of hatching. She is warned of this by the noise they make in endeavouring to break through the shell; just as young birds announce their advent by cheeping before the shell is actually broken. When they have all emerged the mother escorts them to the water. The alligator, on the other hand, builds a great mound of decaying leaves, mixed with fine earth, to a height of about three feet, and as much as eight feet in diameter. Some eight inches from the surface the eggs, twenty to thirty, white and hard-shelled, are laid. The python, among the snakes, like Ichthyophis among the Amphibia coils her body around the eggs until they hatch, and guards her young for some time after. Amphibia.—The Amphibia furnish instances of nidification of a very remarkable character, and at the same time, provide valuable material for the study of behaviour in regard to the parental instincts to serve as a standard of comparison with the higher vertebrates on the one hand, and the lower on the other. The frogs of the genus Phyllomedusa build nests recalling that

of the tailor-bird. The process of this nest-making has been watched in Phyllomedusa hypochondria, the Wollenkukk of the Paraguayan Chaco. The female carries the male upon her back while searching for a suitable leaf—which must be of some tree overhanging the water. This found, both then seize it and hold the edges together with their hind-feet, while the female pours her eggs into the funnel thus formed, the male fertilizing them as they pass in. The gelatinous envelope of the eggs suffices to hold the leaf-edges in position as they are brought together in the filling process which goes on until about roo eggs are laid.

Fishes.—Among the fishes the fresh-water sticklebacks (Gas-

trosteus) and the marine fifteen-spine stickleback (Spinachia) build nests of weeds, the task being undertaken by the male, who uses, as a binding material, a secretion formed by the kidneys. He undertakes the sole charge of the eggs and young. The gourami (Osphromenus) of the Malay Archipelago fashions a nest of airbubbles toughened by a kind of saliva, and mounts guard over both eggs and young. The Cichlid fishes both of America and the

Old World, as well as some of the Siluroid fishes, carry the young in the mouth; in some species both sexes do this, in others the male alone. The male pipe-fish carries the eggs and young in a pouch running along the belly. The Aspredo of the Guianas carries her eggs attached to the under surface of the head, belly and paired-fins. For their accommodation the skin assumes a spongy condition so that each comes to lie within a deep depression, recalling the egg-pits of the Surinam toad, but in the case of Aspredo the pits are shallow and the larvae are not retained there. Invertebrates.—Among the insects the elaborate care for the eggs and young displayed by the ants, bees and wasps is too well known to need further mention. The scorpions and the wolf- ' spiders carry their young about on their backs until they can fend for themselves; and some of the scorpions, again, like the wolfspiders, bear their eggs about closely packed within a spherical silken bag. Among the Echinoderms we find an Antarctic sea-slug (Cucumaria crocea) carrying the young on its back. One of the seaurchins (Hemiaster philippi), and a starfish (Asterias spirabilis) carry the young in brood-pouches on the back in the case of the sea-urchin, and around the mouth in the starfish. It would seem that only Arctic and Antarctic species behave after this fashion.

244

NESTOR—NESTORIANS

In all other cases the young leave the parent as minute, free-swimming larvae, undergoing a complicated metamorphosis before attaining to the adult form. Here, then, we must regard the care of the young as an entirely impersonal, unconscious act, determined by the physical peculiarities of the external environment. This is a factor to be borne in mind in considering the origin, and evolution, of nidification in animals of all grades. CW. P. P.)

NESTOR (c. 1056—c. 1114), the reputed author of the earliest Russian chronicle, was a monk of the Pecherskiy cloister of Kiev from 1073. The only other known fact of his life is that he was commissioned with two other monks to find the relics of St. Theodosius, a mission which he succeeded in fulfilling. The chronicle begins with the deluge, as those of most chroniclers of the time did. The compiler appears to have been acquainted with the Byzantine historians; he makes use especially of John Malalas and George Hamartolus. He also had in all probability other Slavonic chronicles to compile from, which are now lost. Many legends are mixed up with Nestor’s Chronicle; the style is occasionally so poetical that perhaps he incorporated bdzlini which are now lost. The early part is rich in these stories, among which are the arrival of the three Varangian brothers, the founding of Kiev, the murder of Askold and Dir, the death of Oleg, who was killed by a serpent concealed in the skeleton of his horse, and the vengeance taken by Olga, the wife of Igor, on the Drevlians, who had murdered her husband. The account of the labours of Cyril and Methodius among the Slavs is also very interesting, and to Nestor we owe the tale of the summary way in which Vladimir suppressed the worship of Perun and other idols at Kiev. As an eyewitness he could only describe the reigns of Vsevolod and Sviatopolk (1078—1112), but he gathered many interesting details from the lips of old men, two of whom were Giurata Rogovich of Novgorod, who gave him information concerning the north of Russia, Petchora, and other places, and Jan, a man. ninety years of age, who died in 1106, and was son of Vishata the voivode of Yaroslavl and grandson of Ostromir the Posadnik, for whom the Codex was written. Many of the ethnological details given by Nestor of the various races of the Slavs are of the highest value. The latest theory about Nestor is that the Chronicle is a patchwork of many fragments of chronicles, and that the name of Nestor was attached to it because he wrote the greater part or perhaps because he put the fragments together. The Chronicle has come down to us in several manuscripts, but unfortunately no contemporary ones, the oldest being the socalled Lavrentievski of the 14th century (1377). It was named after the monk Lavrentii, who copied it out for Dimitri Constantinovich, the prince of Souzdal. The work, as contained in this manuscript, has had many additions made to it from previous and contemporary chronicles, such as those of Volinia and Novgorod. Soloviev, the Russian historian, remarks that Nestor cannot be called the earliest Russian chronicler, but he is the first writer who took a national point of view in his history, the others being merely local writers. The language of his work, as shown in the earliest manuscripts just mentioned, is Palaeo-Slavonic with many Russisms. The Chronicle has been translated into Polish, Bohemian, German and French. The compiler cannot very well be the author of the lives of Boris and Gleb, the martyrs, and of the life of St. Theodosius, because they contradict many passages in the Chronicle. The work is of primary importance for early Russian history, and has amusing episodes of an Herodotean character. The reputed body of the ancient chronicler may be seen among the relics preserved in the Pecherskiy monastery at Kiev.

Pylos. The name is used in modern times for any old man of ripe experience, or the oldest member of a class or corporation.

NESTOR, the name of a small group of parrots peculiar to New Zealand. The type is Nestor meridionalis, the kaka, an olive-brown bird about as big as a crow. The larger N. notabilis the kea (g.v.) has developed the habit of attacking sheep to obtain the kidneys. It also eats carrion, grubs, fruits and seeds. A third, more brightly coloured species is said to have inhabited

Norfolk Island and a fourth Phillip Island; both of these are now extinct and no specimens of the former are known to exist. NESTORIANS. The present article deals not with the life and doctrine of Nestorius (g.v.) but with the Eastern Churches called by his name.

A christology of the kind usually called Nestorian was eagerly and successfully propagated in Syria and Persia by Ibas, bishop of Edessa (435) and Barsumas, bishop of Nisibis. In Persia the old churches were stimulated into vigour and new ones founded. Their centre was at Ctesiphon on the Tigris, a busy trading city. The church traced its doctrines to Theodore of Mopsuestia rather

than to Nestorius, whose name at first they repudiated, not regarding themselves as having been proselytized to any new teaching. After the Mohammedan invasion of Persia early in the 7th century the Nestorians were able to come to terms with the invaders; and for five centuries the Nestorians were a recognized institution within the territory of Islam, though their treatment varied from kindly to harsh, But the barbaric invasions of the 13th and 14th centuries fell with. crushing force on the Nestorians. In 1258 Hulagu Khan took Baghdad, and about 1400 Timur again seized and sacked the city. Though the Nestorians were numerous, their moral influence and their church life had greatly deteriorated. Those who escaped capture by Timur fled to the mountains of Kurdistan, and the community that had played so large a part in Mesopotamian history for a thousand years was thus shattered. Various attempts during the 16th century to promote union between the Nestorians and Rome proved fruitless, but the Roman Church has never ceased in its efforts to absorb this ancient community. The Nestorians showed a zeal for evangelization which resulted in the establishment of their influence throughout Asia, as is seen from the bishoprics founded not only in Syria, Armenia, Arabia and Persia, but at Halavan in Media, Merv in Khurasan, Herat, Tashkent, Samarkand, Baluk, Kashgar, and even at Kambaluk

(Pekin) and Singan fu (Hsi‘en fu) in China, and Kaljana and

Kranganore in India. Mongolian invasions and Mohammedan tyranny have, of course, long since swept away all traces of many of these. The 400,000 Syrian Christians (“Christians of St. Thomas,” see THomas, ST.) who lived in Malabar no doubt owed their origin to Nestorian missionaries, the stories of the evangelization of India by the Apostles Thomas and Bartholomew having no real historical foundation, and the Indian activity of Pantaenus of Alexandria having proved fruitless, in whatever part of India it may have been exercised. The theology of the Indian Syrian Christians is of a Nestorian type, and Cosmas Indicopleustes (6th century) puts us on the right track when he says that the Christians whom he found in Ceylon and Malabar had come from Persia (probably as refugees from persecution, like the Huguenots in England and the Pilgrim Fathers in America). Pehlevi inscriptions found on crosses at St. Thomas’s Mount near Madras and at Kottayam in Travancore, are evidence both of the antiquity of Christianity in these places (7th or 8th century), and for the semi-patri-passianism (the apparent identification of all three persons of the Trinity in the sufferer ən the cross) which marked the Nestorian teaching. In 745 Thomas of Kana brought a new See Louis Leger, Chronique dite de Nestor (Paris, 1884) ; Bestuzhev band of emigrants from Baghdad and Nineveh, and possibly the Riumin, On the Composition of the Russian Chronicles till the end name “Christians of St. Thomas’ arose from confusion between of the 14th century (in Russian) (St. Petersburg, 1869). (W.R. Mo.) this man and the apostle. Other reinforcements came from Persia NESTOR, in Greek legend, son of Neleus and Chloris, king of in 822, but the Malabar church never developed any intellectual Pylos (Kakovatos) in Elis. When all his brothers were slain by vigour or missionary zeal. They had their own kings, lived as a Heracles, in consequence of the refusal of Neleus to purify him close caste, and even imitated the Hindus in caste regulations of for the murder of Iphitus, Nestor alone escaped. In the Ziad, food and avoidance of pollution. In 1330 Pope John XXII. issued he is about 70 years old, full of good advice and of stories of his a bull appointing Jordanus, a French Dominican, bishop of Quilon, early exploits. In the Odyssey, he is seen by Telemachus at and inviting the Nestorians to enter “the Christian Church.” The

NESTORIUS Syrian Chrisinvitation was declined, but in the 16th century the Mussulagainst settlers uese tans sought the help of the Portug subjected were they long before that find to only ion, man oppress and the Inquisition. The to the fiercer perils of Jesuit antagonism

in 1599, but Syrians submitted to Rome at the synod of Dampier Portuguese when the it was a forced submission, and in 1653

of Babyarrested the Syrian bishop just sent out by the catholicus thorquite not was ation renunci The out. broke on rebelli lon, the ,

Romo-Syrians ough, one party adhering to the Roman Church as g to-day the others reverting wholly to Syrian usages and formin

about three-fourths of the whole community.

WIDESPREAD MISSIONS

the Early evidence of Nestorian missions in China is extant in

Hsi‘en-fu, tablet found in 1625 at Chang'an in the district of

propprovince of Shensi. It commemorates “the introduction and

and agation of the noble law of Ta t’sin in the Middle Kingdom,” t

abstrac beneath an incised cross sets out in Chinese and Syriac an in China of Christian doctrine and the course of a Syrian mission beginning with the favourable reception of Olopan, who came ed, from Judaea in 636. For two generations the little cause prosper second a on Later 813. and 699 in tions persecu after and again s mission arrived, many churches were built and several emperor patronized the faith. In the roth century the Nestorians introduced Christianity into . Tartary proper; in 1274 Marco Polo saw two of their churches on conversi the of idea the on based is John Prester of The legend at of a Mongol tribe, the Karith, whose chieftain Ung Khan Their baptism received the title Malek Juchana (King John). Their activity may well be said to have covered the continent. ever campaign was one of deliberate conquest, one of the greatest

planned by Christian missionaries.

Marco Polo is witness that

from there were Nestorian churches all along the trade routes Baghdad to Pekin. The Modern Nestorians.—The Nestorians or East Syrians by (Surayi) of Turkey and Persia now inhabit a district bounded into s westward g stretchin east, the on Urumia, Lake Urmia, or the Kurdistan, to Mosul on the south, and nearly as far as Van on different the of influence the under years, late of only is It north. has missions, that education, ruined by centuries of persecution, revived amongst the Nestorians; and even now the mountaineers, cut off from the outer world, are as a rule destitute of learning, ed and greatly resemble their neighbours, the wild and unciviliz their of tenacious narily extraordi however, are, Kurds. They of ancient customs, and, almost totally isolated from the rest ng interesti an afford they century, sth the since dom Christen

245

and invoke The Nestorians commemorate Nestorius as a saint, the Third reject They ns. companio his of his aid and that devotion to Oecumenical Council, and though showing the greatest the mother the Blessed Virgin, deny her the title of Theotokos, i.e., perplexand misty is teaching al or bearer of God. Their theologic is not ing; but systematic or even consistent theological thinking his and s Nestoriu Baker, BethuneF. J. (see their primary interest ical and Teaching). The peculiar circumstances, both ecclesiast ion in temporal, of the Nestorians have attracted much attent amongst es enterpris ry missiona western Christendom, and various them have resulted (see authorities named below).

ii. and iv.; BrstiocrapHy.—J. S. Assemani, Bibliotheca Orientalis, East and his the A. J. Maclean and G. F. Browne, The Catholicus of Rituals (1852) ; M. People (1892); G. P. Badger, Nestorians and their (Paris, 1904); W. . F. F perse Pempire dans isme Christian Le Labourt, (Edinburgh, 477-538 pp. , Churches Eastern and Greek The Adeney, Lect. h, ent Researc 1908) ; J. Rendel Harris, Sidelights on New Testam India (1892); K. iv. (1908); G. Milne Rae, The Syrian Church in Map ILI. (TibinHeussi und H. Mulert, Atlas zur Kirchengeschichte, ; The Liturgy of es (1846) Church Syrian ge, Etherid W. J. gen, 1905);

Piolet, Les Missions the Holy Apostles Adai and Mari, etc. (1893); and Annual catholiques au XIX me siècle (vol. i.); Quarterly Papers Mission. Reports of the Archbishop of Canterbury’s Assyrian

rch of NESTORIUS (4. c. 451), Syrian ecclesiastic, patria Germanicia at the Constantinople from 428 to 431, was a native of is unknown. foot of Mount Taurus, in Syria. The year of his birth Theodore under ly probab h, He received his education at Antioc of Eupreery monast ouring neighb the in monk As stia. of Mopsue in. the diocese pius, and afterwards as presbyter, he became famous He was nomifor his asceticism, his orthodoxy and his eloquence. and was connated by Theodosius II. patriarch of Constantinople, to extirpate work to set ately secrated on April 10, 428. He immedi of the assemssion suppre the by ing beginn , diocese his in heresy anticipated blies of the Arians. These, by a bold stroke of policy, g-house, Neshis action by themselves setting fire to their meetin

His represtorius being forthwith nicknamed “the incendiary.” serious disto led ns decima sion of the Novatians and the Quarto ion the followers of tolerat The . Miletus and Sardis at ces turban recently settled Macedonius had long enjoyed was also broken, the ces assailed Pelagians alone finding any respite. One of the practi universal almost become had which , custom the was by Nestorius r of “Mothe os Oeorók epithet the in Constantinople, of bestowing h Nestorius Antioc From Jesus. of mother the Mary upon God,” a co-presbyter had brought along with him to Constantinople and is called by named Anastasius, who enjoyed his confidence his Anastasius, in a pulpit oration Theophanes his “syncellus.” said to have prepared for him, is which the patriarch himself ns of the cult of Mary by saypartisa the to scandal great caused of God, for Mary was a mother the Mary build- ing, “Let no one call study to the ecclesiastical student. Their churches are rude of a human being is born being; and that God should be ings, dimly lighted and destitute of pictures or images, save that human ble.” of the Cross, which is treated with the deepest veneration. There impossi stirred up of Cyril (qg.v.) of Alexandria seized his opportunity. He are three liturgies—of the Holy Apostles, of Theodore and Constantinople, at nts disside the aged encour he clergy, own dates his Nestorius. The first is quite free from Nestorian influence, he sed himself to the sister and wife of the emperor, and from some remote period, perhaps prior to 431, and is certainly he addres also sent to Rome a careful He court. the of s official the other bribed the dom; the most ancient of those now in use in Christen ius himself, n selection of Nestorius’s sayings and sermons. Nestor two, though early, are undoubtedly of later date. The Nestoria Celestine I. Pope to write to on other hand, having occasi canon of Scripture seems never to have been fully determined, on the to regard as d incline not was he (whom ans Pelagi the nor is the sacramental system rigidly defined. Nestorian writers, about t of the al), gave from his own point of view an accoun however, generally reckon as sacraments the Priesthood, the heretic which had recently arisen within his patriarchate. Celeses disput Christ, of Oil of Unction, the Offering of the Body and Blood decision g tine naturally resented any questioning of the Roman Absolution, the Holy Leaven and the Signation of the life-givin power g growin the of jealous was concerning the Pelagians, and Cross. The “Holy Leaven” is reputed to be a part of the original 430, he decided in met which synod a In see. le ntinop Consta the of bread of the first Eucharist, brought by Addai and Mari and mainous of the title Qeordxos, bade Nestorius retract his errone tained ever since in the Church; it is used in the confection of in favour on pain of instant excommunication, and entrusted the ng, teachi used the Eucharistic wafers, which are rather thicker than those ion of this decision to the patriarch of Alexandria. bein the Western Church. Communion is given in both kinds, as execut situation of affairs the demand for a general council this In diered administ throughout the East; likewise, confirmation is Valentinian IIT. and sius Theodo ingly accord and ible, irresist c rectly after baptism. Sacramental confession is enjoined, but has came letters summoning the metropolitans of the Catholi recently become obsolete; prayers for the departed and invocation issued each bringing with 431, ntide Whitsu at s Ephesu at meet to church an of saints form part of the services. The bishops are always celiable suffragans. Nestorius, with sixteen bishops and lem, bates and are chosen from episcopal families. The service-books him some Jerusa of l Juvena , bishops following, Cyril with fifty were wholly in ms. until the press of the archbishop of Canter- armed n of Thessalonica arrived. John of Antioch was delayed Flavia and liturthe g (containin Takhsa the issued Urmia at bury’s mission g of the on his journey, and wrote requesting that the openin gies, baptismal office, etc.) and several other liturgical texts.

246

NET

synod should not be delayed on his account. Cyril and his friends assembled in the church of the Theotokos on June 22, and summoned Nestorius to give an account of his doctrines. He replied that he would appear when all the bishops were assembled; and the imperial commissioner, Candidian, formally protested against the opening of the synod. Cyril and the 159 bishops who were with him nevertheless proceeded to read the imperial letter of convocation, and afterwards the letters which had passed between Nestorius and Cyril. The entire assembly then cried anathema on Nestorius and his doctrines, and the decree of his exclusion from the episcopate and from all priestly communion was solemnly read and signed by all present. The accused and his friends never had a hearing. The populace accompanied the members with torches and censers to their lodgings, and there was a general illumination of the city. A few days afterwards (June 26th or 27th) John of Antioch arrived; whether inclined or not to the cause of his former copresbyter, he disapproved the precipitancy with which Cyril had acted, and at a conctlabulum of forty-three bishops held in his lodgings he was induced by Candidian, the friend of Nestorius, to depose the bishops of Alexandria and Ephesus on the spot. The Ephesians intervened to prevent the execution of this decision on the next Sunday. Meanwhile a letter from the emperor declared invalid the session at which Nestorius had been deposed unheard; numerous sessions and counter-sessions were afterwards held, the conflicting parties both seeking the imperial support. In the end Theodosius decided to confirm the depositions which had been pronounced on both sides, and Cyril and Memnon as well as Nestorius were by his orders laid under arrest. Representatives from

by Dr. F. Loofs in 1905 there has also come to our knowledge the most valuable evidence of all, Nestorius’s own account of the whole difficulty, viz., The Bazaar! of Heraclides of Damascus. This pseu. donym served to protect the book against the fate that overtook the writings of heretics, and in a Syriac version it was preserved in the Euphrates valley where the followers of Nestorius settled Ebed Jesu in the 14th century mentions it together with Letters and Homilies, as well as the Tragedy, or a Letter to Cosmas, the Theopaschites (of which some fragments are still extant) and the Liturgy, which is still used by the Nestorian Church. The dis. covery of The Bazaar, which is the Apologia of Nestorius, was made public by Dr. H. Goussen (though members of the Archbishop of Canterbury’s Mission to the Assyrian Christians had previously been acquainted with the book). The text has been edited by P. Paul Bedjan (Leipzig, 1910) and a French translation has been made by M. l’abbé F. Nau. A representative selection of

extracts has been given to English readers in J. F. BethuneBaker’s Nestorius and his Teaching (Cambridge, 1908), chapter ii, of which describes the ms. and its accounts. BIBLIoGRAPHY.—On

Nestorius, in addition to the modern literature

cited in the article, and the standard histories of dogma (A. Harnack, F. Loofs, R. L. Ottley’s Doctrine of the Incarnation, etc.), see R. Seeberg, Lehrbuch der Dogmengeschichte, Bd. ii. § 27 (Leipzig, 1910), L. Duchesne, Histoire ancienne de Péglise, vol. ili. chs. x. xi. (1910); J. F. Bethune-Baker, Nestorius and his teaching (1908); F. Nau, Nestorius, d’aprés des sources orientales (1911) ; Hist. de N. d’aprés la Lettre à Cosme et PH ymne de Sliba, eic., textes syrienne ed. et trans. by F. Nau (1919); F. Loofs, Nestorius and his Place in History (1914); C. Pech, Nestorius als Irrlehrer (1921). See also Catholic Encyclopaedia,

NET.

A fabric of thread, cord or wire, the intersections of

which are knotted so as to form a mesh. The art of netting is intimately related to weaving, knitting, plaiting and lace-making, from all of which, however, it is distinguished by the knotting of the intersections of the cord. It is one of the most ancient and dissolved. Maximian, one of the Constantinopolitan clergy, a na- universal of arts, having been practised among the most primitive tive of Rome, was promoted to the vacant see, and Nestorius was tribes, to whom the net is of great importance in hunting and fishhenceforward represented in the capital only by one congregation, ing. Net isa common Teut. word, of which the origin is unknown; which presently became extinct. it is not to be connected with “knit” or “knot.” The term “net,” But the Antiochenes maintained for some time an attitude of i.e., remaining after all deductions, charges, etc., have been made, antagonism towards Cyril and his creed, and were not pacified until as in “net profit,” is a variant of “neat,” tidy, clean, Lat. nitidus, an understanding was reached in 433 on the basis of a new formula shining. Net-making, as a modern industry, is principally coninvolving some concessions by him. The union even then was cerned with the manufacture of the numerous forms of net used opposed by certain bishops, who were deposed from their sees. in fisheries, but netting is also largely employed for many other Their school at Edessa was closed by Zeno in 489. Immediately purposes, as for the temporary division of fields, for protecting after his deposition Nestorius withdrew into private life in his old fruit in gardens, for screens and other furniture purposes, for monastery of Euprepius, Antioch, until 435, when the emperor bags, appliances used in various games, etc. Since the early part of ordered his banishment to Petra in Arabia. A second decree, it the roth century numerous machines have been invented for would seem, sent him to Oasis, probably the city of the Great netting, and several of these have attained Oasis, in Upper Egypt, where he was still living in 439, at the time commercial success. Fishing nets were EYE when Socrates wrote his Church History. He was taken prisoner formerly made principally from hemp fibre by the Blemmyes, a nomad tribe that gave much trouble to the —technically called “twine.” empire in Africa, and when they set him free in the Thebaid near The forms of fishing nets vary according Panopolis (Akhmim) c. 450, they exposed him to further perseto the manner in which they are intended cution from Schenute, the hero of the Egyptian monks. There is to act. This is either by entangling the fish some evidence that he was summoned to the Council of Chalcedon, in their complicated folds, as in the tramTONGUE though he could not attend it, and in the concluding portion of his mel; receiving them into pockets, as in the book known as The Bazaar of Heraclides he not only gives a full trawl; suspending them by the body in the account of the “Robber Synod” of Ephesus 449, but knows that meshes, aS in the mackerel-net; imprisonTheodosius is dead (July 450) and seems aware of the proceedings ing them within their labyrinth-like chamof Chalcedon and the flight of Dioscurus, the unscrupulous sucbers, as in the stake-net; or drawing them cessor of Cyril at Alexandria. Nestorius was already old and ailing to shore, as in the seine. The parts of a FORK and must have died very soon after. There are still Nestorians in net are the head or upper margin, along Kurdistan, and the Syriac Church is Nestorian in theology, as are which the corks are strung upon a rope the churches in Asia founded by Nestorian missionaries in the FIG. 1.—NEEDLE USED IN called the head-rope; the foot is the oppomiddle ages. NET-MAKING site or lower margin, which carries the Modern, View.—-Only recently has an attempt been made to foot-rope, on which in many cases leaden plummets are made judge Nestorius from some other evidence than that afforded by fast. The meshes are the squares composing the net. The width the accusations of Cyril and the inferences drawn therefrom. of a net is expressed by the term “over”; e.g., a day-net is three This other evidence consists partly of letters from Nestorius, pre- fathoms long and one over or wide. The lever is the first row of served among the works of those to whom they were written, some a net. There are also accrues, false meshes or quarterings, which sermons collected in a Latin translation by Marius Mercator, an are loops inserted in any given row, by which the number of African merchant who was doing business in Constantinople at the meshes is increased. To bread or breathe a net is to make a net. time of the dispute, and other material gathered from Syriac ISyriac, tégiurtd, lit. “merchandise.” The Greek word may have been manuscripts. Since the helpful collection of Nestoriana published éumopiév. Nothing is certainly known of any such Heraclides.

each side were now summoned before him to Chalcedon, and at last, yielding to the sense of the evident majority, he gave a decision in favour of the “orthodox,” and the council of Ephesus was

NETHERLANDS Hand-Netting.—The tools used in hand-netting are the needle, an instrument for holding and netting the material; it is made with

an eye E, a tongue T, and a fork F (fig. 1). The twine is wound on it by being passed alternately between the fork and round the tongue, so that the turns of the string lie parallel to the length of the needle, and are kept on by the tongue and fork. A spool or

247

forming the ordinary hand-knot on the machine nets, and the machine, patented in July 1835, became the foundation of an extensive and flourishing industry. The Paterson machine is very complex. It consists of an arrangement of hooks, needles and sinkers, one of each being required for every mesh in the breadth being made. The needles hold the meshes, while the hooks seize

mesh-pin is a piece of round or flat wood on which the loops are

the lower part of each and twist it into a loop. Through the series of loops so formed a steel wire is shot, carrying with it twine for loops. Each loop contains two sides of the square mesh; therefore, the next range of loops. This supposing that it be required to make a mesh rin. square—that is, twine the sinkers successively catch and depress sufficiently to ENDS OF TWINE form the two sides and loop of the next mesh to be formed. The knot formed by threading the loops is now tightened up, the last formed mesh is freed from the sinkers and transferred to the hooks, and the process of looping, threading and knotting thus continues. Another form of net-loom, working on a principle distinct from that of Paterson, was invented and patented in France by Onésiphore Pecqueur in 1840, and again in France and in Great FIG. 4.—BAUDOUIN AND JOUANNIN’S NET LOOM, WHERE THE “A” Britain in 1849. This was improved by many subsequent inSERIES IS DRAWN INTO LOOPS, OVER AND THROUGH WHICH THE “B"' ventors; especially by Baudouin FIG. 2.—DIAGRAM SHOWING COURSE OF TWINE IN FORMING A FISHERSERIES PASSES and Jouannin. MAN'S KNOT IN NET-MAKING Net Manufacture in the United States—The manufacmeasuring rin. from knot to knot—a spool 2in. in circumference ture of nets for the fisheries in the United States dates back to must be used. Large meshes may be formed by giving the twine about 1844, being initiated by a manufacturer of cotton yarns at two or more turns round the spool, as occasion may require; or the Canton, Massachusetts. The popularity with which the first experispool may be made flat, and of a sufficient width. The method of ‘mental cotton twines were received led the manufacturer to devote making the hand-knot, known as the fisherman’s knot, is more his whole time to their manufacture and improvement. In 1858 the easily acquired by example than described in writing. Fig. 2 first netting-machine in the United States was seen. The limitashows the course of the twine in forming a single knot. From the tions of this machine led to the development of new inventions, last-formed knot the twine passes over the front of the mesh-pin, particularly those designed for handling heavy twines. and is caught behind by the little finger of the left hand, formIn 1919, there were 19 establishments manufacturing nettings, ing the loop, thence it passes to the front and is caught by the nets, scrape bags and seines. These establishments were capitalleft thumb, then through the loops as sketch indicates, after ized at $4,156,000, employing 859 persons, the value of the output which the twine is released by the thumb and the knot is being $5,114,000. The fibre materials used are flax, cotton and drawn taut. Fig. 3 is a bend knot used for uniting two ends of manila. twine. In view of the wholly inadequate supply of domestic flax and as Machine-Netting.—In 1778 a netting-machine was patented but little of it is suitable for the manufacture of netting, domestic by William Horton, William Ross, Thomas Davies and John manufacturers are dependent upon imports for their raw materials. Golby. In 1802 the French Government The use of cotton in the making of nets has increased until the offered a reward of 10,000 francs to the quantities used in 1920 exceeded those for linen. Manila is used person who would invent an automatic by the domestic manufacturers in machine for net-making. Jacquard subthe making of trawls or other bag-nets. mitted a model of a machine which was brought under the notice of Napoleon I. Fishery apparatus employed in and Carnot, and he was summoned to Paris the fisheries of the United States by the emperor who asked—“Are you the and Alaska is valued at more than man who pretends to do what God Al$16,000,000, the greater part of mighty cannot—tie a knot in a stretched which is invested in nets, nettings and lines chiefly cotton, flax and string?” Jacquard’s model, which is incomplete, was deposited in the Conservatoire FIG. 5.—DIAGRAM SHOWING THE hemp. Much of this material lasts des Arts et Métiers; it was awarded a CONTINUATION OF THE PROCESS but two years at best, so that the annual investment in new netting each year is an important factor FIG. 3.—A BEND KNOT prize, and he himself received an appointUSED TO JOIN TWO ENDS, ment in the conservatoire, where he perin the fisheries. A AND B NETHERLANDS, The Netherlands first became known fected his famous attachment to the common loom. In the United Kingdom, the first to succeed in invent- to the Romans through the campaigns of Julius Caesar. He found ing an efficient machine and in establishing the industry of machine the country peopled partly by tribes of Gallo-Celtic, partly by net-making was James Paterson of Musselburgh. Paterson, origi- tribes of Germanic stock, the river Rhine forming roughly the nally a cooper, served in the army through the Peninsular War, and line of demarcation between the races. The Gallo-Celtic tribes was discharged after the battle of Waterloo. He established a net bore the general appellation of Belgae, and among these the Nervii, factory in Musselburgh about 1820; but the early form of machine inhabiting the district between the Scheldt and the Sambre were was imperfect, the knots it formed slipped readily and, there being at the date of Caesar’s invasion, 57 B.C., the most warlike and much prejudice against machine nets, the demand was small. important. To the north of the Meuse, and more especially in

formed, the perimeter of the spool determining the size of the

Walter Ritchie, native of Musselburgh,

devised a method for

the low-lying ground enclosed between the Waal and the Rhine

248

NETHERLANDS

(insula Batavorum) lived the Batavi. Beyond these were found the Frisians (g.v.), who gave their name to the territory between the Rhine and the Ems. Julius Caesar, after a severe struggle with the Nervii and their confederates, was successful in bringing the Belgic tribes into subjection to Rome. Under Augustus, 15 B.c., the conquered territory was formed into an imperial province, Gallia Belgica, and the frontier was strongly fortified. The Batavians were first brought under Roman rule in the governorship of Drusus A.D. 13. They were not incorporated in the empire, but were ranked as allies. In 69 they revolted under a native leader, known only under his Roman name of Claudius Civilis. After the rising, they returned to their position of socii. Their land became a recruiting ground for the Roman armies and they were henceforth faithful in their steady allegiance to Rome. When at the end of the 3rd century the Franks (g.v.) began to swarm over the Rhine into the Roman lands, the names of the old tribes had disappeared. The branch of the Franks—who were a confederacy, not a people—which gradually overspread Gallia Belgica, bore the name of Salii, from their position on the river Saale. In the days of their great king Clovis (481-511) they were in possession of the whole of the southern and central Netherlands. The strip of coast between the mouths of the Scheldt and Ems remained, however, in the hands of the Frisians (g.v.), and the Saxons (g.v.) had occupied a portion of the districts known later as Gelderland, Overyssel and Drente. The conversion of the Franks tended to facilitate fusion be-

ity was the inevitable consequence.

Long before the end of the

r1th century the system of feudal States had been firmly estah. lished in the Netherlands. The part which their rulers played in the Crusades is a proof of their order and prosperity. EARLIEST

CHARTERS

Rise of the Cities in the Netherlands.—Little is known

about the Netherlands towns before the 12th century. The earliest charters date from that period. The charters were of the nature of a treaty between the city and its feudal lord, and they differed much in character according to the importance of the place and the pressure it was able to put upon its sovereign. The extent of the rights which the charter conceded determined whether the town was a free town or a commune. In the case of a commune the concessions included generally the right of inheritance, justice, taxation, use of wood, water, etc. The lord’s representative, en-

titled “justiciary” (schout) or “bailiff” (baljuw), presided over the administration

of justice and took command

of the town

levies in war. The gemeente—consisting only of those bound by the communal oath for mutual help and defence—elected their own magistrates. These electors were often a small proportion of the whole body of inhabitants: sometimes a few influential families alone had the right, and it became hereditary. The magis-

trates bore the name of scabini, and at their head was the seigneurial official—the schout or baljuw. These scabini appointed

from the citizens a body of sworn councillors to assist them whose presidents, styled “burgomasters,” had the supervision of the communal finances. tween them and the Gallo-Roman population, and to accentuate The most powerful and flourishing of all were those of Flanders the enmity between the Franks and the heathen Frisians and -——Ghent, Bruges and Ypres. In the 13th century these towns had Saxons. In the south of the Netherlands bishoprics were set up become the seat of large industrial populations employed upon at Cambrai, Tournai, Arras, Thérouanne and Liége. In the north the weaving of cloth with its dependent industries, and closely progress was much slower and success was due rather to the arms bound up by trade interests with England, whence they obtained of the Carolingian kings than to missionary efforts. Towards the the wool for their looms. Bruges, at that time connected with the end of the century, Charlemagne, himself a Netherlander by descent and ancestral possessions, after a severe struggle thoroughly sea by the river Zwijn and with Sluis as its port, was the central subdued the Frisians and Saxons, and compelled them to embrace mart and exchange of the world’s commerce. In these Flemish cities the early oligarchic form of municipal government speedily Christianity. gave way to a democratic. The great mass of the townsmen orThe Duchy of Lower Lorraine.—The Verdun treaty (843) assigned the central part of the Empire to the Emperor Lothaire, ganized in trade gilds—weavers, fullers, dyers, smiths, leatherseparating the kingdom of East Francia (the later Germany) from workers, brewers, butchers, bakers and others, of which by far West Francia (the later France). This middle kingdom included the most powerful was that of the weavers—as soon as they bethe whole of the later Netherlands with the exception of the por- came conscious of their strength rebelled against the exclusive tion on the left bank of the Scheldt, which river was made the privileges of the patricians and succeeded in ousting them from boundary of West Francia. On the death of the emperor, his son power. The patricians relied upon the support of the French Lothaire II. received the northern part of his father’s domain, Crown, but the fatal battle of Courtrai (1302), in which the handicraftsmen laid low the chivalry of France, secured the triumph known as Lothari Regnum, corrupted later into Lotharingia and Lorraine. Lothaire had-no heir, and in 870 by the Treaty of Mers- of the democracy. The power of the Flemish cities rose to its sen his territory was divided between the kings of East and West height during the ascendancy of Jacques van Artevelde (1285Francia. In 879 East Francia acquired the whole; from g12 to 1345), the famous citizen-statesman of Ghent, but after his down924 it formed part of West Francia. In 924 Lorraine passed in fall the mutual jealousies of the cities undermined their strength, the reign of Henry the Fowler under German overlordship. and with the crushing defeat of Roosebeke (1382) in which Philip Henry’s son, Otto the Great, placed it in 953 in the hands of his van Artevelde perished, the political greatness of the municipalable brother, Bruno, archbishop of Cologne, for pacification. ities entered upon its decline. In Brabant—Antwerp, Louvain, Brussels, Malines (Mechlin)— Bruno, who kept for himself the title of archduke, divided the and in the episcopal territory of Liége—Liége, Huy, Dinant—there territory into the two duchies of Upper and Lower Lorraine. Godfrey of Verdun was invested by him with the government of was a more feeble repetition of the Flemish conditions. Flourishing Lower Lorraine. The history of the Netherlands from this time communities were likewise to be found in Hainault, Namur, Camforward—with the exception of Flanders, which continued to be brai and the other southern districts of the Netherlands, but noa fief of the French kings—is the history of the various feudal where else the vigorous independence of Ghent, Bruges and Yprés, States Into which the duchy of Lower Lorraine was gradually nor the splendour of their civic life. In the north also the 13th century was rich in municipal charters. Dordrecht, Leyden, Haarbroken up. (See FLANDERS; HOLLAND; BRABANT; GELDERLAND; lem, Delft, Vlaardigen, Rotterdam in Holland and Middelburg and LIMBURG; UTRECHT; LIÉGe.) The development of feudalism in the Netherlands was largely Zierikzee in Zealand, repeated with modifications the characterdue to the necessity of protecting the land against the Scandi- istics of the communes of Flanders and Brabant. But the growth navian attacks of the gth and roth centuries. For a time near the and development of the northern communal movement, though middle of the oth century the Northmen were masters of all strong and instinct with life, was slower and less tempestuous Holland and Friesland, though they never established permanent than the Flemish. In the bishopric of Utrecht, in Gelderland and settlements there. On one occasion, in 880, the emperor, Friesland, the privileges accorded Utrecht, Groningen, Zutphen, Charles the Fat, led an army against the Northmen, then en- Stavoren, Leeuwarden followed rather on the model of those of camped at Elsloo, but the remoteness of the Netherlands from the the Rhenish “free cities” than of the Franco-Flemish commune. THE BURGUNDIAN DOMINION centres of either French or imperial power threw the burden of Consolidation of Power.—It was at this time that Flandefence upon local magnates, and a great increase in their author-

249

NETHERLANDS

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ders, and gradually the other feudal States of the Netherlands, by

tional language should be used in public documents.

marriage, purchase, treachery or force, fell under the dominion of

court of justice at Malines was abolished, but the Grand Council was reorganized and made thoroughly representative. The Great Privilege was supplemented by provincial charters, the Flemish

the house of Burgundy. The foundation of the Burgundian rule in the Netherlands was laid by the succession of Philip the Bold to the counties of Flanders and Artois in 1384 in right of his wife, Margaret de Male. In 1404 Antony, Philip’s second son (killed at Agincourt, 1415), became duke of Brabant by bequest of his great-aunt Joan. The consolidation of the Burgundian power was effected by Philip the Good, grandson of Philip the Bold, in his long and successful reign of 48 years, 1419-67. He inherited Flanders and Artois, purchased the county of Namur (1427) and compelled his cousin Jacqueline, the heiress of Holland, Zealand, Hainault and Friesland, to surrender her possessions to him in 1428. On the death, in 1430, of his cousin Philip, duke of Brabant, he took possession of Brabant and Limburg; the duchy of Luxemburg he acquired by purchase, 1443. He made his bastard son David bishop of Utrecht, and from 1456 onwards that see continued under Burgundian influence. This extension of the Burgundian dominion implied the establishment of a strong monarchical authority. The dukes had united under their sway a number of provinces with different histories, institutions and languages, and their aim was to centralize their government. The nobility and clergy were on the side of the ducal authority; its opponents were the municipalities, especially those of Flanders. Their strength had been seriously weakened by the overthrow of Roosebeke, but Philip on his accession found them once more advancing rapidly in power and prosperity. He was quite aware that the industrial wealth of the great Flemish communes was financially the mainstay of his power, but their very prosperity made them the chief obstacle of his schemes of unifying into a solid dominion the loose aggregate of States over which he was the ruler. On this matter Philip would brook no opposition. Bruges was forced after strenuous resistance to submit to the loss of its most cherished privileges in 1438, and the revolt of Ghent was quenched in the “red sea” of Gavre in 1453. The splendour and luxury of the court of Philip surpassed that of any contemporary sovereign. A permanent memorial of it remains in the famous Order of the Golden Fleece, which was instituted by the duke at Bruges in 1430 on the occasion of his marriage with Isabel of Portugal, a descendant of John of Gaunt. Before the accession of Charles, the only son of Philip, two important steps had been taken towards unification. The first was the appointment of a grand council with supreme judicial and financial functions, whose seat was finally fixed at Malines in 1473; the other the summoning of deputies of all the provincial “States” of the Netherlands to a States-general at Brussels in 1465. But Charles did not possess the qualities of a builder of States. At first all went well with him. By his ruthless suppression of revolts at Dinant and Liége he made his authority undisputed throughout the Netherlands. His campaigns against the French king were conducted with success. His creation of a formidable standing army, the first of its kind in that age of transition from feudal conditions, gave to the Burgundian power all the outward semblance of stability and permanence. But Charles, though a brave soldier and good military organizer, was neither a capable statesman nor a skilful general. At the very height of his power all his schemes of aggrandisement came to sudden ruin through a succession of disastrous defeats at the hands of the Swiss. At Nancy, Jan. 5, 1477, Charles was himself among the slain, leaving his only daughter, Mary of Burgundy, then in her 20th year, sole heiress to his possessions. The catastrophe of Nancy threatened the loosely knit Burgundian dominion with dissolution. Louis XI. claimed the reversion of the French fiefs, and seized Burgundy, Franche Comté and Artois. But the Netherland provinces, though not loving the Burgundian

dynasty, had no desire to have a French master. Deputies representing Flanders, Brabant, Hainault and Holland met at Ghent, where Mary was detained almost as a prisoner, and compelled her

(Feb. ro, 1477) to sign the “Great Privilege.” This charter provided that no war could be declared nor marriage concluded by the sovereign, nor taxes raised without the assent of the States, that natives were alone eligible for high office and that the na-

The central

Privilege (Feb. 10), the Great Privilege of Holland and Zealand (Feb. 17), the Great Privilege of Namur and the Joyeuse Entrée of Brabant, both in May, thus curtailing the sovereign’s power of interference with local liberties. On these conditions Mary obtained the hearty support of the States against France. Her marriage four months later to Maximilian of Austria was the beginning of the long domination of the house of Habsburg, The next 15 years were for Maximilian a stormy and difficult period. The duchess Mary died from the effects of a fall from her horse (March 1482), and Maximilian became regent (mambourg) for his son. The peace of Arras with France (March 1483) freed him to deal with the discords in the Netherland provinces, and more especially with the turbulent opposition in the Flemish cities. With the submission of Ghent (June 1485) the contest was decided in favour of the archduke, who in 1494, on his election as emperor, was able to hand over the country to his son Philip in a comparatively tranquil and secure state. Philip was 15 years of age, and his accession was welcomed by the Netherlanders with whom Maximilian had never been popular. Gelderland, however, which had revolted after Nancy, had Charles of Egmont for its duke, and the two bishoprics of Liége and Utrecht were no longer subject to Burgundian authority. In 1496 Philip married Joanna of Aragon, who in 1500 became heiress apparent to Castile and Aragon, and she gave birth at Ghent to a son, afterwards the Emperor Charles V. On the death of Queen Isabel, Philip and Joanna succeeded to the crown of Castile and took up their residence in their new kingdom (Jan. 1506). A few months later Philip unexpectedly died at Burgos (Sept. 25). His Burgundian lands passed without opposition to his son Charles, then six years

of age.

(X.)

RELIGIOUS

DIFFICULTIES

Charles V.—The emperor Maximilian, who was regent during the minority of his grandson, appointed his daughter Margaret, widow of Philibert duke of Savoy, as governor-general, an office which she held with varying success for eight years. In 1515, at the instance of the States-General, the 15-year-old Charles was suddenly declared of age. Born and brought up in the Netherlands he was personally popular there and the country was prosperous. Unfortunately, however, his accession brought the Netherlands into the huge and incongruous collection of states which the wars and marriages of the Habsburgs had heaped together. By the time he was 20 Charles was king of Aragon and Castile, with their Italian and American possessions, head of the house of Austria, and emperor. This meant first that he had to spend most of his life in his other dominions, leaving the Netherlands again to his aunt Margaret, and after her death (Nov. 27, 1530) to his sister Mary, the widow of that king of Hungary who had fallen at Mohacz. It meant also that he had to make large financial demands on these rich provinces for the purposes of his many wars. Opposition to the taxes led at last to one serious collision: the great city of Ghent resisted, and on Feb. 14, 1540, Charles entered it as a conqueror and humbled it by annulling its liberties and exacting a heavy fine. Another difficulty was the rapid growth of protestantism. A series of severe edicts against heresy was issued and enforced; but though many heretics were executed, every form of protestant belief continued to make converts. None of these dangers however, came as yet to ahead. The rule of Charles and the ‘“‘governesses” was on the whole moderate and successful. He rounded off the dominions by the purchase and subjugation of Friesland (1524), the annexations of the lands of the bishops of Utrecht (1528) and the defeat of an opponent who tried to establish himself in the duchy of Gelderland (1538). By 1543 he ruled over the 17 provinces which are usually meant by the name “Netherlands,” though oddly enough there are several different ways of enumerating them. It is due not to any geographical or racial factors, but simply to the subsequent course of political history that there was no further expansion of the frontiers to the east or south. In the task of welding these

251

NETHERLANDS provinces together by constitutional links Charles made some headway, but not much. He made the rules of hereditary succession the same for all of them, so that they should never be divided among different heirs. He carried out a nominal, but in the result quite ineffective, incorporation of the provinces in the Holy Roman empire. He governed the provinces by executive councils of the type usual in the monarchies of the period, and, in addition to the provincial estates, he liked to summon, when he needed

grants of money, States-General such as his predecessors had sometimes used. These stood, however feebly, for the principle of the unity of the Netherlands. Philip I1.—Conflict was precipitated in the Netherlands under

Philip II., who succeeded his father on his abdication in 1555. In the first 12 years of his reign all the latent quarrels burst out.

In 1559 the Peace of Cateau Cambrésis

(a town better known

now as Le Cateau) removed the pressure of war with France, and so cleared the way for the Dutch revolt and for the French wars of religion. As Philip was not emperor and ceased to be

the smashing of the images, altars, pictures and painted windows of the churches. The Calvinist burghers and gentry were forming armies and preparing to defend the towns where they were most influential. The general confusion, however, caused many of their adherents to fall away and most of the magnates to rally to the Government. William of Orange, by attempting to mediate, lost the confidence of both sides. Margaret raised a considerable force of German mercenary troops, which took possession of Valenciennes and Tournay and destroyed the ill-organized rabble of Calvinists in West Flanders and before Antwerp. The troubles had reached a stage in which there was to be no more mercy or hesitation on the side of the Government; but the only one of the discontented magnates who grasped this was William of Orange, who departed to his German estates in April 1567. The veteran Spanish general the duke of Alva was already on the march from Italy with a model force of about 10,000 men. THE REVOLT

OF THE NETHERLANDS

king of England on the death of his wife Queen Mary in 1558, the Netherlands now belonged to a combination of states, in which no other part was infected with protestantism: the religious struggle there was consequently more uncompromising than in Germany. Philip was determined to crush heresy. His policy was in a sense no more harsh than that of Charles; but as protestantism grew its repression caused greater discontent. Philip

Alva’s rule, from 1568 to 1573, is the classical example of military despotism. Margaret resigned soon after his arrival: Egmont and Hoorn had already been arrested. An illegal tribunal, the Council of Troubles, nicknamed the Council of Blood, was set up to try those who had taken part in the disturbances. There were wholesale executions. Crowds of refugees fled by sea and land. Orange was outlawed (Jan. 24, 1568) and his estates confiscated; began, but never completed, the carrying out of a scheme which his eldest son and heir, a student at Louvain, was kidnapped and had been for some time in contemplation for rectifying the carried away to Spain. The father meanwhile, acting in his caanomalies of the boundaries of the episcopal sees, and for making pacity as a sovereign prince and making war nominally only on smaller dioceses with a more efficient episcopate. This not only Alva, not on his master Philip, had raised an army in Germany intensified the fear of persecution, but alienated the greater which was led by his brother Louis of Nassau into Friesland. Here it won a fight at Heiligerlee (May 23); but at Jemgum or nobles. Prelude to the Revolt.—These religious questions would not Jemmingen it was completely defeated on July 21 by Alva in by themselves have led to a revolution. The most powerful class person. Before setting out from Brussels he had struck a characin the Netherlands were the great nobles, from whom the “stad- teristic blow. Egmont and Hoorn and 20 other nobles had been holders” or lieutenants of the provinces were chosen, and on beheaded. In September Orange appeared with another army; whom the privileged order of the Golden Fleece was often con- but Alva, avoiding battle, starved him back into Germany. He ferred. Among these there was a widespread feeling against was now undisputed master in the Netherlands and settled down to Spanish rule, and a desire to subordinate the power of the king’s the military, ecclesiastical, judicial and other measures which were ministers to their own and that of the estates. The period from needed to consolidate his success. These measures caused sub1559 (when Philip departed to Spain) to 1567, during which the terranean discontent and was growing opposition. Campaigns of 1572—73.—In 1572 affairs took a new turn. governor-general was the king’s illegitimate half-sister Margaret duchess of Parma, is known as the prelude to the revolt. Its first William had been in the habit of granting to some of his followers stage lasted till 1564. By this time the magnates, led by William commissions to act as privateers. These fierce sea-rovers, the Seaof Orange (see WILLIAM I., Prince of ORANGE), Egmont and Beggars (gueux de mer) had committed many depredations on Hoorn had succeeded in two things. They had brought about the commerce and had not abstained from cruelties, especially against withdrawal of the Spanish troops, and they had got rid of the priests, but they had had to operate from foreign parts, such as minister Cardinal Granvelle, archbishop of the new see of Mech- England or East Friesland. Now, on April 1, 1572, they seized lin, whom they somewhat mistakenly blamed for most of their the port of Brill, at the mouth of the Maas. Soon after this they grievances. Margaret’s decision to rely on co-operation with the took Flushing, which commands the other great waterway, the magnates did not, however, promote real harmony. The religious Scheldt. Henceforth the rebels had a foothold of their own in troubles increased and led to a conflict between the Government the Netherlands. In comparison with this great fact it was of and the chartered privileges of the towns and estates, in the course minor importance, though few saw it at the time, that an almost of which the magnates formulated demands for the summoning simultaneous movement of rebellion in the southern provinces of the States-General and for government by councils of aristo- was overpowered. William’s brother Louis met with disaster in cratic composition. In the summer of 1565 a new element came his seizure of Mons, from which the promised help of the French forward. More than 300 of the lesser nobles or gentry signed the Huguenots was cut off by the massacre of St. Bartholomew. Compromise by which they undertook to help and protect one The co-operating army of William failed as his other armies had another against persecution and to put an end to the inquisition. failed. Within three months of the capture of Brill Amsterdam They were actuated by religious conviction, not, like the mag- was the only town still remaining to the Spaniards in the province nates, by the tolerance of the man of the world, and there were of Holland. The States of Holland assembled and put the finances many among the rich burghers who were prepared to back up and administration of the rebels on a sound footing. When the this determined party. On April 5, 1566, the signatories presented south fell away after his and Louis’s failure, William took up his to Margaret a petition called the Request. On this occasion a residence at Delft. He had been converted to Lutheranism at an nobleman contemptuously referred to them as beggars (gueux). earlier stage, but was soon to throw in his lot with the Calvinists

They adopted this nickname and wore as badges the curious medals with a beggar’s wallet which may still be seen in museums. Margaret made an ambiguous concession to their demands; but the result was only to precipitate the conflict (see Gueux, Les). Extreme Calvinists and religious fanatics of all sects redoubled their activity. Field-preaching spread like wildfire and became something very little different from rebellion. In August many places, especially Antwerp, were alarmed by formidable riots for

of Holland. Alva moved northwards to stamp out the rebellion. At Mechlin there were three days of butchery. The duke’s son Don Frederick de Toledo sacked Zutphen and massacred the whole population of Naarden. But a new element was making its appearance in history: the burghers began to show a heroism with which the Spaniards could not cope. Haarlem held out all through the winter. On July 12, 1573, it surrendered: the townsfolk were spared, but the garrison, except the German merce-

252

NETHERLANDS

naries, were killed toa man. At Alkmaar victory began: the dikes were cut and Don Frederick withdrew his army before the advancing inundations. In October Alva’s fleet was defeated on the Zuider Zee and the admiral captured. On land his troops were unpaid and mutinous; he had lost the confidence of the king; on Dec. 18 he left Brussels, having served the master as badly as he had served the subjects. Requesens.—His successor, Don Luis de Requesens, grand commander of Castile, arrived in Nov. 1573. Both sides were now ready for compromise. The south was suffering from the maritime war, but the north insisted on freedom of religious belief and the negotiations which were begun broke down in July 1574. Meanwhile the war had gone on, with serious reverses for the rebels but on the whole in their favour. In Feb. 15474 the fall of Middleburg ended the hold of the Spaniards on Zeeland; but on March 14 Louis of Nassau was defeated and killed at Mook Heath near Nijmwegen. The siege of Leyden was a turning-point. After enduring every extremity the town was at last relieved on Oct. 3 by ships which crossed the flooded countryside. This triumph was commemorated by the foundation of the university which soon made Leyden one of the famous places of the world. During the summer support had been falling away from the inefficient Requesens: only Hainault, Artois and Namur appeared at a meeting of the States-General. On the other hand the north set about strengthening its organization. Holland and Zeeland made an agreement for union, and entrusted William of Orange, their stadholder, with the command of the naval and military forces and the final appointment to all political and judicial offices and to vacant city magistracies. The fighting was still not uniformly favourable to the north. In October the Spaniards Mondragon and Ulloa began the reconquest of the islands of Duiveland and Schouwen in Zeeland. But this availed little. On March 5, 1576, Requesens died and the council of state took over the Government. The fighting in Zeeland had used up all the money, so in July the troops there mutinied and marched into Brabant where they established themselves at Alost. Popular opinion turned against the council of state. The States of Brabant had troops in their service, and on Sept. 5 these arrested the members of the council in the name of the States, though not by their order. The Pacification of Ghent and Its Failure—William of Orange saw the chances of the moment and, with a picked body of troops, advanced into Flanders, occupied Ghent and entered into negotiations with the States-General. His overtures were favourably received, the council at Brussels was dissolved, and a conference was opened at Ghent on Oct. 19. While it was at work the news came of the Spanish Fury at Antwerp. On Oct. 3 the mutinous troops had marched thither from Alost, had overpowered the garrison and had sacked the greatest city of the Netherlands with barbarous. ferocity. This news silenced all differences among the Netherlanders and on Nov. 8 there was signed the Pacification of Ghent. This marked in a sense the zenith of the revolt; but the nobles of Brabant and Hainault were not under William’s leadership, and the religious articles left the way open for a later split. The first problem was that of Don John of Austria. This famous man, bastard brother of the king and victor of Lepanto, had been appointed governor and had arrived at Luxembourg on the day of the Spanish Fury. Orange opposed his recognition as governor and persuaded the States-General to recognize him only on condition that he should accept the Pacification. Negotiations led to a deadlock. At this crisis the hands of Orange and the patriotic party were greatly strengthened by a new compact, the Union of Brussels (Jan. 1577), which was signed by all the provinces represented in the States-General. This engaged its signatories to unite in ejecting the foreign soldiery, in carrying out the Pacification, in recognizing Philip’s sovereignty, and at the same time in maintaining the charters and constitutions which the king on his accession had sworn to observe. It added the north-east to the area which had accepted the Pacification; many signatories were Catholics. Luxembourg was left outside it. Faced by this opposition, Don John had to yield, and on Feb. 12 he signed the Perpetual

Edict (ratified soon after by Philip) in which he accepted the pro. gramme of William of Orange, except that catholicism was to be maintained.

On May 1 Don John made his state entry into Brussels, but only to find that he had no real authority. He wrote to Philip: “The prince of Orange has bewitched the minds of all men. They keep him informed of everything and take no resolution without consulting him.” In July with some Walloon troops Don John suddenly left Brussels for Namur. This was practically a renewal of civil war. It alienated the States-General and the southern aristocrats, and on Sept. 23 William of Orange triumphantly returned to Brussels after an absence of ten years, The unanimity on which this triumph was based did not last long: in October the States-General repudiated him as their leader. The prospect of success ended unity. The growth of Calvinism alarmed the Catholics. At the secret invitation of the Catholic nobles of the south headed by the duke of Aerschot there

arrived in Brussels the archduke Matthias, brother of the emperor, and afterwards emperor himself. He was 20 years of age. On Jan. 18, 1578, he assumed the title of governor, which he nominally held till 1581. Alienation of the South.—Philip, now thoroughly alarmed, sent Alexander Farnese with a veteran force of 20,000. With these Don John at Gemblours near Namur routed the rebel army. He became master of Louvain, Judoigne, Tirlemont, Aerschot, Bouvignes, Sichem, Nivelles, Roeux, Soignies, Binch, Beaumont, Walcourt, Maubeuge and Chimay. The malcontent Catholics now turned from Matthias to the duke of Anjou, formerly Alençon, who had invaded the Netherlands with a French force and seized Mons. At the same time John Casimir, brother of the elector palatine, at the invitation of the Calvinist party and

with the secret financial aid of Queen Elizabeth, entered the country at the head of a body of German mercenaries from the east. In Ghent under his protection there were Calvinist excesses which alienated the southern Catholic nobles, the States-General and the town patriciates. Orange prevailed on Anjou to accept the title of “Defender of the liberties of the Netherlands,” and Anjou promised, if the provinces would raise an army of 10,000 foot and 2,000 horse, to come to their aid with a like force. John Casimir and Anjou both left the Netherlands in the winter of 1578-79, the latter to return at a later stage of events. Meanwhile Don John had aroused the distrust of Philip by his dreams of invading England and marrying Mary Queen of Scots, and

Philip cut off supplies. Don John died on Oct. 1, 1578. On Jan. 5, 1579, the deputies of Hainault, Artois, Douai, formed themselves into a league for the defence of the Catholic religion, and, subject to his observance of the political stipulations of the Union of Brussels, professed loyal allegiance to the king. This league of Arras called forth the answering protestant Union of Utrecht, the work of John of Nassau. Both were nominally under the Pacification of Ghent, but the signatories were cleanly divided by religion. At this point it is convenient to end the narrative of the history of the Netherlands, treating henceforth as separate political units the obedient provinces of the south and the seven northern provinces which had already as good as won their independence and were to maintain it as a republic. (See Bexcrum: History, and Hortan: History.) BrIBLIOGRAPHY.—The best short general accounts in English are G. Edmundson, History of Holland (1922) and the same writer’s chapters in Cambridge Modern History, vol. i. c. xiii. (1902), vol. il. c. vi. and vii. (1904): both works have bibliographies. For original authorities and books in the Dutch language see the excellent lists in I. H. Gosses and N. Japikse, Handboek tot de staatkundige geschiedenis van Nederland (The Hague, 1920), which is the best handbook, and P. J. Blok, History of the People of the Netherlands, 5 vols. (1898-1912), the standard work for the northern provinces; that for the southern is H. Pirenne, Histoire de Belgique, vols. i—vil. (3rd ed., 1909-26) to which the same author’s Bzbliographie de

Phistoire de Belgique is a companion. For the earlier part of the period E. Armstrong, The Emperor Charles V., 2 vols. (and ed. London, 1910), is valuable. J. L. Motley, The Rise of the Dutch Republic, 3 vols. (1856 and many subsequent editions) is a classical work and still a popular favourite. Ruth Putnam, William the Silent (x911) is a brief modern biography; F. Rachfahl, Margaretha von Parma (Munich, 1898), an excellent work of the same class; the

NETHERLANDS

OVERSEA

same author’s Wilhelm von Oranien und der niederländische Aufstand, 3 vols. (The Hague, 1906-24) is a minute study of the period down to 1569.

(G. N. C.)

NETHERLANDS oF NEUTRALS

OVERSEA

(BLOCKADE).

NETHERSOLE,

OLGA

(1863-

TRUST:

see RATIONING

), English actress, of

Spanish descent, was born in London, and made her stage début at Brighton in 1887. In 1888 she played with John Hare at the

Garrick, London, and, after other engagements, in 1894 took the Court Theatre

on her own

account.

She was

manager

at His

Majesty’s (1898), at the Adelphi (1902) and at the Shaftesbury

(1904). She took the Théâtre Bernhardt, Paris, in 1907, appearing herself in leading rôles. She toured in Australia and America,

playing leading parts in modern plays, notably Clyde Fitch’s Sapho

(produced in London in 1902). Miss Nethersole worked during the World War on various Red Cross organizations.

NETHINIM, the name given to the members of a class of

assistants in the service of the temple of Jerusalem. In the Old Testament they are specially mentioned, and thus designated, only

by the compiler of Chronicles-Ezra-Nehemiah (3rd century B.c.). The name means “given” or “dedicated,” i.e., to the temple; cf. Num. iii. 9, vili. 19, where the same term is applied to the Levites. In x Esdras and Josephus they are called tepddovXou, as are also the Levites in 1 Esdrasi. 3. In the census lists compiled by the Chronicler, where a complete classification is desired, we find the order: Levites, singers, porters, Nethinim, ¢.g., in Ezra ii. Of these classes, the first three are of equal rank; the singers and porters are Levites (1 Chr. ix. 2, Neh. xi. 3, 15~18, xiii. 22, etc.), though sometimes expressly distinguished from them, when the special duties of the several orders are thought of (2 Chr. xxxv. 15, Ezra ii. 70, etc.). In the time of the Chronicler the Nethinim were free men and members of the Israelite community. They were registered by families and were exempt from taxation. Like the priests and Levites they served in rotation, being assigned to a certain portion of Jerusalem (Ophel), and also to neighbouring Levitical cities or villages. In Neh. x. 29 seg. they join in the solemn covenant, promising among other things not to intermarry with “the peoples of the land.” It is generally supposed, and not without good reason, that the Nethinim had their origin in a class of foreign menials (slaves) employed in the temple. In the time of the Chronicler it was customary to describe the Nethinim as “those given by David for the Levitical service” (Ezra viii. 20), and similar to this is the designation of one portion of them as the “children of Solomon’s

TRUST—NETTLE

TREE

253

penetrates the skin, breaks off and its contents pass out.

The

fluid contains formic acid and has a temporary irritant effect. Nettle tops, or the very young shoots of the nettle, may be used as a vegetable like spinach; but from the abundance of crystals (cystoliths) they contain they are apt to be gritty. The fibre furnished by the stems of several species is used for cordage or paper-making. Three species of nettle are wild in the British Isles: the common or great nettle (U. dioica), which is a hairy perennial with staminate and pistillate flowers in distinct plants;

the small nettle (U. urens), which is annual and, except for the stinging hairs, glabrous, and has staminate and pistillate flowers in the same panicle; and the Roman nettle (U. pilulifera), an annual with the pistillate flowers in rounded heads, which occurs in waste places in the east of England, chiefly near the sea—the most virulent British species. In North America, where the small nettle has become naturalized across the continent and the great nettle, from Newfoundland to Colorado and southward, there are several native nettles. Among these are the tall nettle (U. gracilis), found across the

continent northward; the weak nettle (U. chamaedrioides), of the south-eastern States; the hoary nettle (U. holosericea), found from Idaho and Washington to Lower California, and the California nettle (U. californica). Closely allied are the wood nettle (Laportea canadensis), of the eastern United States, and the western nettle (Hesperocnide tenella), of California. NETTLERASH, the popular English name for urticaria (q.v.), a disorder of the skin resembling the effect produced by the sting of a nettle and attended with great irritation. It occurs either in acute or chronic form. In America the corresponding term is “hives.”

NETTLESHIP,

HENRY

(1839-1893),

English classical

scholar, was born at Kettering on May 5, 1839. He was educated at Lancing, Durham and Charterhouse schools, and Corpus Christi college, Oxford. He was a master at Harrow and later professor of Latin at Oxford, where he died on July 10, 1893. He specialized in the study of Virgil. After Conington’s death in 1869, he saw his edition of Virgil through the press, and revised and corrected subsequent editions. In 1887 he published some of the results of 12 years’ labour on a Latin lexicon (never completed) in a volume entitled Contributions to Latin Lexicography. The second series of his Lectures and Essays, published in 1895, and edited by F. Haverfield, contains a memoir by Mrs. M. Nettleship, with full bibliography. NETTLESHIP, RICHARD LEWIS (1846-1892), Engservants” (Ezra ii. 55, Neh. vii. 57, xi. 3). lish philosopher, was born on Dec. 17, 1846, and educated at Uppingham and Balliol college, Oxford. He won the Hertford NETLEY, a village in Hampshire, England, 3 Southampton, and on a branch of the S.Rly. Pop. of ecclesiastical scholarship, the Ireland, the Gaisford Greek verse prize, a Craven district (1921) 1,396. A Cistercian abbey was founded in 1237 by scholarship and the Arnold prize, but took only a second class Henry III; its ruins include a great part of the cruciform church, in Litterae Humaniores. He became fellow and tutor of his colabbot’s house, chapter house and domestic buildings. The style is lege and succeeded to the work of T. H. Green, whose writings Early English and Decorated. The gatehouse was transformed he edited with a memoir (1880). His philosophy was idealistic into a fort in the time of Henry VIII. Netley Hospital for and Hegelian. He died on Aug. 25, 1892, from the effects of exwounded soldiers, built after the Crimean War is one of the posure on Mont Blanc, and was buried at Chamonix. principal military hospitals in Great Britain. Besides his edition of Green’s works, Nettleship published The NETSCHER, GASPAR (1639-1684), German portrait and Theory of Education in Ploto’s Republic (1880). His Philogenre painter, was born at Heidelberg in 1639. As a boy he was sophical Lectures and Remains were edited by A. C. Bradley adopted by a physician named Tullekens, who placed him under (1897, 2nd ed., 1901), the Lectures on the Republic of Plato an artist named de Koster, and afterwards under Ter Borch. He being printed separately in 1898 (2nd ed., 190r). then went to Italy, but finally settled at Bordeaux, where he made NETTLE TREE, the name applied to certain trees of the a living by painting the small cabinet pictures which are now so genus Celtis, belonging to the elm family (Ulmaceae). The besthighly valued on account of their exquisite finish. After removing known species have usually obliquely ovate, or lanceolate leaves, to The Hague, he turned his attention to portrait-painting, which serrate at the edge, and marked by three prominent nerves. The proved more lucrative. His sons Constantyn (1668-1722), and flowers are inconspicuous, with a 4- or 5-parted perianth, as many Theodorus (1661~1732), were also painters after their father’s stamens, a hairy disk and a 1-celled ovary with a 2-parted style. The fruit is succulent, like a little drupe, a character which serves style, but inferior in merit. NETTLE, the common name for the plants of the botanical to separate the genus alike from the nettles and the elms, to genus Urtica, which gives its name to the family Urticaceae. both of which it is allied. C. australis is a common tree, both wild It contains about 30 species found in the temperate parts of both and planted, throughout the Mediterranean region extending to hemispheres. They are herbs covered with stinging hairs, and with Afghanistan and the Himalayas; it is also cultivated in Great very small, greenish, unisexual flowers on the same or on different Britain. It is a rapidly growing tree, from 30 to 4o ft. high, plants. The stinging hairs consist of an elongated tubular cell with a remarkably sweet fruit, recalling a small black cherry, the extremity of which is finely pointed. By this point the hair and was one of the plants to which the term “lotus” was applied

254

NEU-BRANDENBURG—NEUCHATEL

by Dioscorides and the older authors. The wood, which is compact and hard, is used for a variety of purposes. C. occidentalis, a North American species, is the hackberry (g.v.).

NEU-BRANDENBURG, a town of Germany, in the repub-

lic of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, on the lake called Tollense See, 58

m. W.N.W. of Stettin by rail. Pop. (192 5) 13,826. Neu-Brandenburg was founded in 1248, and has belonged to Mecklenburg since 1292. It is partly surrounded with walls, and possesses four old Gothic gates, dating from about 1300. The principal buildings are the Marienkirche, a 13th century Gothic building, the former grand ducal palace, and the palace of Belvedere. NEUBREISACH: see Neur-Brisacu.

NEUBURG, a town in the republic of Bavaria, situated on

the Danube r2 m. W. of Ingolstadt by rail. Pop. (1925) 7,564. Neuburg was originally an episcopal see. In the roth century it passed to the counts of Scheyern, and through them to Bavaria, being ceded to the Rhenish Palatinate in x 507. From 1557 to 1742 it was the capital of a small principality ruled by a cadet branch of the family of the elector palatine of the Rhine. In 1742 it was united again with the Rhenish Palatinate, with which it passed in 1777 to Bavaria. Its most important building is the old residence of its princes, in 16th century Renaissance style.

The canton is divided into 6 administrative districts, which

comprise 63 communes. In 1927 the legislature or Grand Conseil consisted of members elected in the proportion of one to every 1,200 of the population and holds office for three years, while since 1906 the principles of proportional representation obtain in these

elections. The executive or Conseil d’État is elected by the people

by secret ballot to hold office for three years. Since 1882 there have been 5 members. The members of the federal Conseil des

Etats are named by the Grand Conseil and hold office for one year. History.—We first hear of the novum castellum (Neuchâtel) in the will (xorr) of Rudolf IIL., the last king of Burgundy, on whose death (1032) that kingdom reverted to the empire. About 1034 the emperor Conrad II. gave this castle to the lord of several neighbouring fiefs, his successors establishing themsel ves permanently there in the 12th century and taking the title of “count.” In 1288 the reigning count resigned his domain s to the emperor Rudolf, who gave them to the lord of Châlon-surSaône, by whom they were restored to the count of N euchâtel on his doing homage for them. This act decided the future history of Neuchâtel, for in 1393 the house of Châlon succeeded to the principality of Orange by virtue of a marriage contracted in 1388. The counts gradually increased their dominions, so

NEUCHÂTEL (Ger. N euenburg), one of the cantons of west- that by 1373 they held practically all of the present canton, with ern Switzerland, on the frontier towards France. It is the only the exception of the lordship of Valangin which was held by a Swiss canton that is situated entirely in the Jura, of which it cadet line of the house till bought in x 592. In 1532 the title of occupies the central portion (its loftiest summit is the -Mont “prince” was taken by the reigning count, while by the treaty Racine, 4,731 ft. in the Téte de Rang range). The canton has of Westphalia (1648) the principality became sovereign and ina total area of 305 sq.m., of which more than three quarters are dependent of the empire. In 1707 the Longueville house of reckoned “productive.” It consists, for the most part, of the Neuchatel also became extinct, and a great struggle arose as to longitudinal ridges and valleys characteristic of the Jura, while its the succession. Finally the parliament (states) of Neuchatel drainage is very unequally divided between the Thièle or Zihl, decided in favour of Frederic I., the first king of Prussia . The and the Doubs, which forms part of the north-west boundary of nominal rule of the Prussian king (for the country enjoye d

the canton, and receives only the streams flowing from the Le Locle and La Chaux de Fonds valley. Three regions make up the territory. That stretching along the shore of the lake is called Le Vignoble (from its vineyards) and extends from about 1,500 ft. to 2,300 ft. above the sea-level. An intermediate region is named

Les Vallées, for it consists of the two principal valleys of the canton (the Val de Ruz, watered by the Seyon, and the Val de Travers, watered by the Areuse) which lie to a height of about 2,300 ft. to 3,000 ft. above the sea-level. The highest region is known as Les Montagnes, and is mainly composed of the long valley in which stand the industrial centres of La Chaux de Fonds (g.v.), and Le Locle (g.v.) to which must be added those of La Sagne, Les Ponts and Les Verriéres, the elevation of these upland valleys varying from 3,000 ft. to 3,445 ft. The canton is well supplied with railways, the direct line from Berne past Kerzers (Chiétres), Neuchatel, the Val de Travers and Les Verriéres to Pontarlier for Paris passing through it, while La Chaux de Fonds is connected by a line past Le Locle with Morteau in France. Other lines join the capital, Neuchatel, to La Chaux de F onds, as well as to Yverdon at the south-west extremity of the lake, and to St. Blaise at its north-east end. In 1920 the population was 131,431 (estimated [1925] 126,-

560), of whom 111,199 were French-speaking, 16,064 German-

speaking and 3,393 Italian-speaking, while 109,949 were Protestants, 18,623 Roman Catholics and 987 Jews. There are three “established and state-endowed” churches, the National Evangel-

ical, the Roman Catholic and the Old Catholic (this sect in La Chaux de Fonds only), while the pastors of the Free Evangelical

church and of the Jews (mostly in La Chaux de Fonds) receive special privileges.

practical independence) lasted till 1857, with a brief interval from 1806 to 1814, when the principality was held by Marshal Berthier, by virtue of a grant from Napoleon. In 1814 its admission into the Swiss confederation was proposed and was effected in 1815, the new canton being the only non-republican member,

just as the hereditary rulers of Neuchatel were the last to maintain their position in Switzerland. This anomaly led in 1848 to the establishment (attempted in 1831) of a republican form of government, brought about by a peaceful revolution led by A. M. Piaget. A royalist attempt to regain power in 1856 was defeated, and finally, after long negotiations, the king of Prussia renounced his claims to sovereignty, though retaining the right to bear the title of “prince of Neuchatel.” Thus in 1857 Neuchatel became a full republican member of the Swiss confederation.

Brsriocrapay.—F, de Chambrier, Histoire de Neuchétel et de Valangin jusqu’a Vavénement de la maison de Prusse, 1707 (Neuchâtel, 1840); A. Piaget, Documents inédits sur la Reformation dans le pays de Neuchâtel (Neuchâtel, 1909) ; P. de Vargas, L’A faire de Neuchâtel 1856-57 (Lausanne, 1913); A Chapuis, Histoire de la Pendulerie neuchdteloise (1917); A. Piaget, Histoire de la Révolution neuchéGteloise vol. i. (Neuchâtel, r919). See also Musée Neuchételoise published by the Neuchâtel Société Cantonale d'Histoire 1864 etc.; and the second series of publications, 1923.

NEUCHÂTEL,

capital of the above Swiss canton, situated

near the north-east corner of the lake of Neuchâtel. In 1920 it had 23,152 inhabitants (in 1850 only 7,727 and in 1870, 12,683), 17,620 being French-speaking and 4,506 German-speaking; there were 19,204 Protestants, 3,515 Roman Catholics, and 95 Jews. It is the meeting-point of several important railway lines. The older portion of the town is built on the steep slope of the Chaumont (3,855 ft.), and originally the waters of the lake bathed the foot of the slope. But the gradual growth of alluvial deposits, and more recently the artificial embankment of the shore of the lake, have added much dry ground, and on this site the finest modern buildings have been erected. The 16th century castle and the 13th century collegiate church of Notre Dame (now Protestant) stand close together, and were founded in the rath century when the counts took up their permanent residence in the town,

Besides the capital, Neuchatel (g.v.), the chief towns are La Chaux de Fonds, Le Locle and Fleurier, the principal village in the Val de Travers. The most valuable mineral product is asphalt, of which there is a large and rich deposit in the Val de Travers. The wine of the Vignoble region is plentiful. Absinthe is manufactured in the Val de Travers. The most characteristic industry is that of watchmaking, which is chiefly carried on (since the early 18th century) to which they granted a charter of liberties in 1214. Among the in the highland valleys of La Chaux de Fonds and of Le Locle, buildings on the quays are the Musée des Beaux Arts (modern as well as at Fleurier in the Val de Travers. Swiss paintings and various historical collections, including that

NEUCHATEL—NEUILLY-SUR-SEINE ‘of Desor relating to the Lake Dwellings), the Gymnase (in which are also the museum of natural history, with the fine collections

of Agassiz, and the town library), the university and the Ecole

de Commerce.

The town owes much to the gifts of citizens.

NEUCHATEL,

LAKE

OF.

The

lakes of Neuchatel,

Bienne and Morat, connected by canals, are survivors of a former great lake of the lower Aar valley. It is the largest lake wholly

in Switzerland.

Its total area is 924 sq.m. (364 sq.m. are in the

Canton of Neuchatel over 33 sq.m. in Vaud, 203 sq.m. in Fribourg and in Berne 2 sq.m.). It is about 234 m. long, from 33 to

5 m. wide, its greatest depth is 502 ft., while its surface is 1,427

ft. above sea level. The Thiéle or Zihl river enters at its southwestern end and issues from it at its north-eastern end, but it also receives the Areuse (N.W.), Seyon (N.W.) and the Broye

(N.E.). On the south-eastern shore the picturesque and historic

little town of Estavayer is the chief place. At the south-western extremity of the lake is Yverdon (the Eburodunum of the Romans and the residence of Pestalozzi, 1806-1825). Far more populated

is the north-western shore, where from south-west to north-east, we find Grandson, Cortaillod, Serrières and Neuchâtel itself. On

the north shore is La Tène.

NEUENDORF:

see Nowawes.

NEUF-BRISACH or NEUBREISACH, a town of France

in the department of Haut-Rhin on the Rhine-Rhone canal, 12 m. E. from Colmar by the railway to Freiburg. Pop. (1926) 1,775. Neuf-Brisach is a garrisoned fortress town founded by Louis XIV.

in 1699 and fortified by Vauban. It was taken by the Germans on Nov. 10, 1870, and became French once more in 1918.

NEUFCHATEAU, a town of eastern France, in the department of Vosges at the confluence of the Meuse and the Mouzon, 49 m. W.N.W. of Epinal by rail. Pop. (1926) 3,845. The town, which is said to occupy the site of the Roman Neomagus, belonged in the middle ages to the dukes of Lorraine, ruins of whose chateau are still to be seen. In 1641 it passed to France. The churches are those of St. Christopher (13th and rsth centuries) and St. Nicholas, the latter combining the Romanesque and Gothic styles and built above a Romanesque crypt. NEUHOF, THEODORE STEPHEN, Baron von (c. 1690-1756), German adventurer and for a short time nominal king of Corsica, was a son of a Westphalian nobleman and was born at Cologne. Educated at the court of France, he served first in the French army and then in that of Sweden. Baron de Goertz, minister to Charles XII., realizing Neuhof’s capacity for intrigue, sent him to England and Spain to negotiate with Cardinal Alberoni. He returned to Sweden and then went to Spain, where he was made colonel and married one of the queen’s ladies-in-waiting. Deserting his wife soon afterwards he repaired to France and became mixed up in Law’s financial affairs; then he wandered about Portugal, Holland and Italy, and at Genoa he made the acquaintance of some Corsican prisoners and exiles, whom he persuaded that he could free their country from Genoese tyranny if they made him king of the island. With their help and that of the bey of Tunis he landed in Corsica in March 1736, where the islanders, believing that he had the support of

several of the Powers, proclaimed him king. He assumed the style of Theodore I., issued edicts, instituted an order of knighthood, and waged war on the Genoese, at first with some success. But he was eventually defeated, and civil broils soon broke out in the island; the Genoese having put a price on his head and published an account of his antecedents, he left Corsica in Nov. 1736, ostensibly for foreign assistance. He returned to the island in 1738, 1739 and 1743, but the combined Genoese and French forces drove him out. Arrested for debt in London he regained his freedom by mortgaging his “kingdom” of Corsica, and subsisted on the charity of Horace Walpole and other friends until his death in London on Dec. rr, 1756. See Mémoires pour servir & Vhistoire de erick, also an English translation, both 1768. In 1795 he published a new edition with an account of its union to the crown

la Corse, by his son Fredpublished in London in on Description of Corsica of Great Britain. See also

Fitzgerald, King Theodore of Corsica (1890); and Le Glay, Théodore de Corse (1907).

NEUILLY,

TREATY

OF.

The Bulgarian treaty was

255

signed at Neuilly on Nov. 27 1910, and came into force on Aug. Q 1920. In the main it is the same as the Austrian treaty. But there were important differences in the military and naval clauses, and also in reference to reparation and finance. The only serious territorial changes were to the west and south. The Serb-Croat-Slovene kingdom obtained several strategic ratifications. The two most important are that the Strumitsa salient in the extreme south-west has been flattened out, the western half being ceded to the Serbs; also, and more important, in the Nish-Pirot area the town of Tsaribrod has been taken from Bulgaria and a line drawn whereby an advance on Nish would be rendered more difficult. The frontier, however, confers no offensive advantage on the Serbs. A loss more serious in another sense is that to Greece of the district of Western Thrace, lying between Xanthi and the Maritsa river. This was ceded to Greece on her obtaining Eastern Thrace and Adrianople. Bulgaria, for ethnic reasons, received a slight extension of térritory west of Adrianople. The expulsion of Greeks from Adrianople and East Thrace by the Turks did not, however, cause the Allies to change their minds about Western Thrace, which remains annexed to Greece and is denied to Bulgaria. Bulgaria had always asserted claims to that part of Macedonia now in Serbian hands, and also to Eastern and Western Thrace. In the former area her ethnic pretensions are better founded than in the latter. But Serbian Macedonia is in the hands of a formidably armed and militarily strong nation. Greek Macedonia and Thrace are now populated by hundreds of thousands of Greek refugees from Asia, and contain over 80% of a purely Greek population. In population Bulgaria lost some 300,000 persons, of whom some are not Bulgars. Part

IV. The

military,

naval

and

air

clauses

have

some

special

points. Bulgaria is allowed 20,000 regulars, 10,000 gendarmes and 3,000 frontier guards, or 33,000 in all. This number is insufficient to maintain order in a turbulent Balkan State, and the subsequent serious disturbances in Bulgaria are due directly to this fact. It is increased by the difficulty of applying the voluntary long-service system of 12 consecutive years to a nation of peasants. In an agricultural country it is practically impossible to get men to leave their farms for I2 years, and the army is always likely to be dangerously below strength, and the less regular formations dangerously above it. The naval clauses do not differ from those of the German or Austrian treaties. All Bulgaria’s navy has now been destroyed, and she was left with four torpedo-boats, of which three were damaged, and six motorboats, of which four were damaged. Pari V. (Prisoners of War and Graves) and Part VI. (Penalties) are the same as in the Austrian treaty (see

St. GERMAIN,

TREATY OF).

Part VII. (Reparation.) This contains the most novel and interesting feature of the treaty, and is, in fact, the only serious attempt

to get reparation on to a business basis. It contained three features of great interest. (a) Contrary to the practice in the German, Austrian and Hungarian treaties, there was no attempt made to seize or distribute the

Bulgarian commercial

fleet on the “ton-for-ton”

or “class-for-class”

inciple.

(b) It fixed the amount to be paid at the lump sum of £90,000,000.

(c) It created a Reparation Commission consisting of French, British and Italian representatives with power to reduce this amount

by a simple majority vote (not by unanimity as is the systematic rule), on the suggestion of the inter-allied Commission. The general scope and powers of the Reparation Commission are

drawn in such a manner as to control the finances of the country sufficiently to obtain reparation, without offensive interference. In the end, the Reparation Commission, after examining the question on the spot, has practically remitted three-quarters of the total of £90,000,000. The annual sum now required to meet the charges on the 550,000,000 gold francs of the debt is well within the capacity of the new Bulgarian State, and is being punctually paid. None of the remaining clauses of the Bulgarian treaty have any special features of interest or importance. (See BULGARIA ; PARIS, CONFERENCE OF; REPARATION, etc.). BIBLIOGRAPHY.—H. W. V. Temperley, ed., History of Peace Conference, vol. iv. and v. (1921); Text of Treaty, Parliamentary Papers

(Treaty Series, 1920), No. 5 Cmd. 522.

NEUILLY-SUR-SEINE,

a suburb of Paris, 8 kilometres

north-west from Notre Dame, in the department of Seine. It is situated between the fortifications and the Seine. Pop. (1926) 50,528. A castle at Neuilly, built by the count of Argenson in the 18th century, ultimately became the property and favourite résidence of the duke of Orleans (Louis Philippe), the

256

NEUMANN—NEURALGIA

birthplace of nearly all his children, and the scene of the offer of the crown in 1830. The buildings were pillaged and burned by the mob in 1848. The park, which extended from the fortifications to the river, as well as the neighbouring park of Villiers (also belonging to the princes of Orleans), was broken up into building lots, and is occupied by many small middle-class houses and a few fine villas. The fine bridge, designed in the 18th century by Perronet, is noteworthy as the first level bridge constructed in France. The Galignani Institution, founded by the brothers Galignani for aged booksellers, printers and others, has accommodation for roo residents. The manufactures include perfumery, chocolate, colours, varnish, automobiles, carpets; Neuilly is an engineering centre.

NEUMANN,

FRANZ

ERNST

(1798-1895),

German

mineralogist, physicist and mathematician, was born at Joachimstal on Sept. 11, 1798. Neumann’s earlier papers on crystallography led to his appointment as Privatdozent at Königsberg, where in 1828 he became extraordinary, and in 1829 ordinary professor of mineralogy and physics. In 1831, from a study of the specific heats of compounds, he formulated ““Neumann’s law” (that “the molecular heat of a compound is equal to the sum of the atomic heats of its constituents”). Devoting himself next to optics, he produced memoirs which entitle him to a high place among the early searchers after a dynamical theory of light. In 1832, by the aid of a particular hypothesis as to the constitution of the ether, he reached results agreeing with those obtained by A. L. Cauchy, and succeeded in deducing laws of double refraction resembling those of A. J. Fresnel. He made contributions to the mathematical theory of electrodynamics, and in papers published in 1845 and 1847 established mathematically the laws of the induction of electric currents. His last publication was on spherical harmonics (Beiträge zur Theorie der Kugelfunctionen, 1878). He died at Königsberg on May 23, 1895

tants and Roman Catholics.

The town is first mentioned in 128,

and became important industrially during the 18th century. The principal industrial establishment is an iron-foundry.

town are important coal mines. destroyed in 1797.

NEUQUEN,

Around the

The castle built in 1570 was

an inland territory of Argentina on the Chilean

frontier, between the Colorado and Limay rivers, with the province of Mendoza on the north and the territory of Rio Negro on the east and south. Area, 40,530 sq.m. Pop. (1914) 28,866 The greater part of the territory is mountainous, with fertile, wellwatered valleys and valuable forests. The eastern part, however, contains large plains, showing only stunted vegetation, and having numerous saline deposits. Long droughts prevail in this region and there is no inducement for settlement, the nomadic Indians visiting it only on their hunting expeditions. Guanacos and Argentine hares are found in abundance in Neuquén, and to a lesser degree the South American ostrich. The Neuquén, which unites

with the Limay near the 68th meridian to form the Rio Negro, is the principal river of the territory. The largest of a group of beautiful lakes in the higher Andean valleys is the celebrated Nahuel-Huapi (Lion Grass), which is nearly so m. long from east

to west and about 20 m. from north to south at its widest part,

and which lies partly in the south-west angle of the territory, partly in Rio Negro, and partly in the Republic of Chile. It is the source of the Rio Limay and receives the overflow from two smaller neighbouring lakes. The temperature of the Andean region is cold even in summer, but on the lower plains it is hot in summer. The territory is reached by a light-draught river steamer which ascends the Rio Negro to Ft. Roca at the confluence of the Limay and Neuquén, and by a branch of the Great Southern railway from Bahia Blanca to the same point. The population is concentrated in a few small towns on the rivers and NEUMANN (originally BAMBERGER), KARL FRIEDRICH in some colonies, in the fertile districts of the Andes. The capital (1793—1870), German orientalist, was born at Reichsmannsdorf, is Neuquén, a small town on the river of the same name, in the near Bamberg, on Dec. 28, 1793. He studied philosophy and phi- mountainous district in the northern part of the territory. lology at Heidelberg, Munich and Göttingen. From 1822 to 1825 NEURALGIA, a term generally used to indicate pain affecthe was a teacher at Spires; then he learned Armenian in Venice ing a particular nerve or its branches from any cause. The existand visited Paris and London. In 1829 he went to China, where ence of neuralgia usually betokens a depressed or enfeebled state he amassed a library of about 12,000 valuable books and manu- of health. It is often found to affect the hereditarily rheumatic scripts, which he presented to the royal library at Munich. In or gouty. In weakened conditions from improper or insufficient 1831 Neumann became professor of Armenian and Chinese at food, in anaemia from any cause, and in syphilis or malaria, neuMunich. In 1852 he was removed from his chair on account of ralgia is a frequent concomitant. The pain is often localized, but his revolutionary views. He died in Berlin on March 17, 1870. may come to extend beyond the area of its first occurrence. It Neumann wrote Geschichte des englischen Reichs in Asien (Leipzig, is usually paroxysmal, not unfrequently periodic; occurring at a 1851) ; Geschichte der Vereinigten Staaten von Amerika (Berlin, 1863certain time of the day or night, varies in intensity, and may be 1866); Versuch einer Geschichte der armenischen Literatur (Leipzig, 1836) ; Die Volker des südlichen Russland (1846; and again 1855) ; and agonizing or less severe and tingling. Perverted nerve function several translations from the Chinese. The journal of the Royal may co-exist with or following neuralgia. Thus there may be Asiatic Society (London, 1871) contains a full list of his works. hyperaesthesia, anaesthesia, paralysis or alterations of nutrition, NEUMES, the signs employed in Western musical notation such as wasting of muscles, whitening of the hair, etc. before the introduction of the staff. (Gr. vedua, a sign). They The commonest forms of neuralgia are facial neuralgia or tic were, in the first instance, merely rough expression marks placed douloureux, intercostal neuralgia and sciatica. over the words, to guide the singers of the plainsong melodies, the Facial Neuralgia (or tic douloureux) affects the great nerve melodies themselves being learned by ear, and hence they gave of sensation of the face (fifth nerve), and may occur in one or no indication as to the pitch or time-relations of the notes. Gradu- more of its three divisions. It is usually confined to one side. ally, however, they became more and more elaborate and precise, When the ophthalmic division of the nerve is involved the pain then their positions on the paper were varied to indicate pitch, is mostly felt in the forehead and side of the head. It is often though at first without the employment of lines; subsequently intensely sharp, cutting or burning, either constant or with exacerlines were introduced, and so, step by step, the whole present-day bations, and often periodic. The skin over the affected part is syste. was evolved. (See MusicaL NOTATION.) often red and swollen, and, even after the attack has abated, feels NEUMUNSTER, a town in the Prussian province of Schles- stiff and tender to the touch. In this, as in all forms of neuralgia, wig-Holstein, lies on the small river Schwale, 40 m. N. of Altona- at certain localities the pain is more intense, these “painful Hamburg by rail, and at the junction of lines to Kiel, Vamdrup points” usually being where the branches of the nerves emerge (Denmark) and Tönning. Pop. (1925) 39,851. The name, which from bony canals or pierce the fascia to ramify in the skin. Hence, was originally Wipendorp, is derived from an Augustine monas- in this form, the greater severity of the pain above the eyebrow tery, founded in 1130, and is mentioned as novum monasterium and along the side of the nose. There is also pain in the eyelid, in a document of 1136. Its industrial importance began in the redness of the eye, and flow of tears. When the maxillary division 17th century, when the cloth-workers of Segeberg, a town to the of the nerve is affected the pain is chiefly in the cheek and upper south-east, migrated to it. It became a town in 1870. It is, after jaw, the painful points being immediately below the lower eyelid, over the cheek bone and about the upper lip. When the mandibAltona, the most important industrial town in the province.

NEUNKIRCHEN or Oser-NEUNKIRCHEN, a town in the Prussian Rhine province, on the Blies, 12 m. N.E. of Saarbriicken

and the chief painful points are in front of the ear and about the

by rail. Pop. (1925) 35,274, consisting almost equally of Protes-

chin.

ular division of the nerve suffers the pain affects the lower jaw,

NEURASTHENIA—-NEURITIS Intercostal neuralgia is pain affecting the nerves which emerge from the spinal cord and run along the spaces between the ribs to the front of the body.

It affects the left side more than

the right, is much more common in women than in men, and oc-

curs generally in enfeebled states of health. It might be mistaken for pleurisy or some inflammatory affection of the lungs; but the absence of chest symptoms, its occurrence independently of respiration and other considerations establish the distinction. The specially painful points are chiefly at the commencement of the

nerve aS it issues from the spinal canal, and at the extremities towards the front of the body, where it breaks up into filaments which ramify in the skin. This form of neuralgia occasionally

precedes or follows an attack of shingles (Herpes zoster). Sciatica is another common form of neuralgia.

It affects the

great sciatic nerve which emerges from the pelvis and runs down the leg to the foot. It is often traceable to cold or damp, to over-

use of the limbs in walking, etc. Any source of pressure upon the nerve within the pelvis, e.g., pregnancy,

constipation, may excite an attack of sciatica.

a tumour

or even

It is often con-

nected with a rheumatic or gouty constitution. In general the nerve of one side only is affected. The pain which is felt at first a little behind the hip-joint steadily increases in severity and ex-

tends along the course of the nerve and its branches, perhaps, down to the toes. The specially painful points are about the knee and ankle joints; besides which a feeling of numbness is experienced throughout the whole limb. In severe cases all movement of the limb aggravates the pain, and the patient is obliged to remain in bed. In prolonged attacks the limb may waste and be drawn up and fixed in one position. Attacks of sciatica are often attended with great suffering, and are apt to be very intractable to treatment.

Treatment.—In the treatment of all forms of neuralgia it is of first importance to determine if possible any underlying cause.

When the attack is periodic the administration of a large dose of quinine two or three hours previous to the usual time of the seizure will often mitigate, and may even prevent the paroxysm. Many topical applications are of great efficacy. Liniments containing opium, belladonna or aconite rubbed into the affected part will often soothe the most severe local pain. And antipyrin, phenacetin, aspirin and similar analgesics are commonly taken. The plan at one time resorted to of dividing or excising a portion of the affected nerve is now seldom employed, but the operation of nerve-stretching in some forms of neuralgia, notably sciatica, is sometimes successful. Such an operation is justifiable only in cases where other less severe measures have failed to give relief. Electricity proves serviceable in many instances. In the severest forms of tic douloureux complete relief has followed extirpation of the Gasserian ganglion. (F. W. Mo.)

NEURASTHENIA,

a medical term for weakness of the

nervous system. The symptoms may present themselves as follows: (1) general feeling of malaise, combined with a mixed state of excitement and depression; (2) headache, sometimes with the addition of vertigo, deafness and a transitory clouding of consciousness simulating petit mal or migraine; (3) disturbed and restless, unrefreshing sleep, often troubled with dreams; (4) weakness of memory, especially for recent events; (5) blurring of sight, noises or ringing in the ears; (6) variable disturbances of sensibility, especially scattered analgesia (partial and symmetrical) affecting the backs of the hands especially, and in women the breasts; (7) various troubles of sympathetic origin, notably local-

ized coldness, particularly in the extremities, morbid heats, flushings and sweats;

(8) various phenomena of nervous depression

associated with functional disturbances of organs. According to the complexity of symptoms, the neurasthenia is more particularly defined as cerebral, spinal, gastric and sexual. The cerebral form is sometimes termed psychasthenia, and is liable to present morbid fears or phobias, e.g., agoraphobia (fright in

crowds), monophobia

(fright of being alone), claustrophobia

(fright of being in a confined place), anthropophobia (fright of

society), batophobia (fright of things falling), siderodromophobia (fright of railway travelling). There may also be mental rumina-

tions, in which there is a continuous flow of connected ideas from

257

which there is no breaking away, often most insistent at night and leading to insomnia. Sometimes there is arithmomania (an imperative idea to count). Such cases often exhibit a marked emotionalism and readily manifest joy or sorrow; they may be cynical, pessimistic, introspective and self-centred, only able to talk about themselves or matters of personal interest, yet they frequently possess great intellectual ability, and there is an absence of the insane ideas characteristic of melancholia. Traumatic neurasthenia is the neurasthenia following shock from injury; it is sometimes termed “railway spine,” “railway brain,” from the frequency with which it occurs after railway accidents, especially in people of a nervous temperament. The physical injury at the time may be slight, so that the patient is able to resume work, but symptoms develop later which may simulate serious organic disease. As in all forms of neurasthenia, the subjective symptoms may be numerous and varied, whereas the objective signs are but few and slight. Many difficulties, therefore, present themselves in arriving at a sound opinion as to the future in such cases. “Shell-shock” (g.v.) is a modern variant of neurasthenia occasioned by war conditions. The treatment of neurasthenia is largely psychical and if carried out systematically is often very successful (see PSYCHOTHERAPY). (F. W. Mo.) BIBLIoGRAPHY.—T. A. Ross, The Common Neuroses (1923); I. G. Cobb, A Manual of Neurasthenia, bibl. (1920); Sir M. Craig, Nerve Exhaustion (1922); H. S. Stannas, “Tropical Neurasthenia,” Med. Press, cxxiii., 381 (1927); E. F. Buzzard, “Traumatic Neurasthenia,” Ment. Hyg., viii., 425 (1924); E. S. Reynolds, “Hysteria and Neurasthenia,” Brit, Med. Journ., ii., 1,193 (1923). For U.S. Bibliography. — Peterson, Frederick Cecil’s Textbook W. B. Saunders Co., 1927, pp. I419-1426.

NEURITIS, a term denoting inflammation of nerve fibres. Two varieties are known, the localized and the multiple. The localized form frequently follows exposure to cold and may attack a single nerve. Facial paralysis (Bell’s palsy) is commonly seen following a neuritis of the facial nerve. Neuritis may follow blows and wounds, stretching or long-continued pressure, as in a dislocation of the elbow joint, or the nerve may be involved in a neighbouring inflammation. The first symptom of a localized neuritis is boring pain along the course of a nerve and its distribution, the part being sensitive to pressure. Multiple neuritis or polyneuritis may affect many of the peripheral nerves symmetrically and at the same time. For the pathological changes see NEUROPATHOLOGY. The causes may be divided as follows: (1) The toxins of acute infective diseases, such as diphtheria, influenza, typhoid fever, malaria, scarlet fever and septicaemia. (2) Acute or chronic poisoning by lead, arsenic, mercury, copper and phosphorus. (3) General disorders: gout, rheumatism, tubercle, carcinoma. (4) The local action of leprosy and syphilis. (5) Endemic disease: beri-beri (g.v.). (6) Alcohol, the most common. Alcoholic neuritis is a result of constant steady drinking, particularly of beer. It begins with numbness of the feet and later of the hands, then painful cramps in the legs appear and there is pain on moving the limbs, and superficial tenderness is occasionally present. In other cases the earliest symptoms are weakness of the legs and extreme fatigue, leading to a characteristic “steppage gait,” or marked inco-ordination of movement may occur and the gait become ataxic. Trophic changes soon appear, early and rapid muscular wasting occurs, the skin becomes dry and glossy, the nails brittle and the hair thin. In time contractures take place, the hip and knee-joints become flexed and the foot dropped at the ankle. Should the case progress the patient may become bedridden and powerless, and degenerative mental changes may take place, loss of memory, irritability of temper and emotional instability. Early cases may recover completely under treatment. The galvanic and faradaic currents combined with massage are useful in helping to restore the wasted muscles, and hot-air baths and warm applications are appreciated. Arsenical neuritis mostly affects the lower extremities, as contrasted with lead, which mainly paralyses the fingers and wrists; recovery is even slower than in alcoholic neuritis, the treatment being on the same lines, with the removal of the cause of the disease. In the neuritis of chronic lead poisoning a fine tremor of the hands is an early symptom and sensory symptoms are usually

258

NEUROPATHOLOGY

absent; the muscles affected are the extensors of the wrists, thumb and fingers (see LEAD PoISONING). The course of the disease is long, and an attempt should be made to eliminate the lead from the system by purgatives and the administration of potassium iodide. In diabetic neuritis paraesthesia is slight, and the legs are chiefly affected; weakness and ataxia may be present. Trophic sores on the feet are of frequent occurrence in this variety. The treatment is that of the disease. Post-diphtheric neuritis occurs in about 10% of all cases of diphtheria. Paralysis of the soft palate is the earliest, and may be the only, symptom. The limbs are affected much later, usually about the fifth or sixth week. Atrophy of the muscles is frequently rapid. If the respiratory muscles are unaffected the prognosis is good, but the paralysis of the limbs may last for several months. The treatment is complete rest, good food and the administration of strychnine. Acute polyneuritis with numbness and motor weakness has been noted after influenza, together with slight muscular wasting and electrical degeneration. Later, there is loss of sensation in the peripheral portion of the limbs, and the motor weakness may affect the muscles of the trunk and face. Such cases tend towards complete recovery. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—W. Harris, Neuritis and Neuralgia (1926); H. Higier, “Zur Klinik d. rezidivierenden Formen d. Polyneuritis, Myelitis u. Meningoencephalitis (Meningitis serosa, Pseudotumor cerebri)” in Ztschr. f. d. ges. Neurol. u. Psychiat., civ., 453, bibl. (1926) ; W. Martin, “Some types of neuritic reflex pains not generally recognized; treatment by physical measures” in Med. Jn. and Rec., cxxiv., 782 (1926); T. G. Stewart and W. Harris, “Discussion on causation and symptomatology of multiple neuritis” in Brit. Med. Jn., ii., 461 (1925); Stauck, “Ueber progressive hypertrophische Neuritis (Hoffmannsche Krankheit)” in Ztschr. f. d. ges. Neurol. u. Psychiat., xcii., 34, bibl. (1924).

NEUROPATHOLOGY,

the general name for the science

concerned with diseases of the nervous system. For the anatomy and physiology, see Nerve, Nervous SYSTEM, BRAIN, SPINAL Corp and SympatHetic SystEM. The morbid processes affecting the nervous system are usually clinically divided into two great groups of (1) organic disease, (2) functional disturbance, depending on whether or not symptoms observed during life can be associated with recognizable changes after death. Knowledge of the first group is much more advanced than of the latter, for, given certain symptoms during life, we can, as a rule, predict not only the nature of the morbid process, but its particular locality. The histological elements which make up the nervous system may also be divided into two groups: (1) the nervous units or neurones, (2) the supporting, protecting and nutrient tissues. Nervous diseases may start primarily in the neurones and cause their degeneration; such may bring about “diseases,” or “syndromes” within the nervous system. The nervous units, however, may be affected secondarily by disease processes starting in the supporting, protecting and nutrient tissues within the nervous system; such include changes of the blood-vessels, lymphatics, membranes and the special nervous connective tissue, neuroglia (a residue of the embryonal structure from which the nervous system was developed). Tumours and new growths must also be included. The causes of pathological processes occurring in the nervous

units (neurones) may be divided into internal and external; in all cases except direct injury the two groups are generally more or less combined.

psychopathic taint.

` EXTERNAL

CAUSES

The external causes producing morbid changes in the nervous elements are: I. Abnormal conditions of the blood and lymph.

II. Excess or deficiency of normal stimulation, or existence of abnormal

stimulation.

III. Injury

enclosing or vascular tissues.

or diseases

of supporting

Abnormal Conditions of the Blood and Lymph.—The essential causes of change in environment of the nervous elements

(neurones) are: (1) Deficiency or absence of blood-supply to the nervous system in general (as after severe haemorrhage), or to

some particular portion, owing to local vascular disturbance or occlusion. (2) Alterations in the normal condition of the blood, due to (a) deficiency or absence of certain essential constituents, (b) excess of certain normal constituents, (c) the presence of cer-

tain abnormal constituents produced within the body, or entering it from without. All these act through the cerebro-spinal fluid, a special lymph secreted by the choroid plexus in the ventricles of the brain by which the neurones are bathed.

(1) Quantity of Blood Supply—Syncope

or fainting occurs

when the blood supply suddenly fails to reach the higher centres of the brain; such may arise from sudden reflex arrest of the heart’s action, or from localized spasms of the cerebral vessels. The effects of embolism and thrombosis are considered later. (2) Quality of Blood Supply.—(a) Insufficiency of oxygen, as in anaemia, leads to functional depression, lassitude and mental fatigue. Impoverishment of the blood in women by frequent pregnancies and excessive lactation causes neuralgia, nervous exhaustion and may aid in the development of neurasthenic or hysterical reactions. The tendency of psychoneuroses and psychoses to occur and recur at menstrual and climacteric periods in women, indicates that these factors themselves are of periodic significance. These are connected with the reproduction function, rather than with the blood however. The most striking examples

of the effect of absence or “sub-minimal” deficiency of a normal constituent of the blood upon the development and functions of the nervous system are afforded by cretinous idiots, who are born without thyroid glands, and whose brains never develop in consequence; and by those people who suffer from myxoedema (g.v.) occasioned by the absence of thyroxin or other products of the internal secretion of the thyroid gland. The proof of this is shown by the disappearance of the nervous phenomena, slowness of thought, slowness of speech, etc., after thyroxin or a preparation of the gland has been continuously administered. This is an excellent example of a reversible process. (b) Excess of certain Normal Constituents in the Blood.—Excess of carbonic acid causes drowsiness, and probably in asphyxia is one of the causes of the convulsions.

All the nitrogenous waste

products are normal constituents of the blood; but should oxidation be incomplete, from disease of the liver, or should these substances accumulate in the blood, owing to inadequate function of the kidneys, uraemia may supervene, the manifestations of which are headache, drowsiness, unconsciousness or coma, epilep-

tiform convulsions

and sometimes

symptoms

of polyneuritis.

Again, in Graves’s disease (hyperthyroidism), nervous phenomena, in the form of exophthalmos, fine tremors, palpitation and

mental excitement have by some authorities been explained by

the excess of thyroid internal secretion, due to the enlargement and increased functional activity of the gland. (c). The presence of abnormal constituents in the blood is a cases of idiocy or imbecility in the London county asylums, Dr. most important cause of disease of the nervous elements. These Tredgold found a family history of insanity in some form or are: Poisons produced within the body (a) by perverted function another. This predisposition may be convergent, paternal, ma- of organs or tissues, auto-intoxication; (8) by the action of ternal; from grandparents or even more remote ancestors. More- micro-organisms, protozoa and bacteria, upon the living fluids and over, no study of heredity is complete that does not take into tissues of the body; (y,) poisons introduced into the body from consideration collaterals. Especially does this apply to functional without. (x) Poisons resulting from perverted Function of the Organs. neuroses, ¢.g., epilepsy, migraine, hysteria and neurasthenia; and to psychoses, e.g., delusional insanity, mania and melancholia, —Nervous symptoms follow auto-intoxication by products of dismanic-depressive, recurrent or periodic insanity and dementia- ordered digestion, fatigue products (¢.g., sarcolactic acid in propraecox or adolescent insanity. Strictly speaking, it is the tend- longed muscular spasm), excess of uric acid, phosphates, oxalates, ency to nervous disease rather than the disease itself that is in- sugar, bile, hepatic products as in acute yellow atrophy. In perherited, and this is frequently spoken of as a neuropathic or nicious and certain grave anaemias, the degenerative changes in

Internal Causes.—Of the factors involved in nervous disease hereditary predisposition may first be accented. In 70% of 150

NEUROPATHOLOGY the spinal cord found in some cases is due, chiefly, to some

neuro-toxin, which probably arises from imperfect metabolism or absorption from the alimentary canal. In auto-intoxication, dis-

ease of one organ or tissue is apt to establish a vicious circle

which is constantly enlarging; therefore nervous symptoms manifesting themselves in the course of a disease add much to the

gravity of the complaint. (B). Poisons produced by infective Micro-organisms.—Some

of these have a general devitalizing influence by altering the blood

and producing fever. In acute infectious diseases, delirium is a frequent complication; in severe cases, stupor and coma may occur, and in this extreme stage the nerve cells undergo an acute morbid bio-chemical change.

These particular poisons may have

marked selective toxic action upon particular parts of the nervous system.

Poisons may have a selective influence upon some part of the nervous system. The syphilitic organism and its poisons are most

important factors in the production of two progressive degenerations of the nervous system—one affecting especially the afferent conducting tracts of the spinal cord, namely, tabes dorsalis (locomotor ataxia), and the other affecting especially the frontal and central convolutions of the cerebral hemispheres, namely, general paresis (general paralysis of the insane). When syphilis attacks the supporting, enclosing and nutrient vascular tissues, a

predilection to affect structures about the base of the brain occurs, and paralyses of the third nerve are frequent in this disease.

Other examples occur in rabies, tetanus, diphtheria (q.v.). Protozoa and Diseases of the Nervous System.—The rela-

tion of protozoa to the existence of widespread diseases affecting men and animals is becoming yearly of greater importance. Certain diseases in which the nervous system is profoundly affected are now explained by the invasion of the tissues of the body by these lowly organisms, for example, African sleeping sickness due to a special protozoan; Syphilis due to Spirochaeta or Tre-

ponema pallida; Malaria due to Haematozoon malariae. The bacterial invasion of tissues is generally characterized by a migration of polymorpho-nuclear leucocytes, but protozoal invasion is characterized by a formative hyperplasia of the fixed cell tissues, endothelial, epithelial and conjunctival, and there is a close similarity in the defensive reaction of the tissues to all forms of protozoal invasion. When the nervous system is affected a local or general chronic meningo-encephalitis is set up, characterized by a meningeal and perivascular infiltration with lymphocytes and plasma cells, occasioned by a chronic irritative process, presumably caused in the case of sleeping sickness for example by the presence of trypanosomes in the actual cerebro-spinal fluid. The same perivascular and meningeal infiltration with plasma cells and lymphocytes is found in syphilitic diseases of the nervous system. Pathology of the Cerebro-spinal Fluid.—Pathological changes in the cerebro-spinal fluid are important in the diagnosis of nervous diseases. Normal cerebro-spinal fluid is clear like water; it has a specific gravity of 1-006 and resembles in its com-

position the blood minus its corpuscular and albuminous constituents. Being secreted by the choroid plexus, if any cause, such as tumour or meningitis, should interfere with its escape from the ventricles it gives rise by pressure to internal hydrocephalus and cerebral anaemia which may occasion epileptic convulsions and various degrees of drowsy stupor, lethargy, unconsciousness and even coma. Lumbar puncture has proved of some use in treatment, but is invaluable in the diagnosis of various diseases of the central nervous system. The fluid withdrawn should be centrifuged and the deposit examined microscopically if necessary after staining by suitable methods; the existence of cells indicates disease of the central nervous system. In general paresis, cerebrospinal syphilis and tabes dorsalis even in early stages, the deposit

consists almost entirely of lymphocytes.

Some evidence of the

progress of the disease and the effect of treatment tained by counting the number of cells at different tuberculous meningitis there are also lymphocytes in tubercle bacilli cannot readily be found, but if the

may be obperiods. In abundance; fluid be in-

jected into a guinea pig, the animal will develop tubercle. In epi-

259

demic cerebro-spinal meningitis the cells in the deposit are polymorpho-nuclear

leucocytes

and in the leucocytes

can

be seen

Diplococcus intracellularis. Septic, pneumonic and pyogenic organisms may also invade the central nervous system giving rise to meningitis, and in these cases the deposit will be polymorphonuclear leucocytes, and perhaps the specific organisms may be seen in stained preparations; but if not, they can be obtained by cultural methods. Other formed elements which may be found are large cells, macrophages containing blood pigment; these cells indicate that haemorrhage has occurred. One of the most important uses of lumbar puncture has been the discovery of the cause of African sleeping sickness. The fluid withdrawn and centrifuged is found to contain large numbers of lymphocytes and plasma cells in addition to specimens of the actively moving organism Trypanosoma gambiense, a flagellate. In the forms of disease here described as containing cells in the centrifuged deposit, there is also in the fluid an appreciable amount of proteins. If pathological cerebrospinal fluid be added to an equal quantity of saturated solution of sodium sulphate there will be a distinct turbidity indicating the presence of proteins in appreciable quantity. This appreciable quantity of proteins is especially significant in the case of fluid withdrawn from cases of general paralysis or tabes, for it goes pari passu in amount with the Wassermann sero-diagnostic reaction for syphilis. African sleeping sickness is characterized by a progressive lethargy, paresis, tremors and the signs and symptoms of neural exhaustion without neural destruction; it comes on slowly and insidiously often years after infection and eventually terminates fatally by intercurrent disease or paralysis of the bulbar centres. Examination of the central nervous system explains the fatal lethargy; the perivascular and meningeal lymphatics are filled with lymphocytes and plasma cells and the neuroglia supporting cells have undergone a rapid proliferation. The effect of this morbid process is to deprive the neural elements of oxygen and nutrition; the neurones in consequence, although not destroyed, are never-

theless unable to function for more than a brief period. Poisons Introduced into the Body.—The most widespread and potent cause of nervous and mental disease is the abuse of alcohol-containing liquids. At least 20 per cent of the inmates of the asylums of London are admitted with a history of alcoholism. Whether alcoholism is a cause or a result is still debatable. In not more than 10% is alcohol the efficient cause of the mental disease; in many it is only a contributory factor, and in not a few the lapse from moderation to intemperance is one sign of a mental disturbance. To people with unstable nervous systems a relatively small quantity of alcohol may act as a poison. Thus epileptics, imbeciles, criminals, potential lunatics, and the subjects of head injury are liable to become anti-social and dangerous to themselves and others by indulgence in quantities of alcohol which would have no harmful effect upon the mentally stable and sound individual. However, chronic alcoholics form a large proportion of those convicted for crimes of violence, homicide, suicide, and sexual offences. Another common effect of alcohol is perzpheral polyneuritis (see NEURITIS), although frequently changes occur as well in the ganglion cells, from which the axis cylinders of the nerves have their origin. (See Nervous System.) Alcoholic polyneuritic psychosis affecting women in many ways resembles delirium tremens (see DELtRrIuM); the fact that neuritis occurs much more frequently in women is probably associated with the fact that when the female breaks through the resistance to her conflicts by the use of alcohol her regression is deeper and her indulgence greater. Many other poisons, notably lead and arsenic, the specific fevers before mentioned, syphilis and alterations of the blood due to imperfect metabolism, such as occur in diabetes and gout, may produce, or become important factors in producing, peripheral neuritis. The outbreak of arsenical neuritis from beer containing this poison in Manchester in 1900 (see ADULTERATION), is of interest from that fact that the symptoms closely resembled

acute alcoholic neuritis. A distinctive feature, however, was the pigmentation of the skin and the severity of the nervous symptoms. A disease, common in the East, termed beri-beri (q.v.), $

NEUROPATHOLOGY

260

is a form of neuritis. Anaesthetic leprosy is an interstitial inflammation of the nerves due to the Lepra bacillus. Among the nervous diseases due to occupation may be cited lead-poisoning (q.v.). Lead also produces a chronic inflammation of the cerebral cortex, Encephalitis saturnina, causing a complex of symptoms, namely dementia, loss of memory, weakened intellect, paresis and epileptiform seizures, hallucinations of sight and hearing, and mental exaltation or depression. Mirror-makers suffer with characteristic fine tremors, from the slow absorption of mercury into the system. Workmen at indiarubber factories may suffer from severe mental symptoms, owing to the inhalation of the fumes of carbon bisulphide. Serious nervous symptoms have followed carbon monoxide poisoning. Cases which have recovered from the immediate effects have suffered with dementia and symptoms of disseminated sclerosis, the result of multiple haemorrhagic softenings. Certain other poisons, besides alcohol, act upon the nervous system when continually entering the body as the result of a habit, namely, absinthe, ether, cocaine, opium, morphin, hashish and tobacco. Each of these has a selective influence upon certain parts of the nervous system. In illustration thereof may be mentioned impairment of central vision in tobacco amblyopia. Other diseases of like kind are under pellagra (g.v.), ergot (g.v.), botulism (see MEDICAL RESEARCH). Adequate and Pathological Stimulation.—The nervous system in the form of systems, groups and communities of neurones, each with special functions, yet all woven together in one harmonious whole, develops in a particular way in consequence of the awakening influence of stimuli from without and from accumulated instinct stimuli from within. Consequently nervous structures which are not used at all, or badly used are liable to undergo regressive metamorphosis and atrophy; thus amputation of a limb in early life causes atrophy of the nervous structures which dealt with the sensations and movements of the part. This may be seen in the grey (synapses) and white matter (conducting pathways) of the spinal cord; there may also be found an atrophy of the psycho-motor neurones of the brain functionally related to the sensory and motor terminal areas of the involved limb. The converse is also true; the longer a perverted function exists, the more unlikely it is to disappear and ultimately to bring about irreversible structural changes. Mental pain in the form of grief, worry, anxiety, fright, shock, violent emotions (pleasurable or painful), disappointed love, and excessive intellectual work, frequently precede and determine

various types (a) of psychoses, e.g., manic-depressive, paranoid; (b) of neuroses, e.g., compulsion neurosis, hysteria, epilepsy, hystero-epilepsy; (c) or gross brain disease, e.g., apoplexy, thrombosis, arteriosclerotic degenerations. Visceral reflex irritation affords many examples of organ neuroses, the symptoms of which may be set up by irritation of the viscera, e.g., intestinal worms. Teething and indigestible food are often the exciting cause in infants and young children of convulsions and spasms of the glottis (spasmophilic). Some anomalies of the female reproductive organs act as exciting causes in the release of hysterical reactions. Paroxysmal exacerbations of emotional disturbances are liable to occur at the menstrual period or menopause. Here the stimulus proceeds from the reproductive instinct. The irritation of a carious tooth may produce spasmodic tic or trigeminal neuralgia. Wax in the ear may occasion vertigo and tinnitus; and grave errors of refraction in the eyes may be an accessory factor in the causation of attacks of migraine. Irritation of the receptors of the vagus in almost any part of its widespread visceral origin may lead to vomiting. The characteristic pain of angina pectoris, which radiates down the inner side of the left arm, is partly explained by the fact that the cardiac branches of the sympathetic follow the vascular supply of the arm, and the stimulus from the diseased aorta or coronary vessels radiates as pain in the vascular area. The entire explanation is extremely

complex!. This is one example of a great number of referred pains studied so extensively Mackenzie.

by the

English

1Spiegel, Wien, Kl. Woch. 40, 1927, 853.

observers,

Head

and

Injury or Disease of Enclosing or Supporting Structures may lead to paralytic or irritative lesions of the nervous system or the two may be combined. Blows or wounds of the head and spine may damage or destroy the nervous structures by shock or

direct injury. Concussion of the brain or spinal cord may occur as a result of injury, without any recognizable damage of the enclosing structures or even the central nervous system. Shock, due to concussion, can thus be explained as resulting from molecular or bio-chemical changes in the nervous structures. Direct injury may cause local destruction of the nervous tissue; but wounds and diseases of the enclosing and supporting structures, if non-infective, give rise only to such symptoms as accord with the nerve structure irritated or destroyed. Should, however, the wound or diseased structure become infected, the disease spreads and becomes generalized; likewise the symptoms. Of the many causes of infective inflammation of the brain itself, middleear disease is the most important. It is very liable, when neglected, to be followed by a septic meningitis, encephalitis and

brain abscess, the most frequent seat of which is in the adjacent temporal lobe, but it may involve other parts of the brain as well, for example the cerebellum and frontal lobe. The peripheral nerves may be destroyed or irritated by direct injury, disease or new growth in adjacent tissues, or they may be involved in the callus thrown out round the seat of a fracture. Diseases of the blood-vessels are among the most frequent causes of gross brain disease. Arteries or veins—more frequently the former—may become blocked or ruptured from various causes. The immediate effect is a disturbance or loss of consciousness, and the individual may be “struck down” (see APoPLEXxy) and never regain consciousness (see Coma). Should consciousness return, more or less permanent loss or disturbance of function becomes obvious. Paralysis of some form, especially hemiplegia, is commonest. The cerebral arteries, usually the left middle cerebral may be

occluded by embolism (qg.v.). The area of brain supplied by that artery undergoes softening in consequence, resulting in paralysis

of the opposite half of the body (hemiplegia) associated with aphasia when the paralysis affects the right side in a right-handed

person

(see Plate, fig.

1).

When

the embolus

is infective,

as in ulcerative endocarditis, it not only blocks the vessel but leads to an infective inflammation and softening of its coats, with the formation of an aneurism. The aneurism may suddenly rupture into the substance of the brain and produce apoplexy. Most cases of apoplexy from cerebral haemorrhage in young people are due to this cause. Softening may also arise from coagulation of the blood (thrombosis) in the arteries or veins. Many causes generally combine to produce thrombosis, viz., a weak acting heart and altered conditions of the blood. It is sometimes met with in the cachexia of phthisis and cancer, in typhus and pneumonia, after parturition and in marasmus at all periods of life, but especially in the very young and very old. But thickening, roughening, and a degenerated condition of the cerebral arteries known as atheroma, when associated with a weak acting heart is especially liable to give rise to thrombosis and softening, and is a very common cause of apoplexy, paralysis and mental deterioration in people who have passed middle life. General disease of the arteries of the body, with chronic Bright’s disease and high arterial pressure, is frequently associated with the formation of minute aneurisms upon the cerebral arteries, which may rupture and cause apoplexy. This is especially liable to occur in a vessel supplying the basal ganglia, the effused blood tearing through the motor efferent fibres (pyramidal tracts) lying between the optic thalamus and the

corpus striatum (see Plate, fig. 3). The result is hemiplegia of the opposite side of the body. Disease of the arteries of the central nervous system, occurring in a person under 4o, is generally due to syphilis, the virus of which produces an inflammation of the inner coats (see ARTERIES, DISEASES OF). The thickening and narrowing of the lumen with loss of elasticity of the arteries of the brain generally may suddenly or gradually set up cerebral anaemia

and give rise to semi-comatose and comatose or even apoplectic states. Occlusion by the inflammatory proliferation or by the sudden clotting of blood in the diseased vessel may occur, the immedi-

PLATE

NEUROPATHOLOGY

BY COURIEDSY

OF

J

C

GREENFIELD

THE

HUMAN

BRAIN

AND

SPINAL

a softening in the left hemi1. Horizontal section across a brain showing This caused right sided sphere due to a blockage of a cerebral artery. hemiplegia and aphasia

normal state of convolutions 2. Right cerebral hemisphere of an adult man;

a haemorrhage in the right 3. Horizontal section across a brain in which to the left arm and leg hemisphere had damaged the motor path causing left hemiplegia

idiot. There is complete brain of a microcephalic 4, Right half ofanytheconvolu tional pattern in the cortex of the brain, which absence of closely resembles that of the sheep. developed

The cerebellum

is normally

of cerebral cortex overlying 5. Microscopic section of a degenerated area a tumour, showing enlarged neuroglia cells

CORD

IN HEALTH

AND

DISEASE

idiot (walnut type). Here 6. Right half of the brain of a microcephalic fluid replaces the temporal of bag a and shrunk have tions the convolu birth before lesion r vascula toa due is This pole.

l cortex of a case of general paralysis 7- Microscopic section of the cerebra surrounding a small vessel

showing inflammatory cells different common forms of spinal &-11. Sections across the spinal cord in are stained black): &. “‘Locofibres nerve ged undama (the paralysis sensory fibres in the posterior or ng ascendi the which in motor ataxy” patches of

in which

columns degenerate. 9. “Disseminated sclerosis,” rd, damaging both degeneration (pale areas) are scattered haphaza ation,” sensory and motor fibres. 10. “Subacute combined degener and motor

both sensory usually associated with anaemia, in which ,” in which all the fibres are affected. 11. ‘Motor neuron disease ate degener fibres motor or descending

NEUROPATHOLOGY ate effect of which may be an epileptic or apoplectic fit; the result

is softening; and as any or all of the arteries of the brain may be affected successively, simultaneously, or at random, the symptoms may be manifold. They may be general or local, and are often associated with inflammation of the membranes. The disease, under treatment, may abate, and the paralytic or mental phenomena partially or completely disappear, indicating the restoration, or

partial restoration, of the circulation in the diseased arteries;

sometimes with the lapse of treatment, and sometimes without, new symptoms

manifest

themselves,

showing

that the disease

has attacked a fresh set of arteries. Disseminated sclerosis (insular) is another progressive random, morbid process, the pathology of which is not fully understood, but is probably due to some

toxic cause. Islands of nervous tissue undergo a morbid change, commencing in the myelin sheath and ending in an increase of the supporting neuroglia tissue at the expense of the true nervous tissue (see Plate, fig. 11). Tumours and new growths in the central and peripheral neryous systems may be primary or secondary; the former arise in

the supporting, enclosing or nutrient tissue elements; the latter are metastatic deposits from tumours originating elsewhere. Tumours may be single or multiple, the special symptoms occasioned

depending upon the seat of the tumour and whether it destroys or only irritates

the

adjacent

nervous

tissue.

Tumours

situated

within the cranial cavity cause general symptoms, namely, optic neuritis, severe headache and vomiting; these symptoms, which are caused by increased intracranial pressure, are more severe in rapidly growing vascular tumours, even though small, than in large slow-growing tumours. Some tumours are highly vascular and a large thin-walled vessel may suddenly rupture and cause an apoplectic fit. If the growth is situated in a portion of the cortex having some special localizing function, e.g., the motor area, it is likely to give rise to epileptiform convulsions, starting in a limb or definite group of muscles; but the irritation usually spreads to the whole motor area of the same side, and even extends to the opposite hemisphere, by an overflow of the discharge through the corpus callosum. In such case there is loss of consciousness. If, however, the tumour destroys the cerebral cortex of a particular region, it may give rise to a paralytic lesion, e.g., paralysis of the arm. Diseases of the blood-vessels, or of supporting and enclosing tissues, produce secondary degenerations of the nervous system. The symptoms, like the lesion, are obtrusive; frequently arising suddenly, they may in a short time terminate fatally, or tend towards partial or complete recovery. Various forms of motor and sensory loss and disturbance of function may arise, indicating destruction or disturbance of particular regions of the central nervous system; and degenerations in certain tracts and systems of fibres arise, corresponding in histological character with those observed when a nerve fibre is separated from its cell of origin by section (secondary degeneration of Waller and Tiirck). This form of degeneration must be distinguished sharply from primary degeneration, which is due to an inherent nutritional defect of the nerve cell and all its processes (the neurone), in which a regressive metamorphosis occurs; it starts in the myelin sheath and the fine terminal twigs of the axis cylinder and dendrons, and proceeds back to the main branches and trunk, eventually destroying the trophic and genetic centre itself, the nerve cell. These primary degeneration processes are insidious in origin, progressive in character, and nearly always fatal; they, therefore, are associated with a progressive evolution of symptoms.

To cite some examples: (1) Locomotor ataxy (tabes dorsalis), is a primary degeneration affecting the afferent sensory system of neurones. (2) Progressive spinal muscular atrophy is a disease of the efferent motor system of neurones of the brain and spinal

cord. Infantile paralysis (Anterior poliomyelitis), is an acute inflammation causing destruction chiefly of the spinal motor neurones of the ventral horn. It differs from the progressive spinal muscular atrophies in its sudden onset and non-progressive character; it resembles them in producing paralysis of muscles with-

out sensory disturbance.

(3) General paralysis of the insane

(general paresis) is a degeneration which begins in the association

system

of neurones

261 of the cerebral

cortex, but frequently

is

associated with degeneration of the afferent or efferent systems. The psychoneuroses and benign psychoses have not been satisfactorily explained by definite morphological changes in the actual brain substance. We know little or nothing accurately about the morbid histology of certain chronic psychoses, or defect states, except as regards the morphological changes met with in cases of amentia and dementia. The large and illy circumscribed groups, called idiocy and imbecility, are associated with arrest of development of the brain, the naked-eye evidence of which may be afforded by small size and simplicity of convolutions of the brain as a whole or in part (see Plate, figs. 2, 4 and 6); and the microscopical evidence by arrest, or imperfect development, of structures connected with the higher functions of the mind, namely, the asso-

ciation neurones in the more superficial layers of the cerebral cortex. Various degenerative processes, either primary or secondary, broadly termed dementics, are associated with progressive decay and atrophy of the superficial layers of the grey matter of the cortex, and naked-eye evidence thereof is afforded by partial or general wasting of the cerebral hemispheres, accompanied with thickening of the pia-arachnoid membrane, atrophy of the convolutions, and with deepening and widening of the intervening sulci. Since the modern studies on this subject of V. Economo, Jakob, the Vogt’s Josephy, Fiinfgeld, Spatz, Spielmeyer and others have given a definite architectonic and myelotectonic knowledge of the cortex as well as the striatum the older studies of a former generation are obsolete. A newer cortical and subcortical pathology is being written and is to be found in special articles in this edition. At the present time a generalized neuropathology cannot be written. The cerebro-spinal fluid fills up the space in the cranial cavity caused by the atrophy of the brain; consequently there is a great excess of this fluid. This wasting so characteristic a finding in general paralysis is especially due to atrophy of the cells and fibres of the superficial grey matter of the cortex, sections of which, examined microscopically, after suitable staining, show great poverty, or complete loss, of three sets of delicate myelinated fibres, namely, tangential, super-radial and the inter-radial corresponding to the line of Baillarger. This degeneration of the superficial association fibres of the cerebral cortex affects especially the frontal and central convolutions, and is the earliest and most constant microscopical change in general paresis. It is accompanied usually by meningeal and vascular changes, atrophy of the nerve cells, the proliferation of the neuroglia (fig. 5); especially characteristic is the perivascular infiltration with lymphocytes and plasma cells (see Plate, fig. 7). It was, indeed, thought that this condition of the vessels was pathognomonic of general paresis; it certainly is not, for it is found throughout the central nervous system in cases of African sleeping sickness and the arterial types of neurosyphilis. It has sometimes been known to occur in the neighbourhood of cerebral tumours but it is not found in uraemia or lead encephalitis. Microscopical Changes in Degeneration of the Neurone.— About 1850, Waller demonstrated that a nerve fibre undergoes degeneration to its termination when separated from its cell of origin; hence the term “Wallerian degeneration.” Embryological researches by Prof. His showed that the axis-cylinder process (the essential conducting portion of the nerve fibre) is an outgrowth of the nerve cell. The cell, therefore, is the trophic and genetic centre of the nerve fibre. Acute alterations and death of the nerve cells may occur from toxic conditions of the blood; from high fever (107°—110° F); arrest of the blood supply, as in thrombosis and embolism; or actual destruction by injury, haemorrhage or inflammation. These morbid processes produce, as a general rule, bio-chemical as well as morphological changes in the nerve cell and its processes. When a nerve cell dies, the nerve fibre undergoes secondary degeneration and death; that is to say, the whole neurone dies, and regeneration, at any rate in the higher vertebrates, does not take place. Restoration, or partial restoration, of function is due to other structures taking on the function, and the more specialized that function is, the less likely is restoration to take place. If, however, a peripheral

262

NEUROPTERA

nerve is divided, its component fibres are merely severed from their cells of origin. All that portion of the nerve which is in connection with the nerve cells of origin practically undergoes no change. The peripheral portion undergoes degeneration, but from the central end of the nerve new axis cylinders again grow out and a new nerve is formed. With this regeneration comes restoration of function, which may be hastened by suturing the ends of the cut nerve. A similar regeneration, however, does not occur after section of fibres of the white matter of the central nervous system, and this may be due to the fact that the nerve fibres of the white matter of the cerebro-spinal axis possess no nucleated sheath of Schwann, which plays an important part in regeneration; in the present writer’s opinion, the neurilemmal sheath of the old fibre forms a new protoplasmic basis, into which the axis-cylinder from above grows, the passage of stimulus determining its function. The writer, working in conjunction with Prof. Halliburton, has shown that the characteristic microscopical changes in the myelin sheath which occur in the process of degeneration are due to a splitting up of the complex phosphoretted substance “protagon” into glycero-phosphoric acid, choline and oleic acid by a process of hydration. The Marchi reaction, so useful for demonstrating degeneration of the central and peripheral nervous systems, is dependent upon the fact that the myelin sheath, after hardening in a solution of bichromate of potash, does not turn black when acted upon by osmic acid, whereas the simpler nonphosphoretted fatty product of degeneration is stained black. When the Marchi reaction of degeneration is fully developed, it has been ascertained that the nerve yields no phosphorus. The degeneration resulting from section of a nerve is termed secondary, to distinguish it from another, primary, due to slow and progressive decay of the whole neurone, beginning usually at the terminal twigs and proceeding back towards the cell body with its contained nucleus. These primary degenerations involve systems of neurones, correlated by function rather than by anatomical situation. Examples have been given already. The cause of primary degenerations is probably a defect inherited or acquired in the “vita propria” of the neurones affected. They slowly atrophy and disappear, and their place is filled up by an overgrowth of the supporting neuroglia tissue (see Plate, fig. 9). This overgrowth of dense tissue is termed sclerosis and was erroneously considered to be the cause, instead of the effect, of the atrophy of the nervous tissue.

of those only a little more than 6o occur in the British Isles while about 200 species are found in the United States.

Neuroptera are all insects of weak flight, they are rarely abundant in individuals and feed mostly upon soft-bodied insects or liquid matter such as honey-dew. Most of the species have beap. tiful net-veined wings which often exhibit a complex reticulation owing to the presence of numerous accessory veins. There are ny. merous veinlets arising from the costal vein and vein Rs is gener. ally pectinately branched. In their larval stages they are excly. sively predaceous. The order is divided into two sub-orders, viz., the Megaloptera and the Planipennia as given below. SUB-ORDER

I.

MEGALOPTERA

Veins with little or no tendency to fork at the margins of the wings: vein Rs with but few extra branches. Larvae with biting mouth-parts: pupae not enclosed in a true cocoon.

This group includes a small number of archaic insects separable into two well defined divisions comprising less than 200 species throughout the world. (1) The Sialidae include the alder flies (q.v.) so called because in England the adults often frequent alders along

the banks of streams. Their larvae live in the water and respire by means of seven or eight pairs of slender, jointed, abdominal gills,

The genus Sialis is widely distributed with two British and one North American species. The Dobson-flies Corydalis, found in America (North and South) and northern India, attain a great size with immense jaws in the males. The smaller allied forms (Chauliodes, etc.) are often known in America as fish-flies. (2) The Raphidiidae or snake flies (g.v.) are distinguished by the elongate prothorax and the very long ovipositor in the female. They are terrestrial insects whose larvae are found under the bark of trees. Nine species are found in North America and four species of the genus Raphidia occur in Britain. SUB-ORDER

II.

PLANIPENNIA

Veins with evident forking at the margins of the wings: vein Rs usually with numerous branches. Larvae with piercing mouthparts: pupae enclosed in a cocoon.

Included here are the major portion of the Neuroptera: they are nearly all terrestrial insects, only a small number being partially or truly aquatic in their larval stages. The Planipennia are divided into 16 families of which only the most important are mentioned. The Ithonidae or moth-lacewings are confined to Australia: they are large, stoutly built, moth-like insects with primitive venaBrsriocraPpHy.—Croonian lectures on the “Degeneration of the tion. Their larvae live in the soil where they prey upon those of Neurone,” by F. W. Mott, published in the Lancet (1900); and the chafer beetles, to which they bear a close general resemblance. same writer’s “Introduction to Neuropathology,” in Albutt’s System of The Hemerobiidae or brown lacewings are widely distributed and

Medicine. Gower, Handbook of ihe Nervous System; von Monakow, Gehirn Pathologie; F. W. Mott, Archives of Neurology, vols. i. ii., iii. and iv.; A. van Gehuchten, Les maladies nerveuses (Louvain, 1926); Sir J. Jurves-Stewart, Diagnosis of Nervous Diseases (London, 1927) ;

S. E. Jelliffe and W. A. White, Diseases of the Nervous System (V edit. London, 1928; bibl.); H. Oppenheim, Lekrb. d. Nervenkrankheiten (Berlin, 1923; bibl. translation by Bruce) ; H. Claude, “Maladies du Systéme Nerveux,” in Gilbert and Fournier, Précis de pathologie interne, vols. iii. and iv. (Paris, 1922). Spielmeyer, Histopathologie des Nervensystems (Berlin, 1922); Jakob, Normale Anatomie und Histologie und allgemeine Histopathologie des Grosshirns (Wien, 1927, bibl.) ; Bethe, v. Bergmann—Handbuch der normalen u. pathologischen Physiologie: Nervensystem, Vol. X. Berlin, 1927, Tilney and Riley, Form and Function of the Nervous System (New York, 1925). Buzzard and Greenfield, Pathology of the Nervous System Gwe ‘ . W. Mo.

NEUROPTERA,

the term used in zoological classification

for that order of insects which includes the alder flies, snake flies, ant-lion flies, lace-wings and their allies. They comprise small to rather large soft-bodied insects with usually elongate feelers and two pairs of similar, net-veined, membranous wings: the wings are closed roof-like over the body when at rest and the hind pair are almost always without a plicated posterior lobe. The mouthparts are for biting, the tarsi are five-jointed and there are no cerci or tail feelers. All Neuroptera undergo complete metamorphosis and the larvae are active and predatory with well developed antennae, sense organs and legs: they are mostly terrestrial but some are aquatic. The pupae have the appendages free and are generally enclosed in silken cocoons. Rather more than 2,000 species of Neuroptera are known and

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FIG. 1.—A GREEN LACEWING (CHRYSOPIDAE) fairly numerous in species. Their larvae along with those of the Chrysopidae or green lacewings (fig. 1) roam about vegetation preying upon aphides, mites, thrips and other soft-bodied insects (see LACEWING-FLY). The Osmylidae and Sisyridae have aquatic larvae: the insects of the first mentioned family are medium to large-sized species which differ from the lacewings in certain venational characters. Osmylus chrysops is the largest British Neuropterous insect and occurs locally along the borders of streams where there is dense vegetation. The Sisyridae differ in having very few cross-veins to the wings besides being much smaller in size. They are brown or fuscous insects found along the borders of rivers which contain the fresh-water sponge upon

NEUROPTERA

263

which their larvae feed and live. Three species of Sisyra occur in |exceptions, are terrestrial or arboreal and in the Planipennia they Britain and this genus, along with Climacia, is found in the United

are afl characterized by the greatly drawn out mandibles

and

States. The Mantispidae or mantis flies (g.v.) are easily distinguished by the elongate thorax and the prehensile fore-legs which

maxillae which are used for seizing and perforating the prey.

The

resemble in form those of the common mantis (g.v.) and are likewise used for seizing other insects which serve as their prey. The larvae of the European Mantispa styriaca are predacious upon

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mandibles are grooved along their ventral surface and the mazillae, which closely resemble them in form, fit one into each groove: in this way the two sets of appendages function as a pair of tubes through which the body-juices of their victims are sucked out. Larvae of the Planipennia are further remarkable for the fact that six out of their eight Malpighian tubes become transformed into silk glands, the silk being emitted through an anal spinneret. The larvae of all Neuroptera are carnivorous and mostly prey upon other forms of insect life. When fully fed those of the Planipennia construct silken cocoons and, prior to the emergence of the perfect insect, the pupa cuts open the cocoon with its mandibles and, being mobile, often travels some little distance before the imago emerges. Little is definitely known respecting the specific nature of the food of the perfect insects: many are nocturnal in habits and are attracted to lights, while most of the

day-flying species are rarely seen on the wing. Geographical Distribution.—Certain families of Neuroptera are nearly world-wide in their distribution, the Chrysopidae for example, being found in almost all extensive areas of land excepting New Zealand: the Sialidae have an almost world-wide though discontinuous range, while the Raphidiidae are apparently restricted to the northern hemisphere. Several families, on the other hand, are almost confined to Australia which has a more complete

BY

COURTESY

OF

THE

TRUSTEES

OF

THE

BRITISH

MUSEUM

FIG. 2.—HALTER IMPERATRIX

(NATURAL

HISTORY)

(NEMOPTERIDAE)

young Lycosa spiders and during development they undergo striking changes of form constituting hypermetamorphosis. The family is mainly tropical but ranges into southern Europe and a few rare species occur in the United States. The Psychopsidae have very broad, rounded wings supported by a stout “mid-rib” and with a densely reticulated venation. Many are insects of striking beauty and their larvae have been found beneath bark of trees. The family has a wide discontinuous range occurring in South Africa, Tibet, China and Australia. The Nemopteridae (fig. 2) differ from all other Neuroptera in having very long thread-like or ribbon-like hind wings. Their larvae occur in caves on the floors of buildings among debris, etc., where they prey upon smaller forms of insect life. The family occurs in many of the warmer parts of the world

including southern Europe but is absent from North America. The Myrmelionidae or ant-lion flies (¢g.v.) bear a general resemblance to dragon-flies and have short knobbed feelers. Although most abundant in the warmer parts of the world, several species occur in Europe, one being found as far north as Sweden, but none are found in the British Isles: about 60 species inhabit the United

States. Their larvae live on the ground where some make pit-like snares for entrapping their prey, while others hide away under stones or debris. The Ascalaphidae are closely related to the preceding family but can easily be separated by their much longer antennae as well as by venational differences. Their larvae either hide away on the ground or live concealed on the bark of trees. They are chiefly tropical insects only a few species occurring in southern Europe and North America. The Conlopterygidae, or mealywings, number about 50 species and are the smallest and

most aberrant of all Neuroptera.

They are covered with a white

powdery secretion, their wings have comparatively few veins and

the hind wings are much reduced in size. Their larvae roam about plants, preying upon aphides, scale-insects and mites. Rather more than half a dozen species are found in Britain anda similar number occur in the United States. Natural History (fig. 3).—The eggs of Neuroptera are ovoid and in several families, including the green lacewings, the female exudes a sticky secretion which she draws out into a hair-like stalk upon which the egg is laid for safety. The larvae, with few

and diverse fauna of Planipennia than any other region of the globe, although the Megaloptera are only represented there by four species. Only seven families of Neuroptera ðccur ir the British Isles and 13 families are found in the United States. Geological Distribution.—The Megaloptera are evidently an archaic group but their fossil remains, unless very perfect, are diffcult to identify. The earliest undoubted remains of this sub-order

have been found in the Triassic rocks of Europe. The Planipennia LARVA X 6

PAIR OF PINE NEEDLES SHOWING POSITIONS IN WHICH EGGS ARE LAID

(INDICATED BY ARROWS) NATURAL SIZE

IMAGO X 4

BY COURTESY OF THE TRUSTEES OF THE BRITISH MUSEUM (NATURAL HISTORY) LIFE CYCLE OF BROWN LACEWING (HEMEROBIS STIGMA)

first appear as fossils in the Upper Permian beds of Belmont, New South Wales, where they are represented by the genus Permithone which appears to be an ancestor of the existing Ithonidae and possibly of other families also. The sub-order is well represented in the Liassic and Upper Jurassic rocks of Europe. Economic Importance.—Neuroptera as a whole are distinctly beneficial to man in their larval stages. Larvae of the Sialidae form food for trout and other fishes, while those of the Planipennia prey upon many soft-bodied noxious insects. In Europe and North America the most beneficial families are the Hemerobiidae,

264

NEUSALZ— NEUTRALITY

Chrysopidae and Coniopterygidae and in Australia larvae of the Ithonidae destroy numbers of Scarabaeid grubs in the soil. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—For the British species consult R. MacLachlan, Trans. Entomological Soc., London (1868); also J. J. F. X. King and J. N. Halbert in Proc. Roy. Irish. Acad., B. (1910). Admirable accounts of the structure and habits of Neuroptera are given by

C. L. Withycombe in Trans. Entomological Soc., London

(1922 and

1925). The Australian forms are of special interest and for these consult R. J. Tillyard, Proc. Linnean Soc. New South Wales (vol. xli-xliv, 1916-19). The North American species are listed by N. Banks in Trans. Amer. Entomological Soc. (1907) who has also revised the Hemerobiidae and their allies (Zbid., 1906). For accounts of the life-histories of the Chrysopidae see R. C. Smith, Mem. 58, Cornell Univ. Agric. Exp. Station and the same writer has dealt with the habits of the Hemerobiidae in Annals Entomological Soc. America (vol. xvi., 1923); for the North American alder flies, etc., see K. C. Davis, Bull. 68 N.Y. State Museum. (A. D. I)

of the diocese of Rouen north of the Seine; while Austrasia com-

prised only the Frankish dominions beyond the Rhine, together apparently, with Mainz, Worms and Spires on the left bank. The

districts between Neustria and Austrasia were called Media Fran.

cia or simply Francia. In 843 Brittany took from Neustria the countships of Rennes and Nantes; and gradually the term Neustria came to be restricted to the district which was later called Normandy. By a similar usage, the term Neustria was applied in Italy in the 8th century to western Lombardy. See F. Bourquelet, “Sens des mots France et Neustrie sous le régime mérovingien,” in the Bzbliothéque de l’école des chartes, xxvi. 566-574: Longnon, Atlas historique de la France.

NEUTRALITY has been defined as the legal status arising

from the abstention of a state from all participation in a war be. tween other states, the maintenance by it of an attitude of im. NEUSALZ, a town in the Prussian province of Silesia, on partiality in its dealings with the belligerent states, and the recthe Oder, 20 m. by rail N.W. of Glogau. Pop. (1925) 14,212. ognition by the latter of this abstention and impartiality. From Neusalz became a town in 1743. Its largest industry is, perhaps, this legal status arise the rights and duties of neutral and belligerthe manufacture of thread; there are also in the town ironworks, ent states respectively. Under the conception of absolute sovbreweries, shipbuilding yards and electrical works. Lignite is ereignty prevalent before the World War one state might go to mined in the neighbourhood and chemicals manufactured. It is war with another for a good or bad reason, or for no reason at developing trade, especially towards the Polish frontier, because all, and a violation of international law by one state was regarded of its numerous rail and river connections. as no concern of any other, except that immediately affected by NEUSS, a town in the Prussian Rhine province, lies 4 m. to such violation. With the creation of the League of Nations, howthe W. of Düsseldorf and 14 m. from the west bank of the Rhine, ever, a new conception arose. The League is based upon interwith which it is connected by the Erft canal. It lies at the junc- national solidarity, hence neutrality and a League of Nations are tion of lines to Cologne, Viersen, Zevenaar (Holland), Düssel- mutually exclusive. In the next war, said President Wilson, there dorf, Düren and Rheydt. Pop. (1925) 44,978, of whom the will be no neutrals. But the League is not yet universal. The majority were Catholics. Neuss, the Novaesium of the Romans, United States and Russia, to mention only the most important, mentioned by Tacitus, formerly lay close to the Rhine. Drusus, are not members; and even among members the Covenant of the brother of the emperor Tiberius, threw a bridge across the Rhine League fails to prohibit neutrality in all circumstances. Consehere, and his name is preserved in the Drusustor, the lower half quently the legal status of neutrality still retains an important ‘of which is of Roman masonry. In 1474-75 Charles the Bold be- place in international law. sieged the town in vain for rz months, but it was taken and sacked Rights and Duties of Neutrals.—These may be subdivided by Alexander Farnese in 1586. Extensive excavations have been into the rights and the duties of neutrals; and the rights and liabilmade and many Roman treasures have been unearthed. ities of trade. A neutral state is entitled to have the integrity of The church of St. Quirinus is a fine example of the transition its territory and territorial waters respected by all the belligerfrom the Round to the Pointed style. The town hall was built ents. By the Hague Convention of 1907 its territory is inviolable; in the 17th and altered in the 18th century. it is entitled to notice of a state of war, unless it can be proved NEUSTADT (Polish, Prudnik), a town in the Prussian prov- that it was aware of its existence, so that the date from which its ince of Silesia, on the river Prudnik, 6o m. by rail S.E. of liabilities commence may be ascertained (Hague Convention Breslau. Pop. (1925) 17,050. III., 1907). In the case of a civil war, its liabilities will commence NEUSTADT-AN-DER-HAARDT, a town of Germany, only when a state of belligerency is established; for instance, in the Bavarian Palatinate, situated under the eastern slope of Great Britain contended that the proclamation of a blockade of the Haardt mountains and at the mouth of the valley of the the coasts and ports of the seceding states by President Lincoln Speyerbach, 14 m. W. of Speyer, and at the junction of railway on April 19, 1861, was a recognition of such states as belligerents. lines to Worms, Weissenburg and Kaiserslautern. Pop. (1925) That is to say, it is entitled to prevent and nullify, by force if 20,726. Neustadt, which became a town in 1275, is one of the necessary, war-like operations by any of the belligerents comcentres of the Rhenish “grape-cure.” The Protestant abbey mitted in violation of such integrity. It is also entitled to exact church, a Gothic edifice, dates from the r4th century. compliance by belligerents with its own municipal regulations, NEU-STETTIN, a town in the Prussian province of Pome- designed to maintain its neutrality and to perform its internarania, on the small Streitzig lake, 90 m. by rail E.N.E. of Stettin, tional obligations. If such regulations are enforced equally upon at the junction of railways to Belgard, Posen and Stolpmiinde. all the belligerents, they are not to be regarded as hostile or unPop. (1925) 15,518. Neu-Stettin was founded in 1313 by Wratis- friendly. It is entitled to maintain its diplomatic intercourse with laus, duke of Pomerania. other neutral states and with the belligerents alike, except for NEU-STRELITZ, a town of Germany, capital of the republic such temporary interruptions as may be demanded by military of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, situated between the Zierker See and necessity. It is entitled to offer its good offices or mediation to the Glambecker See, 60 m. N. of Berlin, on the railway to Stral- the belligerents with a view to the cessation of hostilities without sund, at the junction of lines to Warnemünde and Wittstock. the exercise of this right being regarded as an unfriendly act Pop. (1925) 12,100. Neu-Strelitz was not founded till 1726. The (Hague Convention I., 1907). Finally it is entitled to require former ducal residence is a pseudo-classical edifice, with a library. belligerents not to interfere with the commercial intercourse of About 14 m. to the south lies Alt-Strelitz (pop. 4,820), the its subjects, unless such interference is warranted by International former capital of the duchy. Law.

NEUSTRIA,

the old name of the western kingdom of the

Armed Neutrality.—In his address to Congress on Feb. 26,

1917 President Wilson, after recounting the failure of diplomatic methods to protect the neutral rights of the United States from make the word signify the “most recent” conquests of the Franks. their violation by Germany, declared that “there may be no reThe word Neustria does not appear in Gregory of Tours, but is course but to armed neutrality, which we shall know how to mainfound for the first time in Fredegarius. Under the later Merovin- tain and for which there is abundant American precedent.” There gian kings the princes reigning in the West were called kings of were also European precedents for armed neutrality. In 1780 Russia issued a declaration of neutral rights, to which Neustria, and those reigning in the East, kings of Austrasia. Under the new Carolingian dynasty, the word Neustria was restricted to Sweden and Denmark adhered, which became known as the First the district between the Loire and the Seine, together with part Armed Neutrality. Spain, France, Holland and the United States—

Franks, as opposed to the eastern kingdom, Austrasia (g.v.). The most ancient form of the word is Niuster, from niust, which would

NEUTRALITY all in a state of war with Great Britain—Prussia, Austria, Portugal and the two Sicilies, subsequently joined the league. The

object of this declaration was to limit the list of contraband com-

modities. In 1800 Russia with Denmark, Prussia and Sweden formed the Second Armed Neutrality, the object of which was to exempt from visit and search neutral merchantmen under convoy.

Duties of Neutral States.——The primary duty of a neutral state is strict impartiality in its relations with both belligerents, whether such impartial conduct is obligatory or discretionary. There must not be any discrimination or preference. Even a favour granted to one must be extended to the other. A neutral state must not allow a belligerent to move troops, munitions of war or supplies across its territory or to erect or use therein

wireless or other telegraphic apparatus for military purposes.

It

must intern belligerent forces which have taken refuge in its territory, but may leave at liberty escaped prisoners of war and per-

mit the passage of the sick and wounded belonging to the belligerent forces

(Hague

Convention V., 1907).

It must not allow

any act of war, including the exercise of visit and search or capture, to be committed by a belligerent within its territorial waters. It must release a prize so captured with its officers and

crew and intern the prize crew. It must not allow a prize court to be established on its territory nor on a vessel within its terri-

torial waters. It must not allow either belligerent to use territory

At the Naval Conference

265 (1908-9) it was found impossible

to reach agreement upon the question of the engagement of neutrals in a trade closed to them in time of peace, but the Declaration of London did deal with the application of the doctrine of continuous voyage to blockade and contraband. By Art. 19 whatever might be the ulterior destination of a vessel or her cargo, she was not liable to capture if at the moment she was on her way to a non-blockaded port, although it was still open to the captor to prove that the alleged destination to a neutral port or open port was merely simulated. But such capture was permissible only within the area of operations or on a pursuit commenced therefrom. Art. 39 provided that absolute contraband should be liable to capture if shown to be destined to territory belonging to or occupied by the enemy or to his armed forces. During the World War the doctrine of continuous voyage and continuous transport was applied by the Allied and Associated Powers to conditional as well as to absolute contraband, and was

fully examined by Sir Samuel Evans in the Kim (1918) I.B. and C.P.C. 405. For the French practice, see the Karimata, Fanchille, Jurisprudence Francaise en Matière de Prises Maritimes, 62, 92; for the Italian see S. S. Kyzicos, Fanchille, Jurisprudence Italienne en Matière de Prises Maritimes, 57. Destruction of Neutral Prizes—By the law of nations merchantmen must always be brought in for adjudication and

or territorial waters as a base of military operations against its consequently must never be destroyed by their captors (the adversary, nor may it furnish either belligerent with troops, ships, Actaeon [1818] 2 Dods: 48, the Felicity [1819] 2 Dods: 381, munitions of war, money or with commodities of direct or in- and Maisonnaire v. Keating [1815] 2 Gall: 325). The old rule, direct use in the war. It must use due diligence in preventing the however, that neutral vessels must never be destroyed, was refitting out or arming of vessels within its jurisdiction and the jected by Russia in her naval instructions in 1868, 1895 and 1901; departure of vessels intended to engage in hostile operations; the by France in 1870; by the United States in 1812 and 1898; by issue of commissions by either belligerent or the enlistment of Japan in 1904 and by Germany in 1908. Art. 48 of the Declaramen (Hague Convention, XIII., 1907, the Neutrality Act, tion of London provided that “a neutral vessel which has been 1818 U.S.A. and the Foreign Enlistment Act, 1870, 33-34 Vict. captured may not be destroyed by the captor but she must be C. 90). taken into such port as is proper for the determination there Rights and Liabilities of Neutral Trađe.—Restraint on of all questions concerning the validity of the prize.” But this proneutral trade with belligerents rests upon a compromise between vision is qualified by Art. 49 which declares: “As an exception a two conflicting principles. On the one hand the subjects of a neutral vessel which has been captured and which would be liable neutral state contend that they are entitled to carry on their to condemnation, may be destroyed if the observance of Art. 48 normal trade with either belligerent, provided such trade is not would involve danger to the safety of the warship or to the sucdirectly calculated to prejudice the military operations of one cess of the operations in which she is engaged at the time.” By belligerent, nor to promote those of the other. On the other hand Art. 50, before destruction, all persons must be placed in safety a belligerent state claims that the subjects of a neutral state are and the ship’s papers taken on board the warship, and by Art. 51 not entitled to supply his enemy with commodities which are of the captor must prove that the destruction was demanded “in the direct and indirect use to his enemy in the conduct of the war. face of exceptional necessity.” Between these two contentions there have been great divergencies Upon failure to prove this, the captor was bound to make full both in theory and practice. A state is apt to take a different view compensation, whether the capture was valid or not. It was conwhen belligerent from that which it maintained as a neutral. But tended at the time by some Powers that these guarantees virtually upon one matter there is no difference of opinion. It is generally amounted to the renunciation to the right of destruction, but the recognized that it is for the belligerent and not for the neutral present writer declared that Art. 49 would lead to piracy. And so state to enforce the restraints on neutral trade; that it is the it proved in the World War. Under the plea of “danger to the duty of the neutral state to acquiesce in such restraints in so far safety of the warship” and of “exceptional necessity,” the Geras they are not unwarrantable; and that the violation of such man Government ordered the officers of submarines to sink enemy restraints by the subjects of a neutral state are not criminal and and neutral merchantmen alike at sight and without leaving a only involve the perpetrators in the seizure and loss of their prop- trace (spurlos versenken). It is estimated that 1,720 neutral erty. The most important restraints on neutral trade are those vessels were thus destroyed by Germany and her allies, and over imposed by the rules relating to blockade (g.v.); pacific block- 2,000 neutral sailors killed or drowned. ade (qg.v.); contraband (g.v.); continuous voyage; convoy (g.v.); By the Treaty of Washington, 1922, between the United States, unneutral service; and visit and search (g.v.). Great Britain, France, Italy and Japan, a merchantman must not Continuous Voyage.—tThe doctrine of continuous voyage has be destroyed unless the crew and passengers have been first placed been referred to under ConTRABAND (g.v.). It was first ap- in safety, and if the submarine cannot capture a merchantman plied by Lord Stowell to the engagement of neutrals in a trade in conformity with the rules applicable to other war vessels, it closed to them in time of peace (The Immanuel, 2 C. Rob. 186 must permit the merchantman to proceed unmolested. Violation [1799]). In this case a neutral vessel sailing from Hamburg was of these rules will be deemed an act of piracy and the plea of condemned for carrying food, during the war between Great superior orders will be no defence. These provisions have not Britain and France, from Bordeaux to St. Domingo, a French been ratified by France. Unneutral Service——A neutral individual is of course guilty colony. The doctrine was also applied by Lord Stowell in The Yonge Pietor, 4 C. Rob. 79 (1801), under the rule prohibiting trade of unneutral service who breaks blockade or carries contraband. with the enemy. In this case the goods were consigned to a neutral But there are certain acts of a particularly distinctive service to port with an ultimate destination by land to an enemy port. This which the term unneutral service is usually applied. These are gave rise to the doctrine of “continuous transport.” Secondly the divided into two classes by the Declaration of London according doctrine was applied during the American Civil War both to to the gravity of the act. In the first is included service which blockade and contraband. is only partial. By Art. 45 when a neutral vessel is engaged ta

266

NEU-ULM—NEUVE

carry military persons or despatches, concurrently with employment of an innocent character, she is liable to be treated in the same manner as a neutral vessel engaged in the carriage of contraband. The vessel may be condemned and the cargo if it belongs.to the owner of the vessel. These are sometimes described as analogues of contraband, and so she will be treated throughout as a neutral vessel. But a neutral vessel which identifies herself with the enemy falls into the second class: she is definitely guilty of “hostile service.” By Art. 46, a neutral vessel is liable to be treated as an enemy merchantman (1) if she takes a direct part in the hostilities; (2) if she is under the orders or control of an agent placed on board by the enemy Government; (3) if she is in the exclusive employment of the enemy Government; (4) if she is exclusively engaged at the time either in the transport of enemy troops or in the transmission of intelligence in the interests of the enemy. In these cases goods belonging to the owner of the vessel are liable to condemnation with the vessel. By Art. 47, an individual liable to military service found on board a neutral vessel may be made a prisoner of war; and by Art. 12 of The Hague Convention X., 1907, enemy sick or wounded found on board neutral hospital or merchant ships may be removed. During the World War the German Government having removed all persons liable to military service from the occupied territories of Belgium and France, Great Britain in Dec. 1914 declared they would no longer be bound by Art. 47 of the Declaration, and that they would arrest all reservists found on board neutral vessels. This action was avowedly by way of reprisal. Nevertheless neutral states protested that such persons were not actually incorporated in the armed forces of the enemy and so not within Art. 47. This is probably true, but apart from the Declaration, persons of military age returning to their country of origin for the purpose of military service are really “noxious persons,” who, if found on board neutral ships bound to an enemy port or even to a contiguous neutral port, may be seized. Inviolability of Postal Correspondence——By The Hague Convention XI. of 1907 the postal correspondence of both neutrals and belligerents, whatever its official or private character may be, found on board a neutral or enemy ship is inviolable. If the ship is detained the correspondence must be forwarded by the captor at once. These provisions do not apply to correspondence destined for, or proceeding from a blockaded port. This right to inviolability does not exempt a neutral mail ship from the laws and customs of maritime war. The ship, however, may not be searched except when absolutely necessary, and then only with as much consideration and expedition as possible. Apart from the Convention neutral mail ships and other vessels carrying mails, even though the property of a neutral Government, are not by international law exempt from the ordinary process of the tribunals of a belligerent, unless expressly exempted by treaty. Thus, such vessels are still subject to visit and search.

During the World War, Hague Convention XI. did not apply since it had not been ratified by some of the belligerents. Nevertheless in the first year of the war the Allied Powers did not interfere with the mails found on neutral vessels. But when it was discovered that the Germans were sending contraband through the post and more particularly by means of the parcels post, they insisted upon the right of search and seizure. In their pro-

test against this policy the United States admitted {that there was

a distinction between such articles as bonds and other securities which might be regarded as merchandise, and shipping documents and money-order lists which should be regarded as genuine correspondence. By such a distinction a right of censorship was obviously implied, but such a censorship on the high seas, owing to German submarine methods, was impracticable. Neutral vessels were therefore either induced by the Alied Powers to enter allied ports voluntarily for the purpose of search and censorship, or were brought in involuntarily. In their protest against this practice the United States did not complain so much that the exercise of jurisdiction over such vessels was abused, as that the Allied Powers, by sheer naval force, com-

pelled neutral steamship lines to cause their mail steamers to

CHAPELLE

put into allied ports, and thus subject them to the control of the territorial sovereign. The Allied Powers justified this practice on the ground of necessity.

Reprisals——Even neutrals may suffer by measures of reprisal taken by one belligerent without having any legal ground of com.

plaint. The British Order in Council, Feb. 16, 1917, was issued as a measure of retaliation for the German declaration of Feb, ;

1917, of unrestricted submarine warfare in certain designated zones. The Order provided that a vessel encountered at sea on

her way to or from a port in a neutral territory affording means

of access to the enemy territory without calling at a port in British or Allied territory should be deemed to be carrying goods with an enemy destination, or of enemy origin and should be liable to capture and condemnation. The Leonora, 3 B. & C.P.C. 181, 385 [1919] A.C. 974, was a Dutch vessel, with coal laden

at Rotterdam for Stockholm.

The coal was produced in Belgian

collieries under the control of the German Government and sold by it to a Swedish company. In condemning the ship and cargo, Evans P. held that the Order did not entail unreasonable incon-

venience upon neutrals, having regard to all the circumstances,

Upon appeal Lord Sumner gave the following opinion: “There are certain rights, which a belligerent enjoys by the law of nations in virtue of belligerency, which may be enforced even against neutral subjects and to the prejudice of their perfect freedom of action, and this because without those rights maritime war would be frustrated and the appeal to the arbitrament of war would be made of none effect.” This and the previous case of The Stigstad, 2 B. & C.P.C. 179; 3 ib., 347 [1919] A.C. 279, decided that retaliation is a belligerent right and that retaliatory measures may be enforced against neutrals. If, said Sir Erle Richards, retaliation be a legal right, neutrals can have no cause of complaint.

BreriocrarHy.—Pitt Cobbett, Leading Cases on International Law, vol. II. (1885, 4th ed. 1924) ; L. A. Atherley-Jones and H. H. L. Bellot, Commerce in War (1907); P. Fanchille, Traité de Droit international public, vol. II. (1921) ; C. C. Hyde, International Law, vol. II. (1922) ; W. E. Hall, International Law (8th ed. 1924) ; L. Oppenheim, International Law, vol. II. (4th ed. 1926) ; A. S. Hershey, Essentials of International Public Law and Organisation (2nd ed.1927). (H.H.L. B.)

NEU-ULM, a town in Bavaria.

Pop. 11,919 (1925). The

town is situated on the Danube, opposite Ulm, and is a railway centre. It was incorporated as a town in 1857.

NEUVE

CHAPELLE,

BATTLE

OF

(March

10-13,

1915). Neuve Chapelle is a village in Pas de Calais west of Lille. Pop. 319 (1921). To understand the tactical idea upon which the

battle of Neuve Chapelle was founded (the first of the siege warfare battles undertaken by the British army in France) it must be clearly kept in view that the British higher command had not grasped the fact that the war which now confronted them was an engineer-artillery war, and not a cavalry-infantry one. They considered that infantry could “open a door for an inroad of horsemen against the enemy’s rear,’ and in spite of the failure of Neuve Chapelle, this quite impossible idea governed the tactics of Sir John French and Sir Douglas Haig up to the end of the war. Plan of: Attack.—On Feb. 12, General Haig recommended an offensive towards the Aubers ridge on a frontage of 2,000 yards between Port Arthur and the Moated Grange. Neuve Chapelle was to be the first objective, then a line east of the village, and finally the Aubers ridge, the occupation of which would threaten

the enemy’s communications between La Bassée and Lille. Sir

John French, the commander-in-chief, approved of this plan, and fixed its date as soon after March 9 as weather would permit. The attack, or rather assault, was to be carried out by two corps, the Indian corps on the right and the IV. corps on the left. It was to be made after an intense artillery bombardment of 35 minutes’ duration. Having broken the enemy’s front, it was proposed to extend the attack to five miles in width, and so make room for the cavalry corps to pass through and pursue. The bombardment was to be carried out by 530 guns and howitzers, and the ammunition available was approximately 216,380 rounds.

Operations of March 10.—At 4.30 A.M. the assaulting bat-

talions were in position. The morning was cold and misty, and visibility was bad, Sunrise was at 6.30 a.M., and exactly one hour

NEUVILLE—NEVADA later the general bombardment was opened. At 8.5 a.m. the attack was launched, and its first phase was carried out with considerable success. At 8.50 A.M. Neuve Chapelle was entered, but here the advance of the right was brought to a standstill by the British artillery barrage which had lifted, and was now falling between the village and the Bois de Biez. The first real trouble was experienced on the two flanks, on the right from the Bois de Biez, and on the

(1920); A. Koster, Die stille Schlacht; G. E. Palat, La Grande Guerre sur le Front Occidental (1917— ), vol. ix.; M. Schwarte, Der grosse Krieg (1922), vol. ii. (J. E. C. F.)

GERMAN FRONT LINE o MOATED

a——» TO AUBERS

23RD INFANTRY BRIGADE

NEUVE CHAPELLE GERMAN SEVENTH ARMY —— > To AUBERS RIDGE

DEHRA

DUN BRIGADE $

INDIAN CORPS BAREILLY BRIGADE

distant, and because in siege-warfare the normal depth of penetration is half the length of the initial base. Nevertheless, in this battle, the first of the British grand attacks, and the first in which the “barrage” was used, more common sense was shown in restricting the artillery bombardment to the shortest possible time than in any subsequent battle up to that of Cambrai in November 1917. The German defences were but half a mile deep, and it was possible to fracture them by artillery fire if the bombardment were rapid, for rapidity carried with it surprise. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—J. E. Edmonds, History of the Great War, rors, vol. i. (1927); Statistical Abstract of the (British) Army 1914-1920,

BRITISH FRONT LINE

iV CORPS

207

a ?

NEUVILLE, ALPHONSE MARIE DE (1836-1885), French painter, was born at Saint-Omer, France, on May 31, 1836. From school he went to college, where he took his degree of bachelier és lettres. He first took up painting in 1856, after passing through the Naval College at Lorient. For a time he worked in Picot’s studio, but was painting independently when he produced his first picture, “The Fifth Battalion of Chasseurs at the Gervais Battery (Malakoff).” In 1861 he exhibited “The Light Horse Guards in the Trenches of the Mamelon Vert,” at the Salon. His pictures of military life showed peculiar insight, but his full power was not reached till after the war of 1870, episodes in which he depicted in a famous series, including the “Bivouac before Le Bourget” (1872), “The Last Cartridges”

(1873), the “Surprise at Daybreak” (1878), and a considerable number of drawings. He also exhibited in London some episodes of the Zulu War. In 1881 he was made an officer of the Legion of Honour for “The Cemetery of Saint-Privat” and “The Despatch-bearer.” He also collaborated with Detaille in “The Panorama of Rézonville.” De Neuville died on May 18, 1885.

PLAN OF THE BATTLE OF NEUVE CHAPELLE,

MARCH

10-13, 1915

left from Manquissart, from both of which a heavy fire was directed on the attackers rendering it impossible for them to extend their front rapidly. By 1 p.m. the whole of the first objective, except part of the Port Arthur salient, was in British hands. Then came a delay. Sir Douglas Haig proposed to advance on the Aubers ridge at 2 P.m., but this attack had to be postponed. This enabled the Germans to push forward reserves to their second line position east of the village, which was only partially dug. From this line an effective cross fire was brought to bear on the north of Neuve Chapelle. Operations of March 11.—During the night the Germans strengthened their new front line. The main attack was carried out by the IV. corps, and was directed on Aubers, the Indian Corps supporting it on the right. It was launched at 7 A.m., but was at once crushed by heavy machine gun fire opened from the concave position now held by the enemy. A little after noon the attack had to be abandoned. It was then clear that until the infantry assault could be prepared by an effective bombardment, to continue the action would lead to unprofitable slaughter.

_ See Montrosier, Les Peintres militaires (1881), and “De Neuville” in Gazette des beaux arts (1885).

NEUWIED, a town in the Prussian Rhine province, on the

Rhine, 8 m. below Coblenz, on the railway from Frankforton-Main to Cologne. Pop. (1925) 20,432. Neuwied was founded by Count Frederick of Wied in 1662, on the site of the village of Langendorf. Among those who sought refuge here was a colony of Moravian Brethren; they still occupy a separate quarter of the town, where they carry on manufactures of porcelain stoves. Near Neuwied one of the largest Roman castre on the Rhine has been excavated. The principal building is the chateau, which contains a collection of Roman antiquities.

NEVA, a river of Russia, which carries off into the Gulf of

Finland the waters of Lakes Ladoga, Onega, Ilmen and many smaller basins. It issues from the south-west corner of Lake Ladoga in two channels, which are obstructed by sandstone reefs, so that the better of the two has a depth of only 7 to 16 feet. A little farther down it becomes completely navigable, and attains a breadth of 4,200 ft.; but between the village of Ostrovki and that of Ust-Tosna it passes over a limestone bed, which produces a series of rapids, and reduces the width of the river from 1,050 to 840 and that of the navigable passage from 350 to 175 feet. Operations of March 12.—At 5 a.m. on the 12th the Germans made a strong counter-attack which, however, failed in its ob- Nine or ten miles before reaching its outfall the river enters ject. This was followed by an order from Sir Douglas Haig to con- Leningrad, and 5 or 6 m. lower down breaks up into the Great tinue the attack. It was ordered and then postponed with the Neva (850 to 1,700 ft. wide), the Little Neva (945 to 1,365), and inevitable confusion resulting. The IV. Corps was instructed to the Great Nevka (280 to 1,205), this last, 2 m. farther on, sending “push through the barrage of fire regardless of loss.” The Bois de off the Little Nevka (370 to 1,130 ft.). Its total length is only Biez was to be taken “at all costs.” The 7th and 8th Divisions 40 miles. In front of the delta are sandbanks and rocks which were to push on “regardless of the enemy’s fire,” with the in- prevent the passage of vessels except by a canal, 18 m. long, 124 evitable result that hundreds of men were at once shot down. By to 226 ft. wide, and admitting vessels with a draught of x184 ft., nightfall it became obvious that the battle could not be continued, from Kronstadt to Leningrad. When Lake Ladoga sends down its and early on the 13th Sir John French, having lost 12,892 officers vast accumulations of block-ice, inundations of a dangerous kind and men, wired to Lord Kitchener: ‘Cessation of the forward occur, as in 1777, 1824, 1879, 1903, and especially in 1924. According to observations extending from 1706 to 1899, the movement is necessitated . . . above all by want of ammunition.” Comments.—The true reason for the failure was lack of under- mean day of the freezing of the Neva is Nov. 25, the earliest Oct. standing. An attempt was made to attack a fortress as if it were 28, the latest Jan. 9, and the next latest Dec. 26. The mean day a deployed army in the field. The conception of surprise was of opening is April 21, the earliest March 18, the latest May 12. NEVADA, popularly known as the “Sagebrush” State, is admirable, but it was useless to expect to capture the Aubers ridge

from a frontage of 2,000 yards. To do so the frontage should have been at least 12,000 yards, because the ridge was some 6,000 yards

one of the far western States of the American Union. It lies between 35° and 42° N. and rrq4° 2’ and 120° W., and is

268

NEVADA

bounded north by Oregon and Idaho, east by Utah and Arizona, south and west by California. The Colorado river separating it in part from Arizona is the only natural boundary the State possesses, the others being arbitrary lines of geodetic measurement. Nevada ranks sixth among the States in size, baving an area of 110,690 sq.m., 869 sq.m. of which are water surface. Its extreme length north and south is 484 m., and its extreme width east and west is 321 miles. Its name, a Spanish word meaning “snow-clad,” was originally applied to the snow-capped Sierra Nevada range on the Pacific slope. Physical Features.—With the exception of its north-east and south-east corners, the State lies wholly within the Great

‘Basin, the floor of which is really a vast tableland between 4,000 and 5,000 ft. above the sea. This plateau, however, is not a plain, but contains many buttes, mesas and isolated mountain ranges, the latter running generally in a north and south direction and rising 1,000 to 7,000 ft. above the level of the plain. These ranges are from 5 to 20 m. wide at their bases, and the valleys between are about the same width as the bases. The total area of the valleys is about equal to that of mountainous land. In the northeast an unnamed range of highlands, broken and ill-defined, with a general east and west trend, forms the water-parting be-

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tween tributaries of the Humboldt river in the Great Basin region and those rivers that flow to the Snake river in Idaho and Oregon and thence via the Columbia river to the Pacific ocean. This drainage area of the Snake amounts to about 5,000 sq.m., the Owyhee, Little Owyhee, Salmon and Bruneau rivers being the principal streams. In the south-east corner is the third drainage system. Here the Virgin river from Utah, after crossing the north-west corner of Arizona, enters the State and flows south-west for 60 m. until it joins the Colorado river. The latter stream flows for 150 m. along the south-east boundary towards

the Gulf of California. The Colorado leaves Nevada at an altitude of but 470 ft. above sea-level, the lowest point in the State The mean elevation of the State is 5,500 ft. and, with the excep-

tion of the dip to the Colorado in the south-east, the entire State

lies above the 2,000 ft. line. The Sierra Nevada range, which forms the western rim of the basin, sends into the State a single lofty spur, the Washoe moun-

tains. At the foot of this range there is, relatively speaking, a

depression, with an altitude of about 3,850 ft. above the sea, which receives the drainage of the eastern slopes of the Sierra, and what little drainage there is in the northern half of Nevada.

From this depression eastward the general level of the plateau

rises to an elevation of 6,000 ft. near the eastern borders of the State. The mountain ranges also increase in height and importance as far as the East Humboldt range, a lofty mass about 60 m

west of the Utah boundary. This range is the water-parting for nearly all the westward-flowing streams of the State, and isby

far the steepest and most rugged within Nevada, a number of its peaks attaining a height of 11,000 or 12,000 feet. On its eastern slope the waters soon disappear within the bed of narrow canyons, but break out again at the foot in ice-cold springs that form the source of the Ruby and Franklin lakes; on its western side the descent is more gentle, and the waters form the south fork of the Humboldt river. The Humboldt is the most important of the basin streams. Rising in the north-east it flows in a tortuous channel in a general south-west direction for 300 m. and drains 7,000 or 8,000 sq. miles. It empties into Humboldt lake, the overflow from which goes into the so-called Carson sink. At no part of its course is it a large river and near its mouth its waters are subalkaline. The Truckee, Carson and Walker rivers flow with more vigour, receiving their waters from the eastern slopes of the Sierra Nevada range and discharging them into alkaline lakes. Of these lakes Pyramid is the largest, being about 33 m. long and 14 m. wide. Walker lake is as long but only six or seven miles in width. These larger lakes always contain water, varying only in area and depth, but the smaller lakes usually evaporate in the course of the summer. The latter are formed by waters that fall on barren mountain-sides and rush down in torrents, forming in the valleys shallow bodies of water yellow with mud held in suspension. Excepting the “alkali flats” no portion of the desert is devoid of vegetation, even in the driest seasons. In the Washoe mountains there is a heavy growth of conifers extending down into the valleys; but in many places these mountains have been almost deforested to provide timber for the mines. In other places these areas have been incorporated into national forests, in the endeavour to protect and foster the growth of timber and vegetation so as to regulate the drainage of the State. On all but the lowest ranges of the basin the pifion and juniper are found, but these rarely grow to a height over 15 ft.; and on the principal ranges above 6,800 ft. is the stunted mountain mahogany. But except for these infrequent wooded areas, the mountains are even more bare than the valleys, because their shrubs are dwarfed from exposure. The valleys are covered with typical desert shrubs, greasewood, creosote bushes and sagebrush, and with bunch grass, which is valuable for grazing. The skies of Nevada are clear nearly every day in the year. The mean annual precipitation varies from 3 in. in the south-west (Esmeralda county) to 12 in. in the east (White Pine county), and varies also according to altitude. Snow rarely lies on the ground in the valleys.

Government.—Nevada is governed under its original Constitution, adopted in 1864, and since amended in important respects. Proposed amendments must be passed by a majority in both houses of two consecutive legislatures before they can be submitted to the people. The legislature, composed of a senate and assembly, meets regularly in January of every odd-numbered year, its sessions being limited to 60 days. The Constitution requires that the number of senators shall be not less than one-third nor more than one-half the number of members in the assembly, and that the membership of both houses shall not exceed 75. In 1925 there were 18 senators and 37 representatives. Senators are

NEVADA elected for four years—one-half the membership retiring every two years; representatives are elected biennially.

The initiative

and referendum were adopted by amendment in r904. The principal administrative officers are the governor, lieutenant governor, secretary of State, attorney general, controller, treasurer, inspector of mines, surveyor general and superintendent of public instruction, all elected for a four year term. The governor does

not possess the usual sole pardon-

ing power

but

serves

together

INHABITANTS

with the justices of the supreme

court, the clerk of the supreme court and the attorney general on a board of pardons. There are

many administrative boards and commissions, the most important of them being the board of fnance,

board

of

agriculture,

GRAPH OF GROWTH OF POPULATION

health, board of irrigation, board

CENTAGE

board

to $4,894,000. Their deposits totalled $36,110,000, of which $19,365,000 were time deposits. The latter figure may be compared with savings deposits of $13,316,000 in 1921. The value of all tangible property in the State was estimated in 1922 at $542,000,000 as compared with $454,000,000 in 1912. The 1926 assessment for tax purposes amounted to $204,000,000. Education.—The governor, superintendent of public instruction and president of the University of Nevada compose the State board of education. There were, in 1926, 319 elementary schools, 32 district high schools and 20 county high schools. Isolation and districts of small population make first-class results difficult. Of the elementary schools 217 were housed in one-room buildings. There were ten consolidated and 11 joint district schools. In the grade schools 12,359 pupils were enrolled and in the high schools 2,810. There were 833 teachers, of whom 709 were women. The expenditure for each child of school age in 1925 was greater in

Nevada ($121.65) than in any other State except California.

board of stock commissioners,

board of education,

269

of in NEVADA, WITH FOREIGN PER-

of examiners, Nevada tax commission, industrial commission and department of highways. The judicial department consists of a supreme court with a chief justice and two associate justices, chosen for six years, and ten district courts, each with a district judge elected for four

years. Each township bas a justice of the peace chosen biennially by its voters. The Constitution provides that only three-fourths of

The only institution of learning of college rank is the University of Nevada located on an eminence overlooking the city of Reno. Its enrolment during the regular session 1927~28 was 1,000. The new Clark Memorial library, completed in 1927, contains about 47,000 volumes. The Mackay School of Mines, founded and endowed by the family of John W. Mackay, one of the “bonanza kings” of the Comstock Lode, is an excellent and well-equipped department. A meteorological observatory is maintained at the top of Mount Rose.

Charities and Corrections.—A State orphans’ home is located at Carson City, a State hospital for mental diseases at Reno, and a home for male juvenile delinquents at Elko. The State penitentiary is at Carson City. Agricuiture and Live Stock.—Nevada is the most arid State The county is the principal unit of local government. There of the United States because the high Sierra Nevada range interwere (1928) 17 counties in the State, some as large as several rupts the moisture-laden clouds from the Pacific. East of these eastern States put together. mountains, the valleys, however rich their soils, are covered with Population.—In 1860 Nevada’s population was 6,857. The sagebrush and appear like monotonous desert wastes, except where mining rush increased it to 42,491 by 1870 and 62,266 by 1880.. some stream annually overflows its banks to create natural meadThe years of depression following showed their effect in the de- ows, or where the land has been cleared of sagebrush and articrease to 45,761 by 1890 and 42,335 by 1900, the latter year regis- ficially watered. Agriculture is dependent almost entirely upon tering the lowest ebb in the State’s fortunes. The new mineral irrigation; how much so is shown by the fact that of approximately discoveries and new prosperity again raised the population to 594,000 ac. of improved farm land contained in the State in 1910, 81,875 in 1910. In 1920 it registered 77,407, and in 1930, 91,058. 561,447 were under irrigation. In 1920, 1,382,036 ac. were Nevada has the smallest population of any state in the Union, and included in all the irrigation enterprises of the State which up is the most sparsely settled, with o-8 person per sq. mile. to that time had cost a total of $14,754,280. Of these 561,447 ac. Whites numbered 70,699 or 91-3% of the population in 1920. were irrigated in rg19 and 331,177 ac. cropped. The value of the There were 4,907 Indians, 754 Japanese, 689 Chinese and 346 crops produced was $12,390,593 or $37.41 per acre. The cost per negroes. Of the white population 14,802 (209%) were foreign acre for operation and maintenance was $0.79. born. Italy and the United Kingdom plus Ireland furnished about The pioneer farmers of the State settled in the valleys where 2,500 each, while Scandinavia, Germany, Spain, Canada and fertile bottom lands grew an abundance of wild hay for their stock, Mexico each contributed about 1,200. The urban population in- which ranged far and wide over the public domain. Gradually they creased from 16-3% in 1910 to 19-7% in 1920, amounting in the supplemented the natural crop with tame hay, principally alfalfa. latter year to 15,254 persons. The leading city, the commercial The hay crop in 1926 was still of first importance, amounting to and financial centre of the State, is Reno with a population in 680,000 tons valued at $6,900,000, while the estimated value of 1930 of 18,529, a gain of 54.2% for the decade. Carson City with all Nevada’s crops in 1926 was but $9,000,000. In southern Nea population of 1,596 in 1930 is the capital. vada, figs, pomegranates and cotton are raised. Vineyards are to be Finance.—The State legislature authorizes all expenditures, and found here and on the Truckee-Carson project. About 8,000 bu. in turn fixes a tax levy which shall produce revenue enough to meet of peaches and 6,000 bu. of pears were grown in 1926. these expenditures. The supervision of the assessment and collecThe total number of cattle decreased from 419,000 in 1925 tion of taxes is in the hands of the Nevada tax commission con- to 366,000 in 1927, but their value in these years increased from sisting of the governor, acting as chairman, and six commissioners $10,760,000 to $14,331,000. Most of these were raised for beef appointed by him. ` purposes, the number of milch cows numbering but 20,000 in The receipts of the State in 1926 amounted to $4,284,929, the 1927. The sheep of the State, valued in 1920 at $13,834,000, expenditures to $4,180,147. There was a treasury balance Jan. 1, dropped in value in 1922 to $5,736,000, but increased to $9,529,000 1927, of $1,193,558. As in most States, a large share of the re- in 1924 and in 1926 were valued at $13,721,000. In 1927 there were ceipts is derived from general taxation, the amount from this 1,250,000 sheep in the State. The 1926 wool clip amounted to source in 1926 being $1,388,238. 8,730,000 Ib. or 7-9 Ib. per fleece. The State had bonds outstanding Jan. 1, 1927, to the amount of The farm population of Nevada, contrary to the trend in most $1,812,000, incurred mostly for State building and highway pur- of the mountain States, increased from 16,164 in 1920 to 17,034 in poses. This amount was more than offset by bonds and securities 1925, amounting in the latter year to 22% of the total population. held by the State amounting at par value to $3,049,807. The number of farms increased from 3,163 to 3,883 and the In 1926 there were 34 banking institutions in the State—zo of acreage of farm land from 2,357,000 to 4,091,000. The latter them national banks—with total resources and liabilities of figure represents but 5-8% of the total land of Nevada, a smaller $45,209,000 and capital, surplus and undivided profits amounting proportion than is to be found in any other State. The average the jurors may be required to agree to a verdict in civil cases, though the legislature has the power to require by statute a unanimous agreement. For divorce a residence in the State of three months is necessary.

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NEVADA

size per farm in 1925 was 1,053 ac. and the average value per farm $25,260. Mining.—From

1907 metal production steadily increased until

it reached its peak in 1917, in which year gold, silver, copper, lead and zinc were produced to the value of $54,424,580. The years 191821 were years of swift decline, the production in 1919 being less than one-half that of 1918, and that of 1921 but 50% of that of r919. The industry in 1921 was everywhere in stagnant condition, several of the larger producers having closed down entirely. The whole mineral output of the State in 1921 was but $14,038,071. The upward turn came in 1923 when the gross production of all minerals rose to $28,598,627. In 1924 their value

was $26,225,943; in 1925, $23,309,352; and in 1926, $26,084,500. During the period of depression silver was in the best condition because of the Government guaranteed price of $1.00 per ounce

under the Pittman Silver Purchase act. This expired in June, 1923, when the price of silver fell immediately to 63 cents. In 1926 it averaged approximately 51 cents per ounce in value. Production of this metal fell in consequence from 10,614,564 oz. in 1923 to 6,462,000 oz. in 1926, the lowest in many years. Gold production also decreased from 1923-26, though slightly, its value in the former year being $4,223,109 and in the latter $3,707,885. The leading gold producing mine, the Comstock Merger Company, was closed in Dec. 1926. The production of lead increased from 18,156,000 Ib. in 1923 to 24,470,452 Ib. in 1925 and 23,700,000 lb. in 1926. The value the latter year was $1,967,000. Mines at Pioche and Eureka were the largest producers. Zinc production, which amounted to 14,166,000 Ib. in 1923, decreased to 9,500,000 Ib. in 1926, the decrease being due to the closing in the latter year of the Yellow Pine mill, long the largest zinc producer in the State. This mill has since resumed operations, using a lower grade ore. The general increase of 12% in the metal production of Nevada for 1926 over that of 1925 was due entirely to copper, since all the other metals registered a decrease. Its output saw a phenomenal rise from 23,000,000 Ib. in 1922 to 67,000,000 in 1923, 79,000,000 in 1925 and 113,616,000 Ib. in 1926. The value had increased from $3,122,967 in 1922 to $15,679,000 in 1926. By far the larger share of the output comes from the property of the Nevada Consolidated Copper Company at Ely, which registered an average of 6,500,000 lb. a month for the first three months of 1926 and increased considerably thereafter.

St. Francis, who set out from Sonora in 1775 and passed through what is now the extreme southern corner of the State on his way to California. Half a century later trappers of the Hudson’s Bay Company led by Peter Skene Ogden entered Nevada from the north and discovered the Humboldt river. In 1827 Jedediah S. Smith, an American trader from St. Louis, crossed the State from

west to east on his return from California after the first recorded journey from the Mississippi to the Pacific by the central route.

In 1833 Capt. Bonneville’s men were on the Humboldt, and during 1843-45 John C. Fremont made a series of explorations in the region. The first recorded emigrant train to California crossed the State in 1841. By the treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, negotiated in 1848 at the close of the war with Mexico, Nevada became USS. territory. It was then a part of California known as the Washoe Country, and so remained until 1850, when most of the present State was included in the newly organized Territory of Utah. One of the first settlements was made in 1849 by Mormons at Genoa in the valley of the Carson river. Here in 1851 the earliest recorded public meeting in the State was held to frame a government for the settlers since the seat of the Territorial Government of Utah was considered too remote to afford protection to life and property. But the Utah authorities intervened and in 1854 the Utah legislature created the county of Carson to include all settlements in western Utah. In 1858 Carson City was laid out, and in the following year the people of Carson county chose delegates to a Constitutional Convention which met at Genoa and drafted a Constitution. It was adopted by vote of the people, but this attempt to create a new State Government proved abortive, and it was not until the mineral wealth of the Washoe Country became generally known that Congress took action. In 1861 the Territory

of Utah was divided at 39° W. (of Washington) and the western portion was called Nevada. The Comstock Lode, one of the richest deposits of precious metal known in the world, was discovered in 1859, and Nevada ceased to be merely a highway for goldseekers on the way to California and became a stopping-place. Virginia City became the most famous of all the mining camps of the Far West. An attempt to win Statehood in 1863 was defeated, but in 1864 when it became evident that two more Republican votes were needed in the U.S. Senate for reconstruction purposes, party leaders at Washington urged the people of Nevada to adopt a Constitution and enter the Union as a patriotic duty. The third ConConvention in its history met at Carson City and drew stitutional quickare State the in Other metals commercially developed which was duly ratified, and in October of that Constitution a up silver, antimony, manganese, arsenic and tungsten. proclaimed the new State. The eastern Lincoln President lime, year, borax, gypsum, as such non-metals of The production to its present location on the 37th eastward pushed was to boundary 1923 from increase filter clay, etc., has showed a substantial 1866, and the southern boundary 1926. In 1923 the gypsum production was valued at $1,952,007. meridian (W. of Washington) in “battle-born,” Nevada was Being year. that in fixed reported also opal, was flawless a mined, are value of Opals and turquoises War, and furnished a Civil the throughout Union at the to valued loyal and carats the largest in the world, weighing 2,566 company of troops in 1861 which was joined to a California regi$250,000, being found in 1924. raised six companies of infantry and Manufactures.—The manufacturing interests of Nevada are ment. In 1863 the Territory men), which saw no actual service 1,000 (about cavalry of six emunimportant. There were in 1925 but 102 establishments but were useful in subduing hostile Confederates the against manufacand wages in $4,474,000 paying ploying 2,670 workers, Indians. turing goods to the value of $21,626,000, the latter an amount The history of the State since its organization has been largely less than that of any State except New Mexico. In the summer of history of its mines. From 1864 to 1868 there was a general a | munition and arsenal naval $1,000,000 the on 1928 work was begun in the industry due to unwarranted speculation and inreaction plant near Hawthorne. After 1868 there came a period of consolidation, of values. Transportation.—Nevada is crossed east and west by three flated c workings, and of deeper development. In 1873 systemati more | PaWestern the and main lines of railway, the Southern Pacific of the “big bonanza” by Mackay, Fair, O’Brien discovery the came | and cific in the northern part of the State and the Los Angeles the four “bonanza kings” of Nevada. Tn became and Flood, who Salt Lake (Union Pacific system) in the southern. All three are | from the Comstock and production taken was 00 $21,000,0 1873, | the connect lines parts of great transcontinental systems. Branch $36,000,000 was reached in 1878. of maximum the until increased | more important mining towns with these lines. Railway mileage lode in the latter year, and the d intersecte The Sutro Tunnel in the State reached its peak in 1915 when it amounted to 2,332 workings soon proved below richer the But mines. the drained | a of building the miles. By 1925 it had decreased to 2,137 m. but sent deeper. In 1882 an imwere shafts the and level the tunnel new line in that year from the Idaho line to Wells, where it con- | struck which flooded the principal was water hot of flow mense | the brought Pacific Western nects with the Southern Pacific and mines up to the Sutro Tunnel level. The miners were forced to 1926 mileage up to 2,201. The general decrease was due to the | return to the upper levels and work the lower grade ores. Producinroad of motor transportation. In the State highway system were | tion decreased and with the end in sight the market slumped. Also, surfaced. 2,996 m. of road, of which 1,025 m. were nce to | the National Government had abandoned its artificial maintena History.—The first recorded person of European descent until lasted on depressi of period The the price of silver. enter the limits of Nevada was Francisco Garcés of the Order of| of

NEVADA—NEVILLE

271

about 1900 when the discovery of a new mineral belt in southern

It was reincorporated in 1856 and again in 1878.

road, became the new Mecca, and fast upon the heels of its dis-

accumulated snow in the catchment area of a glacier, by processes of alternate thawing and freezing. The névé is the feeding ground for the valley-glaciers. (See GLACIER.)

Nevada brought renewed prosperity. Tonopah, 60 m. from the rail-

covery came that at Goldfield. A railway was completed to the new camps in 1904 and Tonopah has since been one of the largest and steadiest producing districts of the State. Copper ores of vast extent were discovered at Ely at about the same time and

NEVE or FIRN, masses of compacted snow formed from the

NEVERS,

a town of France, capital of the department of

Niévre, 159 m. S.S.E. of Paris by the P.L.M. railway to Nimes. the Nevada Northern railway was completed to this camp in 1907. Pop. (1926) 27,328. Noviodunum, the early name of Nevers, was The depression immediately before 1900 served a good purpose later altered to Nebirnum. Many medals and Roman antiquities in turning attention to the agricultural and live stock possibilities found there show its importance when Caesar chose it as a of the State. The river valleys under irrigation proved most fertile military depôt. In 52 B.C. it was the first place seized by the and these were soon settled by large-scale ranchers. On the river revolting Aedui. It became the seat of a bishopric at the end of bottoms the ranchers raised their hay, and controlled a still larger the sth century. acreage of the upland grazing ground. Private irrigation systems Having formed part of the duchy of Burgundy, the county were supplemented by Federal undertakings the most notable be- of Nevers (Nivernais) was given by Duke Henry I. in 987 to ing the Truckee-Carson project. Many beautiful valley towns his stepson, Otto William, afterwards count of Macon, from now have their prosperity founded on the permanent basis of whom it passed to his son-in-law Landri. The first house of the agriculture rather than the uncertain one of mining. hereditary counts of Nevers originated in Landri, and was brought Until the silver agitation of the ’90s Nevada was safely Repub- to an end in 1192 by the death of Agnes, countess of Nevers, wife lican. State politics in the early period were replete with corrup- of Pierre de Courtenay (d. 1217). The county subsequently tion, mining interests buying influence with a lavish hand. Ne- passed into the houses of Donzy, Chatillon and Bourbon. Nevers vada also earned the name of the “Rotten Borough” in the US. is on the Loire where it joins the Niévre. Narrow winding streets Senate because so many of its rich mine-owners were accused of lead from the quay through the town, with many old houses purchasing their seats in that body. An exception must be made (14th to the 17th centuries). The cathedral of St. Cyr is a in the case of William M. Stewart, elected as one of the first sen- combination of two churches, one Romanesque (11th century), ators in 1864, who served, except for 12 years’ intermission, until the other Gothic (14th century). There is a fine square (16th 1907, a span of 42 years. John P. Jones, his colleague, and per- century) tower on the south side. The church of St. Etienne is haps an even abler man, served for 30 years, becoming one of rith century Romanesque. The ducal palace at Nevers (now the great leaders in the Silver movement. For four State elections occupied by the courts of justice and an important ceramic the Silver Party swept the State and controlled the Administra- museum) was built in the 15th and 16th centuries and is one of tion. After the issue subsided the old parties reappeared and since the chief feudal buildings in central France. An octagonal middle have been about equal in their strength and their control of the tower contains the great staircase, and its windows are adorned State Government. by sculptures relating to the history of the hose of Cléves. The BrBriocraPHyY.—For recent conditions consult the latest reports of Porte du Croux, a square tower, with corner turrets (14th cenvarious State officers, departments and commissions, especially those of the treasurer, superintendent of public instruction, tax commission and tury), is among the remnants of the old fortifications. Nevers is State inspector of mines and the annual reports and bulletins of the the seat of a bishopric under the archbishop of Sens, of tribunals Agricultural Experiment Station at the University of Nevada. For his- of first instance and of commerce and of a court of assizes and tory consult Dan De Quille (William Wright), History of the Big has a chamber of commerce. Bonanza (Hartford, 1876); J. J. Powell, Nevada, the Land of Silver (San Francisco, 1876); H. H. Bancroft, Nevada, Colorado, and Wyoming (San Francisco, 1890) ; C. H. Shinn, The Story of the Mine as Illustrated by the Great Comstock Lode of Nevada (1896); I. M. Strowbridge, In Miners Mirage Land (Los Angeles, 1904); Thomas Wren, A History of the State of Nevada (Chicago, 1904); and S. P. Davis, The History of Nevada (Reno-Los Angeles, 1913). F. C. Lincoln, Mining Districts and Mineral Resources of Nevada (Reno, 1923) is a thorough survey with complete bibliographies. See also the biennial reports and papers of the Nevada State Historical Society.

NEVADA,

a city of south-western Missouri, U.S.A., 90 m.

S. by E. of Kansas City, at an altitude of 860 ft.; the county seat of Vernon county. It is on Federal highways 54 and 71, and is served by the Missouri-Kansas-Texas and the Missouri Pacific railways. Pop. 7,139 in 1920 (97% native white); in 1930 it was 7,448, the increase 309. It is the seat of a State hospital for the insane, and of Cottey college for girls (1884). The National Guard of Missouri has a camping ground near by. There are chalybeate and sulphur springs in one of the city’s parks. Coal is mined in the vicinity, and the city has flour and planing mills, galvanized iron works, and. other manufacturing industries. Nevada was platted in 1855, incorporated as a town in 1869 and chartered as a city in 1880. During the Civil War it was burned te the ground (1863).

NEVADA

CITY, a city of eastern California, U.S.A., on

Deer creek, at an altitude of 2,580 ft., 60 m. N.N.E. of Sacramento; the county seat of Nevada county. It is served by the Nevada County Narrow Gauge railroad and motor-bus lines. Pop. in 1920, 1,782; and in 1930, 1,701. It is a summer resort and a supply centre for the neighbouring mining camps. The county is still an important producer of gold, with an annual output of over $1,000,000. Gold was discovered here in the summer of 1849 by James W. Marshall, who in the preceding year had picked up the first nugget in California, near Coloma. The gold output was at its peak in 1850~51. Nevada City was incorporated in 1851 under a special act of the legislature (repealed in 1852).

NEVILLE or Nev, the family name of a famous English noble house, descended from Dolfin son of Uchtred, who had a grant from the prior of Durham in 1131 of “Staindropshire,” co. Durham, a territory which remained in the hands of his descendants for over four centuries, and in which stood Raby castle, their chief seat. His grandson, Robert, son of Meldred, married the heiress of Geoffrey de Neville (d. 1192—1193), who inherited from her mother the Bulmer lordship of Brancepeth near Durham. Henceforth Brancepeth castle became the other seat of the house, of which the bull’s head crest commemorates

the Bulmers; but it adopted the Norman surname of Neville (Neuville). Robert’s grandson, another Robert (d. 1282), held high position in Northumbria, and sided with Henry III. in the Barons’ War, as did his younger brother Geoffrey (d. 1285), ancestor of the Nevills of Hornby. This Robert’s son Robert (d. 1271) extended the possessions of the family into Yorkshire by his marriage with the heiress of Middleham. The summons of their son Ranulf (d. 1331) to parliament as a baron (1294) did but recognize the position of the Nevills as mighty in the north country. Ralph (d. 1367) the second baron—whose elder brother “the Peacock of the North” was slain by the Douglas in 1318— was employed by Edward III. as a commander against the Scots

and had a leading part in the victory of Nevill’s Cross (1346),

where David Bruce was captured, and by which Durham was saved. His active career as head of his house (1331—1367) made the name of Nevill a power on the Scottish march. Of his younger sons, Alexander became archbishop of York (1374-1388) and was a supporter of Richard II., attending him closely and encouraging his absolutist policy; he was one of those “appealed of treason” by the opposition in 1388, and was outlawed. He died abroad in 1392. His younger brother William, a naval commander, was a leading Lollard and a friend of Wiclif, and in 1388—1389 acted with the lords appellant.

John, the 3rd baron (d. 1388), a warden of the Scottish marches

272

NEVILLE’S

CROSS—NEWARK

and lieutenant of Aquitaine, a follower of John of Gaunt and a | way for a successful assault by knights and men-at-arms famous soldier in the French wars of Edward III., continued the NEVIN, ETHELBERT (1862-1901), American composer policy of strengthening the family’s position by marriage; his was born at Edgeworth, Pa., Nov. 25, 1862. His musical talent sisters and daughters became the wives of great northern lords; displayed itself in childhood. He studied in Boston, 1884, before his first wife was a Percy, and his second Lord Latimer’s heiress; going to Berlin to continue work under Klindworth and Von and his younger son, Thomas, became Lord Furnival in right of Buelow, who encouraged his ability as composer. After teaching his wife, while his son by his second wife became Lord Latimer. in Boston (1887-93), he returned to Europe residing for a time

His eldest son Ralph (1364-1425), rst earl of Westmorland (see WESTMORLAND, EARLS OF), married as his second wife a daughter of John of Gaunt and secured heiresses for five of his sons, four

of the younger ones becoming peers, while a fifth, Robert, was made bishop of Durham (1438—1457). Among his daughters were the duchesses of Norfolk, Buckingham and York (mother of Edward IV. and Richard III.) and an abbess of Barking. The Nevills were thus closely connected with the houses of Lancaster and York, and had themselves become the most important family in the realm. Of the earl’s sons by his second marriage, Richard, earl of Salisbury (and three of his sons) and William, earl of Kent, are the subjects of separate notices. The greatness of the Nevills centred in the “kingmaker” (Richard’s son) and the heads of his house, after the rst earl, were of small account in history, till Charles, the 6th earl, at the instigation of his wife, Surrey’s daughter, joined Northumberland in the fatal northern rising of 1569 to the ruin of his house. His estates, with the noble castles of Brancepeth and Raby, were forfeited; Middleham, with the Yorkshire lands, had been settled by the rst earl on the heirs of his second marriage. Although the senior line became extinct on the earl’s death abroad (1601), there were male descendants of the rst earl remaining, sprung from George and Edward, sons of his second marriage. George, who was Lord Latimer, was father of Sir Henry, slain at Edgcote fight, and grandfather of Richard, 2nd

lord (1469-1530), a soldier who distinguished himself in the north, especially at Flodden Field. His grandson (d. 1577) was the last lord, but there were male descendants of his younger sons, one of whom, Edmund, claimed the barony, and after 1601 the earldom of Westmorland, but vainly, owing to its attainder.

The heirs male of Edward, Lord ‘‘Bergavenny” (now “Abergavenny” co. Monmouth), who died in 1476, have retained their place in the peerage under that style to the present day. In 1784 the then Lord Abergavenny received an earldom, and the next lord erected at Eridge, Sussex, the present seat of the family, on which the marquisate of Abergavenny and earldom of Lewes were conferred in 1876. Its Sussex estates are derived through the Beauchamps, from the Fitz Alans, heirs of the Warennes. See Rowland’s Historical and Genealogical Account of the Family of Nevill (1830) ; Drummond’s Noble British Families (1846) ; Swallow’s De Nova Villa (1885); and Barron’s sketch in The Ancestor, No. 6 (1903). Also Dugdale’s Baronage; G. E. C[okayne]’s Complete Peerage; J. H. Round’s Feudal England; and for the Nevill castles Macaces, Castles of England. For the Kingmaker, see Oman’s monograph

in Paris, Berlin, Florence and Venice as well as in Algiers. In 1909

he went back to the United States, becoming associated with Horatio Parker in the department of music at Yale university. He died at New Haven, Conn., Feb. 17, r901. Ranked with the fore. most of American song-writers, he was also the composer of many instrumental pieces, mostly in miniature form, marked by a delicate, melodious originality. Among his compositions were Water Scenes for the piano, including the favourite Narcissus; a piano suite, Jn Tuscany ; the song cycles, In Arcady and The Quest of the Heart’s Desire, the latter posthumously published as was also Tempo di Valse; a Sketch Book of songs and piano music; and The Rosary, the song that became instantly popular at a concert at Madison Square Garden, New York, Feb. 15, 1898, and has been a universal favourite ever since.

NEVIS, an island in the British West Indies, forming with St. Kitts one of the five presidencies in the colony of the Leeward Islands. Pop. (1901) 12,774. It lies in 17° 14’ N. and 62° 33’ W,, and is separated from St. Kitts by a shallow channel 2 m. wide at its narrowest point. The island is almost circular, and from the sea has the appearance of a perfect cone, rising gradually to the height of 3,200 ft. Total area 50 sq.m. The climate is healthy, the average temperature 82° F. Sugar, molasses, cotton and coconuts are exported, and corn, yams, coffee and fruit are grown. There are medicinal springs and large deposits of sulphur. The chief town, Charlestown, lies on a wide bay on the S.W. The

legislative council of St. Kitts-Nevis meets at Basseterre, in St, Kitts. Nevis was discovered by Columbus colonized in 1628 by English from St. Kitts.

NEW

ACADEMY.

Plato’

school

in 1498 and first

is known

as the

Academy, or the older Academy. For some time after Plato’s death the school continued true to his teaching. But in the third century B.c., when Arcesilaus (316-241 B.c.), was head of the Academy, there came a great change. Arcesilaus developed a sceptical philosophy in opposition mainly to the Stoics. To mark this change in the trend of its teaching the school became known as the New Academy. See PLATO; ACADEMY, GREEK.

NEW ALBANY, a city of southern Indiana, U.S.A., on the

Ohio river, opposite Louisville, Kentucky; county seat of Floyd county. It is on Federal highways 31 and 150, and is served by the Baltimore and Ohio, the Chicago, Indianapolis and Louisville, the

Pennsylvania, the Southern, electric railways and river steamers. Pop. (1920) 22,992 (91% native white); in 1930, 25,819, an in-

crease of 12-3%. The city lies on a plateau above the river, in beautiful scenery. Four coalfields are close at hand, and hydroNEVILLE’S CROSS, BATTLE OF. This battle of Oct. electric current is available. Its 31 manufacturing industries had 17, 1346, took place after Crécy (g.v.) and while Edward III. an output in 1927 valued at $14,008,765; the combined business was still abroad, besieging Calais. It foiled the opportunist Scottish of its 22 wholesale houses was $20,000,000; and bank deposits invasion, and assured Edward’s freedom to continue his French aggregated $14,431,472. The leading products are ply-wood, furniprojects. But its main interest in military history is that it ture, iron and steel, edge tools, engines and boilers, woollen and affords an example of the offensive power of the new tactical cotton goods, leather, fertilizer and flour. New Albany was settled combination of archers and spearmen, in contrast to Dupplin, Hali- early in the roth century, plotted in 1813, and chartered as a city don Hill, Crécy, Poitiers and Agincourt, which were all won by in. 1839. NEW AMSTERDAM, 2 town of British Guiana, situated in awaiting the enemy’s onslaught. After crossing the border, King David Bruce was surprised by the quickness with which the 6° 20’ N. and 59° 15’ W. on the east bank of the Berbice river, English, under William de la Zouch, archbishop of York, concen- about 4 m. from the mouth. Formerly the capital of the colony Id6QI).

trated to meet him. Driven to accept battle near Durham, the Scottish king took up his position to resist attack, his pikemen formed in three great “schiltrons.” The English advanced, with their left leading, and the archers on this wing overlapped and swarmed round the Scottish right flank “schiltron.”” When this broke under the arrow-storm, they closed on the centre “schiltron”’ —already attacked in front. Its collapse, in turn, under the converging pressure, led to the capture of the king and the hurried retreat of the remaining left division of pikemen. Thus the archers proved their power against an immobile foe to pave the

of Berbice, it is now the capital of the county of that name. It is composed almost entirely of wooden houses, having a population in 1921 of 8,000. Colony House, standing in handsome grounds beside the botanical gardens, formerly the residence of the governor and seat of the legislature, now contains the treasury and supreme courts. New Amsterdam is connected by ferry, rail

and a bi-weekly steamer service with Georgetown.

NEWARK,

DAVID

LESLIE, Lorp (1601-1682), Scot-

tish general, fifth son of Sir Patrick Leslie of Pitcairly, Fifeshire, commendator of Lindores, and Lady Jean Stuart, daughter of the

NEWARK

273

rst earl of Orkney. In his early life he served in the army of ` by the Baltimore and Ohio, the Central of New Jersey, the Erie, Gustavus Adolphus, where he rose to the rank of colonel of cav- , the Lackawanna, the Lehigh Valley and the Pennsylvania railways alry. In 1640 he returned to Scotland. He was major-general| and an industrial belt line; steamships operating to Atlantic, Gulf under Alexander Leslie, earl of Leven, at Marston Moor. He was and Pacific ports, and Hudson river landings; interurban trolleys, then sent into the north-western counties, and besieged and took motor-bus and truck lines in all directions; and the Hudson and Carlisle. When, after the battle of Kilsyth, Scotland was at the Manhattan railroad, which provides 176 trains daily to and mercy of Montrose and his army, Leslie was recalled from Eng-

land in 1645, and made lieutenant-general of horse. In September he surprised and routed Montrose

at Philiphaugh near Selkirk.

He was then declared lieutenant-general of the forces. After a short period of service in England he returned to Scotland, and

from New York city via the Hudson tubes. A State highway runs direct (across Jersey City) to the Holland vehicular tunnel.

Newark Metropolitan airport (350 ac. at Port Newark) was opened in 1928 for commercial aviation, and is to be used by the

campaign up to the crossing of the Forth by Cromwell, and then accompanied Charles to Worcester, where he was lieutenant-general under the king. On the defeat of the royal army Leslie was

post-office department as the concentration and distributing base for air mail for the metropolitan district and eastern points. Pop. (1920) 414,524 (68% native white, 28% foreign-born white and 49% negroes); and in 1930 it was 442,337. This is practically doubled by the adjacent cities and suburbs, including Elizabeth, Bayonne, Harrison, the Oranges, Belleville, Nutley, Bloomfield and Montclair. The city has an area of 23-78 sqm., 10-5 m. of water front, 365 m. of streets (320 m. paved), 51,138 buildings (Dec. 1927) and an assessed valuation for 1928 of $845,831,123. The site, bordered on the east by a double S-shaped curve of the Passaic river, is generally level, but rises toward the west. Port Newark faces Newark bay at the mouth of the river. The city is laid out in an irregular pattern. It is closely built up in the business sections, largely with tall structures of modern type. Many of the older buildings are of a native brown sandstone. Broad street (120 ft.

committed to the Tower, where he remained till the Restoration in 1660. In 1661 he was created Lord Newark, and received a pen-

wide) and Market street (90 ft.) are the principal thoroughfares, and their intersection (the “Four Corners’’) is one of the busiest

reduced several of the Highland clans. In 1650 Newark was sent against Montrose, who was defeated

and captured by Major Strachan, Leslie’s advance guard commander; and later in the year, all parties having for the moment combined to support Charles II., Leslie was appointed to the chief command of the new army levied on behalf of Charles II. The result, though disastrous, abundantly demonstrated Leslie’s capac-

ity as a soldier, and it might be claimed for him that Cromwell

and the English regulars proved no match for him until his movements were interfered with and his army reduced to indiscipline

by the representatives of the Kirk party that accompanied his

headquarters. After Dunbar Leslie fought a stubborn defensive

sion of £500 per annum. extinct in 1790.

He died in 1682.

The title became

traffic spots in the world. Near by is Military park (an irregular plaza used in colonial days as a drill ground), surrounded by NEWARK, a town and municipal borough of Nottingham- public and semi-public buildings (including the Public Service shire, England. Pop. (1931) 18,055. It lies on the Devon near terminal, completed in 1916) and containing a magnificent bronze its junction with the Trent, and is connected with the Trent group of 48 figures on a gigantic scale by Gutzon Borglum, “The navigation by a canal 14 m. in length. It is 120 m. N.N.W. from Wars of America.” Facing Washington park, also near the heart London by the L.N.E.R. Newark owed its origin, possibly in of the city, are the public library and the Newark Museum of Roman times, to its position on the great road called the Fosse Industry, Art and Science (opened 1926). Conspicuous among the Way, in the Trent valley. In a 7th century document it is city’s business structures are the buildings of the Prudential and mentioned as having been granted to the abbey of Peterborough various other insurance companies. The county court house, by Wulfhere. Granted to the monastery of Stow by Godiva, it designed by Cass Gilbert, has mural decorations by well known remained in the hands of the bishops of Lincoln until the reign American artists, and in front of it is Gutzon Borglum’s seated of Edward VI. The castle was erected by Bishop Alexander in statue of Lincoln (in bronze). The hall of records, opposite the 1123, and the bridge about the same time. It was incorporated court house, was completed in 1928. Center market (1923) is in 1549, and the charter was confirmed and extended by Elizabeth. one of the best equipped municipal markets in the country. ConA weekly market on Wednesdays, and a fair on the eve, day and tracts have been made (1928) for the construction of a new union morrow of the Invention of the Holy Cross, are still held; an- railway and trolley station. Among the noteworthy old buildings other fair at St. Mary Magdalene and the four preceding days are the Trinity Episcopal cathedral, near Military park, built in was granted by Henry III., and is probably represented by the 1743 and used as a hospital during the Revolution, and the House fair now held on May 14. A market for corn and cattle is of Prayer with its stone rectory. There are 38 playgrounds, with a still held on Wednesdays, and another on Tuesdays for fat stock combined area of rro ac., and the parks within the city limits has been added. The church of St. Mary Magdalene is notable cover 734 ac., of which 704 ac. are part of the Essex county park for its tower and octagonal spire (223 ft. high). Its central piers, system aggregating 3,484 acres. dating from the 1rth or 12th century, remain, and the lower part Since 1917 the city has operated under a commission form of of the tower is Early English. The upper parts of the tower and government. Five commissioners, elected at large every four spire are Decorated, completed about 1350; the nave dates from years, constitute the governing body. Each commissioner is the between 1384 and 1393, and the chancel from 1489. There are director òf one of the five departments of the city’s business a few old monuments, and a 14th century brass. The castle is (public affairs, public works, finance, public safety, parks and supposed to have been founded by Egbert, king of the West public property) and the director of the department of public Saxons. It was known as the “key of the North.” The Norman affairs serves as mayor. The public schools are administered by stronghold still shows a gate-house, a crypt and the lofty tower. a non-partisan appointed board. On the initiative of the chamber The building seems to have been reconstructed in the early part of commerce, the council-manager form of government has been of the 13th century. During the Great Rebellion it was garri- under discussion among the citizens since 1924. The city’s watersoned for Charles J., and endured three sieges. A late 15th century supply from the Pequannock river (55,000,000 gal. daily) has been cross (the “Beaumond” cross) is preserved in the town. A increased by the development of the Wanaque watershed (a joint grammar and song school was founded in the reign of Henry undertaking by several municipalities of northern New Jersey) VIII. The town trades in malt, coal, corn and cattle. There which will supply a total of 100,000,000 gal. a day, of which are iron and brass foundries, boiler-works, agricultural imple- 40,500,000 gal. has been allotted to Newark. The sewage from ment manufactories and breweries. Gypsum and limestone are Newark, Paterson and 13 other municipalities on the Passaic obtained in the neighbourhood. river is collected by a large intercepting sewer (completed 1924), NEWARK, the largest city of New Jersey, U.S.A., and the carried down to a disposal plant on the Newark meadows, where it 18th in size in the United States (1930), a port of entry and the is treated for the removal of solids, and thence carried under county seat of Essex county; on the Passaic river and Newark Newark bay and Jersey City to a point in New York bay -2 m. bay, 8m. W. of lower Manhattan (New York city). It is served from the shore, where the effluent is discharged at a depth of ee ree a ma Fr

274

NEWARK—NEWARK

40 ft. into strong tidal currents. The public-school system comprises 68 elementary, 3 junior and 5 senior

high,

2 vocational,

2 continuation

and

17 evening

schools. There are 27 parochial schools and several private academies, including Newark academy, founded in 1792. The public library and the museum (under the direction of John Cotton Dana) have been pioneers in developing unconventional methods of serving the people of an industrial community. The library has about 350,000 volumes and an annual circulation of 1,500,000. The museum has exhibits valued at over $800,000. There are several special libraries in the city, including the Prudential Insurance Company’s valuable collection on vital statistics.

WORKS

barrels of beer, ten pairs of breeches, fifty knives, twenty horses 1850 fathoms of wampum, six ankers of liquor (or something equivalent), and three troopers’ coats.” The name was chosen ip

honour of their pastor, the Rev. Abraham Pierson (1608-78), who came from Newark-on-Trent. For 50 years or more the town remained essentially Puritan and was governed largely according

to the Mosaic Law. About 1730 Presbyterianism superseded Con. gregationalism, and in 1734 Col. Josiah Ogden (who had causeq

The Newark Institute of Arts and Sciences (1910) is an extension

a schism by saving his wheat one dry Sunday in a wet season) led in founding the first Episcopal church (Trinity). Newark was incorporated as a township in 1693 and was chartered asacity in 1836. The townships of Orange and Bloomfield were set off from it in 1806 and 1812 respectively. From 1747 to 1756 the College

centre of New York university. Newark is the seat of a State normal school (1913); the Newark College of Technology (1885), which co-ordinates theoretical instruction with practical training in industrial plants; the New Jersey College of Pharmacy (1891), now affliated with Rutgers university; and the New Jersey Law school (1908). There are 114 churches and Newark is the see of both a Roman Catholic and a Protestant Episcopal bishop. The philanthropic institutions and agencies are united in a welfare federation, and over 50 of them are financed by a single annual “community chest” campaign. The daily newspapers are the Star-Eagle (1796), the News (1883), the Ledger (1914) and the

under the presidency after the first few months of the Rev. Aaron Burr, who published in 1752 his famous textbook, the Newark Grammar. The manufacture of leather (especially patent leather) and shoes early became an important industry. There was a tannery here in 1770 and by 1837 there were 155 curriers and patent-leather makers. The jewellery industry dates from about 1830. Until the passage of the Volstead Act the manufacture of malt liquors was one of the leading industries. Newark was the home of Seth Boyden (1788-1870), called by Edison “one of America’s greatest inventors,” who invented the processes for

Freie Zeitung (1857). Among the weeklies are one in Polish and one in Yiddish. Newark has long been one of the leading manufacturing cities of the country. In 1927, with 1,650 establishments, employing together an average of 62,727 workers, and producing goods valued at $482,739,348, it ranked 15th among the cities of the

United States in value of output. Over 400 new plants were established in the Newark district in 1926 and 1927. The industries are highly diversified. Among the principal products (measured by value in 1927) are electrical machinery, apparatus and supplies ($59,229,242), paints and varnishes ($32,202,334), leather ($26,324,846), jewellery ($18,620,388), chemicals ($15,654,987) and meat products ($17,516,261). As an insurance centre also it has long been important. The 16 large life, fire and casualty companies which have their home offices here employ some 9,0co persons in Newark and have assets aggregating $2,100,000,000. It is an important transportation centre, by rail,

highway, air and sea. Development as a seaport is comparatively recent. In 1914 the city began the creation of Port Newark (on Newark bay, south-east of the city, a part of New York harbour) as a shipping terminal and industrial centre. On the entrance of the United States into the World War in 1917 the War Department leased 133 ac. of the newly filled land for one of its largest supply bases, spending $12,000,000 on docks, warehouses and freight-handling equipment; and the U.S. Shipping Board established a $30,000,000 ship-yard, employing 17,000 persons, where 150 steel cargo vessels were constructed by the Submarine Boat Corporation. At the close of the war the city acquired the army base (including 9 warehouses with 2,000,000 ft. of floor space) and resumed its programme. With aid from the Federal Government the channel has been deepened to 31 ft. and widened to 400 feet. Additional land has been reclaimed for industrial sites, and by 1928 six public and 139 private docks and piers had been built. Water-borne commerce in 1927 amounted to 7,115,323 tons. Freight received and despatched by rail totalled 5,892,011 tons and express shipments 1,992,483 parcels. There are nearly soo building and loan associations, with total assets of over $350,~000,000. The institutions for saving have deposits of about $90,000,000. Bank debits for 1927 aggregated $4,770,562,0709. In 1666 (following the union of the towns of the New Haven Jurisdiction with Connecticut in 1664, and the consequent secularization of the franchise) a band of about 30 Puritans from Milford, Conn., led by Robert Treat, settled at “Four Corners,” and the next year they were joined by an equal number from Branford and Guilford. They bought practically all of what is now Essex county from the Indians for “fifty double hands of powder, one hundred bars of lead, twenty axes, twenty coats, ten guns, twenty pistols, ten kettles, ten swords, four blankets, four

of New Jersey (now Princeton university) was carried on here,

making patent leather (1818) and malleable cast iron (1826), besides many new machines and many improvements on older apparatus; and of the Rev. Hannibal Goodwin, who in 1887, in the attic of the rectory of the House of Prayer, invented the flexible film which made the motion picture possible. After the European revolutions of 1848 Newark received an influx of foreign-born, notably Germans. The city’s population was 38,894 in 1850; 7I,94I in 1860; 136,508 in 1880; and 246,070 in 1900. Between

1g00 and 19to it increased 41%; between 1910 and 1920, 19%. There has been no important annexation of territory (except at

Port Newark) since 1905. NEWARK, avillage of Wayne county, New York, U.S.A, 30 m. E. of Rochester, on the State Barge canal, and served by the Marion, the New York Central, the Pennsylvania, the West Shore and electric railways. Pop. in 1920, 6,964; in 1930, 7,649. Twenty miles north are the summer resorts on Sodus bay (Lake

Ontario), and Lakes Seneca and Canandaigua lie 15 m. and 18 m. respectively to the south. Newark has extensive nurseries and a great variety of manufacturing industries, with a combined payroll estimated at $1,750,000 annually, and an aggregate business of $15,000,000. It is the seat of a State school for mental defectives. The village was founded about the time of the opening of the Erie canal (1825) and was incorporated in 1839.

NEWARK, acity of centfal Ohio, U.S.A., 33 m. E. by N. of

Columbus, at the confluence of the north and south forks of the Licking river; the county seat of Licking county. It is served by the Baltimore and Ohio, the Pennsylvania and electric railways. Pop. 26,718 in 1920 (92% native white); in 1930 it was 30,596, a gain of 145%. The city lies 820 ft. above sea-level, in a broad, fertile valley, surrounded on three sides by low hills. It is a division point of the Baltimore and Ohio, which employs 2,000 persons in its offices, shops and freight-yards; and has important and diversified manufacturing industries, with an output in 1927 valued at $18,805,846. Stoves, glass, freight-cars and automobiles are leading products. At Heath, 2 m. S.W., there is a large oil refinery. Granville, 6 m. west, is the seat of Denison university (Baptist, 1831). In Newark and its immediate vicinity are some of the most extensive remaining earthworks of the mound builders, occupying 4 sq.m. when first noticed (about 1800) by the white settlers, at which time they were covered with dense forests containing trees over 500 years old. They are of great variety, m-

cluding a circular enclosure of 50 ac., connected by parallel banks

with an octagonal mound (20 ac.), and a bas relief 6 it. high in the form of a spread eagle measuring 240 by 210 feet. Newark was laid out about 1801 and was incorporated in 1813. NEWARK WORKS. An elaborate and complicated group

of prehistoric works at the junction of two branches of Licking

river, near Newark, Licking county, Ohio.

Situated on a plain

NEW

BEDFORD—NEW

30 to 50 ft. above the bottom land, the works consist of a series of square, circular, and octagonal enclosures, with mounds, ditches

and connecting avenues spreading over nearly four sq. miles. They are composed of two groups, nearly two m. apart, connected by two walled avenues averaging 200 ft. wide. The western group consists of a large circle, 3 to 14 ft. high and with a mean diameter of 1,054 ft., connected with a symmetrical octagon by an avenue 300 ft. long and 80 ft. wide. Outside the octagon are

two small circles, and at each corner of the octagon is a gateway, opposite which and 60 ft. within is a small mound 3 to6 ft. in height. The length of the walls between the centres of the gateways averages 621 ft., from which the greatest variation is only

four ft., except In one wall that falls 8 ft. short of the average. From the S. side of the octagon a walled avenue stretches southward two m. or more, and from near its E. side two similar avenues extend eastward with a low wall on each side, one con-

necting with the square of the eastern group, the other running E. to the descent to the lowland north of the square.

Disposed

along these avenues are circles. The eastern group of the works consists of a large circle connected with the square mentioned

by a broad avenue and several adjoining lines of walls. The wall of the circle is accompanied with an inside ditch 28 to 4o ft. wide and 8 to 13 ft. deep, while the wall itself is 35 to 55 ft. wide at the base and from 5 to 14 ft. high. There is a gateway at the N.E. with flanking extensions of the wall into the walled avenue leading to the square, the sides of which are 926 to 951 ft., yet the angles at the corners do not vary from the right angle more than one degree.

NEW BEDFORD, a city of Massachusetts, U.S.A., 56 m S. of Boston at the mouth of the Acushnet river, on an arm of Buzzard’s bay; a port of entry and one of the county seats of Bristol county. It is on Federal highway 6, and is served by the New York, New Haven and Hartford railroad, interurban trolley and motor-bus lines, and steamboats. Pop. (1920) 121,217 (40% foreign-born white, including the largest colonies in the country from the Atlantic Islands and Portugal); in 1930 the population fell to 122,597, a loss of 7-1%. The city occupies about 20 sq.m. along the west side of the river and harbour, opposite Fairhaven, with which it is connected by two highway bridges. It is in the heart of the summer-resort region of southern New England, and is the port of sailing for the islands of Nantucket and Martha’s Vineyard. The harbour is a tidal estuary, with a 25 ft. channel 300 ft. wide and a 14 ac. turning basin. The State pier, completed in 1917, is a modern steamship terminal, 670 ft. long, with large storage space, built by the Commonwealth of Massachusetts. Boulevards almost encircle the city, including a broad drive along the shore of the harbour to Clark’s point, where Ft. Rodman (erected during the Civil War) guards the entrance. There are some handsome modern buildings, including the post office, the municipal building, the library and the high school. The library, established by a private society in 1802 and taken over by the city in 1853, was one of the first free public libraries in America. It has a fine collection of whaling prints and other material relating to the industry, and much material relating to the Quakers. The Bourne Whaling museum contains, among other exhibits, a full-rigged whaleship completely equipped; and in the Seamen’s Bethel (1831) just across the street are the memorial

tablets described by Melville in Moby Dick. The last of the full-

irene” rire

BERN

275

of which $93,476,676 represented cotton goods. It is the spot cotton market of the North, and its warehouses have a storage capacity for 300.000 bales. The traffic of the harbour in 1927 (including Fairhaven) amounted to 973,309 tons, valued at $44,760,415, almost all domestic commerce. In addition, there are large shipments of fish. The city’s assessed valuation for 1927 was $216,197,725. Bank debits for 1927 aggregated $364,35 2,000. The site of New Bedford was visited in 1602 by Gosnold, who traded with the Indians at the mouth of the Acushnet. It was originally part of the town of Dartmouth, settled in 1652 by colonists from Plymouth, who purchased the land from Massasoit. About 1665 there was a considerable influx of Quakers, who have ever since been an important and influential element in the population. There was no village on the site of the present city until 1760. In 1787 New Bedford was set off from Dartmouth and incorporated as a town, and in 1847 it was chartered as a city. Fairhaven was separated from it in 1812. The town was at first called Bedford (the family name of Joseph Russell, one of

the founders), and later New was prefixed to distinguish it from Bedford in Middlesex county. On May 14, 1775, a local ship captured two armed British sloops just outside the New Bedford harbour. During the Revolution the harbour was a rendezvous of American privateers, and this led to an attack (Sept. 5, 1778) by a fleet and armed force under Earl Grey, which burned 70 ships and almost destroyed the town. The whaling industry became established here after Joseph Rotch, a Nantucket merchant, in 1765 built wharves

and warehouses

on the west side of the

harbour, and New Bedford was long the principal whaling port of the world. For more than a century the industry flourished, with interruptions due to the Revolution, the Embargo, the War of 1812 and the Civil War, reaching its peak in 1857, when 329 whaling ships were registered, representing an investment of $12,000,000 and employing 10,000 men ashore and afloat. The hunting grounds shifted after 1791 from off the Virginia and Carolina coast to the Pacific, and after 1848 to the Arctic waters. The

first cotton-mill was built in 1847 by Joseph Grinnell (1789~ 1885) and his associates, and began operation in 1848 with 15,ooo spindles and 200 looms. In 1928 the 66 mills making cotton yarn and cotton goods were equipped with 3,382,500 spindles (about 10% of the total in the United States) and 58,000 looms, and they produce from 35 to 40% of all the fine cotton fabrics made in the country. Because of the character of the goods made, New Bedford has suffered less than other New England cities from the competition of the new textile centres in the South.

NEW BERN, acity of eastern North Carolina, U.S.A., at

the mouth of the Trent river, on the Neuse river estuary; a port of entry and the county seat of Craven county. It is on the Atlantic Coastal highway; is connected by a 12 ft. channel with the inland waterway from Boston to Beaufort; and is served by the Atlantic Coast Line and the Norfolk Southern railways and coastwise steamers. Pop. 12,198 in 1920 (55% negroes); in 1930 the population was 11,981, a loss of 1-:8%. The Neuse river is 14 m. wide here, and it widens gradually to 7 m. at its entrance into Pamlico sound, 30 m. east. New Bern is a picturesque old city, on the peninsula formed by the two rivers, surrounded by forests of cypress and pines. It is the supply depot and commercial centre of the rich surrounding farm lands, and ‘of the numerous

fishing and hunting resorts of the region

(Ocracoke,

Morehead, Beaufort, Jacksonville, Havelock, Nags Head and Cape

rigged whalers, the “Charles W. Morgan,” set in a concrete basin on the estate of Col. E. H. R. Green at South Dartmouth (9 m.

Lookout). Trafic on the Neuse in 1927 amounted to 238,022 tons, valued at $11,080,764. The city’s manufacturing industries

S.W. of New Bedford), is kept as a museum.

include the largest lumber-mill in the South-east. New Bern was founded in 1710 by a company of Germans and Bernese Swiss in search of religious freedom, under the leadership of Baron Christopher de Graffenried, and was Incorporated as a city in 1723. The general assembly met here in 1738. In 1749 a printing press (the first in North Carolina) was set up, and the first academy in the province was established. For some years the city was the capital of the province, and it was the leading seaport until the Revolution. Many beautiful old buildings still stand, including one wing of “Tryon’s Palace” (the residence of the royal governor, built in 1767~70, and reputed the finest structure in America at the time), the Presbyterian church (1822),

Free educational

opportunities, in addition to those provided by the public-school system, are offered by a State Textile school, the New Bedford Vocational school and the Swain Free School of Design. The morning newspaper, the Mercury, was established in 1807. Daily papers are published in French and in Portuguese. New Bedford has long been one of the principal centres for the manufacture of fine cotton goods. It ranks second to Washington in the proportion of women employed in gainful occupations (46%, U.S. Census, 1920) and second to Fall River in the propor-

tion of children 10 to 15 years of age so employed (17% in 1920). Its aggregate factory output in 1927 was valued at $125,541,548,

276

NEWBERRY—NEW

and Christ church, which has a communion service presented by George II. in 1752. The city was strongly fortified early in the Civil War, but was captured by Federal troops on March 14, 1862, and subsequent attempts by the Confederates to retake it (March

14, 1863, and Feb. 1 and 5, 1864) were unsuccessful. NEWBERRY, JOHN STRONG (1822-1892), American

geologist, was born at Windsor, Conn., on Dec. 22, 1822. He graduated from Western Reserve in 1846 and from Cleveland Medical college in 1848, and completed his medical studies in Paris. In 1851 he began the practice of medicine in Cleveland, but abandoned it to accept an appointment as surgeon and geologist with an exploring party in northern California and Oregon. Elis reports on the geology, botany and zoology of the expedition were published in 1857. For the next four years he was employed on similar work in the region of the Colorado river, his researches extending over a large area in Utah, Arizona and New Mexico. In 1866 he was appointed professor of geology and palaeontology at the Columbia School of Mines, New York, where he commenced the formation of a magnificent collection of specimens. In 1869 he was made State geologist of Ohio and director of the (second) geological survey of that State, and in 1884 palaeontologist to the U.S. Geological Survey. He devoted much study to Triassic, Cretaceous and Tertiary plants, and in particular to those of the Larami stage. He also carried on researches among the Palaeozoic and Triassic fishes of North America. Among his other publications may be mentioned The Origin and

Classification of Ore Deposits (1880). Conn., on Dec. 7, 1892.

He died at New Haven,

A bibliography of his publications is given in Bulletin of Geol. Soc. of America, vol. iv. p. 393. “Memoir” (with portrait) by J. J. Stevenson in American Geologist (July 1893).

NEWBERRY,

a town of South Carolina, U.S.A., the county

seat of Newberry county; on Federal highways 76 and 176, 43 m. N.W. of Columbia. It is served by the Columbia, Newberry and Laurens and the Southern railways. Pop. 5,894 in 1920 (35% negroes); in 1930 the population was 7,298. It is an important cotton market and cotton-manufacturing centre, with over 195,000 spindles in its mills in 1928; and is the seat of Newberry college (founded 1859). The town was settled about 1830 and was incorporated in 1894. NEWBOLT, SIR HENRY JOHN (1862), English author and poet, was born on June 6, 1862, the son of H. F. Newbolt, vicar of St. Mary’s, Bilston. He was educated at Clifton

college, and at Corpus Christi college, Oxford.

He was called to

the bar at Lincoln’s Inn in 1887 and practised until 1899. His first book was a story, Taken from the Enemy (1892), and in 1895 he published a tragedy, Mordred; but the publication of his ballads, Admirals All (1897), created his literary reputation. These were followed by other volumes of stirring verse, The Island Race (1898), The Sailing of the Long-ships (1902), Songs of the Sea (1904). From 1900 to 1905 he was editor of the Monthly Review. His novels The Old Country (1916) and The New June (1909), attracted attention. During the World War he was controller of wireless and cables. He was knighted in rors. In ro14 appeared Drake’s Drum and other Sea Songs, and Aladore; his chief contribution to war poetry was St. George’s Day and Other Poems (x918). In 1920 he published his Naval History of the Great War. His other works include:—Tales of the Great War (1916), The Book of the Happy Warrior (1917), and Submarine and AntiSubmarine (1918), written primarily for the young; A New Study of English Poetry (1917) ; Poetry and Time (1919); An English Anthology 192 ; Studies Green and Gray (1926); and New Paths on Helicon

1927).

NEW

BRIGHTON,

formerly a village (coextensive with

the town of Castleton) of Richmond county, New York, U.S.A., but since Jan. 1, 1898 a part of the borough of Richmond, New York city. It is at the north-eastern end of Staten Island, about 6 m. S.W. of the borough of Manhattan. At New Brighton is the Sailors’ Snug Harbour, founded under the will of Robert Richard Randall

(c. 1740-1801), who in 1771 became a member

of the

Marine Society of New York (an organization for the relief of indigent masters of vessels and their families), and in 1790 bought

from Baron Poelnitz the “Minto farm,” about 21 ac. of land in

BRITAIN

what is now the Borough of Manhattan. This tract, with four tets also in what is now Manhattan, and cash and stocks to the valy of about $10,000 Randall bequeathed to a board of trustees directing that the income should be used “for the purpose of main. taining and supporting aged, decrepit and worn-out sailors,” who

had served at least five years under the American flag, and tha

the institution established for this purpose should be called “the Sailors’ Snug Harbour.” The Sailors’ Snug Harbour was incor.

porated in 1806, and its charter was amended in 1828 to permit the building of the institution on Staten Island rather than on

the Randall estate, which had already greatly increased in value In 1833 the institution, with lands covering 160 ac., was opened in New Brighton with about 50 inmates. Randall’s body was

removed to the grounds in 1834, and in 1884 a life-size bronze statue of him, by Augustus Saint Gaudens, was placed in front of the main building. At New Brighton are also a Home for Destitute Children of Seamen, founded in 1846 at Stapleton, Staten Island, removed to a new building on the Snug Harbour property

in 1852, and the Samuel R. Smith Infirmary, founded in 186:,

See G. A. Ward, Description of New Brighton on Staten Island (1836) ; I. K. Morris, Memorial History of Staten Island (1900); and C. G. Kolff, 4 Short History of Staten Island (1926).

NEW

BRITAIN, an island of the Bismarck Archipelago,

lying east of New Guinea, in the Pacific ocean, between 5° and 6° S., and 150° E. (German, Neu Pommern; native, Birara). It

formed part of the colony of German New Guinea from 18% (when the German protectorate was declared), until 1914, when it was occupied by Australian troops, and in 1919 it was mandated by the League of Nations, to the Commonwealth of Australia, by which country it is now being administered. It is the largest and most important island of the archipelago, with a total area of 10,000 sq. miles. It is long and very narrow, almost crescentshaped, with a mean breadth of 28 miles. Despite its small width, in 1928 it had not been crossed by a white man, except at its northern extremity, due to the fact that a high and very rugged range of mountains runs from one end to the other. Volcanic action is very evident throughout the island, especially in the north, where, close to Rabaul, are the Matupi sulphur springs. The highest. peak in the island, the Father (7,500 ft.) on the north-west coast, is an active volcano, and near it are two mountains the North Son and the South Son, and not far from Rabaul are three mountains, the Mother, the North Daughter and the South Daughter, the first-named being an extinct volcano. Vulcan Island, with an area of several acres, on the south side of Blanche Bay, made its appearance in a single night, in 1870, during an eruption of Mt. Mother when violent earthquakes were experienced: earth tremors are of frequent occurrence. The coast is precipitous in some places, in others flat and fringed with coral reefs; but there are several good harbours, the best being Simpson Haven, the inlying portion of Blanche Bay; others are Jacquinot Bay, Arawe, Linden haven and Powell haven. There are no rivers of any importance, only a few short, rapid-flowing streams. The chief town and centre of administration is Rabaul, situated on Simpson haven, which is also a good port with a safe and spacious anchorage for shipping. The bulk of the white population of New Britain is settled in or near Rabaul, where sanitary conditions have improved greatly, and which has a fairly healthy climate, with a rainfall of more than roo inches.

White-owned

coco-nut plantations are scattered about the island. Copra is the chief product, shipments of which from Rabaul in 1919 amounted to a value of £345,927, and there is a considerable shell fishing industry. Roads are being constructed where possible, and between Rabaul and the various islands and ports on the mainland and in Australia there is regular steamship communication. There is also telegraphic and wireless communication. The island is divided into four districts for administrative purposes, Rabaul, Kokopo (formerly Herbertshöhe, the former seat of the governor of German New Guinea), Gasmatta and Talasea, administered by district officers appointed by the administrator of the mandated territories of New Guinea. The people are Melanesians, of good physique, akin to the aborigines of the mainland. They are considered to be very

NEW

BRITAIN—NEW

treacherous, and cannibalism exists amongst them; but this is

BRUNSWICK

277

in dealing with the natives, who have clean and well kept villages, and though not craftsmen in carving and pottery, are good hunters

The coast-line of New Brunswick is indented with numerous fine bays and harbours. The Bay of Fundy is an arm of the sea separating New Brunswick from Nova Scotia and terminating in two smaller bays, Chignecto Bay and the Basin of Minas. Its length up to Chignecto Bay is 140 m. and its extreme breadth 45 m. It is noted for its high tides, which rise about 30 ft. at St.

and fishermen.

John and over

being stamped out as the island is opened up with roads. They

are amenable to discipline, and some display considerable intelli-

gence when trained. Pidjin English is used by European settlers (See New GUINEA.)

BIBLIOGRAPHY.—E.

von Hesse-Warteg,

50 ft. at the head

of Chignecto

Bay.

At Bay

Samoa, Bismarck Archipel

Verte, 14 m. distant, on the opposite side of the Isthmus of und New Guinea (Leipzig, 1902); H. Schnee, Bilder aus der Sudsee, Chignecto, the tide rises little more than 4 or 5 ft. The Bay of (Bismarck Archipelago) (1904); R. Parkinson, Dreissig Jahre in der Chaleur, which has several excellent harbours, is over go m. in Südsee, Land und Leute, Sitten und Gebriicke, auf dem Bismarcklength and from 20 to 25 m. in breadth. The other inlets of Archipel (Stuttgart, 1909). consequence on the east coast are Miramichi, Richibucto, BucNEW BRITAIN, a city of Hartford county, Connecticut, touche, Cocagne and Shediac Bays; on the south coast are PassaU.S.A., 9 m. S.W. of Hartford; served by the New York, New maquoddy Bay, St. John Harbour and Chignecto Bay. At the Haven and Hartford railroad. Pop. (1920) 59,316 (36% foreign- mouths of the rivers are in nearly every.case excellent harbours. born white, including 7,804 Poles, 3,177 Italians and 2,102 To the province belong the islands of Campobello and Grand Swedes); 1930, Federal census, 68,128. The city has an area of Manan, at the entrance of the Bay of Fundy, from both of which 13-77 sq.m.; its parks cover 350 ac.; and it is the seat of a State important fisheries are carried on. normal school (established 1851) and a State trade school. It is The geological features are mantled by glacio-marine deposits, an important manufacturing centre, with an output in 1927 valued including a basal clay with Leda Arctica, and sands containing at $63,700,280. Hardware, cutlery and edge tools (valued at $39,- Saxicava shells. There is evidence of coastal sinking, so that 046,986 in 1925) and foundry and machine-shop products are the many rivers flow into estuaries often bounded by cliffs on the leading manufactures. The city’s assessed valuation in 1927 was Bay of Fundy, whereas the east coast is, for the most part low, $114,788,798. A weekly newspaper in Swedish has been published with mosses and marshes. here since 1896. Settlement within the territory now occupied by Climate.—The cold air of the northern interior frequently New Britain began in 1687. The town of New Britain was flows over the province in winter. The average rainfall is about incorporated in 1850; the city in 1871; and in 1905 the two were 40 to 45 inches. The snowfall is very heavy in the north of the consolidated. province, where it exceeds roo inches. The harbour of St. John NEW BRUNSWICK, 2 province of the Dominion of Can- is open throughout the year. The autumn is the best season of the ada, lying between 45° 2’ and 48° 3’ N. and 63° 46’ and 69° 3’ year, especially during the “Indian summer,” after the first frost, W. Its length from north to south is 230 m., its greatest breadth but before the weather has broken. Area and Population.—Not including the territorial sea, the 190 m., and it has a seaboard of about 550 miles. Geological and Physical Features.——New Brunswick is area of the province is 27,985 sq.m., of which 74 are water. It characterized most of all by the transgression of strata of Car- thus occupies an area rather larger than that of the mainland of boniferous age over the worn edges of folds which may be Car- Scotland. The population in 192I was 387,876; in 1881 it was boniferous or pre-Carboniferous, or both. The areas of these 321,233. There was a marked increase (10-23%) during the mainly horizontal Carboniferous beds are mostly well under 500 decade 1911-1921. The population in 1931 was 408,219, an inft. above sea-level. The remnants of mountain axes running crease of 20,343. The bulk of the people are of English descent, north-east to south-west, north of St. John, reveal Archaean and the remainder Irish and French. The Scots, so prominent in nearly folded early Palaeozoic rocks, and a good deal of land is well all the other provinces of the Dominion, are here less conspicuous. Of the original Indian inhabitants of the province, who were of above the 1,000 ft. contour. Between the fold lines run remarkable lake-river feeders of the St. John river, which skirts around Algonquin stock and divided into two tribes, the Micmacs and the Malicites, few remain, many of whom have a greater or the south-western end of these folds. This river is remarkable less proportion of white blood. The principal towns are St. John for its fine scenery and is navigable for 88 m. up to Fredericton, but small boats go 65 m. further, to Woodstock, not far from the (pop. 1931) 47,514, Moncton (20,689), and Fredericton, the border of Maine. North of this the frontier for the most part capital of the province, with a population of 8,830. Administration and Education.—The province sends ten skirts the west side of the valley up to Grand Falls, which can be reached by boats when the river is high. Above Grand Falls senators and eleven (1926) members of the House of Commons the river forms the boundary between New Brunswick on the to the Federal parliament. Since the abolition of the legislative north and Maine on the south, up to St. Francis, the uppermost council in 1892 the provincial legislature has consisted of a lieusection of the river being in Maine. The total length of this tenant-governor and a legislative assembly. Both city and county river is about 450 miles. The eastern lowland, with its horizontal districts have an elective municipal system. Primary education layers, including some thin beds of coal, is continued eastwards is free and undenominational, with a compromise (1875) by into Nova Scotia. The overlying Red Permian beds attain con- which practical, though not theoretical, satisfaction is given to siderable importance northwards, in Prince Edward island, across the Roman Catholic Church. At Fredericton there is a teachers’ Northumberland strait. The whole of the south coast of the Gulf college and a school for the deaf and dumb. The lazaretto for of St. Lawrence, from Miscou point, bounding Chaleur bay, to lepers, at Tracadie, and the marine hospital, at St. John, are supSydney on the Atlantic coast of Cape Poreton island, is thus ported by the Dominion. At Fredericton is a small provincial bordered by coal-bearing rocks. The main north-eastward drain- university, founded in 1800 and re-established in 1859; at Sackage of the lowland is effected by the Miramichi river (220 m. ville is the university of Mount Allison college, under Methodist long), flowing into a large estuary and generally navigable up to control, and at Memramcook one, working chiefly among the Nelson, opposite Newcastle. West of this lowland area comes a French, is owned by the Roman Catholics. Their interests are fold axis which undulates about a north-north-east to south-south- more in arts than in science.

west direction, and has been thought to be related to the chains on the east side of the Hudson-Champlain depression. The fold axis forms a broad highland which reaches a 2,000 ft. level at a good many places in its northern section. The northern boundary of the province is the great Chaleur bay, stretching 90 m. inland and possessing a number of harbours. Into it flows the Restigouche river, which curves around the north-west edge of the

western highland, and for some distance bounds New Brunswick against Quebec.

Either owing to the beauty of its scenery or to the excellence of its education New Brunswick has produced a school of poetry, headed by Charles Roberts, which is unique in the Dominion.

Agriculture.—The great predominance of the lumber industry has tended to keep agriculture in the background. The total area under field crops in 1926 was 891,631 acres. Of these, 10,916 ac. were wheat lands, 204,686 ac. oats, and 6,558 ac. barley. These, together with potatoes (42,744) and roots (12,235), formed the main crops. There were 559,019 ac. under hay and

278

NEW

BRUNSWICK—NEWBURGH

clover. In all the river valleys, and especially on the fertile diked lands along the head of the Bay of Fundy, many rich and prosperous farms are found, varying in size from 100 to 240 acres. The raising of sheep and cattle, and the production of cheese and butter, are industries of importance. Forests.—The State owns about 10,000 sq.m. of forest, and in 1925 the Crown and granted lands produced 405,203,000 ft. board measure. The most valuable and most widely-spread tree is the black spruce (Abies nigra), from which is made a yearly increasing quantity of wood-pulp for paper-making. The hemlock (Abies Canadensis), the cedar, birch, beech, oak, ash and many other valuable trees, are also widely spread. The chief ports for shipping are St. John, at the mouth of the St. John river, and Chatham, at the mouth of the Miramichi. The great forests, through which flow numerous rivers with excellent harbours at or near their mouths, have long made New Brunswick a centre of lumbering. This industry has affected the whole development of the province, and the wilder and more

G. F. Matthew. Valuable papers on various provincial subjects have been published in the Transactions of the Royal Society of Canada by W. F. Ganong. The Provincial Government issues a yearly volume of sessional papers; Acadiensis, a magazine published in St. John

should also be consulted.

The earliest account of New

Brunswick jg

given by Nicholas Denys, Description géographique (published Paris 1672; republished by W. F. Ganong, with notes and introduction, 1908); R. Montgomery Martin, History of New Brunswick (1837);

G. E. Fenety, Political Notes (1867) ; James Hannay, History of Acadia (1879) ; and Lives of Wilmot and Tilley (1907) ; N. Denys, Description géographique (1672; republished, 1908); Sir J. W. Dawson, Acadian

Geology (1891); Canada and its I’vovinces (23 vols., Toronto, 1914):

Chronicles of Canada (32 vols., Toronto, 1914); New Brunswick: Its Natural Resources (Ottawa, 1921); Canada Year Books: Publications of the Geological Society of Canada; Transactions of the Royal Society of Canada.

NEW

BRUNSWICK,

a city of New Jersey, U.S.A., the

county seat of Middlesex county; on the Raritan river, the Lincoln highway and the Delaware and Raritan canal, 30 m. S.W. of New

unsettled line of its woodsmen contrasts with that of the farmer of Ontario or of the west. In 1902 the Provincial Government set aside a large area of the highlands at the sources of the Tobique, Nipisiquit and Miramichi rivers for a national park and game preserve. Moose, caribou and deer may be shot in limited numbers during two autumn months in other parts of the province. The game laws are being made increasingly strict, and the province draws a large revenue from the sale of licences. Mines and Fisheries.—The mineral wealth of the province is small, though gold, iron, copper, lead, zinc and plumbago have been worked on a small scale at various times. Coal and gypsum are actively mined. Natural gas with oil is obtained near Moncton.

The fisheries, on the other hand, are extensive, though less so than those of Nova Scotia. This industry centres in the counties of Charlotte and Gloucester, herring, salmon, lobsters, sardines and cod forming the chief catch. The Restigouche, and other rivers near the northern border, are much frequented by anglers in search of trout and salmon. A large number of persons are employed (2,401 in 1925) in the fish canneries and freezing establishments. Manufactures.—The chief manufactures, apart from the shipping of St. John, are connected with lumbering and with agriculture. The making of paper pulp and of furniture is important. Co-operation in the manufacture of butter and cheese has produced excellent results, and numerous cheese and butter factories are scattered through the province. Communications.—The railway system links the province to Nova Scotia on the east, and to the rest of Canada on the west. In all there are some 1,941 m. of railway. The roads and rivers are also arteries of communication. There are Government owned and commercial radio stations at Red Head and St. John, with a direction-finding station at the latter as well.

History.—Until 1784 New Brunswick formed part, first of the

French province of Acadia, later of the British province of Nova Scotia. The first settlement within its borders was made in 1604 by Pierre de Guast, sieur de Monts, with whom was Samuel de Champlain. Their colony at the mouth of the St. Croix river was soon abandoned, but throughout the French régime the district was frequented by bands of fur-traders. In 1762 the first English settlement was made at Maugerville, on the St. John river, and in 1764 a body of Scottish farmers and labourers took up land along the Miramichi. On May 18, 1783, a band of American loyalists settled at the mouth of the St. John. Thousands more followed, and in 1784 New Brunswick was declared a separate province. At first governed by a representative assembly and an irresponsible council, it obtained responsible government in 1847-48, after a constitutional struggle in which no little ability was shown. In 1867 it entered, without reluctance, but without enthusiasm, into the Canadian Federation. BrsriocRaray,.—Sir J. W. Dawson, Acadian Geology (ed. of 18912), is the most easily accessible work on the geology of the province.

Numerous Survey

studies

of Canada,

have

been

by L. W.

published,

chiefly by the

Geological

Bailey, R. W. Ells, A. P. Low

and

BY COURTESY OF THE NATIONAL AIR TRANSPORT, INC. HADLEY FIELD, AT NEW BRUNSWICK, SHOWING

A HANGAR AND AERIALS

York city and 6o m. N.E. of Philadelphia. It is served by the Pennsylvania and the Raritan River railways, motor-bus lines and freight steamers and barges. Pop. (1920) 32,779 (27% foreign-born white); 1930 Federal Census 34,555. The city rises from the river to high bluffs on the east and the west, commanding wide and picturesque views. It is the seat of Rutgers university (qg.v.) and the Theological seminary of the Reformed Church in America, the oldest theological school in the United States, founded in New York city in 1784 and situated in New Brunswick since 1810. New Brunswick is one of the oldest cities of New Jersey, and has many buildings dating from the 18th century. The Buccleuch mansion, in a 60 ac. park, presented to the city by Anthony Dey, is one of the best preserved colonial houses in the State. On York street still stands the house occupied by Gen. Howe in 1776-77. There is a fine modern stone bridge across the Raritan. The city has large manufacturing industries, employing about 15,000 persons and making a variety of products, ranging in size from motor trucks to knitting needles and valued in 1927 at $49,322,552. Surgical and medical supplies, motor buses and trucks and fire apparatus are among its leading manufactures. The assessed valuation for 1927 was $40,130,029. Since 1906 the city has had a commission form of government. A settlement was established here in 1681. It was at first called Prigmore’s Swamp, later Inian’s Ferry, until the present name was adopted in honour of the House of Brunswick. A city charter was granted by the royal governor in 1730 and by the State legislature in 1784. Wash-

ington entered New Brunswick on Nov. 28, 1776, but evacuated it on the approach of the enemy, and from Dec. 3 to April 13, 177", it was occupied by the British under Lord Howe.

NEWBURGH,

a royal burgh, Fifeshire, Scotland, on_the

Firth of Tay, 7m. N.W. of Ladybank junction by L.N.E.R. Pop. (1931), 2,152. Its industries chiefly consist of the making of linen and floorcloth and quarrying; there are fisheries, especially of

salmon, and a considerable trade in corn, fruit and potatoes. About tm. S.W. of the town stand the remains of Macduff’s Cross, which marks the spot where the clan Macduff was granted rights

NEWBURGH— NEWCASTLE and sanctuary and composition for murder done in hot blood. Lindores abbey on the Tay is close to Newburgh. Of the Bene-

279

(Jack of Newbury’s) house and the Jacobean cloth hall, now a public museum, still exist. The almshouses called King John’s

dictine abbey, founded in 1178 by David, earl of Huntingdon, brother of William the Lion, there only remain the groined arch of the principal entrance, a portion of the west tower and other

Court are supported by a foundation known as St. Bartholomew’s Hospital, to which in 1215 King John granted by charter the profits of a fair on St. Bartholomew’s day. Shaw House, on the

fragments. At Blackearnside, a forest of alders, to the east of the village, Wallace defeated the earl of Pembroke in 1298. NEWBURGH, a city of Orange county, New York, U.S.A., on the west bank of the Hudson river, opposite Beacon, 60 m. N.

outskirts, is an Elizabethan mansion; to the north is Donnington castle, retaining a Perpendicular gateway and other fragments. The suburb of Speenhamland was formerly an important posting station on the Bath road. At Sandleford Priory, to the south of

of New York city. It is on Federal highway 9W;; is served by the

Newbury, the site and part of the buildings of an Augustinian priory (c. 1200) were utilized in the erection of a mansion in 1781. The householders of Newbury have the right to elect boys and girls to the educational foundation of Christ’s Hospital. Trade is agricultural and there are breweries and flour mills. Battles of Newbury (1643 and 1644).—These two important battles during the English Civil War, more commonly called the Great Rebellion, are described under the latter heading. The first, on Sept. 20, 1643, arose out of the attempt of the Royal army to bar the path of the Parliamentary forces under the Earl of Essex, which was returning to its base at Reading after raising the siege of Gloucester. Although Essex’s army failed to break the Royalist line, they had made so strong a moral and material impression that the Royalists opened the road to them. The situation was reversed in the second battle, Oct. 26, 1644, when the Parliamentary army had headed off Charles I. on his way back to Oxford from Basingstoke. This was the first great manoeuvre-battle of the war.

Erie and the West Shore railways, motor-bus and truck lines; and is connected by ferry with the New York Central at Beacon.

Pop. (1920) 30,366 (82% native white); in 1930, 31,275, a gain of 3.0%. The Hudson widens at this point into Newburgh bay.

The city has 2 m. of water front, with a channel deep enough for ocean-going vessels. It occupies a commanding position on terraces rising abruptly from the river, and from the higher points the view embraces many miles of the Hudson and reaches to the

Catskill mountains on the north-west. Newburgh hasa retail trade amounting to $11,000,000 annually; a large shipping trade in orchard, farm and dairy products; and a variety of manufacturing industries, with an output in 1927 valued at $27,790,107. The assessed valuation for 1927 was $38,387,945.

Since 1916 the city

has operated under a commission-manager form of government. Newburgh was settled in 1709 by 53 Germans from the Rhenish Palatinate, led by their minister, Joshua Kockethal. Toward the middle of the century many of the Germans moved to Pennsylvania, and their lands were taken up by Scottish and English settlers, who in 1752 named the town after Newburgh, Scotland, from which some of them had come. Washington made his headquarters here from the spring of 1782 until Aug. 1783, in the Dutch farmhouse built by Jonathan Hasbrouck in 1750 (still standing in Washington park). Here he wrote his letter of May 27, 1782, rebuking Col. Nicola for the suggestion that he assume the title of king; here he made his reply to the “Newburgh Addresses” calling for action by the army to force Congress to redress its grievances; and here the arrangements were completed for demobilizing the Continental army. Newburgh was incorporated as a village in 1800 and as a city in 1865.

NEWBURN, urban district, Wansbeck parliamentary division, Northumberland, England, on the Tyne, 55 m. W. of Newcastle by a branch of the N.E. railway. Pop. (1931) 19,539. It has collieries, and iron, steel, engineering, tool and fire-clay works, and there is a large industrial population. Newburn is of considerable antiquity. Roman remains have been discovered in proximity to Hadrian’s Wall. The name of Scotswood, one of ihe manufacturing villages between Newburn and the city, commemorates the occupation of the town by the Scottish Covenanters in 1640.

NEWBURY,

2 town and municipal borough of Berkshire,

England, 53 m. W. by S. of Reading by G.W.R. Pop. (1931) 13,336. The name Newbury (new town or borough) is first mentioned by Odericus Vitalis; it is probable, however, that the manor of Uluritone, entered in Domesday as held by Ernulph de Hesdain, covered a large part of the site. The manor subsequently passed

to the crown and was held by Elizabeth before her accession. In 1627 it was granted by Charles I. at a fee-farm to the corporation. Newbury was a borough by prescription; in 1187 its inhabitants are called “burgesses” and a document of the time of Edward I. speaks of it as burgus, It was incorporated by a charter of Elizabeth (1596), confirmed by Charles I. and Charles II, Newbury sent two representatives to the parliament of 1302. The woollen industry declined early in the 17th century. The Weavers’ Company, which still exists, was incorporated in 1601. Newbury castle, of which traces remained

until the 17th cen-

tury, is said to have been besieged by Stephen in 1152. An important woollen market, established in 1862, is held annually. Newbury is situated on the Kennet, which is followed by the Kennet and Avon canal.

The church of St. Nicholas is an early

16th century Perpendicular building. It is said to have been built mainly at the charge of John Winchcombe or Smalwoode (Jack

of Newbury), an eminent clothier. A part of John Winchcombe’s

NEWBURYPORT,

a city of north-eastern Massachusetts,

U.S.A., one of the county seats of Essex county; 38 m. N.N.E. of Boston, on the southern bank of the Merrimack river, 3 m. from the ocean. It is on Federal highway 1 and is served by the Boston and Maine railroad and coasting steamers. Pop. (1920) 15,618; in 1930 it was 15,084. It is an important manufacturing city, with a very diversified output, valued in 1927 at $12,931,366. The commerce of its port in 1925 amounted to 41,943 tons, consisting entirely of receipts of coal, gasolene,, fuel oil and lumber. There are statues of George Washington and

of William Lloyd Garrison (by J. Q. A. Ward and by David M. French respectively) and many houses dating back to the 17th century, among them the stone “garrison” house in the form of a cross, with walls 4 ft. thick. Other houses of interest are the birthplace of William Lloyd Garrison, the homes of “Lord” Timothy Dexter and Caleb Cushing, and the Tracy mansion (1771), now part of the public library building. Indian Hill farm, birthplace of the journalist Ben Perley Poore, is 3 m. W. of the city. The Putnam Free school, now part of the public-school system, was founded early in the roth century by an endowment from

Oliver Putnam.

The high school for girls (opened in 1843) was

a pioneer institution. Newbury, including the site of Newburyport, was settled in 1635 under the leadership of the Rev. Thomas Parker (1595-1677) who had lived in Newbury, England. In 1764 a tract of 647 ac. was set off and incorporated as the town of Newburyport, which (with enlarged boundaries) was chartered as a city in 1851. In the early part of the roth century Newburyport was one of the most flourishing commercial centres of New England. Fishing, whaling and ship-building were the principal interests until the Civil War, and its clipper ships were among the fastest and the best known on the seas. During the Revolution and the War of 1812 it sent out many privateers.

NEW CALEDONIA: see Pactric IsLanps. NEWCASTLE, DUKES OF. Within the space of a cen-

tury there were no less than four successive creations of dukes of

Newcastle in the British peerage. William Cavendish (see p. 280), nephew of the rst earl of Devonshire, was raised to the dignity

of duke of Newcastle-upon-Tyne in 1665. His son and successor Henry (1630-1691) died leaving daughters only, and one of these married John Holles (1662~1711), earl of Clare, who was created

duke in 1694. This duke died also without male issue, leaving his estates to his sister’s son, Thomas Pelham (see p. 280), who, with other dignities, had the title of duke of Newcastle-upon-Tyne conferred on him in 1715, and a second and similar ducal title (that of Newcastle-under-Lyme) in 1756. The first dukedom became

280

NEWCASTLE

extinct at his death, but the second title was granted him with remainder to Henry Fiennes Clinton, earl of Lincoln, at once his nephew and nephew-in-law. From that time the dukedom has remained in the Clinton family. The two principal dukes are more fully noticed below. I. WILLIAM CAVENDISH, duke of Newcastle (1592~1676), eldest surviving son of Sir Charles Cavendish and of Catherine, daughter of Cuthbert, Lord Ogle, and grandson of Sir William Cavendish and “Bess of Hardwick,” was born in 1592 and educated at St. John’s College, Cambridge. On the occasion of the creation of Prince Henry as prince of Wales in 1610 he was made a knight of the Bath, subsequently travelled with Sir Henry Wotton, then ambassador to the duke of Savoy, and on his return married his first wife, Elizabeth, daughter of William Basset of Blore, Staffordshire, and widow of Henry Howard, 3rd son of the earl of suffolk. His fortune was immense, and he several times entertained James I. and Charles I. with great magnificence at Welbeck and Bolsover. In 1620 he was created Viscount Mansfield, in 1628 earl of Newcastle, and in 1629 the barony of Ogle was restored to his mother, this title, together with an estate of £3,000 per annum, descending to him. In 1638 he was made governor of the prince of Wales, and in 1639 a privy councillor. When the Scottish war broke out he assisted the king with a loan of £10,000 and a troop of volunteer horse, consisting of 120 knights and gentlemen. In 1641 he was implicated in the Army Plot, and in consequence withdrew for a time from the court. He was sent by Charles on Jan. rz, 1642 to seize Hull, but was refused admittance. When the king declared open war, Newcastle was given the command of the four northern counties, and had the power conferred on him of making knights. He maintained troops at his own expense, and having occupied Newcastle kept open communications with the queen, and despatched to the king his foreign supplies. In Nov. 1642 he advanced into Yorkshire, raised the siege of York, and compelled Fairfax to retire after attacking him at Tadcaster. Subsequently his plans were checked by the latter’s recapture of Leeds in Jan. 1643, and he retired to York. He escorted the queen, who returned from abroad in February, to York, and subsequently captured Wakefield, Rotherham and Sheffield, though failing at Leeds, but his successes were once more ravished from him by Fairfax. In June he advanced again, defeated the Fairfaxes at Adwalton Moor on June 30, and ob-

tained possession of all Yorkshire except Hull and Wressel Castle. He might now have joined the king against Essex, but continued his campaign in the north, advancing into Lincolnshire to attack the eastern association, and taking Gainsborough and Lincoln. Thence he returned to besiege Hull, and in his absence the force which he had left in Lincolnshire was defeated at Winceby by Cromwell on Oct. 11, 1643, which caused the loss of the whole county. On Oct. 27, 1643 he was created a marquis. Next year his position was further threatened by the advance of the Scots. Against prevailing numbers he could do little but harass and cut off supplies. He retreated to York, where the three armies of the Scots, Fairfax and Manchester surrounded him. On July t, Rupert raised the siege, but on the next day threw away his success by engaging the three armies in battle, contrary to Newcastle’s desire, at Marston Moor. After this disaster, notwithstanding the entreaties of the king and the remonstrances of Rupert, Newcastle immediately announced his intention of abandoning the cause and of quitting England. He sailed from Scarborough accompanied by a considerable following, including his two sons and his brother, resided at Hamburg from July 1644 to Feb. 1645, and removed in April to Paris, where he lived for three years. There he married as his second wife Margaret (see below), daughter of Sir Thomas Lucas of St. John’s, Colchester.

He left in 1648 for Rotterdam with the intention of joining the prince of Wales in command of the revolted navy, and finally took up his abode at Antwerp, where he remained till the Restoration. In April 1650 he was appointed a member of Charles IT.’s privy council, and in opposition to Hyde advocated the agreement with the Scots. In Antwerp he established his famous riding-school, exercised “the art of manage,” and published his first work on

horsemanship, Méthode

et invention nouvelle de dresser les che.

vaux (1658, 2nd ed., 1747; Horsemanship, 1743).

translated as A General System of

At the Restoration Newcastle returned to England, and sy.

ceeded in regaining the greater part of his estates, though burdened with debts, his wife estimating his total losses in the war at £941,-

303. He was reinstated in the offices he had filled under Charles I.. was invested in 1661 with the Garter which had been bestowed upon him in 1650, and was advanced to a dukedom on March 16 1665. He retired, however, from public life and occupied himself with his estate and with his favourite pursuit of training horses. He established a racecourse near Welbeck, and published another

work on horsemanship, A New Method and Extraordinary Inven. tion to Dress Horses and Work

them according to Nature...

(1667). He wrote also several comedies, The Country Captain and The Varietie (1649), The Humorous Lovers and The Triumphant Widow (1677). With Dryden’s assistance he translated Moliére’s L’Etourdi as Sir Martin Mar-All (1688). He contributed scenes to his wife’s plays, and poems of his composition are to be found among her works; and he was the patron of Jonson, Shirley, Davenant, Dryden, Shadwell and Flecknoe, and of Hobbes, Gassendi and Descartes. He died on Dec. 25, 1676, and was buried in Westminster Abbey. By his first wife he had ten children, of whom one son, Henry, survived him, and became 2nd duke of Newcastle, dying in 1691 without male issue; the title then became extinct. |

His second wife, Margaret, duchess of Newcastle (c. 1625-73), had been maid of honour to Henrietta Maria. The duchess cultivated literary composition with exuberant fervour, and kept a bevy of maids of honour obliged to be ready at all hours “to register her Grace’s conceptions.” Walpole speaks of her as a

“fertile pedant.”

She published Philosophical Fancies (1653);

Poems and Fancies (1653); The World’s Olio (1655); Nature’s Picture drawn by Fancie’s Pencil to the Life, which includes an autobiography (1656); Philosophical and Physical Opinions (1655); Orations (1662); Plays (1662); Sociable Letters (1664); Observations upon Experimental Philosophy (1666); Letters and Poems (1676). The Life of William Cavendish, Duke of Newcastle, by Margaret, duchess of Newcastle, has been edited by C. H. Firth (1886) ; it was

criticized by Pepys as “the ridiculous history of my Lord Newcastle writ by his wife, which shows her to be a mad, conceited, ridiculous woman, and he an ass to suffer her to write what she writes to him and of him,” but on the other hand eulogized by Charles Lamb as a work for which “no casket is rich enough, no case sufficiently

durable to honour and keep soft such a jewel.” See also La Duchesse

et le Duc de Newcastle, by Emile Montégut (1895). The duchess’s Select Poems were edited by Brydges in 1813, and her Autobiography in 1814. The latter, edited by Lower, was published with her Life of the Duke of Newcastle in 1872.

2. Tuomas Pergam Hores, duke of Newcastle (1693-1768), whose official life extended throughout the Whig supremacy of the 18th century, was the elder son of Thomas, first Lord Pelham, by his second wife Lady Grace Holles, younger sister of John Holles, duke of Newcastle-on-Tyne, who died in 1711, and left the whole of his vast estates to him. In 1712 he also succeeded his father in his peerage and estates, and in 1714, when he came of age, was one of the greatest landowners in the kingdom. He vigorously sustained the Whig party at Queen Anne’s death, and had much influence in making the Londoners accept King George. His services were too great to be neglected, and in 1714 he was created earl of Clare, and in 1715 duke of Newcastle-on-Tyne. He also became lord-lieutenant of the counties of Middlesex and Nottingham and a knight of the Garter in 1718, in which year he increased his Whig connection by marrying Lady Henrietta Godolphin, granddaughter of the great duke of Marlborough. In 1717 he first held political office as lord chamberlain of the household, and in 1724 was chosen by Sir Robert Walpole to be secretary of state in place of Lord Carteret. This office he held continuously for 30 years (1724-54), and only changed it for the premiership on his brother’s death. His long tenure of office was mainly due to his great Whig connections and his wealth, but

praise must also be given to his inexhaustible activity and great powers of debate.

He continued in office on Walpole’s fall in

_NEWCASTLE—NEWCASTLE-UNDER-LYME

281

1742, and became more powerful on his younger brother Henry becoming prime minister in 1743. On Henry Pelham’s death in March 1754, Newcastle succeeded him as premier; but people who had been accustomed to him as secretary of state would not stand him as premier, and in Nov. 1756 he gave place to the duke of Devonshire. For his long services he was created duke of New-

the port annually, of which about 2,000,000 tons are “‘overseas” vessels (2.e., other than interstate or coastwise). Newcastle has excellent railway connections, along the coastal lowlands, with Sydney and also northwards (Grafton, Lismore, g.v.). A series of (privately owned) lines serves the coal-fields and an important line taps the Hunter valley and may possibly be linked with the

castle-under-Lyme, with remainder to Henry Fiennes Clinton, oth earl of Lincoln, who had married his niece Catherine Pelham. In July 1757 he again became prime minister—for Pitt, though a

western system (¢é.g., Merriwa-Tallawang). Pop. 1926/7: 100,000.

great statesman, was a bad party leader—on the understanding, according to Horace Walpole, that “Mr. Pitt does everything, the duke gives everything.” Under this ministry England became famous abroad, but it gradually fell before the young king’s affec-

tion for Lord Bute, who, after supplanting Pitt, became prime minister in the room of Newcastle in May 1762. The duke went into strong opposition, and lost his two lord-lieutenancies for opposing the peace of 1763. In 1765 he became lord privy seal for

a few months, but his health was fast giving way, and he died in Nov. 1768. The duke was not a great man, but he was industrious and energetic. He worked tirelessly, though vainly, to hold the Whig Party together in the face of the determination of George III. to destroy it. In this if in nothing else Newcastle was statesmanlike: for it seems as though he alone clearly foresaw that calamity to the Party which only union and organization could have averted. See Memoirs of the Administration of the Right Hon. H. Pelham, by W. Coxe (1829).

NEWCASTLE,

a city and port of New South Wales, Aus-

tralia, situated on the southern shore of the estuary of the Hunter River (g.v.), about 22 miles from its outlet, and 104 miles, by rail, from Sydney. It is built at the foot of, and up, a steeply-rising hill which backs the harbour (Av. ann. temps.:

NEWCASTLE,

a seaside resort of Co. Down, Ireland, on

the western shore of Dundrum bay, at the foot of Slieve Donard. Pop. (1926), 2,687. It is the terminus of the Belfast and County Down railway, being 36 m. S. of Belfast. A fort guarded the passage of the river Shimna here in early times.

NEW

CASTLE, a city of New Castle county, Delaware,

U.S.A., at the head of Delaware bay, 6 m. S. of Wilmington. It is on Federal highway 11 and is served by the Pennsylvania railroad and steamship lines. Pop. 4,131 in 1930. It has a good harbour, important shad-fisheries and various manufacturing industries. New Castle played an important part in the territorial disputes of the Swedes, the Dutch and the English, from 1651, when Peter Stuyvesant built Ft. Casimir in the vicinity; and it was the capital of Delaware until 1777. The old courthouse may have been built by the Swedes, the Immanuel Protestant Episcopal church dates from 1689; and there are several Dutch and English colonial dwellings still standing. The city was chartered in 1875.

NEW

CASTLE, a city of eastern Indiana, U.S.A., 45 m. E.

by N. of Indianapolis; county seat of Henry county. It is served by the Big Four, the Nickel Plate, the Pennsylvania, and electric railways. Pop. (1920) 14,458 (96% native white); in 1930 it was 14,027, a loss of 3-09. It is the trade centre of a rich farming area; has large rose nurseries and important manufac-

42°=55° F; av. ann. rainfall: 42 in.). With a large and fertile hinterland (Hunter Valley, Northern Tablelands and Liverpool

turing industries (with an output in 1925 valued at $17,494,962) ; and is the seat of the Indiana Village for Epileptics. The city was founded in r8rg and incorporated in 1839.

Plains) and abundant coal resources at its doors (reserves within area 15 miles W. and 7 miles S. amount to about 270,000,000 tons; reserves of total area: ¢. 9,000,000,000 tons), Newcastle was early a notable centre for the export of coal and primary produce. By 1922 it had exported some 186,000,000 tons (c. £11I,000,000), but since about 1900 its mines have been steadily superseded by those of the Maitland field (g.v.) and, at the present time, owing mainly to social and economic causes, the coal industry is severely depressed. The possession of fuel, water, foodsupply, and a good commercial position, and access to raw materials have, however, steadily attracted manufacturing industries and Newcastle is now one of the leading industrial areas in the

the county seat of Lawrence county; 50 m. N.N.W. of Pittsburgh and 20 m. S.E. of Youngstown (Ohio), on the Shenango river and Federal highway 422. It is served by the Baltimore and Ohio, the Buffalo, Rochester and Pittsburgh, the Erie, the Pennsylvania and the Pittsburgh and Lake Erie railways. Pop. 44,938 in 1920 (19% foreign-born white); and in 1930, 48,674, a gain of 8-3%. New Castle is an important commercial and industrial centre, with a trade population of over 100,000, and manufactures (notably tin plate and steel) valued in 1927 at $52,683,815. New Castle was founded in 1802. It was incorporated as a borough in 1869 and as a city in 1875.

southern hemisphere. The Broken Hill Proprietary Co. (see BROKEN HILL; AUSTRALIA: Metallurgical Industries) established in 1915 at Port Waratah large-scale steel-works and these have brought in their train numerous associated industries. Newcastle’s

industries may be roughly classified as metallurgical and metalworking; constructional engineering and ship-building; coke and chemical industries; the making of fertilisers, cement, fire-bricks,

pottery; wood-working; flour-milling and food-making; besides numerous miscellaneous types. These are conducted in Newcastle itself or in one or other of the numerous centres (e.g., Port Waratah, Walsh Island, Cockle Creek, Merewether, etc.)

within easy reach of the port. The harbour (comprising North Harbour, the Basin and Port Waratah) has ample accommodation, is well sheltered and has modern installation for handling cargo and especially for loading coal. The entrance is by a channel (width 500-450 yd.; av. depth 234 ft.) between breakwaters, within which a fairway (width 500 ft., depth 32 ft.) is being cut. The port, which for hinterland trade (e.g., wool) tends to be overshadowed by Sydney, has lost much owing to the shallowness of its entrance and suffers from the necessity of continuous dredging both at the entrance and alongside the wharves. In respect of

trade Newcastle is the third port of Australia and the second of

New South Wales.

per ann.

Its normal trade is of the order of £3,500,000

Exports (coal, coke, tar, etc.; frozen meat; butter,

eggs; timber; pig iron, steel rails and plates, etc.; fertilisers) usually exceed imports. Some 44-5 million tons of shipping use

NEW

CASTLE,

a city of western

NEWCASTLE-UNDER-LYME,

Pennsylvania,

U.S.A.,

market town, municipal

and parliamentary borough, Staffordshire, England, 2 m. W. of Stoke-on-Trent by the L.M.S. railway. Pop. (1931) 23,246. The parish church of St. Giles was rebuilt (1876) by Sir Gilbert Scott, with the exception of the tower, which dates from the rath century. The free grammar school (1602), richly endowed, is now amalgamated with the Orme’s school for girls. There is also a

school of art. The manufacture of hats was once the staple trade. There are cotton and paper mills; and tanning, brewing, malting and the manufacture of army clothing are carried on. Partly included in the parliamentary borough is the populous parish of Wolstanton, of which the fine church has good details of the 13th century, with a massive tower and spire. The mining town of Audley lies 4 m. N.W., with a fine early Decorated church. Newcastle-under-Lyme (Neofchastell-sur-Lyme) is not mentioned in Domesday, but it was early important, as a charter was given to the town by Henry II. It owes its name to a castle built here in the r2th century to supersede an older fortress at Chesterton about 2 m. to the north, and to the fact that it was situated under the forest of Lyme. Henry III. (1235) constituted it a free borough and other charters were granted in 1251, 1590, 1664, and 1835. Newcastle, which was originally held by

the crown, was granted (1265) to Simon de Montfort, and subsequently to Edmund Crouchback, through whom it passed to Henry IV. In Leland’s time the castle had disappeared “save one great

Toure”; in the 17th and 18th centuries the town was flourish-

282

NEWCASTLE-UPON-TYNE—NEWCHWANG |

ing and had a manufacture of hats. Grants of fairs were given by Edward I., Edward III. and Henry VI.

house at the east end of the quay. There was severe depression ip

the Newcastle area in 1928. Exports include coal, chemicals, pig-iron, iron-work, steel, iron borough and port, Northumberland, England, 272 m. N. of bars, plates and castings, machinery, fire-clay goods and copper, London, on the L.N.E. railway. Pop. (1931) 283,145. It stands The chief imports are fruits, wheat, maize, oats, barley, iron on the Tyne. The mouth of the river is 8 m. below Newcastle and steel, petroleum, sulphur ore, timber and wood hoops, iron oye and its banks are lined with docks and industrial towns. and potatoes. Passenger steamers serve the principd: English Though Newcastle owes its origin to a Roman station, its ports; also Baltic ports and New York; while Newcastle js one oj modern growth has largely destroyed traces of antiquity. Of the the chief ports for the Norwegian tourist traffic. old walls there are slight remains. The castle, from which the To the industries indicated by the exports may be added glass, town takes its name, was erected by Henry II. between 1172 and lead and shot, brick and tile, earthenware, tool, rope and ships’1177 on the site of an older structure. It was originally the fitting manufactures, and most important of all, shipbuilding. The strongest fortress in the north of England, and its keep is now Elswick works, founded by Messrs. Armstrong in 1847, and amalone of the finest specimens of a Norman stronghold remaining gamated with those of Mitchell and Co., are among the most in the country. Fragments of its walls, with the principal en- important in the world. The construction of ships of all sorts trance or Black Gate and the Watergate or southern postern is carried on. History.—Newcastle owes its origin to its position on the remain. The keep, with walls 14 ft. thick, is in a state of good preservation, as is also the Norman chapel. The castle was pur- great Roman wall and on the estuary of the Tyne. The most imchased by the corporation in 1809, and a portion of it is used portant Roman remains are the foundations of a bridge, attributed as an antiquarian museum. Near the castle is St. Nicholas church, to the emperor Hadrian. Before the Conquest it was called forming the cathedral of the diocese of Newcastle, instituted in Monkchester, and was destroyed (gth century) by the Danes. 1882. The diocese covers practically the whole of NorthumberIt was again destroyed by William the Conqueror, but Robert Jand, with a small portion of Cumberland. The church, which is of Normandy raised a castle there in 1080, and from that time principally Decorated, consists of nave, aisles, chancel and tran- the town was called Newcastle. Shortly afterwards it was fortisepts, and the principal feature is the lantern tower, a fine speci- fied by Robert de Mowbray, but it was taken by William Rufus men of early Perpendicular. Among other interesting old churches in 1095. In the reign of Stephen it was seized by David, king of is St. Andrew’s (1ith century). St. John’s is r4th century with Scotland, and after its restoration in 1157 Henry II. rebuilt the an ancient front. A few fragments of the monastery of the Black castle and established a mint. The walls of the town are attributed Friars remain, and the chapel of the hospital of St. Mary at to Edward I. During the r4th century Newcastle was three times defended successfully against the Scots, but in 1640 it was occuJesmond is a ruin. Some of the modern streets are spacious and handsome. Rich- pied for a year by the Scottish Covenanters under Leslie. It was ard Grainger (1798-1861), a wealthy local architect, devoted then garrisoned by royalists, but again surrendered to the Scots himself to beautifying his city. The guildhall was re-erected in in 1644 and Charles I. was taken there in 1646 when he had yielded himself to the Scottish army. Charters were granted by 1658. Among educational establishments are the College of medicine William Rufus, Henry III., Henry IV. (1400), Mary (1556), and the Armstrong University college, both constituent colleges Elizabeth (1589) and James I. (1604). The coal trade began in the 13th century, but, partly owing to of the University of Durham. The royal free grammar school, founded in 1525, occupies modern buildings in Jesmond. There the act of parliament passed in the reign of Edward I. forbidding are also Allan’s endowed schools, founded in 1705; Rutherford col- the use of coal in London, did not become important until the lege and the Commercial institute; and the Laing Art Gallery, t7th century. Glassmaking was a considerable trade in the 17th opened in 1904. The benevolent institutions include the dispensary century, and in 1823 George Stephenson established iron works at (1777), fever house (1803), Royal Victoria Infirmary (1906), Newcastle, where the first engines used on the Stockton and DarPrincess Mary Maternity hospital (1923), eye infirmary (1822), lington, and Manchester and Liverpool lines were made. Newchildren’s hospital, Trinity almshouses (1492), hospital of the castle was represented in parliament by two members from 1295 to Holy Jesus (1682), hospital €170r)} for keelmen, i¢., coal- ' 4918, and since then it has had four members.

NEWCASTLE-UPON-TYNE,

bargemen.

city and county of a city,

l

Newcastle is well supplied with public parks and recreation grounds. Jesmond is the chief residential suburb. Both the Northumberland and Durham banks of the river are lined with manufacturing towns or suburbs. Of these the most important is Gateshead (g.v.) immediately opposite Newcastle; while those adjacent to Newcastle are Benwell, Fenham and Walker. Newcastle is connected with Gateshead by five bridges: (1) the Old High Level bridge (1849), a toll bridge, carries L.N.E, railway with a road and footway beneath it; (2) the King Edward High Level bridge (1906), carries the L.N.E. railway only; (3) the New High Level bridge (1928), takes traffic and trams to the Great North road; (4) the Hydraulic Swing bridge (1876), the lowest bridge, takes foot and vehicular trafic; (5) the Redheugh bridge (1871), a toll bridge, takes foot and general traffic. The Scotwood Suspension bridge crosses the river outside the Gateshead boundary. The Roman bridge, the Pons Aelii, is said to have spanned the river where the hydraulic swing bridge now is. The suburban line to Jesmond, Gosforth and Benton was the frst standard line to carry passengers by electric traction (1904).

NEWCHWANG, a Chinese port city in the province of Fengtien, Manchuria (40° 41’ N.; 122° 15’ E.), some 30 miles above the mouth of the Liao river which enters the Gulf of Liao Tung. At the Treaty of Tientsin (1858), Newchwang was chosen as one of the ports to be opened to foreign trade, but it was Ying-

tze (or Yinkow) near the mouth of the Liao river which actually became the centre of foreign settlements and was opened to trade in 1864. In recent years there has been a tendency to designate | the port correctly as Yinkow, but Newchwang remains the official name of the Treaty port. The town was in 1895 occupied by and later ceded to Japan, only to be retroceded to China under foreign pressure. During the Russo-Japanese War, it was first in Russian and later in Japanese hands, but was finally restored to China at the end of the war.

The outlet of the Liao River is obstructed

by a bar and the port is closed by ice for three or four winter months. It has railway connection with Peking and with the main Mukden-Dairen line of the South Manchuria Railway by means of a short branch. Until 1907 Newchwang was the only Treaty port of Manchuria and it shared in the rising prosperity of South Manchuria; but in more recent years its development has been

Industries.—Newcastle owed its prosperity to its situation on checked owing to the remarkable rise of Dairen, the southern a tidal river, and to its immense stores of coal, which, besides terminus of the South Manchuria Railway. being exported, stimulated many industries. The quay in front | The trade of Newchwang in 1926 was: net foreign imports, of the town forms a thoroughfare about a mile long, and by 19,324,000 Hk. Taels; net Chinese imports, 32,296,443 Hk. Taels; dredging a depth of water has been obtained permitting vessels exports, 26,967,606 Hk. Taels; total 78,588,049 Hk. Taels. The chief imports are foreign cotton piece goods, cotton yarn, əf large tonnage to approach, although the berths of the ocean steamers are farther down ‘he river. There is a large grain ware- native cottons, aniline dyes; exports mainly beans, ‘bean-oil, bean-

NEWCOMB cake, maize, cotton-seed and coal.

Until 1908 Newchwang was

the centre of the bean-oil and bean-cake industry of Manchuria and of the export trade in these and other Manchurian products, but it has since been supplanted by Dairen. It has still, however, a large number of Chinese mills manufacturing bean cake, which

is mainly exported to South China, and bean oil for the Shanghai

market. The product of the cotton-weaving industry of Newchwang is very cheap and durable and exceptionally popular among

the peasants of South Manchuria.

There are a large number of

cotton-cloth weaving factories, some

of which employ electric

power, as well as many hosiery, ribbon and towel factories.

Other industries include match-making, soap-works, glass-ware, knitting-needle factories, brick and dye-works. The sea-fisheries of the neighbourhood are very important and employ about 3,000 fishermen and 550 boats; the annual yield of fishery products

being worth more than half a million yen. The Chinese population

of Newchwang is 65,000 (1926) and there are also some 2,300

Japanese in the Japanese Concession. NEWCOMB, SIMON (1835-1909), American astronomer, was born in Wallace, Nova Scotia, on March 12, 1835. He

became a resident of the United States in 1853, and graduated at the Lawrence scientific school of Harvard university in 1858. He was an assistant in the American Nautical Almanac office 1857-61. In 1861 he became professor of mathematics in the United States navy, and was assigned to duty at the United States Naval Observatory. For more than ten years he worked with the various meridian instruments, and when the 26in. equatorial was erected in 1873 he was put in charge of that instrument. In 1877 he was assigned to duty in charge of the American Nautical Almanac office, a post which he held until March 1897. In 1884 he became professor of mathematics and astronomy at the Johns Hopkins university, continuing, however, to reside at Washington. He was also editor of the American Journal of _ Mathematics for many years. In view of the wide extent and importance of his labours, the variety of subjects of which he treats, and the unity of purpose which guided him throughout, Simon Newcomb must be considered one of the most distinguished astronomers of his time. A study of his works reveals an unusual combination of skill and originality in the mathematical treatment of many of the most difficult problems of astronomy, an unfailing patience and sagacity in dealing with immense masses of numerical results, and a talent for observation of the highest order. On taking charge of the Nautical Almanac office, he became very strongly impressed with the diversity existing in the values of the elements and constants of astronomy adopted by different astronomers, and the injurious effect which it exercised on the precision and symmetry of much astronomical work. Accordingly he resolved to “devote all the force which he could spare

to the work of deriving improved values of the fundamental elements and embodying them in new tables of the celestial motions.” The formation of the tables of a planet has been described by Cayley as “the culminating achievement of astronomy,” but the gigantic task which Newcomb laid out for himself, and which he carried on for more than 20 years, was the building up, on an absolutely homogeneous basis, of the theory and tables of the whole planetary system. The results of these investigations have, for the most part, appeared in the Astronomical Papers of the American Ephemeris, and have been more or less completely adopted for use in the nautical almanacs of all countries. A valuable summary of a considerable part of this work was

published in 1895, as The Elements of the Four Inner Planets and the Fundamental Constants of Astronomy. In 1866 Newcomb had published an important memoir on the orbit of Neptune,

which was followed in 1873 by a similar investigation of the orbit of Uranus (Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge, vols. xv. and xix ). About 25 years later new tables of these planets were issued by him (Astronomical Papers of the American Ephemeris, vol. vii., pts. 3 and 4) based on unpublished investigations in which the elements were determined from the best available observations up to that time. In the meantime the theory of Jupiter and Saturn had been thoroughly worked out by G. W.

Hill, Newcomb’s distinguished collaborator in the Nautical Al-

283

manac office, and thus was completed one important section of the work projected by Newcomb in 1877. NOTABLE

ACHIEVEMENTS

Among Newcomb’s most notable achievements are his researches in connection with the theory of the moon’s motion. His first work on this abstruse subject, entitled Théorie des perturbations de la lune, gui sont dues á Vaction des planètes, is remarkable for the boldness of its conception, and constitutes an important addition to celestial dynamics. For some years after the

publication of Hansen’s tables of the moon in 1857 it was generally believed that the theory of that body was at last complete, and that its motion could be predicted as accurately as that of the other heavenly bodies. Newcomb showed that this belief was unfounded, and that as a matter of fact the moon was falling

rapidly behind the tabular positions. With the view of examining this question, he undertook the reduction of every observation made before 1750 which appeared to be worthy of confidence. The results of this work were published in 1878. The discussion of the observations made after 1750 was interrupted by his work on the planetary tables carried on during his connection with the Nautical Almanac office. After his retirement from active service in the navy he was enabled, due to a grant from the Carnegie Institution of Washington, to secure the necessary assistance from 1903 to 1909 to bring to completion the work of his great programme on the motion of the moon. This was finished less than a month before his death. The observations used in his work covered an extreme range in time of about 2,600 years and seemed, as he himself said, “to prove beyond serious doubt the actuality of the large unexplained fluctuations in the moon’s mean motion.” On taking charge of the 26in. equatorial at the United States Naval Observatory, Newcomb devoted it almost exclusively for the.first two years to observations of the satellites of Uranus and Neptune. The results of these skilfully conducted observations were published in a memoir on The Uranian and .Neptunian Systems. As early as 1860 Newcomb communicated an important memoir to the American Academy, On the Secular Variations and Mutual Relation of the Orbits of the Asteroids, in which he discussed the two principal hypotheses to account for the origin of these bodies—one, that they are the shattered fragments of a single planet (Olbers’s hypothesis), the other, that they have been formed by the breaking up of a revolving ring of nebulous matter. In the Astronomical Papers of the American Ephemeris will be found a large number of contributions from Newcomb’s pen on some fundamental and most important questions of astronomy. Among these are papers on The Recurrence of Solar Eclipses, A Transformation of Hansen’s Lunar Theory, Development of the Perturbative Function and its Derivatives. His memoir On the Motion of Hyperion, a New Case in Celestial Mechanics, is in some respects one of his most original researches. He discussed the transits of Venus of 1761 and 1769, and those of Mercury from 1677 to 1881. At the international conference, which met at Paris in 1896 for the purpose of elaborating a common system of constants and fundamental stars to be employed in the various national ephemerides, Newcomb took a leading part, and at its suggestion undertook the task of determining a definite value of the constant of precession, and of compiling a new catalogue of standard stars. The results of these investigations were published in 1899, and were in general use for a quarter of a century. In the intervals of these immense labours, on which his reputation as an astronomer rests, he found leisure for works

of a lighter character; e.g., his Popular Astronomy (1878), his Astronomy for Schools and Colleges (1880), written in conjunction with E. S. Holden, and Astronomy for Everybody (1903). After his retirement from official life he published an excellent popular treatise on The Stars (rg0r). Several of these books have been translated into one or more of seven different foreign languages. A more recondite work is his Compendium of Spherical Astronomy (1906). He also wrote on questions of finance and economics, as well as in the field of fiction.

284

NEWCOMEN—NEW

He received honorary degrees from ten European and seven American universities. He was a member of 4s foreign societies. Fle was awarded the gold medal of the Royal Astronomical Society in 1874, the Huyghens gold medal of the Holland Society of Science in 1878, the Copley medal of the Royal Society in 1890, the Bruce gold medal of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific in 1897, the Schubert prize of the Imperial Academy of Sciences, St. Petersburg, in 1897, and the Sylvester prize of Johns Hopkins university in t901. He died at Washington on July 11, Igog, and was given a military funeral befitting his rank as a rear admiral in the United States Navy. An autobiography, Reminiscences of an Astronomer, appeared in 1903; and a bibliography of his life and works containing 541 titles, is given by R. C. Archibald in Memoirs of the National Academy of Sciences, xvii., “First Memoir,” pp. 19-69. This

also contains, pp. 1-18, “Biographical Memoir” by W. W. Campbell. (W. S. E.) NEWCOMEN, THOMAS (1663-1729), English engineer,

one of the inventors of the steam-engine, was born at Dartmouth. While employed as ironmonger in his native town, he corresponded with Robert Hooke about the possibility of obtaining motive power by exhausting the air from a cylinder provided with a piston, Denis Papin and the marquis of Worcester having already made investigations on this subject. In 1698 he entered into partnership with Thomas Savery (c. 1650-1715), who had patented a method for raising water from mines. Newcomen’s improvements on Savery’s invention were so successful that they produced together a pumping-engine which served as a model for nearly three-quarters of a century. For a description of the “atmospheric steam-engine,” then known as a “‘fire-engine,” which they constructed in 1705, see STEAM-ENGINE. John Cawley (or Calley), was also associated with them in this invention. Newcomen died in 1729, probably in London.

.NEWDIGATE,

SIR ROGER

(1719-1806), English anti-

quary, was born on May 30, 1719. He was the sth baronet of Harefield (in Middlesex) and Arbury (in Warwickshire), and grandson of Sir Richard Newdigate, an English chief justice during the time of Richard Cromwell’s protectorate. He had an active political career, but is chiefly remembered for his collection of antiquities including marbles, casts of statues and vases. Two marble candelabra found in Hadrian’s villa at Rome he purchased for £1,800 and presented them to the Radcliffe Library at Oxford. Among his other generosities to the university were a chimney piece, for the hall of University College, and the sum of £2,000 for the removal by Flaxman of the Arundel collection of marbles to the Radcliffe Library. The “Newdigate” prize of twenty-one guineas for English verse, which is open for competition each year to the undergraduates of Oxford University, was founded by him and was first awarded in the year of his death. He died at Arbury on Nov. 23, 1806.

NEWEL, in architecture, originally the central shaft around which a spiral or semi-circular staircase winds. Now more commonly any post at the intersection of a stair with a landing, in which case it is a vertical post which receives the rail and is framed into the supporting strings or beams of the stair construction. By extension, the term is also applied to any post in the railing larger than the other posts or balusters.

NEW

ENGLAND.

That portion of the eastern coast of

North America lying between the 41st and asth degrees of North Latitude received its name of New England in 1614 from Capt. John Smith who explored those shores on behalf of the Virginia Company of English merchants. Physiographically, New England possesses great variety and also a unity derived from isolation. Such physical isolation and unity is, however, deceptive, for New England faces on three fronts. The long and deeply indented coast line from its easternmost point on the Bay of Fundy to the tip of Cape Cod, turns New England toward the maritime provinces of Canada, toward the fishing grounds of the Newfoundland banks and toward the ports of northern Europe from which it is some hundreds of miles less distant than are its rival ports in the middle States. New England’s southern shore from Cape Cod to the Hudson river

ENGLAND

invites close relations with the States to the south, that part lying west of the Connecticut river, especially falling within the area of the metropolitan influence of New York rather than any New England centre. The north-western region, on the other hand, turns its back on the rest of New England and finds its outside connection through Lake Champlain and the Richeliey river or through Lake Memphramagog with the Canadian proyince of Quebec.

The very characteristics of location, climate, topography ang

soil conditions and lack of natural products of a highly prized

ae SE=A red a

S

sort, which discouraged the exploitation of New England in the

early years of American colonial development, were admirably calculated to make it an attractive seat for political and religious refugees whose primary consideration was living conditions and freedom from external molestation. While substantial financial ` resources assured the success of the Puritan colony of the Massachusetts Bay company, the survival of the feeble and ill-supported settlement of the Pilgrims at Plymouth proved that a living could be won from the wilderness by extraordinary effort and selfdiscipline. Both examples prompted other undertakings. Roger Williams, Ann Hutchinson and Wheelwright, refugees from the strict theocratic government of Boston, with no backing from the home government, set up tiny political States at spots just beyond the boundaries set by the Crown to the jurisdiction of Massachusetts Bay Company. On the other hand, new immigrant groups enlarged by malcontents from Massachusetts established strong settlements on the southern coast and secured royal recognition as the colony of Connecticut in 1661. In four directions colonial attempts of a distinctly different type were attempted. Based on Champlain’s discovery in 1609 of the lake which bears his name, the French Government in Canada attempted to establish seigneuries on the slopes of the Green mountains bordering that lake. On the coast of Maine, Sieur de Mont in 1604 and a band of Jesuits in 1613 tried to found colonies. North of the Merrimac river Capt. John Mason received a grant from the Crown and sent settlers to the mouth of the Piscataqua (Portsmouth). His plans for an aristocratic domain modelled on the mediaeval County Palatine as well as his appointment as royal governor-general of all New England came to naught with his death in 1637. His settlers fell under the rule of the Massachusetts Bay company until created into a royal province in 1679. Further north-east another royal proprietor, Gorges, planned to colonize but failed in competition with the Puritan settlers.

His

heirs sold their claims to Massachusetts in 1674 and the region under the name of the District of Maine remained a part of Massachusetts until erected into an independent State in 1820. The New England colonies had attracted little attention from the restored Stuarts until complaints of the independent attitude of the Massachusetts authorities in the persecution and exclusion of Quakers and Anglicans and a disregard of the Navigation acts drew down the royal displeasure. James II. attempted to systematize his northern colonies by consolidating all the New England

NEW

ENGLAND

285

colonies with New York and New Jersey under a single royal! equip troops and supply ships and sailors to convey them on

governor. From an administrative point of view the scheme was sound. This new “Dominion of New England” would also have enabled the English to oppose the threatened aggressions of the French more effectively, but the methods of James’s agent, Randolph, and his governor, Andros, roused bitter opposition in New England. The cancellation of their charters the colonists regarded as a destruction of their constitutional rights. When the news of

the glorious revolution in England reached Boston, Andros was overthrown, Connecticut and Rhode Island quietly resumed their old charter governments and Massachusetts obtained at the court of the new sovereigns, William and Mary, a restoration of many

of her old rights under a new “province” charter (1691). The qualities and characteristics which have distinguished the New Englanders and the institutions which New England has given to America were developed in the colonial period. At first, the most pronounced characteristic was the capacity for co-operative action. From this sprang the public school system, the town government,

the Congregational Church organization. By the Revolution, however, the individualism which appeared sporadically in the early

years came to be general and reached its height in the political philosophy of the Adamses, in the transcendentalism of Emerson, in the educational theories of Charles William Eliot. Much has been said of the spiritual heritage of the Puritans and Pilgrims, and ideals with which they came to New England; there seems to be ample grounds for explaining the peculiar features of New

England ably the labour. markets,

life with reference to the economic situation. UnquestionNew England colonists suffered from lack of division of The nature of the soil, the lack of easily accessible the difficulty of securing a surplus of any great staple to

exchange for other necessities forced each family to provide for its own wants. This produced a people of singular ingenuity and resourcefulness but without specialized skills. It offered no premium for systematic development of agriculture or industries except the few in which New England had a natural advantage both in production and in marketing. Of these the greatest was ship-building. This industry began almost at once with Winthrop’s “Blessing of the Bay” launched on the Mystic river in 1631. On nearly every navigable stream in close proximity to the supply of timber arose small ship-yards where the neighbouring farmers, trappers or fishermen employed their time in off-seasons in turning out vessels for which they found a ready sale, because the English Navigation acts admitted colonial-built vessels to the status of English ships in the monopoly of the carrying trade of the expanding empire. As compared to the other English colonies in North America, however, New England colonies were not keeping pace either in the matter of supplying the mother country with the desired staples or in offering an outlet for population. The so-called Great Puritan Exodus of the years 1629-1640 has been shown by recent historians to have been directed more to the West Indies than to New England. The strength of New England relative to other sections of the continental colonies fell from 52% in 1650

expeditions. Of these the most noteworthy were those against Quebec and Louisburg. The obvious advantage here of joint

action brought home again the need of some form of political co-operation such as had been tried in the New England Confederation (1643). New Englanders were, therefore, interested in Franklin’s so-called “Albany Plan” of union in 1754. New England played her chief part in the Revolution during the years 1765-77 in defining the issues and in precipitating actual hostilities. Though these centred in Boston, sentiment for and against rebellion and independence was fairly evenly distributed throughout New England, the line of cleavage being one of class and occupation rather than of locality. After the British evacuated Boston on March 17, 1776, New England saw little of active hostilities, except for the part played by her militia in checking Burgoyne’s advance at Bennington, Vt., and in the struggles over the possession of Newport, R.I. Her irreconcilable temper convinced the British that attempts at conciliation or subjugation had greater chance of success elsewhere. The period of disorganization which followed the cessation of hostilities brought great suffering to many communities and certain classes in New England. The utter disruption of the old courses of commerce within the British Empire no longer supplemented by privateering and war-time trade with other countries caused a lack of specie. Every State fell a prey to a greater or less degree to the paper money craze. Rhode Island, in particular, suffered so heavily that civil war threatened. The refusal of the Massachusetts legislature to relieve the pressure of debits and taxes by stay laws and further issues of paper money, led to a rebellion under the leadership of Daniel Shays. Although the mercantile classes were convinced of the necessity of forming a stronger central government capable of securing favorable commercial treaties with foreign countries, and although New England leaders played prominent parts in the Federal Convention, the

actual ratification of the new constitution proved a difficult matter in Massachusetts and in New Hampshire and was rejected in Rhode Island until 1790. For nearly a decade after the inauguration of the new government under Washington the superior organization of the dominant commercial interests committed New England as a whole to the Federalist party, but Jefferson gradually organized the latent antiFederalist and Democratic elements until in the election of 1800

he was able to carry several representative districts.

The basis of New England’s prosperity in the Federalist period seems to lie in the application of Yankee energy and resourcefulness to the exploitation of the peculiar advantages of New England in foreign trade. Her ships, restricted in their enterprises in the older fields under control of the British Crown, turned to the Mediterranean, Pacific and Indian oceans. In 1786 Samuel Shaw established in Canton the first American mercantile house in China. In 1787 the “Grand Turk” brought to Salem the first of the many oriental cargoes which made that port famous. In 1792 Capt. Gray’s “Columbia” carried the Stars and Stripes around to 25% in 1790. The beginning of this relative decline was already the world for the first time and laid the foundations not only manifest in 1700. During the Restoration period the Puritan for the American claim to Oregon but also the very profitable emigration, dormant during the Civil War, revived slightly but trade with the north-west coast where furs were obtained which was never again the chief source of immigration to America. Of could be exchanged in China for silks and tea. Salem became for the great streams of migration of the next century, the Scotch- a time the tea market of America and Europe and the third city Irish and the Palatinate Germans, New England got but a small in the Union. The heyday of New England’s mercantile success, share as compared to the Middle or even the Southern colonies. was shared to a considerable extent by all classes. There was The New England colonies had been singularly free during their speculation in timber-lands and a rapid shift of population early years from interference by the natives on account of a into the frontier States—Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, westsevere plague which had swept away approximately half of the ern New York and Ohio. The Napoleonic wars shattered this population just before the arrival of the first settlers. In addition prosperity. Although equipped to compensate the loss inflicted to this the authorities had been fortunate in maintaining friendly on her commerce by English and French war time restriction relations while extinguishing Indian titles to lands allotted to new through the enormous profits made in privateering and in blocktownships. The war with the Pequots (1637) was the exception. ade running, the New England shipper could not survive the The French and the Indian wars ultimately benefitted New devastating effect of the Republican embargo policy. The war England by the entire removal of the menace to expansion toward of 1812 was regarded in New England as Mr. Madison’s war, the Canadian border, but they were even more important as an forced upon him by the Warhawks of the West and was viewed as effective, though costly training of the colonists in self-government | another and convincing demonstration that the annexation of in war time. The colonial legislatures were obliged to raise and | Louisiana and the development of the Western States was ruinous

286

NEW

ENGLAND

to the interests of the old commercial States of the north-east and justified that group in seceding from a Union in which they would clearly form a hopeless minority. Convinced of the injustice done to their section, New Englanders disregarded the embargoes, carried on illicit trade with the English in Canada and West Indian ports, discouraged recruiting and subscriptions to war loans and refused to celebrate victories gained by the French over the common enemy, the British.

Providence, Lowell, Portsmouth, Worcester, Springfield, New Haven and New York. In 1850 Massachusetts ranked third to New York and Pennsylvania in railroad mileage. The humanitarian movements of the ’30s produced lively re. sponse in New England. Not only were the social problems jp. cident to concentration of population in her mill-towns provoca-

In one respect only did New England enter the war. She supplied men and ships to the navy and was especially active in fitting out privateers. A threatened secession movement in 1804 was headed off by the wiser Federalist leaders like George Cabot and Hamilton, but by 1814 the sentiment had got beyond the control of the moderates and resulted in the convention at Hartford, which demanded an amendment of the Constitution to protect New England interests. The termination of the war left this movement high and dry; it brought its sponsors—the Federalist Party and New England generally—into disrepute among the naADAS A ae A > i he FTA tionalistically-minded rising generation of statesmen from the FH e Ra. SF YAS A gt Phay wi at {0k 2 eee TUES South and West. The interference with her commerce wrought by the embargo together with the interruption of the usual flow of manufactured merchandise from England and the Continent BY COURTESY OF THE PEABODY MUSEUM, SALEM, MASSACHUSETTS caused some New England capitalists to transfer their money from NEW BEDFORD IN THE EARLY 19TH CENTURY. FROM AN ENGRAVING AFTER A PAINTING BY W. A. WALL shipping to the new textile plants which had been introduced during the last decade of the 18th century. At Beverly and Waltham tive of controversy over questions such as the length of a workin Massachusetts, at Pawtucket and Woonsocket in Rhode Island, ing day and conditions of labour, the right to strike and the assothe new spinning and weaving machines had been set up. Saved ciation of workers, but the assembling of people within easy by the war from immediate competition of English textiles these reach of such potent agencies for education and enlightenment as factories gained a start. The termination of the war saw a great schools, colleges and lyceum lectures, had a stimulating effect on importation of English goods. Faced with ruin, the mill owners the popular interest in all sorts of questions. In this soil flourof New England joined with the infant woollen manufacturers ished many new ideas—advocates of liberal movements in religion, of Pennsylvania to secure a protective tariff in 1816. As part of like William Ellery Channing, Theodore Parker and Horace Busha general burst of nationalism the policy of protection and crea- nell, crusaders for temperance like Neil Dow, who in Maine setion of a home market as advocated in Hamilton’s famous report cured the first prohibition law in the United States, or for on manufactures was adopted. Increased rates were sought after abolition of slavery like Wiliam Lloyd Garrison, for public the depression of 1819 and by 1824 New England politicians of all high schools like Horace Mann; the Concord group—Ralph Waldo en

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parties were faced by the presence of a new sectional issue. Manu-

Emerson,

facturing as a New England occupation grew steadily through the next generation bringing with it the social, economic and political problems of concentration of population and constant demand for cheap labour and widening markets. In the same period, 1816—5o0, the rapid expansion of the agricultural regions of the South and West brought into the eastern markets the cheaper cotton as well as the cheaper food-stuffs. The former stimulated more textile activity—-the latter drove the less well-situated farmers to abandon their farms. Several of the shibboleths, such as “Manifest Destiny” which swept the national Government in the first half of the 19th century left New England cold. Her own frontier, the northern and eastern regions of New Hampshire, Vermont and Maine were losing that character. The northern boundary, long subject to dispute even to the extent of an armed clash known as the Aroostook war of 1838, was finally determined by the Webster-Ashburton treaty in 1842. While hostile to Western expansion, and to the policy of cheap public iands which went with it, New England had contributed mightily to people the new areas. Miss Lois K. Mathews’s Expansion of New England admirably relates the direction, quantity and peculiar quality of the migration from the New England States. Through this transplantation of her population to the new States of the old North-west and later to Iowa, Kansas and Oregon, New England continued to exert the peculiar influence of her Puritan traditions. In the great problem which confronted the inhabitants of the great areas of the Mississippi valley and the Western plains—transportation—New England took little interest until railroad building came into the class of capitalistic enterprises. Her location excluded her from the competition in canal, highway and railroad building which engrossed the attention of Virginia, Maryland, Pennsylvania and New York. Yet New England had locally been a pioneer in railroad experimentation. One of the first railroads in America was built in £1826 to carry granite blocks from the Quincy quarries to tide water. In the ’40s short lines were built connecting Boston with

Fuller gave New England an international reputation for “‘transcendental philosophy’ —and with Longfellow, Holmes and Lowell made this section the literary centre of America. The colleges and the academies that had survived the Revolution largely as sectarian institutions or theological schools now took on more liberal aims and methods and sent their graduates all over the country. At Litchfield, Conn., the first real law school in America flourished, under the guidance of Chancellor Kent, and produced such men as Jobn C. Calhoun. Harvard college, where the triumph of liberalism over the more orthodox Puritan Party in Boston in the early 18th century had led to the founding of Yale by conservatives, carried its liberalism still further and in the roth century, under the guidance of Unitarians, borrowed largely from the German universities, gradually widened its curriculum on an elective basis, developed graduate schools of law, medicine, arts and science. In Providence the Baptists had founded Brown; at Middletown, Conn., the Methodists established Wesleyan; in the Connecticut valley arose Amherst; in the Berkshires Williams college, and in Maine appeared Bowdoin, Bates, and Colby. In Vermont a State university was established through the benevolence of Ira Allen.

Henry

D. Thoreau,

Bronson

Alcott

and Margaret

The position of New England in the Civil War accords with the

double character of that struggle—the abolition of slavery and the preservation of the Union. The same men who gave their lives for the latter issue had heaped abuse upon the men like Garrison who had agitated for 20 years in favour of the former issue. On the other hand, Wendell Phillips had denounced the clergy and the Cotton Whigs for their willingness to compromise with the slave owners, and a great convention at Worcester advocated New England’s secession from a Union which required its members to enforce the Fugitive Slave law and to recognize slaveholders’ property rights in human flesh. Once war began, New Englanders supported the Administration steadfastly although the persistent demands of Charles Sumner and other abolitionists for immediate emancipation frequently caused embarrassment to

NEW

FOREST—NEWFOUNDLAND

President Lincoln. During the Reconstruction period New England remained consistently Republican.

237

between the Solent, Southampton Water and the river Avon. The Crown has the right to keep enclosed and planted 16,000 acres. Pop. of rural district (1931) 24.278. The New Forest is one of the five forests mentioned in Domesday. It was a hunting-ground of the West Saxon kings, but derives its name from the afforestation schemes carried out by William I.

New England commerce suffered severely during the Civil War. The whaling fleet, once the pride of New Bedford and Nantucket, was broken up by Confederate raiders and its monopoly of the ilJuminating oil market was destroyed by introduction of kerosene oil, gas and electricity. By the change from wooden to iron, and in 1079. One of the chief sources of the wealth of the forest then to steel ships, and by the rising costs of operation under in early times was the herds of pigs fed there. The New Forest the American flag, all the natural advantages in the construction being under the forest laws, was affected by the forest clauses of and operation of ships which New England formerly possessed, Magna Carta and by the Forest Charter (1217), which mitigated were lost. their severity. The chief officer was the justice in eyre who held Again as in 1812, New England’s answer has been to shift her the justice seat, the highest forest court. The lower courts were capital from shipping to manufacturing. Again as in the ’30s and the Swainmote and Wodemote, the former of which is still held, ‘gos she succeeded, but toward the close of the century was faced in a modified form, in the Verderers’ Hall of the King’s House with competition from new centres in the South and West, equally at Lyndhurst. The circuit of the justices in eyre, or their deputies, well equipped with power sites, with capital and within easier continued down to 1635; they were virtually ended by the Act for the Limitation of Forests (1640), though Charles II. attempted reach of the source of raw products and of the markets. New England is now a highly industrialized section, yet she to revive them, and they were not legally abolished until 1817. retains a good deal of the diversification of occupation which gave The lower officers of the forest, who held merely local appointthe Yankee his reputation for being a jack-of-all-trades and has ments, were the verderers, the regarders, the foresters, the woodproduced many inventors. wards and the agisters. There was also a lord warden, who was Apart from the decline in her relative position in commerce, the usually a nobleman and performed no judicial functions. The ‘chief respect in which New England has altered in comparison Deer Removal Act (1851) resulted in the almost total extinction with other sections of the Union has been in the character of her of the forest deer. Under the act of 1877 the forest is adminpopulation. Far from being the most homogeneous section of the istered as a national park. About one-fourth of the area is under cultivation by private owners and tenants, and the remainder colonies, New England has become one of the most cosmopolitan areas. The development of industries on a factory basis was ef- is open woodland, bog and heath. The principal village within fected by drawing the “native” New England stock from farms to the forest is Lyndhurst (pop. [1921], 2,562), with the verderers’ factories without reliance on the recent immigrants. It was not court, in charge of the Crown portion of the forest. On the till after 1830 that the number of non-English immigrants began western outskirts lies the town of Ringwood (g.v.). Beaulieu vilseriously to affect her political or social structure. The great im- lage on the estuary of the Beaulieu river, has ruins of Beaulieu migration of Irish after the famine in the ’40s produced in the Abbey, founded by King John for Cistercians. The gatehouse is neighbourhood of Boston some serious disturbances, and New restored as a residence, and the Early English refectory as a England shared the anti-foreign sentiment which took political church. There are considerable remains of the cloisters, chapter shape in the Know-Nothing party. The immigration of large house and domestic buildings. groups of other nationalities and religions between 1890 and 1914 NEWFOUNDLAND. Newfoundland is said to be the tenth altered the situation rapidly. Although the number of native-born largest island in the world, forming a separate country. It is oneof English ancestry still forms a minority in New England as a sixth larger than Ireland, one-fifth smaller than England. It is whole, and is almost negligible in the industrial centres, the blocs approximately 317 m. in its widest place, and 317 m. long from of foreign-born or those of non-English ancestry tend largely to north to south. Its area is 42,734 sq.m. Pop. (1925) 258,425. offset each other for political and social or economic purposes. Of It is a country of great potential wealth. the “foreigners” the Irish Catholics took the most active part in Material wealth has been more easily and rapidly accumulated politics. Except for a short period in 1912 during strikes in the farther west, and the current of immigration from Europe has textile, centres, the influence of radical leaders has been slight hurried past her shores only staying to profit by her more easily among the working classes. Trade unionism existing in most in- gathered raw products. New methods of using the resources of dustries is generally directed in conformity to the conservative nature, new methods of controlling her powers, new methods of policy of the American Federation of Labor. That there has been transportation and communication are beginning already to turn no general attack on the principles of capitalism is due to the fact new attention to this oldest colony of the greatest empire in the that the New England States have been leaders in legislation fa- world. Position.—Newfoundland lies more to the south than England, vourable to labour as respects conditions and hours of work. New England won the name of the Switzerland of America be- and her position at the gateway of the St. Lawrence has given her cause of the independent spirit of her people in the colonial and a strategic position that is alone sufficient to raise her to a position revolutionary periods. She has kept the title in virtue of her of first importance to the federated nations of the British Empire, natural scenery, stimulating climate and the wisdom of her people while the fact that her capital lies almost exactly half-way bein conserving her natural attractions for a vacation resort and tween New York and London made her the link that enabled the playground. No other of the old sections of the Union has set aside two great English-speaking countries to be first united together so many beautiful areas for parks or reservations. The White by the message-carrying transatlantic cables, decades before it mountains of New Hampshire, the Green mountains of Vermont, would have been possible in any other way. Nor as a pioneer in the lake regions and rugged coast of Maine, the wooded Berkshire uniting the two countries through the conquest of the air has hills and sandy stretches of Cape Cod have become nationally Newfoundland played a mean part. Newfoundland is part of the American continent, broken off. famous. They attract a visiting population of summer residents, tourists and children’s summer camp colonies which doubles the Her southern point, Cape Race, lies as far south as 46° 39° N. normal population of many regions during every summer. Of late in the latitude of Bordeaux, France, and her northern point, Cape years a similar movement to enjoy winter sports in the northern Norman, is in 51° 38’ N., the same as that of Brighton on the States has been inaugurated. From colonial days down to the English south coast, while she falls in longitude between 52° present, a constant emigration of New England born or trained 36’ W., and 59° 30’ W. She is separated on the north from leaders in literature, art, science and engineering has extended Labrador by the Strait of Belle Isle, fifty miles long, which ranges her influence in the nation out of all proportion to her population from nine miles wide at its narrowest place at the western end to or her area or to the capitalization of the industries situated within forty miles wide at its eastern entrance. This is a shallow, mostly sandy bottomed strait, through which the ocean current, coming her borders. (P. P.C.) NEW FOREST, one of the few woodland regions left in from the Polar sea runs into the Gulf of St. Lawrence, and through England, covering 92,365 acres in the south-west of Hampshire, which the great river of Canada, as it now is called, partly dis~

288 charges her waters

NEWFOUNDLAND (the rest flowing through Cabot Strait, a

piece of water ninety miles wide at its narrowest place, between Cape Breton on the Canadian side, and Port au Basques, opposite

it in Newfoundland). Belle Isle, or the Isle of Demons, lies in the centre of the eastern entrance. Its lofty cliffs are well lighted at both ends by fine lighthouses, and it is one of the best cod fishing stations in the world. Minerals.—The story of mines in Newfoundland is very different in 1928 from what it was in 1925. Then, excluding the great Wabana iron deposit at Belle Isle in Conception Bay, minerals gave little return to the country. In 1928, with the lead, zinc and copper of Buchan’s mine on the Exploits, and the Red Indian Lake deposit, the new day had dawned. The huge deposit of titaniferous magnetite at St. George’s, called Steel Mountain, the widely distributed deposits of copper in Notre Dame Bay, now that low grade ores can be so much more profitably worked, the silver lead zinc area of Placentia Bay, especially the La Manche lead mine, the vast deposits of coal in St. George’s neighbourhood, all promise a real future in this third line of native wealth. As a copper producing country, experts say that the future is absolutely assured. Gypsum for cement, fine slate, oil shale, and the annual output of oil on the north-west coast, need further work, but again the experts estimate them as a potential of great value.

The final settlement of the “Labrador Question” by the Privy Council in 1927 entirely in favour of Newfoundland, has given the Colony an area twice as large as her own, with waterfalls that are, for potential power, now unequalled in the world, and all the timber, minerals, fisheries and wealth of one hundred thousand square miles of virgin territory. Its value to her is estimated at anywhere between $300,000,000 and $500,000,000 on a conservative estimate. Yet a few years ago, she offered the whole of it to Canada for $30,000,000, and the offer was declined. Physical Character.—The coast of Newfoundland is rugged and rocky, and deep water runs right up to the cliffs. These rise high and perpendicular in most places, but beautiful bays intersect this outer face, and wind away mile after mile, in many cases

among numerous islands, giving a coast line of over four thousand miles. Conception Bay, Trinity Bay, Bonavista Bay, St. Mary’s Bay, Placentia Bay, Green Bay, White Bay, and Bay of Islands are the chief large inlets, and through them find outlet to the sea beautiful winding rivers of which the Gander, the Humber, and the Exploits are the largest, the latter being a mile across at its mouth. There are innumerable lakes, some many miles in length, Grand Lake and Red Indian Lake being among the largest, with areas of one hundred and ninety-two square miles, and sixty-four square miles respectively. The bottom of Grand Lake is three hundred feet below sea level. One-third of the surface of the Island is said to be water-covered. These lakes fill the deep gulches between rocky mountains, are very deep and mostly well stocked with trout. The highest and most beautiful mountains are on the north-west coast. They extend north from Cape Ray about 200 m,, and rise to over 2,200 ft.; as they rise almost directly from the water line they have a very impressive effect on the passer-by. The “tundra” nature of the land near the Coast affords excellent pasture for caribou. The half dozen moose imported by the Government have multiplied steadily. Climate.—The total annual rainfall of Newfoundland is not large. Its sunshine is above the average. The heavy fogs, even of the south, seldom surmount the immediate ramparts of her shore line, while farther north, as the Gulf Current gets farther and farther from the land, except in the Straits of Belle Isle, where the warmer waters of the Gulf of St. Lawrence meet the cold incoming tides from the Polar Current, the fogs, so far as navigation goes, are not a more serious factor than elsewhere. The climate is somewhat that of England, except that it is colder, and possibly a little damper, except in the North, where the narrow peninsula is completely sub-Arctic, being steeped on both sides in the Arctic waters. Population.—Of the original inhabitants, a sturdy, brown

race of peaceful and clever little people, called Beothucks, perhaps the less said, the better. They were wilfully destroyed, being hunted down like wild animals.

Newfoundlanders are open air men. They do not take kindly to mining, or even to the lumber woods. On the other hand, they

are born mechanics, and as carpenters, builders, plumbers, paint.

ers and skilled workmen of all kinds, they are greatly in demanq—

so much so that it is truly said that there are more Newfound. landers in Boston today where a “Newfoundland Gazette” is regu-

larly published for their benefit than there are in St. John’s Once, however, her mineral wealth is seriously tapped, and her pulp and other potentials scientifically exploited and conserved, the population will probably increase. The population of St. John’s, like many other things, js recorded only according to religious affiliation, and there are saiq to be, in 1927:—8,374 Church of England, 7,623 Methodists, 980 Salvationists, 1,047 Presbyterians, 348 Congregationalists, 326 other denominations; that is, 18,698 Protestants, and 17,746 Roman Catholics, almost entirely of Irish extraction. In the whole Colony:—The church of England numbers 84,66s, Methodists 74,205, Salvationists 13,023, Presbyterians 1,876, Congregationalists 1,018, Other Denominations 1,670. Total Protes-

tants 176,457. Roman Catholics 86,576.

There is an archbishop

of the Roman Catholic Church, and two bishops, and one bishop of the Anglican Church.

Education.—The people of Newfoundland are of English stock largely from England’s western seaports, while mixed with these are the inevitable Scots, and not a few Irish. Only a few French remain. Comparatively, they are a poor people, and at times in outposts there is considerable shortage of the necessities of life, as the deficiency diseases only too forcibly testify, and even still there is, in the outposts, a great deal of illiteracy. For if the political system can be classed as successful, the denominational system of education has little, if anything, to recommend it, so far as results go, and overlapping sectarian schools paid for by the Government are one of the greatest handicaps of the Colony. One or two interdenominational schools have been founded by outsiders, under Government permission. In the capital itself, good schools exist, but Newfoundland has no wniversity of its own, and its students still go to England, Canada, or the United States for degrees and for higher education. Economics.—Almost of necessity the Newfoundland fisheries have been carried on a credit basis, since the time when the lower hands on the vessels were treated little better than serfs. But the credit system here has been exceptional in that in so many cases very little money was paid. This led to a peonage system in which the poorer people lived on what supplies their particular merchant cared to give them, and many, even fathers of families, never owned money. On the other hand, merchant and planter (i.e., fisherman with an outfit) in a sense stood together, and as long as the industry repaid generously both capital and labour, there was no lack for either of plenty or happiness. Trouble began when fish became scarce, when prices dropped, and when capital claimed all repayment first, and failed to recognize that labour also was the equivalent of money invested. Thus, in bad seasons, labour always accumulated debts, and no wages being credited for the outlay of all his time, the fishermen often lived and died in debt, and even handed his “red letter” debts on to his children, so much so that a law had to be passed that debts contracted at the cod fishery to one supplier might not be charged by another against any credits he might establish on account of the seal fishery. Of late years, cash has been regularly paid for balances due, and a truck act is in force. To understand the peculiar conditions of the social life of the fishermen of the island, these facts have to be understood. It was in an honest endeavour to remedy the conditions that about 1900 the Fishermen’s Protective Union was formed, becoming a co-operative, productive, and distributive society. The members flew their own flags, created a new centre for the collection and sale of the proceeds of their voyages in a new harbour away alto-

gether from the capital, and all around the island, in the outposts

where fishermen lived, they established the Fishermen’s Union Cash Co-operative stores. The idea spread like wild fire, and if possible to carry it out efficiently, the system is unquestionably ideal, for it really offers the men, whose hard work and dangerous

calling produce the wealth, at least a major part of the resulting

NEWFOUNDLAND profits. At first it went splendidly, though against great opposition, for it, like every reform, tended to upset all the conventions of commerce as well as all the traditions of this particular

289

ties that could be washed out, smoked, and sold chiefly for hors d’oeuvres. In 1926, however, largely due to the enterprise of the Hudson’s Bay Company, fresh salmon was satisfactorily put on trade. It had no revolutionary side, it sought peace, not war, in the London market, in such excellent condition that a company business. But it could only get human agents, and many of them of expert tasters gathered in London for a sample testing at the were not equipped fully for their responsibilities. Politics, alas, greatest fish restaurant in the world, were unable to distinguish were also allowed to enter, and played no small part when troubles it from fish just taken from the rivers. This industry is just bebegan. Though the humble founder was honoured by the King, at ginning, and so far the capacity of the Newfoundland salmon the request of the Newfoundland Government, with a knighthood, fishery has only been touched. With its long coast line, and its and became the Minister of Fisheries, the success that was merited innumerable rivers, there is no reason why, if the breeding rivers and anticipated for this most interesting venture has been disap- are themselves adequately protected, the fresh salmon trade of pointing, though this Union still functions and has many firm and Newfoundland should not compete even with British Columbia in loyal friends; but the bulk of fishermen do not have the same value, for the coast is so close to Montreal, New York, and Lonactive connection with it as before. don, as to throw their large trade almost wholly into her hands. Fishing.—Newfoundland has exported on an average fifteen New methods of collecting, catching and preserving, are all the million quintals or seventy thousand tons of dried codfish every while improving, and there are no salmon in the sea like the crisp year at a value of about $6,000,000 reaching even $12,000,000. fat fish of the Labrador current, all of which are caught in salt This is only one-third the weight of fish when first caught before water in gill nets, before they enter the rivers, where they would be being split and dried. There are three fisheries, the Grand Banks, knocked about, and where they do not feed. In 1920, pickled the “Shore” or home coast, and the Labrador. The banks are prob- salmon fetched $85,563. In 1926, it fetched $130,825, while fresh ably the top of an old submerged mountain range, three hundred salmon fetched in 1926, $144,896. miles long, running south-east towards the centre of the Atlantic The seal fishery varies in value, but already shows that these Ocean, over which 80 up to 100 fathoms of water washes. They mammals, which have only one young per year, are unable to are covered with sand and fine mud, and the two currents that meet stand against the modern inventions used to destroy them when over them bring endless small diatoms and algae, on which are fat- they are helpless at the time of motherhood. The mothers bring tening endless invertebrates of the crustacean and mollusc types, forth their young at the end of February or early part of March that in turn fatten the hosts of codfish that resort there. The cod on the level floe ice, called ‘‘whelping ice,” that comes south along swim in to the coast from the deeper water in May and June, the east and west coasts of the Colony. They are there attacked heralded by sardine-like fish called caplin, which, in enormous by large ice-protected steamers, with wireless communications hordes, land on the actual sandy beaches to spawn. with the land, and with one another, with airplane service to The number of fishermen varies, but approximately one-fifth direct the vessels where possible, and with modern repeating of the population now engage in catching and curing codfish. rifles and expanding bullets. There is, moreover, every year great About 1,000 schooners are used, the numbers having fallen from loss from thousands of seals being killed, and their bodies lost over 1,500. The bankers use long lines or trawls with many hun- upon the ice pans, as it is still legal to kill many more than can dreds of hooks on each. The “Shore” and Labrador men use be taken straight to the safe storage of the ship, and they are mostly submerged nets, called traps, which cost about four hun- left floating about on the loose ice, with flags indicating the dred dollars apiece. They also use hand lines and flaxen gill nets owners, hoping that they may be picked up later. In 1927, only set on the bottom, and ordinary twine mesh nets, called “cod- nine steamers, with crews amounting to 1,634 men, pursued this nets.” Squid follow the caplin and on these also the cod feed fishery, and brought home 180,459 seals, as against 211,531 taken greedily; they make excellent bait and also are good eating. in 1926, a very large decrease on what used to be taken half a In spite of the decline of late years in the number of men and century ago. There are those who defend this fishery, especially boats employed in the Colony’s fisheries, the actual statistics are the old sealing captains and steamer owners, but the man-in-theenlightening :— street sees nothing but obliteration for the herds, like those of the hood seals of East Greenland, if this annual slaughter continues. Actual quantity of Codfish Value in caught in qil. dollars The poor settlers of the Labrador and North Newfoundland coast 1885 1,284,719 4,061,600 suffer severely from the diminution of these seals, for they depend 1905 1,196,814 3,508,614 on them for both meat and boot leather in the long winter, while 1927 1,589,841 12,057,414 the oil was to them an essential winter industry. For 1928 the The advent of the Hudson’s Bay Company in 1927 into the total value to the Colony of all the fisheries was estimated at codfish trade of Newfoundland is a very happy augury for her. $36,000,000. Another future for the abundant cod lies in the distribution of Exports of cod oil unrefined, 1921, value $4.74, 304 it in cold storage; no doubt this will be greatly developed in the Exports of cod oil unrefined, 1928, value 751,734 The new knowledge of the enormous value to the human body future. Hundreds of tons were thus sent to Europe during the war. Whales.—The whale fishery, which declined and almost disapof refined cod liver oil, has advanced its price all the world over, peared a few years ago, except for the station at Hawk’s Harbour exactly as it has that of calf’s liver. The Newfoundland cod liver oil has been repeatedly stated by the chemical biological experts of in Labrador, has practically been taken over by Norwegians. A very large factory has been opened in Gready Islands, and the the United States to be the richest in vitamines in the world. managers propose to put yet another about 200 m. further north. In r921, 45,956 gallons were exported, valuedat . - $ 79,982 The law only allows two killing steamers toa station. The average Tn 1926, 169,645 gallons were exported, valued at. . 107,244 number of whales to make such a factory pay well is two to three The lobster fishery has been necessarily closed down, owing to a day. There is a large patch of ground off the south Labrador the great depletion of that esculent crustacean, and whereas the coast, greatly frequented by sperm whales, once supposed to be export value of cases in 1921 was $304,954, In 1927 1t was nothing the doyen of the huge cetaceans. In 1927, however, orders were at all. In the ’eighties, a fine fish and lobster culture laboratory, given not to bother with sperms, but to bring in only sulphur and fish protection centre, were established at Dildo, in Trinity bottoms or blue noses, humps or finbacks. The value of sperm oil, Bay, under a Norwegian scientific expert. This introduced laws and the difficulty of getting it out of the whale made it pracProtecting lobsters, and gave out simple floating hatcheries for tically unremunerative. Finance.—The coinage is decimal. The measures and weights Saving the spawn, and replenishing the stock. But political opposition closed this soon after. are aS in England. The banks are Canadian. When the local The salmon fishery has at last begun to come to itself. The put- banks went into liquidation, the Bank of Montreal, the Royal ting up of salmon in salt or brine never made an article of food Bank of Canada, the Bank of Nova Scotia, and the Bank of Comthat was much appreciated in the market, except in limited quanti- merce at once stepped in, and have ever since rendered yeoman

5

ston

NEWFOUNDLAND

90

service. American, Canadian or Newfoundland Government notes , are all accepted in the Colony, and there is no demur or worrying 1 even over accepting silver or gold coins of all those countries in Newfoundland. The catholicity of a seafaring people happily pervades all their activities. All the Government finances, even , their savings banks’ business, is done through the great Bank of Montreal. The economic disadvantage to the country of this is apparent, where the power of every dollar is so much needed | locally. The habit of saving in actual gold by fishermen became | almost universal after failures of Newfoundland banks in 1895. | Deposits in all the banks have increased considerably. The figures are :— r

Income

1

i 2i ' j t ‘

Customs.

Posts

.

.

Telegraphs

i

l i

.

.

.

.

Crown lands . Int. revenue stamps Fines . . .

Expenditure . [7,321,512 | Int. on pub. debt

. | 354676 | Civil government . ı I70,040 | Civil pensions .

Interest on loans

4

Brooms

t

WATS

from peniten-

|

on

os

Fees of pub. institutions

Taxes and assts.

.

Estate duties.

|

Bank of Montreal Bank of Commerce

Royal Bank

.

Bank of Nova Scotia Government Savings Bank

1922

1926

$

$

6,034,863 701,760

8,158,286 990,066

3,766,933 7,676,776 1,984,542

4,079,537 |

8,664,691 2,011,262

The trade, revenue, expenditure, loans and public debt statistics, are equally illuminating :—

Liquor sales .

|

Bus. profits, tax on cars Income tax arrears Man. sales arrears Misc.

|

LN,

$

107,602 | Military pensions 48,762 | Old age pensions | 4,613 | Admins. of Justice

S$

|

. | 3,538,785

. | 546,311 89.426

.

87,155 | Legislation

Education.

.

618.835 114,425" 481,008

93,678.

914,958:

2,893 | Pub. charities .

151355752!

43,512 | Ag. and mines .

79,659;

140,183 | Marine and fish.

408,272]

350,000

458,541,

80,803 | Roads

61,364 34,391 691 115,132

| | | |

and

gets

. Customs . Posts and tel. . Elections . Audit.

bud-

|

628,220: 1,142,949 21,077" 180,327;

{20,533,458

(8,93 2,329

Trade.—Newfoundland imports much she might well produce, much land for cattle being undeveloped, and unused, and thousands more pigs might well be raised, than are at present. Duroc Jerseys and Berkshires flourish well in the North, and the pigs

Current

Imports | Exports | revenue

Current 3

|

Funded

m n= |pub. debt

1910. a gi | 3,527,126 3.354.746 |27,276,380 1917-18 | 26,892,946 | 30,153,217 | 6,540,083 | 5,369,455 | 34,489,955 1926-27 | 25,813,871 | 30,839,859 | 8,932,436 | 10,533,409 | 72,017,932

fatten well on codheads, berries, roots and offal. Coal exists in good quality and great plenty and might well be exported. Hay can be grown of perfectly satisfactory quality in unlimited quantities in return for labour. Hides should be exported instead of imported. Eggs also can be raised in abundance. It is true, bacon and eggs, and everything fed on fish foods are apt to taste fishy, but clean feeding for a while before slaughtering, and good cooking do much, and it is better to have quantity of essential food constituents than to haggle over flavours.

There are approximately five million dollars in loans and in a sinking fund, reducing the liabilities of the public debt to approximately sixty-seven and a half million dollars. This makes the pubIn 1926-27, Newfoundland imported: beef, salted, 46,879 barlic debt per caput of the population about $260, half of which was due to the World War. This is double that of any provinces of rels, valued at $851,681; butter, 612,195 1b., valued at $219,884; the Dominion of Canada. The steady borrowing of money is coal, 334,034 tons, valued at $1,745,451; flour, 368,240 barrels, easy, and still goes on, and almost every year a new loan is con- at $2,927,236; cotton, wool, silk and clothing, $3,036,192; tracted. It is, however, hoped that the new industries now devel- leather in 1924, $623,554, 1925 $492,901, 1926 $280,162; hardware in 1924, $936,517, 1925 $1,461,283, 1926 $1,014,532; mooping may make this unnecessary. Public Debt.—At the end of the nineteenth century, the public debt of the Colony was small, approximately $9,000,000, and her population about 250,000. But Newfoundland, which has been described, not altogether unjustly, as a land of a repetition of misfortunes, was suffering from a fresh series of disasters. In 1892, for the third time, the capital of the country, St. John’s, was wiped out by fire, and in 1895 all the banks in the country failed, and many people all over the island lost the savings of their lifetimes. This, capped by some bad fisheries, had greatly discouraged even the politicians in St. John’s, and overtures were made to Canada to enter the federation on condition that their public debt be taken over by the Dominion. Sir Mackenzie Bowell, however, Prime Minister of Canada at that period, with his Cabinet, decided that the price was too great, a decision which many Canadians have bitterly criticized in later years. Since that time, Newfoundland’s public debt has doubled several times, and stands in 1928, at some $67,500,000, with still only a population of 260,000. This has involved heavy taxation, and a greatly increased cost of living. Unfortunately, concurrent with this increase there has been a decrease in the value of Newfoundland’s main production, salt codfish, and consequently a gradual decline in the number of vessels and men employed. Whereas, 90% of the people were once living out of the fisheries, less than 50% now are able to do so, though the greatly increased level of living partly accounts for this. The great war undoubtedly had much to do with this, but however that may be, even with the new labour opportunities that have arisen to supplement the incomes derivable from the season of open water, the fishery no longer supports the country, and a very large number of her yeoman families have left for the United States and Canada.

The details of the revenue for the year help to an understanding of the country’s problems, and are as follows, for the current year 1927:—

lasses, in gallons, in 1924, $686,368, 1925 $572,534, 1926 $589,889;

sugar, in cwt., 1924, $135,509, 1925 $139,926, 1926 $130,752; pork, 1926, 23,990 barrels, valued at $626,876;

salt, tons, 1924 ÓI,

968, 1925 61,668, 1926 50,319; tea, 1926, 1,492,699 lb., valued at $62,811; tobacco, 1926, 675,403 lb., valued at $263,463.

In 1917 Prohibition became law in Newfoundland by 24,950 votes against 5,362, but was annulled by the Government in 1924. Since that year imports of wines and spirits were:— In 1924-25, 68,354 gallons at a cost of $123,761. In 1925-26, 102,311 gallons at a cost of $175,627. In 1926-27, 203,028 gallons at a cost of $719,903.

—a very rapid increase, but it is claimed by the anti-prohibitionists “with excellent results to both revenue and morality.” These figures do not include beer, nor is the making of home brew, which is cheaper, and in a poor country therefore still certain to be manufactured in the outports as before, any more specially guarded against. The present law prohibits a great many things which those interested in the sale of intoxicants pretend are more enforceable than prohibiting and sale, but which in practice are just as difficult, and many absolutely impossible, to carry out. The fact that there have been no convictions under any of them is suggestive. Thus, Government liquor sellers may not sell to those convicted of drunkenness, nor to habitual drunkards, nor to inmates of public institutions, nor to policemen on duty, nor to the Indians, or Eskimo, nor to any minors, nor to owners or inmates of disorderly houses.

Bottles must have a label on which the

Government endorsement is plainly marked. Those who sell liquor must not engage in other remunerative occupations. The Government sells eight brands of rum, which is the intoxicant most consumed in the Island. Its brandy is expensive, and so are its liqueurs, of which it sells twelve varieties. The law only allows each adult to purchase one bottle of intoxicating liquor per day

NEWFOUNDLAND

291

three hundred and twelve days per year. The Government may not |size for profitable pulping, with ten inches across at the lower establish a sales depot in a community without a two-thirds major- end. Ninety-seven thousand tons of paper were put out last year ity vote for it and so far not a single town or outport has asked for from Newfoundland. To pay, Corner Brook must put out one hunthis blessing. Moreover, St. Pierre and Miquelon still are on the dred and eighty thousand cords. The splendid harbour, steamers, map, and it has not yet been shown that the new law has caused hotel, machinery, and village that has been built up promise, so any change of heart in their liquor traders. The experience of the long as the forests are conserved, to be an enormous asset for Seamen’s Institute was that prohibition was much better than the finances of the country. But the great outlay proved toc

the present arrangement.

The imports and exports are as follows for 1926-27 :— Imports

De

Te

$ $ 11,635,110 | 2,087,496

en

8,553,567 | 9,429,038

| United Kingdom

| Ceylon | British West Indies . Spain

Norway

:

4,527,533 |

6,273,344

144,698

2,799,587

68,799

819,133

305,058 221,926

.

79,458

|Holland

| Germany

51,569"

France

32,424%

Greece

28,478

Belgium

;

.

‘

:

see

and a few other imports, making in all} Brazil . oe e ES China

Exports Ee

| | Canada

.

.

=

.

French West Indies . Italy . ;

Madeira Portugal

Exports in all

T 1,188,340 sa

76,117} 300

444,358

47,674

25

25,813,871 2%

Ss 2,620,813 3:734

598,038 1,346,653

114,327 2,664,398

30,830,850

*Steadily increasing. {Steadily decreasing. , *Increasing since prohibition closed.

Newfoundland’s greatest new financial developments have, however, been in the exports of paper and pulp, and the opening of new mines. For the first time in her history, the value of any other industry has equalled that of the island’s codfish—that being her export of paper:—1927, $12,057,440 codfish against $12,517,665 paper, and this latter promises to grow rapidly. The history of this is interesting. Lord Northcliffe opened the first undertaking in 1909, with far more extensive and better timbered areas than he could have obtained in Canada or America, with cheaper labour, far more favourable legislative grants to the industry, with better wood (as its black spruce has proved), and cheaper and quicker manufacturing facilities. The fir, at first difficult to use, has been also most successfully handled; it might be all used for artificial silk instead of newspaper sheets. A splendid remunerative business has been built up, which, with new adaptations such as using a southern harbour, called Heart’s Content for shipping, makes only a short storage during winter necessary for material produced, and even that, if essential, could be avoided by carrying it to St. John’s, an all-the-year-open harbour. The whole management of the business has been admirable as far as Newfoundland is concerned, and every kind of progressive method has been introduced to improve the scale of living and to carry high standards in every department at their capital at Grand Falls. The possession of two fine falls, the Grand Falls and Bishop’s Falls, has completely solved their power problems. To Sir Mayson Beeton, as well as to Lord Northcliffe, the island owes a very big debt. A larger and more ambitious paper mill has been that of the Whitworth Armstrong Company at Corner Brook, on the west coast, at the mouth of the Humber River. The amount of money invested has been variously estimated, but considerably over $50,000,000. The result has been a stupendous plant, with every modern improvement for the industry. The hydro-electric power alone of Deer Lake gives sixty-five thousand horse power. This gives employment to many thousands of men in logging in winter—an invaluable help to the summer cod fishing. The total output goes to America, chiefly, to two big newspapers. It takes forty years to grow one tree in Newfoundland of sufficient

much for the original company, and in 1927, the whole concern was handed over at a very greatly reduced cost to the Internationa! Paper Company of America. , Communications.—Except for the immediate neighbourhood of St. John’s, and the little peninsula of Avalon, roads have beer characterized chiefly by their absence, the whole of the north being treated as if it were another world. There scarcely a yard of good road exists, and progress has been proportionately retarded. In the year 1925 the government of Mr. Walter Monroe decided to borrow money for better roads, and generally to make a serious bid for the tourist traffic. The railways of Newfoundland, which are a little over 900 m. in length, and especially the 500 m. from St. John’s to the west coast, have done a great deal to foster trade and travel to Canada and the United States. Owing to the difficulty in winters of crossing the high land, over which the rails were carried, owing to the scattered nature of the small settlements, through which the line passes, and the little amount of inter-town traffic, the railway has been run at an increasing loss annually.

The line, as far as Har-

bour Grace, was finished in 1884, and to Placentia in 1888. In 1893, Mr. R. G. Reid of Montreal was granted a contract to build the rest of the road, which in 1898 was altered to a grant of the whole railway to the contractor at the end of 50 years, provided he operated it free of expense to the Colony, for that period of time. It gave him also, beyond 5,000 ac. in fee simple granted before, 2,500,000 ac. along the route. Mr. Reid was also to build and ply seven steamers for coastal service, including one for Labrador, he was to provide an electric street railway for St. John’s, pave part of the capital, and he became owner of the dock, built an electric lighting system for the city, and acquired the Government telegraph system. He was also to pay a million dollars in cash to the Government. In 1923 the Government bought out the Reid interests for $2,000,000. They also took over the railroad, and steamers and docks. They had previously taken back their own telegraphs. The line, which is only a narrow gauge one, had fallen into great disrepair, and another million and a half dollars at once had to be spent on the track, and over $600,000 on the rolling stock, ties, bridges, and the buildings. The narrow gauge, and light carriages,

have led to delays and troubles from weather and the railway has not been financially successful. Total receipts of the dock and steamship service and railways are:—in 1927, $3,009,190, and for the same period the expenditure was $3,753,087—~a deficit of $743,897. In 1924-25 Earnings were $3,371,200, Expenditure, $3,729,710, Deficit, $358,509. These figures include the returns from the freight and passenger service and traffic. Mails, Pullman cars, express, steamers, dock shop and dry dock and miscellaneous are included. The steamers and dock actually showed a small profit. The newspapers of the country are in St. John’s, the Royal Gazette, the Daily News, the Evening Telegram, the Fishermen’s Advocate, the Free Press, The Newfoundland Quarterly, and there are half a dozen other papers in various outposts. There are 21 foreign consuls in St. John’s. Good tugs and pilots offer every facility for entering the port The country now maintains over 200 lighthouses around he shores. Owing to a dangerous current in the neighbourhood of St. Mary’s Bay and Cape Race, and also to the frequent heavy; fogs that bank often in that vicinity, while icebergs reach as fa as there on the Polar Current, that region has not been inappro priately called the “Graveyard of the North Atlantic,” so man: wrecks having occurred there. It is studiously avoided by mar iners, but has, through the years, claimed many notable victim: and has been the scene of many romances and tragedies. Hote! in the Island for accommodation of tourists are slowly increasin;

292

NEWFOUNDLAND

St. John’s has a large, modern repairing dry dock, a museum, | Millais, Newfoundland and its Untrodden Ways (1907); W. T. Grentwo cathedrals, and the usual quota of public buildings, of which | fell, Labrador and the People (1909), Tales of Labrador (1916), 4 the Government House is the finest and most interesting, are also Labrador Doctor (1920) ; H. H. Pritchard, Through Trackless Labra. dor (1911); H. Aimi, “Canada and Newfoundland,” in Stanford’: in the capital. North America (1915); J. P. Howley. The Boethucks (1915); British Sport.—aAll details regarding sport can be obtained simply by |Empire Exhibition, The Fisheries of Newfoundland and The Minergl, writing to the Secretary of the Game and Island Fisheries Board | of Newfoundland (1924) ; H. A. Baker, Further Geological Survey oj at St. John’s. The rules are not burdensome, and the expense not Newfoundland (1926); D. C. Seity, Newfoundland (1927); D. J, Davies, Mineral Deposits of Newfoundland (1928) ; Royal Commission on the Colonies, Cmd. 7,898 (1914) ; Colonial Office Reports; Colonia] Office Lists; M. L. Fernald, Two Summers of Botanizing in Newfound. land, A Botanical Expedition to Newfoundland, The Contrast of the Floras in East and West Newfoundland; W. E. Cormack, A Collection of Dried Plants of Newfoundland; A. P. Coleman, The Pleistocene of

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great. Good guides, who must be licensed, can be obtained without difficulty, and often tents and canoes can be hired in the district selected. It is well, however, to make certain of this. All apparatus and outfit introduced into the country is liable to customs’ duty, and sportsmen may have to deposit at the port of entry money to the value of the duty charged, but this will be returned upon leaving the country. Any necessary supplies can always be obtained in the excellent large stores in the capital. Caribou hunting is undergoing a closed season. The willow grouse shooting is excellent, and attainable in any part of the island. The close season is Jan. r. to Sept. 20. Capercailzie and black game, both of which have been introduced, have no open season. The moose also are protected. Carrying of firearms, except to a genuine traveller, is forbidden on Sundays, and in close seasons. No license is required. Salmon or trout fishing can be obtained everywhere, the kind depending only on the size of the river. The close season is Sept. 15 to Jan. 15. Every river is preserved by the Government, and none are closed to the public. Many kinds of fur-bearing animals are indigenous. Foxes of various colours, lynx, martin, muskrat, otter, beaver, hares and rabbits, are numerous. Postal Service.—The Colony issues its own stamps of many denominations. They are beautifully and variously engraved, and are frequently changed, with some advantage to the revenue. It costs three cents to the United States, Canada, or in the Colony, whereas postage from the United States to Newfoundland is only two cents. Parcels up to 22 Ib. weight are accepted from England by post, and up to 11 lb. from Canada and the United States. The Government owns 5,000 m. of telegraph lines all round the country, and 2,000 m. of telephone wires, besides a string of wireless telegraph stations as far North as Makkovik islands in North Labrador. The British news despatch from Rugby, England is picked up daily, and published. During the summer months, mails are carried largely by steamers to the North, and in winter from Bay of Islands North around the bottom of White Bay, including Labrador, the mails are carried by couriers and dog sledges. The Furness-Withy steamers from Halifax to Liverpool call at St. John’s, completing the voyage from St. John’s in six days. The Red Cross steamers from New York take five days. BrsriocrapHy.—P. Tuegue, Newfoundland Almanac (1849); A. Murray and J. P. Howley, Geological Survey of Newfoundland (1881) ; J. Hatton and M. Harvey, History of Newfoundland (1883); D. W. Prowse, History of Newfoundland (2nd, ed., 1897); Lord Birkenhead, Tke Story of Newfoundland (1901); D. Wallace, Tke

Lure

of Labrador

(1905),

The Long Labrador

Trail

HISTORY DISCOVERY AND COLONIZATION Newfoundland, commonly termed the “senior colony” of Great Britain, antedates in discovery (though not in continuous settlement) any other British over-sea dominion. John Cabot, sailing

from Bristol in 1497, appears to have made landfall at Bonavista and claimed the whole country for Henry VII. Three years later Gaspar Corte-Real, ranging the North American coasts, discovered and named Conception bay and Portugal cove, and was appointed Portuguese governor of Terra Nova. The long series of annual trans-Atlantic expeditions followed upon the voyages of Cabot and Corte-Real, and their reports in England, Portugal and France concerning the multitude of fish in Newfoundland. The belief that English fishermen did not avail themselves to any extent of these advantages until the middle of the 16th century is now shown to be erroneous. In 1527 the little Devon fishing ships were unable to carry home their large catch, so “sack ships” (large merchant vessels) were employed to carry the salt cod to Spain and Portugal. An act of 1541 classes the Newfoundland trade with the Irish, Shetland and Iceland fisheries. Hakluyt, writing in 1578, mentions that the number of vessels employed in the fishery was 400, of which only one-quarter were English, the rest being French and Spanish Basque. But in the same year, according to Anthony Parkhurst, “the English are commonly lords of the harbours where they fish and use all help in fishing if need require.” Shortly thereafter England awoke to the importance of Cabot’s great discovery, and an attempt was made to plant a colony on the shores of the island.

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Sir Humphry Gilbert, provided with letters patent from Queen Elizabeth, landed in St. John’s in Aug. 1583, and formally took possession of the country in the queen’s name. The first attempt at colonizing was frustrated by the loss of Gilbert soon afterwards at sea. In 1610 James I. granted a patent to John Guy, an enterprising Bristol merchant, for a “plantation” in Newfoundland; but no marked success attended his efforts to found settlements. In 1615 Captain Richard Whitbourne of Exmouth in Devon was despatched to Newfoundland by the British admiralty to

(1907); F. J. |establish order and correct abuses which had grown up among

NEWFOUNDLAND the fishermen. On his return in 1622 he wrote a “Discourse and Discovery of Newfoundland Trade” which King James, by an order in council, caused to be distributed among the parishes

of the kingdom “for the encouragement of adventures unto plan-

ration there.” A year after the departure of Whitbourne, Sir George Calvert, afterwards the first Lord Baltimore, obtained a

patent conveying to him the lordship of the whole southern peninsula of Newfoundland, and the right of fishing in the surrounding

waters. He planted a colony at Ferryland, 4om. north of Cape Race, where he built a handsome mansion and resided with his

family for many years. The French so harassed his settlement by incessant attacks that he at length abandoned it. In 1650, or about a century and a half after its discovery, Newfoundland

contained

only 350 families, or less than 2,000

individuals, distributed in fifteen smalk settlements, chiefly along the eastern shore. These constituted the resident ‘population; but in addition there was a floating population of several thousands who frequented the shores during the summer for the sake of

the fisheries, which had now attained very large dimensions. So early as 1626, 150 vessels were annually despatched from Devon alone. The fish caught were salted and dried on the shore; and

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fied. In 1855 the system of responsible government was inaugurated. In 1858 the first Atlantic cable was landed at Bull Arm,

Trinity Bay. Unproductive fisheries, causing a widespread destitution among the working classes, marked the first eight years of the decade between 1860 and 1870. A system of able-bodied pauper relief was initiated to meet the necessities of the case but was attended with the usual demoralizing results. The necessity of extending the cultivation of the soil in order to meet the wants of the growing population was felt more and more as the pressure arising

from the failure of the fisheries evinced more clearly their precarious nature. In 1864 copper ore was discovered in the north, and mining operations were successfully initiated.

In 1869 a series of

successful fisheries began which enabled the government to terminate the injurious system of able-bodied pauper relief. Im 1871 the revenue rose to $831,160. In 1873 direct steam communication with England and America was established. THE FISHERIES French Claims.—By the treaty of Utrecht of 1713 a right was reserved to French subjects to catch fish and to dry them on that

on the approach of winter the fishermen re-embarked for England,

part of Newfoundland

the interest of these traders and shipowners to discourage the set-

the western side reaches as far as Pt. Riche. By the treaty of Versailles of 1783 France renounced the fishery from Bonavista to Cape St. John on the east coast, receiving in return extended rights upon the west coast as far as Cape Ray. Neither treaty

carrying with them the products of their labour. Hence it became

tlement of the country, in order to retain the exclusive use of

the harbours and fishing coves for their servants, and also a monopoly of the fisheries. They were able to procure the support of the English government of the day for this system, and stringent laws were passed prohibiting settlement within 6m. of the shore, forbidding fishermen to remain behind at the close of the fishing season, and rendering it illegal to build or repair a house without a special licence. The object of this short-sighted policy, which was persisted in for more than a century, was to preserve the island as a fishing station and the fisheries as a nursery for the English fleet. There was, however, another element which retarded the prosperity of the country. The French had early realized the immense value of the fisheries, and strove long and desperately to obtain possession of the island. Their constant attacks and encroachments harassed the few settlers, and rendered life and property insecure during the long wars between England and France. When at length, in 1713, the treaty of Utrecht ended hostilities, it did not deliver Newfoundland wholly from the grasp of France, as it gave the latter the right of catching and drying fish on the western and northern sides of the island. Though no territorial rights were conferred on the French, and the sovereignty was secured to England, the practical effect was to exclude the inhabitants from the fairest half of the island. In spite of the restrictive regulations, the number of the resident population continued to increase. The sturdy settlers clung to the soil, and combatted the “adventurers” as the merchants were called. The latter strenuously opposed the appointment of a governor; but at length, in 1728, the British government appointed Captain Henry Osborne first governor of Newfoundland, with a commission to establish a form of civil govern-

which stretches from Cape Bonavista to

the northern part of the island and from thence coming down by

purported to grant exclusive right, but there was annexed to the treaty of Versailles a declaration to the effect that “His Britannic

Majesty will take the most positive measures for preventing his subjects from interrupting in any manner by their competition the fishery of the French during the temporary exercise of it which is granted to them upon the coasts of the island of Newfoundland,

and he will for this purpose cause the fixed settlements which

shall be formed there to be removed.” Upon this declaration the French founded a claim to exclusive fishing rights within the limits named. A convention was entered into with a view to defining these rights in 1854, but it remained inoperative, the consent of the Newfoundland legislature, to which it was made subject, having been refused.

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ment. This constituted a new era in the history of the colony. In 1763 the fixed inhabitants had increased to 8,000, while 5,000 more were summer residents who returned home each winter. In 1763

the coast of Labrador, from Hudson’s Strait to the river St. John opposite the west end of the island of Anticosti, was attached to the governorship of Newfoundland. The population in 1785 had Increased to 10,000. During the wars between England and France

which followed the French Revolution, Newfoundland attained great prosperity, as all competitors in the fisheries were swept from the seas, and the markets of Europe were exclusively in the hands of the merchants of the island. The value of fish trebled,

wages rose to a high figure, and in 1814 no less than 7,000 emi-

grants arrived. The population now numbered 80,000. In 1832 representative government was granted to the colony, and provi-

sion was made for education. In 1846 a terrible fire destroyed three-fourths of St. John’s and with it an enormous amount of Property; but the city rose from its ashes improved and beauti-

granted a bounty to the French fishermen which enabled them to undersell the colonists.

Twice, in 1884 and in 1885, a convention arranged between the British and French governments was submitted to the colonial legislature which, however, absolutely refused to ratify the arrangement unless the French government would consent either to annul or to amend the system of bounties paid upon French-caught fish in Newfoundland waters. To counteract the effect of these bounties, which pressed very hardly upon the British competition, a Bait Act was passed in 1886, empowering the executive to pro-

294

NEWFOUNDLAND

hibit the capture in Newfoundland waters for exportation or sale of bait fishes, except under special licence to be issued by the colonial government. The consequence of this measure, had its provisions been properly enforced, would have been to place an embargo upon the local supply of bait requisite to the French fishermen—the so-called ‘metropolitan fleet”—on the Grand

Banks.

The

French

government

immediately

demanded

| To prevent such an occurrence. delegates from both parties jy | Newfoundland visited London in April 1891, and, appearing at

|the bar of the House of Lords, promised that if the measure | which was them on the eve of being introduced into that body | were withdrawn, a temporary measure would be passed by the

| Newfoundland legislature which would answer the same purpose

that | of enabling Great Britain to carry out her treaty obligations with

Great Britain should deny its sanction to the Newfoundland Bait Act, and pressed their objections with such persistence as to induce Lord Salisbury to disallow the measure. Nevertheless, the despatch of the governor, Sir William des Voeux, to the colonial secretary, Sir H. Holland, was entirely in favour of the principle of the bill. In 1887, at the conference of Colonial Premiers attending Queen Victoria's Jubilee the subject was argued at considerable length. The claim of the senior colony ‘‘to control and legislate for her own fisheries” met with general approval, the single dissentient being the representative of Canada, who feared that Canadian fishermen would suffer under the bill. When an assur-

France. For a number of years the Modus Vivendi Act was annually passed by the legislature, each year under protest. In 1898 the secretary of state, Joseph Chamberlain, yielding to the urgent request of the senior colony, despatched a royal com. mission of investigation to the “French shore,” and three years later a new conference was held in London. Later in the same year negotiations were begun between the British and French governments fora general-treaty.

On April 8, 1904 the Lansdowne-Cambon Convention was signed, which, enter alia, effected a final settlement of the French shore question. Territorial concessions were made consisting of a

ance was tendered that Canada’s fishermen would be placed upon

modification of the Anglo-French boundary line in the Niger

the same footing with those of Newfoundland, the British government somewhat reluctantly sanctioned the Bait Act. In the meantime the chagrin of the French Foreign Office at the failure of negotiations, and the hostile attitude taken up by the Newfoundlanders induced de Freycinet to devise retaliatory measures. Instructions were issued “to seize and confiscate all instruments of fishing belonging to foreigners resident or otherwise, who shall fish on that part of the coast which is reserved to our use.” Lord Rosebery, then foreign secretary, protested to the French ambassador against the spirit of these instructions, which he insisted were in direct contravention of the treaty, inasmuch as they ignored the concurrent as well as those sovereign rights of Great Britain which France solemnly undertook by the treaties never to question or dispute. About 1874 a Nova Scotian named Rumkey

and Lake Chad district, and a re-arrangement of the GambiaSenegambia frontier, giving Yarbatenda to Senegambia. The Los Islands opposite Konakry Island were likewise ceded to France. Individual clairns for indemnity were duly submitted to an arbitral tribunal, composed of an officer of each nation; and at length what is known as the Lyttelton Award, was made as follows:—

had established the first factory for the canning of lobsters on the west coast. This concern proved profitable, and others sprang up, until, at the close of the season of 1887, Captain Campbell, R.N., reported that 26 factories were at work, employing about rroo hands. The year of the Bait Act’s first successful application was marked by the stoppage, by order of the French government, of one of the largest factories, and by their contention that the lobster-canning industry formed a part of the exclusive privileges conceded under the treaties to the French. “France,” it was then declared, “‘preserved the exclusive right of fishing she always possessed. This right of France to the coast of Newfoundland reserved to her fishermen is only a part of her ancient sovereignty over the island which she retained in ceding the soil to England, and which she has never weakened or alienated.” The French government then voted (1888) a special bounty for the establishment of lobster factories by their subjects on the treaty coast. Acting under a statute passed in the reign of George III., empowering British naval officers to interpret and enforce the treaties, Sir Baldwin Walker and others proceeded to destroy or remove a number of British factories at the request of the French agents. In 1890 the unexpected discovery was made that the act empowering British naval officers to enforce the provisions of the treaties with France had expired in 1832 and had never been renewed. Consequently all the proceedings of which the colonists had been the victims were illegal. One of them, James Baird, immediately took proceedings against Sir Baldwin Walker in the supreme court, which decided in his favour, mulcting the admiral in £1,000.

On an appeal to the privy council the decision was upheld. But.before this incident had taken place, the controversy between London and Paris culminated in the modus vivendi of 1890, by which the lobster factories, both British and French, which were in existence on July 1, 1889, were to continue for the present. Instantly the colony took alarm, and a deputation consisting of the island’s leading men was sent to England to protest against both the principle and practice of such an arrangement. On their return they learnt that it was the intention of the imperial government to re-enact verbatim et literatim the act for the

enforcement of the treaties which had expired 59 years previously

General award for French rights . Loss of occupation. . . es Effects left by the French on treaty coast .

. $255,750 226,813 28,936

Thus, so far as concerned the French, was an end put to a situation on the treaty shore, which for nearly 200 years had given rise to difficulties and anxieties. American Claims.—Scarcely, however, had a year elapsed from the signing of the convention, when another international disagreement connected with the fisheries assumed grave importance. There had long been intense dissatisfaction in the Colony over the attitude of the American government and American fishermen towards the colony. The action of the American Senate in rejecting the Bond-Hay treaty negotiated in 1902 stirred the colonial government to retaliatory measures. By virtue of the treaty of 1818 American fishermen enjoyed the right, in common with British fishermen, to prosecute their industry within certain defined areas. But America then formally renounced for ever “any liberty heretofore enjoyed or claimed... to take, dry or cure fish on or within three marine miles of any of the coasts, bays, creeks or harbours of His Britannic Majesty’s dominions in America” not included in the stated limits, with one qualification: ‘“‘that American fishermen shall be permitted to enter such bays or harbours for the purpose of shelter and of repairing damages therein, of purchasing wood, and of obtaining water and for no other purpose whatever.” In 1905 an act was passed by the colonial legislature imposing certain restrictions on American vessels, and a further more stringent act in 1906, preventing Newfoundlanders from joining American vessels. These acts were resented by the American government, which, through Secretary Root, called upon the British government to disallow such interferences on the part of the Newfoundland legislature. Lord Elgin’s reply was to suggest a modus vivendi pending further discussion of the questions at issue. In spite of the colony’s energetic protest, a modus vivendi was agreed to in Oct. 1906, whereby the Foreign Fishing Vessels Act of 1906 was held in abeyance, and the act of 1905 was held not to apply to American fishing vessels, and light dues were waived, while on the other hand American vessels were to report at the custom house on entry for clearance, and their fishermen were to comply with colonial fishery regulations. The American government consented

to waive Sunday fishing by the Americans, which was an important colonial grievance, if the use of purse seines by American fishermen were allowed. Lord Elgin’s action was considered to be an interference with the internal affairs of the colony and great public indignation was aroused. Retaliatory measures were resolved upon, Newfoundland fishermen being declared liable to fine and imprisonment for selling bait to the Americans or for joining

I SN EDO ELLIS DAL STOLL CET pT n a R a e e e a TOG e n

NEW

GLARUS

American vessels, ‘The legislature voted an address to the imperial government, protesting against the modus vivendi, and this was carried to England in 1907 by Sir Robert Bond, the premier of

he colony. Finally the matter was referred to The Hague tribunal

jor arbitration, which gave its award in Sept. 1910, the two main points at issue being decided as follows: (a) Great Britain had the right to make regulations for the fisheries without the consent of

295

duced to a great extent. A considerable turnover of votes resulted, and the Government was defeated by a party led by Mr. (Sir) Richard Squires, whose Government was re-elected in 1923.

Shortly afterwards Sir Richard Squires resigned as a result of grave charges preferred against him in the Legislature, including, amongst others, the receipt of money from private corporations and the diversion of government funds to persons occupying high

the United States, subject to the provisions of the treaty of official posts. The Attorney-General, William Warren, had in bays (subject to special judg- assumed the leadership, but on the opening day of the legislative 1818. (b) The “three-mile limit” to be taken from a line across the

ment in individual cases) was pay at the point, nearest the entrance, where a width of ten

session of 1924 his ministry was defeated. It was reconstructed, but without avail and the election of 1924 resulted in a victory miles is not exceeded. Among other provisions it was decided for the party led by Walter Monroe. that American vessels might employ foreign hands (but these Among the measures passed in 1925 was one abolishing Proreceived no benefit under the treaty); also that they might be hibition, which had proved unworkable and the substitution of required to report to custom houses if facilities to do so existed government control of liquor, on the pattern of the Quebec law. The Monroe ministry was pledged to economy and reform, but THE LABRADOR JUDGMENT its difficulties were many, there being much opposition to nearly In the opening decades of the century the question of New- all its measures of retrenchment. Although revenue was declining foundland’s claim to Labrador became an urgent one. It had and expenditure increasing, a considerable party clamoured for indeed been raised about 1888 and was a subject of discussion still further loans, to provide bounties on fish and new roads. at the Halifax Conference of 1892. But not until 1903 did the Only by a steady resistance to these demands was the GovernGovernment of Canada, learning that the Newfoundland Govern- ment able during the years 1925-28 to balance its revenue. Projects for Union with Canada.—In 1900 the British ment had issued a timber licence in the Hamilton river region, seriously challenge the island’s ownership. In the succeeding admiralty, acting upon the repeated suggestions of Sir Charles years the rival claims of Canada (or to be more precise, the Dilke and others interested in the manning of the navy, decided Province of Quebec) and Newfoundland were subjected to close to initiate a branch of the imperial naval reserve in the Colony. and skilled investigation, especially since, in 1920, it was agreed In z901 a difficulty arose about paying the men, owing to the to accept an adjudication by the Judicial Committee of the Privy lack of any provision for that purpose in the Imperial Reserves Council. The case was heard in 1926 before the Lord Chancellor, Act under which they were enlisted. The Colony was asked to and Lords Haldane, Finlay, Sumner and Warrington, the argu- bear the cost; its refusal was followed (1902) by the enactment ments lasting for fourteen days. In March, 1927, a decision was of special legislation rendering the enrolment and maintenance rendered, in which Newfoundland’s claim was upheld. The of the reserves in Newfoundland a special imperial undertaking. Judicial Committee found “the boundary between Canada and Several efforts had been made to induce Newfoundland to conNewfoundland in the Labrador peninsula to be a line drawn due federate with the Dominion of Canada, but the project never north from the eastern boundary of the bay or harbour of Ance met with any degree of favour with the electorate. After the Sablon as far as 52° N. and from thence westward along that insolvency of the colony in 1894-95, a delegation was sent to parallel until it reaches the Romain river, and then northward Ottawa to ascertain if it were possible to arrange terms of conalong the left or east bank of that river and its headwaters to federation; but Sir Mackenzie Bowell’s government objected to their source, and from thence due north to the crest of the the assumption by the Dominion of the entire amount of Newwatershed or height of land there, and from thence westward foundland’s debt (then only $16,000,000), and the negotiations and northward along the crest of the watershed of the rivers were abandoned. The Labrador decision of 1927 revived the flowing into the Atlantic Ocean until it reaches Cape Chidley.” project in Canada; but Newfoundland would appear to be satisThis important judgment which first formally established the fied with its separate Dominion status. BrstiocraPHy.—C. Pedley, History of Newfoundland (1863); J. island Dominion’s claim to territory nearly three times its own extent, caused great rejoicing in Newfoundland. It enabled the Hatton and M. Harvey, Newfoundland; its History and Present varied natural resources of the disputed region to be accessible Condition (1883); M. Harvey, Newfoundland, England’s Oldest Colony (1897), Newfoundland in 1897 (1897) and Newfoundland in at last to those desiring a valid title. The taking of the water- zg00 (1900); B. Willson, The Tenth Island (1897), and The. Truth shed as the boundary was held to remove the danger of any about Newfoundland (1901) ; D. W. Prowse, History of Newfoundland further dispute. The territory awarded is estimated (1928) to (2nd ed., 1897); A. Bellet, La Grande Pêche de la morue à la TerreNeuve (1902); J. G. Millais, Newfoundland and its Untrodden Ways contain spruce forests valued at $50,000,000. (1908); P. T. McGrath, Newfoundland in rozz (St. John’s, xr911); 1912—28.—The inauguration in 1912 of the Fishermen’s Union, J. P. Howley, Mineral Resources of Newfoundland (St. Jobn’s, IQII); which established large trading stores in all the principal out- D. C. Seitz, The Great Island (1926). See also Colonial and Foreign (B. W.; X&.) posts and had as its political object the safeguarding of the Office Reports. interests of the fishermen by means of representation in the NEW GLARUS, a town and a village of Green county, WisLegislature, was the outstanding political event of the immediate consin, U.S.A., about 22 m. S.W. of Madison, on the Little Sugar pre-war period. In the elections of Nov. 1913, although the river, a branch of the Rock river. Pop. town (1930) 577; village, Government of Sir Edward Morris was re-elected, the candidates which was separated from the town in 1901 (1930) r,010. New of the Fishermen’s Protective Union (F.P.U.) won all the con- Glarus is served by a branch of the Chicago, Milwaukee and St. stituencies in the north and northeast. On the outbreak of the Paul railway. It has agricultural and dairying industries, but little World War a Newfoundland regiment was formed and served or no manufacturing interests. It had‘its origin in a colonizing overseas in Gallipoli, Egypt and France. Altogether some 6,500 experiment made by the canton of Glarus, Switzerland, in 1845. men joined up for service. In 1917 the Morris Government was Agents sent by the canton chose the site of New Glarus largely enlarged into a National Government by the inclusion of the because the rocky slopes of the valley suggested their Alpine Opposition, in order to expedite measures dealing with war re- home. The settlers brought with them a “form of government” quirements. At the end of 1917 Sir Edward Morris resigned, and drawn up by the Cantonal Council of Glarus and providing in was succeeded by Mr. (Sir): William Lloyd, the former leader great detail for a system of schools, for what was practically a of the Opposition. State church (Reformed Lutheran) supported by tithes, for a In 1919 Sir William Lloyd attended the Peace Conference as system of poor relief, for a system of courts and for a set of town the representative of the Colony. During his absence his Gov- officers elected on a limited property franchise. The original plan ernment was destroyed by internal dissensions, and Mr. (Sir) provided also for an equitable distribution of land to each head Michael Cashin became Premier. The elections of Nov. 1919 of a family. With such adjustments as were found necessary for were marked by extreme bitterness, religious feeling being intro- co-ordination with the town and county Governments of Wis-

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NEW

GLASGOW—NEW

GUINEA

consin, it remains practically the same to this day. The village ' lesser height. The south-eastern part of the chain called the Owen | Stanley range (Mt. Albert Edward, 13,220 ft.) declines gradually and town still have an Old World aspect.

E NEW GLASGOW, a manufacturing and mining town of| to the end of the long peninsula. Pictou county, Nova Scotia, Canada, on the East river, near its; Towards the west the central chain is formed principally of entrance into Pictou harbour, and the Canadian National rail- | palaeozoic sandstones and slates on which much younger rocks, way, 104 m. N.E. of Halifax. Pop. (1931) 8,858. Extensive coal } nummulitic sandstone and limestone are laid. In Dutch New mines are in the vicinity, and there are manufactures of iron and | Guinea, the lower mountain country is of Miocene rock. Towards steel, mill machinery, door and sash factories, as well as several | the south-eastern peninsula there are again old rocks, some with ship-building yards. gold-bearing quartz, especially along the axis, as well as granite

NEW GRANADA (Span. Nueva Granada), the title under | and folded Tertiary limestone on both coasts of the peninsula; Spanish colonial administration of that part of South America | here also, and in the d’Entrecasteaux islands is much evidence of now known as the republic of Colombia, which at one time was | volcanic activity (Miocene, Pliocene, Pleistocene and recent). The northern coastal range in Dutch New Guinea is said to extended to include Venezuela and Ecuador. It also was for a time the title of the united territories of Panama and Colombia reach a height of about 6,900 ft.; it declines towards the mouth under republican auspices. The Bogota plateau was invaded of the Sepik, beyond which it rises again to a height of about 10,500 ft. and ends at King William’s cape. It is formed of anfrom the Caribbean coast and conquered in 1537 by Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada, who, in honour of his native province, cient elements with diorites, gabbro, andesites, etc., mostly covcalled it the “Nuevo Reino de Granada.” In x550 an audiencia ered with Tertiary and even possibly younger sediments, and is real under the viceroyalty of Peru was established at Santa Fé probably still in process of uplift; recent coral reefs adorn some (Bogota), but in 1564 this isolated group of Spanish settle- cliff sides and may reach a level of some 5,500 feet. There is ments was transformed into a presidency. In 1718, owing to the abundant evidence in New Guinea of large earth movements from unmanageable size of the viceroyalty of Peru, it was divided | Miocene times onwards, with a probable maximum in the Pliocene and a new viceroyalty was created from the various provinces | or Pleistocene. The southern hills between the mouths of Digul lying in the north-western angle of the continent, extending from ; and Fly rivers are an extension of Australia structurally. BeTumbez northward to the northern limits of Panama, and east- | tween these lines of hills there run lowlands, floored near the Idenward to the Orinoco, to which the name of Nueva Granada was | burg river by Pliocene sandstones. given. The new viceroyalty included the provinces of Tierra The most important rivers are the Mamberamo, reaching the Firma (now the republic of Panama); Maracaibo, Caracas, | sea north of the Nassau range; the Sepik, also on the north, naviCumana and Guyana (now included in Venezuela): Cartagena, _gable by seagoing steamers for 180 m.; the Fly river flowing into Santa Marta, Rio Hacha, Antioquia, Pamplona, Socorro, Tunja, | the Gulf of Papua, navigable by a whale boat for 600 miles; and Santa Fé, Neiva, Mariquita, Popayan and Pasto (now included the Digul in the south-west. Many of the rivers have gold, but it is in Colombia); and Quito, Cuenca and Guayaquil (now included important in few places save the Louisiade archipelago beyond the in Ecuador). In 1777 the provinces of Maracaibo, Caracas, south-east extremity and Woodlark island. Murua (Woodlark Cumana and Guyana were detached from the viceroyalty to form island) beyond the d’Entrecasteaux islands has banded quartzite the captaincy-general of Caracas; otherwise it remained as above much valued by the people for the making of stone adzes. Petroleum occurs near the coast of the Gulf of Papua. until the termination of Spanish rule in South America. Climate——In the northern summer the south-east trades For the republic of Colombia (1819-30), the republic of New Granada (1831-61), the United States of Colombia (1861-86) and dominate New Guinea; they bring rain to the south-east peninthe republic of Colombia (1886 to date), see COLOMBIA. sula but the rain diminishes farther west on the south side as the NEW GUINEA, island, of estimated area 312,329 sq.m., wind is affected more and more by the passage across the corner stretching from the equator in the north-west to 12° 5’ S. in of Australia. Northward on the east coast the rain at this season the south-east and from 130° 50’ E. to 151° 30’ E; sepa- appears to be very heavy where the land faces south-east. Farther rated from Australia by the shallow Torres strait and Arafura sea. west there is little rain while the south-east trades blow. In the southern summer, New Guinea is on the wind-path from Asia, On its eastern side lies the Bismarck archipelago. round to the very marked Australian low pressure centre. The STRUCTURE AND PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY wind is swinging round from the north-west to north-easterly diThe island consists of a Jong central mountain chain of complex rection and it brings heavy rain to northern New Guinea and to formation, a northern coastal range, and a small planed down hill the southern part of the Dutch Territory. In one place in the country on the south coast, west of the mouth of the Fly river, rain shadow of the northerly mountains an annual rainfall of 96 together with the alluvial surfaces formed mainly by the rivers in. has been measured, but on the exposed heights, especially beunder the influence of equatorial rains. The structure shows, in tween 3,000 and 6,500 ft., it must be enormously greater. In the the west, the influences of great earth movements ranging from lowlands the convection currents rule all the year round, but the the Banda sea. These give arcs (1) Banda islands, (2) Buru, Ce- amount of rain varies. The temperature remains near the average ram, West Timorlaut, (3) East Timorlaut, Kei islands, coastal of about 81° declining to about 72° and rising to about 92° as mountains of south-west New Guinea from the Baik mountains to rough monthly averages. 72° is not far from the average morning, Cape Fatingar, thence via Misol island, Obi island, and then north and 92° not much above the average noon, temperatures. Flora and Fauna.—tThe general vegetation is that of the rainon the west side of Halmahera. This curve is separated, in West New Guinea, from the central chain by- the deep McCluer inlet. forest, but under the conditions of great heat the rain-forest The central chain stretches from north-west to south-east. In the cannot grow where there is a long dry season. The tree limit is west the ranges of the central chain are called Charles Louis more than 10,500 ft. above sea-level. Towards the mountain tops Mts. and then for a while, still in Dutch New Guinea, the one finds European (Rubus, Ranunculus, Leontodon, Aspidium), name Nassau Mts. is used. Here the snow line is approximately Himalayan, New Zealand (Veronica), South American (Drymus, at 14,600 ft. and Mt. Idenburg (15,150 ft.) and Mt. Carstens Libocedrus) and even Antarctic species. From 6,000 ft. upwards (16,400 ft.) have glaciers. The next section is the Orange Mts. fine Agapetes (Hricaceae), pines (Araucaria, Libocedrus) and with Mt. Wilhelmina (15,312 ft.). There seems to be a more or palms adapted to hill-life abound. In the lower lands palms are less parallel range 25-45 m. to the north of this succession of very abundant, and along the tidal courses of rivers those of the ranges, and in it a height of 12,500 ft. has been observed in the genus Nipa are common; sago palms are numerous in the seasonal Weijland mountains. The composite nature of the great chain swamps while grass and cane swamps occur where the land reis maintained eastwards and it is believed that the main watershed mains long under water. On the Alang steppe is the tall, tough lies in the Mandated and not in the British Territory. In the grass, Imperata arundinacea. former a height of 13,700 ft. has been found in the Otto Mts.; on New Guinea was probably united to Australia as recently as the south flank the chain grades into a complex of mountains of Pleistocene times, whereas its last effective connections farther

POLITICAL DIVISIONS]

NEW

GUINEA

west are much older. It thus belongs in the main to the Australian

region with nine species of Echidna (Monotremata) and 84 of mar-

supials among which are two genera peculiar to the island (Distoechurus and Dorcopsis). Small kangaroos live on the borders of steppe and forest in the higher lands. Bats abound and there

is a pig (Sus papuensis), a dingo and 50 indigenous species of vats and mice chiefly on the steppe, and a few squirrels. The bird fauna includes well over 500 species and at least 50 genera are peculiar to the island. Birds of prey hover over the steppe and catch rats and mice, but apparently they avoid the great forests and here flourish the famed birds of paradise, which are absent from all the islands east of New Guinea. The Bismarck islands

have birds allied to those of New Guinea but 74 species are peculiar to them. Turtles and tortoises are plentiful on the coast

and have curious relationships with South American forms; many lizard species are peculiar to the island but comparatively few snakes. Amphibia are abundant and of Australian affinities. In-

297

tured labourers. Of the above population 187,011 are on the mainland. The non-native elements number 3,045 including 1,303 Chinese, 944 British and 310 Germans. The area of the mainland mandated territory is 68,500 square miles. The area under cultivation includes 113,481 ac. of coconuts, often with cacao between the trees, and 2,478 ac. of rubber under the control of the Expropriation Board. Independently managed are 55,490 ac. of coco-

nuts and small plantations

of rubber,

cotton

and cacao.

The

exports for 1925 were valued at £858,990, the imports at £537,940.

Dutch New Guinea.—Dutch New Guinea, which lies between 10° S. and the equator, comprises practically half of the entire island of New Guinea. The boundary line between it and British New Guinea starts from the south coast and follows the line 141° E. up to the Fly river, which river then forms the boundary until 141° E., 1s reached, when the meridian becomes the boundary again, right up to the north coast. The area is 151,789 sq.m., and the population is estimated at 195,460, of whom 237 are Euro-

peans or Eurasians. The territory is practically undeveloped, save for the extreme western coastal portion opposite Ceram, and parts of the northern coast, its coasts are imperfectly charted, and there POLITICAL DIVISIONS has been little systematic exploration. The northern half is mainly British New Guinea (Territory or Papva).—Area about hilly, with a very high range of mountains traversing it east by 90,540 sq.m., European population 1,452. Natives variously west, though along the northern coast and on either side of the estimated 114,000 to 275,000. A British protectorate was de- Mamberamo river, which flows into the sea at Cape d’Urville, are clared in 1884 after the Government of Queensland had annexed great alluvial tracts of land; the extreme west is almost wholly the land in 1883, and after various changes it became (1906) hilly; the south very flat, with vast swamps near the coast, espethe Territory of Papua under the governor-general of Aus- cially in the south-west, where Prince Frederick Henry island, tralia, with a lieutenant-governor of its own. An executive separated from the mainland by the narrow and tortuous Princess council of one unofficial and eight official nominees helps the Marianne strait, is perfectly flat and marshy, and covered with lieutenant-governor and also forms part of the legislative coun- dense forest. Into McCluer gulf, which divides the western porcil, which has five additional unofficial nominees. There are tion of Dutch New Guinea almost into two, flow several rivers, eight magisterial districts and a central court at Port Moresby, including the Seljar and Ketero, the former navigable, for small and an appeal thence to the high court of the commonwealth. vessels, for 34 and the latter for 23 miles. Along the south-western There are now two government anthropologists. Some simple coast stretch, in succession, from north to south, the Mimika, regulations of native government are administered with the Utakwa, North-West river, Lorentz, Utumbuwe, Eilanden, Digul help of (in 1926) 1,024 village constables. About 190,000 ac. and Merauke. Some of these are situated so close to each other of land have been leased, chiefly by planters, and over 62,000 are that they are connected by channels navigable for small, lightcultivated, chiefly for coconuts, rubber and sisal. Land may not draught boats, several are navigable for distances of from 25 be bought freehold. Natives may establish communal plantations to 50 m. for steamers of 12 ft. draught, and the Digul the largest, of food plants in lieu of paying a tax in money, and they do this is 6 m. wide at its mouth and has been ascended for nearly 400 m. under European instructors. The expenditure for 1926 was by a steamer of 6 ft. draught. The south-western coast is flat £157,202 and the revenue £172,395; both are increasing fast, and fairly even, until the Charles Louis Mts. are reached, where especially the latter. The ports are Port Moresby, Samarai, Kulu- it becomes high and much indented, Nautilus strait running far madau, Daru and the imports are worth nearly £500,000, the inland, between hills. Flat tracts alternate with high ground along exports nearly £700,000; the latter are rising very rapidly. Copper the western coast, very much indented after McCluer Gulf, and has been worked for some time near Port Moresby and the export the north coast, from Cape Sorong along Little Geelvink bay, to of this in 1926 was worth £155,305 while rubber amounted to the middle of the coastline of Great Geelvink bay, is generally high, especially where, near Manokwari, the Arfak Mts. come £194,849 and copra to £204,097. (A. C. H.) Mandated Territory of New Guinea.—The northern section very near to the sea. The remaining shores of Geelvink bay, to Cape d’Urville, and beyond, as far as Sarmi point, are low, flat of south-east New Guinea (formerly called Kaiser Wilhelmsland) was mandated in r919 by the League of Nations to the Govern- and alluvial, but from here to Humboldt bay it 1s mostly high, ment of the Commonwealth of Australia, together with the Bis- rugged and rocky. The entrance to Great Geelvink bay is blocked marck archipelago (New Britain, New Ireland, and adjacent by several islands, the northernmost being the Schouten group, islands), the Admiralty islands and several outlying groups, and Suk, or Supiori, to the west, and Biak, or Wiak, to the east. The the northern Solomon islands (Bougainville and Buka). North- former is 17 m. long and has hills reaching 1,600 ft.; the latter is eastern New Guinea lies between 2° 15’ and 8° S., and 141° 30 45 m. long and 23 m. wide, with a hill 800 ft. high at the southern and 148° E. It had been declared a German protectorate in 1884 end, otherwise it is only 50 ft., above sea-level. Farther within when not a single white man lived there. Plantations arose in the the bay is the important island of Jobi, or Jappen, 110 m. long islands and on the mainland, and three German mission societies and 15 wide, with a ridge of mountains 2,500 ft. high running soon formed settlements in New Guinea. There are now eight along the centre, the south coast being indented with deep creeks, mission societies working in 603 stations in 18 districts. Under fronted by wooded islets and reefs. Between Ceram and the the mandate, the system of indirect rule through native chiefs north-west coast of Dutch New Guinea lies Misol, 50 m. long and has been continued. The administrator advises the governor- 23 broad (narrow in the west, wide in the east), with numbers of general of Australia who can legislate by ordinance. There are very small islands to the north and south of it. It is flat in the ten district officers, six of whom are in the islands. The head- north and hilly in the south, no point being over 1,800 ft., the quarters is at Rabaul. No slavery or forced labour is permitted, coast is rocky, but swampy in places, and there are three rivers, but natives are not allowed to leave the territory, and labour navigable for a few miles. Separated from the north-west coast indentures are made. No one may supply natives with firearms, by the narrow Galewo straits is Salwatti, a round island, 30 m. ammunition, alcoholic liquor, opium or derivatives of opium. A across, with regular coasts, and limestone hills on the north coast, native police force has 464 constables and 42 N.C.O.s. 1,000 ft. high, but low and swampy in the east, and no rivers of The total native population is estimated at 378,701, excluding note: east of Salwatti is the small island of Popa. North of territories not yet under control and also excluding 23,421 inden- Salwatti, separated by Pitt strait, is Batanta, 4o m. long and only sects are very numerous and the butterflies are gorgeous.

molluscs are related to those of India and Malaya.

Land

298

NEW

GUINEA

[ANTHROPOLOGY

from 4 to 8 m. wide, densely wooded and mountainous (highest ! pendency of Tidore, a part of the Dutch East Indian colonies, point 3,676 ft.). Due north of Batanta is the large island of | which claim was confirmed in 1848, the frontier then being stated Waigiou, 28 m. wide, nearly 80 in length, and separated from New| to run straight from Cape Bonpland to the north coast. In 1884, Guinea by Dampier strait, 30 m. in width. It is covered with dense | when South-East New Guinea was declared a British Protectorate, forest. the meridian of 141° E. was acknowledged as the frontier be. Commerce and industry in Dutch New Guinea are almost un- | tween British and Dutch territory, and later, in 1885, the same known. The people generally live in a very wild state, head-hunting | meridian was accepted by the Dutch as defining the frontier of and cannibalism are all too prevalent; some are semi-nomadic, | German New Guinea. A convention entered into by Holland and others entirely, and as they live largely on sago, and this is | Great Britain in 1895 made aslight alteration in the boundary obtainable almost everywhere, in large quantities, with a minimum | (the Fly river) and made the navigation of the Fly river free ip amount of labour, whilst the coconut abounds, and the sweet | subjects of both Powers, except for the carriage of munitions of potato, sugar-cane, plaintain, papaya and tobacco are grown with |}war. In 1898 Tidorese territory was assigned to the Ternate Resilittle trouble, there is no incentive to work, apart from hunting | dency, in 1911 West New Guinea was attached to the Residency the cassowary, pig and kangaroo, for their flesh, and fishing, the | of Amboyna (the chiefs having subscribed to the “short declaraonly lucrative employments followed being those of hunting the | tion” in 1909), and the present division of territory is North New bird of paradise, collecting the wild nutmeg, the mace of which | Guinea, West New Guinea, and South-West New Guinea, the is much esteemed and marketed specially in Macassar, and the | former province being under Ternate, the two latter under Ampreparation of copra. Men and women go about almost entirely | boyna. (E. E. L.) naked,

the men

armed

with

bow

and

arrow,

axes

of polished

BIBLIOGRAPHY.—Among older works see E. C. Rye, “Bibliography of

stone, and daggers of the jaw-bone of a crocodile or the thigh- |New Guinea,” Supplementary Papers, Royal Geog. Soc. (1884). See

bone of a cassowary.

There are head men of villages, but they

have little power, the people of the coast are often at

ee with

San, pease

T

Territory of Papua: Rola

P

Verslag

o

RA P

(Colonial

Report),

Anant:

those of the scrub lands of the interior, and there is enmity | Annual Reports to the League of Nations on the Administration of the between these and the mountain folk: language varies consider- Territory of New Guinea; Mitteilungen aus den deutschen Schutzgeably. There are no roads, save in the immediate neighbourhood | bieten (1888 etc.). Recent works include: Reports, Cambridge Anof Dutch official settlements. In the whole of South jNew : Guinea there is only one: settle-

ment,

Dutch

Merauke,

a few miles

Gezaghebber

inland up the Merauke

river.

A

thropological Expedition to Torres Straits (1907); C. G. Seligman, The Melanesians of British New Guinea (1910) ; R. Neuhauss, Deutsch Neu Guinea (1911); E. Werner, Kaiser Wilhelmsland, Freiburg-i-B. (r911); J. H. P. Murray, Papua or British New Guinea (1912), Papua

resides here, there is a small garrison, a | of To-day

(1925); W. H. R. Rivers, History of Melanesian Society

hospital, Catholic mission church, and settlement, and a few shops, | (1914); H. Detzner, Ergebnisse von Reisen in Neu Guinea (1914-18) ; mostly run by Chinese traders, a wireless station, and a small Geogr. Tages, Leipzig (1922); L. B. Gibbs, Dutch New Guinea (Botanical) (1917); G. Landtman, “Folk Tales of Kiwai Papuans,” wharf, where vessels of the Dutch Royal Packet Company land Acta Soc. Sct. Fenn. (Helsingfors, 1917), “Papuan Magic in Building passengers and collect copra and other cargo. Merauke was estab- | Houses,” Acta Aboensis Humaniora, vol. i., (1920); W. N. Beaver, lished in 1902, as the result of a military expedition. The nearest | Unexplored New Guinea (1919) ; E. W. Chinnery, “Opening up of new

Dutch settlement to Merauke is at Kaimana, on the McCluer

ace a pepo

gulf, soo m. distant. Here, and at Kokas

Task (1920);

and Fak Fak (head-

cere e ae See

R. Thurnwald,

Die Gemeinde

ee = a Ta

der Banaro

(Stuttgart,

quarters for West New Guinea, where there is a Gezaghebber), | 1921); F. de Bruyn, “Contrib. Geol. Nouv. Guinée,” Bull. Lab. Geol

there are small trading stations with Malay, Chinese and Arab | (Lausanne, 1921); C. A. W. Monckton, Some Experiences of a New

settlers; Fak Fak is the most important, where proximity to | Guinea Magistrate (1921), Last Days in Papua PL em eons RSS pS PSSST PAD gah Ah nd SS ESP-r aE TET A TA ST TS ON NP tegen DEE PS ge cfte

(1922); W. R.

Ceram and generations of outside influence have resulted in set- | Humphries, Patrolling in Papua (1923); H. J. Bijlmer, Nova Guinea

tled and semi-civilized conditions amongst some of the Papuan panenropolorica)) oy dens Pearls 5023)and3. Stanley; or Neg é SSL S o puans. | Guinea (1923) ; F. Hurley, Savages (1924) Ceol ; W.ogy Behrmann,

All three places are ports of call for vessels of the Dutch Royal | Das W. Kaiser Wilhelmsland in Neu Guinea, Zeitsch. Ges. Erdkunde Packet Company, also pine on the north-west coast, opposite | (z924). Salwatti, and Manokwari (Doreh), on the north-east coast, which is the seat of an assistant resident and the headquarters of ad-

(A. C. H.)

ANTHROPOLOGY

ministration for North New Guinea. Wasior, on Little Geelvink | The island of New Guinea and its island-clusters, together with bay, is another port of call, also Sarmi, Demta and Humboldts bay, | those adjacent island-groups, of which the principal are the and here, too, are Chinese and Malay traders, dealing mostly in

Louisiades and the Torres Straits islands, is a region of consider-

copra and bird of paradise plumes, and there is some exploitation | able racial and cultural diversity. The territory of New Guinea,

of the hinterland.

The development of Dutch New Guinea will | the north-eastern quarter of the island, is, however, still very in-

probably be more rapid than that of North New Guinea, for there | completely surveyed ethnologically, and of the inhabitants of

is good land available and more chance of being able to utilize |Dutch New Guinea, our knowledge is comparatively slight. imported labour, when this can be procured. Trade is being de- | Racial History.—Although there is considerable variety of veloped with Jappen island, where Dutch Royal Packet vessels | racial type, the inhabitants of New Guinea belong almost entirely

call at two ports, Seroei and Wooibaai; and with Biak, of the | to the ulotrichous (frizzy-haired) branch of mankind. The princiSchouten islands, the port of which is Bosnik. pal varieties are the Negritoes, the Papuans and the Melanesians. A treaty dated 1660 between the Dutch East India Company | The only typical Negritoes that have been found in New Guinea

and the three States of Ternate, Tidore and Bachian, acknowl- | are the Tapiro at the source of the Mimika river in the Snow edged the company

islands which are Dutch a nominal lands of Waigiou, islands there were

to be “lord of the Papuans

or all their | mountains of Dutch New Guinea, and the Pesechem.

The Mafulu,

subject to the king of Tidore.” This gave the | the Kai and some others have probably a Negrito element. sovereignty over the Tidorese fiefs on the is- | The Papuan, the dominant stock in New Guinea, is dark, of Salwatti and Misol, and as on the latter two | short stature and generally long-headed. Evidently, Papuan man kingdoms possessing a vague sovereignty over | occupied not only New Guinea, but also Melanesia in very early

parts of the mainland of New Guinea, whilst the suzerainty of | times (see OcrantA; Racial History), later migrations from Tidore was acknowledged in the neighbourhood of McCluer gulf, | Indonesia having on the whole less racial than cultural effects. eventually the Dutch succeeded to these somewhat shadowy | The Melanesian element in New Guinea is certainly comparatively

rights. Their first establishment was in 1828, when Fort de Bus | recent, and appears to be a mixture of Papuan with Indonesian was erected, but before this, in 1814, Dutch sovereignty in | and proto-Malay, a mixture which may in part have taken place North-West New

Guinea had been admitted, practically, by Great | in Indonesia. The Melanesian influence is strongest in the north Britain by the convention of 1814, which restored to the Dutch | and north-eastern coastal regions; and on the south-east coast their colonies as they had existed prior to 1803. In 1828 the | of Papua the immigrant nature of this Melanesian type is clear. Dutch Government declared North-West New Guinea, as a de-| Principal Groups.—Taking the whole New Guinea area, and

ANTHROPOLOGY]

NEW

GUINEA

working from west to east, some of the principal culture-areas (or ribes where these exist) may be enumerated. Belonging to New Guinea rather than Australia we have the islands of Torres Straits with a well-developed and distinctive culture. Two groups on the

mainland between the Fly and the Dutch boundary may be mentioned, the Tugeri, partly in British but mainly in Dutch territory

where they are known as Marind-Anim (their name for themselves) and the Kiwais. A culture of which little is known occurs in the neighbourhood of Lake Murray, between the Strickjand and the Fly; and between the Fly and the Aramia, we have a tribe, the Gogodara, containing many distinctive characters. In the Gulf of Papua, from a little west of the Kikori river to Cape Possession, four main groups are distinguished by Dr. Haddon, Kerewa, Urama, Namau and Elema, and far from the coast on the upper waters of the St. Joseph river the Mafulu show distinctive characters, physically and culturally. To the east of these Papuan districts we meet the farthest westward extension of Melanesian-speaking peoples. There are two main groups of these Papuo-Melanesians, the Western Papuo-Melanesians, the Roro, Mekeo, Motu and others, and the eastern PapuoMelanesians or Massim, inhabiting the eastern extremity of New Guinea and the islands beyond, including the whole of the Louisiades, except possibly the island of Rossel, the inhabitants of

which speak a non-Melanesian language. Passing westward along the north coast, Melanesian-speaking peoples give way for a while to Papuan-speaking peoples, such as the Orokaiva. In the territory of New Guinea (excluding the Bismarck Archipelago, g.v.), the Bukaua, Huon gulf and the adjoining

Jabim are Melanesian in culture, while the Tami of the neighbouring islands seem to be fairly pure Melanesian. Farther north the Kai, who inhabit the Rawlinson and Sattelberg ranges, are Papuan with Pygmy admixture. Both Papuan-speaking and Melanesian-speaking peoples occur along the coast farther north and

299

anesian-speaking peoples. The drum is the commonest musical instrument, though absent from Rossel island in the Louisiades. Slit wooden gongs, with a most limited distribution, are found north of Huon gulf, in the territory of New Guinea, and in Dutch New Guinea. With these gongs are associated sacred flutes, which, however, are also found in the northern division of Papua.

Social

Organization.—Although

the family

(g.v.)

is an

important unit in the social structure of all New Guinea peoples,

a wider group, the clan (g.v.), seems in general to be more fundamental. Moreover, family relationships are not usually distinguished by name

from

many

more

remote

relationships,

and

relationship terms used between persons who can trace genealogical relationship are also used in a systematic way between persons who are unable to trace any genealogical connection. This system, known as the classificatory system, takes a variety of forms in New Guinea, and social organization is unintelligible without an understanding of this system. Within the clan the classificatory system establishes a comparatively small number of relationships, and in general members of the same generation within a clan address one another as brothers and sisters, and the tie uniting members of one clan will be found to be similar to that uniting brothers and sisters by one father or mother. Both matrilineal clans (membership of which is determined by descent through the mother), and patrilineal clans (membership of which is determined by descent through the father), are found in New Guinea. The principal matrilineal area is the Massim district of Papua, and in this area the clans are totemic. (See ToTEMISM.) Fach clan is associated with four linked totems, bird, plant, fish and snake, and the bird-totem is not eaten by members of the clan. A person will also avoid the bird-totem of his father’s clan,

the totems of which are necessarily different, since the rule of clan-exogamy (marrying out of the clan) is strictly observed. Amongst the patrilineal Papuans of the west, the clan seems to

west. Flourishing cultures occur on the Sepik river, and something become of rather less importance, and totemism occurs only in an attenuated form in the Gulf region. is known of the Banaro on the Keran river. In the east the clan figures as the important unit in the rituals In Dutch New Guinea something is known of the Geelwink bay district, where Melanesian-speaking peoples occur. On the west of marriage and death, and the series of feasts more or less concoast we find Papuans on the Mimika river, and at the head- nected with these events, which play a dominant part in the life of the Massim. Reciprocal exchanges of pigs and objects of value waters of this river are the Tapiro pygmies. Mode of Life.—With very few exceptions the inhabitants of between persons more or less representative of clans is an imporNew Guinea are horticulturists, cultivating coconuts, yams, taro, tant part of all such activities, as in the Big Feast which extends bananas and a number of other food plants. Sago is also an from the Massim as far as the Mafulu. This reciprocity between important food in some parts, constituting the main article of diet clans was also shown in warfare, cannibalism being a ceremonial in the swampy region of western Papua. Fish are caught by net act of revenge on the part of one clan for the death of one of its and spear, and occasionally by hook; and the harpooning of the members by another clan. In the social organization of the Papuans of the west, as well dugong is an important feature amongst certain of the coastal peoples. The pig, domesticated and wild, is the only important as the Papuans of the northern division, and the Jabim, Bukaua, flesh-food, though the wallaby and many birds are caught by Tami islanders and others in the territory of New Guinea, the various devices. Betel-nut is chewed with lime and pepper-plant, and the use of tobacco is now universal. Kava, the Polynesian drug, is limited to one or two places. Family houses are usually small, and are often built on piles. They may be scattered, as

amongst the Massim, or grouped in big villages, as amongst the Motu and Gulf peoples. Club-houses in which initiated males live most of their lives occur in many parts and may be of considerable size; structures of this kind which entail enormous labour occur on the Sepik and in the Papuan gulf. Canoes are simple dugouts, or provided with an outrigger. Double canoes occur amongst the western Papuo-Melanesians. The Motu, joining several canoes together, make vessels of considerable size. For clothing the men

usually wear some sort of girdle, and the women a petticoat of shredded palm; the Papuans

of the north-west coast of Papua

clothe the waist with tapa-cloth. Armlets of cane or of shell are common; necklaces of shell, dogs’ teeth or seeds. The septum of the nose is commonly pierced to admit a nose-stick, usually of clam-shell, and the lobes of the ear are pierced and decorated in the east with turtle-shell rings and sapi-sapi beads. Tattooing has

an irregular distribution, being confined to women in the case of the Massim, who are tattooed from forehead to thighs. Considerable artistic skill is shown, particularly by the Melanesian-speaking Inhabitants, the carved and fretted woodwork of the Massim being of unusual excellence. Pottery is in general use among the Mel-

outstanding feature is the existence of tribal initiation-ceremonies. The Elema tribes commence this initiation of the males at about the age of eight, when the boy is first taken into the club-house of the village and shown the bullroarer, the noise of which has previously been a mystery to him. Only after two or three years is his initiation complete, and the process involves not only various ordeals and instruction for the initiates, but a great deal of ceremonial in which the whole of the village, and maybe other villages, are involved. In other initiation rites the swallowing of novices by a monster and subsequent resurrection is prominent, this occurring both amongst the extreme western tribes of Papua and in the Huon peninsular district of the territory of New Guinea. Religion.—A cult of the dead occurs throughout New Guinea, and only rarely is a cult of gods associated with it. The Big Feast of eastern Papua is to a large extent a collective celebration of the dead, though in the Soi feast of the Massim a being is continually addressed, who is not strictly an ancestor, and is supposed to have performed supernatural feats in olden times, and to have introduced the pig into New Guinea. This being is related to a number of other superhuman beings who lived in the past, but they can hardly be regarded as objects of a religious cult. On Rossel island, on the other hand, at the extreme east of the Massim area, we find an elaborate god-cult and constant care of the gods, who control the processes of nature by a priesthood.

NEW

300

GUINEA

[HISTORY

The religion of the Elema tribes in the west of Papua may be ! (Bijdragen, 1879). Missionaries of the Utrecht Missionary Soci.

described

as an ancestor-cult, the name

for ancestor being the ` ety were at Port Dorey in 1858, and English missionaries have

same as that for all sacred objects; but some of these ancestors are regarded as deities who temporarily assumed a human form, giving birth to various tribes. That death results from sorcery or is brought about by ghosts is probably a universal belief in New Guinea. The magic employed by sorcerers for this end is usually of the sympathetic type, some part of the victim being utilized by the sorcerer, or some imitative action being made to the accompaniment of a spell. Divination is also common, and where it is believed that ghosts may cause sickness divination is used to discover whether a ghost or sorcerer is responsible. On Rossel island an alternative cause of death is the desecration of the sacred ground of a god. (W. E. A.) BrsriocrapHy.—General: A. C. Haddon, “The Decorative Art of British New Guinea,” Cunningham Memoir, X., Royal Irish Academy (1894); G. A. J. van der Sande, Nova Guinea, vol. iii. (Leyden, 1907); C. G. Seligmann, “A Classification of the Races of British New Guinea,” Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute, vol. xxxix. (1909); R. Neuhauss, Deutsch-Neu Guinea (1911); J. H. P. Murray, Papua or British New Guinea (1912); A. C. Haddon, “Migration of Cultures in British New Guinea,” Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute, vol. 1. (1920). Special Areas: Reports of the Cambridge Expedition to Torres Straits (1907— ); C. G. Seligmann, The Melanesians of British New Guinea (1910); R. W. Williamson, The Mafulu (1912); A. F. R. Wollaston, Pygmies and Papuans (1912); B. Malinowski, “The Natives of Mailu,” Transactions of the Royal Society of South Australia, vol. xxxix. (1915); D. Jenness and A. Ballantyne, Tke Northern D’Entrecasteaux (1920); B. Malinowski, Argonauts of the Western Pacific (1922); P. Wirz, Die Marind-anim von HolländischSud-Neu-Guinea (Hamburg, 1922); J. H. Holmes, In Primitive New Guinea (1924); F. E. Williams, “The Natives of the Purari Delta,” Anthropology Report, No. 5 (Territory of Papua) (Port Moresby, 1924); W. J. V. Saville, In Unknown New Guinea (1926); G. Landtman, Tke Kiwai Papuans of British New Guinea (1927); W. E. Armstrong, Rossel Island (1928). See also Annual Reports of the Government of Papua and the Territory of New Guinea.

HISTORY Exploration.—Although New Guinea may have been seen by

Antonio d’Abreu in 1511, its first visitor was apparently Dom Jorge de Meneses, who in 1526 took shelter at “Isla de Versija,” either Warsia on the north coast, or Waigiu Island. Two years later Alvaro de Saavedra discovered “Isla de Oro,” probably one of the Schouten Islands, and sailed along the north coast. The name “Nova Guinea” is due to Ynigo Ortiz de Retez (or Rotha) who landed on the north coast in 1546, and thought the natives resembled those of West Africa. The chart of Ortelius (1580) shows “Nova Guinea” as an island seventeen years before the fact was proved by Luis Vas de Torres sailing through the straits now bearing his name. Dutch navigators, Willem Jansz (1605), Jacques le Maire and Willem Schouten (1616), Jan Carstensz (1623), Gerrit Pool (1636), Abel Tasman and others, appeared after the conquest of the Moluccas. In 1700 William Dampier sailed along the northern coast, and Philip Carteret (1767) and L. A. de Bougainville explored the islands. James Cook re-discovered Torres Straits, and landed in New Guinea near Prince Frederick Henry Island (1770). Thomas Forrest (1774) wrote an interesting account of the island (Voyage, 1780). Although parts of the coast were surveyed by La Perouse (1788), John MacCluer (1790), D’Entrecasteaux (1793, Voyage by Rossel), and also by Duperrey (1823), D. H. Kolif (1826), and Dumont d’Urville (1828), very little knowledge was gained of the country or people. The Papuan Gulf and shores eastward were visited by F. P. Blackwood (1842-6, Voyage of the Fly, by J. B. Jukes), Owen Stanley (1846—50, Voyage of the Rattlesnake, by J. Macgillivray),

Charles B. Yule (1864) and J. Moresby (1874). In 1875 Schleinitz explored the north coast and islands. During this period

resided in the south-east since 187r. Of these, Samuel Macfar. : lane (1875), James Chalmers (1877-1901), and George Brown | (1875-1897) have described both country and people. Otto |Finsch (1882), and Theodore Bevan (1884—87) explored the

!southern rivers. |

Since the annexations, explorers and observers have been con-

| stantly at work. During and since the administration of Sir Wil.

|liam MacGregor (1888-98), large areas of British territory were | surveyed, and the natives pacified by a system of patrols (Annugl Reports). The island was first crossed in 1897. James Chalmers was murdered in 1901. The anthropology has been made known by C. G. Seligman, V. M. Egidi, W. Mersh Strong, R. W. William-

son, B. Malinowski, W. J. Saville, E. B. Riley, G. Landtman, J. H. Holmes, A. C. Haddon and others. In 1922 Leo Austen ascended the Fly River to the Netherlands Boundary. In German territory the Sepik (Kaiserin Augusta) river was visited by Otto Finsch (1885) and the Ramu river by Schleinitz

(1887). In 1893 O. Ehlers and N. Piering lost their lives in cross-

ing the island from Huon Gulf. Other explorations were carried out by C. Lauterbach (1896), Poch (1904), Heine (1908), Full and Friederici (1908).

The northern part of Netherlands territory was explored by

C. E. A. Wichman, G. A. J. van de Sande, and H. A. Lorentz (1903) and the south by Lorentz (1909—Nova Guinea by A. Wichman). South-west New Guinea has been explored (Netherlands Geographical Society 1908) and Central New Guinea in 1920 (H. J. T. Bijlers, 1923). Annexations—In 1793 New Guinea was annexed by the (English) East India Company, who placed a garrison for some time on Manuswari Island in Geelvink Bay. As Suzerain of the Sultan of Tidore the Dutch (after 1848), claimed control over the northern coast as far as Humboldt Bay. In 1828 they established a fort in Triton Bay and took possession of the south-west coast as far as the r41st meridian. Their claim to the western half of the island was admitted by Britain and Germany in 188s. In 1905 the Sultan. of Tidore ceded his rights to the Government. In 1864 Yule annexed the south coast for the British crown, and Moresby in 1873 took possession of the islands of Eastern New Guinea. The possible dangers to the commerce of Queensland and Australia generally, should the island come into the possession of a foreign power, led to a demand for annexation. The Germans in 1882 having advised their Government to annex, the Queensland Government in 1883 actually annexed all the mainland opposite their shores and east of the r4rst meridian, but, as with the annexations of Yule and Moresby, this action was disavowed by the Home Government. In 1884 Germany annexed the north-east coast and adjacent islands, and Commodore Erskine proclaimed a British Protectorate over the region east of the r4rst meridian as far as East Cape and the islands to Kosmann Island. In 1885 the German New Guinea Company was chartered to acquire and occupy those portions of the island not under British or Dutch sovereignty, the mainland being styled Kaiser Wilhelmsland, and the islands the Bismarck Archipel. A boundary agreement was made in the same year, the British territory being named British New Guinea. In 1888 the Protectorate became a dependency controlled by Queensland and in 1906 was renamed the Territory of Papua. In 1889 the German New Guinea Company surrendered their charter and the Imperial Government assumed direct administration. After the capitulations in 1914, the German territory was occupied by an Australian administration. Now, as the Territory of New Guinea, it is held by Australia under Mandate from the League of Nations. BrstiocraPHy.—Accounts

of voyages published under the explorers’

scientific observers ‘visited the islands, notably A. R. Wallace ; Mames are not noted here. A few others are mentioned in the text. Many Dutch expeditions are described in the Bijdragen tot de taal(1858), Odoardo Beccari (1871-76), Maria d’Albertis (1871—78), | land-en-volken-Kunde- van Nederl. Indié, especially for 1875 and C. B. H. Rosenberg (1869-70, Bijdragen, 1875), and Nicholas von 1879. German explorations are recorded in Nachrichten iiber Kaiser Miklucho-Maclay (1871-81). Expeditions were made for the Wilhelmsland. English surveys will be found in Annual Reports on Netherlands India Government by P. van der Crab, E. Teysmann, | British New Guinea (and Papua). Others works are: A. Dalrymple, Collection (1770-71); Burney, C hronological History J. G. Coorengel, A. J. Langeveldt van Hemert and P. Swaan Historical (1803); Meyners d’ Estree, La Papouasie (Paris, 1881).

NEW NEW

HAMPSHIRE,

301

HAMPSHIRE

popularly known as the “Granite

the upper cliffs of Profile mountain is The Great Stone Face, immortalized by Nathaniel Hawthorne. The part of the State which lies north of the White mountains

70° 37° and 72° 37’ province of Quebec; which separates it in south-east and south

is occupied by ridges and wide rolling valleys, the ridges rising occasionally to heights of 2,000 ft. or more. South of the mountains a plateau-like surface—a part of the New England uplands— extends from the intervales of the Connecticut river to the eastern border of the Merrimac valley. Between the Merrimac valley and the sea is the only low surface in the State; a considerable portion of this region is less than soo ft. above the sea. The seashore, about 18 m. in length, is mainly a low sandy beach. The only harbour is at Portsmouth near the mouth of the Piscataqua. About 9 m. from the shore are the bleak and nearly barren Isles of Shoals, divided between New Hampshire and Maine. The lakes and ponds, numbering several hundred, were formed by glacial action and the scenery of many of them is scarcely less attractive than that of the mountains. The largest and most widely known is Lake Winnepesaukee, 20 m. long and from 1 to 8 m. wide is dotted by 274 islands, mostly verdant, and has clear water and a rather level shore, behind which hills or mountains rise on all sides. The rivers with their numerous falls and the lakes with their high altitudes furnish a vast amount of water-power for manufacturing,—the Merrimac, in particular, into which many of the larger lakes, including Winnepesaukee, find an outlet. Fertile soil in New Hampshire is confined largely to the bottomlands of the Merrimac and Connecticut rivers. In the south-

State,” is one of the New England group of the United States of America and one of the original thirteen. The State lies between

42° 40" and 45° 18 23” N., and between w, It is bounded north by the Canadian east by Maine, by the Salmon Falls river, part from Maine and by the Atlantic ocean;

1 - Lancaster 2-Beriin 3- Woodsville 4-Ossipee § - Laconia 6 - Newport 7-Claremont 8 - Dover 9: Keene 10- Manchester 11 - Portsmouth 12- Exeter 13 - Nashua

eastern section is also a moderately productive soil derived largely from the disintegration of slate. Elsewhere south of the moun-

JØCONCORD A 100

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V50 0 2% 30 49 50 MILES MAP SHOWING THE MAIN ROADS IN NEW HAMPSHIRE

by Massachusetts; west and north-west by Vermont it is separated by the Connecticut river—low wate: west bank of the Connecticut is New Hampshire’s ary), and by Halls Stream which separates it from

(from which mark on the west boundQuebec. The

State has an area of 9,341 sq.m., of which 310 sq.m. are water surface,

Physical Features.—In the north central portion of the State,

the White mountains, a continuation of the Appalachian system, rise abruptly in several short ranges and in outlying mountain masses from a base level of 700 to 1,500 ft. The highest, Mount Washington, attains an elevation of 6,293 feet. The principal ranges, the Presidential, the Franconia and the Carter-Moriah, have a north-eastern and south-western trend. The Presidential, in the north-eastern part of the region, is separated from the Franconia on the south-west by the Crawford or White Mountain Notch, about 2,000 ft. in depth, in which the Ammonoosuc and Saco rivers find a passage, and from the Carter-Moriah, parallel to it on the east, by the Glen-Ellis and Peabody vivers, the former noted for its beautiful falls. On the Presidential range, which is about 20 m. in length, are Mount Washington and nine other peaks exceeding 5,000 ft. in height. On the Franconia, a much shorter range, are Mount Lafayette, 5,269 ft.;; Mount Lincoln, 5,098 ft.; and four others exceeding 4,000 feet. The highest peak on the Carter-Moriah range is Carter Dome, 4,860 ft.; but seven others exceed 4,000 feet. Separating Franconia and Pemigewasset tanges is the romantic Franconia Notch, overlooking which from

tains, the surface soil is mostly hard pan or till, this being deepest on the drumlins. In the mountain region the soil is mostly a sandy loam composed of disintegrated granite gneiss and organic matter; on the lower and more gentle slopes as well as in the valleys this is generally deep enough for a luxuriant vegetable growth but on the steeper slopes it is thin or the rocks are bare. Climate.—The winters are usually long and severe, and the summers cool and fine. The mean annual temperature ranges from about 42° at only moderate elevations in the White mountain region and farther north to 47° at low altitudes in the south-east. The greatest extremes of temperature occur in the deep mountain valleys where it sometimes rises to 102° or above, in summer, and falls to —38° or below in winter; higher up on the mountains it is never so warm and along the sea-coast both extremes are considerably less. The mean precipitation for the entire State is about 40 inches. The distribution is even throughout the year, but summer and autumn are slightly more wet than winter and spring. Among the mountains and in the northern part of the State the annual fall of snow is from 7 to 8 ft., but in the south-east corner

it is little more than one-half that amount.

Pe

The prevailing winds

allede ges

400,000

300,000

200,000

GRAPH 1920

SHOWING

GROWTH

OF

POPULATION

OF

NEW

HAMPSHIRE,

1790-

are generally north-west, but in the vicinity of the sea they south-east during summer. Population.—The population of New Hampshire in 1930 465,293, an increase for the decade of 22,210 or 5.0%. population of the State at certain of the decennial censuses

as follows:

326,073

141,885 (1790); 183,858

(1860);

376,530

(1890);

(1800);

411,588

are was The

was 269,328 (1830);

(1900);

430,572

(1910); and 443,083 (1920); the percentage of increase was 4-6 from 1900 to 1910 and 2-9 from i910 to 1920. New Hampshire, in population, ranks 41st among the States of the Union.

302

NEW

HAMPSHIRE

Of the total in 1920, 20-6% were foreign-born, 18-39% were of |these courts have extensive jurisdiction. Each probate court, con. foreign-born parentage, 10-19% were of mixed parentage, and 51% sisting of a single judge, has jurisdiction within its county of the were of native parentage. Of the total foreign-born population probate of wills, of the granting of administration, in insolvency (91,233), 52,274 Or 57-295 were natives of Canada (38,277 French |proceedings, in relation to the adoption of children. and othe; and 13.997 others); 7,908 of Ireland; 5.280 of Greece; 4.367 of | similar judicial functions. The court of a justice of the peace has

England; 3,997 of Poland; 3,467 of Russia; and 2,074 of Italy. The density of population in 1930 was 51-5 per square miles. The population of the principal cities at that date was as follows:

jurisdiction in criminal cases only where the fine not exceeding $20, or by imprisonment months or by both, and in minor civil cases. has the same jurisdiction as that of a justice

punishment js by not exceeding six A municipal cout of the peace, and,

Manchester, 76,834; Nashua, 31,463; Concord, the capital, 25,228; Berlin, 20,018; Portsmouth, 14,495; Keene, 13,794; | in addition, concurrent jurisdiction with the superior court in

Dover, 13,573; Laconia, 12,471; Rochester, 10,209. Government.—New Hampshire was the first of the original States to establish a Government wholly independent of Great Britain. This was designed to be only temporary, but was in operation from Jan. 5, 1776 to June 2, 1784. The constitution provided for a general court consisting of a senate and a house of representatives and made the council a body advisory to the State president; the 1784 instrument was amended in 1792; with the amendments adopted in that year it is in large measure the Constitution of to-day. For 60 years there was no change whatever, and only three amendments, those of 1852 (removing the property qualifications of representatives, senators and the governor), were adopied until 1877, when 12 amendments were adopted,— the most important being those providing for biennial (instead of

annual) State elections in November (instead of March), and those doing away with the previous requirement that representatives, senators and the governor “be of the Protestant religion.” Five amendments were ratified in 1880, four in 1902 and four in 1912. The most important of those adopted in 1912 was one providing for the election of the governor and members of the council by a plurality instead of a majority vote. New Hampshire is the

only State in which amendments to the Constitution may be

certain cases where the title to real estate is not involved and the damage demanded does not exceed $100. Justices of the peace are appointed for a term of 5 years only, but they may be

reappointed. Local affairs are administered by counties (ten ip number), towns (townships), village districts and cities. In each county a convention, composed of representatives from the towns, meets every two years to levy taxes and to authorize expenditures for grounds and buildings whenever more than $1,000 are required. For the discharge of other county functions the qualified electors of each county elect every two years three commissioners, a sheriff, a solicitor, a treasurer, a register of deeds and a register of probate; two auditors also are appointed annually by the supreme court. The county commissioners have the care of all county property, as well as of county paupers; and once every four years they are required to visit each town of their county, inspect the taxable property therein, determine whether it is incorrectly assessed and report to the State board of equalization. In each town a regular annual meeting of the qualified electors is called on the second Tuesday in March for the transaction of miscellaneous business and the election of town officers. Finances.—The total valuation of property for the purposes of taxation in 1926 was $673,250,335; the State levy $3,064,587 or $6.77 per caput. The chief sources of the income of the State for the year ending June 30, 1926 were the general property tax, motor vehicle licence fees, the gasolene (petrol) tax, railroad taxes, interest from sinking fund securities, legacy taxes, tax on foreign insurance companies and a tax on telephone companies. The principal disbursements were for highways ($2,651,215), refunds to towns ($1,507,437), public schools ($1,308,029), State institutions ($r,155,895), sinking fund ($800,566) and the University of New Hampshire ($545,575). The total receipts and disbursements for the year ending June 30, 1926 were $9.451,378.58 and $10,434, 506.69, respectively. The cash and cash items on hand July 1, 1926 was $939,796 as compared with $1,922,924 a year before. Education.—New Hampshire formed a part of Massachusetts when, in 1647, the general court of that province passed the famous act requiring every town in which there were so householders to maintain a school for teaching reading and writing, and every town in which there were roo householders to maintain a grammar school. During the roth and early part of the 2oth century various experiments for improving the public school system were tried. The public school system, as now constituted, has at its head a State board of education composed of the governor and five other persons, one selected annually, appointed by the gov-

proposed only by a Constitutional convention, and once in seven years at the general election a popular vote is taken on the necessity of a revision of the Constitution. By an act approved on April 9, 1909 provision was made for direct nominations of candidates at primaries. There is a governor’s council of five members, one from each councillor district, which has advisory duties and shares with the governor most of his powers. There is no lieutenant-governor. The governor and the councillors are elected for a term of two years. The governor and the council appoint all judicial officers, the attorney-general, auditor, important administrative boards, coroners and certain naval and military officers; they have power to pardon offences; and they may exercise some control over expenditure through the Constitutional requirement of the governor’s warrant for drawing money from the treasury. The governor may veto within five days, besides Sunday, after it has been presented to him, any bill or resolution of which he disapproves, and a two-thirds vote of the members of both houses is required to pass over his veto. A senate and a house of representatives, which together constitute the general court, meet at Concord on the first Wednesday in January of every odd-numbered year, and at such other times as the governor may appoint for a special session, principally for the making of laws and for the election of the secretary of State, the State treasurer, and the commissary general. ernor and council. The actual administrative work is carried on The senate is composed of 24 members, one from each senatorial by a commissioner of education, appointed by the board of educadistrict. In the house of representatives, which had the larger tion for an indefinite term, and two deputy commissioners. Each membership of 421 (1924), representation is on the basis of popu- town is constituted a school district, and some special districts lation, but favours the rural districts. Senators and representatives are organized under special acts of the legislature. For the purare elected for a term of two years. Although money bills may pose of inspecting and supervising all institutions in which State originate only in the house of representatives the senate may money is spent, the several school districts in the State are compropose amendments. bined into supervision unions consisting of one or more school For the administration of justice the State has a supreme court districts. The schools are maintained chiefly out of the proceeds and a superior court, each county has a probate court, and some of a district school tax, which must not be less than $3.50 on towns as well as the cities have a municipal court. The supreme each $1,000 of assessed property. To this is added a “Literary court consists of a chief justice and four associate justices; the Fund” (designed originally for founding a college) from various superior court, of a chief justice and five associate justices. The sources. All children between the ages of 8 and 16 are required supreme court holds one general term each year at Concord and to attend either a public or an approved private school for the on the first Tuesday of every month except July and August sits full term unless they are more than 14 years old and have comto hear arguments, make orders and render decisions; the superior pleted the studies prescribed for the elementary schools, or have court holds one or two sessions a year in every county. Both of been excused by the school board on account of physical or

NEW mental infrmity.

HAMPSHIRE

The school enrolment, for the year ending

June 30, 1926 showed 745735 attending public schools and 26,231 attending parochial and private schools. Of the total public

school enrolment 59,671 were in the elementary grades, 12,114

m high schools and 2,950 In evening

schools.

The

one-room

schools of the State had an attendance of 12,039 pupils. The ‘otal expended on public education in 1926 was $7,933,669. The only State institutions of higher education are the Plymouth

Normal school (1870) at Plymouth, the Keene Normal school

TABLE SHOWING

DECREASE

IN AMOUNT

OF LAND

IN FARMS,

1900-1925

(1909) at Keene, and the University of New Hampshire, organized as a department of Dartmouth college in 1866, but reorganized as the New Hampshire College of Agriculture and Mechanical Arts and removed to Durham as a separate institution in 1891. It was given its present name in 1923 by an act of the legislature. Other institutions of higher learning in the State are Dartmouth college (non-sectarian, 1769), at Hanover, and Saint Anselm’s college (Roman Catholic, 1893), at Manchester. Charities and Corrections.—The State charitable and correctional institutions include the New Hampshire School for feeble-minded children, at Laconia; the New Hampshire Soldiers’ Home, at Tilton; the New Hampshire Industrial School, at Manchester; the New Hampshire Hospital for the Insane, and the State prison, at Concord; and the New Hampshire sanatorium for tuberculars, at Glencliff in the town of Warren. The State also makes annual appropriations for the care and education of blind and deaf and dumb persons in institutions outside of the State. Each county has an almshouse and house of correction.

Agriculture.—Agriculture on the farms of New Hampshire

still working has been greatly modified, the production of vegetables, fruits, dairy products, poultry and eggs largely supplant-

Ing the production

of cereals.

The

total acreage

in farms

decreased from 3,249,458 in 1910 to 2,262,064 in 1925. The farm acreage was then 39-:1% of the total land area. During the same period the number of farms decreased from 27,053 to 21,065,

and average acreage per farm from 120-1% to 107-4%. The value of all farm property, however, had increased from $103,704,196 to $107,084,055. Of the total number of farms in 1925 (21,065), 19,895 Or 94-4% were worked by owners or part owners, 1,014

by tenants and 156 by managers. The total value of all farm crops In 1926 was $19,600,000. Hay was the principal crop; in 1926 the acreage was 486,000 and the yield was 549,000 tons, valued at $10,311,000. Potatoes was the crop second in importance, valued at $3,086,000. The yield of fruit in 1924 included 1,327,820 bu. of apples and 3,116 bu. of peaches. Dairying has long been an important industry in New Hampshire. In 1924, the milk production was 38,149,067 gal. and the value of all dairy products was $7,791,159. The value of the poultry and egg product of 1924

393

was $6,456,790. The live stock on the farms of the State on Jan. I, 1927 included 29,000 horses, 20,000 sheep, 20,000 swine and 117,000 cattle. Potatoes are grown in large quantities north and west of the White mountains; and this district leads in the number of cattle and sheep. Forests and Fisheries.—Except on the summits of the higher mountains New Hampshire was originally an unbroken forest of which the principal trees were the white pine, hemlock, sugar maple, yellow birch, beech, red oak and white oak in the south, red spruce, balsam and white birch on the upper mountain slopes,

and red spruce, white pine, sugar maple, white spruce and white cedar in the other parts of the north. In the year 1925 the State forestry commission reported a timberland acreage of 4,434,793, Of which 1,012,753 ac. were in merchantable timber, 1,698,465 ac. in young growth and 1,723,575 ac. in which the timber stands were thin. Of this total 417,744 ac. or 9-42% were owned by the Federal Government and 20,538 ac. or -46%, by the State. The forests of the State produced, in 1925, 261,000,000 board feet of lumber and 217,489 tons of wood pulp. New Hampshire, with only one coastal county (Rockingham), was in 1924, the least important of the New England States with respect to her fisheries. The total yield of the fisheries amounted to 447,450 Ib. valued at $56,029. Lobsters contributed $40,000, or Over 70% of the value of this yield. Next in importance were haddock ($4,275), cod ($3,785) and soft clams ($3,600). Minerals.—The most important of the mineral products of New Hampshire, which has long been known as “the Granite State,” is granite, which is quarried in the southern part of the State in the area of Lake Winnepesaukee; gneiss, near Concord, Merrimac county, near Milford, Hillsboro county and east of Manchester in Rockingham county; in Sullivan county, near Sunapee; and in the east central region in Carroll county, near Conway and Madison. The value of stone quarried in New Hampshire in 1925 was $1,712,138, or approximately one-half of the total value of all mineral products of the State. Of this total ($3,464,837) the only other large items were clay products (valued at $828,541), sand and gravel ($316,248), crude feldspar ($278,736) and mica ($246,383). Mica, first mined at Grafton, Grafton county, in 1803, was later found in other parts of the State in such quantities that for 60 years New Hampshire was the largest producer of mica in the United States. Manufactures.—The value of the products for all manufacturing Industries of New Hampshire combined for 1919, 1924 and 1925 were $407,205,000; $333,124,503; and $327,400,651, respectively. The number of industries (1,499; 1,078; and 1,038) and the number of wage-earners (83,074; 75,310; and 66,658) showed a corresponding decrease. Textiles, and boots and shoes, which represented in 1923 more than one-half the total value, represented in 1925 approximately one-third the total. Cotton goods, the manufacture of which was introduced in 1804, was in 1925 the chief manufactured product. The 17 mills engaged in this industry emALL OTHER PRODUCTS ployed 14,745 wage-earners and $135, 012,607 had an output valued at $57,868,732. The manufacture. of boots and shoes, the industry second RELATIVE IMPORTANCE OF PRINin importance, was carried on in CIPAL MANUFACTURES, 1925 59 factories, gave employment to 12,275 wage-earners and had a product valued at $52,631,681. Other industries with a product exceeding $5,000,000 were: paper and wood pulp ($37,060,824), woollen goods ($28,906,292), lumber and timber ($12,621,867), knit goods ($9,789,550), foundry and machine shop products ($9,617,685), textile machines and parts ($6,934,488), and wooden boxes ($5,768,412). Most of the manufacturing centres of the State are south of Lake Winnepesaukee. An exception is Berlin, the chief manufacturing centre north of

the White mountains, important for its manufacture of paper and wood pulp.

304 Transportation.—With

NEW

HAMPSHIRE

the exception of the Grand Trunk

line in the northern part of the State the several steam railways are owned or leased by the Boston and Maine. This company was the first to operate a railway within the State, service being maintained between Boston, Mass., and Dover, N.H., as early as 1842. The steam railway mileage decreased from 1,256 to 1,234 during the decade 1915-25. The electric railway mileage in 1925 was 259. Since the first State highway aid law was passed in 1903, the amount spent by the highway department has increased annually. A total of $4,027,000 was expended by this department in 1925 for maintenance and construction of the State roads. History.—Martin Pring was at the mouth of the Piscataqua in 1603 and, returning to England in the same year, gave an account of the New England coast from Casco bay to Cape Cod bay. Samuel de Champlain discovered the Isles of Shoals and sailed along the New Hampshire coast in 1605, and much more information concerning this part of the New World was gathered in 1614 by Capt. John Smith, who in his Description of New England refers to the convenient harbour at the mouth of the Piscataqua and praises the country back from the rocky shore. Under the leadership of Sir Ferdinando Gorges there was formed in 1620 the Council for New England, which procured from King James I. a grant of all the country from sea to sea between 40° and 48° N. lat., and which made nine grants bearing upon the history of New Hampshire. The first of these grants was to John Mason, who has been called “the founder of New Hampshire,” on March 9, 1622. The name New Hampshire was first applied to a grant which lay between the Merrimac and Piscataqua, and given to John Mason on Nov. 7, 1629. The first settlement of which there is indisputable evidence was established in 1623 by David Thomson at Little Harbor, now in the town of Rye. Thomson was the head of a company which was organized for fishing and trading and whose entire stock was to be held jointly for five years. He built a house on Odiorne’s Point overlooking Little Harbor, and,

although he removed to an island in Boston Harbor in 1626, he may have continued to superintend the business of the company until the expiration of the five-year term. At least there was a settlement here which was assessed in 1628, and it may not have been completely abandoned when colonists sent over by the Laconia Company, which had received a grant on Nov. 17, 1620, arrived in 1630. The Laconia Company received its first grant under the erroneous Impression that the Piscataqua river had its source in or near Lake Champlain, and its principal object was to establish an extensive fur trade with the Iroquois Indians. The company sent aver colonists who occupied the house left standing by Thomson, and, not far away, built “Mason Hall” or the “Great House” in what is now Portsmouth, a name (for the entire settlement) that replaced “Strawberry Banke” in 1653. Edward Hilton with a few associates appears to have established a settlement on Dover Point about the time of Thomson’s arrival at Little Harbor, and in the Hilton grant of 1630 it is stated that he had already built houses and planted there; as early as 1630 this settlement was named Dover. In 1638 the Rev. Jobn Wheelwright, an Antinomian leader who had been banished from Massachusetts, founded Exeter on land claimed to have been bought by him from the Indians. In the same year Massachusetts encouraged friendly Puritans to settle Hampton on the same purchase, and about a year later this colony organized Hampton as a town with the right to send a deputy to the general court. Serious dissensions had already arisen between Puritan and Anglican factions in Dover, and Capt. John Underhill, another Antinomian, became for a time a leader of the Puritan faction. Puritan Massachusetts was naturally hostile to the Antinomians at Exeter as well as to the Anglicans at Strawberry Banke. Under these conditions Massachusetts discovered a new claim for its northern boundary. The charter of that colony was drafted under the impression that the Merrimac flowed east for its entire course, but now an investigation was in progress which was to show that its source in Lake Winnepesaukee was several miles north of any of the four settlements in New Hampshire. Accordingly, Massachusetts resolved to make the most of the clause in the charter which described the northern boundary as three English miles

north of the Merrimac river, “or to the northward of any and every part thereof,” to ignore the conflicting grants to Mason ang to extend its jurisdiction over the offending settlements.

The heirs of Mason protested, but little was done about the

matter during the period of country. Immediately after well, however, Robert Tufton proprietor), who had become

Puritan ascendancy in the mother the resignation of Richard Crom. Mason (a grandson of the original sole heir in 1655, began petitioning first parliament and later the king, for relief. The commission appointed by the king in 1664 to hear and determine complaints in

New England decided that Mason’s lands were not within the jurisdiction of Massachusetts, and made an attempt to set up a

government under which his claims could be tried, but this was a failure. Mason then petitioned again, and this time Massa-

chusetts was requested to send agents to England to answer his complaints. They arrived in Dec. 1676, and the case was tried before the Lords Chief Justices of the King’s Bench and Common Pleas in April, 1677. Mason presented no claim to the right

of government, and as to the title to the lands claimed by him the court decided that this was a question between him and the seyeral tenants to be determined by the local court having jurisdiction in such matters. Thereupon Mason, in Jan. 1679, petitioned the king to appoint a governor who should have jurisdiction over all the lands which he claimed, and on Sept. 18 of this year New Hampshire was constituted a separate province with a Government vested in a president and council appointed by the king and an assembly chosen by the people. This was the principal outcome of Mason’s persistent efforts to establish his rights to the land. From 1686 to 1689 New Hampshire formed a part of the Dominion of New England, which, after the first few months, was under Sir Edmund Andros as governor-general. There being no provincial authority in New Hampshire at the close of this period, a convention of the leading citizens of its four towns attempted to establish one. Upon the failure of this attempt, a temporary nominal union with Massachusetts was formed, but in 1692 Samuel Allen, the assign of Mason, caused a royal Government to be established with his son-in-law, John Usher, as lieutenant-governor, and during the remainder of the colonial era New Hampshire was separate from Massachusetts except that from 1699 to 1741 the two had the same governor. The boundary disputes between Massachusetts and New Hampshire were long and bitter. Both provinces granted townships within the disputed territory; Massachusetts arrested men there who refused to pay taxes to its officers, and sought to defer the settlement of the dispute. New Hampshire, being on the more friendly terms with the home Government, finally petitioned the king to decide the matter, and in 1737 a royal order referred it to a commission to be composed of councillors from New York, Nova Scotia and Rhode Island. This body agreed upon the eastern boundary but evaded deciding the southern one. Both parties then appealed to the king, and in 1741 the king in council confirmed the decision of the commission in regard to eastern boundary and established a southern boundary very favourable to New Hampshire. The western boundary was not yet defined, and as early as 1749 a controversy over that

arose with New York. The governor of New Hampshire granted in the disputed territory 138 townships which were rapidly settled, but there was a reluctance to incur the expense of a contest with so powerful a neighbour as New York. In 1764 New York procured a royal order declaring the western boundary of New Hampshire to be the western bank of the Connecticut river. At the outbreak of the Revolution New Hampshire had about 80,000 inhabitants, the great majority of whom were with the patriot or Whig Party during that struggle. By June, 1775, the once popular governor, Sir John Wentworth, was a refugee; on Jan. 5, 1776, the fifth Provincial Congress established a provisional Government; June 15 the first assembly elected under’ that Government declared for independence; and on Aug. 16, 1777, the important victory at Bennington was won by New Hampshire and Vermont troops under the command of Gen. John Stark, who had a commission from New Hampshire. Six States had ratified the Federal Constitution when the New Hampshire convention met at Exeter on Feb. 13, 1788, to accept or reject that instrument, and so

NEW great was the opposition

to it among

HARMONY—NEW

the delegates

from

the

central part of the State that after a discussion of ten days the

leaders in favour of ratification dared not risk a decisive vote, but procured an adjournment in order that certain delegates who had heen instructed to vote against it might consult their constituents.

Fight States had ratified when the convention reassembled at Concord on June 17, and four days later, when a motion to ratify was carried by a vote of 57 to 47, adoption by the necessary nine

States was assured.

National elections in New

Hampshire

were

carried by the

Federalists until 1816, except in 1804 when President Thomas Jetferson won by a small majority; but within this period of

Federalist supremacy in national politics the Democrat-Republicans elected the governor from 1805 to 1812 inclusive except in

1809. In 1816 the Democrats won both State and National elec-

tions; and out of the transition from Federalist to Democratic control, which was effected under the leadership of William Plumer (1750-1850), a prominent politician in New Hampshire, arose the famous Dartmouth College Case. As the trustees of this institution were Federalists with the right to fill vacancies in their number, the Democrats attempted to gain control by converting it into a State university and increasing the number of trustees, but when the case reached the U.S. Supreme

Court that body

pronounced (1819) the charter a contract which the Federal Constitution forbade the State to violate. Heretofore the Federalist régime had taxed the people to support the Congregational Church, but now the Baptists, Methodists and Universalists joined the Democrats, and in 1819 this State support was abolished by the “Toleration Act.” Because of Daniel Webster’s arguments in the Dartmouth College Case, and because his party had favoured the support of the Congregational Church by public taxation, he became very unpopular in this his native State. Accordingly, his

305

HAVEN

form a community after the manner of the primitive Christian Church, were persecuted in Germany, and in 1803-04 emigrated to Butler county, Pennsylvania. There they established in 1805 a community known as Harmony, consisting of some 600 persons, who held their property in common and in 1807 adopted celibacy. In 1814 Rapp sold most of his Pennsylvania land and bought about 24,735 ac. (in the next ten years more than 14,000 ac. in addition) on the Wabash river in Indiana Territory. In 1814-15 Rapp and a thousand of his followers settled on the Indiana tract, their headquarters being established at New Harmony or Harmonie as they called it. The settlers, mostly Germans, devoted themselves to agriculture, weaving and leather-working so industriously that they prospered from the start. Rapp, however, in 1825 disposed of his lands and property to Robert Owen, having returned with part of his followers to Pennsylvania and founded a new community known as Economy (g.v.), in Beaver county, where he died in 1847. Intent on founding a socialistic community, Owen went to the United States in 1824, and purchased Rapp's lands and live stock for $182,000. He -interested several wellknown scientists in his settlement, and with them came to New Harmony in the spring of 1826. Within six months the community numbered over 1,000. The greater part of the settlers, however, were impractical theorists or adventurers. Constitution after constitution was adopted, and with the adoption of each new constitution and with each new religious discussion a group would secede and form a separate community—in 1828 there were ten. The whole organization broke up in 1827, and Owen left New Harmony in 1828. The Working Men’s Institute Public library, founded in 1838 by William Maclure, had in 1907 18,000 volumes: the collection is rich in works dealing with socialism. See “The

Harmony

Society,”

German-American

Annals

(1904);

G. B. Lockwood and C. A. Prosser, The New Harmony Movement

denunciation of President Andrew Jackson’s bank policy added (1907); Meredith Nicholson, The Hoosiers (1901); Morris Hillquit, strength to the Jacksonian Democracy, and, later, his Whig con- History of Socialism in the United States (1903); Frank Podmore, Robert Owen (1906); and G. H. Holiday, “An Indiana Village, New nections were the greatest source of the Whig Party’s weakness in Harmony,” Indiana Historical Society Publications (1906). New Hampshire. John Quincy Adams was an intimate friend of NEWHAVEN, a seaport of Sussex, England, 56 m. S. from William Plumer, the Democratic leader, and carried the State both in 1824 and 1828. The Whigs never won a national or State London by rail, on the English Channel at the mouth of the election, and often their vote was only about one-half that of the Ouse. Pop. (1931) 6,790. The port is protected by fortifications. Democrats. But the Democrats broke into two factions in 1846 A harbour was first granted to Newhaven in 1713, and during the over the question of slavery (see HALE, JoHN PARKER); the early part of the 18th century it possessed a large shipping trade. American or “Know-Nothing” Party elected a governor in 1855 It is now a packet station with a daily service of fast steamers and 1856; and then control of the State passed to the Republican to Dieppe. The tidal harbour is enclosed by two piers and a Party which held it until the election of 1912 when the Democrats breakwater, the area being about 30 ac., and the quayage 1,400 carried the State for Wilson and elected Samuel D. Felker gov- yd. With France there is a large traffic in wines, spirits, silk, ernor. The Democrats were again successful in the presidential fruit, vegetables and general provisions. NEW HAVEN, the largest city of Connecticut, U.S.A., a election of 1916 (Wilson, 43,779, Hughes, 43,723), but did not port of entry, the county seat of New Haven county and the seat elect another governor until 1922. of Yale university; in the south-western part of the State, on BrprrocrapHy.—C. H. Hitchcock, Geology of New Hampshire (ConLong Island sound, 72 m. E.N.E. of New York city. It is on cord, 1874~78); W. Nutting, New Hampshire Beautiful (Farmington, Mass., 1923); and the Annual Reports of the Forestry Commission, Federal highway 1, and is served by the New York, New Haven

and the Fish and Game Commission; Government: J. F. Colby, Manual of the Constitution of the State of New Hampshire (Concord, 1902), containing an historical sketch of the Constitution of the State; the Manual for the use of the General Court; the Reports of the various State departments and boards; and L. S. Morris, The Government of New Hampshire (Concord, 1922). A bibliography of local history is found in O. G. Hammond’s Check List of New Hampshire Local History, published by the New Hampshire Historical Society in 1925. J. Belknap, The History of New Hampshire (Philadelphia, 1784-92) ; G. Barstow, The History of New Hampshire from its discovery, in 1614, to the passage of the Toleration Act, in 1819 (1853); New Hampshire Provincial, State and Town Papers (1867-1910); F. B. Sanborn, New Hampshire, an Epitome of Popular Government

and Hartford railroad, interurban trolleys, motor-bus and truck lines and coastwise steamers. Pop. (1920) 162,537 (28% forelgn-born white); (1930) 162,655. The city occupies 22-4 sq.m. at the head of a broad, deep bay, into which empty three small streams (the Quinnipiac, the Mill and the West rivers). Its site is a level, sandy plain, behind which rises a line of hills, terminating in two spurs, East Rock (360 ft. high) and West Rock (400 ft.), respectively 23 and 2 m. from the Green. On the central Green of 16 ac., reserved for the public when the town was laid out, are three churches built in 1814: Trinity (Protestant Episcopal), United (Congregational) and Center (Congregational; designed by Ithiel Towne). Facing

History of New Hampshire (1916-18) ; and the Collection of the New Hampshire Historical Society. (H. W. K.)

the Green are some of the buildings of Yale university (g.v.), a large hotel and the principal public buildings. The Harkness tower of the memorial quadrangle of the university can be seen from the Green, and near by is the old Grove Street cemetery,

(Boston, 1904) in the “American Commonwealths Series”; W. H. Fry, New Hampshire as a Royal Province (1908); E. S. Stackpole,

NEW HARMONY, a village in Posey county, Indiana, on the Wabash river, about 22 m. N.W. of Evansville. Pop. (1930) 1,022. Itis served by the Illinois Central railway. New Harmony

had its beginning in 1814-15, when it became the home of a com-

munistic religious sect known variously as the Harmonists, Harmonites and Rappites, founded in Germany towards the end of

the 18th century by George Rapp (1757-1847), a native of Iptingen in Wiirttemberg.

Rapp and his followers, who sought to

containing the graves of many famous Americans. The Yale Bowl (seating 78,000) is in the western part of the city. New Haven has long been called “the city of elms.” Parks, playgrounds and public squares cover 1,750 acres. In West Rock park is a cave where the regicide judges Whalley and Goffe are said to have been hid .for several weeks when pursued by royal offi-

306

NEW

HEBRIDES

cers in 1661. Nathan Hale park contains old Ft. Hale (used in | ney Blake, Charles Goodyear, Thomas Sanford, James Brewster, 1812), with its moat and defences well preserved. A large tract |David Bushnell, S. F. B. Morse, Elias Loomis, Chauncey Je. at Lighthouse point (the eastern end of the harbour) is developed

rome and Henry S. Parmelee;

and it was the home of Noah

lished in 1664. Among the newspapers are the morning JournalCourier (Independent, established 1766), the evening Regzster (Independent, 1812), the Times-Union and four Italian weeklies. Several scientific and learned periodicals are published here. New Haven is an important commercial and industrial city. The general offices of the New York, New Haven and Hartford railroad are here, and just outside the city is its Cedar Hill freight classification yard, covering 1,160 ac. The traffic of the harbour (nearly all domestic commerce) amounted to 1,282,776 tons in 1926, valued at $112,482,881. There are 277 wholesale houses, doing a large business. The manufacturing industries are widely diversified and highly specialized, with an output in 1927 valued at $124,033,830. Among the leading products are guns, ammunition, hardware and clocks. A coke plant manufactures gas which is piped to towns as far as Hartford. Bank debits in 1927 aggregated $1,289,211,000. The city’s assessed valuation for 1927 was $315,738,245. It operates under a mayor and aldermen form of government. The death rate is low. In the spring of 1638 a company of English Puritans, led by Theophilus Eaton and the Rev. John Davenport, established a settlement here. It was governed under a “plantation covenant” until June 4, 1639, when the “free planters” adopted a theocracy. In 1643-44 the towns of Guilford, Milford, Stamford, Branford and Southold on Long Island were admitted to the “New Haven Jurisdiction.” The government of the Jurisdiction was of the strictest Puritan type, but some of the 45 ‘“‘blue laws” ascribed to it were enactments of other New England Colonies, and some were pure invention. In 1664 New Haven, with the other towns (except Southold) of the Jurisdiction, became part of the Colony of Connecticut, and in 1784 it was chartered as acity. From 1701 to 1873 New Haven was one of the capitals of Connecticut. A State house (designed by Ithiel Towne after the temple of Theseus) stood on the Green, or market place, from 1827 until 1889. In 1716 the Collegiate School of Connecticut, which developed into Yale university, was moved to New Haven from Saybrook. After 1763 a thriving trade with the West Indies, Newfoundland and neighbouring ports on the Atlantic coast began to develop, which flourished, with some periods of depression, until the War of 1812; and after 1800 commerce sprang up with China, the East Indies, the Pacific and the South Seas. A collector of the port was appointed in 1760. In 1769 the merchants at a public meeting unanimously agreed not to import goods from England, but in June 1770, they renounced the agreement and voted to open the port. When the news of the embargo of Boston arrived, a committee of correspondence was formed at once; and through the Revolution the people supported the American cause with ardour, though there were many Loyalists in the town,

Santo in 1606, thought he had discovered the great southern con-

as a municipal bathing beach and seaside park. New Haven is | Webster and Willard Gibbs. NEW HEBRIDES, an island group in the western Pacific. the seat of a State normal school (established 1893), Albertus Magnus College for Women (Roman Catholic), Arnold College under French and British joint administration. Area aboy for Hygiene and Physical Education, New Haven college, and 5,700 sq. miles. Pop., natives about 60,000, Europeans 882, other Connecticut College of Pharmacy. The public school system in- nationalities 2,440. For full account of geography, etc., see cludes 60 grade and 4 high schools. There are eight parochial PACIFIC ISLANDS. HISTORY schools, and a number of widely-known private academies for boys and for girls, including the Hopkins Grammar school, estabThe Portuguese Pedro Fernandez de Quiros, sighting Espirity

75 of whom had property confiscated. On July 5, 1779, the town was invaded and sacked by Gen. Tryon, but he was driven out before he could burn it. When the War of 1812 opened there were fully 600 seamen in the city (among them Captain Isaac Hull), all engaged in privateering or in the regular naval service of the United States. Manufacturing began early. Shoes were shipped from the town in 1647 and iron works were opened in 1656. The loss of foreign trade through the War of 1812, the opening of the Farmington canal in 1828, and the building of the railroad in 1833-38 gave such impetus to industrial

development that manufacturing rapidly became the chief interest of the city. In 1820 the population was 8,327; in 1860, 39,257; in 1900, 108,027. New Haven has been the birthplace or the home of many inventors, including Eli Whitney, Eli Whit-

tinent then believed to exist, and named it Australia del Espiritu Santo. Louis de Bougainville visited the islands in 1768, and Captain Cook, who gave them the name they bear, in 1774. The subsequent visits of several explorers, the exploitation of the

sandal-wood, and other products by traders and the arrival of missionaries helped to open up the islands and to give them a

certain commercial importance by the middle of the roth century, Trade was mainly with New Caledonia, and France was thus indicated as the dominant power in the New Hebrides; even British planters pressed France to annex the islands in 1876, but in the following year some of the missionaries urged the same course on England. In 1878 the islands were declared neutral by Great Britain and France. The presence of British and French settlers under independent authority led to unsatisfactory administration, especially in regard to the settlement of civil actions and jurisdiction over the native population. As to the establishment of commercial supremacy, French interests clashed with Australian, and in 1882 M. John Higginson of New Caledonia

(d. 1904) consolidated the former by founding the trading society which afterwards became the Société française des Nouvelles-Hébrides. In 1886 one of the most serious of many native outbreaks occurred, necessitating a French demonstration of force from New Caledonia. An Anglo-French convention of Nov. 16, 1887, provided for the surveillance of the islands (protection of life and property) by a mixed commission of naval officers. The Anglo-French agreement of 1904 had a clause providing for an arrangement for proper jurisdiction over the natives and for the appointment of a commission to settle disputes between British and French land owners. On Oct. 20, 1906, a convention was signed in London, confirming a protocol of the preceding Feb. 27, and providing that “the group of the New Hebrides, including the Banks and Torres Islands,” should form ‘a region of joint influence,” in which British and French subjects should have equal rights in all respects, and each power should retain jurisdiction over its own subjects or citizens. The claim of other powers to share the joint influence was excluded by the provision that their subjects resident on the islands must be under either British or French jurisdiction. A British and a French

high commissioner were appointed, each assisted by a resident commissioner; provision was made for two police forces of equal strength, and the joint naval commission of 1887 was retained for the purpose of keeping order. The high commissioners were given authority over the native chiefs. A joint court was established, consisting of two judges, appointed respectively by Great Britain and France, and a third, to be president, and not a British subject or French citizen, appointed by the king of Spain. The convention provided against the establishment of a penal settlement and the erection of fortifications. This convention was bitterly criticized in Australia on the ground that many of the provisions which nominally established equality between British and French would operate in practice to the advantage of the French; and there was no little dissatisfaction on the ground that the Australian Government was neither represented at the preliminary conference, nor fully consulted during the negotiations. A second protocol of Aug. 1914, ratified by France and England on March 18, 1922, guaranteed British, French and native interests, fixed the conditions of landtenure and provided regulations for the recruiting of native

labour.

Cannibalism still prevails on Espiritu Santo, Malekula

and Pentecost Islands.

NEW IBERIA—NEW JERSEY 1906); and See Parliamentary Papers, France, No. 1 (1888 and (Cd. 3288) relating to the Convention... .” “Correspondence (1907); M. Johnson, Cannibal Land (New Hebrides) (1922). (See also PactFIc OCEAN.)

NEW IBERIA, a city of southern Louisiana, U.S.A., 125 m. W. of New Orleans, on Bayou Teche and Federal highway 90; i the county seat of Iberia parish. It is served by the Missour

307

third belt, called the Triassic Lowland, occupies about one-fifth

of the surface of the State. Its north-western border is marked , by a line drawn south-west across the State through Pompton Morristown, Lebanon and Highbridge to the Delaware; its southThe eastern border by a line drawn from Woodbridge to Trenton. surface is irregular, with altitudes ranging from about sea-level to goo feet. A noteworthy feature of this area is the series of

s Pacific and the Southern Pacific railways, and by river steamer is region This 1930. in 8,003 1920, In 6,278 Pop. barges. and

the home of the “Acadians” from Nova Scotia, a picturesque and rich agricultural country. Within a few miles are Avery, Jefferson and Weeks islands, all of which have great salt mines. On

Jefferson island was the former home

(Bob Acres) of Joseph

Jefferson, and on Avery there is a large bird refuge. The city was

laid out in 1835 and chartered in 1839.

NEW IRELAND, an island of the Bismarck archipelago,

lying east of New Guinea, in the Pacific ocean, and north-east of New Britain, practically at right-angles to its northern end (Ger-

man, Neu-Mecklenburg;

row, very mountainous rivers of any size.

native, Tombara).

It is long and nar-

(maximum height, 6,500 ft.), with no

Geologically, it is older than New Britain

(q.v., see also New GUINEA), but it has not the definite volcanic appearances of that island. The coast line is fairly even, and there are good harbours at Kaewieng, Namatanai and Muliama. It is divided into two districts, northern (Kaewieng), and southern (Namatanai), the latter including the small island of New Hanover. Kaewieng is a port with a wharf capable of berthing ships up to 2,000 tons, and has substantial government buildings. There

i-Paterson

2-Hackensack 3-Dover 4-Morristown 5-Newark 6-Jersey City 7-Bayonne 8-Elizabeth 9-Rahway 10-Phillipsburg > 11-Somerville J 12-New Brunswick 13-Perth Amboy 14-Long Branch cf 15-Asbury Park 16-Camden

ANIA

= 17-Salem

18-Bridgeton 19-Millville LJ 20-Atlantic City 21-Ocean City 22-Cape May

are fair roads in many places, and there is steamer communication with New Britain and the mainland. The natives resemble those of New Britain. New Ireland formed part of German New Guinea; it was captured by Australian forces in 1914, and was mandated by the League of Nations to Australia, by which country it is now administered. The island was seen by Jacob Lemaire and William Cornelis Schouten in 1616, recognized as separate

pA

ELAN,

from New Guinea by Dampier, in 1700, and by Philip Carteret, in 1767, as being separate from New Britain.

NEW JERSEY, popularly known as the “Garden State,” is

one of the Atlantic coast States of the American Union, lying between 41° 21’ 22-6” and 38° 55’ 40” N. lat., and 75° 35’ and 73° 53’ 39 W. longitude. It is bounded, north by the State of New York, east, by the Hudson river, which separates the State from New York, and by the Atlantic ocean; and south and west by the Delaware bay and river, which separate New Jersey from Delaware and Pennsylvania. All the boundaries except the north-

ern are natural. New Jersey has an extreme length, north and south, of 166 m., an extreme width, east and west, of 57 m. anda total area of 8,224 sq.m., of which 710 sq.m. are water-surface. Physical Features.—There are within the State four distinct topographic belts—the Appalachian, the Highlands, the Triassic Lowland and the Coastal Plain. The folded Appalachian belt crosses the north-west corner of the State, and includes the Kittatinny mountain and valley. The mountain has a north-eastsouth-west trend, crossing the Delaware river at the Delaware Water Gap and continuing south-west into Pennsylvania. Where the crest of the ridge enters the State its elevation Is 1,539 ft; 1,805 it; at High Point, 14 m. S.W., the ridge attains a height of the highest point within the State. A short distance south-west of this point, in a depression in the crest, is Lake Marcia, at an elevation of 1,570 feet. At the Water Gap the ridge is cut through to its base, and the Delaware river flows through the opening.

This gap, goo ft. wide at the base and 4,500 ft. wide at the top, with sides rising very abruptly to a height of 1,200 ft. and more,

is an impressive sight. The Kittatinny valley, south-east of and parallel to the Kittatinny range, is about 40 m. long and 12 m. wide and has an average elevation of 700 feet. South-east of the Kittatinny valley, and parallel with it, lies

the second topographic belt, the Highlands. This region embraces an area of goo sq.m., having a length, north-east to south-west, of 60 m. and a width varying from 9 to 18 miles. It consists of an upland plateau now dissected by streams into a series of ridges. The average elevation of the Highlands is about 1,000 feet. The

DELAWARE MARYLAND 40

MAP

SHOWING

THE

MAIN

ROADS

IN NEW

50 MILES

JERSEY

trap rock ridges. The best known of these is the Palisades ridge, or simply the Palisades, which lines the western bank of the Hudson river. The trap extends to the Kill van Kull channel, and includes, among other ridges, the so-called First and Second Watchung (or Orange) mountains west of the group of suburbs known as the “Oranges.” South-east of the Triassic Lowland lies area the fourth topographic belt, the Coastal Plain, containing an of 4,400 sq.m., or slightly more than one-half the entire surface of the State. This belt, bordered on the east, south and west by water, is highest near its centre and lowest along its margins. twoOne-third of the Coastal Plain is below 50 ft. in altitude; a fifths are between ṣo and roo ft.; and somewhat more than oneAbout . sea-level above ft. roo over is area the of fourth eighth of the area consists of tidal marsh, lying chiefly between and the long sandy ridges or barrier beaches of the Atlantic coast 250 is n elevatio average the State entire the For the mainland. feet. The four topographic belts of the State correspond very closely the to the outcrops of its geological formations; the rocks of Appalachian belt being of Palaeozoic age; the formation of the Highlands, Archaean; that of the Triassic Lowland, Triassic; that of the irregular hills of the Coastal Plain, Cretaceous and Tertiary. The great terminal moraine of the glacial epoch crosses an the north-east-south-west topographic belts of the State, in irregular line west and north-west, from Staten Island, N.Y. The Delaware river, from its junction with the Neversink creek to the capes, flows along the western and southern borders of the State for a distance of 245 m., and has a total drainage is area in New Jersey of 2,345 sq. miles. Of equal importance

NEW JERSEY

308 the Hudson,

whose

lower

waters,

forming

the north-eastern | only other Constitution under which the State has been governed

boundary of New Jersey for a distance of 22 m., drain a very , was that of 1776. The right of suffrage is conferred upon al small part of the State, but have contributed materially to the | citizens of the U.S., 21 years of age and over, who have resided in State’s commercial development. Of the streams of the High- the State for one year and in the county for five months Preceding lands and the Triassic Lowland, the Passaic river is the most the election. The executive power is vested In a governor, who important. Rising in the north-east—in the sovthern part of is elected for a term of three years and may not serve two suc. Morris county—it pursues a winding north-easterly course, passing cessive terms, though he may be re-elected after he has been out through a gap in the trap rock at Little Falls, and by means of a

cascade and a mile of rapids descends 40 feet. At Paterson (g.v.), 3 m. farther, the stream passes through a crevasse in the trap rock and has a sheer fall of 70 ft. (the Great Falls of the Passaic). The stream then makes a sharp bend southward and empties into Newark bay. The Passaic and its small tributaries drain an area of about 950 sq. miles. The Hackensack river enters the State about 5 m. W. of the Hudson river, flows almost parallel with that stream, and empties into Newark bay, having a length of 34 m. and a drainage area of zor sq. miles. The Raritan river, flowing eastwardly through the centre of the State, is the largest stream lying wholly within New Jersey, and drains 1,105 sq. miles. Among the Highlands are numerous lakes, which are popular places of resort during the summer months. Of these the largest and the most frequented are Lake Hopatcong, an irregular body of water in Morris and Sussex counties, and Greenwood lake, lying partly in New York and partly in New Jersey. The soils of the State exhibit great variety. Those of the northern and central sections are made up in part of glacial drift; those of the south are sandy or loamy, and are locally enriched by deposits of marl. The most fertile soils of the State lie in the clay and marl region, a belt from ro to 20 m. wide extending across the State in a general south-westerly direction from Long Branch to Salem.

Climate.— Between the extreme northern and southern sections of the State there is a greater variation in climate than would naturally result from their difference in latitude. This is due to the proximity of the ocean in the south and to the relatively high altitudes in the north. The mean annual temperature ranges from 49-:2° F at Dover, in the north, to 55-4° at Bridgeton, in the south. At Dover the mean for the winter is 28°, with an extreme

minimum recorded of —13°; and the mean for the summer is 70°, with an extreme maximum recorded of 102°. At Atlantic City the mean annual temperature is 52°; for the winter it is 34°, with an extreme of —7°; and for the summer, 70°, with an extreme of 104°. The beaches of New Jersey have rapidly built up with towns and cities that have become popular summer resorts -——among the best known of these are Long Branch, Asbury Park, Ocean Grove, Atlantic City (also a winter resort) and Cape May. The normal annual precipitation is 47-7 in., varying from 46-6 in. on the sea-coast to 49-1 in. in the Highlands and the Kittatinny valley. :

INHABITANTS

GRAPH

SHOWING

GROWTH

OF

POPULATION

OF

NEW

JERSEY,

1790-1920

of office for a full term. He receives a salary of $10,000 a year. If the governor die, resign or be removed from office, or if his office be otherwise vacant, he is succeeded by the president of the senate, who serves until another governor is elected and qualified. The governor’s appointive power is unusually large. With the

advice and consent of the State senate, he selects the secretary of State, attorney-general, superintendent of public instruction, chancellor, chief justice, judges of the supreme, circuit, inferior and district courts, and the so-called “lay” judges of the court of errors and appeals, in addition to the minor administrative officers. The State treasurer, comptroller and commissioners of deeds are appointed by the two houses of the legislature in joint session. The legislative department consists of a senate and a general assembly. In the senate each of the 21 counties has one representative, chosen for a term of three years, and about one-third of the membership is chosen each year. The members of the general assembly are elected annually, are limited to 60, and are apportioned among the counties according to population, with the important proviso, however, that every county shall have at

least one member.

The annual salary of senators and members

of the general assembly is $500. The governor may (since 1875) veto any item in any appropriation bill, but any bill Population.—The population of New Jersey at certain (or item) may be passed over his veto by bare majorities of all selected censuses was as follows: 184,139 in 1790; 211,149 in members elected to each house. Bills not returned to the legis1800; 489,555 in 1850; 1,131,116 in 1880; 1,444,933 in 1890; lature in five days become law, unless the legislature adjourns in 1,883,669 in 1900; 2,537,167 in 1910; and 3,155,900 In 1920, or the meantime. Amendments to the Constitution must first be an increase of 24-4% during the last decade. The State’s rank in passed by the legislature at two consecutive sessions (receiving population was, in 1920, tenth among the States of the Union. a majority vote of all members elected to each house), and then In 1930 the population was 4,041,334, an increase of 885,434 or be ratified by the voters at a special election. The judicial system is complex and is an interesting develop28-1%, making the State ninth in order. Of the native-born white population in 1920, 1,212,675 were of native parentage, ment from the English system of the 18th century. At its head is 820,058 were of foreign parentage and 256,741 were of mixed a court of errors and appeals composed of the chancellor, the parentage. The negro population was 117,132 or 3-7% of the justices of the supreme court and six specially appointed justices. whole. Among the various elements comprising the foreign-born The latter serve for a term of six years and receive a salary of population (738,613) were 157,285 Italians; 92,382 Germans; $40 per day. The supreme court consists of a chief justice and 90,419 Poles; 73,527 Russians; 65,971 Irish; 46,787 English. eight associate justices appointed by the governor for seven New Jersey, with 537-8 inhabitants per square mile, ranks second years. The chief justice receives an annual salary of $19,000; among the states in density of population. The urban popula- the associate justices each receive $18,c00 annually. The circuit tion (in places of 2,500 or more) was 82-6% of the total. The court has concurrent jurisdiction with the supreme court except principal cities in 1930 were Newark (442,337), Jersey City in criminal cases. The 12 circuit court judges are appointed by (316,715), Paterson (138,513), Trenton (123,356), Camden the governor for a term of seven years, and receive an annual (118,700), Elizabeth (114,589), Bayonne (88,979), East Orange salary of $16,000. The court of common pleas, which may be held either by the judge of the court of common pleas (county) (68,020), Atlantic City (66,198), Passaic (62,959). Government.—The State is governed under the Constitution or by a justice of the supreme court, may hear appeals from the of 1844, with subsequent amendments of 1875 and of 1897. The “small cause court,” and has original jurisdiction in all civil

NEW JERSEY

399

portions State funds. All children between the ages of five and 20 are entitled to attend the public schools in the district in which they reside. Attendance at either of public or private school every day such school is in session is required of all children between ‘hose of treason or murder. The court of oyer and terminer is a the ages of seven and 16, unless taught at home or physically or higher criminal court, and has cognizance of all crimes and offences mentally unfit to attend. Children between the ages of 14 and 16 whatever. This court 1s composed of any supreme court justice who have completed five grades may be granted a certificate perand the judge of the court of common pleas. Writs of error in mitting them to work, but they must attend a continuation school. cases punishable with death are returnable only to the court of A pension and annuity fund law provides for teachers after reacherrors and appeals. The orphans’ court has jurisdiction over ing 62 years of age or after 35 years of service. In 1925—26 the total enrolment of pupils was 744,266. The wills, the right of administration and guardianship, etc., but it may refer any matter coming before it to a master in chancery. The number of teachers was 24.405; of school buildings, 2,240. Nearly court of chancery is administered by a chancellor, ten vice-chan- one-half of the pupils received manual or industrial training of cellors and numerous masters in chancery. Besides the ordinary some sort. The total expenses of operating the public schools in chancery jurisdiction it hears all applications for divorce or 1925-26 was $76,034,727. Of this amount, $57,111,205 were for nullity of marriage. The chancellor, who is appointed by the instruction and maintenance and $18,923,522 were for construcgovernor for a term of seven years, receives an annual salary of tion and repairs. The average salary paid teachers, exclusive of $19,000. Vice-chancellors are appointed by the chancellor for superintendents and assistant superintendents, was $1,852. The term of seven years, and receive $18,000 annually. The district private and parochial schools in 1924, according to the Statzstical court is composed of 31 judges appointed by the governor for a Abstract, had an enrolment of 41,214 pupils. In addition to the regular public schools, the State maintains term of five years. The jurisdiction of this court is limited to the county in which it is held; it has authority over suits of a civil normal schools at Trenton, Montclair, Newark, Paterson and nature in which the sum involved does not exceed $500. Each Glassboro, a school for the deaf at Trenton, and a Manual Train- . county has a surrogate whose duties mainly relate to will cases. ing and Industrial School for Colored Youth at Bordentown. An In each township there are from two to five justices of the peace, agricultural college and experiment station has long been mainand in cities, police justices. Suits involving not more than $200 tained in connection with Rutgers college, now Rutgers university, at New Brunswick. In 1918 the legislature designated Rutgers and minor offenses may be tried in justice’s or police courts. For the purposes of local Government the State is divided into as the State University of New Jersey. The New Jersey College counties (21), cities, townships, towns and boroughs. The Govern- for Women affiliated with the State university was opened in ment of the towns is administered through a council, clerk, col- Sept. 1918. There are industrial schools in Newark, Hoboken and lector, assessor, treasurer, etc., chosen by popular vote; that of Trenton supported in part by the State. Among the institutions the townships is vested in the annual town meeting, at which of higher education not receiving State aid are Princeton univeradministrative officers are elected. Any township with more than sity (g.v.) at Princeton; Stevens Institute of Technology at 5.000 inhabitants may be incorporated as a town, with its Government vested in a mayor and council. Any township or part thereof with less than 4 sq.m. of territory, and less than 5,000 inhabitants, may be incorporated as a borough, with its Government vested in a mayor and council. In rorz a law was passed allowing cities to CRANBERRIES adopt a commission form of Government; in 1923 the city man14. ager form was authorized. % Finances.—The State board of taxes and assessments was created in 1915 by the consolidation of the board of equalization of taxes and the State board of assessors. This board in 1928 had TOMATOES ASPARAGUS SNAP BEANS PEPPERS charge of the carrying into effect the laws levying a tax on the (CROP MARKETED FOR FRESH CONSUMPTION, NOT FOR CANNING) gross receipts of gas and electric corporations and of street railway corporations at the average tax rate of the State, in lieu of the tax on property at the local rate; the assessing of all railway and canal companies within the State; the assessing of a State franchise tax against miscellaneous corporations; and the equalization of assessments in the various counties and taxing districts. PETROLEUM GOLD. SILVER & PLATSMELTING REFINING INUM REDUCING & REFINING The net assessed valuation of real and personal property, exclusive FINI matters except those involving thetitle of real estate. The court

of quarter sessions, which may likewise be held by either the judge of the court of common pleas or by a Justice of the supreme court, has jurisdiction over all criminal cases except

WY?

of bank and trust company stock, in 1926 was $5,443,448,817; the State tax rate was $3-615 on each $100 of valuation. In the State fund, the total receipts for the year ending June 30, 1926 were $28,142,921, and the total disbursements, $27,825,430. The bonded indebtedness of the State on June 30, 1926 was $67,116,ooo distributed as follows: soldiers bonus bonds, $12,000,000; State highway extension bonds, $34,000,000; State highway road bonds, $14,000,000; State highway bridge bonds, $7,000,000; and State certificates issued to the Agricultural college, $116,000.

Education.—The Russell Sage Foundation, after an exhaustive

examination of the public-school system of the various States, ranked New Jersey in 1920 first among the States east of the Mississippi river, and fourth in the whole country. The publicschool system is administered under the direction of a State board of education and a commissioner of education. The former consists of ten members, not more than one of whom shall be

from the same county and not, more than five from the same political party.

At least two of the members

must be women.

The commissioner of education is appointed by the governor and confirmed by the senate. He decides controversies that arise under the school law, appoints county superintendents, and ap-

Woe REFINING (NOT& FROM THE ORE)

SILK

DYEING

MANUFACTURES

& FINISHING TEXTILES

SOAP

OF COPPER

$7 CHEMICALS

POTTERY

(INCLUDING PORCELAIN WARE)

PROPORTION OF TOTAL U.S. PRODUCTION OF CERTAIN CROPS AND MANUFACTURED PRODUCTS PRODUCED IN NEW JERSEY Hoboken; Upsala college at East Orange; Seton Hall college at South Orange; St. Joseph’s college at Princeton; Georgian Court college at Lakewood; College of St. Elizabeth at Convent Station; Alma college at Zarephath; New Jersey Law school at Newark; Drew Theological seminary at Madison; Princeton Theological seminary at Princeton; and Immaculate Conception Theological seminary at South Orange. Charities and Corrections.—The State supports the following charitable and correctional institutions all under the supervision of the State department of institutions and agencies: hos-

310

NEW JERSEY

pitals for the insane at Trenton and Greystone Park; a sanatorium for tuberculous diseases at Glen Garden; a village for epileptics near Skillman; a home for feeble-minded women at Vineland; State colonies for feeble-minded males at New Lisbon and Woodbine; a home for disabled soldiers at Kearny; a home for disabled soldiers, sailors and their wives at Vineland; a reformatory for women, near Clinton and a similar institution for men at Rahway; a State home (reform school) for boys, near Jamesburg, and for girls, near Trenton; and a State prison at Trenton. Agriculture.-The farm acreage of New Jersey steadily decreased between 1900 and 1925, the total acreage for these years being respectively 2,840,966 and 1,924,545. During the same period the number of farms decreased from 34,294 to 29,671. The average size of the farms was 64-9 ac. in 1925 as compared with 82 ac. in 1900. Only 4,723 or 15-9% of the total number of farms were operated by tenants. The value of all farm crops in 1926 was $53,100,000 as compared with $60,100,000 in 1925. In 1926, according to the Year Book of the U.S. department of agriculture, the principal field crops were: potatoes, 7,250,000 bu. ($11,237,500); hay, 416,000 tons ($8,187,300); Indian corn, 8,648,000 bu. ($6,918,400); wheat, 1,320,000 bu. ($1,742,000);

oats, 1,650,000 bu. ($825,000) and rye, 779,000 bu. ($740,150).

Industry

Wage-earners

| Value in dollars fe

Petroleum refining . Smelting and refining cop-

per . Silk manufacturing

i

3,362

:

28,196

:

23,800

Electrical machinery and apparatus

Chemicals .

Foundry and machine shop products Motor vehicles

.

.

Dyeing and finishing textiles.

.

.

Worsted goods . Cigars and cigarettes

9,198

$297,288,102

224,039,089

|

190,712,304, 151,471,610

!

11,722

122,699,466,

19,149 4,847

ILO, 202,345 101,519,589

19,270

92,442,884

|

8,739

67,745,767

|

13,727

78,082,704

|

|

Other manufactures valued in 1925 at more than $50,000,000 were: canning and preserving fruits and vegetables; gold, silver and platinum, reducing and refining; bread and bakery products; rubber goods; paints and varnishes; and soap. Minerals.—The total value of the State’s mineral products was $76,752,288 in 1925. The value of clay products in 1924 was $46, 414,167. Of this total, the value of pottery was $25,968,314, and of brick and tile $20,445,851. The zinc output of the State in 1924 was 84,370 short tons, valued at approximately $12,800,000. In Warren and Sussex counties are abundant materials for the

New Jersey ranks among the leaders in the commercial production of many fruits. The fruit and vegetable crops have a total annual value of approximately $25,000,000. In the production of peaches (3,000,000 bu. in 1926), New Jersey is outranked by California manufacture of Portland cement. In 1925, the chief stone products were trap rock, limestone, sandstone and granite, having a and Georgia only. The number and value of each of the various classes of live total value of $3,656,943. The manufacture of iron in New Jersey stock in the State on Jan. 1, 1927, were as follows: dairy cattle, dates from 1674, when the metal was reduced from its ores near 119,000 ($13,090,000); other cattle, 38,000 ($1,790,000); swine, Shrewsbury, Monmouth county. The product of the iron mines 60,000 ($1,260,000); sheep, 6,000 ($71,000); horses, 54,000 in 1925 was only 164,523 long tons, valued at $678,021. Transportation.—The total railway mileage of New Jersey on ($5,908,000); mules, 5,000 ($590,000). The dairy industry is confined chiefly to the production of milk for consumption in New Jan. 1, 1926, according to the Interstate Commerce Commission, York, Philadelphia and other large cities. The value of dairy was 2,292 as compared with 2,352 in 1920. Owing to its geoproducts in 1924 was $15,087,874. Poultry-raising also is an im- graphical position, the State is crossed by all railways reaching portant industry; in 1924 the value of all chickens raised and New York city from the south and west, and all those reaching Philadelphia from the north and east. The eastern terminals of eggs produced was estimated at $18,763,344. Manufacturing.—Manufacturing has long been the leading the southern and western lines running from New York city are industry of New Jersey. In 1925 the value of the products of the situated on the western shore of the Hudson river, in Jersey City, State’s 8,204 manufacturing establishments was $3,539,181,253; Hoboken or Weehawken; whence passengers and freight are carried by ferry to New York. An exception is the Pennsylvania wages paid to 425,377 employés amounted to $576,235,826. New Jersey ranked first among the States in the refining of petroleum, railway which has constructed a tunnel under the Hudson river, in the smelting and refining of copper, in shipbuilding, in dyeing and established a terminal on Manhattan island. Jersey City and finishing textiles, in the manufacture of silk goods, phono- and Hoboken are also connected with New York by electric graphs and upholstering materials. The State’s industrial impor- railway tunnels under the Hudson river; the Holland Vehicular tance is due, in a great part, to the excellent transportation tunnel connects lower New York city with Jersey City. The 21 facilities, and to the proximity of large markets and of great electric railway companies within the State operated 1,434 m. of natural resources, such as the clays of‘New Jersey and the coal track in 1926. New Jersey was the first state in the Union to pass (1891) a and iron of Pennsylvania. The chief manufacturing centres in 1925, as judged by the value of their products, were: Newark State aid highway act. Since that early beginning, New Jersey has ($238,119,543), Jersey City ($139,234,933), Paterson ($94,626,- spent many millions of dollars in constructing and maintaining 268), Camden ($81,703,257), Trenton ($63,545,450), Bayonne a State highway system, which on Jan. 1, 1927 consisted of 1,458 miles. Of this total 1,297 were surfaced. In 1926 a total of 657, 374. motor vehicles were registered. UNITED STATES - $543 The water-borne commerce of New Jersey in 1926, exclusive of that of Hoboken and Jersey City which is included in the port of New York, was 1,539,468 cargo tons of imports and 402,892 NEW JERSEY’ $983 cargo tons of exports. The chief ports were Bayonne, Newark, Perth Amboy and Carteret. VALUE OF MANUFACTURES OF NEW JERSEY PER CAPUT COMPARED WITH History.—The earliest inhabitants of New Jersey of whom THAT FOR THE U.S. (1925) there is any certain record were the Lenni-Lennapé or Delaware ($53,762,760), Kearny ($49,598,897), Elizabeth ($45,060,486), Indians, a branch of the Algonkin family. They were most Passaic ($39,140,591) and Perth Amboy ($34,685,343). Newark numerous in the southern and central portions of the State, is the centre for electrical machinery, paints and varnishes, jew- preferring the river valleys. In the year 1758 an Indian reserelry, tanning and finishing leather, chemicals, and bread and vation, said to have been the first established within the present bakery products. Paterson’s chief industries are the dyeing and limits of the United States, was established at Edgepelick or finishing of textiles and the manufacture of silk. Jersey City is Brotherton (now called Indian Mills) in Burlington county. The first authenticated visit ofa European to what is now New the centre of the State’s slaughtering and meat packing industry. Trenton is famous for its pottery and porcelain ware. The ten Jersey was made under French authority by Giovanni da Verprincipal industries of New Jersey, based on the value of their razano, a Florentine navigator, who in the spring of 1524 sailed within Sandy Hook and dropped anchor in the waters of upper products in 1925, were as follows:

NEW JERSEY

HISTORY]

New York bay. In the following year Estevan Gomez, a Portuquese sailor in the service of the emperor Charles V., is said to

have made note of the Hudson and Delaware rivers. Voyages to this region for exploration, trade and settlement, however, may he said to have really begun with the year 1609, when Henry Hudson explored the region between Sandy Hook and Raritan bay and sailed up the river which now bears his name.

Cornelis Jacobsen Mey explored vears later Cornelis Hendricksen stream. In 1623 the first party rived at New Amsterdam, and a

In 1614

the lower Delaware, and two more thoroughly explored this of permanent homeseekers arportion of these formed aset-

Hement on the eastern bank of the Delaware and built Ft. Nassau near the site of the present Gloucester City. On the western bank of the Hudson the trading post of Hobocanhackingh, on the site of the present city of Hoboken, was established at an early date.

From these places and from New Amsterdam the Dutch spread into the Raritan valley. In the meantime

colonists of another nationality had set foot

on the shores of the lower Delaware. In 1638, 50 Swedish colonists landed on the western bank of the Delaware and built Ft. Christina on the site of the modern Wilmington. Five years later, on the eastern bank a triangular fort, called Elfsborg, was constructed near the present Salem. But the Swedish rule was shortlived, as in 1655 the settlements surrendered to Peter Stuyvesant and passed under the control of the Dutch.

On March 12, 1664, Charles II. granted to his brother James,

duke of York, all the lands between the Connecticut river and the eastern side of Delaware bay, as well as all the islands between

Cape Cod and the Hudson river.

An expedition was sent from

England in May, under the command of Richard Nicolls, and in the following August the English flag floated over New Amsterdam. In October, Sir Robert Carr took possession of the settlements on the Delaware, and terminated the rule of the Dutch. The few inhabitants of what is now New Jersey acquiesced in the new order.. While the expedition commanded by Nicolls was still at sea, the duke of York, by deeds of lease and release, transferred to Lord John Berkeley, baron of Stratton and Sir George Carteret (g.v.), all that part of his new possessions extending eastward from the Delaware bay and river to the Atlantic ocean and the Hudson river, and northward from Cape May to a line drawn from the northernmost branch of the Delaware, ‘which is 41° 40° lat.,” to the Hudson river in 41° N. latitude. To this tract the name of Nova Caesarea, or New Jersey, was given in honour of Carteret, who governed the isle of Jersey in 1643-51. In order to attract immigrants, the proprietors in Feb. 1665 published their “Concession and Agreement,” by which they made provision for a governor, a governor’s council, and an assembly chosen by the freemen and having the power to levy taxes. Special inducements in the way of land grants were offered to persons embarking with the first governor. In the meantime Governor Nicolls of New York, ignorant of the grant to Berkeley and Carteret, had approved certain Indian sales of land to settlers within New Jersey, and had confirmed their titles to tracts in what became known as Elizabethtown, Middletown and Shrewsbury. In 1669 trouble arose between the proprietary governor and the inhabitants of the towns of Shrewsbury and Middletown

311

member of the Society of Friends, and Edward Byllynge (d. 1687), a Quaker merchant. Financial embarrassments soon caused Byllynge to assign his share in trust for his creditors to three Quakers, William Penn, Gawen Lawrie and Nicholas Lucas. Later they acquired Fenwicke’s share also. The Quakers then

set about seeking a division of the province more to their advantage and, Sir George Carteret having been persuaded by the duke of York to surrender his grant of July 1674, the so-called “quintipartite deed” was executed on July 1, 1676. This instrument defined the interests of Carteret, Penn, Lawrie, Lucas and Byllynge, by fixing a line of partition from Little Egg harbour to a point on the Delaware river, in 41° 40’ N., and by assigning the province east of this line (East Jersey) to Carteret and the province west of this line (West Jersey), about five-eighths of

the whole, to the Quaker associates. A very liberal frame of Government for West Jersey, drafted presumably by William Penn, and entitled “the Concessions and Agreements of the Proprietors, Freeholders and Inhabitants of West Jersey in America,” was adopted in March 1677. This vested the principal powers of Government in an assembly of 100 members, who were to be chosen annually and to be subject to instructions from their constituents. Religious toleration was assured. In Aug. 1677 the ship “Kent” arrived in the Delaware, with 230 Quakers from London and Yorkshire. These founded a settlement, which became the modern Burlington, and in the next few months several hundred more colonists arrived. But the new colony was never actually governed under “the Concessions and Agreements”; for when in 1680 the duke of York confirmed the title to the land to Byllynge and his associates he conveyed the right to govern to Byllynge alone. Although he was one of the signers of the “Concessions and Agreements,” Byllynge now commissioned Samuel Jennings as governor of the province, and the other proprietors acquiesced, appointing Byllynge governor and permitting Jennings to serve as his deputy. Jennings immediately called the first assembly, and this body passed a body of fundamental laws providing for a governor and council.

The Crown

The death of Sir George Carteret in 1680 gave the zealous Andros another chance to lay claim to jurisdiction over New Jersey. On April 30, 1680, a detachment of troops dragged Philip Carteret, the governor of East Jersey, from his bed and carried him prisoner to New York. Here he was confined for four weeks, and was released only on his promise not to exercise any authority until the matter could be referred to England for adjudication. When the assembly of East Jersey met in June, Andros appeared before it as governor and recommended such measurés as he deemed advisable, but the deputies refused to pass them. In England, too, his conduct was disavowed and he was called home to answer charges that had been preferred against him. Sir George Carteret had bequeathed his province to eight trustees, who were to administer it for the benefit of his creditors. Early in 1682, after several unsuccessful attempts to effect a sale by other means, the province was offered for sale at public auction, and was purchased by William Penn and 11 associates for £3,400. Later each of these 12 sold one-half of his share to another associate, thus making 24 proprietors; and on March 14 the duke of York confirmed the sale, and gave them all the powers necessary for governing the province. The Government of the 24 proprietors was liberal. Recognizing the necessity of some one in the province with full power “to do all things that may contribute to the good and advancement of the same,” they directed the appointment of the American Board of Proprietors—a body of men identified with the province, who with the deputy-governor were to look after the proprietary interests in such matters as the approval of legislation and the granting of lands, and thereby

lawyers decided that the rights of the proprietors of New York

prevent the delay caused by the transmission of such matters to

over the collection of quit-rents. This caused the duke of York to declare that the grants made by Nicolls were null and void; the king enjoined obedience to the proprietors, and quiet was restored. Another change was impending, however, and in Aug. 1673, when a Dutch fleet appeared off Staten Island, New Jersey for a second time became a part of New Netherland. The period of Dutch rule was short, and by the Treaty of Westminster, of Feb. 9, 1674, the territory was restored to England.

and New Jersey had been extinguished by the conquest, and that

England for approval.

by treaty the lands had been reconveyed, not to the proprietors,

port of East Jersey, became its seat of Government.

but to the king. On June 13, 1674, Charles II. accordingly wrote a letter confirming the title and power of Carteret in the eastern half of New Jersey.

No similar grant was made to Berkeley, as

on March 18 he had sold his interest in the province to John Fenwicke, sometime major in the parliamentary army and later a

In 1686 Perth Amboy, the newly. created

After his accession to the throne in 168s, James II. showed an

unyielding determination to annul the privileges of the colonies, and to unite New York, New Jersey and the New England colonies under a single Government. In order, therefore, to save

their rights in the soil, the proprietors of East and West Jersey

212

NEW JERSEY

[HISTORY

surrendered their claims to jurisdiction. Andros, previously| appointed viceroy of New England, thereupon received a newį commission extending his authority over New York and the: Jerseys, and in Aug. 1688 he formally annexed these provinces to the dominion of New England. The seizure of Andros by the people of Boston in April 1689, following the news of the revolt in England against James II., gave the Jersey proprietors an opportunity to resume their rights. In April 1702 all rights of jurisdiction were transferred to the Crown, while the rights to the soil remained in the proprietors. The provinces of East and West Jersey were then united under a Government similar to that of the other royal provinces. Until

State of full age. who are worth 50 lb. proclamation money, clear estate in the same.” etc., were soon considered undemocratic; and the democratic tendency of certain election officers may be seen from their construing the words “all inhabitants of full age“ to include women, and from their permitting women to vote. Agitation for constitutional reform resulted in a constitutional

1738 the governor of New York was also governor of New Jersey;

representation in the assembly was based on population; and the property qualification was abolished. Toward the political questions that disturbed the American

convention, which met at Trenton from May 14 to June 29, 1844, and drafted a new frame of government, introducing a number of

radical changes.

aenar

after that date each colony had its own governor. The legislature met alternately at Burlington and Perth Amboy, until 1790, when Trenton was selected as the capital of the State. The four decades following the change to royal Government were years of development disturbed, however, by friction between the assembly and the royal governors, and by bitter disputes, accompanied by much rioting, with the proprietors concerning land-titles (1744-49). Independence of the absentee landlords was again claimed by virtue of the grants made by Nicolls nearly a century before. Agriculture at this time was the main pursuit. Between East and West Jersey certain political and religious differences developed. The former, settled largely by people from New England and Long Island, was dominated by Puritans; the latter by Quakers. The last colonial assembly of New Jersey met in Nov. 1775. From May 26 to July 2. 1776, the second provincial congress met at Burlington, Trenton and New Brunswick and for a time became the supreme governing power. Following the recommendation of the continental congress, that the colonies should create independent Governments, the provincial congress drafted a provincial constitution, which, without being submitted to the people, was published July 3, 1776. In the State were fought some of the most important engagements of the war. When Washington, in the autumn of 1776, was no longer able to hold the lower Hudson he retreated across New Jersey to the Delaware near Trenton and seizing every boat for miles up the river he placed his dispirited troops on the opposite side and left the pursuing army no means of crossing. With about 2,500 men he recrossed the Delaware on the night of Dec. 25, surprised three regiments of Hessians at Trenton the next morning, and took 1,000 prisoners and 1,000 stands of arms. In a series of movements following up his success he outgeneraled the British commander, Lord Cornwallis and on Jan. 3, 1777, defeated a detachment of his army at Princeton (g.v.). The American army then went into winter quarters at Morristown. As the British army under Gen. Clinton was retreating, in June 1778, from Philadelphia to New York, the American army engaged it in the battle of Monmouth (June 28, 1778); the result was indecisive. After the war New Jersey found its commercial existence threatened by New York and Philadelphia, and it was a feeling of weakness from this cause rather than any lack of State pride that caused the State to join in the movements for a closer Federal Union. In the Federal convention at Philadelphia one of the New Jersey delegates, William Paterson (1745-1800), presented what was called the ‘New Jersey plan” of union, representing the wishes of the smaller States, which objected to representation in a National Congress being based on wealth or on population. The New Jersey plan left its impress in the provision of the Constitution (approved in the convention on July 7) for equal representation in the national Senate. The Federal Constitution was ratified by a unanimous vote in the State convention which met at Trenton on Dec. 18, 1787. The State’s own Constitution, which had been adopted in 1776 and amended in 1777, retained a number of features of colonial Government ill-adapted to a State increasingly democratic. The basis of representation was the county rather than population; property qualifications were placed on members of the legislative council and of the assembly. These and the property qualifications for suffrage, which was granted to “all inhabitants of this

This instrument was ratified on Aug. 13 at the

polls. The election of the governor was taken from the legislature and given to the people; the powers of Government were distributed among legislative, executive and judicial departments:

people immediately before the Civil War the attitude of the State was conservative, although a few vestiges of the slavery system remained until the adoption of the 13th amendment to the Federal

Constitution. In 1852 the free-soil candidate for the presidency received only 350 votes in New Jersey; and in 1856 the Democratic candidate received a plurality of 18,605 votes, even though

William L. Dayton, a citizen of the State, was the Republican nominee for the vice-presidency. In 1860 three of the State’s electoral votes were given to Douglas and four to Lincoln. During the Civil War New Jersey furnished 89,305 men for the Union cause and incurred extraordinary expenditures to the amount of

$2,894,385.

The State readily consented to the 13th and rath

amendments

to the Federal Constitution, but in 1868 withdrew

its consent to the latter. The r5th Amendment was rejected by one legislature, but was accepted by its successor, in which the Republican Party had obtained a majority. Industrially the early part of the 19th century was marked in New Jersey by the construction of bridges and turnpikes, the utilization of water power for manufactures, and the introduction of steam motive power upon the navigable waters. The war of 1812 with England interrupted this material progress, and at its beginning was so unpopular, especially with the Quakers, that the Federalists carried the elections in the autumn of 1812. Material

progress in New Jersey after the war is indicated by the construction of the Morris (1824-36) and the Delaware and Raritan (1826-38) canals, and the completion of its first railway, the Camden and Amboy, in 1834. In the years following the Civil War there was a bitter railway war. New Jersey, in order to encourage canals and railways, had granted monopolistic privileges to several of the earlier companies; by consolidation they had virtually gained a monopoly over the route between New York and Philadelphia. In 1871 these entire properties were leased for 999 years to the Pennsylvania Railway Company. This combination threatened to monopolize traffic, and it was opposed by several of the newer railways and by the general public; in 1873 the State passed a general railway law giving other railways than the Pennsylvania the right to connect New York and Philadelphia. This same period was marked by great industrial development. Towards corporations the policy of New Jersey was very liberal; there was no limit fixed either to capitalization or to bonded indebtedness; and the tax rate was lower for large than for small corporations. Under this liberal policy so many large combinations of capital were incorporated under the laws of the State that it was sometimes called “the home of the trusts.” This method of encouraging corporations was reversed by the passage in 1913 of a series of acts widely known as the “Seven Sisters,” the purpose of which was the elimination of the power of trusts to create monopoly, limitation of production, price fixing and restraint of

trade. In the meantime laws had been passed limiting public service franchises to 20 years, unless extended to 40 years by the voters of the municipality concerned. The laws governing elections were radically changed in 1911 and subsequently, by provisions extending the application of the direct primary law and providing the blanket ballot and safeguards against frauds. A proposed amendment to the State Constitution in rg15 giving women full suffrage was defeated by over 50,000 votes. By enlightened

NEW

JERSEY

TEA—-NEW

labour legislation, New Jersey has done much in promoting the safety and health of the State’s large industrial population.

Before 1800 the State was dominated by the Federalist Party; from that date until 1896, except in the Civil War period, it was generally controlled by the Democrats, and from 1896 to rg1z by

the Republicans. In the elections for the State executive the Democratic Party was successful from 1910-28 with the exception of the election in 1916. From 1914 the Republicans controlled both branches of the legislature. BretiocraPHy.—For descriptive material see bibliographies in Bulle-

tins No. 177 and 301 of the United States Geological Survey; the Annual Reports and especially the Final Report of the New Jersey

Geological Survey; and the Annual Reports of the New Jersey State

Museum. For population, occupations, etc., see the volumes of the Fourteenth U.S. Census; the biennial Census of Manufactures; and the Year Book of the U.S. department of agriculture. For administration see Fitzgerald’s Legislative Manual and the Reports of the various State departments, boards and commissions, especially the Annual Report of the department of public instruction. History —The most important sources are: Documents Relating to the Colonial History of the State of New Jersey (Archives of the State of New Jersey, xst. series), edit. by W. A. Whitehead, F. W. Ricardo and W. Nelson (26 vol., 1880-1903) ; Documents Relating to the Revolutionary History of the State of New Jersey (Archives of the State of New Jersey, 2nd series) ; 5 vol., 1901~-17; Acts of the General Assembly of New Jersey from 1703-1761, reprinted by A. Leaming and J. Spicer (1881); and Minutes of the Provincial Congress and the Council of Safety of the State of New Jersey (1879).

For the period of the Dutch rule, see L. B. O’Callaghan’s History of

New Netherland (1846); John Romeyn Brodhead’s History of the State of New York (2nd vol., 1853, 1871) ; E. P. Tanner, The Province of New Jersey (1908), the most thorough study of the period from 1664 to 1738; Edgar J. Fisher, New Jersey as a Royal Province 1738 to 1776 (1911), an excellent account of the closing years of th colonial period; Samuel Smith’s History of the Colony of Nova Caesarea, or New Jersey (1765; 2nd ed., 1877), still one of the best accounts of the colonial period, and particularly valuable on account of its copious extracts from the sources, many of which are no longer accessible; see, also, William W. Whitehead’s ‘“‘The English in East and West Jersey, 1664-1689” (in vol. iii. of Justin Winsor’s Narrative and Critical History of America), and Sydney G. Fisher, Tke Quaker Colonies; a Chronicle of the Proprietors of the Delaware (1919). Other useful contributions are A. D. Mellick, Story of an Old Farm; or, Life in New Jersey in the 18th Century (Somerville, N.J., 1889), full of interesting details; F. B. Lee and others, New Jersey as a Colony and as a State (4 vol, with an additional biographical volume, rather unevenly proportioned, and inaccurate as to details); Wiliam Nelson, The New Jersey Coast in Three Centuries (2 vol., 1902) ; Isaac S. Mulford, Civil and Political History of New Jersey (1851); W. A. Whitehead, East Jersey under the Proprietary Governments (New Jersey Historical Society Collections, vol. 1., 1875); W. S. Stryker, Official Register of the Officers and Men of New Jersey in the Revolutionary War (1872) 5 W. E. Sackett, Modern Battles of Trenton (2 vol., 1895-1914), a political history of New Jersey from 1868 to 1913; H. E. Halford, Woodrow Wilson and New Jersey made over (1912); New Jersey Politics During the Period of the Civil War and Reconstruction (1924). A local history of some interest is South Jersey, a History 1664-1924 (5

vol., 1924), edit. by Alfred M. Heston.

See also the Collections and

other publications of the New Jersey Historical Society.

NEW

JERSEY

TEA

(Ceanothus americanus),

a North

American shrub of the buckthorn family (Rhamnaceae), called also red-root, native to dry open woods and gravelly banks from Maine to Manitoba and southward to Florida and Texas. Its low, branching stems, 1 to 3 ft. high, which spring from a dark red root, bear ovate, three-ribbed, somewhat downy, toothed leaves and attractive white flowers in umbel-like clusters. During the Revolutionary

War

the

leaves

were

used

as tea.

(See

CEANOTHUS.)

NEW

JERUSALEM

CHURCH

or New Cuurcu, the

community founded by the followers of Emmanuel Swedenborg (g.v.). Swedenborg himself took no steps to found a church, but having given a new interpretation of Scripture, it was inevitable that those who accepted his doctrine should separate themselves

and organize a society in accordance therewith. Those who received them fully during Swedenborg’s lifetime were few and scattered, but courageously undertook the task of dissemination, and gave themselves to translating and distributing their master’s writings. Two Anglican clergymen were conspicuous in this

work: Thomas Hartley (d. 1784), rector of Winwick, and John Clowes (1743-1831), vicar of St. John’s, Manchester. Hartley translated Heaven and Hell (1778) and True Christian Religion

KENSINGTON

343

(1781); Clowes, who taught New Church doctrine in the existing

churches and was opposed to the forming of new organizations, translated 17 volumes, including the Arcana Coelestia, and pub-

lished over 50 volumes of exposition and defence. Through his influence Lancashire became the stronghold of the Swedenborgians. The first organised congregation of Swedenborgians met in a church in Great Eastcheap in January 1788; and in April 1789 a General Conference of British Swedenborgians was held in Great Eastcheap Church, followed by another and by the publication of a journal, the New Jerusalem Magazine, in 1790. In the provinces the first church was at Birmingham (1791), followed by one at Manchester and another at Liverpool (1793). The Accrington church, the largest in Great Britain, was founded in 1802. Many of the early converts to the New Church were among the most fervent advocates of the abolition of slavery, one was the medical officer of the first batch of convicts sent to Botany Bay. In 181s the Conference took up the question of home missionary work, and its agents were able to found many branches of the church. In 1813 the Manchester and Salford (now the North of England) Missionary Society was founded, chiefly to provide preachers for the smaller churches in its area; in 1857 a National Missionary Institution was founded and endowed, to which most of the local ones have been affiliated Other denominational agencies have been concerned with the printing and circulation of Swedenborgian literature, a training college for the ministry (founded in 1852), and a Ministers’ Aid Fund (1854), and an Orphanage (1881). The constitution of the New Church is of the Independent Congregational type; the Conference may advise and counsel, but cannot compel the obedience of the societies. Returns for 1928 showed 70 societies with about 6,300 members. The New Church in Europe-—In Sweden the Philanthropic Exegetic Society was formed by C. F. Nordenskiold in 1786 to collect documents about Swedenborg and to publish his writings. The introduction of alchemy and mesmerism led to its dissolution in 1789, but its work was continued by the society “Pro fide et charitate,” which existed from 1796 to 1820. For many years the works of Swedenborg and his followers were proscribed, and receivers of his writings fined or deprived of office, but in 1866, when religious liberty had made progress, the cause was again taken up; in 1875 the society of “Confessors of the New Church” was formed in Stockholm, and propaganda has been carried on in most of the towns of Sweden, as alsoin Norway and Denmark. In Germany the great name is that of Immanuel Tafel (d. 1863), librarian of Tiibingen, who not only edited, translated and published, but in 1848 founded a “Union of the New Church in Germany and Switzerland” which held quarterly meetings. In Switzerland, on the contrary, there is an organized body of the New Church. In France about 1838 J. F. E. Le Boys de Guays began his masterly translation of all Swedenborg’s theological works; and nearly every European country has some known adherents. In America-——About 1784 James Glen, a London Scot, delivered lectures in Philadelphia and Boston and circulated some of Swedenborg’s works. Francis Bailey, state printer of Pennsylvania, was attracted by them and became active in their promulgation. During the next ten years a number of prominent men gave their support to the teaching, which spread inland and southward. In Australia, etc-—The formation of societies in Australia began at Adelaide in 1844. Melbourne and Sydney followed in 1854, Brisbane in 1865. New Zealand has a church at Auckland (1883). Mission churches have been established in Japan, the Philippine Islands and British Guiana; and in r910 David W. Mooki organized a Church for the natives of South Africa. See L. P. Mercer, The New Jerusalem in the World’s Religious Congresses of 1893; Minutes of the General Conference of the New Church (annual) ; Journal

of the Annual Session of the General

Convention

of the New Jerusalem in the United States of America.

NEW KENSINGTON, a borough of Westmoreland county,

Pennsylvania, U.S.A., on the Allegheny river and the Pennsylvania railroad, 18 m. N-E. of Pittsburgh. Pop. 11,987 in 1920 (24% foreign-born white); in 1930 it had increased to 16,762. Tt is a coal-mining centre, and has important manufactures (including tin plate, glass, white lead, aluminum, malleable iron

314

NEW

LONDON—NEWMAN

and car springs), with an output in 1925 valued at $30,680,293. The borough was founded in 1891 and incorporated in 1892.

Madrid, then in command of Gen. John P. McGown, was evacy. ated on the r4th; (Admiral) Henry Walke (1808—96), commanding the “Carondelet,” ran past the batteries of Island No. 10 and

on the west bank of the Thames river, 3 m. from Long Island sound; a port of entry and one of the county seats of New London county. It is on Federal highway 1, and is served by the Central Vermont and the New York, New Haven and Hartford railways, and steamship lines. Pop. (1920) 25,688 (23% foreignborn white); (1930 Federal census) 29,640. The city, facing southeast, lies on sloping ground which commands wide views of the sound and the surrounding country from its higher points. The fine natural harbour is a U.S. submarine base, and on Fisher’s island (8 m. S.E.) is Ft. H. G. Wright, headquarters of the Long Island Sound harbour defences. At the entrance to the harbour, on either: side of the river, stand Ft. Trumbull and Ft. Griswold (no longer in use). New London is a summer resort and astation of several yacht clubs. The annual boat races between Harvard and Yale are rowed on the river near the city. Among the points of special interest are the town mill (1650); the Hempstead mansion (1678); the old cemetery north-east of the city, laid out in 1653; a school-house in which Nathan Hale taught; and a court-house built in 1785. At Ft. Trumbull is the U.S. Coast Guard academy and section base. The Connecticut College for Women (chartered 1911) occupies 350 ac. within the city limits. Two endowed high schools and an endowed industrial school are included in the public school system. The traffic of the harbour (which has a 1,000 ft. pier built by the State in 1917) amounted to 631,044 tons in 1925, valued at $280,697,973, and consisted largely of general merchandise. Foreign trade was represented by imports of lumber ($160,000) and exports of automobiles ($1,254,600). The city’s varied manufactures were valued in 1927 at $12,853.530. The assessed valuation for 1926 was $42,613,315. New London was founded in 1646 by John Winthrop the younger. In 1658 the present name was substituted for the Indian “Nameaug” and the river Monhegin became the Thames. The city was incorporated in 1784. In the 18th century New London had a large trade with the West Indies, Gibraltar and the Barbary States, but this declined after the War of 1812. It was also an important whaling and sealing port. During the Revolution it was a rendezvous for privateers. The first naval expedition was organized in its harbour in 1776.

the shore batteries on April 4, and Lieutenant-Commander Egbert Thompson, commanding the “Pittsburgh,” on the 7th; meanwhile the Federals under the direction of Col. Josiah W. Bissell (b, 1818), of the engineer corps, had, with great diffculty, constructed an artificial channel to New Madrid across the peninsula (swamp land) formed by a great loop of the Mississippi; troops were conveyed by transports through this channel below the island, Federal

NEW LONDON, a city of south-eastern Connecticut, U.S.A.,

NEW LONDON, acity of Wisconsin, U.S.A., on the Wolf river, 20m. N.W. of Lake Winnebago, in Outagamie and Waupaca counties. It is served by the Chicago and North Western and the Green Bay and Western railways. Pop. (1930), 4,661. It is a dairying region and has various manufacturing industries.

NEW MADRID, a city and the county seat of New Madrid

county, Mo., U.S.A., on the right bank of the Mississippi river, about 35 m. S. by W. of Cairo, Ill. Pop. (1920) 1,908; (1930)

2,309. It is served by the St. Louis Southwestern railway and by river barges. The city is a shipping point for a rich grain, cotton, live stock and lumber region. Among its manufactures are lumber, staves and hoops. The municipality owns its waterworks. Owing to the encroachments of the Mississippi river, the site of the first permanent settlement of New Madrid is said to lie now about 14 m. from the east bank of the river, in Kentucky. This settlement was made in 1788, on an elaborately laid out town site, and was named New Madrid by its founder, Col. George Morgan (1742-1810), who, late in 1787, had received a grant of a large tract of land on the right bank of the Mississippi river from Don Diego de Gardoqui, Spanish minister to the United States. The tract lay within the province of ‘“‘Louisiana,” and the grant to Morgan was a part of Gardoqui’s plan to annex to that province the western American settlements. Earthquake shocks in 18rz and 1812 caused a general emigration. New Madrid was occupied by Confederate troops under Gen. Gideon J. Pillow, on July 28, 1861, and after the surrender of Ft. Donelson (Feb. 16, 1862) the troops previously at Columbus,

forming the Confederate left flank, were withdrawn to New Madrid and Island No. ro (in the Mississippi about rọ m. S.). Early in March, Major-General John Pope and Commodore A. H. Foote proceeded against the positions on the left bank; New

batteries having been established on the right bank of the river; the retreat of the Confederates down stream was effectually blocked; they evacuated

the island on April 7, and on the 8th

the garrison and the forces stationed in the shore batteries, a total of about 7,000, under Gen. W. W. Mackall, was surrendered

at Tiptonville.

NEWMAN, FRANCIS WILLIAM (1805-1897), English scholar and miscellaneous writer, younger brother of Cardinal Newman, was born in London on June 27, 1805. He was educated at Ealing, and at Oxford, where he was elected fellow of Balliol in 1826. Conscientious scruples respecting the ceremony of infant baptism led him to resign his fellowship in 1830, and he went to Baghdad as assistant in the mission of the Rev. A. N, Groves. In 1833 he returned to England on behalf of the mission, but finding himself suspected of heterodoxy, he became classical tutor in an unsectarian college at Bristol. In 1840 he became professor of Latin in Manchester New College, the Unitarian seminary long established at York, and the parent of Manchester college, Oxford. In 1846 he became professor in University college, London, where he remained until 1869. In 1847 he published anonymously a History of the Hebrew Monarchy, intended to introduce the results of German investigation in this department of Biblical criticism. In 1849 appeared The Soul, her

Sorrows and Aspirations, and in 1850, Phases of Faith, or Passages from the History of my Creed—the former a tender but searching analysis of the relations of the spirit of man with the Creator; the latter a religious autobiography detailing the author’s passage from Calvinism to pure theism. It is on these two books that Prof. Newman’s fame rests, though he was a versatile writer on many subjects. His last publication, Contributions chiefly to the Early History of Cardinal Newman (1891), was severely criticised. He died at Weston-super-Mare on Oct. 7, 1897. ,a

G. Sieveking, Memoir and Letters of Francis W. Newman

1909}.

NEWMAN,

JOHN HENRY

(1801-1890), English cardi-

nal, was born in London on Feb. 21, 1801, the eldest son of John Newman, banker, of the firm of Ramsbottom, Newman and Company. At the age of seven Newman was sent to a private school conducted by Dr. Nicholas at Ealing. At the age of 15 he experienced “conversion,” an incident which throughout life remains “more certain than that he had hands or feet.” In 1816 he matriculated at Trinity college, Oxford. After graduation in 182r he took pupils and read for a fellowship at Oriel, to which he was elected in 1822. Two years later he was ordained, and became curate of St. Clement’s, Oxford. For a year he was viceprincipal of the St. Alban’s hall, but in 1826 he became tutor at

Oriel. In 1827 he was appointed vicar of St. Mary’s (to which was attached the chapelry of Littlemore) and in 1831-32 was select preacher before the university. In 1832 a difference with Hawkins, provost of Oriel, on the “substantially religious nature” of a tutorship, led to his resignation from that post. He then went for a tour on the Mediterranean with R. H. Froude, but at that time was still strongly Protestant in his views, as his comments on his stay in Rome show. During this tour he wrote many of the poems in the Lyra Apostolica, and “Lead, Kindly Light.” Tractarian Movement.—He was at home again in Oxford on July 9, 1833, and on the r4th Keble preached at St. Mary’s an assize sermon on “National Apostasy,” which Newman afterwards regarded as the inauguration of the Oxford Movement. In the words of Dean Church, it was “Keble who inspired, Froude

who gave the impetus and Newman who took up the work”; but the first organization of it was due to H. J. Rose, editor of the

NEWMAN British Magazine, who has been styled “the Cambridge originator

of the Oxford Movement.”

It was in his rectory house at Had-

eigh, Sufolk, that a meeting of High Church clergymen was held, uly 25-29 (Newman was not present), at which it was resolved to fight for “the apostolical succession and the integrity of the

Prayer-Book.” A few weeks later, Newman started, apparently

on his own initiative, the Tracts for the Times, from which the

movement was subsequently named “Tractarian.” Its aim was to secure for the Church of England a definite basis of doctrine

and discipline, in case either of disestablishment or of a determi-

nation of High Churchmen to quit the establishment. The teaching of the tracts was supplemented by Newman’s Sunday afternoon sermons

at St. Mary’s,

the influence

of which was very

creat during the next eight years. In 1835 Pusey joined the movement, which, so far as concerned ritual observances, was later called ““Puseyite”; and in 1836 its supporters secured further coherence by their united opposition to the appointment of

Hampden as regius professor of divinity. His Bampton lectures (in the preparation of which Blanco White had assisted him) were suspected of heresy, and this suspicion was accentuated by a pamphlet put forth by Newman, Elucidations of Dr. Hampden’s Theological Statements.

At this date Newman became editor of the British Critic, and he also gave courses of lectures in a side-chapel of St. Mary’s in defence of the via media of the Anglican Church as between Romanism and popular Protestantism. His influence in Oxford was supreme about the year 1839, when, however, his study of the monophysite heresy first raised in his mind a doubt as to whether the Anglican position was really tenable on those principles of ecclesiastical authority which he had accepted; and this doubt returned when he read, in Wiseman’s article in the Dublin Review on “The Anglican Claim,” the words of St. Augustine

against the Donatists, securus

iudicat orbis

terrarum, words

which suggested a simpler authoritative rule than that of the teaching of antiquity. He continued his work, however, as a High Anglican controversialist until he had published, in 1841, Tract 90, the last of the series, in which he put forth, as a kind of proof charge, to test the tenability of all Catholic doctrine within the Church of England, a detailed examination of the XXXIX Articles, suggesting that their negations were not directed against the authorized creed of Roman Catholics, but only against popular errors and exaggeration. This theory, though not altogether new, aroused much indignation in Oxford, and, at the request of the bishop of Oxford, the publication of the Tracts came to an end. At this date Newman also resigned the editor-

ship of the British Critic, and was thenceforth, as he himself later described it, “on his deathbed as regards membership with the Anglican Church.” He now concluded that the position of Anglicans was

similar to that of the semi-Arians in the Arian

controversy; and the arrangement made at this time that an Anglican bishopric should be established in Jerusalem, the appointment to lie alternately with the British and Prussian Governments, was to him further evidence of the non-apostolical char-

acter of the Church of England. In 1842 he withdrew to Littlemore, and lived there under monastic conditions with a small band of followers, their life being one of great physical austerity as well as of anxiety and suspense. To his disciples there he assigned the task of writing lives of the English saints, while his own time was largely devoted to the completion of an essay on the development of Christian doctrine, by which principle he sought to reconcile himself to the elaborated creed and the practical system of the Roman Church. In Feb. 1843 he published, as an advertisement in the Oxford Conservative Journal, an anonymous but otherwise formal retractation of all the hard things he had said against Rome; and in September, after the secession of one of the inmates of the house, he preached his last Anglican sermon at Littlemore and resigned the living of St. Mary’s. Reception into the Catholic Church.—But still an interval of two years elapsed before he was formally received into the

Roman Catholic Church (Oct. 9, 1845) by Father Dominic, an Italian Passionist. In Feb. 1846 he left Oxford for Oscott, where

315

Bishop Wiseman, then vicar-apostolic of the Midland district, resided; and in October he proceeded to Rome, where he was ordained priest and was given the degree of D.D. by the pope. At the close of 1847 he returned to England as an Oratorian, and resided first at Maryvale (near Oscott); then at St. Wilfrid's college, Cheadle; then at St. Ann’s, Alcester street, Birmingham; and finally at Edgbaston, where spacious premises were built for the community, and where (except for four years in Ireland) he lived a secluded life for nearly 40 years. Before the house at Edgbaston was occupied he had established the London Oratory, with Father Faber as its superior, and there (in King William street, Strand) he delivered a course of lectures on “The Present Position of Catholics in England,” in the fifth of which he protested against the anti-Catholic utterances of Dr. Achilli, an

ex-Dominican friar, whom he accused in detail of numerous acts of immorality. Popular Protestant feeling ran very high at the time, partly in consequence of the recent establishment of a Roman Catholic diocesan hierarchy by Pius IX., and criminal proceedings against Newman for libel resulted in an acknowledged gross miscarriage of justice. He was found guilty, and was sentenced to pay a fine of £100, while his expenses as defendant amounted to about £14,000, a sum that was at once raised by public subscription, a surplus being spent on the purchase of Rednall, a small property picturesquely situated on the Lickey hills, with a chapel and cemetery, where Newman now lies buried. In 1854, at the request of the Irish bishops, Newman went to Dublin as rector of the newly-established Catholic university there. But practical organization was not among his gifts, and the bishops became jealous of his influence, so that after four years he retired, the best outcome of his stay there being a volume of lectures entitled Jdea of a University, containing some of his most effective writing. In 1858 he projected a branch house of the Oratory at Oxford; but this was opposed by Manning and others, as likely to induce Catholics to send their sons to that university, and the scheme was abandoned. In 1859 he established, in connection with the Birmingham Oratory, a school for the education of the sons of gentlemen on lines similar to those of the English public schools, an important work in which he never ceased to take the greatest interest. But all this time (since 1841) Newman had been under a cloud, so far as concerned the great mass of cultivated Englishmen, and he was now awaiting an opportunity to vindicate his career; and in 1862 he began to prepare memoranda for the purpose. Works.—The occasion came when, in Jan. 1864, Charles Kingsley, reviewing Froude’s History of England in Macmillan’s Magazine, incidentally asserted that ‘Father Newman informs us that truth for its own sake need not be, and on the whole ought not to be, a virtue of the Roman clergy.” After some preliminary sparring between the two, Newman published, in bi-monthly parts, his Apologia pro vita sua, a religious autobiography of unsurpassed interest, the simple confidential tone of which “revolutionized the popular estimate of its author,” establishing the strength and sincerity of the convictions which had led him into the Roman Catholic Church. In 1870 he put forth his Grammar of Assent, the most closely reasoned of his works, in which the case for religious belief is maintained by arguments differing somewhat from those commonly used by Catholic theologians; and in 1877, in the republication of his Anglican works, he added to the two volumes containing his defence of the via media a long preface and numerous notes in which he criticized and replied to sundry anti-Catholic arguments of his own in the original issues. At the time of the Vatican Council (1869-70) he was known to be opposed to the definition of Papal infallibility, and in a private letter to his bishop (Ullathorne), surreptitiously published, he denounced the “insolent and aggressive faction” that had pushed the matter forward. But he made no sign of disapproval when the doctrine was defined, and subsequently, in a letter nominally addressed to the duke of Norfolk on the occasion of Mr. Gladstone’s accusing the Roman Church of having “equally repudiated modern thought and ancient history,’”’ Newman affirmed that he had always believed the doctrine, and had only feared the deterrent

316

NEWMARCH—NEW

effect of its definition on conversions on account of acknowledged historical difficulties. In 1878 his old college (Trinity), to his great delight, elected him an honorary fellow, and he revisited Oxford after an interval of 32 years. At the same date died Pope Pius IX., who had long mistrusted him; and Leo XIII. was encouraged by the duke of Norfolk and other distinguished Roman Catholic laymen to make Newman a cardinal, the distinction being a marked one, because he was a simple priest and not resident in Rome. The offer was made in Feb. 1879, and the announcement of it was received with universal applause throughout the English-speaking world. The “creation” took place on May 12, with the title of St. George in Velabro, Newman taking occasion while in Rome to insist on the lifelong consistency of his opposition to “liberalism in religion.” After an illness that excited apprehension he returned to England, and thenceforward resided at the Oratory until his death, Aug. 11, 1890, making occasional visits to London, and chiefly to his old friend, R. W. Church, dean of St. Paul’s, who as proctor had vetoed the condemnation of Tract go in 1841. Personality.—Newman’s influence as controversialist and preacher was very great. Although he never called himself a mystic, he showed that, in his judgment, spiritual truth is apprehended by direct intuition, as an antecedent necessity to the professedly purely rational basis of the Roman Catholic creed. Within the Anglican Church, and even within the more strictly Protestant Churches, his influence was greater, but in a different direction, viz., in showing the necessity of dogma and the indispensableness of the austere, ascetic, chastened and graver side

of the Christian religion. If his teaching as to the Church was less widely followed, it was because of doubts as to the thoroughness of his knowledge of history and as to his freedom from bias as a critic. Some hundreds of clergymen, influenced by the movement of which for ten or twelve years he was the acknowledged leader, made their submission to the Church of Rome. The

natural tendency of his mind is often (and correctly) spoken of as sceptical. He held that, apart from an interior and unreasoned conviction, there is no cogent proof of the existence of God; and in Tract 85 he dealt with the difficulties of the Creed and of the canon of Scripture, with apparent implication that they are insurmountable unless overridden by the authority of an infallible Church. In his own case these views did not lead to scepticism, because he had always possessed the necessary interior conviction. He was a man of magnetic personality, with an intense belief in the significance of his own career; and his character may be described as feminine, both in its strength and in its weakness. As a poet he had inspiration and genuine power. “The Dream of Gerontius,” is generally recognized as a masterpiece. His prose style is fresh and vigorous.

There is at Oxford a bust of Newman by Woolner. His portrait by Ouless is at the Birmingham Oratory, and his portrait by Millais is in the possession of the duke of Norfolk, a replica being at the London Oratory. Outside the latter building, facing Brompton road, is a marble statue of Newman as cardinal. BIBLioGRAPHY.—The

chief authorities

for Newman’s

life are his

Apologia and the Letters and Correspondence edited by Miss Mozley, above referred to. The letters and memoranda dealing with the years 1845-90 were entrusted by Newman to the Rev. W. Neville as literary executor. T. Mozley, Reminiscences chiefly of Oriel College, and the Oxford Movement, 2 vol. (1882); R. W. Church, The Oxford Movement, Twelve Years, 1833-1845 (1891) ; R. H. Hutton, Cardinal Newman (1891); W. P. Ward, The Life of John Henry Cardinal Newman, 2 vol. (1912; 3rd ed., 1927), should also be consulted.

MEXICO

NEWMARCH, WILLIAM (1820-1882), English economig

and statistician, was born at Thirsk, Yorkshire, on Jan. 28 18.5 Fie was secretary of the Globe Insurance Company (1851-6, ), and chief officer in the banking-house of Glyn, Mills and Co. (1862-81). He was one of the honorary secretaries, editor of its journal, and in 1869-71 president of the Royal Statistical Society

and a fellow of the Royal Society. Newmarch died at Torquay on March

23, 1882.

After his death his friends founded in his

memory, a Newmarch lectureship in economic versity college, London.

science at Uni.

He was the author of an essay, published in 1855, On the Loans raised by Mr. Piit during the first French War, 1793-1801, with some statements in defence of the Methods of Funding employed.

NEWMARKET,

a market town of Cambridgeshire, England,

134 m. E. by N. of Cambridge, on the Bury branch of the LN.E railway. Pop. of urban district (1921), 9,767. A part of the town is in Suffolk, and the urban district is in the administrative

county of West Suffolk. Newmarket has been celebrated for its horse-races from the time of James I., though at that time there was more of coursing and hawking than horse-racing. Charles I. instituted the first cup race here. The race-course, which lies south-west of the town, has a full extent of 4 m., but is divided into different Iengths to suit various races. It intersects the Devils Ditch or Dyke (sometimes also known as St. Edmund's

Dyke) an earthwork consisting of a ditch and mound about 74 m. long. It starts south-east of the Swaffham-Burwell road, and the ditch has a depth of 15 ft., the slope from the top of the dyke to the bottom of the ditch measures 62 ft., while the overall breadth of dyke and ditch is 37 yards. From negative evidence it is surmised that it belongs to the Iron age, and that the builders were the Iceni. Roman remains have been found in the neighbourhood, and in later times the dyke formed part of the boundary of East Anglia. (See C. Fox, Archaeology of the Cambridge Region, 1923.) Pop. rural district (1931) 18,868.

NEW MEXICO, popularly known as the “Sunshine” State,

is situated in the south-western part of the United States between 31° 20° and 37° N. lat., and 103° and ro9° W. longitude. Itis bounded north by Colorado; east by Oklahoma and Texas; south by Texas and the republic of Mexico; and west by Arizona. It has an extreme length north and south of 400 m., and extreme width east and west of 358 m. and a total area of 122,634 sq.m., of which 131 sq.m. are water surface. Physical

Features.—The

borders

of the State are charac-

terized by high plateaux cut by deep canyons, while in the central part faulted mountains surround comparatively level areas filled with alluvial deposits. Between the Rio Grande and the Staked plains the mountains form a more continuous range than on the west side of the river where the elevated areas form the main continental divide. The Sangre de Cristo mass is a part of the Colorado mountains which extend into New Mexico slightly east of the north-central part of the State and east of the Rio Grande. South of this northern mass two series of ridges extend to the southern boundary: the one near the Rio Grande, called in places from north to south the Sandia, the Manzano, the San Andrés, the Oscura and the Organ mountains; while the eastern group consists of the Hills of Pedernal, the White, the Sacramento and the Guadalupe mountains. On the west side of the Rio Grande the San Juan mountains dominate the country north of the Chama river. A second somewhat smaller mass lies between the Chama and the Jemez river, the Jemez mountains. Across the Puerco the Mount Taylor

Adverse criticism will be found in the writings of E. A. Abbott (e.g., The Anglican Career of Cardinat Newman, 1892). See also Cardinal Newman's Works, 40 vol. (with index by J. Rickaby, 1874-1921) ; P. Thureau-Dangin, Le Renaissance Catholique en Angleterre au XIXe siécle, 3 pt. (1899-1906; trans. and rev. by W. Wilberforce, 2 vol., 1914); L. Félix Faure, Newman, Sa vie et ses oeuvres (rg0r); G.

mountains carry the main divide in a south-western direction to the Chusca and Zufi mountains, which are continued farther south in one of the largest mountain masses of the State, the

Blennerhasset, John Henry Kardinal Newman (1904); W. Barry, Cardinal Newman (1904; rev. ed., 1927); H. Brémond, Newman, 3 vol. (1905-06); N. J. D. White, John Henry Newman (1925); B. Newman, Cardinal Newman (1928); J. J. Reilly, Newman as Man of Letters (1925); J. D. Folghera, Newman Apologiste (1927) a; trans. by P. Hereford as Newmans Apologetic (1929); I. L. May, Cardinal Newman (1929). (A. W. Hv.)

forming the south-eastern part. In the extreme south-western part of the State the western mountains terminate in several parallel ridges; the Burro, the Pyramid, the Big Hatchet and the Peloncillo mountains. The major divides following the tops of the ranges and high plateaux run generally north and south. Of the most important

Grappe, J. H. Newman, Essai de psychologie religieuse (1902); C. J.

Mogollons, with the San Mateo and the Magdalena as outlying ridges in the direction of the Rio Grande, and the Black Range

NEW

MEXICO

there may be mentioned the divides between the Pecos and the

Canadian valleys; between the Pecos and Tularosa valleys; be-

tween the Tularosa and the Rio Grande; and between the Rio

Grande and the San Juan, Little Colorado and Gila valleys. The rivers are the only important bodies of water that make up a part of the physiography of the State. In the north-eastern

part of the State, in Union county, two of the branches of the O

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Arkansas river have their sources. These are the Cimarron and the North Canadian rivers. A third branch of the Arkansas, the Canadian, flows through Colfax, Mora, San Miguel and Quay counties. As the Canadian drains the eastern part of the Sangre de Cristo Range, so the Pecos river receives the water from the southern part of the range and flows in a southerly direction across the State. The Rio Grande is the only important river in New Mexico that does not have its source within the State. It enters New Mexico in a deep canyon a short distance to the east of the 106 meridian, and flows south through the centre of the State. On the western side of the continental divide the principal rivers are the San Juan, Little Colorado and Gila, tribu-

taries of the Colorado which flows to the Gulf of California. The principal characteristics of the arid soils of New Mexico are: a large amount of mineral matter; a small amount of organic matter; deep soils; and a marked degree of productivity when irrigated. Climate.—The winter rainy season is created by comparatively dry westerly winds blowing from the Pacific, coming into New Mexico from the north-east and north-west. In the summer the place of these winds is taken by a monsoon wind from the south, south-west or south-east. When they reach the mountainous districts of New Mexico they are cooled. This results in giving

317

ation in altitude which is a striking characteristic of mountainous areas. The Lower Sonoran is the zone of mesquite, occupying the valleys of the southern part of the State. For agricultural purposes it is the most important of the zones, due to the long growing period and the high temperatures. The woody plants of this region include the creosote bush, the Spanish bayonet, the screw bean, the desert willow, and valley cottonwood. Cactuses in a variety of species are a part of the flora of this zone. Among the mammals there are a number of species of rats, mice, squirrels, rabbits, skunks and bats. There are also the jaguar, the New Mexico desert fox, the Mearns coyote, the Mexican badger and the New Mexico weasel. The birds are numerous. The Upper Sonoran, the largest of the zones, ranks first in economic wealth. It embraces the grazing lands that include about three-fourths of the State, or 92,000 square miles. The grasses that give this zone its value are the grama, the galleta, buffalo and porcupine. Several species of deer, coyotes, antelopes, wolves, prairie dogs and mountain sheep are common to the area. The Transition zone, covering about 10,000 sq.m., is the section of the State important for timber. Very little agriculture is carried on, but there is good range for stock. The Merriam elk, Rocky mountain lion, Mexican mountain lion, the mountain bobcat, mountain coyote, Mexican wolf, black bear, grizzly bear, otter and mink are found in this zone. The Canadian zone is about one-fifth the size of the Transition. Its importance lies in the water-supply that it stores for the regions of lower altitude. Its lowest parts on the cold slopes are at an altitude of 8,500 feet. The trees found are the Bristol cone pine, the western white pine, Douglas spruce and the balsam. The Hudsonian is a very narrow zone along the timber line on the upper slopes of the high mountains with an area of 300 square miles. The trees and shrubs include the Siberian juniper, Englemann’s fir, Parry’s fir, several species of currants and sedges. The mammals are few, being mountain sheep, Rocky Mountain woodchuck, the grey and dusky rock cony. The Arctic-Alpine is the smallest of the life zone represented in New Mexico. The area is above the timber line, at about 12,500 feet. Among the plants are the Colorado poppy, several species of saxifrages, sedges and rushes, the dwarfed closed gentian, alpine larkspur, alpine sagebrush. Few mammals enter the region. Population.—The Indians of New Mexico constitute an interesting part of the population. They consist of two types: the nomadic Indians who have been settled on reservations by the U.S. Government; and the Pueblo Indians, who live a communal life which was well established long before the Spanish came to the New World. There are 18 subdivisions of the latter group living mainly in the Rio Grande valley. The social system is based upon the family as the main unit, dominated by the mother who is the owner of the home. The total Indian population of the State in r9I10 was 20,573 and in 1920, 19,512. The Navajo number about 9,000; the Apache, 1,000; and the Pueblos, 9,000. The largest Pueblo community is Zuni which had a population of 1,667 in rgt0. The census of 1910 gave two others a population of over 1,000; Laguna, 1,472 and Isleta, 1,000. The total popu-

lation of the State has increased from 160,282 in 1890 to 360,350

in 1920. In 1930 it was 423,317, an increase for the decade of 62,967 or 17-5%. The State was the 44th in order according to population of’ the States of the Union. The average number of the inhabitants per square mile in the State was 3-5 in 1930, as compared with 2-9 in 1920. There were only seven cities in New New Mexico a summer period of sub-tropical monsoon rains. The Mexico in 1930 with a population of over 5,000, namely: Albuaverage rainfall for the State is about 15 in. annually. On some querque, the largest, with 26,570 inhabitants; Santa Fe, the capsections of the southern plains it is as low as 6 in. while in the ital, with 11,176; Roswell with 11,173, Clovis with 8,027, Raton mountain districts of the north it rises to 25 or 30 inches. The with 6,090, Gallup with 5,992 and Las Cruces with 5,811. The skies are generally clear and sunshine is abundant; the days are decade from 1900 to 1910 witnessed the greatest increase in warm but the nights are cool. At Santa Fe, where the mountains population, from 195,310 to 327,301 or 67-3%. A total of 47,942 and plains meet, the mean annual temperature is 48-8° F; the in 1920 were foreign-born or of foreign parentage. Of this number mean for the winter is 30-9° and for the summer 67°; and the 19,906 were Mexicans, the majority of whom belonged to the lower or “peon” class; a mixture of Indian and Spanish blood. highest and lowest temperatures ever were 97° and —13°. Flora and Fauna.—The physiographical conditions of New The negroes have increased from 1,628, in 1910 to 5,733 in 1920. Mexico determine, in a measure, the distribution of plants and A sprinkling of Japanese and Chinese constitute the other nonanimals, Six life zones are represented in the State, due to vari- white element in the State. The State Constitution provides that

318

NEW

MEXICO

laws shall be published in both English and Spanish. and no! population of the State in the year 1924-25 numbered 120,114 citizen can be deprived of the right to sit on juries or to hold | of which 92,615 was enrolled in public schools. The average daily office because he cannot speak English. The dual language situa- |attendance was 63,241. There were 61 public and to private high tion has presented a difficult problem for the schools, but every | schools with 250 teachers and 6,301 pupils. There were in the pupil is required to learn English by which it is hoped to solve | entire public school system 2,011 teachers in rural districts and it for the future. 1,083 in city districts. Government.—With slight amendments the Constitution The University of New Mexico, with its distinctive buildings adopted in 191r remains the basis of the State Government. | in the Indian Pueblo type of architecture is situated on a mesg Amendments may be proposed by a majority of the members in each house and must then be voted upon by the people at the next general election or a special election called not less than six months after adjournment of the legislature. The State legislature is composed of a senate and house of representatives having 24 and 49 members respectively in 1927. Regular sessions are held in odd-numbered years, beginning the second Tuesday in January, and are restricted in length to 60 days. Special sessions not to last over 30 days may be called by the governor but must confine their business to specific matters NATIVE WHITE FOREIGN-BORN NEGRO mentioned in the governor’s proclamation. Representatives are WHITE elected for two years and senators for four years, the latter, contrary to the practice in most States, being all elected at one time. | l PROPORTION OF ILLITERATES AMONG THE NATIVE WHITE, THE FOREIGNThe governor possesses a veto power which can be overridden by BORN WHITE, AND THE NEGROES, 1920 a two-thirds vote of the legislative members present and voting in each house. The people of New Mexico possess the referendum about a mile from and overlooking the city of Albuquerque. Its privilege but not the power of initiative. In the National Congress attendance increased from 235 in 1915 to 990 in 1928, its faculty the State is represented by two senators and one representative. members from 21 to 54 and its buildings from 8 to 17 in number, The Constitution provides for 11 elective administrative officers, The State School of Mines, located at Socorro, had an enrolnamely, governor, lieutenant governor, secretary of State, auditor, ment of 76 students and a teaching staff of 11 members in 192s, treasurer, attorney general, commissioner of public lands and The College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts near Las Cruces, three corporation commissioners, all serving two years. They may in the fertile Mesilla valley had a staff of 39 members and an succeed themselves for one term but are not afterwards eligible enrolment of 287 students. The New Mexico agricultural experifor re-election until a two year period has elapsed, except the ment station is a part of the institution. The New Mexico lieutenant governor who may succeed himself indefinitely. The Military institute, a school of high rating, at Roswell is also supnumber of elective officers seriously limits the governor’s control ported in part by State funds. It offers a course of work coverover his administration. ing the four years of high school and first two years of college. A supreme court holds one session a year, which lasts as long The New Mexico Normal university at Las Vegas contains a as the justices think proper, trying cases appealed from the lower training school, a high school department and a four year normal courts. There are three supreme court justices elected one at a department. Similar in organization is the New Mexico Teachers’ time for terms of eight years each. There are nine district courts college at Silver City. At El Rito is a Spanish-American normal holding two regular sessions each year at the county seat. The school designed to instruct teachers for the Spanish districts. Charities and Corrections.—The State penitentiary, located district judge is elected for six years. There are probate courts in each county and justices of the peace in each precinct. at Santa Fe, was established in 1882. A State reform school was Finance.—The value of all tangible property in New Mexico established at Springer in 1909. A girls’ welfare board, created in was estimated in 1922 at $852,000,000 or $2,299 per caput. The 1919, established a home in Albuquerque for girls under 18. The total taxes levied by State, county, town and school district charitable institutions include the asylum for the insane at Las governments the same year amounted to $8,805,000 or $23.89 Vegas, a miner’s hospital at Raton, the asylum for the deaf and per caput. Their per caput rate was lower than any other Western dumb at Santa Fe and the institute for the blind at Alamogordo. State, the next lowest being $37.82 in Utah. Revenues of the In 1884 the Territorial legislature adopted the Asylum of the State Government amounted in 1925 to $7,908,000, of which Sisters of Charity at Santa Fe as the State orphan’s home, with but $1,713,000 was derived from taxation. Public lands, motor little change in its organization. licences, a gasolene tax of five cents a gallon, and Federal road aid Agriculture and Live Stock.—The eastern one-third of the supplied most of the remainder. Expenditures amounted to $8,- State and especially the north-eastern counties contain the most 634,000 of which $4,240,000 was for current and maintenance important crop-producing districts. In Curry, Roosevelt, Quay, expenses and $4,577,000 for permanent improvements. The State Fiarding, Union and Colfax counties an average rainfall of 15-5 in. bonded indebtedness on June 30, 1926 was $3,919,500, a decrease (1914-24) permits of considerable dry farming, while over the rest of over $1,000,000 from that of 1922. of the State crops are dependent almost entirely upon irrigation In the same year there were 63 banks in the State (31 of them and confined to those river valleys where it is practicable. Though national banks) with resources and liabilities totalling $39,213,000. 27,850,325 ac. or a little more than one-third of the State was Education.—Previous to 1891 when the general public school owned as farm land in 1925 (an increase over 11,270,021 ac. in system of New Mexico was established, education was carried on 1910 and 24,409,633 ac. in 1920) only 1,784,851 ac. were crop mainly by private and religious agencies which established mission land. There were in 1925 31,687 farms, valued, together with schools and academies. These are still numerous. There were all farm property, at $236,300,000. The 1920 valuation was $325,in 1924-25 42 private and parochial schools of elementary stand- 185,000. ing with 5,879 pupils enrolled. Progress in the public school The river basins containing irrigated lands are the Rio Grande, system was slow from 1891 until r9rz when Statehood was Pecos, Canadian, San Juan and Gila with their tributaries and the granted, but has been rapid since as is shown by the increase in Cimarron, Rio Mimbres, Rio Tularosa, Trinchera and Fresno. expenditures for public schools from $793,000 in 1910 to $4,835,- The area capable of irrigation under existing projects amounted ooo in 1925. to 644,970 ac. in 1910 and 696,119 ac. in rọrọ. In the latter The governing authority of the public school system is the year 233,893 ac. were harvested with a crop valued at $11,400,144 State board of education consisting of the governor, the superin- or $48.74 per acre. The cost of irrigation operation and maintendent of public instruction, who is elected for two years, and tenance averaged $2.41 per acre. The Carlsbad project in the five members, who are appointed by the governor. The school Pecos valley is a prosperous achievement of the U. S. Reclama-

NEW

MEXICO

tion Service. Another Federal undertaking of greater extent is she Rio Grande project of 150,000 ac. shared by New Mexico, Mexico and Texas which was constructed at a cost of $14,071,706. The estimated value of all crops in 1926 was $33,800,000 as compared with $28,600,000 In 1925 and $40,000,000 in 1924. Chief in value in 1926 was wheat, reaching $6,242,000. Hay was next to wheat, and much more

evenly distributed over the

State. The tame hay crop in 1926 amounted to 435,000 tons, the

wild crop to 33,000 tons. Approximately three-fourths of the tame

crop was alfalfa to which 121,000 ac. were devoted.

The cotton

crop, valued at $7,560,000 in 1925, declined in 1926 to $5,004,000. Corn in 1926 was valued at $3,845,000 and was well distributed

over all irrigated areas. Sorghum in 1926 was valued at $1,047,000.

The bean crop of 1925 was valued at $1,317,000 and of 1926 at

$2,179,000. Minor crops and their valuations in 1926 were: po-

319

| able for building purposes.

Manufactures.—As New Mexico is primarily a mining and stock-raising region, its manufacturing industries, though growing, are still of comparatively little importance. The value of the prod-

ucts of manufacturing establishments increased from $9,320,000 in 1914 to $20,422,126 in 1923, or 119%, but dropped to $19,458,-

885 in 1925. Of the latter figure $9,954,204 was added by the manufacturing process. There were in 1925 200 establishments, paying $5,083,211 in wages to 4,629 wage earners.

Albuquerque

with 28 establishments and 1,317 workers turning out products valued at $5,016,303 was the main manufacturing centre. The chief industries were car construction and repair shops together with railway repair shops, $5,842,735; lumber and timber prod-

ucts, $5,752,649.

Transportation.—In

1925 there were 2,998 m. of railway in

New Mexico. About one-half belonged to the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe system, whose trans-continental line crosses the northern one-third of the State. Another transcontinental 131,000 bu. of peaches. Live stock on New Mexico ranches and farms amounted in line, the Southern Pacific, crosses the southern part of New value in 1910 to $43,494,679; 1920 to $93,626,000; 1925 to $52,- Mexico westward from El Paso, Texas. The rural highway sys671,000. The decrease in 1925 from the 1920 valuation repre- tem totals in all 48,295 m. of which 2,441 m. were surfaced in sents not a decline in numbers, which remained about stationary, 1926. The State highway system, which includes all the princibut in price. There were in 1927, 166,000 horses valued at $5,586,- pal through routes, totals 9,214 m. of which 1,685 m. were sur090; 34,000 mules valued at $1,500,000; 1,189,000 cattle valued faced in 1926. Expenditures by the State for highways amounting at $36,887,000 and 2,490,000 sheep valued at $21,789,000. Cattle, to about $3,500,000 annually from 1921 to 1925, were derived though decreasing slightly in number, showed an appreciation in largely from motor vehicle and gasolene taxes and Federal aid. History.—In the period 1525-43 explorations extending from value of over $8,000,000 between 1925 and 1927. Dairying, while Florida to the California coast paved the way for the later cola growing industry, is not important in New Mexico, there being but 39,383 milch cows in 1925. The major portion of the cattle onization of Florida and New Mexico in the latter part of the are still raised on large ranches for beef purposes. Ranches 16th century, Texas in the early part of the 18th and California average from 60 to 8o sections in size but very little of the land in the latter part of that century. The first of the expeditions (10% to 25%) is owned by the rancher himself. About half is was that of Narvaez. The journey of the treasurer of this leased from the National Forest Service, from private owners Florida adventure, Cabeza de Vaca, extended over the period (often homesteaders who have failed), or from the railways or the from 1528 to 1536. The appointment of Antonio de Mendoza as first viceroy of State. In the south-western counties about 25% is public domain, and in the south-central counties about 40%. From 1922 to 1925 New Spain in 1535 marked the beginning of a period of improved New Mexico shipped an average of 531,600 cattle annually. The organization in the continental possessions of Spain. Early in value of sheep increased from $8,124,000 in 1922 to $21,789,000 1539 Friar Marcos de Niza was chosen by the viceroy to investiin 1927. Sheep are raised all over New Mexico, but are more gate the land north of Culiacán and inaugurate a new policy numerous in the southern and western parts of the State, while in Indian affairs. When Friar Marcos left Culiacán, March 15309, the north-western counties are sheep territory almost exclusively. he was accompanied by Estevanico, as guide, who was one of From 1922 to 1925 inclusive an average of 588,610 sheep were annually shipped from the State. The wool output of 1926 totalled 12,060,000 lb., valued at $3,630,000, but the average weight of a fleece was but 5-9 lb. compared with a 7-8 Ib. average for the entire United States. tatoes, $290,000; barley, $135,000; and broom corn, $246,000. Apples to the number of 1,147,000 bu. were raised in 1926; also

Mining.—Though New Mexico was once an important silver-

producing State, the 20th century brought an increased demand for the baser metals, especially copper, zinc and lead, and capital was drawn to their production. Showing a steady increase in output and value after the depression of 1921 copper became the leading mineral in 1925, its production amounting to 76,427,825

Ib. valued at $10,852,751. The estimate for 1926 amounted to 82,600,000 Ib. valued approximately at $11,300,000. About 99% of the copper is mined in Grant and Hidalgo, chiefly from the Chino Copper Company’s operations in the Central district and from the 85 mines in the Lordsburg district. Zinc production increased from 9,246 tons in 1925 to 12,100 tons in 1926—the 1925

valuation amounting to $1,405,415. Lead also showed a rapid increase from $290,761 in value in 1924 to $654,000 in 1926. The silver and gold mined in 1925 amounted in value to $510,176 and $549,073 respectively. Rivalling copper closely for the leadership among mineral products is coal. In 1925 2,556,851 tons valued at $8,611,000 were produced. Coal areas cover approximately 15,000 sq.m. and are hardly touched as yet. Good bituminous deposits are found at White Oaks, Carthage, Abbey, Cerrillos, Raton, Van Houten and Dawson. Activities in the petroleum field resulted in a leap in production from 98,000 bbl. in 1924 to 1,060,000 bbl. in 1925 and in value from $127,000 to $1,815,000. The output for 1926 was estimated at 1,627,000 barrels.

New Mexico is generously endowed with beautiful stone suit-

BY

COURTESY

OF

THE

BUREAU

OF

RECLAMATION

EXTERIOR VIEW OF TAOS, SHOWING ONE OF THE TWO PUEBLOS AND THE LADDERS BY WHICH IT IS ENTERED

SIX-STOREYED

the four survivors of the Narvaez expedition. The party reached the vicinity of the Zufii pueblos, in the western part of New Mexico. In the following year the well-equipped expedition of 270 soldiers under Coronado arrived by the same trail. The Zui pueblos were conquered and the expedition established winter headquarters near the present town of Bernalillo. The Grand Canyon of the Colorado was discovered and other parties explored the Rio Grande valley and the country as far east as the present State of Kansas. An expedition was organized by the Franciscan friar, Augustin

320

NEW

MEXICO

Rodriguez in the summer of 1581 for the purpose of convert- | At the outbreak of the Civil War the Territory was invaded ing the Indians of the lands to the north of Mexico. A year | by a Confederate force, under command of Brig.-gen. H. H. later Antonio de Espejo led an expedition to rescue the friars | Sibley, which marched up the Rio Grande valley and occupied the of the Rodriguez party, who had remained in New Mexico with- capital. The Union army under command of Col. E. R. S. Canby. out protection after the return of their military escort to Mexico. with reinforcements from Colorado, won the decisive battle of (The name New Mexico seems to have been applied to the the campaign at Apache canyon, on March 28, 1862. The period Pueblos of the Rio Grande valley in the summer of 1582, al- following the American occupation was marked by the solution though the name applied by the members of the Rodriguez expedition, San Felipe, and the name given by Espejo, Nueva Andalucia, were probably sometimes used.) Near the close of the century a contract was made with Juan de Oñate for the colonization of New Mexico. The expedition was assembled in the vicinity of Santa Barbara in August 1597, and after several delays proceeded up the Rio Grande. The first settlement was made at San Juan de los Caballeros in the Chama river valley, July rz, 1598. The construction of the first church in New Mexico was completed and mass was celebrated on Sept. 9, 1598. The present capital of New Mexico, Santa Fe, was founded in 1609.

New Mexico remained a frontier mission field during the 17th century. Twenty friars were serving by 1624; the churches numbered 43; and the number of Christian Indians 34,000. The total Spanish population at the end of the century was only 2,000, which shows that the colony had not become an important source of wealth. The differences between the Indian culture and the Spanish European manner of life were the principal causes of the revolt of the Pueblos in 1680. The Pueblo Indians were willing to accept the God of the Christians as an additional protecting power, but they could not give up their own beliefs concerning the spirits of the universe without completely destroying their organized tribal life, because every phase of their

existence is affected by their conceptions of the relation of the

tribe to the world. The Spanish settlers abandoned their holdings and retreated southward to El Paso. Diego de Vargas effected a reconquest of the province between 1692 and 1696. Albuquerque was founded in 1706 and by 1799 had a population of 4,020. The total population of the province at the close of the 18th century was about 30,000; 20,000 Spanish and 10,000 Indians. The internal affairs of New Mexico prior to 1821 were not affected to any great degree by the revolutionary developments which took place during this period in Spain and Mexico. New Mexico became a political subdivision of the Mexican Republic; granted independence from Spain by the Treaty of Cordoba, Aug. 24, 1821. Trade with the American settlements in the Missouri valley, which had been discouraged during the Spanish régime, was legalized in 1821. An annual caravan set out from Missouri in the spring of the year. The value of the merchandise carried on the outward journey increased from $15,000 in 1822 to $450,000 in 1843. The Santa Fe trade was a success because merchandise could be freighted across the plains to the markets of New Mexico and sold for a lower price than goods could be brought from Vera Cruz by way of Chihuahua. The Republic of Texas claimed the Rio Grande as its western boundary. The prosperous Santa Fe trade, which would be a rich source of taxation, encouraged Texas to assert this claim. An expedition was organized in 1841 which arrived in New Mexico In a disorganized condition and surrendered to Governor Armijo at Anton Chico. A second expedition in 1843 also failed. Upon the outbreak of war with Mexico the army of the West under command of Col. Stephen Watts Kearny, occupied Las Vegas Aug. 15, 1846 and took formal possession of the country. The capital was occupied three days later and a military govern-

ment was established which ruled the territory for five years. The civil government was retained for two years during which period a rebellion broke out resulting in the assassination of Governor Bent at Taos, on Jan. 19, 1847. The Territory of New Mexico was created by act of Congress, Sept. 9, 1850, extending from the 103 meridian of longitude on the east to the Territory of California on the west. The present boundaries were fixed by 1863 with the formation of the Territory of Arizona from the western half, and the Territory of Colorado from a northern portion two years earlier.

A

BY

COURTESY

T

OF

THE

A

ATCHISON,

-

TOPEKA

AND

SANTA

THE STATE ART MUSEUM

FE

RAILROAD

AT SANTA

FE

of the nomadic Indian problem and the economic development of the territory. A reservation was established in 1868 for the Navajo Indians in the north-western part of the Territory; the Mescalero Apache were settled in the southern part of the Territory in 1873; and the Jicarilla Apache in the northern part in 1880. The legal status of the Pueblo Indian was complicated by the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo and later decisions of the U.S. Supreme Court. The building of railways into the West, the increasing population, and the quieting of the Indians resulted in a great increase in cattle and sheep. The overflowing cattle herds of Texas were used to stock the ranges in New Mexico and the States to the north. The Goodnight-Chisom trail up the Pecos valley was followed by the overland drives to the ranges in Colorado and Wyoming; and to the railway shipping points in Kansas. Conflicts occurred between the cattle and sheep raisers over water and the use of the open range. The most bitter of these was the Lincoln county war which started in 1877 and lasted about three years. The Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe railway was extended to Albuquerque in 1880. A year later connection was made with the Southern Pacific railway at Deming, which placed the Territory on a transcontinental line. With the advent of the railways mining and irrigation developed; the population increased and a public school system was established in 18or. The Spanish and Mexican land grants in New Mexico have constituted one of the most difficult land problems in the history of the State. The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo confirmed the grants but the lack of accurate documents complicated the problem of settling conflicting claims. The establishment of the U.S court of private land claims, March 3, 1891, was the beginning of a policy of settling titles by means of court proceedings. Constant efforts were made to secure Statehood. The Enabling Act was passed by Congress on June 20, rg10. A Constitution, drawn up by the people, was accepted by Congress and signed by the president on Aug. 21, rọrr. The State was formally admitted on Jan. 6, 1912. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—J. Gregg, Commerce of the Prairies (1845); H. H. Bancroft, Arizona and New Mexico (1889); F. W. Blackmar, Spanish

Institutions of the South-west (1891); C. F. Lummis, The Land of

Poco Tiempo (1893); S. Wallace, The Land of the Pueblos (1895); W. M. Nicholl, Observations of a Ranchwoman in New Mexico (18098) ; G. B. Anderson, History of New Mexico (1907); F. A. Jones, Epitome of the Economic Geology of New Mexico (1908); O. H. Lipps, The Navajos (1909); Lingren, Graton and Gordon, Ore Deposits of New

Mexico (1910); C. D. Miller, The Irrigation Resources of New Mexico

(r911); R. E. Twitchell, Leading Facts in New Mexican History (1911-

12); Spanish Archives of New Mexico (1914) ; Military Occupation of

New Mexico (1909), Old Santa Fe (1925); L. B. Prince, A Concise History of New Mexico (1912), Spanish Mission Churches of New Mexico (1915); P. E. Goddard, Indians of the South-west (1913); H.

E. Gregory, The Navajo Country (1916); A. F. Bandelier, The Delight Makers (1918); G. W. James, New Mexico the Land of the Delight Makers (1920); H. E. Bolton, Spanish Exploration in the South-west

NEWNAN—NEW (1916); The Spanish Borderland

(1921); J. R. Finlay, Report of

Appraisal of Mining Properties of New Mexico (1921-22) ; Mary Aus-

tin, The Land of Journey's Ending (1924); B. C. Grant, Taos Indians

(1925), Taos Today (1925); C. F. Coan, A History of New Merco (1925); J- H- Vaughan, History and Government of New Mexico (1923); E. C. Parsons, The Pueblo of Jemez (1925); W. N. Burns,

The Saga of Bully the Kid (1926) ;J. S. Stokley, Wild Life of New

Mexico (1927) ; New Mexico Historical Review (1926 et seq.) ; Southwestern Historical Quarterly (1897 et seq.) ; American Anthropologist

(1888 ef seq.); Records of the Past (1901-14) ; Journal of American Folk-Lore (1888 et seg.) ; the Annual Reports of the Bureau of American Ethnology (1879 et seq.) ; and Publications of the New Mexico (F. D. R.) Historical Society (1882 et seq.).

NEWNAN,

a city of western Georgia, U.S.A., the county

seat of Coweta county; on Federal highway 29, 40 m. S.W. of Atlanta. It is served by the Atlanta and West Point and the Central of Georgia railways.

Pop. 7,037 In 1920; 6,386 in 1930.

It is a shipping point for cotton, bright-leaf tobacco, corn, peanuts, garden truck, hogs, cattle and poultry.

NEW ORLEANS, a city of Louisiana, U.S.A., situated on the

east bank of the Mississippi river about 107 m. from its mouth. It was originally on a bend in the river and from that fact its popular name, “Crescent City,” was derived.

Physical Features.—The soil is an alluvial deposit from the

river and, therefore, has its greatest elevation at the river bank, where the ground behind the levees is from 10 to 15 ft. above the mean level of the Gulf of Mexico; but the lower parts of the

city are below gulf level. Built on the narrow ridge of land at the river bank, the growing city first expanded along the river front and later, the cypress swamps between the river and Lake Pontchartrain having been cleared and drained, covered a distance of from 4-5 to 7-3 miles. The river approaches New Orleans flowing eastward, turns rather abruptly to the south at the upper municipal limits, then eastward as it passes the modern city, and finally northward in one of the sharpest bends to be found in the lower river, near the site of the original city, or vieux carré. The difficulties involved in building a city on such a site as that of New Orleans were great. Drainage, sanitation and a satisfactory water supply were realized nearly two centuries after the establishment of the first settlement, and in the interim yellow fever and cholera took frightful tolls. Modern engineering

WEATHER GRAPH OF NEW ORLEANS. THE THERMOMETER INDICATES THE NORMAL ANNUAL MEAN TEMPERATURE. THE MIDDLE CURVE SHOWS THE NORMAL MONTHLY MEAN TEMPERATURE; THE CURVES ABOVE AND BELOW, THE HIGHEST AND LOWEST EVER RECORDED IN EACH MONTH. THE COLUMNS INDICATE THE NORMAL MONTHLY PRECIPITATION

and sanitation finally triumphed, and to-day New Orleans is one of the healthiest cities of the world.

The boundaries of the parish of Orleans and the city of New Orleans are the same, embracing an area of 196 sq. miles. The

boundary line is very irregular, but may be given approximately as Lake Pontchartrain on the north, the Rigolets and Lake Borgne

on the east, the parish of St. Bernard and the Mississippi river on the south, and Jefferson parish on the west. The city gradually expanded by spreading along the higher lands near the river bank. New Orleans is noted for its mild and balmy winters; the

321

ORLEANS

summers are uniformly warm but extreme heat is unknown, and

the highest temperature recorded by the weather bureau is 102° F, while a temperature of 100° F is seldom reached, owing to the cool breezes from the Gulf of Mexico. Mean temperature is:— January February March April . May June

. 54°5° . 572 . 630 68-9 » B52 80-9

July August September October November December

. 82-4° . 82:3 . 794 70:4 . 619 55:7

Yearly average 69:3 The rainfail averages 56-77 in., well distributed through the year. Population.—The population of New Orleans was 339,075 in IQIO, 387,219 in 1920 and 458,762 in 1930. The increase in the decade 1920-30 was 71,543 Or 18-5%; 14-2% in 19ro—20. Every country in Europe is represented in the inhabitants Among the foreign-born the Italians are the most numerous; other nationalities of great numerical strength are Irish, Germans, English and French. The French, because of the creole element, feel perfectly at home, speaking their own language, and living among sympathetic surroundings. The creoles are the descendants of the French and Spanish settlers of Louisiana. When the city passed under the American flag the Americans built up a quarter for themselves, up stream from the vieux carré, the upper boundary of which was Canal street. The line is not as strictly drawn now as in earlier years, as many creoles have settled in the newer portions of the city and some Americans have moved to the French quarter. This change has been more pronounced in the third decade of the 20th century during which time a lively interest in the old quarter has developed into a movement to preserve those buildings and other historical sites of the city. Water Supply, Drainage and Sewerage.—tThe entire city, except for its levees, is below the river high water mark while a large portion of it is below that of Lake Pontchartrain. Combined with these difficulties New Orleans has heavy rainfall; occasionally over 3 in. in one hour, 7 in. in 5 hours and 9 in. in 12 hours, having been experienced. As a result of the occasional excessive rainfalls, it has been necessary to provide large canal systems to convey the water to and from the pumping plants, and eight pumping stations for the removal of storm water have been built. A number of these drainage canals are built of reinforced concrete, lined and covered with masonry and are often under the roadway of streets; some of the open canals are lined with creosoted timber. The largest of the concrete canals are 25 ft. or more in width and when running full, have 9 ft. or more depth of water. To keep the water moving in these canals the city has an aggregation of low lift pumps with a capacity of over 7,000,000,000 gal. per day. The sewage of the city is collected separately from the drainage and is finally discharged into the Mississippi, where the dilution is so great that it is not noticeable further down stream. Like the drainage, the sewage has to be pumped, much of it through two or more lifts, and this is accomplished by electric pumping stations operating automatically. In the early days of the colony the turbid water from the Mississippi was carried from the river and settled in large earthen jars. Wells were used to supply water for household purposes but not for human consumption. In 1810, a first attempt was made to establish waterworks. In 1833 the Commercial Bank was organized for the purpose of establishing waterworks in New Orleans and iron pipes replaced the early wooden ones. In 1869 the city bought the system from the company, issuing bonds for that purpose; but lack of funds and bad management obliged the city in 1877 to give a monopoly to the New Orleans Water-Works company. The river water was too muddy to be useful for most purposes and cisterns were preferred, although a time of drought often caused scant supply. To solve the problems involved and

to study the methods of treatment for purification of the river water, an experimental plant was established in: r900, and a process adopted for softening by the use of lime and small amounts of sulphate of iron, producing a coagulation whereby the fine clay particles are brought together into large masses that will settle out in a few hours, or which are large enough to be

322

NEW

ORLEANS

completely removed by the filters. By this process, first put into operation in 1909, New Orleans has had continuously an abundant supply of clear, pure water of the highest quality. Additions to the water purification plant, nearly completed in 1928, will increase the capacity to 112,000,000 gal. per day, and, if necessary, to 160,000,000. Streets, Bridges and Parks.—The streets of the vieux carré, or old French city, are narrow, but in the newer portions there are many wide avenues and boulevards, some of which were originally canals. Some of the avenues, such as St. Charles, Esplanade, Claiborne and others, were originally laid out with sufficient width for a street on each side, accommodating traffic in both directions and with a “neutral ground” between which has been used for street car tracks and planted with trees. New Orleans is situated on the Old Spanish Trail which extends from San Diego, Calif., to St. Augustine, Fla. It is at the southern end of the Jefferson highway which runs to Winnipeg, and the Colonial highway which leads to New York. The Jackson and Mississippi Valley highways lead to points in the Middle West and the Mississippi valley. Early in the year 1928 the New Orleans-Pontchartrain bridge was opened to traffic. This concrete structure is nearly 25,000 ft. in length and was built by a private corporation at a cost of $5,500,000. New Orleans is well supplied with parks. Audubon park, with 234 ac., is situated in the upper portion of the city and contains a statue of Audubon. City park on City Park avenue has recently been increased to 1,426 ac. by the purchase of a tract extending all the way to Lake Pontchartrain. West End park has largely been built up by hydraulic dredging. There are numerous smaller parks well distributed throughout the city. New Orleans is developing a tract of about 1,400 ac. on the south-east shore of Lake Pontchartrain, where the land is being built up by hydraulic dredging from the bed of the lake. The tract will contain 25 m. of boulevards and driveways, with parks and bathing beaches having a combined length of two miles. Gas and Electricity—Electric cars were first used in New Orleans in 1893. At that time there were several independent competing lines which were later consolidated into a modern, efficient system. The New Orleans public service supplies electricity for power and lighting, and supplies natural gas to power plants and for domestic use. Port.—New Orleans is one of the largest North American ports, accommodating between 9o and 100 steamship lines; go8 vessels with a total net tonnage of 11,204,573 tons entered the port in the year ending Aug. 31, 1927. The limits of the Port of New Orleans include the parish of Orleans and a part of the parishes of Jefferson and St. Bernard bordering on the Mississippi, with a frontage of 41-4 m. on both sides of the river. About 7 m. of river front is equipped with publicly owned wharves, steel sheds, cotton warehouses, grain elevators, coal tipples and other modern facilities. The Inner Harbour navigation canal extends for 5 m. from the river to Lake Pontchartrain. Recent development of South West pass with an available depth of 35 ft., has made the port available to the largest ships. Transportation.—Twelve

railroad lines enter New Orleans:

the Gulf Coast Lines, Illinois Central, Yazoo and Mississippi Valley, Louisiana Railway and Navigation Company, Louisiana Southern, Louisville and Nashville, Missouri Pacific, New Orleans Great Northern, New Orleans and Lower Coast, Southern Pacific, southern Railway and the Texas Pacific. New Orleans owns and operates a Public Belt railroad, extending the length of the docks. The Federal Barge line supplies freight service to points on the Mississippi and Warrior rivers. Commerce, Industry and Municipal Statistics.—The Mer-

chants’ Progressive Association of 1898 and the Progressive Union, which succeeded it the following year, were the organizations leading to the Association of Commerce in 1913. There are 14 bureaux and departments, and the membership is over 5,000. In 1927 there were over 670 factories, whose output was evaluated at $151,893,071. The New Orleans Clearing House was organized.in 1872; and there were in 1928 about a dozen large banks. The growth of the city may be shown by the following

| comparative figures :— |

|

1910

i| Bank resources So m Property valuation . | and utilities | Buildings Building permits . >o | Water consumed—gallons Water mains, miles . | Commerce and transportation

1927 |

Financial Bank

debits

š

.

‘

a y

Water cargoes—short tons

Public belt railway, cars handled . 2. wt Bg Street railway mileage . .

Hard surface streets—mileage

|$2,991,128,000

$131,771,263 $230,846,187

$3,422,251

$4,165,757,000

|

$330,171,886 | 607,086,071 $16,011,635 |

535 79,000,000

II,I51,717,700

|

3,964,109

16,538,167

|

325

113,727

162 II4

585 |

| 334,265 | 209

263 |

Public schools

Enrolment number

Value of property

|

.

Public libraries Number of volumes . Circulation Health Deaths per 1,000 white-resident

2,733

68,356 |

2,688,000

$35,481,282 |

100,102 350,746

235,082 | 916,825

14°23

II-97

Education.—The New Orleans public-school system consisted in 1928 of 63 kindergartens and elementary schools, five highschools, one vocational school for girls and one normal school, for white pupils, and of 19 elementary and one high and normal school for coloured pupils. There were 12 elementary evening schools and one evening high-school for coloured pupils. The enrolment for 1926-27 was, for white schools, 48,731, and for coloured schools, 19,625, a total of 68,356; and the expenditure exclusive of building was $3,568,743. There were over 60 private schools in New Orleans in 1927, and the Catholic Church has a system of parochial schools, each parish church conducting a school under the direction of the parish priest and, in most cases, taught by nuns. Uniform text-books are used and the classes are graded according to public school standards. There are several preparatory schools among which are Rugby academy, New Orleans academy, Holy Cross college and the Christian Brothers college. The Delgado Trades school was opened, near City park in 1921. The Isidore Newman Manual Training school was founded in 1903 and has a capacity of about 600 boys and girls. Tulane University—The history of Tulane university dates back to the foundation of the medical college in 1834. It was chartered in 1835 and in the following year issued the first degree in medicine conferred in the South-west. The Constitution of 1845 provided for the establishment of a university in New Orleans, embracing the medical college to which law and academic departments were to be added. In 1882 Paul Tulane, for many years a merchant in New Orleans, gave liberally for the higher education of “the white young persons in the city of New Orleans.” His entire donations reached the sum of $1,050,000. He died at Princeton, N.J., in 1887. In 1884 the board of administrators of the Tulane educational fund received from the legislature complete and perpetual control of the university of Louisiana. This act was ratified in 1888 and again in the Constitutions of 1898, r9r3 and 1921.

Tulane university had a total enrolment of 2,988 in all departments during the session of 1926—27, exclusive of the summer school, which numbered 1,751 more. Its endowment was then approximately $8,000,000. Loyola Universtty—In 1904, the Jesuit Fathers opened a school opposite Audubon park. A collegiate course was added and in 1912 the legislature granted them power to confer ‘degrees in arts and sciences and all the learned professions, such as are granted by other universities in the United States.” Monuments, Public Institutions and Customs.—The Delgado Art museum in City park was established by a gift from Isaac M. Delgado in rg11. There is a nucleus of an art collection containing many works of great merit. The annual exhibition of the Art Association is an important event. The Cabildo houses an important historical museum containing much of interest and

NEW

ORLEANS

value pertaining to the history of Louisiana and New Orleans. The Presbytery, facing Jackson square on the side of the Cathedral of St. Louis, contains a valuable museum of natural

history, principally relating to Louisiana. morial hall contains

The Confederate Me-

relics of the Civil War.

It is located on

Camp street adjoining the Howard library. The Tulane university museum occupies the entire third floor of Gibson hall; it contains petrological, paleontological, zoological and anthropological

sections. The Art museum in the Tilton Memorial library of Tulane university embraces the Linton-Surget collection of works of art. scripts, Central ditions

At Tulane university is the Gates collection of manudocuments and other material relative to Mexico and America. This is constantly being added to by the expeand researches of the department of Middle American

research, which has a permanent endowment of $300,000. New Orleans has a number of excellent hospitals: the Baptist; Charity; City (for mental diseases); Eye, Ear, Nose and Throat; Hôtel Dieu; Presbyterian; Soniat Mercy; and the U.S. Marine and U.S. Veterans’ hospitals, the St. Rita Surgical and Touro infrmaries. Practically all of the charitable institutions of New Orleans receive contributions from a community chest. In 1928 these amounted to more than $900,000. Over 50 newspapers and periodicals are published in New Orleans, including two morning and two afternoon papers. The New Orleans Picayune was founded in 1837, the Daily Times in 1863, the Daily Democrat in 1875. The two latter formed the

Times-Democrat in 1881 and this and the Picayune became the Times-Picayune in 1914.

The Daily Item began publication in

1877; the Daily States started In 1880. The Morning Tribune was first published in 1924. There are some 300 churches in New Orleans, representing different denominations. Roman Catholic churches are the most numerous. The French opera house, designed by Gallier, was erected in 1859 at the corner of Bourbon and Toulouse streets. It was a distinctive and widely known centre of artistic and social life in New Orleans for many years. The Mardi Gras balls were held

there until the building was destroyed by fire in 1919. The carnival season extends from Twelfth Night to Lent, and its climax is reached in the festivities of Mardi Gras, the eve of Ash Wednesday. The ancient custom of celebrating the carnival was brought to New Orleans by the Latin peoples, and especially by the young creoles who studied in Paris and returned to live in New Orleans. Beginning with Twelfth Night there is a series of brilliant balls, and during the last week the balls of Momus, Proteus and Comus, preceded by gorgeous pageants, bring the season of mirth to a conclusion. On Mardi Gras Rex parades the streets and at night the final parade is that of Comus. Among writers and historians of note associated closely with New Orleans should be mentioned: John James Audubon, C. E. A. Gayarré, Alcée Fortier, Grace King, Mary Ashley Townsend, Lafcadio Hearn, George W. Cable and Mollie Moore Davis. Government.—The city government was at first carried out by a mayor and administrators, seven in number. Finally, in 1912, by act of the legislature, the commission form of government was adopted; the mayor became commissioner of public affairs. Four other commissioners have charge of public finances, public safety, public utilities and public property. At the first regular meeting after the election, the commission council by a majority vote assigns one of the councilmen to each of the above named departments.

323

pirates, Jean and Pierre Lafitte, and which offered access to the gulf without stemming the current of the Mississippi. There is some doubt as to the exact date of the founding

of New Orleans, but it is generally given as 1718. It was then proposed that John Law’s famous company, which had obtained charter for the territory from France, should move its headquarters from the barren coast country to the new site. New Orleans thus became the capital of the Colony in 1722. At this time the city had but roo houses and 500 inhabitants. It was laid out in approximately a parallelogram, 4,000 ft. long on the river by 1,800 ft. in depth, divided into regular squares

300 it.

on each side. In 1724 the streets were named. The houses were rude cabins of split cypress boards, roofed with cypress bark. They were separated from one another by willow copses and weed-grown ponds swarming with reptiles. Two squares on the river front near the centre of the city were set apart for military and ecclesiastical uses. The front was the Place d’Armes, now Jackson square; the rear one was early occupied by a church. In 1726 a monastery was erected to the east of the church for the Capuchin monks, who had arrived two years earlier. A company of Ursuline nuns came to New Orleans in 1727. At the same time the Jesuits arrived and received a large tract of land from Bienville, the French governor. This tract, bounded by what is now Common, Tchoupitoulas, Annunciation and Terpsichore streets, was later added to by donation and purchase and extended to Felicity street. Here the Jesuits cultivated myrtle, the wax of which was then a staple article of commerce; the orange, the fig, indigo and probably sugar-cane. These became staple crops. The Order was suppressed for political reasons in 1763 and its great plantation confiscated by the king of Spain. Many storms and disasters occurred during the early years of

the city. In 1719 the river rose to a great height and the site was completely inundated to a depth of a few inches. In 1722 a hurricane destroyed 30 houses and damaged crops. German colonists who had settled on the banks of the Arkansas managed to reach New Orleans and there prayed Bienville to send them back to their homes. He persuaded them to establish themselves along the river above the city, and thus was formed the nucleus of the German settlement, which to this day is called the German coast. There were few women of good character in the Colony in the early days; and many of the better class of settlers, missing their home life, desired to return to France. It thus became imperative that if the settlement was to survive, the men must have good wives to make homes for them. When Bienville left the Colony in 1724, he promised to send a load of good women as soon as possible. In 1727 the “Casket Girls” (Files à la cassette) arrived and were placed under the care of the Ursuline nuns whose convent had been established in the same year. They were first domiciled in Bienville’s former home, but in 1730 their own house.on Chartres and Ursuline streets was completed. This is the oldest building in the United States west of the Alleghenies. In 1763 the Treaty of Paris was concluded between France and England. By this treaty England gained all the territory east of the Mississippi except the Isle of Orleans. On Nov. 3, 1762, Louis XV. had, by the secret treaty of St. Ildefonso, given the Isle of Orleans and all of Louisiana west of the Mississippi to his cousin, Charles III. of Spain. It was not until Oct. 1764 that the French king notified governor Abbadie of the transfer of the Colony, nearly two years previously, to Spain, and ordered him to surrender Louisiana to accredited Spanish commissioners

History.—The city of La Nouvelle Orleans was founded by a when they should present themselves. There was sorrow and disFrench governor of Louisiana, Jean Baptiste Le Moyne, Sieur de Bienville, and was named in honour of the Regent, the Duc

d'Orléans.

The island of Orleans was chosen for the site, on an

elevation along the east bank of the river and about 107 m. from its mouth, between the head of Bayou St. John and the river.

Among the advantages of this site were the higher land, accessi-

bility by two main waterways (the Mississippi and the Jakes), and by Bayou St. John for the small craft of that day. On the other side of the river it was not far to Bayou Barataria, which later was destined to become the rendezvous of the famous

may when these tidings were received. In 1783, the Treaty of Paris confirmed Spain in possession of this territory and granted free and open navigation of the Mississippi river to the subjects of Great Britain and the United States. In 1788, and again in 1794, fires destroyed large portions of the city. By the first, 19 squares were devastated, and 856 houses were burned. The second fire destroyed 212 houses and caused a loss estimated at $2,600,000. Rebuilding with brick instead of wood, resulted in a more permanent city. During this period the Spanish Governor, Almonaster y

324 Rojas,

NEW ORLEANS was

the greatest

benefactor

of New

Orleans;

he gave | 000,000, a part of the increase being due to the extraordinary rise

freely of his private fortune for many purposes. He rented in| of prices throughout the country. The population was cosmo. perpetuity the squares flanking the Place d’Armes and erected | politan. In 1815 it numbered 33,000 and in 1820 had advanced a row of brick buildings to be used as shops and retail stores. | to 41,000.

Commerce

increased

more

rapidly

than

population

These were replaced in 1845 by the Pontalba buildings, which |because of the absence of manufacturing; between 1830 and 1840 bear the name of their builder, Baroness Pontalba, a daughter of trade advanced 75% and the population only 20%. the governor. He rebuilt the Charity hospital, which had been In 1847-48 the exports of domestic products from New Orleans destroyed by a hurricane, and a chapel for the Ursuline nuns. exceeded those of New York, although the total exports were less Through his generosity the cathedral was completed in 1794; than those of the northern city; but imports at New Orleans were it was constructed of bricks and had much the same appearance far less. as to-day except in details of the belfry and towers. A town-hall, In 1842 receipts from the interior were valued at $45,700,009 or hall of the Cabildo, presented to the city in 1795, was used | and in 1851 they had increased to $107,000,000. One tenth of the as a meeting place of the Spanish Cabildo. It was here that the |arrivals were now steamships. This trade was carried on in spite formal transfer of Louisiana from France to the United States of the danger from bars on entering the river; in the space of a took place. few weeks, in 1852, 40 ships went aground at the entrance to the Before the cultivation of sugar-cane the staple crop of Louisi- river. The terrible yellow fever epidemics of 1853-55 reduced ana had been indigo; but it did not prove successful. In 1794 the volume of trade, which was regained, however, and a highEtienne de Boré succeeded in making granulated sugar. His water mark reached in 1857, to be followed by a financial crash plantation is now within the city limits. By the Treaty of which was disastrous to the business houses of New Orleans. Madrid, signed in Oct. 1795, Spain and the United States agreed Louisiana seceded from the Union on Jan. 26, 1861. New that New Orleans should be open to the Americans as a port of Orleans was recognized as a strategic point by the authorities at deposit for three years; the produce was to be free of duty but Washington and two expeditions started to secure the Mississippi a reasonable price for storage was to be paid. The commerce of for the Union: Grant was to descend the river and Farragut and New Orleans increased greatly, the levee was the scene of noisy, Butler were to ascend it. The city had sent 5,000 soldiers to the bustling business. defence of the northern line of the Confederacy but the Souther The purchase of Louisiana by the United States in 1803 had Government seemed oblivious to the importance of holding New a further beneficial effect on trade. The first half of that year Orleans. While Grant was endeavouring to push his way down showed an increase of 37% in tonnage over that of 1802; exports stream, Farragut was entering the river from the gulf with a fleet exceeded $2,000,000 and imports $2,500,000. The flat-boat trade of 43 vessels. The assistance asked by Gen. Lovell could not be with the upper valley also increased enormously. Above the given by the Confederacy. An attempt was made to obstruct the vieux carré commercial houses were erected and this newer portion passage of the Federal fleet by cables put across the river below of the city gradually became a business centre. Above the Terre the city, but New Orleans was captured by Farragut on April 25, Commune, Common street, was Madame Gravier’s plantation, a 1862 and the city front blazed with the fire from thousands of part of the former Jesuit grant. Many of the street names are bales of cotton and hogsheads of sugar and molasses which were reminders of the first owners or of the first use of the locality. burned to prevent their falling into the hands of the Federals. Gravier street bears the name of its original owner; Poydras Gen. Benjamin T. Butler with 15,000 soldiers took charge of the that of a philanthropist; Magazine was so named because of the city on May 1, 1862. Mayor Monroe was removed from office and great tobacco warehouses on Magazine and Common, and Camp a military commandant appointed in his place. The city council street because of a slave camp between Poydras and Girod. An was replaced by the bureau of finance and the bureau of streets aristocratic suburb was along the Bayou St. John road. Below and landings. Butler’s tule in New Orleans was execrated by the the old city the Marigny plantation was settled by the French. people of the city and he was removed before the year expired. In 1805, New Orleans was incorporated as a city and the people The Republican Congress decided that the Southern States exercised their right of suffrage for the first time in electing should be regarded as conquered territory, reconstructed and adaldermen. Between 1803 and 1810 the population more than mitted to the Union. First of all the new freemen were to be doubled with the arrival of many whites, mulattoes and slaves secured in the enjoyment of their citizenship and suffrage. The from Cuba, Santo Domingo and other islands of the West Indies. white men of the State were virtually deprived of the ballot by The creoles of those islands had much in common with the creoles all the restrictions placed upon its exercise. In the wake of the of Louisiana—many were of French ancestry, they had the same war came a host of undesirables seeking fortunes by easy means. religion, language and political ideas, and had met with the same They became known as “carpet baggers,” and their Southern political misfortunes. The creoles were numerically so strong friends and associates were known as “scalawags.” In New Orthat they dominated the city. leans they gained control of the city government through leaderOn Jan. 10, 1812, the “New Orleans,” a steam propelled vessel ship of the voting population—largely composed of the newly built by Nicholas Roosevelt, arrived on her maiden trip from enfranchised negroes. The property of the city disappeared; Pittsburgh. extravagant expenditures reached $6,961,381 by 1872 and the The War of 1812 found New Orleans without adequate de- bonded indebtedness $21,000,000, paying up to 10% interest. fences; Wilkinson was ordered to occupy that part of Florida The citizens of New Orleans formed the “White League” for west of the Perdido river; the Creek Indians massacred 350 whites the expulsion ot the “carpet-bag” government and for restoring at Ft. Mimms, Miss.; drunken Choctaws roamed the streets of New Orleans; Barataria bay was held by the Lafittes and their band of piratical smugglers, who appeared daily in the city. Claiborne had great difficulty in raising the quota of 1,000 men called for by the President, but finally accomplished it. Congress ordered Jackson to proceed to New Orleans for its defence. Commerce on the Mississippi was greatly stimulated by the advent of steam navigation. In 1817, 1,500 flat-boats and soo barges brought the produce of the valley to New Orleans. Four years later 287 steamboats, 441 flat-boats and 174 barges moored along the water front of the city. The American section became the market for cotton, tobacco, pork, beef, corn and flour, while the old city retained control of coffee, indigo, sugar, rice, foreign fruits and wine. In the year 1825, the imports and exports of the

city were valued at $17,000,000, and by 1835 at more than $53,-

white supremacy. To frustrate their plan an order was issued forbidding a citizen to keep a firearm even in his home. It was

rumoured that a ship was to arrive on Sept. 14, 1874, with a cargo of ammunition and the metropolitan police formed at the foot of Canal street with mounted cannon to prevent the citizens from reaching the vessel. The White League formed at Poydras street

and moved out to the levee; a skirmish followed in which the metropolitan police were worsted, suffering considerable loss. By graduai successes the White League restored white control. Improvements made but slow progress during restoration times and for many years after; the city undertook the operation of the water works in 1869; a drainage system was proposed in 1871 but proved too expensive to be carried out; in 1871 the

board of park commissioners bought the Upper City park, now Audubon park. The population in 1860 was 168,755 and had

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PHOTOGRAPHS,

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ORLEANS

ct, and the skycentre of the retail business distri ng at the left Canal Street, the 1. Air view of New Orleans, showi In the middle distance is the Mississippi River one side is St. Louis scrapers of the modern city. in the old French quarter. On rly called the “Place d'Armes,” on the site of the Presbyter 1828 in ed erect ing 2. Historic Jackson Sauare, forme Museum and a court build alba Mansions” Cathedral flanked by the State square are the so-called ‘‘Pont s. On adjoining sides of the building of the Capuchin Priest in 1849

her estate built by the Baroness de Pontalba on

$,

NEW

PHILADELPHIA—NEWPORT

increased by 1870 to 191,418. During this decade many freed negroes had come to the city from the country districts. In 1870 the fifth and sixth districts were added by the annexation of the rown of Algiers on the opposite bank of the river and of Jefferson

City (formerly Lafayette), a town adjoining the fourth district.

in 1874 Carrollton was admitted as the seventh municipal district, and New Orleans attained its present limits.

In the spring of 1927, New Orleans was saved from the great Mississippi river flood, which temporarily made much of Louisiana

and other States an inland sea, by blasting the levee at Poydras, about 15 m. below the city, on April 29. This operation sacrificed the adjacent parishes of St. Bernard and Plaquemines at a cost to the city of approximately $5,000,000. About 35 m. above New Orleans a spillway is being constructed to remove 250,000 second-feet of water from the river during excessive floods and deliver it into Lake Pontchartrain. This will reduce the gauge heights at the city and will eliminate the fear of the Mississippi river during future foods. (W. B. G.) BIBLIOGRAPHY; —C. E. A. Gayarré, History of Louisiana (3rd ed., New Orleans, 1885); Alcée Fortier, Louisiana Studies (New Orleans,

1894); G. E. King, New Orleans (1895); Henry Rightor, Standard History of New Orleans (Chicago, r900) ; Alcée Fortier, A History of

Louisiana (Paris, 1904) ; E. C. Richey and E. P. Kean, The New Orleans Book (New Orleans, 1915); J. S. Kendall, History of New Orleans (1922) ; Lyle Saxon, Fabulous New Orleans (1929) ; Reports, board of commissioners of the port of New Orleans; Publications, New Orleans Association of Commerce.

The Battle of New Orleans.—This was the final engagement of the American War of 1812 (g.v.), fought on Jan. 8, 1815, between the forces of the United States, under Maj.-gen. Andrew Jackson, and those of Great Britain under Maj.-gen. Sir Edward

325

welder (1743-1823) arrived with 200 more Indians. They laid out the town of Schoenbrunn at the “big spring” a little southeast of the present city of New Philadelphia, built the first church and the first school-house in Ohio, and more than 60 dwellings of hewn timber, but were obliged to abandon the settlement in 1777

on account of the hostility of the neighbouring Indians. The site of Schoenbrunn, discovered in 1923, has been bought by the Ohio State Archaeological and Historical Society, which proposes to reconstruct the pioneer town. Other missions were planted in this region at Gnadenhiitten (1772), Lichtenau (1776) and Salem

(1780). On March 7 and 8, 1782, the 96 peaceful Christian Indians at Gnadenhiitten were tricked and brutally massacred by a force of 100 whites sent out from Ft. Pitt under Col. Williamson. At Zoar, 5 m. N. of New Philadelphia, a settlement was made in 1817 by 225 Germans under the leadership of Joseph Bimeler. In 1824 they organized a communistic society, which lasted until 1898. New Philadelphia was founded in 1804 by John Knisely, from Pennsylvania. It was incorporated as a village in 1815 and chartered as a city in 1896.

NEW PLYMOUTH,

a municipality and seaport on the west

coast of North Island, New Zealand, capital of the provincial district of Taranaki, 258 m. north-north-west of Wellington by rail. Pop. (1927) 16,790. The district is not unjustly termed “the garden of New Zealand.” It is highly fertile, cereals and fruits growing well; and it is one of the chief dairy centres of New Zealand. The settlement was founded in 1841 by the Plymouth Company under the auspices of the New Zealand Company, and chiefly consisted of emigrants from Devonshire and Cornwall. On the seashore in the neighbourhood are extensive deposits of ironsand.

NEWPORT,

a municipal, county and parliamentary bor-

ough, seaport and market town of Monmouthshire, England, on the Usk, 5 m. from its confluence with the Severn, and 1334 m. from London by the G.W. railway. Pop. (1931) 89,198. It lies chiefly on the right (west) bank of the river, and on the east, north and west it is sheltered by a line of hills. An ancient mesne borough and castle, it occupied an important position on the Welsh marches. The town, which is not mentioned in Domesday, grew up round the castle built early in the t2th century. Giraldus Cambrensis, writing in 1187, calls it Novus Burgus, probably to distinguish it from Caerleon, whose prosperity declined as that of Newport increased. From Robert Jackson time to fortify a dry canal and to receive additional Fitz Hamon (d. 1107) the lordship passed to the earls of Gloucester and Stafford and the dukes of Buckingham. Hugh le reinforcements. At last, in the early morning of Jan. 8, 1815, a direct attack Despenser, who held the lordship for a short time, obtained in was made on the now strongly entrenched line of the defenders 1323 a charter of liberties for the burgesses, granting them freeat Chalmette, near the Mississippi river. It failed disastrously dom from toll throughout England, Ireland and Aquitaine. The with a loss of about 2,000 out of 9,000 British troops engaged, earl of Stafford granted a further charter in 1385, confirmed by among the dead being Pakenham and Maj.-gen. Gibbs. The his grandson in 1427, which gave the burgesses the right of selfBritish attack on the right bank had been successful but Gen. government and of a merchant gild. On the attainder of the duke Lambert, Pakenham’s successor, was unwilling to take the responsi- of Buckingham in 1483 the lordship lapsed to the Crown, of bility of any further fighting. The expedition was soon abandoned, whom it was held in the 16th and r7th centuries by the Pemand by the end of the month the troops embarked for England. brokes, and in the roth by the Beauforts. The town was inThe American loss proved to be 71, out of a total of about 4,000 corporated by charter of James I. in 1624 under the title of engaged on both sides of the river. The battle of New Orleans “Mayor and Bailiffs.” This charter was confirmed by Charles IT. had no bearing on the outcome of the war as peace had been in 1685. In 1385 the borough obtained a market lasting 15 days made at Ghent 15 days before the battle was fought, but news from the vigil of St. Lawrence (Aug. 10). The charter of 1624 of the battle and the peace reached Washington almost together. granted two fairs, one on the feast of the Ascension, and a second on St. Leonard’s day (Nov. 6). Newport was the scene of a (See War oF 1812.) NEW PHILADELPHIA, a city of eastern Ohio, U.S.A., serious Chartist riot in 18309. The old parish church of St. Woollos (since 1921 the cathedral 75 m. S. by E. of Cleveland, adjoining Dover, on the Tuscarawas river and Federal highway 21, at an altitude of 890 ft.; the county church of the Anglican diocese of Monmouth) stands on Stow seat of Tuscarawas county. It is served by the Baltimore and hill. Originally it consisted only of the present nave, a fine speciOhio, the Pennsylvania and electric railways. Pop. 10,718 in 1920 men of grand, though unadorned, Norman architecture; but a (92% native white); and in 1930 it was (Federal census) 12,365. massive square tower (of the time of Henry ITI.) and a chancel Coal and fire-clay abound in the immediate vicinity, and the city were subsequently added; a large western Early English ladyhas important manufactures (including enamelled ware, tinplate, chapel is interposed between the nave and the tower. The castle, electric and vacuum sweepers, iron castings, steel, trucks, trailers founded at the close of the r1th century, was greatly altered in and brick) with an output in 1927 valued at $5,556,806. There the late Perpendicular period. The old Dominican monastery is are 16 large plants in the county making sewer pipe, and 25 mak- entirely rebuilt and occupied as a private residence; but there ing brick. On May 3, 1772, a company of Christian Indians led are a few fragments of a house of White Friars. There is a by the Moravian missionary, David Zeisberger (1721-1808), came museum and art gallery. Newport owes a rapid increase in imfrom western Pennsylvania, and three months later John Hecke- portance during the second half of the roth century to its situa-

Pakenham. The abdication of Napoleon in April 1814 made it possible for Great Britain to give more attention to her American antagonist. The Gulf of Mexico region was selected for the attack, and late in 1814 a fleet of 50 vessels and an army of nearly 10,000 veterans were dispatched to the region of the Mississippi river. The British advance was made by way of Lake Borgne and the Villere canal to the bank of the Mississippi where the advance-guard appeared on Dec. 23, 1814. Jackson was wholly surprised by this movement but with a superior force made an immediate (Dec. 24) attack with such effect that the British decided to wait for the main army and their artillery. This gave

326

NEWPORT

tion on a deep and spacious tidal river, which renders it an outlet for the eastern section of the South Wales coalfields. Its population in 1801 was only 1,135. The Old dock was partially formed in 1842, while the Alexandra was opened in 1875 There were many subsequent extensions of the docks (particularly in 1907 and 1913), which are now owned by the G.W.R. company. The administration of the docks is in the hands of the Harbour commissioners. There are the Alexandra, North and South, docks with a quayage of 7,839 and 17,189 ft. respectively, and the Town (Old) dock with a quayage of 4,853 feet. The average depth of water in both Alexandra docks, which form a single sheet of water, is 45 ft. at spring tides and 35 ft. at neap tides. In the Old dock the depths are 30 ft. and 20 ft. respectively. There are two dry docks connected with the Alexandra docks, one owned by the G.W.R. company being 523 ft. long and 74 it. wide, while the privately owned dry dock is 415 ft. long and 60 ft. wide. There are six other private dry docks all of them entered from the river. The town has grown rapidly during the first quarter of the 20th century under a town planning scheme, and extensive building has been carried out at Somerleyton and St. Julien’s. It is now spreading over Caerleon. Newport returns one member to parliament.

NEWPORT, market town, municipal borough, the chief town of the Isle of Wight, England. Pop. (1931) 11,313. It is situated near the centre of the island, at the head of the navigation of the Medina river, 5 m. S. from its mouth at Cowes. It is the chief centre of the railway system of the island. The church of St. Thomas of Canterbury was rebuilt in 1854 in the Decorated style. The guildhall, erected in 1816, includes the town-hall in the upper story with the market-place below. There are a corn exchange and museum. The grammar school was founded in 1612, and there is a blue-coat school for girls founded in 1761. The Albany barracks and Parkhurst prison lie north of the town. A considerable trade is carried on in timber, malt, wheat and flour. It is supposed that

cross,

Newport

possesses a grammar

school founded in 1665,

To the south of the town are the ruins of Lilleshall abbey. NEWPORT,

a city of Campbell county, Kentucky, US, A,

on the Ohio river, opposite Cincinnati and adjoining Bellevue, and separated from Covington only by the Licking river. Iti; on Federal highways 25 and 27, and is served by the Chesapeake

and Ohio and the Louisville and Nashville railways, inter-urban trolley and motor-bus lines, and river steamers. Pop. 29,317 in 1920; 1930 it was 29,744. It is a residential suburb of Cin-

cinnati, and also an important industrial centre, with rolling mills, steel works and other manufacturing plants.

The factory output

in 1927 was valued at $16,128,727. In the highlands 2 m. back of the city is Ft. Thomas (a U.S. military post, established in 1888 to supersede Newport barracks

[1804])

and a town of the

same name (pop. 5,028 in 1920). Newport was laid out in 1791, incorporated as a town in 1795 and chartered as a city in 1834,

NEWPORT, a city of Rhode Island, U.S.A., 30 m. S. by E, of Providence, occupying the southern end of the island of Rhode Island (or Aquidneck); ; a port of entry, the county seat of New-

port county, a place of great historic interest, and a fashionable summer and autumn resort. It is served by the New York, New Haven and Hartford the Fall River line 27,612, a decrease of From the harbour

railroad, motor-bus lines, various ferries and of steamers. Pop. (1920) 30,255; (1930) 8-7%.

on the west the city rises to a gently rolling

plateau with maximum elevations of about 250 feet. The climate is mild and equable throughout the greater part of the year. The

“Old Town,” with its narrow streets and 18th century houses, climbs the hill back of the harbour. At the head of Washington square, or the Parade, stands the old State House (or Colony House, when it was built in 1739), now used by the county, court, containing a full-length portrait of Washington by Gilbert Stuart, where Washington, Adams, Jackson and other presidents have been entertained. Near by are the birthplace of Commodore Perry, and

Newport (Neuport) was a Roman settlement, then known as the Vernon house (built in 1758, and occupied by Rochambeau Medina. There are no traces of Saxon occupation, and no evidence during the Revolution), which still has its beautiful mahogany that Newport became a borough before the reign of Henry II. balustrades, panelled chimney-pieces and Delft-tiled hearths. TrinThe first charter was granted by Richard de Redvers between 1177 ity church (1725) has a lovely white spire, tipped with a golden and 1184, and confirmed in 1349 by Edward ITI. and afterwards by crown. At the head of Touro street (named for Isaac Touro, an successive kings. The borough was incorporated by James I. in early rabbi of Dutch nativity) is the Hebrew cemetery (estab1607, and a second charter of incorporation granted by Charles I. lished in 1677) and farther down the street is a fine synagogue (1763) said to be the oldest in America. The old Friends’ meeting in 1637 is that by which Newport was governed until 1835. It was represented in parliament in 1295, but no other return was made house, part of which dates from 1699 (the first one built on Ameriuntil 1584, when it regularly sent two members. From 1867 to can soil) is now a museum, and its extensive grounds are used as 1885 it sent one but in 1885 its representation was merged in that playfields. In Touro park, near the upper end of Bellevue avenue, of the island. A fair was formerly held on Whit-Monday, the two is the old stone mill, frequently attributed (as by Longfellow in following days and the three Saturdays nearest Whitsuntide. The his Skeleton in Armor) to the Norsemen; and near by is the RedSaturday market dates from 1184, and there is a Wednesday cattle wood library, incorporated in 1747 (a development of the Philomarket. Owing to its facilities for trade, Newport early super- sophical Society founded in 1730), occupying a building erected in 1750, and named for Abraham Redwood (d. 1788), a Friend who seded Carisbrooke as the capital of the island. NEWPORT, a market town and urban district of Shropshire, contributed £500 for books. A little farther on is the Casino, and England, 18 m. E.N.E. of Shrewsbury, with stations on the G.W.R. from this point Bellevue avenue, extending south to the ocean, is and L.M.S.R., and on the Shrewsbury canal. Pop. (1931) 3,439. bordered on both sides with the summer “cottages” of wealthy Newport is not mentioned in Domesday, but at the time of the New Yorkers—palatial structures representing almost every posConquest formed part of the manor of Edgmond, which William sible style of architecture, set in ancient trees and modern gardens, I. gave with the rest of Shropshire to Roger, earl of Shrewsbury. behind high stone or brick walls or grilled fences. A horse show Henry I. is thought to have founded the borough, at first called has been held every year since 1896, and a dog show is also an New Borough, after the manor had come into his hands through annual event. On Conanicut island, west of Newport, is the old the forfeiture of Robert de Belesme. The site was probably chosen town of Jamestown (pop. [1925] 1,773) also a summer resort. partly on account of the fisheries which are mentioned in DomesNewport’s inner harbour, formed by a deep indentation in the day. Henry II. granted all the liberties, rights and customs which western shore, has a depth of about 18 ft. and is almost landthe town enjoyed under Henry I. Henry III. granted the locked. It is guarded by Ft. Adams on the point forming its borough with the manor of Edgmond, to Henry de Audley. Con- western boundary. On Goat island, lying in the entrance of the harfirmation charters were granted by Edward I. in 1287 and Edward bour, is Ft. Walcott, with a U.S. torpedo station; and on Coasters II. in 1311. The town was incorporated in 1551 by Edward VI. Harbor island, farther north, off which the old frigate “‘Constelwhose charter was confirmed by James I. in 1604. The governing lation” rides at anchor, are a training station of the U.S. navy, a body consisted of a high steward, deputy steward, two water- Naval War college, a Naval hospital and old Ft. Greene. The bailiffs and 28 burgesses, but the corporation was abolished by traffic of the harbour (entirely domestic commerce) amounted to the Municipal Corporation Act of 1883, and a Local Board was 146,532 tons in 1925, valued at $14,220,157. formed, which, under the Local Government Act, gave place in ‘Newport was founded in 1639 by John Clarke, William Cod1894 to an urban district council. The church of St. Nicholas is dington and other Antinomians, who had been driven out of the Early English and Perpendicular. There is an ancient market Massachusetts Bay Colony. The Baptist church they organized

327

NEWPORT—NEWRY one in Proviin 1640 is the oldest in the United States, after the elders was and judge by dence. An independent government Portsence, Provid with united town the 1647 in established, but and Island Rhode of y Colon mouth and Warwick to form the

a small on whose advice the site was selected. It remained of the s terminu eastern the became it 188r in hamlet until and 1882 in out laid was city Chesapeake and Ohio railway. The 19.635. of ion populat hada it 1900 By 1896. in rated incorpo

r secured by Roger WilProvidence plantations, under the charteinflux of English Friends. an was there 1656 In liams in 1644. 1732 by James Franklin The first newspaper was published in

1758 established the (a brother of Benjamin), whose son James in 1760 great fortunes and 1739 Mercury, still published. Between Africa and the Barwere made in the “triangular trade” with

exchanged for slaves hadoes, in which rum from Newport was and molasses in the in Africa, who were exchanged for sugar rt to be made into Newpo to back ht broug were Barbadoes, which was greater than trade n foreig more rum. In 1770 Newport’s -

yed by the Revolu that of New York, but it was entirely destro British from Dec. the of hands the in tion, when the town was the British it 1776 to Oct. 25, 1779. After the was occupied by French troops 1780-81 it was a station of the chartered as a city In 1784; resumed in 1787; was again chartered as a

NEWPORT

PAGNELL,

a market town in Buckingham-

L.M.S. shire, England, 56 m. N.W. by N. of London, on the Ouse. the with Ouzel river the of n junctio the railway, and at has Pop. (1931) 3,957. The church of St. Paul and St. Peter HosEarly English portions. The almshouse called Queen Anne’s I., who pital is named from Anne of Denmark, queen of James reconstituted a foundation of the time of Edward I.

evacuation of under Rochambeau, and in French fleet. Newport was the town form of government city in 1853; and secured a

of the capitals of new charter in 1906. Until 1900 it was one rs began after Yorke New hy wealt of influx Rhode Island. The the Civil War.

U.S.A., a port of NEWPORT, a city of northern Vermont,beautifully situated y; count ns Orlea of y seat

entry and the count , 6 m. from the at the southern end of Lake Memphremagog and is served by 5, ay highw al Feder on is Canadian border. It railways, and in al Centr c the Canadian Pacific and the Quebe 5,094. It is a summer summer by lake steamers. Pop. (1930) point for maple sugar ing shipp a , resort, a centre for winter sports industries.

ing and farm products, and has several manufactur a city in 1918. as ed porat incor and 1810 It was founded about NEWS, a city and a port of entry of south-

T

NEWPOR Hampton Roads eastern Virginia, U.S.A., on the north side of ck county, but Warwi in lk; Norfo te and the James river, opposi tide-water independent of it. It is on Federal highway 60; is the is served and y; railwa Ohio and peake Chesa terminus of the lines, several also by interurban trolley, motor-bus and truck in 1920 (40% ferries and numerous steamship lines. Pop. 35,596 is one of News rt Newpo 1930. year the in negroes); and 34,417

, the the four cities forming the port of Hampton Roads (qg.v.) r, harbou Its . States d Unite the of port o tobacc and coal principal by a spacious and well protected, is connected with the ocean water channel 600 ft. wide and 35 ft. deep. Nearly a mile of the

great front, at the southern end of the city, is occupied by the railway terminal, covering 337 ac., and comprising 125 m. of 000 track, storage space for 4,500 Cars, warehouses with 1,500, r bunke ng handli for ped equip lly sq.ft. of floor space, piers specia with and cargo coal and other commodities, and a grain elevator are a capacity of 1,000,000 bushels. Farther north on the river

NEWQUAY,

a seaport and watering-place

of Cornwall,

England, 14 m. N. of Truro by rail. Pop. of urban district (1931)

west by 5,958. It is situated on Newquay bay, sheltered to the ed equipp and cted, constru ally artifici , Towan head. The harbour stone with a jetty and piers, admits vessels of 200 tons. China

and china clay are exported and coal is the chief import.

York, NEW ROCHELLE, a city of Westchester county, New Hutchin-

U.S.A., on Long Island sound, the Boston Post road and in son River parkway, 16 m. N.E. of the Grand Central station and New York city. It is served by the New York, New Haven foreignHartford and electric railways. Pop. (1920) 36,213 (23% primarborn white); 54,000 in the year 1930. New Rochelle is old colonial fine some with York, New of suburb tial residen ily a residential dwellings still standing, and many beautiful modern the College of districts of park-like contour. It is the seat of has an area of New Rochelle (Roman Catholic; 1904). The city reaching surface rolling a and 10-2 sq.m., 9 m. of water front, and there effect, in are ces ordinan Zoning feet. 289 of e an altitud parks covering is a city-planning commission. Besides three city ys and bathing 83 ac., there are within the city limits parks, parkwa 385 ac., owned by beaches (including Glen island) aggregating cturing, except manufa little the county. There is comparatively is in the outPress r rbocke Knicke The ption. consum for local $134,200,was 1927 for on valuati d skirts of the city. The assesse at $15,000,000. 524, and the value of exempt property is estimated residential suburbs, On the landward side the city is fringed by The farm given Manor. Pelham including Larchmont, Pelham and Revolution is the of close the at Paine Thomas to by the State and the Plains, White to road the on marked by a monument 2 m. S.W. of New farmhouse is now a museum. On David's island, The New York Rochelle, is Ft. Slocum, a U.S. army post. island, just east Travers on se Athletic club has a country clubhou ance on the import of ent settlem first The Manor. of Pelham some of ots, Huguen by 1688 in made site of New Rochelle was was incorporated in village The e. Rochell La from came whom the population was 1847 and in 1899 it became a city. In 1850 between 1900 and and 14,720, 2,458. By 1900 it had grown to . doubled ally roro it practic w,

Barro , a town of co. Wexford, Ireland, on the

NEW ROSS S.S.W. of Dublin 2 m. below its junction with the Nore, 102 m. 5,009. St. Alban ) (1926 Pop. y. railwa ern have by the Great South to the ancient rise the ship-yards (among the largest in the country) which gave which built the abbey of Rossmactreoin, built many United States battleships, cruisers, gunboats and city Rossglas. There are remains in Rosbercon of a 13th century numerous merchant vessels (including the largest ever built in n, New Ross was Dominican foundation. According to Camde America, the S.S. “California,” of 31,000 tons displacement, comand wife of William gbow Stron of ter daugh la, Isabel by ed found granted to it by pleted in 1928), and where in 1922-23 the “Leviathan” was al, afterwards earl of Pembroke. A charter reconditioned. Between these two outstanding features of the Marsh Bigod in the reign of Edward I., was extended by James I. Roger city, about the centre of the water front, is a public park, and unded by walls. The and James II. In 1269 the town was surro News rt Newpo boats. small for ur near by a municipal harbo some remains are but ell, Cromw by fortresses were dismantled exports over 7,000,000 tons of coal and 145,000,000 lb. of tobacco l bridge. The inland swive a by ed cross is w Barro The . to extant means of the Barrow in a year. Its total water-borne commerce in 1926 amounted water communications reach to Dublin by 8,887,442 tons. The exports, chiefly tobacco, coal and automoto Inistioge. New able navig is the Grand canal. The Nore y, and exports biles, were valued in 1925 at $53,352,024; the imports, largely and fisher n salmo a ards, tan-y and ries brewe als, at Ross has Rosbercon. des inclu ct copra, pulpwood, manganese ore and fertilizer materi distri urban pal manu- agricultural produce. The Down, Ireland, co. of $3,933,519. Shipbuilding and repairing are the princi town t marke and rt seapo 2 NEWRY, facturing industries. The aggregate factory output in 1927 was extreme head of - on the Newry water and Newry canal at the valued at $22,625,547. The city operates under a commission Great Northern the by n Carlingford lough, 73 m. N. of Dubli an abbey was manager form of government. Its assessed valuation for 1928 1175 In 3. 11,96 dist. urban ) (1921 railway. Pop. d. It was was $44,160,902. Irelan of king , ghlin ed here by Maurice M’Lou A settlement of Irish colonists was planted here in 1621 by foundrted in 1543 into a collegiate church for secular priests, and Daniel Gookin, and the name was chosen to honour Capt. Christo- conve dissolved by Edward VI., who granted it to Sir Nicholas Newce, was pher Newport, an associate of John Smith, and Sir William

328

NEWS

Bagenal, marshal of Ireland.

AGENCY

In 1689 Newry was set on fire by |the field of information is far more effectively “covered” than Was

the duke of Berwick when in retreat before Schomberg.

Charters : possible last century.

were granted to the town by James I. and James II. Until 1898 All newspapers rely chiefy on the agencies for the receipt of a portion of Newry was situated in co. Armagh. A mile N.E. of | what may be called formal or expected news such as university eee

the town is a notable rath or enclosure, taking its name of Crown | intelligence, market returns or city quotations. In the same cate. rath from traditional single encounters between native princes in | gory, to a large extent, fall many ministerial statements, which contention for the sovereignty. The L.M.S. railway connects | are often circulated through the Press Association or other Newry with the deep-water harbour at Greenore; and there is an agencies. Such circulation obviates the calling together of some electric railway to Bessbrook in co. Armagh. The western part, scores of reporters to hear precisely the same words; moreover. called Ballybot, is connected with the eastern part. or old town, by an experienced politician, though he may add in an interview extra bridges over the canal and over the tidal water. The port admits details for the papers he desires to favour, will not make his vessels of 3,000 tons to Victoria basin, 3 m. from the town. | general statement until he is assured that the agency representa-

An agency which supplies news to periodi-

tives are present, as through them he can speak to the whole

cals, clubs, associations, or private persons, by telegram. in manuscript, proof, by tape machine or duplicated; less frequently by telephone. A news agency does not itself publish news but supplies information privately to its subscribers. British News Agencies.—These may conveniently be divided into four categories: (1) Propaganda News Agencies. These are generally small in size and confine their information to the particular question in which they are interested. Examples are the Labour Press Service and the Protestant Press Bureau. Information from these bureaus, though sent out in good faith, is necessarily scrutinized more carefully for possible bias by the experienced journalist than information received from other sources. In general these bureaus are not commercially profitable enterprises but are subsidized by political or other organizations. (2) Local Agencies. In a number of middlesized towns there are news or reporting agencies such as the Bradford Press Bureau or the Aberystwyth News Agency, whose object is not merely to serve the local press with news of every kind but to take in some measure the place of a local correspondent for the lesser London dailies. Agencies of this class and the first frequently send in unsolicited information, to be paid for if and as used. Agencies of the two following classes rarely do so. (3) Technical Agencies. These, such as the Aviation News Agency, the Commercial Press Telegram Bureau, the Hockey Reporting Agency, explain their function by their names. They are mostly situated in London, and they necessarily appeal to a limited clientele; but some, especially the sporting agencies, are very considerable enterprises. (4) National Agencies. Infinitely the most important form of news agency is the national agency, both from the range of its activities, the size of its staff and its powerful and subtle influence in the press. Of these, though the name of the British United Press is occurring more and more frequently in the columns of London dailies, there are but four of prime importance: the Press Association Ltd., which deals only with home affairs, Reuters’ Ltd., which deals only with foreign affairs, the Central News Ltd., and the Exchange Telegraph Company Ltd., both of which cover both fields. Use of News Agency Material. An inexperienced reader may well be surprised when he finds that a high percentage of the general news in two supposedly hostile dailies is given in identically the same phrasing, word for word and comma for comma. A closer investigation will disclose, either prominent or hidden in the second or third sentence, an ascription to the Exchange, Reuters, or Central News: if there is none, the “copy” is probably Press Association matter. It is now true that the material from which is made up a high proportion of those papers which do not, like the Times or the Observer, maintain a very large staff of corresponddents, is identical: the scope of the editor and subeditors is now largely confined to the selection and presentation of material which has been presented in identical form at the same minute to every other London office. The task of a newspaper staff is consequently nowadays no longer exclusively the procuring of news but very largely the cuisine of standard material which arrives automatically. The influence of the agencies has been severely attacked as limiting the freedom of the press. The sources of information are narrowed and it is stated that there is more possibility of bias or suppression. On the other hand, as will be shown,

NEWS AGENCY.

British and much of the Colonial press. For general news, the agencies cover a larger area than any one journal could. At any one of the smaller London police courts. for example, an interesting or scandalous case may at any moment come up without warning. No private reporting staff could hope

to catch every such case, but an agency man is almost certain to be in attendance. If, again, it is known that a case or a function of unusual interest is expected in a town where the paper concerned has no correspondent, a “special” is ordered from an agency, which details one of its reporters, for that day only, to telegraph an exclusive report to its client. Agency material, in London, is delivered by telegram, by duplicated sheets delivered by hand, and (in the case of the Central News, Reuters and the Exchange) by tape machines. The largest foreign service is supplied by Reuters, used by the British government during the World War for propaganda purposes and denounced as mendacious by the German Press, as in the famous cartoon Das Reuter Denkmal. The agencies have been charged with bias in their presentation of news, especially foreign news. The truth or otherwise of this charge must be a matter of opinion, but it can safely be said that there is no authenticated case of the agencies having refused their services to a journal to whose policy they objected. The power of the American Associated Press has no parallel in Britain, nor have the disputes over its exclusiveness and the competition for “A.P. franchises.” The services provided for the provincial press are in some ways even more extensive, as they include “London letters” and often the only reports received of Parliamentary proceedings. Even syndicated “leaders” are often sent out, and propaganda agencies supply newspapers (other than dailies) half-printed, with blank pages for local information. The staff of the agencies are for the most part organized in the National Union of Journalists, and salaries, in comparison with pre-war rates, have notably increased. (R. W. P.) United States.—Two rival principles underlie American news agencies. The Associated Press and the Canadian Press represent one principle, that of pure co-operation and mutuality, and the United Press Associations and the International News Service represent the opposite fundamental in that they are profit-making corporations, collecting and selling service on commercial lines. There is lively competition in the news agency field, both for group domination and for reportorial achievement. In one sense, all of the news services serve a common ideal which is to deliver to their “members” or “clients” the important news by the most rapid means, written true to authenticated or evidential facts without bias, opinion or undue colour. The development of the American news agency dates back to the struggle of the pioneer press of New York. While individual editors of the colonial press and their successors for 50 years had with interesting enterprise employed the foot-courier, the packet, the stage-coach, the pony-express, the canal-boat and the primitive steam-train, the birth of the idea that there might be cooperation among several newspapers in the collection of news which all could share occurred just 100 years ago when the Association of Morning Newspapers was organized in New York for the purpose of maintaining boats to meet ships as they came up the bay bearing news from Europe. The first telegraph line, running from Washington to Baltimore, was not opened until

| 1843.

Fifteen years later the Atlantic cable was

opened for

NEW

SIBERIAN

ISLANDS—NEW

SOUTH

WALES

329

añe. Other co-operative news agencies, concerned with the| of 200 to 300 ft. in its western portion. The so-called Wood business of meeting ships in New York harbour, were later or- |Mountains, which were supposed to be accumulations of floating ganized and from a merger of these the New York Associated |wood, are denudations of Miocene deposits containing layers of Press, a co-operative news-gathering organization of New York brown coal with full stems of trees. These Tertiary deposits are newspapers, was formed. It was mutual in New ‘York, but sold characterized by a rich flora and fauna, testifying to a climate its product to newspapers in other American cities. In various once very much warmer. The only representative of tree vegetasections of the United States other small, co-operative or privately tion now is a dwarf willow 1 in. high. The Lyakhov Islands consist of Bolshoi, or Blizhni, which is owned news agencies gradually came into being, such as the New England Associated Press, the Southern Associated Press and the separated by Laptev Strait, 27 m. wide, from Svyatoi Nos of Western Associated Press. The United Press, which is not to be Siberia; Mali, or Dalni; and several smaller islands to the west confused with the United Press Associations of this day, was es- of Mali. Bolshoi too consists of granite protruding from betablished as a national rival to the various Associated Press units, neath non-fossiliferous deposits. Along its southern coast Baron

then only beginning to co-operate. Morse’s invention of the telegraph was the basis of these agency operations. In 192 the unified Associated Press took the field as the rival of the old

Toll found immense layers of fossil ice, yo ft. thick, evidently relics from the Ice Age, covered by an upper layer of Post-Tertiary deposits containing numbers of perfectly well-preserved mammoth

United Press. It succeeded in making contracts for the exclusive

remains, rhinoceros, Ovibos, and bones of the horse, reindeer, American stag, antelope, saiga, and even the tiger, associated with relics of forest vegetation. A stem of Alnus fruticosa, go ft. high, was found with all its roots and even fruit. Similar deposits of ground ice occur in Vasilievski Island. Basalts and Tertiary brown coal deposits enter into the composition of the southern extremity of Bennett Island; Vilkitski Island is low (50 ft.) and basaltic. Bennett and Henrietta Islands have a few small glaciers. The New Siberian Islands have none. The climate of these islands is very severe. In 1886 the winter ended only in June, to begin anew in August (May 21, —5-8° F; Oct. 16, —34-6°). The highest summer temperature was 50°. Flocks of geese and other birds come to the islands in summer. The lemmings are numerous. Reindeer, followed by wolves, come across the ice from Siberia; the fox and polar bear feed on the lemmings. There is much driftwood. The islands have been long known to Siberian hunters who come for furs and fossil ivory. A Yakutsk Cossack, named Vaghin, wintered on Bolshoi in 1712, but it was a merchant, Lyakhov, who first described the two greater islands of this group in 1770, and three years later reached on sledges the largest island of the New Siberian group, which he named Kotelni. M. Hedenstrom, accompanied by Sannikov, explored the archipelago and published a map of it in 18rr. Anjou visited it in 1821-23. A scientific expedition under Dr. A. Bunge (including Baron E. Toll) explored it in 1885-86. Toll revisited it in 1893 with Shileiko, and again in 1900 with F. G. Seeberg in the “Zarya.” The Russian hydrographical expedition in “Taimir” and “‘Vaigach” in 1912 did some surveys in the New Siberian Islands; in 1913 it discovered Vilkitski Island and in 1914, Jokhov Island. The “Maud” in 1924 visited the New Siberian Islands. (See Arctic REGIONS.)

use in the United States of the news reports of the leading European agencies—Reuter in Great Britain, Wolff in Germany and Havas in France. These connections had previously been in favour of the United Press and their loss resulted in the failure of the latter organization. To supplant the United Press several agencies were formed by groups of newspapers outside of the Associated Press group. They were the Publishers’ Press and the

Laffan Service operating in the eastern States, the Scripps-McRae Press Association, operating in the Middle West and the ScrippsBlade Service, operating in Pacific coast States. Except for the Laffan Service, which was finally discontinued, these services merged to form the United Press Associations of to-day. The organization was completed in 1907.

The Associated Press was re-

organized in 1900 and incorporated under the laws of New York, as a purely co-operative association that could declare no dividends, that elected its membership and shared the cost of operation among members who are individuals representing newspapers, not the newspapers themselves. The International News Service and the Universal News Service, the former to serve evening and Sunday newspapers and the latter to serve morning and Sunday newspapers, on a commercial basis, were established by William Randolph Hearst in 1906. Early in 1928 the Universal Service left the “‘spot-news’’ field to give its exclusive attention to special or “feature” news. The Canadian Associated Press is co-operative, non-profit making, its elected members dividing the costs of operation. It works in close relation to the Associated Press, with an exchange of news reports. (M. E. P.) NEW SIBERIAN ISLANDS are situated off the Arctic coast of Siberia, from 73° to 76° 6’ N., and 135° 30’ to 151° E. The name is loosely applied, covering either the northern group only of these islands, for which the name of New Siberian or Anjou Islands ought properly to be reserved, or the southern group as well, which ought to retain its name of Lyakhov Islands. Some confusion prevails also as to whether the islands Bennett, Jokhov, Vilkitski, Henrietta and Jeannette, ought to be included in the same archipelago, or described separately-as the Jeannette or De Long Islands. The first three of these belong geographically, and probably geologically to the New Siberian group, from which they are less than roo m. distant. Henrietta and Jeannette Islands lie 200 m. north-east of Novaya Sibir Island, in 157° to 159° E. Sannikov Land, reported by J. Sannikov in 180s to lie north of Kotelni Island, probably does not exist. The islands form part of the Yakutsk Soviet Republic. The New Siberian Islands consist of Kotelni; the largest (116 m. long, roo m. wide), having the small island Byelkovski near

its western shore; Thaddeus (Faddeevski), in the middle; and Novaya Sibir, New Siberia, in the east (go m. long, 40 m. wide).

Kotelni is the largest and reaches an altitude of 1,200 ft. in the

volcanic Malakatyn-tas mountain. It is built of Silurian coral limestones (Llandovery division), containing a rich fossil fauna.

The same Silurian deposits are widely spread on the mainland as far as the Olenek. Middle Devonian limestones and slates are all faulted north-north-west and south-south-east. Triassic slates appear in the south-east. Diabases pierce to Devonian rocks. The eastern portion of the island, named Bunge’s Land, is covered with Post-Tertiary deposits. Novaya Sibir Island attains altitudes

BIBLIOGRAPHY.—The works of Hedenstrom, F. von Wrangell, and Anjou, Bunge, and Toll in Beitrige zur Kenntniss des russischen Reichs, 3te Folge, iii. (1887). Toll in Memoirs (Zapiski) of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences, 7th series, xxxvii. (1889), xliii. (1895), and 8th series, ix. (1899), with maps. Geographical Journal, Dec. 1919; Geographical Review, July 1925 and H. U. Sverdrup, Tre Aari Isen med Maud (Oslo, 1926). (R. N. R. B.)

NEW SOUTH WALES, a state of the Commonwealth of Australia, lying in the south-east, and occupying 309,432 sq.m. or 10-4% of the continent. From the east coast (Point DangerCape Howe, 700 miles) to the western boundary which runs for 240 miles along longitude 141° E., the average breadth is c. 650 miles. The northern boundary lies along lat. 29° S. and further east, along the Upper Darling (Barwon-Macintyre-Dumaresq) streams and thence along a crooked line of highland divide (Macpherson Range, etc.) to Point Danger. The southern boundary is formed by the middle and upper Murray to the head of the Indi (Forest Hill), thence in a straight line south-east to Cape Howe. Physiographically four main divisions may be distinguished, corresponding to fairly well-marked climatic and economic areas.

Gi.) Eastern Highlands, the most striking, as also the most

decisive, of the relief features, consists of a belt of plateaux extending from the Macpherson Range on the north to the Australian Alps (g.v.) on the south. (See AUSTRALIA: Geomor-

phology; Queensland.) In the north the New England Plateau (c. 200 miles long, 70-80 miles broad, with c. 9,000 sq. miles lying above 3,000 ft.) rises in its centre to c. 5,000 ft-—Ben Lomond,

330

NEW

SOUTH

WALES

[PHYSICAL FEATURES

5,000 Ít.; Mount Capoompeta, 5,100 ft.—sinks at either extrem- ; courses of old streams. The streams, meandering, distributing, ity to c. 4,000 ft.; Mount Lindsay (Macpherson Range), 4,064 | and flooding wide over these levels, are continually spreading fresy ft.; Oxley’s Peak (Liverpool Range), 4,500 ft.—and has con- alluvium. The northern portion (80,000 sq. miles) reaching soy:h. siderable outliers, on the west the volcanic Nandewars (4,000 eastwards to Dubbo, falls within the Great Artesian basin, and the ft.) and Warrumbungle Range (3,000 ft.), and on the east and south-western parts (Riverina) fall within the Murray-Rive; south the semi-detached spurs carved out by stream erosion into artesian area. In the former area bores vary from c. go~4.340 ft, the likeness of ranges—Hastings, Mount Royal, Liverpool, etc., (av. c. 1,750 ft.), while 380 flowing wells discharge 80,780,000 “Ranges.” To the south of these ranges the plateau belt is broken gals. a day (maximum for single well, 1-5 million gallons). across and the Central Plateau is separated from the more northerly by the remarkable Hunter River valley, the saddle at the head of which (near Cassilis) lies at c. 1,500 ft. The Central

Of the rivers the coastward-draining are relatively short, the Hunter and Hawkesbury, each c. 340 m. are the longest—rapid and constant-flowing streams, and owing to recent (Pleistocene Plateau extends from this gap to the Lake George depression just and earlier) uplift, they are vigorously cutting back and excavating north of the Federal Capital Territory. In general it repeats the deep canyon-like gorges in the plateaux behind (cf. upper Macleay features of the New England Plateau (cf. volcanic outliers on the gorge,, 3,000 ft. deep), creating wild and beautiful scenery ang west: Canobolas group, c. 3,000 ft.) but it is smaller and lower, opportunities for the development of water-power. The lower few areas rising above 4,000 ft., and altitudes vary considerably. basins are undulating to hilly with rich alluvial flats. Sand-barreg Its north-eastern section, the Blue Mountain Plateau, capped with mouths are common and also lagoon-like lakes (e.g., Lake Mac. (Triassic) sandstone, tilts from 4,000 ft. (west) to 700 ft. (east). quarie) due to damming of mouths by marine drift. (Cf. south to From the Lake George fault-depression (“Senkungsfeld”) to the | north current along the coast.) Few are navigable for any great border extends the Southern Plateau, a portion of the Australian distance and then usually for small craft only (e.g., Hawkesbury, Alps, a series of massive flattish-topped blocks diversified 70 miles; Macleay, 39 miles; Shoalhaven, 22 miles). See also by (mainly north to south) down-faulted depressions (Mount RICHMOND River. The inward-flowing streams have been reKosciusko, 7,328 ft.). Geologically this highland belt is charac- ferred to. (See AUSTRALIA: Drainage.) Of the Murray, 1.200 terised by its prevailingly ancient rocks (pre-Cambrian granites, miles are within New South Wales. Recent measurements have folded Palaeozoics, etc.); by the volcanic flows (basalt, trachyte, given the following results: Darling, length 1,702 miles, drainage etc.) which form cappings over considerable areas; by the exten- area 221,700 sq. miles; Murrumbidgee, 981 and 10,700; Lachlan. sive faulting which has differentiated levels, dislocated former g22 and 10,420; Macquarie, 590 and 10,090; Namoi, 526 and drainage and resulted, in particular, in the abrupt scarps and 9.820. declivities of the eastern flank; by the flattening by erosion Climate.—Situated wholly in the temperate zone, New South (peneplanation) of the surfaces. Wales has a generally moderate climate. Average temperatures Gi.) The Coastal Lowlands belong structurally to the high- are higher by 5°-7° F in the north than in the south, and the land belt, being mainly, perhaps, down-faulted portions of it. range increases towards the interior, the mean daily range on the The coast-line also appears in certain stretches (e.g., in the south) coast being c. 19° F, in the western plains c. 26° F. The transition to be fault-determined. Almost everywhere the plateaux behind zone between summer and winter rains passes diagonally (northbreak away in sharp declivities and form steep backing walls often west to south-east) through the State. The area south-west of the scarred by deep gorges. The coastal lowlands are mostly narrow line Broken Hill-Wagga-Albury receives winter rains mainly from eA mete erent rere eae

(1eo-20 miles)—often mere deltaic fringes at river-mouths. In three places—around Sydney, Hunter River, Clarence-RichmondTweed rivers—they form roomier basins in which later rockformations (e.g., Triassic) have been preserved. The HunterGoulburn Valley is a down-faulted trough worked out by erosion in weak strata and breaks across the highlands, running almost straight south-east to north-west for 120 miles to the Cassilis saddle (v. sup.) and is floored in its lower part with deltaic deposits. The structure of the Hunter Valley and of the Sydney Basin accounts for the outcropping of valuable coal seams. The coast-line, backed in many parts by bold heights, consists mainly of a succession of rugged promontories alternating with sandy bays and some inlets. In the central portion, on the other hand, subsidence has produced fine drowned valley harbours (Sydney, Port Stephens, Broken Bay, etc.). (iii.) The Western Slopes are the “ramp” of the eastern plateaux, their uneven but relatively gentle declivity towards the great interior plains. In addition to outliers of the highlands (Mount Exmouth group, Curumbenya Range, etc.) the Cobar (c. 300 miles south-east-north-west; 150 miles wide: altitude 500-1,000 ft.) and Wyalong peneplains—worn-down relics of the buckled ancient floor which protrude through the later surface deposits—are the chief irregularities, though the streams have excavated long and broad transverse furrows. (iv.) The (Western) Plains occupy all the remainder (nearly

3) of the State except the north-west corner where the Barrier “Range” (c. roo miles north to south; 30 miles east to west;

altitude c. 1,000 ft. or 500 ft. above the surrounding plains) forms a series of hard etched and scarped ridges and resembles in structure the Cobar “peneplain.” The immense plains—substantially the basins of the Upper Darling and a good part of that of the Murray—are floored with recent deposits (probably residuals of an earlier and wetter epoch). The western portions, and the older and higher of these deposits, are prevailingly red and are generally fertile. Black soils are found in the river valleys (e.g., middle Macquarie, Castlereagh, Namoi, etc.) and along the silted-up

Antarctic depressions (“lows”); the area north-east of a sinuous line running from the north-west corner of the State to Newcastle receives summer rains from tropical (monsoonal) “lows”: the intervening belt receives rain from both quarters and, in the east, from the passage of anticyclones (“highs”) also. The east recelves much more rain, and more uniformly, than the interior, the isohyetal lines except in the south and south-west running roughly parallel with the coast. The extremes are in the northeast corner (80 in. per ann.) and in the north-west (7 in.). Only 42% of the total area receives an average of over 20 in. per ann.; 15% receives less than 10 in. which is also more or less erratic. Heavy rains cause extensive flooding of the streams resulting often in serious loss; droughts are also a recurrent difficulty, especially in the interior. The rate of evaporation increases from c. 40 in. a year on the coast to c. roo in. in the north-west with concomitant seasonal aridity and the drying up of streams. Four main climatic divisions, corresponding to the physiographic, may be distinguished: (i.) Coast: relatively high and regular rainfall coming mainly from the sea, with mild and humid conditions. Av. ann. temps., in the north 76°-57° F, in the south 68°—s1° F; rainfall 30-80 in. per ann., greater in the north. (See LISMORE, NEWCASTLE, SYDNEY.) (ii.) Tablelands: cool and bracing climate with cold winters in the south; uniform and reliable rainfall. Average ann. temps.: in the north 70°-45° F; in the south 63°38° F; av. ann. rainfall, 40 in. in the east to 30 in. in the west. (See Batuwurst.) (iii.) Western Slopes: a drier, sunny and healthy climate with uniformly distributed rainfall. Temperatures

are higher in the north, summer: 81°~73° F, winter, 53°-46° F;

rainfall (av. ann.): 30 in. in the east, 20 in. in the west. North of the Lachlan the rains come from the north in February—May; the Riverina has light, but fairly reliable, winter showers. (See ALBURY.) (iv.) Western Plains: a dry climate, invigorating in winter, but liable to suffer from droughts, dust-storms and, more locally, from floods. Temperatures are higher in the north—av. ann.: summer 84°-75°; winter 54°-49° F. Av. ann. rainfall from 7 in. in the north-west; 10-15 in. along the Darling; 20 in.

NEW

ECONOMICS]

SOUTH

in the east. (See BROKEN HILL.)

Economics.—The general facts relating to the distribution of minerals, soils and natural vegetation have been given under

AusTRALIA (g.v.). The clear physical differentiations indicated above, together with the stage of growth

economic development of New

character.

attained, give the

South Wales a marked regional

Climate, relief, location of minerals and accessibility

(ie, communications) are dominant factors in the distribution of

the population.

The following survey therefore proceeds upon

the basis of four regions, viz., Western Plains; Central Plains; Tablelands; Coastal Lowlands. The last three occupy belts

roughly parallel with the coast-line and admit of subdivision into North, Central and Southern sections. Western Plains, occupying the west and north-west portion

(80,312,000 ac.=125,487 sq.m. or 2 of the State) west of the

courses of the Lachlan, Marra, and Upper Darling (Barwon) rivers, has abundance of good soils but a poor and unreliable rainfall—8-19 in.; under to in. over 4 of its area—and suffers occasionally from fierce heats, droughts, floods and always from introduced rabbits.

portance.

Mining and pastoral pursuits alone have im-

In the north-west is Broken Hill (g.v.); the once-

famous Cobar-Nymagee

copper area, which is just included in

WALES

331

to small-sized holdings are common further east and particularly in the Riverina. The area, in fact, forms a climatic and economic transition zone. In the west pastoral pursuits; in the east, mixed

agriculture and grazing; in the Riverina and a few other parts agriculture alone, or dairying alone, are practised. The area contains 40% of the agricultural lands of the State; and in the north-west and south-west portions are some of the best sheeplands. Along the east the fringes of the wheat-belt are included. The ro in. winter rainfall line (7 months: April-October, the growing season) runs roughly down the middle (northnorth-east-south-south-west) of the area, and to this the wheat “frontier” approximates, falling behind it in the north-east but Overstepping it to the extent of 5,000,000 acres and pushing forward into rainfall areas of 8—9 in. (April~Oct.) in the centre and particularly in the south-west (Riverina). Thus, while grazing, with a little mixed and other farming, predominates in the north, mixed farming—mainly sheep and wheat—arable farming, fruitgrowing (vines, etc.) and dairying increase in importance in the south. A special place, in virtue of its irrigation areas, and its wider range of possibilities, is taken by the Riverina (q.v.). The total live-stock amounted (1926) to 18,413,000 sheep, 300,000 cattle, 132,000 horses, 12,000 dairy cattle, but the numbers vary

the east, has suspended production, and opal mining (White greatly according to season (¢.g., sheep: 1891, 25,000,000; 1921, Cliffs, etc., in the north-west; Lightning Ridge field—tz2,000 acres 14,000,000; dairy cattle: rgrz, 48,000). Similarly the sheep—in the north-east—is depressed (output 1926: £11,500). It is carrying capacity, though high (266-6 per sq. mile) varies from an area of isolation, “wide open spaces,” large long-term lease- 351—205 per sq. mile. The total production of the area (1925-26) holds, over 63% of the total area being occupied by 196 holdings amounted to: wool, 136,500,000 Ib.; wheat, 11,400,000 bu.;

of over 100,000 acres each. The country produces fine-wooled merinos, but its carrying capacity varies greatly with the seasons and is generally low (40-130 sheep per sq. mile according to season, or 4 of that of the lands further east). The livestock (1926) consisted mainly of 8,560,000 sheep, 100,000 head of cattle, 30,000 horses, and the total production (1925~26) of 65,000,000 Ib. wool (less than 4 of the total pastoral produce of the

State); minerals and mineral products to value of £5,072,000. The total population is 44,500 (1 person per 3 sq. miles; without Broken Hill, 1 per 6 sq. miles) or 1-9% of the population of the State, Broken Hill alone accounting for 24,000. Apart from this the settlements consist mainly of collecting and distributing centres for pastoral areas situated on railway lines (Cobar, etc.), on rivers (Wilcannia, Wentworth), or on both (Bourke, population c. 1,000; Walgett, Menindee, etc.) besides isolated stations and mining camps. Railways link Bourke, Cobar, Walgett and

butter, 216,000,000 lb.; minerals, etc., £672,000. With a total population of 115,640, the area has a population density of 1-8 persons per sq. mile. The chief settlements, apart from the pastoral river centres common to this and the Western Plains (Walgett, Hillston, Balranald, etc.), are centres of mixed pastoral and farming areas: Moree (3,300), Narrabri—a thriving railway junction town in a sheep, dairy, and fruit area, with butter factories and freezing works—and Coonamble in the north, Nyngan and Condobolin in the centre, and a large number of similar settlements in the Riverina. The Western Slopes consist in the main of gently rolling country which rises from levels of under 1,000 ft. to elevations of over 2,000 ft. and merges into the plateaux to the east. It is essentially the zone of the upper, and fairly roomy, basins of the western rivers, but in the north-west and south-west the narrower head-water valleys and plateau margins are included in the administrative division. The rainfall is abundant and also fairly reliable (19-34 in.—rather more in the north, 24-33 in., more varied in the south where the Australian Alps are approached: 16-40 in.). The outcrops of ancient rocks along these slopes, as also the stream-beds descending over them, have yielded

other towns on or near the eastern boundary—rivers with the eastern parts of the State and with Sydney, and the recently completed line from Sydney to Broken Hill (Condobolin-IvanhoeMenindee) traverses the heart of the area (east to west) and should help to develop much territory. Though increasingly tapped by railways the Darling still carries traffic (e.g., wool to South rich stores of minerals, and Forbes, Temora, Wyalong, Grenfell, Australia) in good seasons, and for the rest transport is by camel etc., were once famous mining centres. Some gold-mining is still etc., train—increasingly by motor—over rough tracks. carried on, tin is obtained at Ardlethan, chrome iron at Gundagai, The Central Plains form a natural extension of the western, and a little coal is worked near Gunnedah. But in general mining large portions of them being little distinguished as regards relief has been succeeded by agriculture as the value of the red soils from the latter. Thus in the north-west they comprise the low for wheat has become known. Out of the total area, 28,164,000 flat lands stretching east of the Barwon-Marra rivers, and in the ac. (¢. 44,000 sq. miles) $is occupied. Wheat, needing dry sumsouth-east the broad Riverina plains are only divided from the mers and an optimum growing-season (April—Oct.) rainfall of western plains by the Murrumbidgee and Lachlan rivers. Further 11—15 in., finds these conditions in a belt c. 500 miles long (northeast the land slopes gradually up, but, except in the centre (Cobar- west—south-east), about 100-130 m. wide, and limited on the Wyalong area) there is little above 1,000 ft. and few rugged east by a line about 120 m. from the coast, the coastal portions features. But its rainfall, though rather scanty and unreliable, is having proved too humid. Within this belt are 53,000,000 ac. better than that further west (15-24 in., the greater quantity in of which about 26,000,000 ac. seem capable of cultivation, and of the north—1r8-28 in—being balanced by greater evaporation). this 4 would normally be used for growing wheat-hay (fodder). The rivers from the highlands further east stream across these The area of possible wheat cultivation has greatly increased, lowlands but are of no great service, being irregular in flow, nearly 20,000,000 additional acres having been occupied for this entrenched in places, and liable to flood. Artesian supplies have purpose in 1904—22. The total area actually cultivated to wheat proved a great boon and have been extensively exploited, especially (1926) is about 8,000,000 ac., about one-half of which is under in the north-west and south-west. The soils, red-brown loams and wheat at any time. Fruit-growing and dairying are also carried black soils, are good but the latter are very heavy and have only on, and along some of the rivers irrigation also (e.g., Forbes, recently begun to be worked. Of the total area (c. 41,420,000 ac. Dubbo, Ardlethan). Grazing (mainly sheep) is everywhere im-

=64,719 sq.m.) some 5%, are occupied, of which 62% has been

alienated from the Crown, and though holdings of 10,000 acres and upwards account for 19% (89 over 50,000 ac. each), medium

portant. The great bulk of the holdings within the area lie between 100 and 3,000 acres. Livestock total: sheep, 15,670,000 with the very high average density of 389 per sq.m.; cattle, 416,000;

NEW

334

SOUTH

horses, 197,000; dairy cattle, 41,000. In addition to primary production there are butter-factories, freezing works, flour and saw mills, etc., and in certain railway centres (e.g., Junee, Quirindi) are large railway engineering works. The total population (1926) was 205,190 (4-7 per sq. mile). The towns (Tamworth, 6,000; Dubbo, 5,150; Forbes, 4,700; Parkes, 4,260; Junee, Cootamundra and Temora, c. 3,500) are mainly centres for agricultural and pastoral producing areas, adding often the functions of railway junctions, mining, and (on a small scale) industrial centres. Production (1926): wool, 114,457,000 lb.; wheat, 20,334,000 bu.; butter, 6,298,000 lb.; minerals and manufactures, £1,493,000.

The Tablelands extend to the east of the above division and are bounded on the east almost everywhere by abrupt and often rugged and precipitous declivities. They include much level or rolling country capable of cultivation but much, especially in the

south (Alps, Australian, g.v.), is too rough for anything but grazing. The climate is also cool or cold and, though bracing, tends

to be wet. (Rainfall, 24-53 in.; in the north 30-38 in.; in the south 19-65 in.) Mining, formerly extensive, is still important. The tin resources of the Northern Plateau (Tingah, Emmaville) are actively exploited; silver ores of high quality are mined at

Yerranderie (Burragorang Valley); gold is mined at various places: Bathurst, Uralla, etc.; the iron deposits of Cadia (reserves 10,000,000 tons) and Carcoar are utilised in the industries of Lithgow (g.v.) and smaller deposits exist at Goulburn and Queanbeyan, while the most westerly outcrops of the Sydney Basin coal deposits crop out and are worked at Lithgow. Of the total area (26,480,000 ac.=41,725 sq.m.) about 77% (20,000,000 ac.) is occupied, but less than one-half is alienated from the Crown. The climate is, in general, too damp for wheat but such as is grown is also found mainly in the central area. Sheepgrazing is carried on from north to south, though the central parts

lead in this also. The highlands favour a different type of sheep from the Plains—not so robust but of exceptionally fine and dense wool. The New England wool, being reputed to be one of

the best of all spinning wools, and the Southern Tablelands (e.z., Monaro district) are also noted. The area carried (1926) 10,219,000 sheep (214-7 per sq.m.); 438,000 cattle; 110,000 horses,

and 45,000 dairy cattle.

Apart from Lithgow (g.v.) manufac-

turing industries are confined mainly to the larger towns (flour milling, tanning, soap-making, railway engineering, etc.), but the noted beauty of the scenery and the relative coolness of summer attract numerous visitors and in the areas within easy railway reach of Sydney and Newcastle the tourist industry is important.

The total population is 230,000 (5-5 per sq.m.) but it is mainly concentrated in certain localities, wide areas being relatively bare. The towns and settlements are centres for pastoral, agricultural, and mining districts; many are tourist centres as well, while some are also railway-junction towns with a certain industrial activity.

In the Northern Plateau, Armidale (g.v.: pop. 5,750), Glen Innes (4,500) and Tenterfield are on the main northern railway line (Sydney to Brisbane) and combine most of these functions, serving as holiday centres especially for Newcastle and the north coast towns. On the highlands west of Sydney (Blue mountains) holiday and tourist resorts are more important—Katoomba (10,000); Goulburn (12,000), also an agricultural centre with some industries—while further west, Bathurst (g.v., 9,400) and Orange (8,000) combine this with the other functions mentioned. Further removed, such towns as Cowra (4,300), Young (3,500),

Mudgee

(3,000), Wellington

(3,340) are rather more agricul-

tural and pastoral (wheat and sheep) centres and belong almost as much to the Western Slopes division. Lithgow (g.v., 16,400) with its iron, steel and other industries stands rather apart as an outlier of the coastal industrial areas. Production.—In 1926 production was: wool, 79,230,000 Ib.; wheat, 2,100,000 bu.; butter, 4,136,000 Ib.; minerals, £1,322,000; manufactures, £2,687,000. The Federal Capital Territory falls

within this area (see CANBERRA) and was formerly mainly devoted to grazing (sheep). On the edges of the southern table-

land (west of Yass) is the famous Burrinjuck dam, the headworks of an important Riverina (q.v.) irrigation scheme.

WALES

[ECONOMICS

| The Coastal Lowlands, irregular, broken and detached | patches or mere strips scattered and stretched along the eastern

| margins, are yet economically and in general social respects per| haps the most important regional element in the State. Relativeiy small in extent (22,237,000 ac.=34,745 sq.m.) they contain

1,770,000 inhabitants (75-7% of the total population; 43.4 per sq.m.); the great majority of large towns, including the capital:

nearly all the coal-fields and manufacturing areas; all the sugargrowing, the bulk of the dairying and maize-growing areas, be-

sides all the sea-ports, with the financial and commercial nervecentres of the State. The largest, and also the most important, individual areas are the Sydney and Hunter River lowlands in the centre, the Clarence-Richmond-Tweed

basins in the north, and

the Illawarra district in the south. These are described separately (see SYDNEY, SINGLETON, RICHMOND, WOLLONGONG)

and a gen-

eral survey alone is given here. The climate is mild and humid, and distinctly warmer in the north (rainfall: 30-62 in.; 35-76 in. in the north, 27-61 in. in the south). Apart from river-bottoms and some coastal flats, the terrain is hilly or broken and the cultivable area is small, and of this area less than a quarter was

cultivated

in 1925-26.

valleys, foothills, Valley) and the river action and extensive timber

The

broken

lands—tableland

scarps,

etc—are valuable for mining (e.g., Clarence intersection and laying bare of coal-seams by coastal faulting is a fact of importance. The resources have been greatly depleted, though

some is still cut in the Northern and Hunter valleys. In many parts the topography and climate offer facilities for water-power development (cf. Nymboida-Clarence scheme), while the rougher interior country is also used for cattle. Wheat and sheep are virtually excluded by the dampness of the climate, but 95% of the holdings used for dairying are in this area. All the sugar grown in the State is cultivated in the northern districts (1926: 19,400 ac.). Considerable quantities of fruit are grown—tropical fruits in the north, vines, oranges, etc., in the (north-east) Hunter valley and in the Sydney Basin—and mixed agriculture is practised (maize, lucerne, potatoes in the north and centre). Live-stock (1926): cattle, 1,000,000; dairy cattle, 795,000; horses, 203,000; sheep, 996,000. The holdings are comparatively small: 400-500 acres. The outcropping of coal in convenient positions has given rise to a coal-mining and coal-exporting industry (see Butt, MAITLAND)—in 1928 very depressed—and more recently to growing manufacturing industries centred chiefly in or near Newcastle, Sydney, Port Kembla (g.v.). Here is the chief and growing Here, also, are the industrial “hub” of the Commonwealth.

financial and commercial headquarters—the central banking, woolbroking, railway and shipping, political and social organisations— of the State. Of ports, Sydney and Newcastle—the former good, the latter indifferent as a harbour—are the most important, but Grafton (a river port), Coff’s Harbour and Byron Bay in the north have actual importance or possibilities as outlets for local trade and the same applies to Port Stephens as a possible outlet for the Lower Hunter district. Jervis Bay is the destined site for the port of the Federal Capital. Associated with the coasts are also fishing (mainly in the northern estuaries and lakes; 1926: £556,000), and the tourist and holiday-resort industries. Of the total population of the area (v. sup.) Sydney alone accounts for 1,101,200, and a further 200,000 are contained in the Sydney Basin (Cumberland County). The lower Hunter Valley

and coasts immediately north of it (z.e., substantially the Newcastle [g.v.]-Maitland [g.v.] district) count a further 280,000. Of northern towns Lismore (g.v., 9,300), Grafton (4,800), Casino (3,450) are important local centres, while in the south, Nowra, Wollongong, Kiama are local exporting centres and health resorts. Production (1925~26): butter, 94,334,000 Ib.; wool, 7,075,000 Ib.; minerals, £8,051,000; manufactures, £57,625,000.

Statistical Summary.

Area—excluding Federal Capital Ter-

ritory; including 176 sq.m. of harbours—309,432 of total area of Australia.

sq.m., 10-40%

Population (March, 1928): 2,414,000; 7-80 per sq.m.; c. 39% of Commonwealth; rate of increase (1926), natural 1-34%; natural--immigration 2-14%; metropolitan 45-6%; 99% of area contains only 655,300 inhabitants.

NEW

HISTORY]

SOUTH

Occupations (Census 1921: total population 2,101,968; main lasses only); Breadwinners: 42-29%; Primary Producers: 9-98% (agricultural, 4:52%; pastoral and dairying, 3-14%; mining, 157%). Industrial, 13-62%.

Commercial and Transport, 16-68%.

“Production (1925-26): Total, £160,615,000. Primary Indusfries: £95,777,000 (pastoral, £42,369,000; agricultural, £20,"41,000; dairying—including pigs, bees, poultry—£14,712,000; mining. c. £12,000,000; forests, fisheries, etc., £5,609,000). Manufacturing Industries: £64,838,000. Production per head of popuiation: Primary:

£41.13.8

(pastoral,

dairying, £6.8; mining, £5.7.6).

c. £18;

Manufacturing:

agricultural,

£28.4.4.

£9;

Total:

£68.18.0.

Pastoral Industry (1926): Sheep, 54,630,000 (highest since 1891, 61,831,000) including 45,560,000 merino; Wool, 495,20,000 Ib. =£35,377,000 (at Sydney); average weight of clip, 8-1-8-8 lb. Cattle: 2,937,000 (including 632,000 dairy cattle). Horses: 651,000.

Milk:

290,000,000 gal. Butter:

107,000,000 |b.

Cheese c. 6,500,000 1b. Agriculture: Area under cultivation (1926): ¢. 11,100,000 ac. (crops alone, 4,550,000 ac.) Wheat, 3-3-5 mill. ac.; 28-6-66.7 mill. bu.; £6.7-£16.7 mill. =31-58% of total agric. produce. Hay, rs0,000-1-t mill. ac.; 866,ooo-1-6 mill. tons; £5-5—£8-g mill. =23-41%. Maize, 120,000-166,000 ac.; 3-28-4-6 mill. bu.; £630,000-894,000 = 2-4%.

Mining: Total value of all minerals produced to end of 1926 =¢. £400,000,000. Total output (1926), £12,000,000; (silverlead, £4,400,000; zinc, £1,360,000); coal, c. £9,500,000 (northern fields, c. £6,800,000; southern and western, etc, c. £1,600,000). Manufacturing Industries (1911 and 1925~26): Factories: (1911) 5,000; (1925-26) 8,200. Employees: 66,000 and 174,000 (=3-7% increase, cf. 2.0% increase of population as a whole). Raw materials and fuel: £15,600,000 and £105,125,000. Value of output: £25,700,000 and £170,000,000. Employees: Metallurgical and machinery, 45,000; clothing and textiles, 35,000; food, drink, etc., 21,000.

Communications—Railways: Total mileage open 1926 (includ-

WALES

333

one bull and four cows, a stallion and three mares, some sheep, goats, pigs and a large number of fowls. The expedition was well provided with seeds of all descriptions. As Botany Bay was found unsuitable, the settlement was transferred to Port Jackson, near the present site of Sydney. Later on, other convict-ships arrived; and, in 1793, came the first free settlers, who were

presented with grants of land. By 1800 the population was 5,000. In 1809 Captain Macquarie became governor, and, during his administration, New South Wales was transformed from a penal settlement to a colony. Schools and churches had already been erected, a newspaper, the Sydney Gazette and New South Wales Advertiser, had been started, and attempts made to acclimatize the drama. Macquarie was the first governor to open up the country. He formed roads and built bridges in the districts along the coast, and commenced a track across the Blue Mountains. Attracted by the success of Captain John M’Arthur with merino sheep, more free settlers began to arrive in 1817; but not until the governorship of Sir Richard Bourke (1831-37) did they obtain trial by jury, free press, a legislature with very limited representation, free grants of land, and religious equality. Settlement had progressed at a rapid rate. Parramatta, Richmond, and Windsor were founded before 1798, and Newcastle, Maitland, and Morpeth early in the 19th century; but the towns of the interior, Goulburn, Bathurst, and others were not begun till about 1835. Then, again, the explorations which followed the passage of the Blue Mountains opened up a large portion of South-Eastern Australia. By 1840, owing to the formation of other colonies, New South Wales, which originally signified the mainland of Australia and the islands in the South Pacific, comprised only

the three eastern states of today.

Sale by auction of the public

lands was now substituted for free grants; and squatters were allowed to occupy sparse areas on payment of a small annual licence. In 1851, when Victoria became a separate colony, the population of New South Wales had risen from the 76,793 of 1837 to 187,243, and the annual exports amounted to £2,399,580.

In 1851 also, gold was discovered near Bathurst by E. H. Hargraves, and transportation was at last abolished. The New Constitution Bill was passed in 1853, and two years later, approved by the British Parliament. The Bill provided for pended (1926), £105,238,000. Net earnings: £4,419,000=4-30% an elected assembly and a nominated council; vote by ballot was interest on capital invested. introduced; the number of members in the assembly was inTrade: Total (1921-1926), £91-127 mill. (Imports £43-£72 creased to 80, and the franchise was granted to every adult male mill.; Exports £42.5~60.§ mill.) Per head of population: £43—£60 after six months’ residence. The census of 1857 gave the popula(Imports: £20-34; exports: £19.10-£27). tion of Sydney and suburbs as 81,327. In 1859 Queensland was Exports: Wool: £21-£25 mill.=4s5-50% of total exports. constituted a separate colony. Wheat and Flour: £5.8-£7.85 =11-17%. Meat, hides, leather, From 1861 to 1888.—After 1861 the land policy was entirely etc.: £5-5-£6-7 mill. =12-13%. Butter: c. £2 mill. =3-4%. Coal: revised. Sir John Robertson, in his Land Bill, introduced the prin£1-4 mill. (falling) =3-1-7%. Other Minerals: c. £3 mill.=5- ciple of deferred payments for the purchase of crown lands. 65%. Total pastoral products £36,500,000= 58.1% of total over Residence and cultivation were considered more important than seas exports. a sufficient price. After much opposition the measure was passed Shipping (all classes): c. 3,000 vessels; 9 mill. registered ton- and the other colonies adopted similar legislation. The distinction nage, discharging 3-5-4 mill. tons and shipping 5-5-6 mill. tons between the descendants of convicts and the descendants of free cargo. settlers was now finally abandoned. In 1862 a large force, military Social Conditions: Hospitals: private: 620 (beds: 4,940); pub- and police, was despatched to Lambing Flat, in order to protect lic, 159 (9,229). Total (Government) expenditure on charitable the Chinamen from ill-treatment by the miners. At this time relief (1925-26): £5,825,000=£2.10.9 per head of population. bushranging became frequent, and only with great difficulty was (Maternity allowances: £270,000; State wards [children]: stamped out. £500,000; Hospitals, asylums, etc.: £820,000; pensions: £3-5 H.R.H. the duke of Edinburgh visited the colony in 1868. An mill.). State advances for building homes (1926): £1,620,000. attempt was made upon his life by a man named O’Farrell, who Parks, recreation grounds, etc.: 240,000 ac. was subsequently hanged. A census taken in 187r showed that Education: Schools (1925): public, 3,162; private, 696. Pupils: the population was 503,981, and the exports £11,245,032. During public, 336,800; private, 82,200=92% of those requiring instruc- the governorship of Sir Hercules Robinson (1872—79) the Fiji tion. (O0. H. T. R.) Islands were annexed; telegraphic communication with England and mail communication with the United States were established, HISTORY and a coalition between Sir Henry Parkes (premier and colonial Early History.—New South Wales was discovered by Captain secretary) and Sir John Robertson at length made it possible to Cook on April 20, 1770 (see AUSTRALIA). On Jan. 20, 1788, the develop some continuous policy. The census of 1880 gave the “Sirius,” commanded by Captain Arthur Phillip, R.N., reached population of the colony as 751,468, of whom 411,149 were males Botany Bay with an armed trader, three store-ships and six and 340,319 females. In this year the railway to Melbourne was transports. The persons on board the fleet included 40 women, completed, and in 1883 valuable deposits of silver were discovered 202 marines of various ranks under Major Ross, five doctors, a at Broken Hill. In 1885 the British Government accepted the few mechanics, and 756 convicts. The live stock consisted of offer of a contingent from New South Wales to aid the imperial

ing Federal and private lines), 6,218 miles (4 ft. 84 in. gauge, 5,710)= I m. railway per 374 inhabitants or per 50 sq. miles. Av. ann. increase of mileage, 155-38 miles. Total capital ex-

334

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troops in the Sudan. The railway to Queensland was opened in 1888 by the new governor, Lord Carrington. In the same year the government prevented the landing of some Chinese passengers and passed laws practically prohibiting the immigration of Chinamen. Federation.—In 1889, the premier, Sir Henry Parkes, gave

[BRITISH

and posted up in the same way as the French postal afiches of

to-day and copied by scribes for dispatch to provincial subscribers A like series of official reports was made in China as early as the 7th century, but in a general sense right up to the invention of

printing (g.v.) the dissemination of news in all countries was by

the slow process of word of mouth and by private letter. After his support to the movement for Australasian federation, and New the discovery of printing pamphlets or single sheets announcing South Wales was represented at the first conference held in Mel- some item of news were often issued. bourne at the beginning of 1890 (see AusSTRALIA). Early in 1891 It is now generally supposed that the first of them to be pubthe great strike, which at one time had threatened to paralyse the lished regularly was a German publication the Avisa Relation odep trade of the colony, came to an end. A board of arbitration and Zeitung, frst printed in 1609. Then came the Antwerp Nieuwe conciliation to hear and determine labour questions and disputes Tijdingen in 1616, and in May 1622 appeared what is now conwas formed, and by later legislation its powers were strengthened. ceded to be the first English newspaper proper, The Weekly (For labour legislation see AUSTRALIA.) The census of 1891 Newes from Italy, Germany, etc., London, published by Nicholas showed that the population was 1,134,207, of whom the aborigines Bourne and Thomas Archer. These enterprising editor-publishers, numbered 7,705 and the Chinese 12,781. In 1893 a financial however, had a formidable competitor in Nathaniel Butter, a free. crisis resulted in the suspension of ten banks; but with two man of the Stationers’ Company, who in June 1605 had momenexceptions they were reconstructed, and by the following year the tarily satisfied the public demand for sensation, as greedy then effects of the depression had passed away. In 18096 a conference as it is now, by reports of two dramatic murder trials in Yorkof Australian premiers was held at Sydney to consider the ques- shire, one of which was the Calverley case. Butter had published tion of federation. The then premier, Mr. Reid, was rather Newes from Spain in 1611, and when the Weekly Newes appeared lukewarm, as he considered that the free-trade policy of New he almost immediately brought out a rival quarto sheet named South Wales would be overridden by its protectionist neighbours. Newes from Most Paris of Christendom, and its success was so But his hand was to a great extent forced by a People’s Federa- great that a Butter-Archer fusion followed. Their joint production convention held at Bathurst, and, ultimately, a considerable tion was called the Newes of the Present Week. It must not be assumed that during the whole period this journal was published majority in favour of federation was obtained. From 1899 to 1927.—During the South African War (1899- regularly every week, but it is the earliest continuous English 1902) New South Wales sent 314 officers and 5,796 men, more newspaper, so far as known to historians. In 1638 Charles I. than one-third of the total number raised by Australia. In spite gave Butter the right of publishing foreign news on payment of of the great drought of 1902, the state made progress, and during £10 a year towards the repair of St. Paul’s cathedral, but in the the period 1901~14 the cultivated area was almost doubled. Scien- following year he fell under the displeasure of the licenser of the tific breeding of wheat and dry-farming were important factors in press. Despite the latter’s decree of suppression Butter brought this increase. The protectionist policy of the Federal Govern- out his paper all the same, and he lived to a great age, dying in ment helped the manufacturers, and the change from free trade 1664. Archer had died in 1634. did not appear to injure the prosperity of the country. I. BRITISH NEWSPAPERS! The influence of the Labour Party was manifested in the adoption of laws extending the arbitration system, and from 1906 In the reign of Queen Elizabeth the news writer was well estab“assisted immigration” became its accepted policy. In 1912 fruit- lished. Formerly he did not fulfil an independent calling but was growing began in the irrigation area of the Murrumbidgee. After a retainer in the service of some great noble whom he kept 1918 a policy of closer settlement for ex-service men was initiated equipped with such intelligence as his master required, but the and further encouragement given to immigration from Great gradual spread of learning led to a demand, especially in districts Britain. remote from London, for a regular supply of news. For a long The railway strike of 1917 had far-reaching effects: it raised period the purveyors of these letters, who must be regarded as legal and constitutional questions of importance and caused, ten journalists, syndicated (to use an expression familiar to modem years later, the downfall of the Labour Ministry. In 1925, Mr. journalism) their information in manuscript form, and there was Lang, the Labour premier, had instructed the Railway Commis- more than one organisation for the interchange of letters between sioners to reduce in rank the men who had not taken part in the London and the provinces. Of these early news-letters good strike. The arbitration court forbade the Commissioners to carry examples are in the Paston Letters and the Sydney Papers. out the premier’s instruction. Thereupon Mr. Lang introduced his First Newspapers.—It was at one time believed that the Railway Bill to annul the decision of the court. This was passed earliest regular English newspaper was an English Mercurie in the assembly but rejected by the legislative council. As the of 1588, said to have been printed in the year of the Spanish council is a nominated body, Mr. Lang recommended to the gover- Armada. Copies are in the British Museum, but it was afterwards nor that twenty-five new members (all pledged to support the proved that these early copies in mss. and print were forgeries. bill) should be added to its number. The recommendation was, There is in the British Museum a Mercurius Gallobelgicus, after some demur, accepted, but, when a further bill was brought the work of D. M. Janson, of Cologne. A fairly thick octavo forward to abolish the council, some of the new councillors refused book, giving a Latin chronicle of events from 1587 to 1594, it to die for the party and the bill was rejected by 47 to 41. Public is really a sort of annual register. It was continued down to meetings were held protesting against the actions of Mr. Lang. 1635. The Mercurius Gallobelgicus is chiefly interesting because, The press suggested a referendum or a general election, and when by circulating in England, it started the idea of a periodical supin 1927 a general election did take place the Labour government plying foreign news, and apparently became to English contemwas defeated by a Nationalist and Country Party coalition. poraries a type of the newfangled news-summaries: and the title (H. D. N.) Mercurius or Mercury—as representing the messenger of NEWSPAPERS (see also CopyrIcHT, LIBEL, CONTEMPT OF gods—thus became a common one for English periodicals. the On Court). For legal definition of newspapers in the strict sense June ist, 1619, Ralph Rounthwaite entered at Stationers’ Hall reference should be made to the article on Press Laws, but for A Relation of all maiters done in Bohemia, Austria, Poland, the purpose of this article the term comprises daily or weekly France, etc., that is worthy of relating, since the znd of Sletta, publications mainly concerned with the reporting, illustrating and March 1618 (1619 N.S.) until the 4th of May. Again at the becommenting upon current events. (For magazines and the like ginning of November 1621 Bartholomew Downes and another see PERIODICALS.) entered in like manner

Early History.—In

the days before printing the earliest

equivalent of the modern newspaper was the series of public announcements called Acta Diurna issued during the Roman empire

The certaine and true newes from all parts

In the following section have been incorporated certain sections of the articles by E. Edwards in the oth edition and by H. Chisholm in the later editions of the Encyclopædia Britannica.

NEWSPAPERS

BRITISH]

of Germany and Poland, to this present 20 of October r621. No copy of either of these papers is now known to exist. But in May 1622 we arrive at a regular weekly newspaper which may still be seen in the British Museum, the Weekly Newes of Archer and Bourne referred to above. Freeing the Press.—The first periodical with a title was a VWercurius Britannicus published by Archer (1625; the earliest copy in existence being No. 16, April 7), which probably lasted ill the end of 1627. But the activity of the newspapermen was checked by the Star Chamber edict in 1632 against the printing of news from foreign parts. The next step in the evolution of the newspaper was due to the abolition of the Star Chamber in 1641, and the consequent freeing of the press; and at last we come to

the English periodical with domestic news.

In November 1641

begins The H ead of severall proceedings in the present parliament (outside title) or Diurnal Occurrences (inside title), the latter

being the title under which it was soon known as a weekly; and on Jan. 31, 1642 appeared A Perfect Diurnal of the Passages in Parliament. ‘These were printed for William Cooke, and were

written apparently by Samuel Pecke, “the first of the patriarchs of English domestic journalism”

(J. B. Williams).

The weekly

Diurnals were on the side of the parliament until in Jan. 1643

appeared at Oxford the first Royalist diurnal, named Mercurius

Aulicus, a Diurnal communicating the intelligence and affaires of the Court to the rest of the Kingdome

(continued till Sept.

1645, and soon succeeded by Mercurius

Academicus),

which

struck a higher literary note. It was conducted by Sir John Berkenhead, a Fellow of All Souls, whose style is said to reflect that of the Parliamentary oratory of his day. He afterwards became master of requests. Mercurius Civicus, the first regularly illustrated periodical in London, was started by the parliamentarian Richard Collings on May 11, 1643 (continued to Dec. 1646); Collings had also started earlier in the year the Kingdome’s Weekly Intelligencer, which lasted till Oct. 1649. In September 1643 appeared another Puritan opponent of M. Aulicus in the later Mercurius Britanmicus of Captain Thomas Audley, which in September 1644 was taken over and continued for nearly two years by Marchamont (or Marchmont) Nedham. Nedham was a master of invective and one of the earliest to change sides when it suited him. From Oct. 1649 to June 1650, by a new act of parliament, the licensed press itself was entirely suppressed, and in 1649 two official journals were issued, A Brief Relation (up to Oct. 1650) and Severall Proceedings in Parliament (till Sept. 1655), a third licensed periodical, A Perfect Diurnal] (till Sept. 1655), being added later in the year, and a fourth, Mercurius Politicus (of which Milton was the editor for a year or so and Nedham one of the principal writers), starting on June 13, 1650 (continuing till April 12, 1660). After the middle of 1650 there was a revival of some of the older licensed

news-books; but the Weekly Intelligence of the Commonwealth (July 1650 to Sept. 1655), by R. Collings, was the only important newcomer up to September 1655, when Cromwell suppressed all such publications with the exception of Mercurius Politicus and the Publick Intelligencer (Oct. 1655 to April 1660), both being official and conducted by Nedham.

335

|

two papers, the Intelligencer (Aug. 1) and the Newes (Sept. 3)

at a halfpenny, the former on Mondays and the latter on Thursdays; they were continued till Jan. 29, 1666, but from the beginning of 1664 the Intelligencer was made consecutive with the Newes, numbered and paged as one. The London Gazette.—The first number of the bi-weekly Oxford Gazette, licensed by Lord Arlington and written by Muddiman, was published on Nov. 16, 1665. It was a “paper” of news, of the same size and shape as Muddiman’s news-letters. With the publication of the 24th number (Monday, Feb. 5, 1666 O.S.) the Oxford Gazette became the London Gazette, which has appeared twice a week, on Tuesdays and Fridays, ever since as the official organ of Government.

After the Revolution

of 1688 the press

censorship was relaxed, being finally abandoned in 1693, and a number of newspapers came into being, including the Universal Intelligence, English Courant, London Courant, London Mercury, London Intelligence, Orange Gazette, Flying Post, PostBoy, a daily which lasted only four days, and the Lincoln, Rutland, and Stamford Mercury, now the oldest of the provincial papers. In 1699 appeared the Edinburgh Gazette, a bi-weekly, and in 1702 the Daily Courant, the first English daily, a small sheet printed on one side only, the editor-printer of which confined himself to news and not views. Defoe and Llioyd.—It is Daniel Defoe who is the first English journalistic writer of national importance. In Feb. 1704 he began his weekly, The Review, which eventually was printed three times a week and was a forerunner of the Tatler (started by Steele in 1709) and the Spectator (started by Steele and Addison in 1711). Defoe’s Review came to an end in 1713, and between 1716 and 1720 he published a monthly with an old title, Mercurius Politicus. By some authorities Defoe is considered the originator of the serial story. The Examiner, which was started in 1710 as the chief Tory organ, enjoyed as its most influential contributor Swift, the father of the leading article. Edited by Dr. William King, afterwards principal of St. Mary’s hall, Oxford, this political journal had brilliant contributors in Bolingbroke, Prior, Atterbury and Arbuthnot. Swift had control of the journal for 33 numbers between November, 1710, and June, 1711, but on becoming dean of St. Patrick’s he gave up regular journalistic work. There followed a number of other political journals, such as the Craftsman, the Whig Examiner, and the Medley. In 1696 Edward Lloyd—the virtual founder of the famous “Lloyd’s” of commerce—started a thrice-a-week paper, Lioyd’s News, which had but a brief existence in its first shape, but was the precursor of the Lloyd’s List of the present day. No. 76 of the original paper contained a paragraph referring to the House of Lords, for the appearance of which a public apology must, the

publisher was told, be made. He preferred to discontinue his publication (February 1697). Nearly thirty years afterwards he in

part revived it, under the title of Lloyd’s List—published at first weekly, afterwards twice a week (see F. Martin, History of Lloyds, 66—77 and 107-120). This dates from 1726. It is now a daily. Stamp Tax of 1712.—The increasing popularity and influence of the newspaper press could not fail to be distasteful to the gov_ Till Cromwell’s death (Sept. 3rd, 1658) Nedham reigned alone ernment of the day. The paper which seems to contain the first in the press, but in 1659 a rival appeared in Henry Muddiman (a germ of the newspaper tax is still preserved amongst the treasury great writer also of “news-letters”), whose Parliamentary Intelli- papers, and probably belongs to the year 1711. “There are pubgencer, renamed the Kingdom’s Intelligencer (till Aug. 1663), lished weekly,” says the writer, “about 44,000 newspapers, viz., was supported by General Monk. Nedham’s journalistic career Daily Courant, London Post, English Post, London Gazette, Postcame finally to an end (he died in 1678) at the hand of Monk’s man, Postboy, Flying Post, Review and Observator.” (“A Proposicouncil of state in April 1660. His successor, Muddiman, was tion to Increase the Revenue of the Stamp-Office,” Redington, supplanted in 1663 by Sir Roger L’Estrange, formerly a Royalist Calendar of Treasury Papers, 1708-1714, p. 235.) The duty cavalry officer who narrowly escaped execution during the com- eventually imposed (1712) was a halfpenny on papers of half a monwealth; he was appointed “surveyor of the press.” On him sheet or less, and a penny on such as ranged from half a sheet to

was conferred by royal grant—as it proved, for only a short perlod—“all the sole privilege of writing, printing and publishing all narratives, advertisements, mercuries, intelligencers, diurnals and other books of public intelligence; . . . with power to search for and seize the unlicensed and treasonable schismatical

and scandalous books

and papers.”

L’Estrange

discontinued

Mercurius Politicus and Kingdom’s Intelligencer and substituted

a single sheet (ro Anne, c. xix. § ror). Swift’s doubt expressed in his Journal to Stella (Aug. 7, 1712) as to the ability of the Spectator to hold out against the tax was justified by its discontinuance in Dec. 1712, Steele starting the Guardian in 1713, which only ran for six months. But some of the worst journals that were already in existence kept their ground, and the number of such ere long increased. An enumeration of the

NEWSPAPERS

336

[BRITISH

London papers of 1714 comprises the Daily Courant, the Exami- revolutionary tendencies increased in a still greater ratio. Blas. ner, the British Merchant, the Lover, the Patriot, the Monitor, the phemy was added to sedition. Penny and halfpenny journals were Flying Post, the Postboy, Mercator, the Weekly Pacquet and Dun- established which dealt exclusively with narratives of gross vice ton’s Ghost. Another enumeration in 1733 includes the Daily and crime. Between 1831 and 1835 hundreds of unstamped news. Courant, the Craftsman, Fog’s Journal, Mist’s Journal, the London papers made their appearance. The political tone of most of them Journal, the Free Briton, the Grub Street Journal, the Weekly | was fiercely revolutionary. Prosecution followed prosecution; but Register, the Universal Spectator, the Auditor, the Weekly Mis- | all failed to suppress the obnoxious publications. To Bulwer Lytton, the novelist and politician (Lord Lytton, cellany, the London Crier, Read’s Journal, Oedipus or the Postman Remounted, the St. James’s Post, the London Evening Post and g.v.), and subsequently to Milner Gibson and Richard Cobden, the London Daily Post, which afterwards became better known as is chiefly due the credit of grappling with this question in the the Public Advertiser. Part of this increase may fairly be ascribed ' House of Commons in a manner which secured first the reduction to political corruption. Later towards the middle of the same| of the tax to a penny in 1836, and then its total abolition jp century the provisions and the penalties of the Stamp Act, 1855. The number of newspapers established from the early part were made more stringent. Yet the number of newspapers con- | of 1855, when the repeal of the duty had become a certainty, tinued to rise. In 1753 the aggregate number of copies of news- | and continuing in existence at the beginning of 1857, amounted papers annually sold in England, on an average of three years, | to 107; 26 were metropolitan and 81 provincial. The duties on amounted to 7,411,757. In 1760 it had risen to 9,464,790, and in | paper itself were finally abolished in 1861. 1767 to 11,300,980. In 1776 the number of newspapers published | The abolition of the stamp taxes brought about such reductions in the prices of newspapers that they speedily began to reach the in London alone had increased to fifty-three. een mee iee te ER tea eOe

bag ston eh

18th Century Journalists.—Thus

the 18th century saw the | many instead of the few.

Some idea of the extent of the tax on

gradual development of the purely political journal side by side | knowledge imposed in the early 19th century may be gathered with those papers which were primarily devoted to news, domestic from the fact that the number of stamps issued in 1820 was and foreign, and commerce. It was left to Steele and Addison close on 29,400,000, and the incidence of the advertisement tax, (g.v.) to develop the social side of journalism in their journals fixed at 3s. 6d. in 1804, made it impossible for the newspaper owner named above which have found a permanent place in English to pass on the stamp tax to the advertiser, as is done nowadays literature.

Nor must we omit Dr. Johnson’s 2d. bi-weekly, the

Rambler, started in 1750, In 1761 the North Briton Wilkes’ determined fight for Jony) that at length the

and his weekly, came out and it the liberty of the last shackles on

the Idler (1758). was largely due to press (see WILKES, free expression of

opinion in Britain were cut away, and by 1772 the right to pub-

with regard to all commodities of popular consumption.

In 1828

the proprietors of The Times had to pay the State over £68,000 in stamp and advertisement taxes and paper duty. But after the reduction of the stamp tax in 1836 from 4d. to 1d. the circulation of English newspapers, based on the stamp returns, rose from 39,000,000 to 122,000,000 in 1854. Lord Northcliffe, or Alfred Harmsworth as he then was, was the pioneer of the half-penny daily newspaper towards the end of the century. He wrote an article for the 11th edition of the

lish parliamentary reports had been established. The outstanding daily paper in the middle of the 18th century was the Public Advertiser, which for some 25 years had been called the General Advertiser (and for some time the London Encyclopedia Britannica, in which after sketching the development Daily Post). It was published with notable success by Henry of the British press he pointed out that “the development—and Woodfall and his son Henry Samson Woodfall, and it was in indeed the possibility—of the cheap daily paper was due to a this paper that appeared the famous Letters of Junius (g.v.), number of causes operating together during the latter half of the which have been attributed to Philip Francis. These papers led rgth century. Among these, the first place must undoubtedly be to a marked increase in its circulation, the monthly sale in Dec. given to the cheapening of paper, through the introduction of 1771 being close on 84,000 as compared with 47,500 seven years wood pulp and the perfecting of the machinery used in the manufacture. From 1875 to 1885 paper cheapened rapidly. and it has previously. But in 1798 it was merged in the Public Ledger. Early 19th Century.—In 1769 William Woodfall started the been estimated that the introduction of wood pulp trebled the Morning Chronicle, whose daily circulation in 1819 reached 4,000, circulation of newspapers in England. Keen competition in the and in 1843, at a time when Dickens was a contributor, 6,000. paper trade also did much to lower prices. At the same time But in another six years the circulation had fallen to 3,000. For the prime cost of newspaper production was increased by the some five years it became the property of the duke of Newcastle, introduction of improved machinery into the printing office. The Mr. Gladstone, and others, but finally ended insolvent, after a growth of advertisements must also be taken into account in conlife of over ninety years. Another longlived daily paper, whose sidering the evolution of the halfpenny journal. The income from top circulation was about 6,000, was the Morning Herald (1781- this source alone made it possible to embark upon journalistic 1869). Two other important dailies were started in the 18th enterprises which would otherwise have been simply to court discentury which still exist, the Morning Post and The Times; these aster. The popular journal of the present day does not, however, are dealt with later, together with the Morning Advertiser, owe its existence and success merely to questions of diminished founded in 1794. It was William Cobbett (g.v.) who first at- cost and improved methods of production. A change has come tempted to reach the masses by his pen, and reduced the price over the public mind. The modern reader likes his news in a of his Weekly Political Register from 1s—o}$d. to twopence in his brief, handy form, so that he can see at a glance the main facts endeavour to appeal to the working classes for support of those without the task of reading through wordy articles. This is principles of parliamentary reform dear to his heart. In 1808 especially the case with the man of business, who desires to master Leigh Hunt brought out the Examiner whose frank criticism of the the news of the past 24 hours as he travels to his office in the prince regent landed him and a brother in gaol. This weekly morning. It is to economize time rather than money that the journal had quite a long lease of life and excelled in dramatic modern reader would often prefer a halfpenny paper; while the criticism, besides giving an excellent review of the events of the man of leisure, who likes to peruse leading articles and full deweek in all branches of public affairs. scriptive accounts, finds what he needs in the more highly priced Abolition of Taxes on Knowledge.—The development of journals. The halfpenny paper in England has not had to contend the press was enormously assisted by the gradual abolition of the with the opposition that the penny newspaper met from its three“taxes on knowledge,” and also by the introduction of a cheap penny contemporaries in the ‘fifties and ’sixties. This is largely postal system. In 1756 an additional halfpenny was added to the due to the fact that in most cases the contributors, paper, printtax of 1712. In 1765 and in 1773 various restrictive regulations ing and general arrangement of the cheaper journal do not leave were imposed. In 1789 the three-halfpence was increased to much room for criticism. G. A. Sala once complained that the twopence, in 1798 to twopence-halfpenny, in 1804 to threepence- reporters of the older papers objected to work side by side with halfpenny, and in 1815 to fourpence, less a discount of 20%. As him when he represented the first penny London daily (the Davy prosecutions multiplied, and the penalties became more serious, Telegraph), through fear of losing caste, but this does not now

NEWSPAPERS

LONDON]

3537

apply, for in the United Kingdom, France and the United States | affairs was Crabb Robinson; his place was taken at a later date ‘he cheap journals, owing to their vast circulation, are able to by Henry Reeve.

ofer the best rates of remuneration, and can thus command the cervices of some of the best men in all the various departments

of journalism.” Newspapet

Eo

Expansion.—The

history of journalism in the

roth century has been divided by a well-known writer on the press, H. R. Fox Bourne, roughly into four stages: (x1) persecution; (2) liberation, 1830-1855; (3) cheapening, 1855-1875;

(4) widening, since 1875. The first three stages have already

heen outlined, but the widening process, which has gone on ever since. must be traced to the wonderful progress in the technique

of newspaper production and the vast increase in the reading

public resulting from the development in State education. Perhaps the most notable event at the beginning of the cheapening

stage was the foundation of the Daily Telegraph and Courier in June 1855 at 2d., which was reduced to 1d. in ten weeks, with the result that in six months it had the then remarkable circulation

of 27,000 a day. Julius Reuter founded in Paris in 1849 the great foreign news

agency

which

still bears his name

though

it is now controlled by the Press Association, an organization for the gathering and dissemination of domestic news which was founded in 1865. This was preceded in 1863 by the Central Press

and followed in 1870 by the Central News and next the Exchange Telegraph with their ticker machines. It is appropriate at this stage to sketch the history of the great English newspapers. THE LONDON

PRESS

The Times, which occupies the premier position among English newspapers, was started by John Walter on Jan. 1, 1785 under the name of the Daily Universal Register. Then, as now, it was printed in Printing House square, Blackfriars. The founder promised the readers of the new journal that it would contain nothing to wound anyone’s delicacy or corrupt the mind, that it would abstain from unfair partisanship and scandalous scurrility, and that it would be a faithful recorder of legitimate intelligence. On Jan. 1, 1788 its title was changed to The Times, and this great newspaper has ever since been the pre-eminent national journal and daily historical record. It came into existence when a new wave of democratic thought was spreading over Europe, and the French revolution was already brewing. Free expression of opinion in the press was still a thing of the future, and within a few years of the establishment of his paper Walter had several sojourns in Newgate and had to pay several fines for criticisms of the authorities. One of his offences was the statement that the then prince of Wales and other royal princes had by their misconduct incurred the just disapprobation of George III. John Walter the second practically took over the reins in 1803, and he also had to encounter the active opposition of governments whom he had occasion to criticise, including that of William Pitt. He introduced a better system of news transmission and steam printing (1814) with the result that he was able to make the proud annauncement that 1,100 sheets had been impressed in one hour. In view of the newspaper and advertisement tax and other disabilities, it was a considerable achievement when in 1815, the year of Waterloo, the daily circulation reached 5,000. In twenty years this was doubled, in 1851 it had reached 40,000, and three years later it was over 50,000, when its most circulated rival, the Morning Advertiser, had a sale of less than 8,000 copies. When John Walter the second assumed control The Times was a small four-page sheet. When he gave up control in 1847 it consisted of twelve large pages. Sir John Stoddart, later governor of Malta, was the editor for several years up to 1816. He was succeeded

by Thomas Barnes, and when the latter’s health began to fail much of the editorial work devolved upon Captain Edward Sterling, whose pontifical and sometimes explosive style caused Carlyle to say: “he more than any other man was The Times, and thundered through it to the shaking of the spheres.” Carlyle also called him “Captain Whirlwind,” and the popular title of “the Thunderer” often given to The Times dated from his time.

In those days the most powerful writer in its columns on foreign

In 1841 on the death of Barnes the editorial chair was taken by

quite a young man, John Thaddeus Delane, whose brilliant career in this capacity lasted until 1877. His place was taken by Dr. Thomas Chenery, who died in 1884 and was succeeded by George Earle Buckle, who since his retirement in 1912 has won a niche in English literature by his life of Disraeli. Meanwhile since 1848 John Walter the third had been in command. He died in 1894, and was succeeded by Arthur Walter. About the beginning of the 2oth century The Times had begun to feel the influence of the more go-ahead methods of the popular press, and there was a loss of circulation and revenue which became a grave source of anxiety to its owners. It was a period when another great London daily paper, the Standard, was in extremis. Finally in 1908 Lord Northcliffe realised his ambition of long years and acquired the chief control of the ‘“‘Thunderer,” with A. Walter as chairman of the company which was created to carry it on, and Moberly Bell as managing director. It cannot be said that Lord Northcliffe’s administration was consistently successful but he thoroughly remodelled the organisation and increased its efficiency in all departments. There is no doubt that by the introduction of sound business methods he laid a solid foundation upon which the present remarkable prosperity of the paper is largely based. Under his rule the price of The Times at different periods was threepence, twopence, and a penny. At earlier dates the price had been: 1796, 44d.; 1799, 6d.; 1809, 64d.; 1815, 7d.; 1836, 5d.; 1855, 4d.; and 186r (on the abolition of the newspaper tax) 3d., at which it remained right up to the end of the 19th century. It is now (1929) 2d. On his retirement Buckle was succeeded as editor by Geoffrey Dawson, then a young man, formerly private secretary of Lord Milner and editor of the Johannesburg Star. During the World War he retired from the editorship owing to a difference of opinion with Lord Northcliffe and his place was taken by Wickham Steed. When after the war and the death of Lord Northcliffe, Major J. J. Astor, M.P., became its chairman and chief proprietor, Geoffrey Dawson again became editor. Major Astor secured the future independence of the paper by a deed establishing a body of trustees consisting of holders of various public offices whose consent would be required to validate any future transfer of ownership. The Times excels in every department, mainly by employing experts in particular subjects. It is the only newspaper whose law reports are recognised by the courts as authentic, these reports being done day by day by skilled barrister reporters. Similarly The Times specialises in its presentation of foreign affairs and has maintained for nearly a century in the chief capitals of the world an able staff of foreign correspondents, of whom one of the most famous was de Blowitz, who among his many “scoops,” secured for The Times the privilege of being able to publish exclusively the text of the Berlin Treaty of 1878 on the very day that it was signed. The principal adjuncts to The Times are the literary supplement, which surveys the whole field of new literature every Thursday, the weekly edition, first published in 1877, containing a summary of the week’s news, The Times law reports (mentioned above), the educational supplement and the trade and engineering supplement, which are weekly publications, and the index, an invaluable record of the events of the day recorded in the newspaper, which is published quarterly. In addition The Times issues at intervals handsome supplements to its readers without any extra charge. The publishing department of The Times has invaded several new fields of enterprise. The Times Atlas was first published in 1895, and this publication was supplemented by that of The Times (previously Longmans’) Gazetteer. A much larger and more important venture was the issue in 1898 of a reprint of the ninth edition of the Encyclopedia Britannica at less than half the original price, on a new system of terms (known as The Times system) that enabled the purchaser to receive the whole work at once and to pay for it by a series of equal monthly payments.

This was followed by a similar sale of the Century Dictionary and of a reprint of the first 50 years of Punch; and 11 new vol-

338

NEWSPAPERS

umes of the Excyclopedia Britannica, supplementing the ninth edition, and forming with it the tenth edition, were issued by The Times in 1902 on similar terms (see ENCYCLOPAEDIA). There was also The Times History of the War in South Africa of 1899-1902. The Daily Telegraph, another great national daily, first published as the Daily Telegraph and Courier, was published on

[BRITISH

Dunn, Sir Fabian Ware, and H. A. Gwynne, the present (192g, editor. The price of the paper was reduced to id. in 1923. The Daily News & Westminster Gazette (the Daily Ney; absorbed the Westminster Gazette in Feb. 1928) is the oldes

Liberal newspaper published in London. It was founded in 1845 under the editorship of Charles Dickens who retired after a fey June 29, 1855, as a twopenny newspaper. It was owned by weeks, being succeeded for a year or so by John Forster, later his Colonel Sleigh who transferred the ownership to Joseph Moses biographer. The original staff included Mark Lemon, afterward; Levy in the following September. Levy produced it as the first editor of Punch, and Douglas Jerrold. The Daily News has a conpenny newspaper in London, the name Courier being subsequently sistent record as the champion of Liberalism; it led British public dropped. His son Edward Lawson (later the first Baron Burn- opinion in sympathizing with the North in the American Ciyil ham, soon became editor, which post he continued to hold till War, in supporting the war of freedom in Italy, and the emanci188s. A long list of distinguished members of the staff included pation of Bulgaria and the Armenians. The price of the paper Sir Edwin Arnold, George Augustus Sala, for many years the was reduced to rd. in 1868. Under the control of Sir John Robinuncrowned king of Fleet St., Professor E. Dicey, Sir J. M. son it attained a high reputation for its foreign correspondence, Le Sage, Bennet Burleigh, the war correspondent, J. L. Garvin, beginning with the celebrated Archibald Forbes in the Francoand H. D. Traill; and among dramatic and literary critics Clem- German war 1870. On a change in ownership after the retirement of Sir John ent Scott and W. L. Courtney. After 1890 the Hon. Harry Lawson, the eldest son of the owner (now Viscount Burnham), Robinson, Sir E. T. Cook, who had been editor of the Westassisted in the general control. The Daiiy Telegraph became the minster Gazette, became editor of the Daily News from 18096, especial organ of the middle classes and shortly before the advent He resigned in 1901 in consequence of another change in ownerof the halfpenny daily newspaper had achieved so remarkable a ship. Cook was a Liberal Imperialist and the paper had passed success that it could claim the largest circulation in the world. under the control of D. Lloyd George and his friends; and afterIt was consistently Liberal up to 1878 when it opposed Glad- wards passed under that of the Cadbury family. After an interstone’s foreign policy, and at the Irish Home Rule split in 1886 regnum A. G. Gardiner was the next editor. In 1904 the price of it became Unionist. Its enterprises included the financing of an the paper was reduced to a halfpenny. Gardiner resigned the important archaeological exploration in Nineveh resulting in the editorship after the World War and was succeeded by Stuart discovery of a number of fragments of the cuneiform narrative Hodgson as editor; Tom Clarke joined the paper in 1926 as of the deluge, and the despatch, in co-operation with the New managing editor. The Daily News absorbed the Morning Leader York Herald, of Sir H. M. Stanley, on a successful exploration and acquired the Star in 1909, and has maintained that journal into darkest Africa. The Daily Telegraph successfully weathered as a lively and independent exponent of Liberalism. The Daily the World War, increasing its price to 2d. at which it (1929) re- News is the only penny London paper which makes a daily feature mains. On the death of Sir J. Le Sage a few years ago he was suc- of literature. It is printed in Manchester as well as in London. The Daily Chronicle, unlike the Daily News which was ceeded in the editorial chair by J. Miller, who died after a short tenure, his place being taken by A. E. Watson, the present (1929) started under distinguished auspices, was the outgrowth of a editor. In December 1927 Lord Burnham and his family sold the London local daily, the Clerkenwell News, and was established Daily Telegraph to Sir William and Sir Gomer Berry and Sir in 1877. It consisted almost entirely of small advertisements and Edward Iliffe under whose control it has continued its same policy. Edward Lloyd, the founder of Lloyds Weekly News turned it The Morning Post is the oldest of London daily newspapers into a general morning London newspaper. During the Home extant. It was founded in 1772 as the Morning Post and Daily Rule controversies of the ’80s it was Liberal Unionist, but under Advertising Pamphlet, a paper of eight pages, 12 inches long by the editorship of A. E. Fletcher (1895) it became Gladstonian 8. It was mostly an advertising sheet including State lotteries, Liberal. Fletcher was an idealist who sympathized with Labour which were legal and popular at that time. It developed into a and had a passion for literature. During his editorship literature national newspaper under the ownership of Peter and Daniel was developed in the newspaper as a regular feature. Fletcher Stuart after 1795, and attracted a wonderful galaxy of writers, was succeeded by H. W. Massingham who, while maintaining the including Sir James Mackintosh, Samuel Taylor Coleridge, literary features, made the paper a more robust political organ. Southey, Arthur Young, the poet Moore, Wordsworth, and Charles Massingham was a Radical; and had formerly been editor of the Lamb. It has always maintained a tradition of vigorous and un- Star. He lost his position on the Chronicle because of his oppoblenching criticism, and Nicholas Byrne, the editor-owner who sition to the Boer War. He was succeeded by W. J. Fisher and succeeded Daniel Stuart, was murdered in his office as the result the paper pursued a humdrum career and was a declining propof an article which had given offence. At the beginning of the erty when in 1904 Robert Donald was appointed editor, with roth century the circulation was about 4,000 a day. In 1850 the the object of revitalising the paper. The price was reduced to paper came under the control of Peter Borthwick, who had sat halfpenny and at once the paper entered upon a new era of for a long period as M.P. for Evesham, and on his death in 1852 prosperity and prestige which reached its height during the he was succeeded by his son, Algernon, who had been a brilliant World War. During the long Liberal régime from 1906 to the Paris correspondent for the Morning Post. Under his régime the year of 1915, the Chronicle was regarded as the chief supporter paper settled down to a prolonged prosperity as a Conservative of the Left Wing of the Government. The Chronicle was a journal and before long became the leading society paper, whose pioneer in the introduction of illustrations by leading artists, fashionable characteristics often made it the butt of Thackeray’s those contributing to the Chronicle including Burne Jones, satirical pen. During Lord Palmerston’s tenure of the Foreign Joseph Pennell, who was art editor, and Linley Sambourne. It Office the Morning Post was always regarded as his especial made a high reputation for its foreign correspondence, and took organ, and even in those early days it was distinguished for its a leading part in exposing public abuses. The paper was sold to D. Lloyd George and his friends in the robust imperialism in foreign affairs. In 1877 Borthwick became sole owner, and four years later he reduced the price from 3d. to autumn of 1918, when Sir Robert Donald retired from his td. at which it stood till the World War, when the price was raised position as editor and as managing director of the company. to 2d. Borthwick became a knight, then a baronet, arid was raised It has since been edited by Ernest A. Perris, who joined it as to the peerage as Lord Glenesk in 1895. When Lord Glenesk died news editor in 1904. In 1927 it was sold to two Indian merchants, in 1908 the ownership passed to his only surviving child, Countess Sir David Yule and Sir Thomas Catto, Lloyd George retaining a Bathurst, who carried on the traditions of the paper (which was minority interest. Lord Reading was appointed chairman. The consistently Protectionist) until she disposed of it in 1923 to a chairman has changed six times in ten years. Sit David Yule group headed by the duke of Northumberland. Among the editors died in July 1928, and William Harrison, who (1929) is chairman, of the Morning Post have been Sir William Hardman, J. Nicol on behalf of the Inveresk Paper Company, Limited, acquired 4

NEWSPAPERS

339

London Evening Newspapers.—There are only three Lonits associated journals. The controlling interest in the paper and . Leeds and don evening newspapers surviving, each published at rd. The in London Daily Chronicle is.published simultaneously Harold Harmsworth in oldest of these is the Evening Standard, first published as an The Daily Mail started by Alfred and 1396 as a halfpenny daily newspaper is one of the miracles of

It evening edition of the Standard, which was founded in 1827. the and Globe the Gazette, James’s St. the turn in has absorbed journalism. It was a phenomenal success from the first number. ook the Pall Mall Gazette. It is now the property of the Beaverbr reached already had it century present At the dawn of the 1904 Sir Alfred group, million mark, and it has never looked back. In The Evening News was founded in 1881, and after many vicisContinental Harmsworth (by that time a baronet) started the re. The situdes of fortune when in low water was acquired in 1895 by Daily Mail in Paris, now theproperty of Lord Rotherme It was an Atlantic Alfred and Harold Harmsworth and Kennedy Jones. and made Daily Mail publishes an edition in Manchester and n into daily journalism, incursio first rths’ Harmswo the ps. edition on the chief transatlantic steamshi the Daily Mail. The Evening News from the traditional a rich experimental field for From the first the Daily Mail broke away er group and has the largest espouse or reflect a is one of the Associated Newspap in the country. conception that a daily newspaper should papers evening the of any of on circulati sternly indeparticular political policy. The Daily Mail has been Liberal evening paper in London, was started only the Star, The poliand s nment Gover pendent and sometimes embarrassing to halfpenny journal in support of public opinion. by T, P, O’Connor in 1888 as a ticians but it generally registered the majority by the Daily News. acquired was it 1909 In e. a brilliant Gladston Northcliffe (as he became later) was not only eet street is crowded with the

Lord contact all organiser but a keen journalist imbuing by personal him with d aroun red gathe he which members of the able staff Mail has been some of his own dynamic enthusiasm. The Daily al and in nation the pioneer in many enterprises in journalism gave to aviation. interests, including the invaluable help which it e credit for offerLord Northcliffe and his associates also deserv l correspondents. specia for alled unequ ing inducements hitherto

high literIt has brought into the profession men and women of sional remuary standing and has led to an increase in profes

neration of journalists of all classes. e, who For many years the editor-in-chief was Thomas Marlow iffe, Northcl Lord of death the after retired two or three years and was succeeded by W. G. Fish. on the Since it came under the control of Lord Rothermere ed both death of his brother its phenomenal success has continu The annual in regard to increase in sales and in profit making. £1,000,000. exceed to ood underst is profit of the Daily Mail alone Its daily net sale in 1928 reached 2,000,000. The Daily Express, which was founded as a half-penny news-

only paper in 1900 by the late Sir C. Arthur Pearson, is second d a publishe it issue first its In on. circulati in Mail Daily to the d: announce and William, Kaiser the message of good will from “Our policy is patriotism, our party is the British empire.” It struck a new note, since imitated by other papers, of pubso to lishing its principal news on the first page, which became, speak, the shop-window.

In 1902 R. D. Blumenfeld joined the

staff: he became editor in 1904, and in 1912, when Sir Arthur Pearson lost his sight, formed a syndicate which acquired control. Lord Beaverbrook began to take an interest in the paper while it was financially in low water and during the war obtained complete control. Blumenfeld remained the managing editor. Immediately after the War

the Daily Express showed

increased

vitality. Lord Beaverbrook spent prodigious sums out of revenue in developing the paper. To a large extent it is his personal organ—and expresses his views on political and other affairs. The Daily Express is printed simultaneously in London, Manchester and Glasgow.

The Daily Herald (price 1d.), the official organ of the Trades

Union Congress, after passing through severe financial difficulties has now definitely taken its place among London dailies. It occu-

Great Papers of the Past.—Fl t places ghosts of journals which in their time have filled importan

in the life of the country. There was the M orning Chronicle its which began its career in the 18th century and had among (afterCampbell John sh, Mackinto J. Sir Sheridan, ors contribut wards Lord Chancellor), Campbell, the poet, Thomas Moore, Lord Charles Brougham, Byron, William Hazlitt, John Stuart Mill, used editor famous most its Black, John Lamb and Thackeray. to say that one of the paper’s parliamentary reporters, Charles After Dickens, was the best shorthand writer he had ever known. 1862. in died Chronicle a notable career the Morning Tory The Standard was established as an evening paper in the for measure the of ts opponen the of organ interest (as the express editor removing Roman Catholic disabilities) in 1827, its first y. being Stanley Lees Giffard, father of the first earl of Halsbur brought who ne, Johnsto James by In the ’sos it was purchased ed out the Standard as a morning paper (June 29, 18 57), increas from price the reduced and pages, eight to its size from four fourpence ta twopence. In Feb. 1858 Johnstone again reduced in the the price, this time to a penny. One of its contributors prime the y, Salisbur Lord later sixties was Lord Robert Cecil,

ne Mudminister, In the early ’6es it engaged William Heselti in 1865 Jamaica to ondent corresp specia] as ford. He was sent

of Governor to report upon the troubles which involved the recall Commons of House the of gallery the in period Eyre; a further ne, the Johnsto editor. became d followed, and in 1876 Mudfor owed so proprietor to whose energy and perspicacity the paper appointed much, died in 1878, and under his will Mudford was a great editor and manager for life, or until resignation. Already a very upon entered hands ’s Mudford in d Standar the property, Frances successful period. Alfred Austin, T. H. $. Escott, Miss paper Power Cobbe and Professor Palmer were all writing for the

, foreat the same time. It had many famous war correspondents of boys’ most among whom were G. A. Henty, the famous author and Wilbooks: John A. Cameron, who was killed at Abu Klea; was sucand retired, d Mudfor 1900 liam Maxwell. In January In Noceeded in the editorship by G. Byron Curtis (d, 1907). a rather taken time that at had which d, vember 1904 the Standar the strong line in deprecating the tariff reform movement within

was Unionist party, was sold to (Sir) C. Arthur Pearson, who beGywnne A. H. and League, chairman of the Tariff Reform Dalziel pies a unique position in the press as the only daily newspaper came editor. In roro it passed into the control of Davison is It party. Labour the of interests the to exclusively devoted war. the during ared disappe and (the late Lord Dalziel) more of a political organ than a general newspaper, and is financed was the A disastrous experiment in newspaper production penny mainly by trade unions. solid a as 1906 in son Thomas n Frankli by d Tribune, founde A notable addition to Labour journalism took place in April, staff and expending very large t brillian a ng gatheri After daily. Labour 1908. The 1929, when the Co-operative Societies affiliated with sums he found it necessary to discontinue the paper in acquired Reynolds’ Newspaper, which was established over 80 unhappy enterprise is described in Sir Philip Gibb’s novel “The c lines. years ago and has been consistently conducted on democrati ure.” The Echo was established by Cassells in _ Other Dailies.—There is only one sporting daily newspaper Street of Advent company 1868 and afterwards owned in turn by Albert Grant, the in London, the Sporting Life (started in 1859) with which was promoter, Passmore Edwards, Andrew Carnegie, and the late Sam amalgamated after the World War the Sportsman (founded d in 1905. r Bell’s Life was ab- Storey. The Echo perishe 1868). The famous old sporting newspape in 1803, and after many years as a founded was Globe The by ed represent sorbed by the Sporting Life in 1886. Finance is Conservative in 1866 when it became turned it organ Whig leading the Financial News (founded in 1884) and the Financial Times included Sir Stafford Northcote which te the property of a syndica now each 2d.

(1888) which absorbed the Financier,

340

NEWSPAPERS

[BRITISH

(Lord Iddesleigh). Two years later it assumed the deep pink hue | of the 19th century the provincial press consisted of less than a which it kept until its demise after the World War. The first |hundred journals, as compared with many thousands at the presnumber of the Pall Mall Gazette (the name being borrowed from | ent day. They were at that time practically without influence ang

the incident in which Thackeray describes Captain Shandon in |presented a minimum of local news without expressing any views. the Marshalsea prison drafting the prospectus of the Pall Mali | Benjamin Flower, printer of the Cambridge Intelligencer, who ip Gazette as a paper “written by gentlemen for gentlemen”) ap-| 1799 was haled before the House of Lords for breach of privilege peared in February

1865.

Its first editor was Frederick Green- | in commenting

upon some

action by a bishop, fined £100 ang

wood, who gathered round him a brilliant array of talent in Sir | sent to Newgate for six months, was the first to introduce the Henry Maine, Sir J. Fitzjames Stephen, Anthony Trollope, Charles |leading article in the provincial press. The Leeds M ercury, Reade, George Henry Lewes, George Eliot, Matthew Arnold, founded in 1717, under the control of Edward Baines (1801) be. and Richard Jefferies. In 1875 Greenwood was able to convey to came the most important and influential of the north country Disraeli news of the French bid to secure control of the Suez papers in the first half of the 19th century. For many years it Canal, thereby enabling Britain to get in first. It had been a admitted neither theatrical nor racing matter to its columns untij consistent supporter of Disraeli, and when on changing hands it the sentiment of its readers in Lancashire and Yorkshire underbecame Liberal John Morley became editor, with W. T. Stead as went a change in regard to these forms of amusement. After the assistant editor. In 1882 its price was reduced from 2d. to 1d. Reform Act of 1830 and the contemporaneous spread of self. When Morley exchanged journalism for politics in 1883, he was education and establishment of reading circles and newspaper succeeded by W. T. Stead (q.v.), with Alfred Milner, afterwards clubs, the country newspapers developed in importance and useLord Milner, as his assistant. Stead’s adventurous career as the fulness, being forced to assuage the public thirst for information editor came to an end in 1889, in consequence of his publishing a and instruction. It was not however till the final removal of the series of articles called “The Maiden Tribute of Modern Babylon,” taxes on knowledge, already described, that the provincial press purporting to further the Criminal Law Amendment Bill. He was came into its own, and from being strictly local organs began to succeeded by E. T. Cook. The Pall Mall Gazette was now steadily show almost as large an interest in affairs of national importance Liberal and a strong advocate of Irish Home Rule. It had two as their London contemporaries. Within ten years of the abolition of the paper duty penny distinguished editors at a later date in Sir Douglas Straight and J. L. Garvin, and finally passed through several hands before its morning newspapers had taken up commanding positions in Edinburgh, Glasgow, Dundee and Aberdeen; in Liverpool, Manchester. decease. Founded in 1880 by H. Hucks Gibbs (afterwards Lord Alden- Leeds, Bradford, Newcastle and Sheffield; in Birmingham and ham), for Frederick Greenwood to edit when he had left the Pall Nottingham; in Bristol, Cardiff and Plymouth; and across St.

Mall, the St. James’s Gazette represented the more intellectual and literary side of Tory journalism in opposition to the new Liberalism of Mr. Greenwood’'s former organ. In 1888 the paper having then been sold, Greenwood retired and was succeeded as editor (1888-1897) by (Sir) Sidney Low, who in his turn was

succeeded by Hugh Chisholm (1897—1900). Among the contributors were Rudyard Kipling, Sir James Barrie and G. S. Street. Towards the end of the roth century it assumed a more popular style and shape, and for a year or two before its acquisition by

(Sir) C. Arthur Pearson in 1903 and its final merging in the

Evening Standard it was edited by Ronald MacNeill

(Lord

Cushendun ). When the Pall Mail Gazette was sold to Lord Astor in 1892 and converted into a Conservative organ, E. T. Cook, the editor, and most of his staff resigned; in 1893 they came together again on the Westminster Gazette, newly started for the purpose by Sir G. Newnes (who had made a fortune out of Tit-bits and other popular pdpers) as a penny Liberal evening paper. It was printed on green paper. The paper was conducted on the lines of the old Pall Mall, and it had tbe advantage of a brilliant political car-

toonist in F. Carruthers Gould. In 1895 Cook was appointed editor of the Daily News, and his place was ably filled by J. Alfred Spender, who had been his assistant-editor, F. C. Gould (who was knighted in 1906) being his chief assistant. Apart from Sir F. C. Gould’s cartoons, the Westminster became conspicuous in London evening journalism for its high standard of judicious political and literary criticism. It gradually became the chief organ thought in London. In 1908 a change of proprietorship the paper being sold by Sir G. Newnes (d. 1910) to Liberal capitalists including the late Lord Cowdray

of Liberal took place, a group of and Lord

Melchett (then Mr. A. Mond), but without affecting the personnel or policy of the paper. How the famous green IVestminster finally

vanished after the war to be replaced by the daily newspaper of the same name, which was merged in the Daily News in 1928, has already been stated. BRITISH

PROVINCIAL

PRESS

The first provincial paper in England was the weekly Worcester Postman, 1690, now Berrow’s Worcester Journal. In the first twenty years of the 18th century a number of other journals sprang up in country towns, practically all of them being weekly journals. Among them were the Stamford Mercury begun in 1713 and the Northampton Mercury begun in 1720. At the beginning

George’s Channel in Dublin, Cork, Belfast and Waterford. But any real importance as organs of opinion was still confined to only a few of the great penny provincial dailies, notably the Yorkshire Post, Manchester Guardian, Birmingham Post (1857), Shej-

field Telegraph (associated with Sir W. Leng), Liverpool Daily Post, Leeds Mercury and Western Morning News; others too numerous to mention here were at the same time cradling journalists who were to become famous in a larger sphere, such as the Darlington Northern Echo, on which W. T. Stead made his début, while Joseph Cowen for some years made the Newcastle Daily Chronicle a powerful force. In the early ’seventies such a thing as a full telegraphic report in a provincial morning newspaper of parliamentary proceedings, or of a speech by a leading statesman, was almost unheard of. The Press Association had not then covered the country with its organization. Reuter’s foreign news service very briefly reported important events. Between 1870 and 1880 a complete revolution was effected, as the result of social and educational changes. Newspapers that had been content to fill their columns with local news and clippings from London and distant provincial papers put such matter aside. Telegraphic news crushed it out. When in Feb. 1870 the government took over the telegraph system, and gave special terms for press messages, English and Irish newspapers, following Scotland’s lead, began to open offices in London with special wires. The Press Association spread its news-collecting organization over the whole country, and was stimulated to activity by the rising opposition of the Central News. The universal use of news agency messages tended to a uniformity from which the more enterprising journals saved themselves by special London letters, parliamentary sketches and other exclusive contributions.

In 1881 the reporters’ gallery in the House of Commons was opened to some provincial newspapers. The first syndicate to send

out war correspondents was formed by the Glasgow News, the Liverpool Daily Post, Manchester Courier, Birmingham Gazette and Western Morning News, who despatched two correspondents to Egypt. The Central News also sent out war correspondents to Egypt and the Sudan. During the South African War (18991902) the leading provincial newspapers, however, all formed syndicates amongst themselves to secure war telegrams, and in many cases made arrangements for the simultaneous publication of the letters and telegrams of leading London journals. Leading Provincial Newspapers.—The leading English provincial daily papers in 1929 were:

The Manchester

34I

NEWSPAPERS

BRITISH] Guardian, price 2d., founded

in 1821

as a

cution of Strafford in 1641, and later the execution of Charles I.

after the years the chief exponent was similarly illustrated. Several woodcuts appearedIn the Grub weekly Whig organ and for the last fifty the regicides. the of greater part of this Restoration depicting the executions London. During

of Liberalism outside

Street Journal in 1731 was published an illustration of the Lord Mayor’s Show, and in 1740 the Dazly Post came out with a picture illustrating Admiral Vernon’s attack on Porto Bello. Copper plates M agazine, and tation, unsullied were used by the English Magazine, the Thespian ary prestige, and a dignity of expression and presen century. Occasional pictures 18th the in ns publicatio such other seem which sement dverti by recourse to the methods of self-a early days of the that seek huge cir- of important events were published in the necessary to those more popular newspapers Thornton, who Abraham of portrait a two years after it Observer (1791), including culations. It became a penny paper in 1857, ancient prothe invoked murder with charged being on 1818 ated in associ had been turned into a daily journal. Prominent names bill had to special a that result the with battle, of C. P. Scott’s cedure of wager with it have been C. E. Montague (who died in 1928), y obsolete form of trial. The practicall a abolishing passed be es, Jefferi d Richar of Queen son-in-law, L. T. Hobhouse, Andrew Lang, Claude Phillips, Observer also published pictures of the coronation Richard Whiteing (who died in June 1928), Sir which destroyed the armoury at 1841 in fire the of and Victoria and l, Russel E. W. G. an, George Saintsbury, Laurence Housm a picture ic criticism, the Tower of London. In 1834 the Sunday Times gave Spenser Wilkinson. In its book reviewing, its dramat been had it after Commons of House old the Guardian of the ruins of and its foreign correspondence alone the Manchester in 1840 illustrated Magnet the called journal a and down, is burnt and lism, exercises an unparalleled influence in provincial journa the removal of Napoleon’s body from St. Helena. ysually regarded as a national organ. Herbert Ingram conceived the idea of “all the news in pictures” ative Conserv The Yorkshire Post, price 2d., started in 1866 as a ed London newspaper out- and he brought out the first number of the Illustrat paper and now ranks as the principal Conservative a weekly paper containing 16 6d., price 1842, 14, May on News beyond far ng extendi side London, enjoying a national prestige depicted the great devoted especial printed pages and 32 woodcuts, one of which the borders of Yorkshire. In its early years it their lives. The lost people hundred a local papers in fire at Hamburg in which attention to racing, which was neglected by most the first bal ed illustrat Gilbert, John Sir by s, engraving chief Beckett the the county in those days, and under the control of From Palace. ham Bucking at Victoria Queen by still main- masqué given family it rapidly attained a solid prosperity which it News has given a faithLondon ed Jlustrat the onwards time that PhilR. S. J. tains. It has had talented editors in H. J. Palmer, ful representation of the events of the week, and in its files can be lips, and Arthur H. Mann (its present—1929—editor). traced the evolution of the wood engraving to the half-tone, which F. J. by 1857 The Birmingham Daily Post, price 1d., founded in and modern engraving and now owing to the development of photography Feeney and John Jaffray (afterwards made a baronet) had extinguished the century roth the of end n in the processes by the controlled by Sir Charles Hyde, Bart. It holds a positio 1860 Ingram was In engraver. wood the of k handiwor skilled north, and Michigan in midlands analogous to that of the Yorkshire Post in the Lake in disaster the in son eldest his drowned with The conElgin. is edited by G. W. Hubbard. Lady steamer the North America which overtook The Liverpool Daily Post and Mercury, price 1d., founded in trol of the paper passed to another son, afterwards Sir William its 1853 as a Liberal paper, and for many years possessing as Ingram. Its editors included Charles Mackay (1848-1859), John 1904 In Russell. Edward Sir of ity personal ing editor the outstand Latey (1859-1890), the late Clement K. Shorter (1890Lash it absorbed the Liverpool Mercury (founded in 1811), and it 1899), and Bruce Ingram, grandson of the founder, the present holds a pre-eminent place in the life of the great seaport. (1929) editor. It virtually held the field alone in weekly illusScotland, Wales and Ireland.—In Scotland the leading news- trated journalism until in 1861 the first penny popular paper papers are the Scotsman and the Glasgow Herald, each 2d. The was started by the same proprietor, the Penny Illustrated Paper, former was started as a biweekly in 1817 and became a daily in edited by John Latey junior, who afterwards for a period was ediit rival 1855. It was Liberal until the Home Rule split in 1886 when tor of the Jilustrated London News. In 1869 the first serious famous most its was Russell r Alexande cause. adopted the Unionist News was published, the Graphic, proLondon ed Jllustrat the of it same editor in the 19th century (1848-1876) and for many years duced by W. L. Thomas. Black and White, a paper of the . newspaper morning h Edinburg only the has been the Illustrated London News followed in 1891; and in as class The Glasgow Herald dates from 1783, when it first came out 1892 the Sketch was started by the late Sir William Ingram, under with the extra name “and Advertiser” tacked on. It has a great the editorship of Shorter, as a social and theatrical illustrated literary reputation, well maintained under Sir Robert Bruce’s weekly. Clement K. Shorter founded the Sphere in 1899. It bepresent editorship. He follows an illustrious line of editors, in- came a serious rival of the existing picture papers, absorbed Black cluding Samuel Hunter, George Outram, Dr. Russell, and Dr. and White, and started the Tatler, which competed for public Wallace. The Glasgow Herald has a high reputation as a com- favour with the Sketch. A similar type of paper was the Bymercial organ and is credited with having a larger sale than any stander, issued by the Graphic. Ingram also owned a fashion newspaper published at 2d. outside London. paper, the Ladies’ Pictorial, and the Illustrated Sporting and The daily newspapers of Scotland, which for the latter part of Dramatic News. Sir John Ellerman acquired all these papers the 19th century were predominantly Liberal, are now Conserva- except the Graphic and the Bystander and they were brought tive, except the Edinburgh Evening News. under one proprietary in 1926 by Wiliam Harrison of the Inveresk The chief newspaper in Wales is the Western M ail, Cardiff, Paper Company, who promoted Illustrated Newspapers Ltd., acwhich has recently absorbed the South Wales Daily News, and quiring at the same time the Graphic and Bystander which had d in thus becomes the only morning paper in the Principality. passed into the hands of Messrs. Berry. Harrison promote The only important newspaper town in Northern Ireland is 1928 another weekly newspaper on somewhat different lines. The Belfast, which has two historic newspapers: the Belfast News Illustrated Newspapers Ltd. therefore own the Sphere, the IlusLetter, which has been in existence about 200 years, and the trated London News, the Graphic, Sketch, Tatler, Bystander, Eve, Northern Whig, which celebrated its centenary some years ago. which is an amalgamation of several fashion papers including the ed Ladies’ Pictorial, while the same company publish the Illustrat THE PICTORIAL PRESS News. c Dramati and Sporting The earliest attempts in England at the pictorial portrayal of

ined a standard riod it was edited by C. P. Scott, and mainta wide reputaworlda it gave of excellence in all its branches that unrivalled literan enjoys it cs politi ous vigor its from tion. Apart

news took the shape of “broadsides,” one of which, published in 1587, the year before the Armada, recounted the “Valiant Exploits of Sir Francis Drake.” These early pictorial “broadsides” illustrate the hold which murders and tragedies have always had upon the imagination of people. A picture appeared portraying the exe-

WEEKLY NEWSPAPERS

AND REVIEWS

was The weekly reviews, beginning with the Examiner, which in charlittle changed have 1881, in ceased and 1808 in founded ism acter but occupy a much less important position in journal

342

NEWSPAPERS

owing to the prodigious advance in the daily and Sunday newspapers. The weeklies were formerly looked to for guidance in political opinion and for literary criticism. They have been displaced in both spheres. The world moves too quickly and unless a weekly review has a particular standpoint and makes a special appeal to a class it carries little weight in contemporary journalism. The weekly which shows the greatest vitality is the historic Spectator which celebrated its centenary in November 1928. It was founded by Robert Stephen Rintoul and exercised great influence as an exponent of moderate Liberalism, thoughtful criticism, particularly in the discussion of religious problems. In 1861 it passed under the control of R, H. Hutton and Meredith Townsend. In 1897 it was acquired by J. St. Loe Strachey who maintained its high character and literary reputation. It was outspoken in its political opinions, and while Conservative Unionist in most subjects, it was a strong exponent of Free Trade. It was acquired

in 1926 by Evelyn Wrench under whom new features were introduced and more modern methods adopted. It is by far the most widely circulated of the weekly reviews. The proprietor made arrangements in 1928 to safeguard the policy of the Spectator in the future by adopting the same system that has been embodied in the constitution of the Times. The historic Saturday Review has passed through many hands and still survives. The great literary weekly, the Athenaeum, which was started in Jan. 1828, was absorbed in the Nation, the literary weekly review which grew out of the Speaker, founded by Sir Wemyss Reid in 1898. The

name was changed when H. W. Massingham became editor in

[BRITISH

The Sunday Times, another historic Sunday newspaper which was founded in 1822, is parallel with the Observer except that it is more moderate and consistent in its political outlook, but there

is not much to choose between the two newspapers in regard io their general features. The Sunday Times is notable in respect that it laid the foundations of the Berry family in the newspaper world. It was the first general newspaper acquired by Sir William Berry, who bought it in 1915. He has exercised a particular cop-

trol over it. The editor is (1929) Leonard Rees. Another old Sunday newspaper is Lloyd’s Weekly News, now known as the Sunday News, started by Edward Lloyd in 1842, A year later the News of the World was founded. During the last 20 years it has become the most widely circulated of all newspapers. Reynolds Illustrated Newspaper, a democratic organ, was started in 1850, and the People (Conservative), in 1881. The two Sunday picture papers are the Sunday Pictorial and the Sunday Graphic. The other Sunday papers vary in the degree to which they cater for the masses by sensational news, crime stories, prizes, competitions, coupons, etc. The Sunday Dispatch

(formerly the Weekly Dispatch)

and the Sunday Express are

somewhat similar in type and less popular in their appeal than other journals which exceed them in sale, headed by the News of the World, which has a sale of nearly four millions, the People,

the Empire News. Other most widely circulated Sunday papers are the Sunday Chronicle and the Sunday News. A develop-

ment since the war has been provincial Sunday newspapers outside Manchester, the home of the Sunday Chronicle and the

1907, Another distinctive weekly is the New Statesman which is Empire News, such as the Sunday Sun, Newcastle, the Sunday Post, Glasgow, the Sunday Mercury, Birmingham, and the Sunday Sentinel, Stafford. The aggregate sale of all the Sunday newsweeklies, while their literary characteristics are maintained, are papers is estimated to be 16,000,000.

a moderate exponent of Socialist politics. The other weeklies are of minor importance. With the exception of the Spectator the reduced in size. Weekly reviews of literature, art, drama and

topical problems of the day including politics, are being largely

DEVELOPMENT

OF THE

MODERN

NEWSPAPER

Tt was the last quarter of the roth century that witnessed the and the Sunday Times, each of which at one-third of the price, beginning of changes in journalism which moulded the present give two-thirds more reading matter exclusive of news. They com- character of the British newspapers. -The first sign of change was mand writers of the highest reputation while they sell many more struck by W. T. Stead in the Pall Mall Gazette, over 40 years thousand copies than the weekly reviews sell hundreds. One ago. He popularised the interview, and humanised political jourunique weekly remains and keeps up its reputation. That is nalism. He was cramped in his activities, as he edited an afterTruth which was founded by Henry Labouchere. It is a many noon review rather than a newspaper. The influence which the sided journal and is chiefly renowned for its fearless criticism Pall Mall Gazette exercised under Frederick Greenwood, John Morley, W. T. Stead, and E. T. Cook was indirect. It had no and its extremely independent attitude towards men’s affairs. Besides Trutk, specialist weekly journals form a distinctive popular appeal. The first break in old traditions and appeal to democracy feature of British journalism. Religious weeklies which show vitality include the Church Times, the British Weekly, the Chris- through the press came when the late T. P. O’Connor founded the tian World, the Tablet, and the Methodist Recorder. The Field, Star in Jan. 1888. With the Star began a new type ef popular jouras the country gentleman’s newspaper, edited by Sir T. A. Cook, nal. Human interest was its daily fare, and though small in size its holds its position unchallenged. Punch, edited by Sir Owen scope was as wide and diversified as life. Politics and crime, Seaman, is Britain’s supreme humorous journal which is more special and personal news, finance and serial stories, books and national than ever it was. In the world of economics and finance fashions, labour, art, music, were all popularised by O’Connor. two weekly papers stand out—the Economist and the Statist. In He had on his staff seven men who were afterwards editors of the medical world the Lancet and the British Medical World are London newspapers, and the men who began their careers on the without competitors. Country Life is one of the most attractive Star and gained fame in their own spheres in Jater years include George Bernard Shaw, A. B. Walkley, the greatest dramatic critic of the weekly journals. of his time, and that wayward genius Joseph Pennell. SUNDAY NEWSPAPERS As already mentioned the big advance in the new journalism

displaced by the Sunday newspapers, particularly the Observer

The rise of the Sunday newspapers in the last twelve years is alluded to elsewhere. Here it may be noted that the historic Sunday newspapers, unlike some of the historic daily newspapers,

was left to Alfred Harmsworth, the late Lord Northcliffe (g.v.).

Newspapers were the second stage of his meteoric career. He began with Answers and other periodicals, following the lead of show great vitality. Sir George Newnes with his Tit-Bits, and soon surpassed him. The Observer, which is the most powerful political organ of After his success in this sphere of journalism, Lord Northcliffe the Sunday newspapers, first saw the light in the year 1791, a and his brother, Harold Harmsworth (now Lord Rothermere), period when France had entered upon a revolution which was to acquired the London Evening News, and on this founded their shake the foundations of Europe and change the course of history. phenomenal success in halfpenny morning journalism. The Observer reported the battle of Trafalgar, 1895, without The 20th Century.—tThe introduction of half-tone pictures to headlines and ten years later Wellington’s dispatch on the Battle illustrate the news of the day was another new element in extendof Waterloo as if it were the heading of a parliamentary Blue ing the sphere of the daily press and in popularising it. Encouraged Book. The Observer kept on its respectable but somewhat sombre by the support which he received from women readers of the career until it was acquired by Lord Astor and edited by J. L. Daily Mail and of his many weekly variety papers, Lord NorthGarvin, when it assumed a distinctive character, a virile inde- cliffe issued a newspaper which was to be edited by women for pendence in its political outlook while it made a strong feature women. He produced the Daily Mirror, intended to be a higher of foreign correspondence, literature, the drama, etc. type of paper than the Daily Mail, and to appeal more to the

24.3

NEWSPAPERS

AMALGAMATIONS]

still-born. It was interests OÍ serious-minded women. It was a lucky failure. was it But e. failur st Lord Northcliffe’s greate

The paper which was intended to be the women's Times was

daily newspaper. -ransformed into the first illustrated halfpenny became The Daily Mirror was bought by Lord Rothermere, and

Lloyd’s Daily Index),

(and the Jewish

and 3 evening dailies

Evening News, published in Whitechapel). The newspapers in the English provinces and Wales, including localised issues, numbered 1,363, of which 35 were morning and 80 evening dailies: Scotland, 228, including 6 morning and 10 evening dailies; Ireland,

as great a financial success as the Daily Mail. picture paper The Daily Sketch was the next halfpenny daily many years for d existe had ic Graph Daily The hed. publis be to

161, including 8 morning and 5 evening dailies; the British Isles,

16, of which 5 were dailies. Twenty years previously there were nearly 200 more newspapers increased during attained great suc- than in 1928, although the population greatly qs a penny daily illustrated paper, but never these decades. two after one began, cess nor won popular favour. All newspapers publish The rise of the newspaper combination has dethroned all the the other, to introduce a page of half-tone pictures and to Daily newspaper dynasties. The Walters of The Times are no longer the old and Times other pictures in their news columns, the in control of that great national newspaper. The Borthwicks of this feature. Telegraph being among the last to adopt success the The Morning Post, the Lloyds of the Daily Chronicle and Lloyds by led compel Meanwhile other newspapers had been down News, the Hultons of the Manchester Daily Dispatch, etc.; the of the Daily Mail, followed by the Daily Express, to come masses. Ingrams of the Jilustrated London News; Cox of the Field; and, the to appeal their make to a halfpenny and similarly to ced, in the provinces, Byles of the Bradford Observer, Baynes of the introdu Leading articles became shorter, feature pages were Cowen of the Newcastle Chronicle, and others and a magazine page with short articles and items of the tit-bit Leeds Mercury, The last of the monarchs of Fleet Street displaced. been iated have abbrev this character, though it must not be assumed that isolation were the Lawsons of the Daily splendid their to give up style carried with it any real degeneration of journalism. to the newspaper world when, in shock a was It other all like Telegraph. first, At . The World War brought more changes Burnham sold the paper which Lord second the 1927, muniDecember industries, except those concerned with the production of his father—a newspaper genius— and founded r the grandfathe forces, his the for g caterin with ted tions or in some way associa that the installed in the first place ih British journalism. press was disorganized. The Government recognised facilities New Owners of the Press.—New maghates have assumed and effort, l nationa in t elemen al press was an essenti ls materia ng No longer are newspapers the personal properties of the obtaini to power. were granted to newspapers, both in regard correBorthwicks, Lawsons and the Walters; they belong to shareand in retaining man power. For the first time also, war unigranted were who entrust their money to the care of a directorate. rs, holders followe spondents became more than camp Greatest of the new barons of the press ate the Harmsworths, forms and became officially attached to armies. the since by Viscount Rothermere. The Berrys, the newest monchanges c headed dramati such ne No industry has undergo assowas who the newspaper world, are still young in their generation, in archs World War as the press. The late Kennedy Jones, to said Mail, Beaverbrook—a Canadian by birth-—has not lived in Daily Lord the and g foundin in orths ciated with the Harmsw we on, professi 20 England years. a ism the late Lord Morley: “You found journal a also become now spectacular financial newspaper deal was that involved has It most The trade.” of branch a it have made It was incorpo-

in the creation of the Daily Mail Trust, Limited.

branch of finance.

THE ERA OF AMALGAMATIONS to The great change from the private proprietorial system in ffe Northcli Lord by initiated was es compani limited liability rth promoting limited liability companies to take over Harmswo Bros., the most successful periodical business, and afterwards The . Evening News. Amalgamations and groupings of papers followed Referring to this phase of newspaper development Sir Robert of Donald, in an address at York, as president of the Institute

charJournalists, in 1913, said: “Combination has been the chief could press the and world, the over all industry of acteristic not remain outside this tendency. One company sometimes owns ons, or controls a series of newspapers. There have been absorpti aggregaamalgamations and alliances, with the result that vast

tions of capital have been built up in which thousands of share-

holders are interested.

These

agglomerations,

piling up power

in and wealth, are controlled by the same forces which operate other fields of industrial activity.” He also predicted that the

fewer future would see combinations increase; there would be newspapers, and “colossal circulations would continue to grow.” The newspaper run as a luxury and for a mission, and not as a

business enterprise, would be squeezed out of existence. There would therefore be fewer newspapers, but the total circulations

would be greater. These predictions, made a year before the World War, have been fulfilled, but no one foresaw that the press combinations would reach such gigantic proportions, or become so immensely profitable. The war facilitated and expedited the rise of the press

syndicates. One has only to look at the Stock Exchange quotations to realise the infiuence of finance on the Press and the power of

the press in finance.

number of newsThere has however been a decrease in the

ern Ireland, papers. In 1928 there were in Great Britain, North as follows: buted distri pérs, and the Irish Free State, 2,150 newspa ing specialist papers London 992, of which 21 were morning, includ Lloyd’s List, and (Jewish Express, in Hebrew, Jewish Times,

rated on Sept. 27, 1922 and purchased the 400,000 deferred (controlling) shares in Associated Newspapers, Ltd., as sanctioned by

the court on the death of Lord Northcliffe. The price paid was

£1,600,000, which was met by an issue of 7 per cent first mortgage debentures. Early in 1923 the trust purchased 49 per cent in the London Express Newspaper, Ltd. Alittle later it purchased

the large newspaper business of E. Hulton and Company, Ltd., and paid for it by a second issue of £8,000,000 7 per cent deben-

tures, liquidating out of the proceeds the former issue of £1,600,ooo debentures. At the same time the trust retained 49 per cent.

interest in The Evening Standard, which had been included in the Hulton group but was transferred to Lord Beaverbrook. In the same year the trust sold the greater portion of the Hulton press to the Berry brothers for more than the original purchase price, while retaining possession of The Daily Sketch, The Sunday

subseHerald and new printing works; these three assets beirig of Lord control under 0 £1,600,00 for sold and promoted quently AssoRothermere. The trust paid £4 for the deferred shares in again. ciated Newspapers, Ltd. They appreciated almost as much of The trust in two years discharged a debenture obligation £9,000,000.

The Rothermere Group.—The most powerful newspaper group in Great Britain is that controlled by Lord Rothermere, ed, not because of the numbér of newspapers combined or associat

and the but on account of their predominantly national character Rothermere only Lord them. behind s resource financial immense then only occasionally contributes articles to his newspapers, and The on subjects upon which he holds strong personal views. :— are chief Rothermere groups Mail, Evening The Associated Newspapers, Lid., owning the Daily News, Sunday Dispatch, Overseas Mai. £

Capital:

5% Cumulative Preference shates shares . Meade aprsea Ordinary So oe i oe ue y S sé Total

. .

=e

. -.

500,000 > pe 1250,

£3,350,000

NEWSPAPERS

St? A

Majority of Ordinary Shares held by W. V. Bowater & Sons Ltd..

Daily Mirror Newspaper, Lid. Capital: 8% Cumulative Preference shares Ordinary shares .

£ 800,000 1,400,000 .

Total

£2,200,000

In the spring of 1928 the ordinary shares of the Daily Mirror and Associated Newspaper Companies were converted each into four shares of a nominal value of 5s. The value of these shares in the summer of 1928 was in the case of the Associated Newspapers 245., and in the case of the Daily Mirror 35s.

Sunday Pictorial, Lid. Capital: 8% Cumulative Preference shares £1 Ordinary shares Total.

£ 500,000 1,500,000 .

£2,000,000

These companies are shareholders in the Daily Mail trust, controlled by Lord Rothermere, already referred to. The financial strength of the Rothermere newspapers is not indicated by the amount of dividends which they distribute, as they build up great reserves and have no prior debenture or other charges. In Feb. 1928, Lord Rothermere also promoted Northcliffe Newspapers, Ltd. (share capital £2,500,000; loan capital £3,000,000, 54 per cent. guaranteed debenture stock), primarily for establishing or acquiring “in selected centres of large population throughout the country evening newspapers which, by reason of possessing the advantages of extensive organization and large resources, will be the most up to date in the country.” It was stated in the prospectus that the surplus assets of Associated Newspapers and of the Daily Mirror were respectively £5,129,000 and £2,500,000—excluding good will and all liabilities. The debenture stock was guaranteed by the Associated Newspapers, Ltd., and the Daily Mirror Newspapers, Ltd. The 5 per cent. debenture stock was very much oversubscribed. The share capital was divided into £2,400,000, £1 ordinary shares and £100,oco £r management shares. Two shillings was paid on all the management shares and on £1,400,000 ordinary shares, so that the company started with capital in cash amounting to £3.150,000, with £2,260,000 uncalled share capital. During the summer of 1928 Northcliffe Newspapers, Ltd., acquired several prominent newspapers and made arrangements to start new evening newspapers in selected centres as announced in the prospectus. The Daily Mirror Company, acting independently or in association with Northcliffe Newspapers, acquired several well-established evening newspapers and founded a regional Sunday paper at Stafford. The capital of the various Rothermere companies does not by any means indicate their financial strength and great earning capacity. They possess a complete dual organization between the Associated Newspapers and the Daily Mirror, and are building up a third national organization in the Northcliffe Newspapers. All these newspapers are safeguarded in regard to the supply of paper; they control mills in Newfoundland, Canada and Eng-

land. The following table shows the capitalisation of their paper making companies :— Anglo-Newfoundland Development Co., Lid. Capital $6,439,585, Ordinary Shares. issued

g.s»

$2,426,010, 8% Cumulative Preference Shares. $1,594,255, Second Preference Shares.

JE 280,625, 5% Debentures.

As at 31-8 ard a 18,650, 6% Second Mortgage Bonds.

The Associated Ordinary Shares.

Newspapers

Limited hold a majority

of the

A. E. Reed & Company Limited Capital: £293,970, 6% First Mortgage Debenture. £240,000, 64% Cumulative Preference Shares. £225,000, Ordinary Shares.

Š Daily Mirror Newspapers Ltd., hold a majority of the Ordinary hares. Bowaters Paper Mills Limited Capital: £2 13,200, 34% Cumulative Participating Preference h ares. £295,600, 64% First Mortgage Debentures.

£193,000, Ordinary Shares,

fAMALGAMATIONS

which is in turn controlled by “Daily Mirror Newspapers Ltd.”

The Empire Paper Mills (1922) Ltd. Capital: £400,000. Ordinary Shares of £1 each. All the shares are held by Associated Newspapers Ltd.

Anglo-Canadian Pulp & Paper Mills Lid. Capital: $8,000,000, 7% Preference Shares. (Cumulative October, 1929.) £3,000,000, 64% Mortgage Debentures. 135,000 Shares of Common Stock of no par value.

from

The Berry Group.—The largest newspaper proprietary in Great Britain and in the world is that controlled by Lord Camrose (formerly Sir William Berry) and his brother, Sir Gomer Berry, whose rise in the newspaper business has been as romantic as their success has been phenomenal. Their vast interests are the creation of little more than ten years’ activities. The founder of the business, William E. Berry, like Alfred Harmsworth before him, served an apprenticeship in the humble spheres of journalism, beginning on the Merthyr Times. He went

to London in 1898 as sub-editor on the Investors Guardian, and though he quickly showed a special penchant for financial journalism, he worked on the staffs of several papers before launching out as a newspaper proprietor. In rgo1 he started the Advertising World, the first production of the kind in the United Kingdom, and in the same year was joined by his brother Gomer, Together they started and owned various weekly and monthly papers, and when in 1915 they acquired the Sunday Times and introduced a new vitality into that old established newspaper they were already recognised as important newcomers to the press industry. In quick succession they acquired the Graphic, the Daily Graphic, the Bystander, the Financier, the Financial Times,

the old established house of Cassells, with its periodicals and big publishing business, and Weldon’s Fashion Journals. In 1923 they bought Kelly’s Directories including the famous London Post Office Directory. Later an alliance was formed between the company owning Kelly’s directories and Iliffe and Sons who own a leading group of trade and technical journals. Large printing works went with these two concerns. While the foregoing were big transactions from the financial point of view the Berrys were not firmly established in the newspaper world until 1924 when they bought most of the publications of Edward Hulton Ltd. which had been acquired by Lord Rothermere and Lord Beaverbrook, and formed the Allied Newspapers Ltd., which included the Sunday Times. The group contained widely circulated and popular newspapers, including the Manchester Daily Dispatch, the Manchester Evening Chronicle, the Sunday Chronicle, the Empire News, the Sporting Chronicle, and sundry other publications. About the same time they took over the control of another important newspaper property, the Sheffield Daily Telegraph and Evening Telegraph, with a number of popular periodicals. Another big milestone in their progress was reached in the following year when they bought all the newspapers in Newcastle except one, namely the North Mail, the Newcastle Evening Chronicle, the Sunday Sun, etc., and simultaneously acquired the Glasgow Daily Record, the Glasgow Evening News, and Sunday Mail. To this group was added in 1926 the North Eastern Daily Gazette of Middlesbrough, and the Allied Northern Newspapers Co. Lid. formed with a capital, including debentures, of four million pounds. Very soon afterwards the Berrys purchased from Lord Rothermere the two papers which he had retained from the Hulton group, namely, the Daily Sketch and the Sunday Graphic, which were formed into a separate company. Towards the end

of 1927 Sir William and Sir Gomer Berry—both having been made baronets in recognition of their public services, Sir William in 1922 and Sir Gomer in 1927—=startled the newspaper world by acquiring the Daily Telegraph from Lord Burnham and his family. Sir Edward Iliffe was a partner in this transaction. The new owners immediately began to put new life into this sound and sedate organ of the English commercial and middle classes. Important paper making works went with the newspaper. The

capital involved in this transaction has not been made public.

NEWSPAPERS

ASSOCIATIONS]

It is probable that the Berrys would have been content to have consolidated their properties but in 1928 a new newspaper war

was started and they took up the challenge.

They bought the

Derby Express, the Bristol Times and Mirror, the Bristol Evening Times, the Aberdeen Press & Journal and the Aberdeen Evening Express.

For several years the Berry family have had control of the

Western Mail and Evening Express, Cardiff, and in August 1928 hought the South Wales Daily News and South Wales Echo— the other papers in Cardiff. While the foregoing list of newspaper properties controlled by the Berry companies are a formidable combination they do not

by any means complete the wide range of their interests in the publishing business. In 1927 they bought the Amalgamated Press Ltd., the business founded by the late Lord Northcliffe and his brother Lord Rothermere. It was largely in the hands of the trustees of the Northcliffe estate and the Berrys were the suc-

cessful bidders. It is the largest periodical business in the world and publishes over 120 weekly and monthly publications. Its capital was £3,000,000. The Berrys paid £9,000,000 and have paid dividends on the increased capital. Lord Camrose and Sir Gomer Berry carry on their vast and

varied interests in a commercial spirit without bringing their personalities before their many millions of readers. Like all big combinations the Berrys proceeded to safeguard themselves regarding the supply of raw material. They acquired

with the Amalgamated Press the Imperial Paper Mills and in 1927 bought the famous Edward Lloyd Paper Mills, the biggest single concern of the kind in the world, so that they became the biggest paper manufacturers in Great Britain, as well as the largest newspaper and periodical owners. The issued loan and share capital of the various Berry enterprises belonging to public companies was, in the summer of 1928, as follows: Allied Newspapers Ltd.

.

£ . 8;250,000

.

Alied Northern Newspapers Ltd. . Daily Sketch and Sunday Graphic Ltd. Financial Times Ltd. . : ‘ Kelly’s Directories Ltd. . Weldon’s Publications Ltd. . Amalgamated Press Ltd. Bristol Times and Mirror Ltd. Aberdeen Newspapers Ltd. ; Edward Lloyd Investment Co. Ltd. .

. . . .

4,000,000 2,584,096 1,500,000 1,131,372 385,000 9,200,000 138,337 188,310 . 4,500,000

The capitalization of the Cardiff newspapers and the one in Derby has not yet been published, but will probably be £14 million. The Berry press “trusts” have not provoked the same criticism among public men or fears from journalists as has been the case with other newspaper combinations because they have not used their powers to push themselves or to run particular policies. They have maintained the character of the publications acquired,

retaining local management and giving their editors considerable latitude. They have not over-centralized.

So far as the reading

public of the different papers are concerned they do not notice marked changes in the appearance and character of the publicatons. The centralized control is mainly commercial

and finan-

cial. All the Berry companies are financially successful. Their progress has been steady and while their loan capital is heavy their earning capacity has up to now increased and the ordinary

shares stand at a premium. Apart from periodicals which number

about 200 the Berry

combinations control in London three daily newspapers and two Sunday newspapers; in the provinces, eight morning, eight evening, three Sunday newspapers; fourteen weekly newspapers; in Scotland two morning, two evening, and two weekly newspapers

345

oped and if he frequently annoys he always

interests.

The

Beaverbrook group, in which Lord Rothermere has a minority interest, consists of The Daily Express, The Sunday Express, owned by London Express Newspapers, Ltd. (capital £539.439), and The Evening Standard. The policy of Lord Beaverbrook has not been to distribute dividends on the ordinary shares, but to extend plant and building, reduce capital and organise a future impregnable position. The commercial possibilities of Lord Beaverbrook’s newspapers have not yet been tested. Judged by the rapid expansion which they have made in recent years and the volume of advertising which they carry it is a fair assumption that if the intensive development policy were discontinued these journals would be next to the Associated Newspapers in earning capacity.

Daily Chronicle Group—The

Daily Chronicle Investment

Corporation Trust was formed in July 1927 to take over the properties of the United Newspapers (1918) Ltd., with a capital of £3,050,000 consisting of £800.000 7% first cumulative preference shares, £700,000 8% second cumulative preference shares, £1,400,000 ordinary shares, £1 each, and 3,000,000 deferred shares of 1/— each. The corporation owns the Daily Chronicle, the Sunday News, the Edinburgh Evening News, the Yorkshire Evening News, and the Doncaster Gazette. l In July 1928 after the death of Sir David Yule and the retirement of Sir Thomas Catto, their interests were acquired by Mr. William Harrison on behalf of the Inveresk Paper Co., Ltd., of which he was chairman. Mr. Harrison had previously entered the newspaper field by acquiring the Lancashire Daily Post, Preston, and an interest in the Hull Daily Mail and Grimsby Telegraph. Besides his interests in daily newspapers, Mr. Harrison, as already mentioned, is chairman of Illustrated Newspapers, Ltd., which own nearly a dozen illustrated and trade papers. Mr. Harrison also controls most of the paper-making mills in Great Britain outside of newsprint mills. The Starmer Group.—This is an association of 32 provincial newspapers with London headquarters at Newspaper house. The founders were the Rowntree family and Sir Charles Starmer, who began his newspaper career on the Northern Echo (Darlington). With the Rowntrees and Lord Cowdray, he built up this group, which includes the Northern Echo, Sheffield Independent, Sheffield Mail, Nottingham Evening News, Nottingham Journal, Birmingham Gazette, Yorkshire Observer, Yorkshire Gazette, Bradford Telegraph and Argus, Birmingham Evening Dispatch, Lincolnshire Chronicle, and a number of weeklies. The Westminster Gazette (morning paper) belonged to this group until its merg-

ing with the Daily News in Feb. 1928. Other Combinations.—A financial group was promoted in July 1928 comprising the Financial News, the Investors’ Chronicle, half interest in the Economist, the Banker, and the Liverpool Journal of Commerce, with a share capital of £550,000. One condition was that the editorship of the Economist should always be independent. The promoters of the issue were the printing firm of Messrs. Eyre and Spottiswoode. Among the largest combinations of newspaper properties outside the big combines may be mentioned: The Liverpool Daily Post and Echo Ltd., which owns the Daily

Post, Liverpool Echo, Liverpool Courier and Express—all the newspapers in the city and neighbourhood.

The Consolidated Newspapers, Ltd., belonging to Sir Leicester Harmsworth, owns the Western Morning News, the Mercury, and the Evening Herald, Plymouth—the only morning and evening papers in that town—an evening paper in Exeter, and one in Torquay. In the summer of 1928 Sir Leicester Harmsworth

The Beaverbrook Group.—An arresting personality in the British Press is Lord Beaverbrook. He went into the newspaper

acquired the Field, the Queen, and the Law Times. The Glasgow Herald (Outram & Co.) Ltd., of Glasgow, with the Bulletin (an illustrated morning paper), the Evening Times, and the Citizen. D. C. Thomson & Co., Ltd., own all newspapers and publica-

showed striking gifts for the particular kind of journalism which he took up. He has the news and the political sense highly devel-

tions in Dundee, including the only morning and the only evening paper in that city, a Sunday newspaper, and a large number of weeklies.

and one Sunday newspaper.

business during the World War and it was not long before he

34.6

NEWSPAPERS

The Yorkshire Conservative Newspaper Co., Ltd., are the proprietors of the Yorkshire Post, including Yorkshire Evening Post, and Leeds Mercury. Anglo-Foreign Newspapers, Ltd., formed in Jan. 1929, has acquired interests in various newspapers and trade journals. Organisations.—A net-work of organisations exists for employers and workers. In the newspaper business collective bargaining is the rule. On the employers’ side, there is the Newspaper Proprietors’ Association, which represents the London press, the Newspaper Society for the provincial press, the Scottish Newspaper Proprietors’ Association, and the Irish Newspaper Society. There is also the British Trade and Technical Trade Journals Organisation.

Since 1913 the position of the working journalist has been vastly improved by the continued activities of the Institute of Journalists, incorporated by royal charter in 1890, and more especially by the influence exercised by the National Union of Journalists, founded in 1907, which is a trade union and has been the means of raising the standard among working journalists and of establishing the principle of minimum salaries. At first competitive, the two bodies now show a tendency to

[ASSOCIATIONS

1. There shall be not interference with the contents of newspapers owned by members of this Association.

2. There shall be no interference with, or victimisation of, any members of the staff who worked or returned to work during the strike, either in their own or in any other office. Nor shall there

be any victimisation by the employers.

3. There shall be no interference by members of the unions with the management of businesses, or with the right of the management to employ, promote, or discharge members of the stafs.

Nor shall it be necessary for private secretaries or managers of departments not engaged in production to be members of a union.

4. No chapel meetings shall be held during working hours. 3. The strict observance of agreements in the newspaper trades shall be regarded as a matter of honour affecting each individual employer or employee. Empite Press Union.—An organization which represents not only the Press of Great Britain but of the Dominions is the

Empire Press Union, which was the outcome of the first Imperial

Press Conference held in 1909. It represents newspapers, either by proprietors or responsible members of the staff. It has branch sections in the overseas dominions and keeps a permanent super-

become mutually complementary, the institute specialising in the vision over such questions affecting cable services and charges, and professional, cultural and benevolent interests of the journalist, matters of common interest to the press as a whole. The second and the union concerning itself primarily with questions of sal- Imperial Press Conference was held in Canada in 1920, and the aries, hours and working conditions. The institute gives full third in Australia in 1925. The first president of the Empire membership to all bona fide journalists; the union restricts voting Press Union was the first Lord Burnham, and he was succeeded by membership to journalists who cannot exercise the powers of an his son, the present Lord Burnham. The chairman of the Council employer; thus, generally, editors, managing editors, and director- from 1915-26 was Sir Robert Donald, who was succeeded by journalists are not eligible for full membership of the Union, and J. L. Garvin, and was followed by Major the Hon. J. J. Astor.

favour membership of the chartered body. On the side of the manual workers there is also a complete net-work of organisations. The chief federated societies are the Typographical Association, representing compositors throughout the country; the London Society of Compositors; the National Society of Operative Printers and Assistants and Printing Machine Managers. Press telegraphists; correctors of the press; electrotypers and stereotypers; pressmen; paper-makers and others engaged. in connection with newspapers, all have their unions. Beyond the federated societies is a large number of affiliated federations covering Great Britain. Advertisers have organisations also, including advertising managers, circulation managers, and, indeed, every one associated with the production and distribution side of the press. Newsagents combine chiefly in the Federation of Wholesale Newsagents

and the National Federation of Retail Newsagents. The General Strike and the Press—A development of the

coal dispute in England, which came to a head ait the end of April 1926, was a general strike organised by the General Council of the Trades Union Congress. An important preliminary incident was a stoppage of work which occurred in the office of the Daily

Mail. (See GENERAL STRIKE.) After the first few days certain newspapers began to re-appear in the first instance mostly by photographic processes, in two or four diminutive pages, which were gradually increased in size as voluntary labour was obtained. The Government by voluntary labour issued from the office of the Morning Post the British Gazette, which was under the control of Winston Churchill. It soon attained a very large circulation. The Trades Union Congress retaliated by producing the British Worker by trade-union labour. The newspaper and periodical business probably suffered more by the strike than any other industry, as a considerable proportion of the staff had to be retained and heavy general expenses incurred. The general strike was called off'on Thursday, May 13, and after negotiations the newspapers resumed normal production on Tuesday the z8th. After the strike an agreement was entered into between all organizations representing employers and employed which defines the functions of both parties. The agreement between the

Newspaper Proprietors’ Association and the respective unions, bea was a notable landmark in collective bargaining, is as ollows :—

The Empire Press Union has insisted continuously on better and cheaper communications with the overseas dominions and has devoted particular attention to the promotion of empire wireless. Page Fellowship.—American newspaper fellowships in memory of Walter Hines Page, the great ambassador, were established by the English Speaking Union of the United States in 1926 for the purpose of promoting more understanding among other English-speaking people through the medium of the press. Fellowships are awarded to British journalists who spend a year in the United States actually at work on newspapers and in the study of public questions. A British committee in co-operation with the English Speaking Union of the British empire selects the fellows, the first of whom was J. A. Spender, who spent three months in America in 1927. International

Press

Conference.—The

first international

conference of newspaper experts held under the auspices of the League of Nations was held at Geneva in August, 1927. It was attended by editors and newspaper men from all over the world. Lord Burnham, then president of the English Newspaper Proprietors’! Association and the Empire Press Union, presided. A series of resolutions were passed dealing with tariffs for telegraphs, telephones and wireless and improvement in communications, transport of newspapers, professional facilities for journalists, which have been referred to the League’s organization for communications and transit for study and report. Other resolutions referring to postal subscriptions to newspapers, protection of news, censorship in peace time and facilities for travel tours, scholarships, raiftway fares, repressive measures, etc., will be considered by the Council of the League.

Cheaper Communications.—Cheaper and quicker means of

communication and distribution of news is always in process of evolution. What are known as “loaded cables” have been laid down, increasing enormously the capacity and speed by which messages can be transmitted by cable, the advantages of which newspapers will share. In the address to the Institute of Journalists in 1913, to which reference has already been made, Sir Robert Donald visualized a time when news would be collected by wireless telephone and the reporter would always have a portable telephone with him, with which to communicate with his paper without the trouble of going to the telephone office, or writing out a message. The competitor, he said, to the national newspaper would not be another national newspaper, but

NEWSPAPERS

FUTURE]

347

a method of circulating news by means of some scientific mecha- || seem that newspaper insurance has been inimical to norma! innism for transmitting the spoken word. He predicted that all the | surance business. It is supplementary, not competitive.

news of the day would be laid on to houses and offices, just like | Newspaper insurance has become a tremendous factor in the gas and water. During the years 1924 and 1925 the development life of the people. Every year it is extended through its adoption

of broadcasting brought this vision within the region of realisation. Newspapers look on this development with a watchful eye, lest it should, in addition to supplementing their functions, arrest

their progress. A revolution has taken place in long distance communication. New inventions have quadrupled the carrying capacity and speed of submarine cables and simultaneously short wave or beam wireless has more than caught up with the cables. On the main world routes where the two systems have come into competition the cables have suffered. This development in wireless, which was due to Senatore Marconi, has definitely established wireless aś

the cheapest and quickest means of communication over long distances and has therefore rendered a valuable service to the press. Cables are, however, more efficient in direct communica-

tion and have reach all parts will never be whether more

greater accuracy. On the other hand wireless can of the world and will link up vast territories which connected by telegraph. In fact it is doubtful cables will be constructed except in association

with wireless. The services should be complementary. The interest of the press in these developments is to get the

advantage of cheaper and quicker means of communication.

In

contracts proposed for wireless services to the British Government and in resolutions passed by Imperial Press Conferences, it was always assumed that the tariff for wireless would be one-third less than cable rates. When the beam and short-wave system came into operation in 1927, it was ptoved that wireless could operate profitably at these reduced rates. As this competition was threatening the existence of cables, the British Government called an Imperial Conference in 1927, which sought a solution of the problem in the interest of empire communication, by endorsing a merger of all cable and wireless undertakings within the British empire. It was assumed that under unified control the users, including the newspapers, would get better service at lower rates. More revolutionary than long distance wireless was the introduction of receiving illustrations by wire. The chief London newspapers began in 1928 reproducing wireless pictures of events which took place thousands of miles away and it is expected that this development will become a regular fedture of the press in a few years’ time. The use of wireless telephony will also become more general. The effect of all these developments will be to widen the scope of newspapers and bring the people of thé world closer together, The Future of British Newspapers. —The revolution which

took place in English journalism immediately preceding, during,

and after the World War was characterised not by itnprovements in the traditional features of newspapers, but by the introduction of extraneous elements. These extraneous elements and methods were intended to force sales by making people buy more than one paper and several copies of the same paper. They were also intended to keep readers once secured by non-journalistic attractions and thus permanently increase and stabilise sales. As sales were

made the basis of advertising rates, after Lord Northcliffe had set the example of issuing sales certificates, it became imperative to maintain a ratio between sales and advertising rates. The chief feature adopted to capture new readers and attach them to & newspaper was insurance. Newspaper insurance, beginhing modestly both as regards the accidents covered and the

amounts recdverable, increased enormously until many subjects besides accidents to registered readers were covered, and the payments reachéd £12,560 on death by a railway accident. By the

middle of 1928 the Daily Mail had paid over £1,000,900 under its insurance schéthne. From the readers’ point of view newspaper insurance is a good investment. No premium beyond the price of the paper is necessary. Thè system suits newsagents too, as they add to their list of permanent purchasers.

Some newspapers

carry their own insurance, while othefs pay premiurns te insurarice companies in proportion to their sales. In every case Insurance companies investigate and settle claims. It does not

by more newspapers and through the increase in payments. The newspaper which possesses the greatest financial resources will always lead in insurance. Heavy expenditure is incurred in the attempts to make insurance pay. An army of canvassers are employed, going from house to house in order to secure new readers; and poster and other advertising campaigns are carried on regardless of expense. Newspaper insurance differs from company insurance. A company takes premiums from clients, but hopes that they may escape accidénts and prolong their lives. Newspapers on the other hand seem to rejoice—in headlines—over fatal accidents which befall their teaders and boast about the amount of money they pay out. One reader killed in a railway accident brings a hundred new readers into the net. Newspaper insurance has come to stay. In addition to insurance many newspapers resort to a variety of competitions to capture readers. These competitions, some of which require little skill or knowledge, carry big prizes. The coupon system, which usually accompanies prize competitions, induced readers to buy many copies of the same issue for the sake of the coupon, as entries are hot limited. This kind of coupon competition was declared by the High Court in October 1928 to be illegal and was stopped. There are many other competitions, including beauty contests and competitions referring to all kinds Of sport. The cross-word puzzle competition has become almost universal and handsome prizes are offered for correct results. This is a competition which requires a certain amount of knowledge to solve. The general knowledge examination which has been adopted by all kinds of newspapers and periodicals demands greater intelligence, but in this case few prizes are offered. The samé comment applies to all competitions carrying prizes as to insurance—success depends on the amount of money spent in pushing schemes, and not so much on thé merits of the schemes. Other extraneous features Have been introduced into journalism in the race for sales, or to stimulate advertisements, including devices by which readers may receive presents of various articles or beneficial considerations,—free trips, free éntertainments, etc., State events are otganized and exhibitions held. Newspapers which do not resort to these expedients to foster business find themselves at a disadvantagé. There are examples of newspapers which contain more news and better reading matter than their contemporaries, but which, becausé they decline to adopt insurance, or competitions, or puzzles,—as urdignified or incompatible with their conception of the mission of the press=—~fall behind, become unprofitable, and unless subsidized for political reasons, cease to exist. Thé modern newspaper caters for all classes. It is severely

sectionalised, and while the interests touched upon are more compréhensive than they were twenty years ago, the space de-

voted to genéral news of the day is very much less. Except in the case of a few newspapers, speeches are not reported at any length, and politics is treated as a subject of minor interest. Newspapers

have become more or less imitative, and no journal is permitted to get more than a day ahead with a new feature or á new de-

velopment. While minor changes aré numerous, there has been ho revolutionary changé in the characteristics of daily journalism since the days of Lord Northcliffé. The popular cross-word puzzle, the general knowledge questions, and the comic strips which have been almost universally adopted, are importations from America. The widening ôf interest in the contents of newspapers, colossal sales, amalgamations, and local monopolies do hot fully explain the phenomenal financial success of newspapers since 19i8. As compared with pre-war times newspapers have doubled théir selling price and quadrupled their charges for advertisements, but there has not been a commenšuráte tise in the cost of raw materials, of labour, or of transport. The chief factor in making for néwspaper prespérity has been the increase in advertising. Newspaper advertising has become a vital factor in national industry and salesmanship. There has

348

NEWSPAPERS

been a quickening of the business sense, a determination to open up new markets, to increase consumption. Simultaneously there took place in England a revolution in the methods and style of advertising. The advertising agent, instead of being a mere conduit pipe, has become a highly scientific expert. More firms have been induced to advertise, and the experience of scientific publicity has been followed by larger allocations for this branch of salesmanship. The newspapers have reaped the benefit of the originality, resource, thought and enterprise which the advertising consultants apply to their business. All these factors in recent newspaper development have made the newspaper business more and more dependent on finance. The consolidation of the press has continued without a break since 1918,—amalgamations, syndicates, trusts have followed upon each other. The impetus given to advertising enabled companies which were over-capitalised when promoted to return handsome profits. The only break in the movement towards trustification came in 1928, when Lord Rothermere launched his scheme for competitive evening newspapers in the provinces. How that scheme, which was welcomed by advertisers and journalists, will develop remains to be seen. Only a man with powerful financial resources behind him could undertake such an enterprise. Few new newspapers will be started, because the syndicated press is firmly entrenched and can exhaust the resources of any ordinary competitor. The future of the British newspaper, therefore, becomes a question of finance. It is estimated that three-fourths of the newspapers in England and Scotland, and a greater proportion of newspaper sales are controlled by large corporations or by local monopolistic companies. These big corporations are not going to dissolve, and local monopolies will not be challenged except by @ corporation. Multiple ownership of newspapers possesses all the commercial and financial advantages of other big businesses, but mass production and centralised control destroy individuality. As members of a big combine newspapers lose character: they tend towards a standardised type. They may be better productions than is possible under isolated ownership, but the old conceptions of a

newspaper as an institution with a soul of its own, which could not be measured by ordinary commercial standards, is gone. The paramount interest of press trusts is to earn dividends for shareholders. It may be that four or five corporations with several hundred thousand shareholders will compete vigorously, but fights for supremacy usually end in understandings, in division of territory, in agreements and amalgamations. It is quite probable that the whole press of England may fall under the control of two or three trustified ownerships acting in co-operation. BIBLIOGRAPHY.—Mitcheil’s Newspaper Press Directory (1910-28); The Newspaper World; H. Simonis, Street of Ink (1917); Robert Donald, The Parliament of the Press and the Work of the Empire Press (1920); W. H. Mills, The Manchester Guardian. A Century of History (1921); J. Saxon Mills, The Press and Communications of the Empire (1924); The Romance of the Daily Mirror 1903-24 (1925); Printers and Stationers Year Book and Diary (1926). See also Willing’s Press Guide (annual) ; Sell’s Dictionary of the World’s Press (irregular); T. B. Brown, Tke Advertisers A.B.C. (annual); J. B. W. Wiliams, Hist. of Britisk Journalism to the Foundation of the Gazette (1908); H. R. Fox-Bourne, English Newspapers (1877);

“The Newspaper

Press,” Quarterly Review, cl. 498-537

(October,

1880); Progress of British Newspapers in the roth Century (1901; published by Simpkin, Marshall & Co.) ; Andrews, History of British

Journalism (2 vols., 1860); Hunt, The Fourth Estate; Grant, The

Newspaper Press (3 vols., 1871~73); Mason Jackson, The Pictorial Press; James D. Symon, The Press and its Story; Sir Alfred Robbins, The Press.

IL. THE BRITISH

DOMINIONS

Irish Free State—-Newspapers in the Irish Free State are settling down to dominion conditions, but it cannot be said that the new political freedom has stimulated newspaper enterprises. The Dublin morning papers are now The Irish Times and The Irish Independent, and the evening papers, The Herald and The Dublin Evening Mail. In 1910 there were four morning papers and three evening papers in the Irish capital. The historic Freeman’s Journal passed through many vicissitudes, and finally disappeared in 1923, after 160 years of existence. There is one morning paper and one evening paper in Cork. British news-

[BRITISH

DOMINIONS

|papers, daily and weekly, have a considerable sale in the Irish | Free State.

Canada.—There are no more independent newspapers than those published in the British overseas dominions. They are comparatively

free irom

Government

influences,

subject to the domination of syndicates or trusts. of each dominion

has its own

characteristics.

and are not

The press

Canadian

news.

papers not unnaturally reflect the style and appearance of American newspapers, while retaining some of the more sedate qualities of English journalism. There are few Sunday newspapers in Canada, although Ameri. can Sunday newspapers are sold at railway stations and at hotels throughout the dominion. Such papers as The Montreal Star and i The Toronto Globe have very large sales and are second to none in enterprise. The Canadian press publishes a great deal of British news and carries American magazine features. There are no national newspapers in Canada, as the Dominion is too vast for papers to circulate beyond one province. There are several papers of national reputation and wide influence, as The Manitoba Free Press, The Montreal Gazette, The Montreg] Star, The Toronto Globe, The Vancouver Daily Province, The Hal. tfax Chronicle, The Halifax Herald. Such newspapers stand high, and Canadian journalists are continually being tempted to cross the border to fill important posts on the American press, and in recent years have been drawn in greater numbers to London. In some towns, such as Ottawa, the same papers have morning and evening issues. There are no big newspaper trusts in Canada. There is a chain under the same ownership including newspapers in Hamilton, Ontario, Ottawa, Regina and Vancouver City, but otherwise the combines are local. There is a healthy French press in the Quebec province. La Presse of Montreal claims to have the largest sale of any newspaper in Canada, French or English. Every town in Canada, even if its population does not exceed 5,000, has

a daily newspaper, as is the case in most communities in other British dominions. The trade and technical press of Canada compares well with similar papers in other countries. Monthly publications are at a disadvantage because of competition from the excellent cheap magazines and Sunday supplements from the United States, which regard the dominion as a dependency for periodical literature. The small town of St. John’s, population 38,645, in the large island dominion of Newfoundland, prides itself on having one morning and three evening newspapers. Australia.—Australian newspapers are dignified in appearance and possess solid qualities. As the number of newspapers is comparatively few for a growing community, they are almost without exception highly prosperous and very efficiently equipped. In Melbourne, which with its suburbs has over a million inhabitants,

there are only two general morning newspapers—The Age and The Argus, and a pictorial paper—and one evening paper, the Herald. Many attempts have been made at competition with the Herald, but all have failed. The chief newspaper centre in Australia is Sydney, which has seven daily newspapers—four morning, two evening, and one commercial. The Melbourne Age and the Sydney Morning Herald, occupy a first position among empire newspapers. The Daily Guardian most resembles the popular newspaper in England. With regard to the capitals of the other States of the Common-

wealth, Brisbane has two morning and two evening dailies, Adelaide two morning and one evening, Perth one morning and one evening paper. Hobart, the capital of Tasmania, has only one paper. In several of the cities a daily commercial news-sheet is issued and a very large number of weeklies. The weekly newspaper occupies a very important place in Australian journalism as it covers a large number of smaller towns few of which have daily newspapers. An exception is Rockhampton, in Queensland, which although it has only a population of 31,000, boasts of one morning and one evening paper. Launceston, in Tasmania, which has only a population of 35,000 in the city and suburbs, contains one | morning and one evening paper. i The Australian newspapers comprise numerous trade journals,

CONTINEN TAL]

NEWSPAPERS

349

in France. In France journalism is literature and literature is Bulletin, Truth and Smith’s Weekly have the largest sale among journalism. Some of the greatest literary men of France have sly papers. been created by the press; and the greatest literary critics have oe ealand.—With a total population of about 1,500,000 contributed to it. Journalism is also inextricably intermixed with New Zealand has a very healthy newspaper press, in style and politics. It was so in the time of Cardinal Richelieu, at the incepcharacteristics similar to the Australian newspapers. Wellington, tion of the press, and in the time of Napoleon. Napoleon had the capital, with a population of 93,000, has one morning and one great respect for the press. While he censored and suppressed evening paper. Christchurch, which has 40,000 more population, journals he was always ready to use them to his advantage. There has two morning and two evening papers; Dunedin one morning have been presidents of the republic, prime. ministers, ministers, and one evening. Invercargill, with a population of only 22.000 colonial governors, academicians and others who attain high has one morning newspaper and one evening. New Plymouth, with positions in national life, who graduated through the press. When a population of 16,000, has one morning and one evening. they retire, they return to their muttons. The most famous jourSouth Africa.—With a white population of less than a million nalistic statesman was Georges Clemenceau, the great war premier. and a half divided between the British and the Dutch, the Union He retired a year after the treaty of peace was signed, and at the of South Africa makes a good show in the matter of the press. age of 80 was an unsuccessful candidate for the presidency. He The more important newspapers are in the English language. did not profess disappointment at his failure, but consoled himself They include The Cape Times, The Cape Argus and The Johan- with the observation: “What matter? with good pen and paper nesburg Star, which are first-class papers. Newspapers are some- one could be king of the world.” times printed in the dual languages. In Bloemfontein and PreThe outstanding features of French newspapers are the signed toria there are one Dutch and one English paper; in Durban, two article, dramatic and literary criticism, the short story, and the morning newspapers in English. Johannesburg has fewer news- small items known as chronique. The collection and presentation papers than one would expect from a city of its population and of news, as will be shown, was a late development in the history commercial importance: there is only one morning and one eve- of the French press. Not many decades since it was said that ning newspaper in English. French newspapers were dated to-morrow and contained the news Newspapers in South Africa are divided into associated groups, of the day before yesterday. While the literary reputation of the and there are also combinations of news agencies, advertising and French press stands high, its commercial and political morality distributing agencies, all of which tends to handicap enterprise is not on the whole quite so commendable. Many newspapers are and limit the number of newspapers. The leading Dutch papers run for, or by, ambitious politicians, or in some interest, and are Die Burger and Ons Land of Cape Town, and the Volkstem of nearly all of them accept inspiration from the Foreign Office. Pretoria. Ministers change frequently but the system remains. It is like India.—Up to the removal (see Press Laws) of the rigid part of the constitution. newspaper licensing system in British India in 1835 under the The annals of French journalism begin with the Gazette (afterinspiration of Macaulay there were very few British or vernacular wards called the Gazette de France), established in 1631 under newspapers. At the Mutiny in 1857 the restrictions were partly the patronage and with the active co-operation of Cardinal restored, and though the Indian press has grown tremendously Richelieu. The first editor and printer was Théophraste Renaudot. in volume it is still subject to severe Government regulations. The first weekly number apparently appeared in May 1631. So Apart from obscure native sheets there are about 200 news- much, at least, may be inferred from the date (4th July 1631) of papers and periodicals published in British India. The part the sixth number, which was the first dated publication. Each played by English newspapers in India cannot be measured by number of the paper, which cost 6 centimes, consisted of a single the copies which they sell. In Calcutta, with a population of sheet (eight pages) in small quarto, and was divided into two nearly 1,500,000, is published the oldest newspaper in India, The parts—the first simply entitled Gazette, the second Nouvelles Englishman (1821), and also the most popular, The Statesman. ordinaires de divers endroits. It commonly began with foreign The Times of India (Bombay), The Madras Mail, The Pioneer and ended with home news. Much of its earliest foreign news of Allahabad, The Civil and Military Gazette of Lahore, are the came direct from the minister, and not seldom in his own hand. best-known papers and organs of opinion. There is quite a num- Louis XIII. took a keen interest in the progress of the infant ber of official journals in India. The vernacular papers are grow- Gazette, and was a frequent contributor, now and then taking his ing in number and in influence, and some of the Nationalist organs little paragraphs to the printing office himself, and seeing them put are published in English—as, for instance, the Amrita Bazar into type. In Oct. 1631 Renaudot obtained letters patent to himPatrika of Calcutta. Some papers are published in two languages, self and his heirs, conferring the exclusive privilege of printing in English and vernacular. and selling, where and how they might please, “‘the gazettes, news and narratives of all that has passed or may pass within and withIl, NEWSPAPERS IN CONTINENTAL COUNTRIES out the kingdom.” At his death in Oct. 1653 Renaudot left the Freedom of the press in Continental countries has not kept pace Gazette to his sons in flourishing circumstances. Its place is now with the development of political constitutions. Since the recon- filled by the Journal O fictel. struction of Europe after the World War there has been an inIn 1672 the Mercure galant was established by Donneau de crease of newspapers and particularly of organs of political opinion. Vizé. Its title was later changed to Nouveau Mercure, and in In France, Germany, Belgium, Austria and Hungary, press con- 1728 to Mercure de France, a designation retained, with slight ditions are somewhat the same as in pre-war days. In Russia modification, until 1853, when the paper finally ceased. It had there is practically no freedom of the press, and the same may be many prominent contributors. In 1790 its circulation rose very said with regard to Italy. In the new States of Czecho-Slovakia, rapidly and reached for a time 13,000 copies. Mirabeau styled Rumania and Yugo-Slavia, censorship and suppression of news- it in debate “the most able of the newspapers.” Great pains were Papers are carried on to as great an extent as before the war. In taken in the collection of statistics and state papers, the absence Poland there has been a revival of newspapers, but here again of which from the French newspaper press had helped to depress In regions inhabited by minority races the press is only tolerated. its credit as compared with the political journalism of England In all these new countries journalism is a hazardous profession, and and to some extent of Germany. has not gained in strength or dignity. In every country the exUnder Napoleon the organ of official information was the treme political Left is represented by propagandist newspapers, Moniteur (Gazette nationale, ou le moniteur universel), founded and while these journals are occasionally suppressed in the in 1789 under the same general management with the Mercure. countries in which they are published, they are allowed to circulate The Moniteur kept step with the majority of the assembly, the in neighbouring countries. Mercure with the minority. So marked a contrast between two i Newspapers of France.—In no other country is the political journals with one proprietor gave too favourable a leverage to the influence of the press so great, or its literary merits so high, as republican wits not to be turned to good account. Camille Des«eneral weekly papers, and also humorous journals.

The Sydney

350

NEWSPAPERS

moulins depicted him as Janus—one face radiant at the blessings of coming liberty, the other plunged in grief for the epoch that was rapidly disappearing. The only other newspaper of a date anterior to the Revolution which need be noticed here is the first French daily, the Journal de Paris, which was started on New Year’s Day of 1777 and lived

till 1819.

[CONTINENTAL

` Was 212,500, and it went on rapidly increasing. In 1874 an elabo. rate return showed that in the 35 principal towns of France, _ comprising a population of 2,566,000 their respective journals : had an aggregate weekly issue of 2,800,000 copies. In 1878 the ' total number of journals of all kinds published in France was 2.200. Of these 150 were political, strictly speaking, of which

Its period of highest prosperity may be dated about ' Paris published 49. Of Parisian journals other than political there

1792, when its circulation is said to have exceeded 20,000.

The , were 1.141 (including 71 religious, 104 legal, 153 commercial, 134

Journal des Débats, which still flourishes, was founded in 1789 by | technological, 98 scientific and medical, 59 artistic). At that date Baudouin. , Le Figaro had a circulation of about 70,000, Le Petit Journal The cheap journalism of Paris began in 1836 (1st July) with (at a halfpenny) one of about 650,000. the journal

of Girardin, La Presse,

followed

instantly by Le;

The law concerning the liberty of the press, of July 29, 1881.

Siècle, under the management of Dutacq, to whom, it is said— j;abolished suretyship for newspapers, decentralised their registranot incredibly—the original idea was really due. The first-named | tion, and took away the former discretionary power, lodged in the journal attained a circulation of 10,000 copies within three | home office, of interdicting the circulation in France of foreign months of its commencement and soon doubled that number. The | journals. The home minister might still prohibit a single number Siécle prospered even more strikingly, and in a few years had | of a newspaper; only the whole council of ministers, duly conreached a circulation (then without precedent in France) of 38,000 | vened,

copies.

could

: absolutely.

prohibit

the

circulation

of a foreign

newspaper

The rapid growth of the newspaper press of Paris under Louis- | The newspapers of Paris, and similarly of France, practically Philippe will be best appreciated from the fact that, while in 1828 : doubled in number between 1880 and 1900. In 1880 there were the number of stamps issued was 28 millions, in 1836, 1843, 1845 ' about 120 Paris newspapers, in 1890 about 160, and in 1900 about and 1846 the figures were 42, 61, 65 and 79 millions respectively. At the last-mentioned date the papers with a circulation of upwards of 10,000 were (besides the Moniteur, of which the circulation was chiefly official and gratuitous) as follows: Le Siècle, 31,000; La Presse and Le Constitutionnel, between 20,000 and 25,000; Journal des Débats and L’Epoque, 10,000 to 15,000. The impulse given to the growth of advertisements in the days which followed July 1830 became, as the years rolled on, suffciently developed to induce the formation of a company—in which

' 240. The total number of newspapers, as distinguished from periodicals, published in France during I900 was in round numbers 2,400, of which about 2,160 appeared in 540 provincial towns. The history of the French press during the last twenty years of the rgth century followed very closely that of the country itself, | Boulangist and anti-Boulangist, Dreyfusist or anti-Dreyfusist, Republican or Nationalist; finally it became either Moderate Republican or Radical Socialist, with a sprinkling of Nationalist

:ı organs and a small minority of Royalist and Bonapartist sheets.

one of the Laffittes took part—to farm them, or rather to farm a | The French papers, of whatever party, took an certain conspicuous page of each newspaper, at a yearly rent of Interest during this period in foreign matters and much £12,000 sterling (300,000 francs), so far (at first) as regarded the '‘ their organisation for collecting news. L’Eclair gave less four leading journals (Débats, Constitutionnel, Siècle, Presse), ‘to the discussion of political questions from the party

increased improved attention point of to which were afterwards added two others (Le Pays and La; view than to the collection of news, and was followed by the Patrie). The combination greatly embarrassed advertisers, first, |Echo de Paris (1884) and Le Matin, which also dates from 1884, since its great aim was to force them either to advertise in all, ;and which by an arrangement with the London Times gave every whether addressing the classes to be canvassed or not, or else to | day a translation of most of the telegrams published in that pay for each advertisement in a selected newspaper the price of ; newspaper. The journal d'information, as these papers were many proferred advertisements in all the papers collectively, and, |called, took its place beside the journal properly so-called, more secondly, because by many repetitions in certain newspapers no ;perhaps as a rival than as a complement.

The natural result fol-

additional publicity was really gained, two or three of the favoured !lowed, and the more old-type newspapers took steps to provide journals circulating for the main amongst the same class of buyers. | their readers with news as well as with leading articles, current On July 16, 1850, the assembly passed what is called the “Jo¢ į and literary topics, society gossip, dramatic criticism and law Tinguy”’ (from the name of the otherwise obscure deputy who !: reports. Nothing perhaps was so striking after 1890 as the demand proposed it), by which the author of every newspaper article on |of the French public for foreign and colonial news, or the readiany subject, political, philosophical or religious, was bound to affix | ness of the papers to supply it by means of special representatives his name to it, on penalty of a fine of 500 francs for the first | independent of the news agencies. An enlargement of the indioffence, and of 1,000 francs for its repetition. Every false or | vidual newspapers followed, accompanied by a reduction of price. feigned signature was to be punished by a fine of 1,000 francs, In home matters the French press made greater progress still “together with six months’ imprisonment, both for the author | in the rapid and accurate collection of news, and in this respect and the editor.” The practical working of this law lay in the |the provincial press showed more enterprise and more ability than creation of a new functionary in the more important newspaper | that of Paris. Its development was remarkable, for whereas it offices, who was called secrétaire de la rédaction, and was, in fact, | 1880 the inhabitants of the departments had to await the arrival the scapegoat ex officio. The “lot Tinguy,” though now long | of the Parisian papers for their news, they now had the advantage repealed, has had a permanent influence on French journalism in | of being supplied every morning with local newspapers inferior the continued prevalence of signed articles, and the consequent | to none of the best organs of Paris. Among the best provincial prominence of individual writers as compared with the same class |! papers may be mentioned Za Gironde and La Petite Gironde of of work in other countries. Bordeaux, La Dépéche of Toulouse, Le Lyon Républicain, L’Echo In 1858 the order of the six leading Parisian papers ih point of | du Nord of Lille, Le Journal de Rouen, all having a staff in Patis circulation was—(1) Siècle, (2) Presse, (3) Constitutionnel, (4) engaged in collecting news, reporting parliamentary proceedings Patrie, (5) Débats, (6) Assemblée. The number of provincial and law cases, telegraphed or telephoned during the night and papers exceeded five hundred. “Newspapers, nowadays,” wrote | published early the next morning in their respectivë localities. a keenly observant publicist in that year, “are almanacs, bulletins, | Being perfectly independent of purely Parisian opinion or even advertising mediums, rather than the guides and the centres of | bias, the decentralisation of the French provincial press became opinion.” In 1866 the change had become more marked still. | complete; it became also more independent politically than the The monetaty success of Girardin’s many commercial speculations | Paris press. Several journals had and still have national reputa-

in this branch of commerce

greatly increased the number of| tions: the Dépéche of Toulouse, with its 12 editions daily, the

Parisian journals, whilst lowering the status and circulation of | Progrés of Lyons, the Petit M arseilles, La Petite Gironde of Bor-

those of established rank. In 1872 the circulation of Le Petit |deaux. The small local press exercises an independent influence Journal (founded 1863), the pioneer of the French halfpenny press, | during elections.

CONTINEN TAL]

NEWSPAPERS

oD

The French Press has been litle changed by the World War. | Zeitungs-Correspondens, two years earlier, and was almost the During the War many newspapers temporarily disappeared, owing | only German newspaper which really drew its foreign news from +o the lack of staff, or of means, or shortage of paper. All papers “our own correspondent.” Berlin had in the 18th century two were under a severe censorship and, more than ever, were the papers, those of Voss (the Vossische Zeitung, 1722) and of J. K. P. Spener (1749-1827; the Spener’sche Zeitung, or Berlinische servants of the Government. In 1928 there were 337 journals published in Paris, of which Nachrichten, 1772). Some half-dozen papers which glimmered -wo were official dailies. There were 127 sporting newspapers, of in the surrounding darkness were the reservoirs whence the rest which five were dailies. The number of newspapers published in replenished their little lamps. On the whole, it may be said that the provinces Was 3,100, including publications of all descriptions. the German newspapers were of very small account until after France was the first country to have national newspapers with the outbreak of the French Revolution. Meanwhile the ms. sales of over 1,000,000. The sale was stimulated more by two news-letters, as in earlier days, continued to enjoy a large circulaseria] stories run by each paper than by news, but since the war tion in Germany. Many came from London. The correspondnews has become more conspicuous in such widely circulated ence, for instance, known under the name of “Mary Pinearis’”— papers as the Petit Parisien (1,200,000), Le Petit Journal (1,000,- that, apparently, of a French refugee settled in London—had a 900), Le Matin (go0,000), and the Journal (800,000), which great German circulation between 1725 and 1735. Another series may be described as the “Big Four of the Paris Press.” Following was edited by the Cologne gazetteer, Jean Ignace de Rodérique, upon these in point of sales comes the Echo de Paris (800,000). also a French refugee, and remembered as the subject of a The better-known political papers are Le Temps, the venerable characteristic despatch from Frederick II. of Prussia to his enJournal des Débats (founded in 1789 by Baudouin), La Liberté, voy in that city, enclosing 100 ducats to be expended in hiring LOeuvre, L’Humanité and the Ere Nouvelle. The Figaro (begun a stout fellow with a cudgel to give a beating to the gazetteer 1834, but a daily from 1866) maintains its unique position. as the punishment for an offensive paragraph. The money, it Characteristics of all the popular Press are still signed articles seems, was earned, for Rodérique was well-nigh killed. At Berlin and serial stories. There is a popular daily illustrated paper, itself, Franz Hermann Ortgies carried on a brisk trade in these Excelsior, established 1910, and numerous dailies devoted to sport, news-letters (1728-1735), until he too came under displeasure on finance, the drama, motoring, etc. Every phase of politics is rep- account of them, was kept in prison several months, and then resented in the Paris press, from Legitimist to Communist, and exiled for life. Nor, indeed, can any journal of a high order be mentioned of prior appearance to the Allgemeine Zeitung, founded every trade and interest has its organ. Improvements have taken place in the mechanical equipment at Leipzig by the bookseller Cotta (at first under the title of of the French press in recent years, and there has been a marked Neueste Weltkunde) in 1798. Its articles gave offence to the increase in illustrated weeklies and monthlies. The best known Austrian court, and the paper had to change both its title and weeklies are the dignified J//ustration and the gay Vie Parisienne, its place of publication. It had been commenced at Tiibingen, and which flourished during the war, the literary Annales Politiques removed to Stuttgart; it was then transferred to Ulm, and again to et Littéraires, and a light variety paper Nos Loisirs. The Revue Augsburg. It was Cotta’s aim to make this the organ of statesdes Deux Mondes, the Mercure de France and the Revue Heb- men and publicists, to reach the public through the thinkers, to domadaire are the best known monthlies. The sale of the French hold an even balance between the rival parties of the day, and press is pushed all over Europe. The chief news agency, Havas, to provide a trustworthy magazine of materials for the historians has official support. There is also a universal wireless service to come; and, in the course of time, his plan was so worked out which broadcasts news and propaganda. It is a subsidiary of the as to raise the Allgemeine Zeitung into European fame. Cotta was also the founder, at various periods, of the Morgenblati, which wireless company, which holds a concession from the State. English journalism in France was for nearly a century mainly became famous for its critical ability and tact, of Vesperus, of associated with Galignani’s Messenger (1814-1904), which was Das Inland, of Nemesis, of the Oppositionsblatt of Weimar (for killed by the competition of the Paris edition of the New York a time edited by Bertuch), and even of the Archives Paristennes. Whilst French influence was dominant in Germany, the GerHerald. It had been preceded by Sampson Perry’s Argus (1809), a Napoleonic organ. In May 1905 a new era of English journalism man papers were naturally little more than echoes of the Parisian on the Continent began by the institution of the Paris edition of press. But amidst the excitements of the “war of liberation” a the London Daily Mail. There are three other papers printed in crowd of new journals appeared. Some of these journals lasted English: the Chicago Tribune, the New York Herald-Tribune and but two or three years. Most of the survivors fell victims to that resolution of the diet (Sept. 20, 1819) which subjected the the Paris Times (evening). Newspapers in Germany.—Under the old German empire newspaper press, even of countries where the censorship had there was liberty of the press within reason, but certain papers been formally abolished, to police superintendence. A similar crop of new papers of revolutionary tendency folwere exploited or influenced by the Government for its own purposes. Before 1914 German journalists had begun to conquer lowed the upheavals of 1830 and 1848. These were equally shortpositions in the political world, and the press was gaining in lived, but it is nevertheless undeniable that a marked improveindependence. To-day the German press has complete freedom. ment in the ability and energy of the German political press may It is the most serious press in Europe. There are few sensa- be dated from this period. In Prince Bismarck’s days the press bure@u of the Prussian tional newspapers. Newspapers do not sell because of sport or “stunts.” Journals which cater for the special interests of the Ministry of the Interior, and a similar organization in the Imworking classes discuss economic and industrial problems, and perial Home Office, used to furnish hundreds of petty local newsdo not merely confine themselves to news. Literature, the drama, papers known as Kreis-blitter with whole articles gratis, so that art, music and economics occupy a greater proportion of space in the policy of the government might be advocated in every nook and corner of the country. The numerous journals in which these German newspapers than in the press of any other country. Printed newspapers in Germany begin with the Avisa Relation communications used to appear simultaneously and in an idenoder Zeitung (1609), followed by the Frankfurter Journal, in tical form were the government organs to which the Radical and 1615 of Egenolph Emmel. The following year saw the foundation Socialist opposition more particularly applied the term “reptile

of the Frankfurter Oberpostamtszeitung—continued until the year 1866 as Frankfurter Postzeitung. Fulda appears to have been the next German town to possess a newspaper, then Hildesheim

(1619) and Herford (1630). In the course of the century almost all German cities of the first rank possessed their respective journals. The earliest in Leipzig bears the date 1660. The Rostocker Zeitumg was founded in 1710. The Hamburgischer Correspondent (1714) was originally published under the name of Holsteinische

press.” Later this practice of wholesale inspiration was abandoned, but there remained many channels, public and private, through which almost every department of the government could communicate information to newspapers in all parts of Germany. At the beginning of the 20th century the position and influence of the German press were passing through a period of change. The Germans had become a newspaper-reading people. Indeed, with the remarkable growth of the commercial spirit in Germany

354

NEWSPAPERS

there had simultaneously been a change in the intellectual attitude and habits of the mass of the nation. The German of “the great period” of 1866 and 1870 derived his knowledge of his own and other countries to a very great extent from the more or less intelligent study of books, pamphlets and magazines. The busy German of the opening years of the 20th century had become almost as much the slave of his newspaper as the average American. Berlin in 1900 had 45 dailies. Leipzig 8, Munich 12, Hamburg It, Stuttgart 8, Strassburg 6. In the domains both of home and of foreign politics the result was often a chaos of crude opinions and impulses, the strata of which were only differentiated by certain permanent tendencies of German political thought based upon tradition, class feeling, material interests, or distinctions of religious creed. In these circumstances it was still possible for the government, as in the days of Prince Bismarck and Dr. Moritz Busch, to bring its superior knowledge to bear upon the anarchy of public sentiment through the medium of the inspired (or as it used to be called, the “reptile’) press, but this operation had now to be performed with greater delicacy and skill) The press had begun to feel its power. It was at least able to drive a bargain with those who would officially control it, and it was conscious in its relations with the authorities that the advantage no longer rested exclusively on the side of the latter. It would be instructive to compare, with the aid of Dr. Busch’s “Secret Pages” of the history of Prince Bismarck, the methods by which the first chancellor used to create and control a movement of public opinion with the devices by which, for instance, count von Bulow and his subordinates endeavoured to manage the press of a later day. The journalists who placed themselves at the disposal of Prince Bismarck were mostly treated as his menials; as he himself said, “Decent people do not write for me.” Count von Biilow’s methods, and to a certain extent those of his predecessor, Prince Hohenlohe, moved on somewhat different lines. These methods might be characterized as the psychological treatment of the individual journalist, the endeavour to appeal to his personal vanity or to his legitimate ambition, and only in a minor degree to his fear of the dossier, the public prosecutor and the official boycott. The journalistic characteristics of the German press—apart from the greater freedom which it now enjoys—have not changed since the World War. The former national organs occupy relatively the same positions, but there has been a shifting of ownership, not due to the political revolution but to the effects of inflation. During this period of inflation many of the old family newspaper owners, particularly in the provinces, were unable to survive and sold to industrialists. Hugo Stinnes, the industrial magnate, was able to create a great newspaper trust, which was, however, broken up after his death. The most remarkable figure in German journalism is Dr. Alfred Hugenberg, a leader of the Nationalist party and the head of one of the most complete publicity organizations in the world. Dr. Hugenberg formerly held an important post in the Prussian Ministry of Finance, and was later, from 1909 till 1918, president of the directorate of Krupp’s. In 1916 the Scherl press, an important undertaking which owned among other papers the Conservative Lokalanseiger, became involved in financial difficulties and finally passed under the control of Dr. Hugenberg and other Ruhr industrialists. In the following year a company was formed for the rehabilitation of needy nationalist or monarchist newspapers, and through its operations Herr Hugenberg obtained control over a number of newspapers. He next formed a company for supplying provincial papers with news in stereotype form. This company was called the Wéirtschaftsberatung der Provinzpresse, or Wipro for short. Later he acquired control of the Telegraphen Union, next to the Wolff Telegraph Bureau the most important news agency in the country, and of the joint advertising concern of Ala~-Haasenstein and Vogler-Daube. A more remarkable and significant venture was his control of the Universum Film Aktiengesellschaft, or Ufa, which owns 150 cinema theatres and produces three-fourths of the German films. Hugenberg thus owns (1929) a most powerful and complete machine for influencing public opinion not only in Germany but in the world.

[CONTINENTAL

So far as is known the German Government has no longer

an interest in newspapers as in the days of the Kaiser, when the Foreign Office directed or swayed the policy of several politica, journals, Its connection with the press is now confined to its participation in Wolff’s agency, which is parallel to the Haya: agency in France. For eight months in 1926, however, it secretly held a controlling interest in the Deutsche Allgemeine Zeitung, an independent Conservative paper with a leaning towards Na. tionalism. This newspaper was originally owned by the Stinnes concern, but in Aug. 1925, when the concern was being wound up, the newspaper and printing works were bought by the Prussian Government. The newspaper, of which the Prussian Government

had no need, was afterwards sold to two private persons.

In Noy.

1926, however, it was rumoured that the real purchaser had been

the Government of the Reich, which had also paid the subsequent losses on the paper. On the 22nd of the same month Dr. Strese.

mann admitted before the foreign affairs committee that the paper

had been subsidized by the Reich Government since the previous April, and in the debate on the question in the budget committee of the Reichstag on the 30th he stated that the controlling interes, in the newspaper had been purchased by the Government of the Reich in the preceding April out of the secret funds placed at the disposal of the chancellor and foreign minister. The Reich Goyernment had acquired 75% of the shares, while the remaining 25% had remained in private hands. It was not disclosed what price had been paid by the Reich Government, nor what proportions of the sum were furnished respectively by the chancellor’s and foreign minister’s funds. Meanwhile the publishers, editorial staff, and board of management had severally issued statements that neither the publishers nor the editorial staff had been aware of the connection between the paper and the Reich Government, and that no attempt had been made to encroach on editorial independence. There had in fact been no perceptible change in the policy of the paper; and while it had continued to be produced at cost at the printing works, which were still in the possession of the Prussian Government, it had on occasions been severely critical of the Prussian Government. A condition of sale had apparently been imposed by the Prussian Government that it should not be subjected to malicious attacks by the paper, but this undertaking the board of management refused to give on the ground that malicious attacks had never been practised by the paper, and that a special undertaking was therefore unnecessary. On Feb. 3 the board of management, the publishers and the editorial staff of the paper announced that the controlling interest held by the Government of the Reich had been sold to a group representing industrial, commercial and shipping interests. The announcement added that all participation, direct or indirect, of the Reich Government or of any other official department had ceased with the transaction. The identity of the new owners was not revealed. The status of the paper during that period and the intentions of the Government are still obscure. While the nationalist newspapers are controlled largely by industrialists, the organs of the Centre or Roman Catholic party are under strict party control and owned by party men. The Centre represents dbout 40% of the population of Germany, but its press, although vigorous, consists of papers which have not big circulations. The most influential were the Germania of Berlin, and the Volkszeitung of Cologne which amalgamated at the end of 1927. Another group of papers which has increased in prestige since the war is the Democratic and Social Democratic press, powerful factors in political life.

Among the most independent and influential papers in Germany are the provincial organs, Frankfurter Zeitung and the Kölnische Zeitung known throughout the political world as the Frankfurter and the Kölnische. The chief papers in Berlin are

the Börsen Zeitung (non-party), the Lokal Anzeiger and Der Tag (Nationalist), the Berliner Tageblatt and Vossische Zeitung (Democratic), Deutsche Allgemeine Zeitung (People’s Party),

Deutsche Tageszeitung (National and Agrarian), the Morgenpost (Democratic) and the Vorwärts (Social Democratic) and a Communist paper, Die Rote Fahne or Red Flag (sale, 65,000).

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PLATE

NEWSPAPERS

Ad

NEWSPAPERS

CONTINENTAL]

353

The Tägliche Rundschau, which spoke authoritatively on foreign

them. Tbis restriction has had an unfortunate effect on Hungarian

affairs, ceased publication on June 30, 1928. The more popular

journalism. There are still ten daily newspapers in Budapest, but very few in the provinces, and it is stated that not more than three newspapers in Budapest, owing to the restriction of the area of circulation, are now commercial successes. The Pester Lloyd, published in German in Budapest, is a newspaper of inter-

pers in Berlin have sales exceeding 250,000. Among the most widely circulated papers outside Berlin are the Diisseldorfer Nachrichten

(Independent-National),

which

reaches the same

figure, the Frankfurter General-Anzeiger, 115,000, the Hamburger Anceiger, 110,000, the Leipziger Neueste Nachrichten (Patriotic), 175,000, the Müncher N eneste Nachrichten (National), 145,000, the Dortmund General Anzeiger (non-party), 122,000, and the Dresdenner Neueste Nachrichten (People’s Party), over 100,000.

national reputation and celebrated its 7oth anniversary in 1928. Papers published in the Magyar language to serve the Hungarian minorities in Czechoslovakia, Rumania and Yugoslavia have a precarious

existence.

The most widely-circulated

newspaper

in

Budapest is the Pesti Hirlap, which is followed by the Az Est. the Berlin Rote Fahne, papers in the following cities: Breslau, the The other best known Hungarian newspapers are the Magyarorszag Arbeiterzeitung, sale 15,000; Chemnitz, Der Kampfer, 75,000; (Hungary) and Magyarság (Hungarian People). Czechoslovakia.—The newly-won freedom in Czechoslovakia Bochum, the Westfälische Arbeiter Zeitung, 22,000; Essen, the Ruhr Echo, 47,000; Hamburg, the Volkszeitung, 25,000; Leipzig, led to a great increase in the number of newspapers. It is a country with many political parties, and each party has its organ. the Sächsische Arbeiterzeitung, 30,000. There are several newspapers which occupy a status and exer- There are many daily papers in Prague and the other chief cities cise an influence in German journalism and public life which in the republic. Unfortunately while the constitution of Czechocannot be measured by sales. The Frankfurter Zeitung, already slovakia guarantees freedom of the press, this provision is not mentioned, is perhaps the most powerful. It has 19 issues a observed. Ever since the republic was established there has been week—morning and afternoon. Of a similar type is the Kölnische press censorship,—originally preventive, but latterly censorious, Zeitung, which was founded in 1848, and of which Bismarck once and in some cases it has taken the form of suppression. This said that it was “worth an army corps on the Rhine’; and the action applies to newspapers in all languages—Slovak, German Hamburger Nachrichten, founded in 1792. The Jenaische Zeitung and Hungarian,—but as regards Czech it is applied only to Comhas been in the same family since it was founded in 1674. A still munist journals. A very close supervision of newspapers is exerolder paper, the Königsberger Hartungsche Zeitung, dating from cised by the Ministry of Justice through the police; no reasons 1640, keeps its flag flying in the Eastern outpost on the Baltic. are given for suppressing newspapers, and no compensation paid Papers published in districts which are inhabited by Germans, for the loss incurred by the newspaper proprietors. While the police suppress newspapers, the Government uses although not now under the German flag, are intensely Nationalist, such as the Saarbrücker Zeitung, papers in Polish Upper the press for its own propagandist purposes. Several papers may be regarded as the official organs of the different parties in power. Silesia, Danzig and other territories formerly in the Empire. In Germany, no general newspapers are published on Monday, The Czech Foreign Office has an organ in the German language, except two or three in Berlin. Sunday is a day of rest to news- the Prager Presse, and weekly journals in French and English, paper workers. The provincial morning papers in Germany issue while a number of newspapers in the Czech language may be three editions during the day, the contents varying more or less. regarded as official. Italy.—Before the advent of Mussolini’s Fascist regime, the In Berlin, two editions are issued. There are few afternoon papers Italian Press laws were based on a royal decree of 1848. In Italy in Germany. The external form and arrangement of German newspapers is now newspapers are only permitted to exist by favour of the puzzling at first sight to an English reader. The outside sheet Government. The independence of the press has almost disapcontains the editorial articles and news, while the middle of the peared under the Mussolini regime. In 1924 a decree was issued paper is taken up by supplements which can be added to in- which made newspapers liable to suppression and editors to pundefinitely. The quantity of extraneous matter, such as articles on ishment if they published “tendencious news” which might emliterary, social and technical subjects, is enormous, and even the barrass the Government in foreign or domestic affairs. This policy most serious political journals invariably publish a novel in serial developed so that by 1926 the freedom of the press in Italy had form, as well as numerous novelettes and sketches. The local ceased to exist. Journalists’ organizations are also under the connews in Berlin and other large cities is written with the minute- trol of the Government. Where the press was not muzzled there was a forced change ness and the familiarity of style of a village chronicle, and gives the impression that every one is occupied in observing the doings of proprietorship in harmony with Fascist policy. This was the of his neighbour. The signed article is very much in vogue, and case with the well-known Corriere della Sera of Milan, for some most writers and salaried correspondents have at least a cypher years the most powerful organ in Italy. The Stampa of Turin, although never strongly anti-Fascist, was tamed; the same fate or initial by which they are distinguished. According to the Politischer Almanach there are over 100 im- overtook the influential journal in the south, the Mattino of Naportant newspapers in Germany, and 38 serious political journals, ples. The complexion of the best-known papers in Rome has been representing all shades of political opinion. There are 24 large changed. The only journals which enjoy a certain restrained news agencies in Berlin, with branches in the chief cities. All the independence are the semi-official organs of the Vatican. A number of newspapers have ceased to exist, and the journalists’ assopolitical parties have their Press agencies. Among the best-known German reviews are the Preussische clations have been placed under the control of Government Jahrbücher, Deutsche Rundschau, Neue Rundschau, Deutsche commissioners. There are fewer papers in proportion to the popuStimme, Süddeutsche Monatschefte and the Neue Zeit. The lation in Italy than in any other country in Europe except Russia. Russia.—Freedom of the press has been completely suppressed Reichsanzeiger corresponds to the London Gazette. Austria.—Austria with its diminished population, now between in Soviet Russia. In Tsarist Russia censorship was severe, but a 6 and 7 million, has naturally many fewer newspapers than for- measure of toleration existed. In Soviet Russia censorship is merly, although the leading journals, such as the Neue Freie applied before the matter is printed, which has to be submitted to Presse and the Neues Wiener Journal, circulate amongst the an official editorial board known as the Gosizdat. There is a German-speaking population throughout the territory of the old further check on the publication of news and expression of opinAustro-Hungarian monarchy. Vienna has a vigorous local press ion, as newspapers are only published under the auspices of the representing all political parties, including the Communists. There governing authorities and are thus practically all official organs. In 1914 there were 17 dailies in the capital, some of them of is freedom of the press in Austria. Hungary.—With regard to Hungary the position is different. international reputation, such as the Novoe Vrémja, and the Hungary has now a population of 8 million, but journals in the Reich, and five in Moscow. In 1910 there were 52 daily newsMagyar language do not circulate outside the diminished area papers in Russia, of which 13 were in St. Petersburg (Lenin-: of Hungary, as the authorities in the Succession States prohibit grad), and four in Moscow, exclusive of papers in Finland and

There are a number of Communist journals, including, besides

354

NEWSPAPERS

| |

[UNITED STATES

Polish Russia. In 1926 almost all the press was concentrated in | returned to England to become the publisher of The London Past. Moscow. There were rr morning and evening papers in Moscow, Colonial Period.—Mortality of pioneer papers in the United but only two of any impertance, the Jsvestia and the Pravda. ; States has been usually high. But The Boston News-Letter under In Leningrad there were only two morning papers, the Pravda ;various publishers survived until the declaration of independence and the Krasnaya Gazeta. The number of daily newspapers in by the 13 original Colonies. The honour of being the second Russia in 1928 did not exceed twenty. Scope, it is claimed, is newspaper is practically divided between The Boston Gazette given to what are called “worker correspondents” in the industrial (Dec. 1719), started by William Brooker when he succeeded centres, and a feature is the widespread interest in “wall”? news- Campbell as postmaster of Boston, and The American Weekly papers. Some papers appeal technically and otherwise to the Mercury (Dec. 1719). brought out by Andrew Bradford, the local peasant class. postmaster in Philadelphia. While technically there was a differ. Belgium.—Belgium possesses a vigorous press, published in ence of one day, both papers are said to have been mailed to French and in Flemish. Although the chief Paris papers circulate subscribers on the same day. The fourth paper, The New England all over Belgium, the Belgian press nevertheless enjoys a large Courant, started in Boston by James Franklin in Aug. 1721, was sale, and the popular journals are highly prosperous. There are a flaming organ of dissent carried on by a group of contributors 17 daily papers published in Brussels and nine in Antwerp. There called by the Rev. Increase Mather “the Hell-Fire club.” So are several Socialist journals, the chief organ of the party radical was it in expression of opinion that an order was issued being Le Peuple. The success of the Socialist press is due largely that James Franklin no longer print the newspaper. The situation to its association with the co-operative movement. La Libre Bel- was met by having a younger brother, Benjamin, become the gique, which appeared regularly during the War in occupied Bel- publisher in name if not in fact. After a quarrel between the gium in spite of the vigilance of the Germans, now exists as a daily two brothers, Benjamin went to Philadelphia where he later newspaper. In Belgium, the press laws have not been changed for purchased (1729) an interest in The Pennsylvania Gazette, started many years and the press enjoys almost unlimited freedom. by Samuel Keimer (Dec. 1728). Franklin made this paper one The Netherlands.—The Netherlands, with a population of of the most influential of all those that appeared in the colonial over 7,000,000, possess a healthy press, including journals which period. New York did not have a paper until Nov. 1725, when enjoy a high reputation for their literary merits and as organs of William Bradford started The New York Gazette. As “Printer opinion. The chief among these are the Nieuwe Rotterdamsche to the Crown,” Bradford was unable to record opposition to goyCourant, De Telegraaf and the Algemeen Handelsblad, of Am- ernment measures and in this way provided for the appearance sterdam. There are eight daily papers in Amsterdam, seven in in Nov. 1733 of The New York Weekly Journal, The latter The Hague and five in Rotterdam, and these circulate through- paper, nominally published by John P. Zenger, was really edited out the country. by the leaders of the opposition. Freedom in expression of popuSpain and Portugal.—There is little progress ta record in the lar rights brought a famous libel suit against Zenger that did Spanish press, and circulations are small. The illustrated A.B.C, much to establish the freedom of the press in America. The is the most popular paper. The Heraldo and the Liberat are jury, in freeing Zenger, decided that it had the sole right to Madrid journals. El Sol was founded in 1917 by the Spanish Paper judge both the law and the facts and reversed the old tradition, Trust. There are 20 daily papers in Madrid and 17 in Barcelona, “The greater the truth the greater the libel.” and about 200 dailies of sorts in Spain. The principal Portuguese The first newspaper in the ten remaining Colonies of the origpapers are the Diaris Noticia (founded 1820) and the Jornaldo inal 13 was a gazette with the name of the Colony before it, Commercio, both published in Lisbon. with the single exception of The Wilmington Chronicle (1762) in Switzerland.—Switzerland, owing perhaps to its smaļl popu- Delaware. These gazettes appeared as follows: Annapolis, Marylation, has few papers known outside the country. In 1926 there land (1727); Charleston, South Carolina (1732); Newport, Rhode were 38 daily newspapers published in German, 19 in French and Island (1732); Williamsburg, Virginia (1736); New Haven, Contwo in Italian. The best known are the Journal de Genéve, read necticut (1755); New Bern, North Carolina (1755); Portsmouth, in France, the Neue Zürcher Zeitung and the Zurcher Post, which New Hampshire (1756); Wilmington, Delaware (1762); Sahave a considerable circulation in Germany. (R. Don.) vannah, Georgia (1763); and Burlington, New Jersey (1777). These pioneer papers were important because in their plants were IV. UNITED STATES trained the printers who went forth to establish others, either in Among the professional writers of news-letters towards the close the 13 original Colonies or along the frontier farther west. of the reign of Elizabeth and the beginning of that of James 1., Colonial printers, often forced to accept wheat, wood, butter, to whom reference has already been made in the discussion of cern, etc., in payment for subscriptions, continually faced censors the cradle days of English journalism the three most important wha, clothed by the law with authority, annoyed publishers bold were John Chamberlain, Thomas Locke and John Pory. The enough to print the critical debate going on in the community. last of these three, when he was secretary of the Virginia Colony, Setting aside a little corner for original poetry and opening their sent news letters from “James Citty” as early as 1619 to his columns to letters from contributors who furnished essays, they “good and gracious lord” in London for whom he had previously provided a means of literary expression that contributed no small worked as a professional correspondent. The evolution of the part to the founding of American letters. Of the papers of this newspaper in the United States, therefore, technically starts with period special mention should be made of The Boston Gazette John Pory. But he was not the only writer of news-letters. John (1755), the third paper of that name in Boston and distinguished Campbell, postmaster at Boston, wrote with some degree af from the other two as being the “pet of the patriots.” Among regularity letters of news to the various colonial governors in those who contributed to its columns were such political leaders New England. Later he printed his news-letters and thus estab- as Samuel Adams, Joseph Warren, Thomas Cushing, etc. The lished, in April 1704, the first American newspaper-—The Boston Massachusetts Spy (1770), published first at Boston and then News-Letter. As in other countries there had been stray sheets at Worcester, Mass,, was a dynamic force under the able editoraf news printed at various times, so in this country. Mention may ship of Isaiah Thomas, famous for his history of printing. be made of The Present State of the New-English Affairs (1689) Toward the close of the colonial period The Pennsylvania Journal and Publick Occurrences (1690). Both of these sheets were (1742), under the editorship of William Bradford III., disputed printed in Boston and the latter, brought out by Benjamin Harris, supremacy in Philadelphia with Franklin’s Gazette. might technically be called a newspaper except for the fact that Early Political Organs——After independence from Great it had only one issue. Regularity in publication and continuity Britain had been secured, papers became political ergans of which in the news are demanded by the term newspaper. Harris intended The Gazette of the United States (1789), edited by John Fenno, regularity of publication but because his sheet was thought to and The National Gazette (1791), edited by Philip Freneau, were contain “reflections of a very high nature” it was suppressed by possibly the most important because the former was really conlocal authorities. Before the close of the century its publisher trolled by Alexander Hamilton, the leader of the Federal Party,

(NITED STATES]

NEWSPAPERS

and the latter by Thomas Jefferson, the leader of the then Re-

publican Party—now the Democratic. So vitriolic and so vituperative were the papers that the era is known as one of black

journalism. So bitter, for example, was the fight between the two Gazettes already mentioned that Washington had to request his wwo secretaries to put a stop to their bickerings in the interests

355

(1850), at Salt Lake: Colorado, Tke Rocky Mountain News

(1859), at Denver; Wyoming, The Leader (1867), at Cheyenne; and North Dakota, the latest with its newspaper, The Triburte (1873), at Bismarck. The Penny Press.—The daily newspapers which immediately followed the pioneers in this field soon developed to such size that

of the struggling republic. Politics so promoted publication of they came to be called blanket sheets. Commercial in character, papers that the number increased from 37 in 1776 to 359 in x8r0. Dailies.—As the cities on the Atlantic coast increased in size their papers began to appear mote frequently: first semi-weekly,

later tri-weekly and finally daily except Sunday. The first daily

newspaper was an outgrowth of such a tri-weekly—The Pennsyl-

wania Packet and General Advertiser which first appeared in Phila-

delphia in Sept. 1784. Just as the colonial weekly adopted Gazette

as a part of its title so the daily seized upon the word Advertiser. The second daily, the outgrowth of a semi-weekly at Charleston, S.C., first appeared in Dec. 1784. New York city did not have a daily until March 1785, when Francis Childs started The New York Daily Advertiser. The New York daily beginning an independent existence faced a more difficult struggle to secure financial support both in circulation and in advertising. From the start the daily paper was more of an advertising sheet than it was

a purveyor of news.

Such news as was inserted was chiefly of

they had only limited circulation and usually sold at six cents

per copy. For $30 a year a business man might not only have the paper for himself but also a square of advertising for his business. Early in the second quarter of the 19th century a new type of daily appeared, cheaper in price and smaller in size—the so-called penny press. The forerunner of this new journalism was The Daily Evening Transcript which Lynde M. Walter began in Boston, July 24, 1830, at the low subscription price of four dollars per annum. While the first daily to sell for a penny was The

Cent (1830) started by Dr. Christopher Columbus Conwell, the first successful publisher and therefore the founder of penny

journalism was Benjamin H. Day, whose Sz first rose in New York, Sept. 3, 1833, although Horace Greeley had made an unsuccessful attempt the first of the same year in New York to market The Morning Post at two cents. The Sum immediately met with remarkable success because it gave in condensed form to the mechanics and to the servant girls the tittle-tattle and

a commercial character, such as the arrival and departure of vessels, quotations on produce, the transactions in real estate, the backstair gossip of the city; it gave more attention to the etc. The paper itself went to the counting room instead of to the assault and battery cases of the police courts than to the attacks home. The oldest daily newspaper in the United States without of President Jackson on the U.S. Bank. But The Sun was soon change in name and with continuous publication is (1929) The followed by other penny dailies not only in New York but also New York Evening Post (Nov. 1801) which started as a Hamil- in other important cities, such as Philadelphia, Baltimore, Boston, tonian organ under the editorship of William Coleman. The oldest etc. Similar both in size arid in subject matter to The Sun, they newspaper that has appeared regularly without suspension since were called penny trash by the sixpenny sheets. The latter in its establishment is The Hartford Courant which began as The turn were spoken of by the penriy papers as “our bedquilt conConnecticut Courant (Oct. 1764)—a weekly which did not be- temporaries.” A bitter war arose between the two types of dailies, come a daily until long after The New York Evening Post was but it was the penny press that met with popular favour and prosstarted. Two men of letters are associated with these two papers: pered financially, because it contained the heart throb and the Charles Dudley Warner with The Courant and William Cullen human interest. In all its columns it stressed not what was imBryant with The Post. By 1812 New York had seven dailies but portant but what was interesting. Not until Charles Anderson not one of them exceeded 2,000 in circulation. Dana purchased The Sun in 1868 did that paper change its charNews Gathering.—The weekly and daily newspapers in the acter and become one with a class appeal under his editorship. United States showed nothing of that enterprise so characteristic Bennett and Greeley.—Possibly the man who most influenced of American journalism until Henry Ingram Blake, employed on American journalism at this period was James Gordon Bennett,

The Palladium of Boston, stopped waiting for news to come to who with $500, two wooden chairs and an old dry-goods box began

the office and went out in person after such items. At first he went to the coffee houses for such accounts of foreign events as sea captains might bring there. Still later he had his own skiff and rode out to meet incoming vessels to get the news. From

this modest beginning came many innovations to facilitate quick publication. In New York the little rowboat soon gave way to the fast clipper ship owned and chartered by a newspaper. The

Journal of Commerce (Sept. 1827), founded as a semi-religious newspaper by Arthur Tappan, not only had the fastest ships but even built a semaphore at Sandy Hook to relay the news from its own boat to Staten Island from which it was taken

promptly to the publication office. In gathering the news on land The Baltimore Sun (May 1837), co-operating with other papers, established a pony express to facilitate the collection of

news. But the American who really put the news in the newspaper was Prof. Samuel F. B. Morse of New York university, the

inventor of the telegraph, who stretched a wire directly from news centres straight to the newspaper office. But other wires soon came through leases directly under the control of such organizations as the Associated Press, the United Préss, etc. (g.v.).

While better facilities for collecting news were going on, the mulepack, the dugout and the prairie schooner were

carrying

presses and types fatther and farther west to establish The Ken-

tucky Gazette (1787) at Lexington; The Mississippi Gazette (1800) at Natchez: The Indiana Gazette (1804) at Vincennes;

The Missouri Gazetié (1808) at St. Louis; The Arkansas Gazette

(1819) at Port Arkansas‘ The Texas Gazette (1820) at San

The New York Herald in a cellar on May 6, 1835. Bennett was éditor, publisher, advertising director, circulation manager and everything else down to the printer’s devil. He reported the proceedings of the police court with a freedom that shocked his sixpenny contemporaries and soon found that scandal sold papers on the streets. To him nothing was sacred, not even the church or his own personal affairs. Often assaulted on the street, he reported the affair in his own paper in detail and announced his owl engagémient in what is considered one of the most interesting specimens of newspaper literature. Though full of malicious squibs and furious diatribes, Té¢ Herald was in some other respects conducted with remarkable skill and enterprise in being the first to print the news. To his son of the same name Bennett left one of the greatest mioney-making newspapers in the history of American journalism. The son continuéd many of the father’s policies, but on a larger scale. Expense was not considered when he sent Stanley

to Africa to find Livingstone and fitted out an Arctic expedition that had a most unfortunate outcome. In case of distress in any particular country he was among the first through his Herald to start a subscription campaign. He began that for the relief of the suffering in Ireland with a gift from The Herald of $100,000. Often regarded as eccentric and péculiar, he exerted a tremendous influence upon American journalism because of the emphasis which he placed upon international news without neglecting that

which was local in character. He also set the style in the mode

of treatment of news and in many ways established the yardstick by which it is measured.

After the artival of the penny press there came many changes Felipe—to mention the gazettes that were the first papers in various States. Among the last to have newspapers were Minne- in the manufacture and in the marketing of newspapers. To secure sota, The Pioneer (1849) at St. Paul; Utah, The Deseret News speed in productién Robert Hoe took the type from a flat bed

[UNITED STATES

NEWSPAPERS

356

and put it on a revolving cylinder turned by steam. News boys, Samuel Bowles was the personification of The Republican which in addition to distributing papers among regular patrons, were his father, with the help of a small hand press, had started on given additional copies to sell in the streets. The printing of | Sept 8, 1824, and which 20 years later, became a daily. Ip

larger and larger editions brought many improvements in the |Philadelphia, The Record, started as a one cent daily (June 1877), manufacture of both presses and paper. The introduction of |was the outgrowth of The Public Record, founded seven year: compulsory education contributed to an interest in the news.

earlier: the latter paper was a losing venture until W illiam M.

Though starting as a penny paper in April 1841, as a Whig | Singerly purchased its Associated Press franchise for his new organ, The New York Tribune began its second volume in April paper. The Evvening Bulletin, founded in 1847 by Alexander Cum1842, at two cents a copy. Horace Greeley, one of the most | mings, had a vicarious existence until it became the property oj picturesque figures in American journalism, was its editor and |William L. McLean. The first number of The News appeared in one of its proprietors down to shortly before his death after his | Indianapolis, Ind., on Dec. 7, 1869. The Evening Star, which first defeat in 1872 for the presidency. Upon the completion of its |shone in W ashington, Dec. 16, 1852, has had a growth contempo20th year (1861) it announced its circulation as 287,000. But |raneous with that of the city in which it is published. Its contemthis figure included both the daily and the weekly: the former |porary, The Post, was established in the U.S. capital, Dec. 187was later given as slightly in excess of 55,000. In the same year | by Stilson Hutchins. The San Francisco Chronicle was Bera The Herald had a daily distribution of over 75,000 copies— |June 1865, by Charles de Young, as a playbill distributed free possibly the largest at that time in the world and about 25,000 | in theatres and in other places.

On March 4, 1887, U.S. Senator

in excess of The Times of London. The circulation of The Sun | George Hearst turned The San Francisco Examiner, which he was about midway between that of The Herald and that of The | had taken as a part of a bad debt, over to his son William RanTribune, while The Evening Post, which from the start had ad- | dolph Hearst, who used it as a starter for a famous chain of dressed itself to a more cultured audience, had only 18,000. Gree- |papers stretching across the country from San Francisco to New ley made his paper not only an organ of Whig politics, but also| York. In Detroit, in Aug. 1873, James E. Scripps started his a purveyor of novel and new ideas in both social and political | Evemng News which became a rival of The Free Press (1831). economy. Among the editorial contributors in the latter field was | Milwaukee saw The Sentinel established in June 1837, and The

Albert Brisbane, father of Arthur Brisbane of the present day. | Evening Wisconsin in June 1847. Louisville, Ky., witnessed (Nov In the Franco-Prussian war, The Tribune achieved considerable |1830) the first appearance of The Journal under the editorship of fame through the publication of dispatches sent by cable at enor- | George D. Prentice and had laid at its doorstep in Nov. 1868

mous expense.

In a way The Tribune was a sort of school of | a united sheet—The

Courier-Journal, controlled by Col. Henry

journalism in which the following distinguished journalists and | Watterson. In Chicago passing mention may be made that The publicists received their first training: Henry Jarvis Raymond, | Daily News, which made its first appearance in Dec. 1875, was Charles Anderson Dana, George William Curtis, Carl Schurz, | started by Melville E. Stone, who later achieved distinction as John Hay, Whitelaw Reid, Henry James, William Dean Howells, | general manager of the Associated Press; that The Herald first

Bayard Taylor, George Ripley, Margaret Fuller, Edmund Clar- | appeared March 1881; that The Tribune, the first edition of which ence Stedman, Richard Grant White, Richard Hildreth, John | (June 1847) was 400 copies printed on a hand press, passed. in Russell Young and Sidney Howard Gay—all of whom later held | 1855, into the control of Joseph Medill, whose editorials rivalled important positions in New York journalism. those of Horace Greeley. William Rockhill Nelson, a most picThe Times and The World.—The final success of The Tribune | turesque figure among the makers of American newspapers, first led Henry Jarvis Raymond to establish The New York Times | let his Star shine in Kansas City, Mo., Sept. 1880, and Harrison on Sept. 18, 1851, but under different conditions than existed | Gray Otis, that dynamic editor, became owner, on Aug. 1, 1882. when Bennett started The Herald. For a mechanical equipment | of The Los Angeles Times, a paper then only a year old. To Raymond had to pay at least $50,000 and to his assistants he | supplement what has been written about the press in Boston, it had to give much larger salaries than he received when he worked | may be added that The Post was started as a Democratic daily for Greeley. Over $100,000 was spent before the paper showed | on Nov. 9, 1831, but only became a power in Boston journalism a profit. It was after Raymond’s death, however, that The Times | when it was purchased by E. A. Grozier, a protégé of Joseph came into great prominence through its bold exposure of the rob- | Pulitzer; that Te Herald came into existence on the afternoon

beries and frauds committed by the Tweed ring in the municipal | of Aug. 31, 1846, with an edition of 2,000; that The Globe was government of New York. started March 1872, to grace the breakfast table just as The In the three decades that followed the establishment of the | Transcript adorned the tea table, and that its builder was Charles penny press of New York some 30 daily newspapers were estab- | H. Taylor, who joined its staff in August of that year. lished but their names must remain blank except for one, which A catalogue of papers and their editors during the period when has had a most remarkable history, The New York World. | personalities were closely linked with papers would resemble the Started as a religious daily newspaper on June 1, 1860, it was | catalogue of ships in Homer’s Jizad and would make about as published at a heavy loss until a year later, when it merged with | interesting reading. But mention must in justice be made of the Courzer-Enquirer, practically defunct, though at one time, | Murat Halstead, of The Commercial Gazette, John R. McLean, under the ownership ef James Watson Webb, a powerful political | of The Inquirer and Charles P. Taft, of The Times-Star in Cinorgan. As a worldly World it passed through various ownerships | cinnati, Ohio; Edwin Cowles, of The Leader, William W. Armuntil its purchase (May 1883) by Joseph Pulitzer, the penniless | strong and L. E. Holden, of The Plain Dealer, in Cleveland, Ohio; son of a Jewish father and a Catholic mother, who coming to | General J. M. Comley, of The Commercial Telegram, in Toledo, America from Hungary in 1864, was already the owner of The | Ohio; W. D. Bickham, of The Journal, in Dayton, Ohio; J. S. St. Louis Post Dispatch. Under his control he transformed The | Clarkson, of The Register, and John Watts, of The Leader, in World to one of the most fearless, dynamic campaign sheets in | Des Moines, Iowa; John Arkins, of The Rocky Mountain News, the United States. The Civil War brought about an increase in | in Denver, Colorado; A. H. Belo, of The News, in Galveston, subscription price. In the North the customary price for a sheet | Texas; John H. Holliday, of The News, John C. New, of The of eight or more pages was four cents and farther west five cents. | Journal, and W. J. Craig, of The Sentinel, in Indianapolis, IndiIn the South newspapers sold much higher, were reduced in size | ana; J. M. Keating, of The Appeal, in Mempbis, Tennessee; W. E. and even in rare instances appeared printed on wallpaper. The | Haskel, of The Tribune, and J. S. McLain, of The Journal, in daily demand for news brought forth the Sunday newspaper as | Minneapolis, Minnesota; A. S. Colyar, of The American, in Nash-

that term is now understood.

Personalities

in American

Journalism.—Until

several

ville, Tennessee; H. L. Pittock, of The Oregonian, in Portland,

Oregon; O. H. 'Rothaker, of The Republican, in Omaha, Ne-

decades after the Civil War, newspapers not only in New York | braska; William Hyde, of The Republic, and Joseph B. McCullagh, but in other large cities were closely associated with the names of | of The Globe-Democrat, in St. Louis, Missouri: J. A. Wheelock, those responsible for their management. In Springfield, Mass., | of The Pioneer-Press and Lewis Baker, of The Globe, in St. Paul,

[NITED STATES]

NEWSPAPERS

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|

\finnesota. Sins of omission, if any, may be pardoned, for jour- receive the children of the poor for periods ranging from one nalism in the United States, unlike that of England which re- | to two weeks. In Pittsburgh, Pa., The Press raised $40,000 with which to build a home for newsboys. In Chicago, The Tribune volves around London, has many centres in America. To pass from personalities to statistics, it should be said that started two reforms that developed into national movements: figures relating to journalism in the United States until after the one, a campaign for a “Sane Fourth of July”; and the other, a

census of 1880 are open to question; but the reports of the census

for 1850, 1860, 1870 and 1880 still remain, however, the most

authoritative information as to the increase in the number of

newspapers. According to their tables there were in the United States 254 dailies in 1850, 387 in 1860, 574 in 1870, 971 in 1880; 31 semi-weeklies in 1850, 79 in 1860, 115 in 1870, 133 in 1880;

“Good Fellow Club” which aimed to give the children of the poor more than a bowing acquaintance with Santa Claus at Christmas time. The News of Indianapolis, Indiana, went out into

the country and erected a Fresh Air village for the benefit of sick women and children. In San Francisco, The Examiner built the

Little Jim Hospital for Incurables and the Free Eye and Ear

1,902 weeklies in 1850, 3,173 in 1860, 4,295 in 1870, 8,633 in infirmary for the treatment of unfortunate poor children. The

1380. Of all these classes, there were in 1850, 2,526; in 1860, 4,051; in 1870, 5,871; in 1880, 11,314. Yellow Journalism.—Around 1880 the more important daily

newspapers underwent great economic change as the result of

small stores consolidating into huge department stores which took liberal space in the papers to advertise their so-called bargains. As store and other display advertising increased in amount, newspapers were continually forced to increase their size. This

increase was possible without raising subscription rates because of the substitution of wood pulp paper for rag and a constant

lowering in the price of the pulp stock. The newspaper became, consequently, a complicated economic product with two things for sale: to the reader it sold news, editorials and other interest-

ing reading matter; to the advertiser it offered white space at so much per inch. Complications came from the fact that these two joint products had to be marketed in the same container— the white paper on which the news was printed and on which the

One Hundred Neediest Cases of The New York Times was designed to relieve just that number but each year has seen a sub-

stantial increase in the number of persons helped. The New York World, to use another example, started a movement

to supply

radio without cost to “shut-ins.” Smaller papers throughout the United States have followed the examples set by metropolitan dailies in this matter of service and aid to the community. Practically simultaneous with the arrival of Hearst in New York was that of Adolph S. Ochs who assumed control of The New York Times, Aug. 1896. In spite of a proud past, The Times for various reasons had lost in circulation until it reached below 10,000 and its mechanical equipment had so deteriorated that it was only worth what it would bring for junk. Reorganized on a sound financial basis by Mr. Ochs, The Times quietly and unostentatiously began its campaign of appeal to thoughtful readers under a slogan, “All the News That’s Fit to Print.” Slowly but surely The Times gained momentum until its growth constituted an outstanding chapter in the annals of American journalism. Its remarkable achievements in reporting so fully the news of the World War were simply the culmination of a far-seeing campaign that had progressed steadily under the management of Mr. Ochs who, disclaiming all glory for personal achievement, says that his paper is simply a vindication of his judgment of newspaper readers in New York.

advertising was displayed. More and more the advertiser paid the heavier burden in the cost of production. Because advertising rates were based on the number of papers distributed, there resulted a wild race for circulation. The rural weeklies remained about the same but the city dailies underwent a social change. In small communities where the editor knows personally many of his subscribers, the paper is forced to omit news that is unkindly or Consolidations.—But since 1900 the trend in journalism in reflects upon the character of prominent citizens and to leave such news to circulate by word of mouth. In the larger cities where the United States has been towards consolidations and extensions the next door neighbour is practically a stranger, exciting and of chain newspapers. Those under publishers like Ochs of The emotional news does not circulate by gossip and the paper that Times, Nelson of The Kansas City Star, Lawson of The Chicago prints it sells well on the streets. Recognition of this fact caused Daily News, etc., were simply the exceptions to the general tena wave of sensational—sometimes called yellow—yjournalism to dency. Space does not permit mention of the amalgamations of sweep over the United States. Bennett had earlier discovered this smaller papers but some of the more important changes in metrofact but it remained for Joseph Pulitzer and William Randolph politan fields may be noted. Frank A. Munsey was sometimes Hearst to run a race to see which could carry sensational journal- called a dealer in dailies. In 1891 he purchased The New York ism to its extreme. Hearst, who already owned The San Francisco Star, a daily established on Sept. 22, 1825, and on Feb. 1, 1891, Examiner, coming to New York in 1896, purchased The New changing the name of his paper he gave New York its first tabloid, York Journal which had been started by Albert, a brother of The Daily Continent, which though it attracted favourable atJoseph Pulitzer. According to the gossip of Park Row, the Fleet tention was not successful financially and so was discontinued on street of New York, Hearst “broke into New York with all the June 30. Before his death in 1925 he merged The Press with discreet secrecy of a wooden legged burglar having a fit on a The Sun in 1916. Later, in 1920, he purchased The New York tin roof.” He brought with him the circulation schemes which Herald and The Evening Telegram. Discontinuing The Morning he had found successful for his Examiner in San Francisco, and Sun, he transferred that title to The Evening Sun with which, in adopted many new ones. furnished to him by newspaper men 1923, he merged The Globe, then the oldest newspaper in New whom he won over from Pulitzer through larger salaries. He later York city as it had been established Dec. 9, 1793, as The Minerva, called the morning edition of The Journal, The American, a under the editorship of Noah Webster, the lexicographer. At favourite name with him for other papers of his chain, and in about the same time Munsey purchased The Evening Mail with charge of The Evening Journal he placed Arthur Brisbane who by which he consolidated The Evening Telegram. He then sold still more sensational methods rapidly advanced the circulation (1924) The Herald to The New York Tribune, now published of the latter paper. The result of the Hearst influence was a under a joint title. In Boston The Herald (morning) took over change in character of news content for many papers and a more (1912) The Traveler (evening) and continued it as its evening spectacular display of headlines that stretched across the page. edition. Later (1917) The Herald absorbed The Journal (mornWelfare Activities.—In striking contrast with the sensational ing). In Kansas City W. S. Dickey bought (1921) The Journal activities of certain newspapers was the adoption of extramural (morning) and (1922) The Post (evening). He continued The activities by the press in the interests of the public welfare. Journal as a morning paper and Tke Post as an afternoon, with Among the earliest of these was the movement of The New York joint publication on Sunday, with a flat subscription price for Herald, begun on May 29, 1892, to furnish free ice for the relief both papers. In this he followed the example of The Star which of mothers and babies in the tenement house districts of New since 1901 has been printing Tke Times as its morning issue, with York. Somewhat similar was the Fresh Air Fund, started by both papers going to the same subscribers. In Philadelphia Cyrus H. K. Curtis became on Jan. 1, 1973, The New York Evening Post but later taken over by The New York Tribune, to provide outings for city children in homes and the publisher of The Public Ledger which he purchased from camps supported by the fund and in private homes offering to Adolph S. Ochs. On Sept. 14, 1914, he started The Evening Pub-

358

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[UNITED STATES

lic Ledger with which he united (1918) The Evening Telegraph. | The Outlook (1870) in 1928. This weekly is devoted to cor. In 1920 he purchased The Press to unite with The Public Ledger | ments on the trend of events, the theatre and books. The Nation and in 1925 he did the same with The Philadelphia North Amer- | (1865) and The New Republic (1914) give pungent articles op ican. In Chicago The Record-Herald purchased (1913) The Inter- | current events in America and other countries, and review ou. Ocean and appeared as The Herald which later was purchased by | standing books. The Literary Digest (1890) wider in scope than W. R. Hearst and united with his Chicago Examiner. In Cleve- | its name would suggest, presents both sides of controversia; land The Plain Dealer absorbed The Leader and in St. Louis The | topics of the day, quoting from leading newspapers, and, carrie: Globe-Democrat purchased The Republic, one of the oldest daily special departments on letters, art, religion, science and finances Time (1923) presents the outstanding news of the week in abbre. papers in Missouri. Important Chain Groups.—Of the group-owned newspapers viated form. The Saiurday Review of Literature (1924) is the in the United States in 1928 the Hearst chain is the most im- leading weekly devoted solely to that subject. Judge (1881) and portant, both in number and in influence. His group includes Life (1883) are national humorous weeklies. The New Yorker New York American, New York Journal, Boston Advertiser, (1925) primarily local, is a sophisticated weekly devoted largely Boston American, Chicago Herald & Examiner, Chicago Amer- to satirical articles and reviews of plays and books. The Satur. ican, San Francisco Examiner, San Francisco Call, Los Angeles day Evening Post (1821) and Collier’s (1888), though featuring Examiner, Los Angeles Herald, Seattle Post-Intelligencer, Atlanta articles on current events, may more properly be included with Georgian-American, Oakland Post-Enguirer, Washington Herald, magazines. In addition there are religious, professional and trade Washington Times, Baltimore American, Baltimore News, M il- weeklies. The Pictorial Press.—The outstanding development in pic. waukee Sentinel, Albany Times-Union, San Antonio Light, Detroit Times, Rochester Journal, Syracuse Journal, Milwaukee torial journalism took place in r914 when The New Vork Time; News and Pitisburgh Sun-Telegraph. Next in importance is the added a rotogravure section to its Sunday edition. By 1918 chain known as the Scripps-Howard string which consists of New nearly fifty papers were including rotogravure sections and by York Telegram, Cleveland Press, Pittsburgh Press, Cincinnati 1925 the number had passed seventy. In rọrọ the first daily Post, Columbus Citizen, Baltimore Post, San Francisco News, “tabloid” picture paper in the United States appeared. It was Washington News, Indianapolis Times, Oklahoma City News, called The Illustrated Daily News and patterned on the London Toledo News-Bee, Knoxville News-Sentinel, Terre Haute Post, Daily Mirror. The Daily Mirror was established, and a few San Diego Sun, Covington Kentucky Post, Akron Times-Press, months later The Evening Graphic made its appearance. Other Birmingham Post, Memphis Press-Scimiter, Houston Press, tabloids have followed. Circulation Statistics.—Statistics make dull reading but Youngstown Telegram, Fort Worth Press, Denver Rocky Mountain News, Denver Evening News, Evansville Press, El Paso Post, some are necessary for the sake of completeness. At the close Albuquerque New Mexico State Tribune. The Scripps-Howard of 1927, the latest year for which figures are available, there plan of organization, while providing for central control through were in the United States about 200 daily newspapers which might stock ownership, does permit executives on individual papers to be called of the first rank, 2,000 daily newspapers all told and have substantial stock in the enterprise. The Frank E. Gannett 20,000 rural or community weeklies. Morning dailies at the end group, which originally consisted of dailies in New York State of that year totalled 411, evening 1,538, Sunday papers 526. The outside the metropolitan area, has branched out to include, for total morning paper circulation averaged 14,145,823 a day, while

example, The Times of Hartford, Conn.

The James M. Cox

the total evening paper circulation averaged 23,820,933 copies

group of papers in Ohio has been increased by The News of daily. The average Sunday circulation was 28,469,037. The Miami, Florida. The Paul Block group, more highly scattered, amount of white paper consumed that year approximated 3,750,added The Brooklyn Standard-Union in 1928. The tendency al- ooo tons. For a metropolitan newspaper of the first rank the ready noticed has been an increase not only in the number of figures of The New York Times may be used. That paper for strings but also a lengthening of the string. Adolph S. Ochs, since 1927 had a gross income of $27,424,829.55; it paid out weekly to his sale of The Philadelphia Public Ledger to Cyrus H. K. Curtis, employees $154,246.98; it consumed during the year 99,633-4 tons has been content with the ownership of his Timés in New York of paper; and used 4,491,593 lb. of ink. Its employees were disand his Times in Chattanooga. Curtis, on the other hand, entered tributed as follows: the editorial and news departments 525, business office 850, mechanical 1,869, executive 75—total 3,319. It the New York field with the purchase of The Evening Post. Mutualization Movements——Another recerit current in paid out for welfare activities, such as pensions, sick benefits, etc., American journalism should not be overlooked—-the passing of $352,000. Pagės printed during the year totalled 13,526,481,200 BrrocrArgy.—Histories of individual newspapers include: E. the control of important newspapers into the hahds of those who edit and make them. In Chicago after the death of Victor A. Davis, History of the New York Times, 1851—-rọ2r (1921r); J. L. The Story of a Page (N.Y. World) (1913); F. M. OBrien, Lawson, The Daily News passed into the control of Walter A. Heaton, The Story of the New York Sun 1833-rgr8 (1918); A. Nevins, The Strong and other executives of that paper through the assistance Evening Post (New York, 1922); J. M. Lee, The New York Globe; of a number of prominent citizens.

In the same way The Star

in Kansas City went to a group who had been associated with Nelson. In New York city William T. Dewart carried out the wishes of Frank A. Munsey and developed a mutualization plan by which employees shared in the profits. In Dallas, Texas, The Morning News and The Evening Journal passed into the control of

and R. Hooker, The Story of an Independent Newspaper (Springfield Republican, 1924). Among the books on newspaper editing and making are: G. C. Bastian, Edzting the Day’s News; W. G. Bleyer, News-

paper Writing and Editing (1923); J. Rogers, Newspaper Building (1918); N. J. Radder, Newspaper Makeup and Headlines (1924); M. L. Spencer, News Writing (1917); O. G. Villard, Some Newspapers and Newspaper Men, offers a critical survey of some of the leading

George B. Dealey and other employees.

American hewspapers; L. N. Flint, The Conscience of the Newspaper (1925), and N. A. Crawford, Ethics of Journalism, make notable con-

papers published in The United States is The Christian Science

tributions to the field of ethics. Tke New York Times publishes in book form a quarterly index for that newspaper in particular and

Conservative Tendencies.—Among the conservative news-

Monitor (November, 1908) published in Boston by The Christian Science Publishing Society. This is an international daily newspaper publishing important and constructive hews from all

ovet the world, but omitting anything of a sensational or questionable character. It has established its own standard of news. Weekly Reviews.—Though the Sunday newspapers and Sat-

othets in general. C. L. Canon, Journalism—A List of References in English, lists both books and magazine articles relating to journalism. J. M. Lee, Instruction in Journalism in Institutions of Higher Educution (U.S. Dept. of Education, 1978), traces the development of such

instruction since the first school of journalism was established at the University of Missotiri in 1909.

V. LATIN AMERICA

To South America, rather than to its sister continent, belongs reviews of literature, art, music, drama, politics and current the honour of printing and circulating the first printed news events, they have never superseded the weekly journals special- sheets of the Western Hemisphere. izing in these fields. The oldest weekly journal which is still in Eatly Néws Shéets.—The first printed sheet of news to appear existence is The Independént, founded in 1848 and merged with in South America was issued in 1594 at Lima, Peru, and deurday editions of evening papers devote many pages to weekly

(LATIN AMERICA

NEWSPAPERS

-cribed the capture, off the Peruvian coast, of Richard Hawkins, he free-booter, and of his ship, “The Dainty.” Like the earlier

cheets of continental Europe, this Relación had a long descriptive itle. But it was not until 1620 that one meets printed sheets dealing with more than one item of news. After that year their occasional appearance gives the title, Father of South American

359

circulation, while the most popular in that city is the evening paper A Noite established in rọrọ and credited at the close of 1927 with a circulation of 85,000. Possibly the most influential paper is O Estado (1876) of São Paulo. Fanfulla (1892), an Italian daily of the same city, wields considerable power through the State of São Paulo. Other influential morning papers are

Journalism, to their printer, Jerónimo de Contreras, who had

O Pais (1884), A Patria (1920) and Correio de Manha (1902),

come to Lima from Seville, Spain. In 1641 José de Contreras succeeded his father as head of the printing house which re-

all of which are published in Río de Janeiro. Newspapers in Brazil are often the personal organs of owners to whom they are useful for political purposes. At the fall of the empire Brazilian journals numbered about 600. In rgr1o the total exceeded 1,000; since then the increase has been about 100 to a decade. Argentina and Chile—The two leading newspapers, not only in Argentina, but also in South America, are La Prensa, founded on Oct. 18, 1869, by Dr. José C. Paz, and La Nación, founded on Jan. 4, 1870 by Gen. Bartolomé Mitre, of Buenos Aires. For 59 years (1929) both papers have remained in the families of their founders. Each compares favourably with any other newspaper in any country. Both specialize in printing foreign news; possibly La Nación pays more for cable tolls than any other newspaper in the world. Classified advertisements are usually a safe index as to character of newspapers because they represent local opinion. Judged by such a yardstick, Le Nación resembles the New York Times and La Prensa the New York World. The editorial page of La Nacidn is always dignified in subject-matter and serious in mode of treatment. Its Sunday supplement contains contributions from the best writers, not only of Argentina but also of Spain. Much material later appears in book form. To campaign for civic righteousness seems to be the editorial policy of La Prensa. Its evening competitor, La Razón (r905), once spoke of it as being a safe and serene guide in the difficult task of creating a public conscience. La Prensa widens its influence through syndicating to some 175 provincial papers a weekly feature supplement for Saturday or Sunday editions. La Prensa operates a free clinic, offers free legal advice to the poor, pays for a free industrial and agricultural bureau, opens its library to the public and awards 1,000 pesos annually to the person teaching the largest number of illiterates to read. The oldest evening paper in Buenos Aires is Ei Diario (1881). The oldest of all is the English paper, The Standard (1861), which competes with The Herald (1876). Crossing the Andes, one finds the newspapers of Chile next in influence. First comes El Mercurio (1827) of Valparaiso, with separate publication in Santiago and Antofagasta. Its chief com‘petitor is La Unidn (1885), which also publishes a paper of the same name in Santiago. In the last-mentioned city are the rather influential La Nación (1916), and El Diario Ilustrado. In Peru the three leading papers are La Crdnica (1912), La Prensa (1903) and El Comercio (1839), of Lima. The more mfluential newspapers in Mexico are practically limited to the capital city and frequently contain features obtained from American syndicates. They include El Excelsior

mained in the family until about the beginning of the second quarter of the 18th century. The most successful of this family of printers was the grandson, José, who obtained the appointment of royal printer to the Spanish Crown in the colonies, and who

gave special attention to the editing of news sheets which appeared with approximate regularity of about one a month. After 1640, Diario was commonly used as a title of news sheets,

although La Relación and Noticia appeared. For the most part, these news sheets from the Contreras’s press consisted of four pages in small type. Diario was especially appropriate as the news was frequently printed in the form of a diary—day by day. After the press of de Contreras had suspended, there was a cessation of news sheets of regular publication. In 1744 there appeared, however, a newspaper with a definite title with consecutive numbers for successive issues. The first issue of this new

paper bore the title Gaceta de Lima, desde primero de diciembre de 1743 hasta 18 de enero de 1744. This first number is particularly interesting because it prints the traditional origin of the word “gazette” and mentions the names of contemporaneous news sheets in Europe.

Colombia and Venezuela. The first printing office in Colombia, then Nueva Granada, was established at Bogota in 1737. At first it printed tracts on religious matters, but in 1785, when an earthquake occurred, it issued what is now considered the first attempt in that country to give the public a news sheet. This ill-printed and rudimentary gazette did not last, for its only aim was ta spread abroad the news of the earthquake. In 1791 Don Manuel del Socorro Rodriguez, a Cuban, founded a newspaper, in which he printed mainly his poetical and literary works, its other contents being advertisements for runaway slaves, bits of European news, and essays on morals and religion. This newspaper, named Papel periddico de la ciudad de Santa Fé de Bogotd appeared irregularly, but lasted for some years. Another country where a gazette was the first newspaper was Venezuela. The hongur of introducing printing into that country is ascribed to Madeo Gallagher and Jaime Lamb in 1808. Gaceta

de Caracas had its frst issue on Oct. 24, 1808. It appeared when

Venezuela was in that period of its history known as the colonial age. The first newspaper of what is known historically as the period of independence was El Correo del Orinoco. Its first date of publication was June 27, 1818, in Angostura. These two papers marked the beginning of the newspaper press in Venezuela.

The same year that saw the beginning of journalism in Vene-

zuela marks also the beginning of journalism in Brazil. Obviously, the first printed newspaper in the latter country was in Portuguese but, like that of Venezuela, it was called a gazette. The first newspapers, in the technical sense of that term, for the countries of Latin America may be listed as follows: Mexico, Gaceta de México (1679); Guatemala, Gaceta de Guatemala

(1919), Zl Universal (1916) and El Universal Grdfico (1922).

Outside the capital city, mention may be made of EI Informador

(1917) of Guadalajara, La Tribuna (1926) of Guaymas, El Correo de la Tarde (1885) of Mazatlán and Diaro de Yucatán (1918) of Mérida. See J. M. Lee, Historia de la prensa periodistica de la América del

(1729); Peru, Gaceta de Lima (1744); Cuba, La Gocete de la Sur; A. Celso, Historia da imprensa do Brazil; R, Rojas, La literaturą (J. M. Le.) Habana (1764); Colombia, La Gaceta de Santa Fé (1785); argentina. VI. OTHER COUNTRIES Ecuador, La Gaceta (1785); Argentina, El Telégrafo Mercantil China.—-By no means the least result of the Chinese revolution (1801); Haiti, La Gaceta del Cabo (1804); Uruguay, Le Estrella

del Sur (1807); Brazil, Gazeta do Rio de Janeiro (1808); Vene-

of r911 was the amazing expansion of the vernacular press. Ac-

zuela, Lg Gaceta de Caracas (1808); Chile, La Aurora de Chile tually the movement had begun some years earlier, but after (1812); Panama, Misceldnea del Istmo (1822); Bolivia, El Con-

= n Bolivia (1825); Paraguay, El Paraguay Independiente 1845). i

the revolution it developed into a portent. Native newspapers sprang up in all parts of the empire in a night, as it were, and it

is not surprising that the Chinese press exhibits most of the undesirable attributes of a mushroom growth. The general quality newspaper in South America belongs to O. Diario de Pernambuco is poor. Most of the papers are run for political or personal ends, Which was established in 1825, The next newspaper in point of the news supplied by them is untrustworthy and their standard age, founded two years later, is Jornal do Commercio of Rio de of journalistic ethics is low. This is the more to be regretted as Janeiro. The latter is an extremely conservative paper of limited their multitude testifies to the interest which awakened China Brazilian Journals.—The honour of being in 1928 the oldest

360

NEWT—NEWTON

takes in affairs and their influence on public opinion is beyond doubt enormous; but little improvement is to be expected until political conditions become more settled. As things are it is only fair to say that, with all its irresponsibility and corruption. the Chinese press is on the whole liberal and patriotic in intention if not always in fact. It may be noted that Chinese periodical publications are on a much higher level than the newspaper press. Between 20 and 30 European and American newspapers are published in China, more than half of them at Shanghai. The majority are British, including the North China Daily News of Shanghai which, founded in 1864, is the oldest foreign daily in China. Other British morning newspapers are: The Shanghai Times, The Central China Post (Hankow), The Peking and Tientsin Times, The Hongkong Daily Press and The South China Morning Post (Hongkong). The principal British evening papers are The Shanghai Mercury, The North China Daily Mail (Tientsin), The Hongkong Telegraph and The China Mail (Hongkong). There are three American morning dailies, The China Press (Shanghai); The Peking Leader and The North China Star (Tientsin)—and three French, L’Echo de Chine (Shanghai), Le Journal de Pékin and L’Echo de Tientsin. There are also a number of Chinese and Japanese-owned journals published in English. Japan.—There has been a very remarkable development in the press of Japan during recent years, owing to the spread of popular education. Public opinion in Japan today is practically shaped by the press and while some old restrictions remain the tendency is towards complete freedom of discussion. There are about a dozen newspapers in Japan whose capital is about a million yen. The two centres of newspaper activity are Tokyo and Osaka. The Osaka Mainichi and the Osaka Asahi, the biggest newspapers in Japan, have a daily circulation of a million copies. The Tokyo Nichinichi and the Tokyo Asaki are subsidiaries of these newspapers. The Tokyo Hochi, the Jiji, the Ckugai and the Kokumin are all important national newspapers and almost all are politically independent. There are a very large number of newspapers of the second class which penetrate into the country districts, and there are a number of first-class local newspapers. The Japanese press is influenced by American journalism and some of the popular newspapers display news in quite modern style. Every up-to-date method is employed. In the news columns there is a close network of correspondents and private long distance telephone lines, television, air transport, and pigeons are in use. A great deal of capital is required to start new newspapers. Greater attention is being given to sport and a large space is given to foreign news. The Kokwmin is famous for its president, Mr. I. Tokutomi, who is one of the pioneers of the newspaper business, and is a great critic and author. Its tone is conservative. One of the present problems is the keen competition between the papers in the big cities and the local newspapers, the same tendency which is observable in England. Newspapers for the English speaking residents in Japan are the Japan Chronicle (British), the Japan Advertiser (American),

and the Japan Times (Japanese). The

organisations

for newspapers

in Japan are the Nohom

Shimbun Kyokwai (The Japanese Press Association), and the Kokusai Kisha Kyokwai (International Pressmen’s Association), both established in 1973. During recent years there has been a surprising increase in magazines in Japan of an educational character. Seventy per cent of these are published by Seiji Noma, who is called the “Magazine King” of Japan. It is claimed that the magazines are read by ten million people. His list includes magazines for young men, for girls of the high-school grade, magazines for women, and others of an educational and entertaining character.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.—C oniinental Press: Handbuch Deutscher Zeitungen; Political Handbook of the World (1928); Political Almanack s Lewis S. Benjamin, Guide to the Foreign Press (1924); Annuaire de la Presse française et étrangère et du Monde Politique; Newspaper Press Directory (Mitchell’s) ; Press Directories of different countries. (R. Don.)

NEWT,

the name

applied to the aquatic members

of the

| family Salamandridae

which constitute the genus

Molge

(Tn.

ton). The newts are closely related to the true salamanders Salamandra, from which they differ in the shape of the tail, which is compressed, in relation to their more aquatic habits. They swim with their tails, holding the legs pressed into their sides.

A marked sexual dimorphism prevails in most species, the males

being more brilliantly coloured and provided with a dorsal cres

during the breeding season, lasting through the spring and the

early summer.

Later in the season the males lose their nuptial

ornaments, and the two sexes are more alike; they then retire on

land, concealing themselves under stones, logs of wood, or inholes in damp earth, but leaving their retreat at night or in wet weather to search for earth-worms and slugs. In the water they eat tad.

poles, insect larvae and crustaceans.

with facility, including whole limbs. a number of times.

Newts regenerate lost parts

One limb can be regenerated

The larvae are provided with three pairs of long, plum-like external gills. The fore limbs are developed before the hind limbs. In a few lakes and ponds, metamorphosis (g.v.) does not occur and the newt becomes sexually mature as an enlarged larva, The genus Molge extends over Europe, north-west Africa, south-western Asia, eastern temperate Asia (China and Japan) and most of North America. Over 20 species are distinguished.

The British species are the crested newt (M. cristata), the common newt (M. vulgaris) and the palmated newt (M. palmata).

The first is the largest, and measures 4 to 6in. The skin is more or less rugose, with granular warts, a strong fold extends across the throat, and the male is provided with a high dentate dorsal

crest which is interrupted over the sacral region; the upper parts are dark, with black spots; the sides are speckled with white. BreriocrapHy.—P. H. Pope, “Life History of the Common Water Newt,” Ann. of Carnegie Mus. (1924); H. Gadow, “Amphibia,” Cambridge Natural History.

NEW

TESTAMENT:

NEW

THOUGHT,

see Bme.

the general name for idealistic tenden-

cies of thinking which arose in the United States, and especially

in New England, about the middle of the 19th Century. These tendencies were akin to the transcendentalism of the Concord school of Emerson, Thoreau, Margaret Fuller and Alcott, and have affinities with Plato, Neoplatonism, and the Vedanta philosophy of India. Beginning with the omnipresence and immanence of the Divine, the followers of this school taught a progressive conquest of human ills by re-establishing harmony be-

tween the Divine and the human spirit. See R. W. Trine, In Tune

with the Infinite.

NEWTON,

ALFRED

(1829-1907), English zoologist, was

born at Geneva on June 11, 1829. In 1854 he was elected travelling fellow of Magdalene college, Cambridge, and subsequently visited many parts of the world, including Lapland, Iceland, Spitsbergen, the West Indies and North America. In 1866 he became the first professor of zoology and comparative anatomy at Cambridge, a position which he retained till his death on June 7, 1907. His services to ornithology and zoogeography were recognized by the Royal Society in 1900, when it awarded him a Royal medal. He wrote many books, including Zoology of Ancient Europe (1862), Ootheca Wolleyana (begun in 1864), Zoology (1872), and a Dictionary of Birds (1893-96), an amplification of the numerous articles on birds which he contributed to the 9th edition of the Encyclopedia Britannica.

NEWTON,

SIR

CHARLES

THOMAS

(1816-18094),

British archaeologist, was born on Sept. 16, 1816, at Bredwardine in Herefordshire, and educated at Shrewsbury Schools and Christ Church, Oxford. He entered the British Museum in 1840 as an assistant in the Antiquities Department. In 1852 Newton left the Museum to become vice-consul at Mitylene, with the object of exploring the coasts and islands of Asia Minor. Aided by funds supplied by Lord Stratford de Redcliffe, then British ambassador

at Constantinople, he made in 1852 and 1855 important discovertes of inscriptions at the island of Calymnos, off the coast of Caria; and in 1856-1857 achieved the great archaeological exploit of his life by the discovery of the remains of the mausoleum of Halicarnassus, one of the “seven wonders” of the ancient world.

He was greatly assisted by Murdoch Smith, afterwards celebrated

NEWTON

361

a connection with Persian telegraphs. The results were described

solemnly thanked the author “for his ingenious discourse” and he was to be informed “that the society think very much of it.” Robert Hooke along with Ward, Bishop of Salisbury and Robert and Discoveries in the Levant (1865). These works included par- Boyle were desired to peruse the discourse and report. Hooke in ticulars of other important discoveries, especially at Branchidae, his Micrographia (1664) had described an experiment which was where he disinterred the statues which had anciently lined the fundamentally the same as Newton’s with the prism, but he had sacred Way, and at Cnidos, where R. P. Pullan, acting under his made no use of it; the theory of colours he attempted to deduce was valueless; however, while admitting the truth of Newton’s direction, found the colossal lion now in the British Museum. For 25 years, 1860-85, Newton was Keeper of Greek and observations, he declined to accept any of the conclusions drawn Roman Antiquities in the British Museum. He was Yates pro- from them. The paper, when published, at once attracted attenssor of classical archaeology at University college, London, tion, and others abroad joined in the discussion, the most impor(1880-88). His collected Essays on Art and Archaeology were tant issue of which was Newton’s assertion that the length of the ty Newton in his History o Í Discoveries at H alicarnassus (1862~ 1363), written In conjunction with R. P. Pullan, and in his Travels

published in 1886. He died at Margate on Nov. 28, 1894.

band of colours produced at a given distance from the prisms,

NEWTON, SIR ISAAC (1642-1727), English natural phil- was the same for prisms of any substance provided their angles

osopher, was born at Woolsthorpe near Grantham on Dec. 25, were such that the deviation for the mean ray of the band was the 1642. His father had died the previous October and his mother, same in all. Hannah, daughter of J. Ayscough of Market Overton, married

again in 1645 Barnabas smith, Rector of North Welham, Leicestershire. After his mother’s second marriage her son had lived with his grandmother Mrs. Ayscough at Woolsthorpe, but on his stepfather’s death his mother returned to her former home and her

boy rejoined her. For some two years he had attended the Grammar School at Grantham, then kept by Mr. Stokes. He is said to have made little

progress with his books until a successful fight with another boy

aroused a spirit of emulation and led to his becoming head of the school. At the age of fourteen on his mother’s return (1656) he was taken from school to assist her on her farm. This, however, was not a success; he occupied himself with mathematics when he

In this, as we know now, Newton was wrong; the length of the band, the spectrum, is not proportional to the average or mean deviation; it is possible to have two spectra of the same length in which the deviations are markedly different, thus if two such prisms are mounted with their vertices in opposite directions, the light emerging from the second will be achromatic, largely free from colour, but will be deviated from its original path. Newton’s experiments on colour, made in all probability in order to study a defect of the telescope, led him to the belief that the defect was incurable. By putting a divergence lens behind the converging lens of the object glass the colours could again be combined, but, so he concluded, his rays would all be made parallel to their original direction, and would no longer converge to form a real image, which could be magnified by the eyepiece; the tele-

scope could not be made to give a colourless (achromatic) image. This belief he retained throughout his life, but it was wrong. cough, Rector of Burton Coggles, was a member of Trinity Col- Dispersion and the separation of the colours, are not proportional lege, Cambridge, and in 1660 by his advice, Newton was sent back to deviation. Shortly after Newton’s death Chester Moor Hall invented an to school to prepare for Cambridge. On June 5, 1661 he was matriculated as a subsizar at Trinity College. Three years later achromatic telescope and by 1733 had made several, and in 1758 he was elected as scholar and in Jan. 1665 proceeded in due Dolland the optician took up the matter and constructed satiscourse to the degree of Bachelor of Arts. In 1667 he was elected factory achromatic lenses. But his mistake had important consequences; a real image, one, a Fellow of the College. : In the early part of 1665 he discovered what is now known as that is, through which the light actually passes, of a distant object the binomial theorem, and a little later came the elements of the can be formed by reflexion at a concave mirror, and since the laws differential calculus which he called Fluxions. In May of the of reflexion, unlike those of refraction through a transparent following year he writes “I had entrance into the inverse method medium, are independent of colour, the reflected image is the of Fluxions” (in modern terms the principles of the Integral same colour as the object, the rainbow band is there no longer; Calculus and the method for calculating the area of curves or the chromatic aberration, as it is called, is no more a disturbing volume of solids) “and in the same year (1666) I began to think factor. This then led Newton to make his reflecting telescope in of gravity extending to the orb of the Moon .. . having thereby which a concave mirror takes the place of the object glass; the compared the force requisite to keep the Moon in her orb with first telescope was made in 1668; the second was sent by him to the force of gravity at the surface of the Earth and found them to the Royal Society in December 1671 shortly before his election answer pretty nearly. All this was in the two years 1665 and 1666 as a Fellow. Discussions as to the Optics paper lasted until 1675. “I was so for in those years I was in the prime of my age.” The same period persecuted” he writes in December of that year “with discussions saw the commencement of his work on Optics and Colour. The account of Newton’s colour experiments was sent to the arising out of my theory of light that I blamed my own impruRoyal Society in 1672. He had been elected a Fellow on January dence for parting with so substantial a blessing as my quiet to 11 of that year and soon got into correspondence with Oldenburg, run after a shadow.” But they had their advantage. They led the secretary. “I shall endeavour,” he wrote, “to show my grati- him to investigate other effects of colour, to enquire how light was tude by communicating what my poor and solitary endeavours produced and to develop the emission or corpuscular theory of can effect towards the promoting of philosophical design.” His light, according to which light is due to the emission by a luminous body of a host of tiny particles travelling In empty space New Theory about Light and Colours was read on Feb. 8th. The experiments he described showed conclusively, he claimed, with a speed of 190,000 miles per second; the laws of reflexion that “Light consists of Rays differently refrangible”’; that “Colours and refraction were developed on mechanical principles, aided only are not qualifications of Light derived from refractions of natural by a supplementary hypothesis as to why, when falling on a bodies as is generally believed but original and connate properties transparent surface, some of the particles are reflected—bent back which in divers Rays are divers . . . to the same degree of re- into the medium whence they have come—others are refracted, frangibility ever belongs the same colour and to the same colour along a new path inclined to the old, into the medium towards ever belongs the same degree of refrangibility.” During the period which they are travelling. It is a consequence of this theory that covered by this work he had become Lucasian Professor of Mathe- light travels more quickly in a dense medium such as glass than matics. Barrow resigned in his favour in 1669, and Newton’s first in air. The theory was also applied to explain the colours seen course of lectures dealt with Optics; hence his renewed interest when light is reflected from a thin film, a soap film, or the thin in the subject, and the experiments with the prism bought at layer of air between a convex lens of large radius and a flat Stourbridge Fair in 1666, culminating in the Royal Society paper reflecting surface on which it rests; in this case when viewed in

ought to have been attending to his work. His uncle Wm. Ays-

of 1672, But the paper led to controversy.

The Royal Society

reflected light of a definite colour a series of dark and light rings

362

NEWTON

spot is seen. Newton determined ; each be treated as though they were points, concentrated at thei: of a bright ring and the colour of respective centres, through which the various forces were assumed depends on the colour, the bright | to act; but was this true or was it merely an approximation dye when white light is used, will be to the fact that the planetary distances were so immense that eve, different and the observer will see a series of coloured rings sur- a great sphere like the sun could in comparison be treated as q point? What will be the force with which the sun attracts an rounding the black central spot. Hooke was again a critic; in his: Micrographia (1664) he had exterior particle? Newton proceeded to work this out, on the assumption tha adopted the wave theory of light, due originally to Huyghens, according to which light is energy transmitted by wave motion each particle of the sun attracted the external particle with a through a medium pervading space, the universal ether, and had force which was proportional to the product of the masses of endeavoured to explain, but without success, rectilinear propaga- the two and inversely proportional to the square of the distance tion, reflexion and refraction as well as dispersion and the colours between them and found (we know he had no expectation of the of thin plates. Hooke’s arguments were vague and carried no con- result until it emerged from his calculations), that if the sun were viction to a mind like Newton’s; the latter sought a mechanical of uniform density, or consisted of a series of concentric shells explanation for all he observed. Newton in his explanation of the each of uniform density, then the resultant force on the external reflection and refraction of the corpuscles of a light centre made particle was the same as that which would be exerted by the whole use of the idea of a wave in an ethereal medium; he rejected mass of that concentrated at the centre. It was no approximation, the sun and the planets considered Huyghens’ theory and thought little of Hooke’s attempts at explanation, and so for a hundred years or more Newton’s theory as spherical, really behaved as point centres of force. In the opinion of Professor Adams it was the difficulty of held the field. In 1804 Thomas Young, Professor at the Royal

circling round a central black the law connecting the radius the light and since the radius rings for the various colours,

Institution, London, established the principle of interference by which he showed that under certain conditions two parcels of light from identical sources falling on a screen could produce a series of bright and dark bands. Along certain lines on the screen there is a maximum of brightness; along others intermediate between these there is darkness. From this and the brilliant work of the French genius Augustin Fresnel, a few years later, came the explanation on the wave theory of all the phenomena of light as then observed. “In the fourth place,” says Newton, writing in 1675, “I suppose light is neither aether nor its vibrating motion but something of a different kind propagated from lucid bodies. . . . Fifthly it is to be supposed that light and aether mutually act upon one another.” Did he here build more truly than he knew? Who can say, but we must revert to other work, to other discoveries on which his fame will rest secure till time shall end. In 1666, when at Woolsthorpe on account of the plague at Cambridge, he “began to think of gravity extending to the orb of the moon,” though of this nothing was published for 18 years. Discussions went on in London at the Royal Society or in the houses of the members, Wren, Seth Ward, Bishop of Salisbury, Robert Boyle, Hooke, Halley, and the others who were active in the Society, until one Wednesday in January 1684 Halley met Wren and Hooke and the latter declared “that he had demonstrated all the laws of the celestial motions.” Halley confessed his ignorance and Sir Christopher “to encourage enquiry said he would give Hooke or me’’—the quotation is from a letter of

solving this problem and not the uncertainty as to the moon’s distance which caused Newton in 1665 to lay aside his astronom.

ical calculations, which were now resumed with a more correct

knowledge of the moon’s distance. Newton returned to Cambridge and the writing of the Principia was begun in March 1686. The work is entitled Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica. It is in three books, the first De Motu Corporum was

finished on April 28, 1686 and exhibited to the Royal Society on that day. On June 20, 1687, Newton wrote that the second book was ready. ‘“The third I now design to suppress. Philosophy is such an impertinently litigious lady that a man had as good be engaged in lawsuits as have to do with her.” Halley was able to prevent this, and on Sept. 6, 1687 the third book described as De Mundi Systemate was presented; the whole was published about Midsummer 1687. We owe much to Halley; at the time the Royal Society was in

difñculties as to funds he took the whole cost on himself. Hooke,

when the first book was presented, claimed that he had forestalled Newton in a great part of it, and in the correspondence which followed Halley did all he could to smooth over the dificulties and persuade Newton to continue his work. Newton’s letter quoted above indicates his own feelings and in a letter to Halley of July 14, 1686 he had written, “I have considered how best to compose the present dispute, and I think it may be done by the enclosed scholium to the fourth proposition.” In a corollary to the fourth proposition Newton showed that Keplet’s third law was a consequence of the elliptic path of a Halley to Newton—‘“two months to bring him a convincing planet under an invérse square law; the scholium runs: “The case of the sixth corollary applies to the heavenly bodies demonstration.” Sir Christopher offered to give “a book of 40 shillings” to the one who first found the solution. He was not as our friends Wren, Hooke and Halley have already inferred and convinced of Hooke’s assertion that he had done it, but wished to therefore I have decided to develope fully all the consequences of conceal the result “that others trying and failing might know how a force decfeasing as the inverse square.” The great work did this: to value it when he would make it public.” So it remained till the Principia established Newton’s fame; some little time elapsed August, when Halley visited Newton at Cambridge and put the before it was fully a¢cepted on the Continent but for more than question, what would be the path of a body moving under the 200 years it reigned supreme, and all theories of cosmogony were action of a central force which varied as the inverse square of based on the principles laid down by Newton. His mechanics the distance from the centre. “I then learned,” writes Halley in the guided astronomérs and men of science in their search for natural same letter, “that you had brought this demonstration to perfec- knowledge. And if in these last years Einstein has carried us tion.” Newton promised to look for the old proof already men- some steps further, has picked up Some few more of the jewels tioned but could not find it, “and not finding it did it again and of truth, which Newton sought on the shore, Newton’s laws rereduced the work into the proposition,” which he sent in Novem- main, included it may be, in a more comprehensive statement of ber to Halley, who immediately returned to Cambridge and per- the truth. suaded Newton to put them in form for the Royal Society. In 1687 James II. tried to force the University to admit as a On December 10th, 1684, Halley informed the Society that he Master of Arts, Father Alban Francis, a Benedictine monk, withhad lately seen Mr. Newton at Cambridge who had showed him a out taking the oaths of allegiance and supremacy. Newton was curious treatise De Motu which, upon Mr. Halley’s desire, was one of those who led the resistance to the royal action, and sent to the Society to be entered on their Register “and a tract, appeared before Lord Jeffreys to argue the case for Cambridge. Propositiones de Motu” was registered in February 1685 with the In the end the deputies were reprimanded, and Pechell the Vice date in the margin, to Dec. 1684. Chancellor was deprived of his office. Newton’s share in the But the early months of 1685 were fertile with a new discovery. affair led to his being elected member for the University in Newton was away from Cambridge; hitherto his calculations had 1689, retaining the seat till the dissolution next year. He was proceeded on the assumption that the sun and the planets could elected again in 1701, but he never took any prominent part in

NEWTON “ics.

gare dissolution of Parliament in 1690 he returned to Cam-

bridge and continued for a time his mathematical work; this was interrupted in 1692—94 by a serious illness. He was suffering from

insomnia and nervous trouble.

There was

a report that he was

going out of his mind. Huyghens in June 1694 wrote to Leibnitz “J do not know if you are acquainted with the accident to the ood Mr. Newton, namely, that he has had an attack of phrenitis which lasted eighteen months and of which they say his friends have cured him by means of remedies and keeping him shut up.” For some time his friends had been anxious to obtain for him come recognition of his work; this came in 1695, Wren, his friend

Charles Montague, Lord Halifax, a former Fellow of Trinity who

was Chancellor of the Exchequer, offered him the post of Warden of the Mint. This he accepted and four years later became Master. In the same year he was elected one of the eight Foreign Associates of the French Academy of Science. In 1696 John Bernoulli addressed a letter to the mathematicians of Europe challenging them to solve two problems and giving

six months for the solution. On January 29, 1697 Newton received from France two copies of the printed paper containing the probJems and the following day sent the solution to Montague, then President of the Royal Society. They were transmitted anony-

mously to Bernoulli, who recognised the author in his disguise “tanquam ex ungue leonem.”

As Warden of the Mint Newton had retained his Cambridge offices, but soon after his appointment as Master he named Whiston as Deputy, and in 1701 he resigned his Professorship and the Fellowship at Trinity. Whiston became Lucasian Professor. Newton had moved ta London, and continued his duties as Master

with marked efficiency until his death in 1727, The remainder of his life calls for little notice; in 1703 he became President of the Royal Society and was re-elected annually until his death. Queen Anne visited Cambridge in 1705 as the guest at Trinity Lodge of the Master, Dr. Bentley, and on this occasion Newton was knighted. About the same time the controversy with Leibnitz as to the invention of the differential calculus began. In a review published anonymously of Newton’s tract on quadrature, Leibnitz, in 1705, implied that Newton had borrowed from him the idea of Fluxions. The controversy lasted many years. Leibnitz died in 1716 but it continued to affect English mathematics for more than a century. The matter is discussed very fully in the article “Newton” in the Dictionary of National Biography and in Ball’s short History of Mathematics. Leibnitz had used the method in his note books of 1675, it occurs in a letter to Newton of 1677, and was published in 1684. Newton used his method of Fluxions in 1666, gave an account of it in manuscript to friends and among others to Collins, in letters from 1669 onwards but did not publish it until 1693. It was some of these letters which Leibnitz saw when in London in 1676, and previously to that, copies of one at least of Newton’s letters to Collins had been sent to him. During this visit it appears probable that he saw Newton’s tract on the subject.

In the middle of 1708 Newton, at the urgent request of Dr. Bentley, consented to let Roger Cotes, a Fellow of Trinity, edit a second edition of the Principia; the volume was published in 1713, a third edition by Pemberton appeared in 1726. Early in 1727 Newton whose health had been failing for some time was taken seriously ill; he died of stone on March 20, 1727, and was buried in Westminster Abhey on March 28th. There are portraits of him by Kneller and Thornhill in the possession of Lord Portsmouth and a second one by Kneller at Petworth. The Royal Society possesses three, one of which by Jervas was presented by Newton in 1617 and hangs over the president’s chair, while at Trinity College there are a number. The statue by Roubillac was given to the College in 1750 by the Master, Dr. Smith Brstiocraray.——Bibliography of the Works of Sir Isaac Newton, with a List of Books illustrating his Works and Nates, by G. J. Gray

(second edition 1907); Isaac Newton, 1642-1727 (bibl,) a collected

edition of Newton’s work was published at Lausanne and Geneva in

1744, which gives all the published works with the not unimportant

exceptions of the Arithmetica

Universalis, the Principia, the Optics

303

and the Methodus Fluxionum. The fullest edition yet published is that

issued by Samuel Horsley in 1779-85, under the title Opera quae exstant omnia; it is not complete, among notable omissions being the papers published in the Philosophical Transactions, and is moreover very scarce. The standard biography is Memoirs of the Life, Writings and Discaveries of Sir Isaac Newton, by Sir David Brewster, 1855: it was reprinted in 1860. Brewster also wrote a short Life of Sir Isaac New-

ton, 1831, of which a new edition appeared in 1908. Valuable critical

commentaries are to be found in Essays on the Life and Works of Newton, by Augustus de Morgan, edited with notes and appendices by P. E. B. Jourdain in 1914. A brief account of Newton’s life and works is given in Sir Isaac Newton, by S. Brodetsky, 1927. Of great value to students of Newton is the Catalogue of the Porismouth Collection of Books and Papers written by or belonging to Sir Isaac Newton, 1888 which describes the great mass of Newton’s papers which came at his death into the hands of Mr. Conduitt. S. P. Rigaud, Correspondence of Scientific Men of the 17th Century, etc., from the Originals in the Collection of the Earl of Macclesfield, 1841, J. Edleston, Editor of the second edition of the Principia, Correspondence of Sir Isaac Newton and Professor Cotes, including letters of other Eminent Men, 1850, contain many Newton letters, and the letter volume includes a synoptical view of Newton’s life. Among general commentaries must be mentioned:—— H. Pemberton, A View of Sir Isaac Newton’s Philosophy, 1728; Colin Maclaurin, Sir Isaac Newtan’s Philosophical Discoveries, 1775; and F. Rosenberger, Isaac Newton und seine Physikalische Principien, 1895. Since the first issue in 1687 there have been many editions of the

Principia, including two in Newton’s lifetime. The Geneva reprint of 1739-42 contains a voluminous commentary by le Seur and Sacquler, and was long used. Lord Kelvin and H. Blackburn edited a very good edition, published at Glasgow in 1874. The first three sections of Book I. of the Principia have been edited by, among others, J. Carr, 1821; J. H. Evans, 1838; G. L. Cooke, 1850; P. Frost, 1883 (fourth edition). An English translation of the Principia was frst published by Andrew Motte in 1729; the best edition is that of 1803. S. P. Rigaud, Historical

Essay on the First Publication of Sir Isaac Newtows Principia, 1838; W. W. R. Ball, Essay on Newtons Principia, 1893; J. W. L. Glaisher, Bi-Centenary of Newtows Principia, 1888; P. G. Tait, Newtows Laws of Motion, 1899; Isaac Newton, 1642-1727, A Memorial V olume edited for the Mathematical Association by W. J. Greenstreet (1927); Sir Isaac Newton, 1727-1927, A Bi-centenary Evaluation of His Work (1928). The Opticks, first published in 1704, went through three editions in Newton’s lifetime; the last (fourth) edition appeared in 1730. Of great importance for the controversy with Leibnitz is the report drawn up by order of the Royal Society, published under the title Commercium Epistolicum, 1712, of which editions appeared in 1722 and 1725. (R. T. Gr.)

NEWTON, JOHN (1725-1807), English divine, the friend of William Cowper, was born in London on July 24, 1725 (O.S.). His father, who for a long time was master of a ship in the Mediterranean trade, became in 1748 governor of York Fort, Hudson Bay, where he died in 1751. The lad had little education and served on his father’s ship from 1737 to 1742; shortly afterwards he was impressed on board a man-of-war, the “Harwich,” where he was made a midshipman. For an attempt to escape while his ship lay off Plymouth he was degraded, and treated with so much severity that he exchanged into an African trader. He made many voyages as mate and then as master on slave-trading ships, devoting his leisure to the improvement of his education. He left the sea in 1755, when he was appointed tide-surveyor at Liverpool, He began to study Greek and Hebrew, and in 1758 applied to the

archbishop of York for ordination. This was refused him, but, having had the curacy of Olney offered to him in April 1764 he was ordained by the bishop of Lincoln.

In October 1767 William

Cowper settled in the parish. An intimate friendship sprang up between the two men, and they published together the Olney Hymns (1779). In 1779 Newton left Olney to become rector of St. Mary Woolnoth, London, where he laboured with unceasing diligence and great popularity until his death on Dec. 31, 1807. Like Cowper, -Newton held Calvinistic views, although his evangelical fervour allied him closely with the sentiments of

Wesley and the Methodists.

His fame rests on certain of the

Olney Hymns (e.g., “Glorious things of Thee are spoken,” “How

sweet the name of Jesus sounds,” “One there is above all others”), remarkable for vigour, simplicity and directness of devotional utterance. His prose works include an Authentic Narrative of some Interesting and Remarkable Particulars in the Life of Jahn Newton (1464), Omicron (a series of letters on religion, 1774), and Cardiphonia (1781). His Letters to a Wife (1793) and Letters to Rev. W. Bull

364

NEWTON—NEW

WASHINGTON

(posthumous, 1847) illustrate the frankness with which he exposed | 1646, founded the first Indian church. At Newton Centre js the his most intimate personal experiences. A Life of Newton by Richard Newton Theological Institution, the first Baptist theologic;: Cecil was prefixed to a collected edition of his works (6 vols., 1808; seminary established in America (1825). i vol. 1827). See also T. Wright, The Town of Cowper.

NEWTON,

NEWTON

JOHN

ABBOT,

a town

and seaport

of Devonshire

(1823-1895), American general and en- ‘England, 20 m. S. by W. of Exeter by G.W.R. Pop. (1931) gineer, was born in Norfolk, Va., on Aug. 24, 1823, and graduated 15,003. Newton Abbot was given to the abbot of Tor by the at the U.S. Military Academy in 1842. From 1842 to 1861 he was

founder of the monastery (1196).

Situated at the head of the

engaged in coast defence constructions and waterway improvements; he was assistant professor of engineering in the Military

Teign estuary, the town grew rapidly in the 19th century. The

Academy from 1843 to 1846, became a captain in 1856, and was chief engineer in the Utah expedition of 1857-58. He served in the Virginian campaign of 1861, and was promoted brigadier-general, U.S. volunteers. He distinguished himself in the Seven Days’ battle and at Antietam, and after the battle of Fredericksburg was made major-general, U.S. volunteers. In the Chancellorsville campaign Newton took part in the storming of Marye’s heights at Fredericksburg, on May 3, 1863, and at the battle of Gettysburg he was for a time in command of the I. Corps. Later in Sherman’s army, as a division commander under Gen. Oliver O. Howard, he took part in the Atlanta campaign. For gallant conduct at Peach Tree creek he was made brevet brigadier-general, and at the close of the war was made brevet major-general, U.S. army. In 1884, he became chief of engineers, and held this position until his retirement in 1886. In 1887-88 he was commissioner of public works in New York, and from 1888 until his death on May 1, 1895, was president of the Panama railway.

in Highweek, are Perpendicular in style. St. Mary’s contains a Norman font. Of the 14th century chapel of St. Leonard, ony

See Gustavus Smith, In Memoriam of General John Newton (1895).

NEWTON, acity of Iowa, U.S.A., on Federal highway 32, 35 m. E. by N. of Des Moines; the county seat of Jasper county. Tt is served by the Minneapolis and St. Louis and the Rock Island railways, and by several motor bus lines. Pop. (1920)

6,627 (93% native white); and 11,560 in the year 1930. It is an important manufacturing centre, with an output amounting to millions of dollars. Three of the large washing-machine companies have their factories here, making nearly 400,000 machines in a year. Other distinctive products are trenching machines, show cases and advertising novelties. The city was founded in 1846 and incorporated in 1857.

NEWTON, a city of Kansas, U.S.A., 160 m. S.W. of Kansas City, in the fertile Arkansas river valley, on Federal highways 50S and 81, and served by the Missouri Pacific and the Santa Fe railway systems; the county seat of Harvey county. Pop. 9,781 in 1920 (84% native white); and in 1930 (Federal census) 11,034. It is the seat of Bethel college, founded (1887) and still supported by the Mennonites; a division point on the Santa Fe, which furnishes employment to over 1,200 persons; a supply centre for the Fred Harvey

system

of hotels and restaurants

along the Santa Fe route; and a shipping point for grain, fruit and other agricultural products. Its principal manufactures are flour (800,000 bbl. a year), threshing machines, brooms, ice, butter and poultry products. Newton was founded in 1871 and chartered in 1872. For several years, beginning in 1873, it was the focus of a large immigration of German Mennonites from Russia and various parts of the United States, who played an important part in building up the city and developing the surrounding country. Each family from Russia brought over a bushel or more of Crimean wheat for seed, from which was grown the

first crop of hard winter wheat in Kansas.

Since 1927 Newton

has had a commission-manager form of government.

NEWTON, a city of Middlesex county, Massachusetts, U.S.A.,

two parish churches, St. Mary’s in Wolborough,

and All Saints

a tower survives. The Jacobean Forde House was visited by Charles I. and William of Orange, who first read his declaration

to the people of England at Newton Abbot market-cross. The por. tion of Newton Abbot in the parish of Highweek was formerly a separate town known as Newton Bushel. i

NEWTON-IN-MAKERFIELD

or Newton-le-Willows, an

urban district in Lancashire, England, 154 m. W. of Manchester

by the L.M.S. railway.

Pop. (1931) 20,150.

Newton-in-Maker.

field gave its name in Saxon times to one of the hundreds of Lancashire. The barony was held by the Banastres from the Con. quest to 1286 and passed successively to the Langtons, Fleet. woods and Leghs. The barons were not summoned to Parliament, and the title has fallen into disuse since the abolition of

feudal tenures. The courts-baron and courts-leet are held twice annually. Near the town is a moated Elizabethan half-timbered house, and also an ancient barrow. The industrial establishments include foundries, printing and stationery works, paper mills and glass works. Coal abounds in the neighbourhood.

NEWTOWN,

a market town of Montgomeryshire, Wales,

situated on both banks of the Severn in a narrow portion of the valley near the eastern border of the county. Pop. of urban district of Newtown and Llanllwchaiarn (1931) 5,152. It now shares with Welshpool the privilege of being the administrative capital of the shire. We first hear of it as a Llan (church settlement) known as Llanfair Cedewain, in the 13th century. The presence of waterpower was probably a factor in the origin and growth of the settlement at this time. The Norman Mortimers established here the market of thelr new territories on the border. In the 15th century the New Town received a municipal charter with a constitution modelled upon that of Hereford and Breteuil, but the corporation was abolished in the days of Charles I. Through

the early roth century the flannel factories of the town were of great importance but the flannel industry is no longer carried on, though there are still distributing warehouses. In the days of coach roads Newtown was a route centre, for the old road from Ludlow via Bishops’ Castle and Kerry had to drop in to the Severn valley and so reached Newtown. The old church, now in ruins, is superseded by the modern St. Mary’s, with the font and rood-screen of the old building.

NEWTOWNARDS,

a town of co. Down, Ireland, near the

northern extremity of Strangford lough, on a branch of the Belfast and co. Down railway, 93 m. E. of Belfast. Pop. (1921) 9,587. The town owes its origin to a Dominican monastery founded in 1244 by Walter de Burgh. It received a charter from

James I. The ruined abbey of Moville, 14 m. N.E., is attributed to St. Finian (c. 550). The town is sheltered by the Scrabo hills on the west and north.

NEW ULM, acity of southern Minnesota, U.S.A., on the south

bank of the Minnesota river, 88 m. S.W. of Minneapolis; the ro m. W. of Boston, on the southern bank of the Charles river county seat of Brown county. It is on Federal highway 14 and and the Boston and Albany railroad. Pop. (1920) 46,054 (20% is served by the Chicago and North Western and the Minneapolis foreign-born white), 53,003 in 1925 (State census); and in 1930 and St. Louis railways. Pop. (1920) 6,745 (22% foreign-born it was 65,276. The city has rr m. of river front and an area white); in 1930 it had increased to 7,308. It is an important of 18 square miles. Within its boundaries are 11 villages and 34 trading centre in a rich agricultural region; has a large milling parks, including parts of the metropolitan park system. It is industry and is the seat of Dr. Martin Luther college (1884). primarily a residential suburb, but it has a variety of manufac- New Ulm was settled about 1853. During the Sioux uprising of turing industries, with an output in 1927 valued at $14,898,858. 1862 it was twice attacked and almost destroyed. The assessed valuation for 1927 was $140,071,600.

Newton was

incorporated as a separate town in 1688 and received its present name in 1691. In 1873 it was chartered as a city. A monument marks the site of Waban’s wigwam, where John Eliot, on Oct. 28,

NEW

WASHINGTON,

a municipality (with administra-

tion centre and 43 barrios or districts) of the province of Capiz. island of Panay, Philippine Islands, on the north coast about 17 m. west of Capiz, the provincial capital. Pop. (1918) 24,453-

NEW

WESTMINSTER—NEW

The cultivation of rice, sugar, abacé and corn, and the breeding

YORK

(STATE)

205

commonly considered to be an extension of the Canadian moun-

is tains. Parts of the crystalline area are worn down to a condition of cattle and horses are the principal industries. This place of low relief, but in the main mountain mass, although greatly town market the is which Calivo, of ity the port for the municipal worn, there are still elevations of truly mountainous proportions. industry household r1rg had it 1918, In valley. Aklan the ior

establishments with output valued at 20,400 pesos. Nine of the

33 schools were public. isayaD.

The language spoken is a dialect of

;NEW WESTMINSTER,

city on the north bank of the

Fraser river, 17 m. from the mouth, and third port of British Columbia. Pop. (1931) 17,524. Founded in 1859, it was the

capital of British Columbia when the British possessions on the Pacific coast formed two colonies—i.e., British Columbia (the mainland portion) and Vancouver island. The city has a fine harbour with 30 to 40 ft. of water, which is managed by a harnour commission and has a large trade, particularly in timber. New Westminster is a manufacturing centre, fish, fruit and vegetable canning, iron-founding, shingle and lumber mills and ship-

building being among the industries; and fruit-growing, dairying and mining are carried on in the district. The city is on the Canadian Pacific, Great Northern

and Canadian

National rail-

ways, and is connected with Vancouver, 12 m. distant, by electric

railway. The Columbian Methodist college is here. NEW YEAR’S DAY, the first day of the year. In the Gregorian calendar this date occurs twelve days earlier than in the

The highest peak is Mt. Marcy (5,344 ft.), though associated with it are several other peaks with an elevation from 4,000 to 5,000 feet. Even the higher summits are worn to a rounded condition, and are therefore for the most part forest-covered up to the timber line which, on Mt. Marcy, is at an elevation of about 4,900 feet. From the crest of the dome of the Adirondacks proper the surface slopes in all directions to surrounding lowlands; to the St. Lawrence valley on the north; the Champlain-Hudson lowland on the east; the Mohawk valley on the south; and Lake Ontario on the west. The Adirondack area proper, and much of the surrounding ring of more recent rocks, is either too rugged, or has a soil too thin and rocky for extensive agriculture. It is therefore a sparsely settled region with lumbering for one of the leading industries, though there is some mining, as of iron. Owing to the varied and beautiful scenery, this is a favourite summer resort; the game of the forest and the fishing in the streams and in the multitude of lakes serve as further attractions. In the peripheral ring farming increases, especially dairying; and manufacturing industries connected with the products of forest, farms and mines are developed. These and other manufacturing in-

dustries are greatly aided by the extensive water-power furnished Julian; thus New Year’s Day is the English 13th of January. The ancient Egyptians, Phoenicians and Persians began their by the mountain streams which flow out radially from the central year at the autumnal equinox (Sept. 21) and the Greeks until area. South of the Adirondack region, and south of the Mohawk the sth century B.C. at the winter solstice (Dec. 21). The ancient Romans once celebrated the beginning of the year on the 21st valley, rises a high-level plateau which extends westward to the of December, but Caesar by the adoption of the Julian calendar Pennsylvania boundary. Here the rocks are all essentially horipostponed it to the rst of January. The Jews have always reck- zontal and of the Palaeozoic age, mainly Devonian. This plateau oned their civil year from the first day of the month of Tishri province, which includes more than half the State, differs greatly (Sept. 6-Oct. 5), but their ecclesiastical year begins at the spring from place to place. Its elevation decreases toward the north by equinox (March 21). The 25th of March was the usual date a series of steps, the lowest elevation being on the Ontario plain among most Christian peoples in early mediaeval days. In Anglo- which skirts the southern shore of Lake Ontario. Similar to this Saxon England, however, the 25th of December was New Year’s is a narrow plain along the southern shore of Lake Erie, which, Day. At the Norman Conquest owing, it is believed, to the coin- in fact, lies in a shallow depression in this Erie plain. Both of cidence of his coronation being arranged for that date, William these plains are so level, and have so fertile a soil that they are the Conqueror ordered that the year should start on the rst of the seats of extensive agriculture, especially fruit raising, which January. But later England began her year with the rest of is further encouraged by the influence of the large bodies of lake Christendom on the 2sth of March. The Gregorian calendar water that moderate the heat of summer and the cold of winter, and tend to check the late frosts of spring and the early frosts (1582), which restored the rst of January to its position as New Year's Day, was accepted by all Catholic countries at once; by of autumn. Elsewhere in the plateau province the land is higher Germany, Denmark and Sweden about 1700, but not until 1753 and the surface far more irregular, increasing in ruggedness toward both the south and the east. Elevations of 1,500 and by England. NEW YORK, one of the original 13 United States of America, 2,000 ft. are common in this region all the way from Chautauqua situated between 40° 29’ 40” and 45° o’ 2” N. and between 71° county in the extreme west to the Catskill mountains in the east; sr’ and 79° 45’ 54-4” W. Although one of the smaller States in and in places the surface becomes so rugged as to simulate the the Union, being 29th in area, New York ranks first in popula- features of mountains and locally to win the name of mountain. tion and in wealth, and has won for itself the name “Empire Valleys are deeply sunk in the plateau, the largest with bottom State.” Its northern boundary is, for the most part, formed by lands of sufficient width to give rise to strips of fertile farmLake Ontario and the St. Lawrence river, which separate it from land. The valley walls rise to undulating and often fairly level the Province of Ontario, Canada; but north of the Adirondacks uplands, which are, in large part, cleared of forest. In the main the boundary line leaves the St. Lawrence, extending in a due they are grazing lands—the seat of important dairy and sheepeast direction to the lower end of Lake Champlain. Thus the raising industries. This is the region of abandoned farm houses. boundary between New York and the Province of Quebec, Canada, Since the plateau region is a northward extension of the Alleghany is wholly artificial. Vermont, Massachusetts and Connecticut plateau, which skirts the western base of the Appalachian mounbound New York on the east; the Atlantic ocean, New Jersey and tains, it rises as the mountains are approached. Thus, in south-east Pennsylvania on the south; and Pennsylvania, Lake Erie and the New York, where the Appalachians enter the State, the plateau Niagara river on the west. The State has a triangular outline, becomes much higher than in the west, reaching its culmination with a breadth from east to west of 326-46 m. and from north to in the Catskills. Here, partly because of elevation, and partly south, on the line of the Hudson, of 300 miles. In addition, it because of the resistant nature of the Catskill sandstone, dissection includes Long island and Staten island on the Atlantic coast. Its has so sculptured the plateau as to carve it into a mountainous land area is 47,654 sq.m. and the area of the inland waters is mass generally known as the Catskill mountains (g.v.). In.this 1,550 sq.m., giving a total area of 49,204 sq. miles. In addition to part of the plateau, summit elevations of from 3,000 to 4,000 ft. this, New York includes 3,140 sq.m. of water in Lakes Ontario are common, the highest point being Slide mountain (4,205 ft.). Like the Adirondacks, this region is largely forest covered, and and Erie. Physical Features—The most notable topographic feature is is a favourite summer resort; but it is far less a wilderness than the roughly circular mountain area of north-eastern New York, the Adirondacks, and in places is cleared for farming, especially known as the Adirondack mountains (g.v.). This is a very ancient for pasturage. In the plateau province there are other areas mountain mass of crystalline rocks resembling more the Lauren- known as mountains, of which the Helderberg mountains are the tian mountains of Canada than the Appalachians. Indeed, it is most conspicuous. This formation is really an escarpment facing

NEW YORK (STATE)

366
a—55

post = 2 Cpa a hh tn)

‘

a

wae a

Bs

i ts iL

W774. SL meee e be ;

x

a

;

on ge a Siue ane

near | perature is not far from 45° though it varies from over 50°

Jl

5

i

Lit

f

À

thee i= gull ~- Be

4

É

j

A

367

(STATE)

YORK

NEW

pHYSICAL FEATURES]

foe

iit

Pea

less than New York city, and 48° near the Lake Erie shore, to heat summer m maximu average The acks. Adirond 40° in the high the In . reached rarely being 100° is about 93°, a temperature of onally excepti during zero below s descend ture tempera the winter

over comcold spells. Most of the rivers and smaller lakes freeze and 45 in. pletely in winter. The average rainfall is between 40 and over but it is less than 30 in. in the Lake Champlain valley the region ack Adirond the In city. ss in. north of New York New snowfall is heavy, the winter long and severe. In central the depth York it is not uncommon for snow to accumulate to city, of 3 or 4 ft. and yet this is not persistent. About New York The depth. in ft. 1 exceeds rarely snow the Island, Long and on c cycloni of passage t frequen the to climate is variable owing weather storms from the west and south-west, bringing warmer heat and with rain and snow in winter, and causing days of great York humidity, with thunder-storms, in summer. About New of winter, rigours the softens ocean the Island, Long on and city, the coast, and through the influence of cold surface waters off tempers the heat of summer. Soil.—The soil is mostly glacial drift, but its depth and compo-

sition often vary greatly even within small areas.

BUFFALO

CHAMBER

OF

COMMERCE

PORTS IN ENTRANCE TO BUFFALO HARBOUR, ONE OF THE TEN GREATEST

BY COURTESY

OF THE

THE WORLD

Buffalo is situated

at the foot of the Great

the big lake carriers ends. seventh among

the industrial

Lakes,

It ranks fourth among

where

navigation

for

United States ports and

cities of America

Thus highway which is followed by canal, railway and motor road.

n mounthere is here a gap, easily traversed, across the Appalachia beyond. plains fertile and level more the to ux tains and platea of most State, the in ponds There are thousands of lakes and Ontario, and Erie Lakes g includin even all, and small very them Erie and the result of glacial action. The largest lake apart from

on the Ontario is the beautiful Lake Champlain, which lies is State the within entirely lake largest The eastern boundary. series of Lake George. In the central part of the State area is a direcpeculiar elongated lakes, extending in a nearly north-south Cayuga, are these of largest The lakes. tion, known as the Finger Here too Seneca, Keuka, Canandaigua, Owasco and Skaneateles. the exIn park. a for State the by d acquire Glen is Watkins lly beautifu lake, uqua Chauta is treme western part of the State is noted situated in the plateau of western New York. New York

beauty. for its many falls and rapids, some of them of great m. wide Of these the largest is the cataract of Niagara, about 1 State; and 165 ft. high. The American fall is entirely within the the of centre the down passes but the Canadian boundary-line of Horseshoe or Canadian fall. Other notable falls are those Cayuga the in falls the er, Rochest at and Portage the Genesee at roga, and the Seneca valleys, Trenton falls, the Falls of Ticonde

and a multitude of falls and rapids in the Adirondack region.

Lakes, 75 New York has an extensive coast-line along the Great of m. on Lake Erie and over 200 m. on Lake Ontario. The largest where, the lake ports is at Buffalo at the head of Niagara river,

from the west must owing to the Niagara cataract, lake boats transfer their goods to rail or canal. Buffalo lies at the lower end of natural lake navigation, though by the building of a ship canal in Canada, lake steamers can proceed into Lake Ontario and thence to the St. Lawrence. The ocean coast-line, though

of limited extent, is by far the most important in the United States. The gteater part of the sea-coast is on Long island—aof and low, sandy coast, the seat of numerous summer resorts

somé fishing. The mainland, opposite the western end of Long Island, is traversed by the lower Hudson and other channhels— submerged valleys—which form a branching bay with several islands, the largest of which are Staten and Manhattan islands.

This bay makes an excellent protected harbour, with an immense

The most

the State, widely distributed soil, especially in the west half of ing of pulveriz glacial the by formed was is mainly a clay which sition limestone and shale and is still forming from the decompo and along of fragments of these substances. In the larger valleys

water front, at the outlet of the chief natural highway from the east to the interior of the country.

the shores of lakes alluvium is mixed with this clay.

Population.—New York outstripped Pennsylvania in popula-

in the Hon in the first decade of the roth century, and Virginia populous second decade, and since 1820 it has been the most censuses selected certain at on populati The Union. the in State

5 in was as follows: 340,120 in 1790; 1,372,812 in 1820; 3,880,73 4 in I9IO; £860; 5,082,871 in 1880; 7,268,894 in 1900; 9,113,61 In 1930 decade. the for t4% of gain a 1920, in 27 and 10,388,2 or 21-2% the population was 12,588,066, an increase of 2,202,839 was for this decade. The native white population in 1920

2,844,083 4,385,915, of Whom 3,668,266 were of native parentage; The forof foreign parentage; and 873,566 of mixed parentage.

TAL od er E seeCCEEC CA ia er mel eetrT heee T o Sere crer 3.000.000

2288

23

—

38 8

328

kaai

—

&

„m

33

"=

OF NEW YORK DURING GRAPH SHOWING GROWTH OF POPULATION OF THE STATE CENSUS) THAT IS 1925 FOR FIGURE (THE 1925 TO

y

1790

including 545,173 eign-born white population was 2,786,122, ny, 284,747 natives of Italy, 529,240 of Russia, 295,650 of Germa 135,305 of , Austria of 2 151,17 , Poland of 9 of Ireland, 247,51 tion was popula negro The , England and 111,974 of Canada population per e averag The total. the of 1-9% only or 198,483, tion (in cities square mile in 1930 was 264-2. The urban popula census). with 2,500 or more inhabitants) was 82% in 1925 (State

of in 1930. Climate—tIn general the climate of New York is typical Of the State’s population 55% lived in New York city that of northern United States, a climate of extremes, hot in In 1930 there were 22 cities with a population over 30,000; those summer, and cold in winter, and yet healthful, stimulating, and, with a population exceeding 100,000 were; . The average mean annual temon the whole, not disagreeable

NEW YORK (STATE)

368

[GOVERNMENT

for new taxes, loans or other appropriate actions to meet any | : New York . Bronx Borough Brooklyn Manhattan ,,

Queens

Richmond Buffalo Rochester . Syracuse

1930

1920

6,930,446 1,265,258 2,560,401 1,867,312

5,620,048 732,016 2,018,356 2,284,103

1,079,129

3

158,346 573,076 328,132 209,326 134,646 127,412 101,740

,, :

Yonkers Albany Utica

|

469,042

116,531 506,775 295,750 171,717 100,176 113,344 04,156

De

Government.—Since

becoming a State, New York has been

governed under four constitutions, adopted in 1777, 1821, 1846

and 1894 respectively. A Constitutional Convention met and proposed a new Constitution in 1915, but it was rejected by the people. The present Constitution may be amended by a majority vote of the members of two successive legislatures and approval by the electorate. Suffrage is bestowed on all citizens who have attained the age of 21 years and have been inhabitants of the State for one year, but for the protection of the ballot, citizenship for go days, residence in the county for four months, and in the election district for 30 days next preceding the election are required. An absentee voting law, subsequently amended, went into operation in IQIQ. The executive and administrative department of New York State is functioning under a reorganization plan, authorized by a constitutional amendment approved in Nov. 1925, which became effective Jan. 1, 1927. Under this system there are 18 major departments to which have been allocated the duties of more than 180 commissions and bureaux. Only the governor, lieutenant governor, comptroller and attorney general are now elected. They are elected biennially (in even-numbered years). The office of secretary of State is now appointive; the duties of the State treasurer were transferred to the division of finance in the department of taxation and finance; while the duties of the State engineer and surveyor were transferred to the division of engineering in the department of public works. The 18 State departments now consist of the executive department, the de-

estimated deficiency for the ensuing fiscal year. A bill or item of an appropriation bill that has been vetoed by the governor can become a law only with the approval of two-thirds of the members elected to each house of the legislature. The salar of the governor and of the lieutenant governor, as fixed by an amendment of the Constitution in 1927, is $25,000 and $10,000

respectively. The legislative power is vested in a senate of s; members elected biennially and an assembly of 150 members

elected annually.

Since 1846 both senators and assemblymen

have been elected by single districts, and ever since the State

Government was established they have been apportioned according to population, but the present Constitution limits the representa.

tion of New York city in the senate by declaring that no county shall have more than one-third of all the senators, nor any two adjoining counties more than one-half of them. The legislature meets in annual sessions, beginning on the first Wednesday in

January.

Money bills may originate in either house, but at the

final vote on such a bill in either house three-fifths of the members elected to that house must be present and the yeas and nays must be recorded; bills entailing appropriations for local or private purposes must receive a two-thirds majority to pass. The legislature appoints the board of regents of the University of the State of New York. The judicial system comprises a supreme court of 112 justices, four appellate divisions of the same, a court of appeals, a court of claims and local courts. The highest judicial court

in the State is not, as in most States of the Union, the supreme court, but the court of appeals.

This court consists of a chief

judge and six associate judges elected from the State at large for a term of 14 years. Its jurisdiction is limited, except where judgment is of death, to a review of questions of law. Vacancies are temporarily filled from among the justices of the supreme court by

the governor. To expedite business, at the request of the court, the governor may designate not more than four justices of the supreme court to act temporarily as additional associate judges of the court of appeals. The salary of the chief judge is $22,500, of the associate judges $22,000 a year. The justices of the supreme court are elected for 14 years from the nine districts into which the State is divided. The jurisdiction of each justice extends over the entire State. Vacancies are temporarily filled by the governor. The supreme court has general jurisdiction in law and equity, including all actions both civil and criminal. The salary of the justices in the first district and in Kings county of the second district is $17,500 a year; in the remainder of the second district it is $16,300 a year; in the other districts it is $15,000 a year. The State is divided into four departments for each of which there is an appellate division consisting of seven justices in the first and second departments and five in each of the others. The justices and presiding justices are designated ;